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diff --git a/34082.txt b/34082.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..77e714f --- /dev/null +++ b/34082.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18961 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 2, Slice 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 4 + "Aram, Eugene" to "Arcueil" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 16, 2010 [EBook #34082] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2 SLICE 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME II, SLICE IV + + Aram, Eugene to Arcueil + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + ARAM, EUGENE ARCH, JOSEPH + ARAMAIC LANGUAGES ARCH + ARANDA, PEDRO PABLO DE BOLEA ARCHAEOLOGY + ARAN ISLANDS ARCHAEOPTERYX + ARANJUEZ ARCHAISM + ARANY, JANOS ARCHANGEL (government of Russia) + ARAPAHO ARCHANGEL (town of Russia) + ARARAT (mountains) ARCHBALD + ARARAT (town of Australia) ARCHBISHOP + ARAROBA POWDER ARCHCHANCELLOR + ARAS ARCHDEACON + ARASON, JON ARCHDUKE + ARATOR ARCHEAN SYSTEM + ARATUS (Greek statesman) ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA + ARATUS (Greek didactic poet) ARCHELAUS (king of Judaea) + ARAUCANIA ARCHELAUS (king of Macedonia) + ARAUCANIANS ARCHELAUS OF MILETUS + ARAUCARIA ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELM VON + ARAUCO ARCHER, WILLIAM + ARAVALLI HILLS ARCHERMUS + ARAWAK ARCHERY + ARBACES ARCHES, COURT OF + ARBE ARCHESTRATUS + ARBELA ARCHIAC, ETIENNE JULES DE SAINT SIMON + ARBER, EDWARD ARCHIAS, AULUS LICINIUS + ARBITRAGE ARCHIDAMUS + ARBITRATION ARCHIL + ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARCHILOCHUS + ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION ARCHIMANDRITE + ARBOGAST ARCHIMEDES + ARBOIS ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OF + ARBOIS DE JUBAINVILLE, HENRI D' ARCHIPELAGO + ARBOR DAY ARCHIPPUS + ARBORETUM ARCHITECTURE + ARBORICULTURE ARCHITRAVE + ARBOR VITAE ARCHIVE + ARBOS, FERNANDEZ ARCHIVOLT + ARBOUR ARCHIVOLT + ARBROATH ARCHPRIEST + ARBUTHNOT, ALEXANDER ARCHYTAS + ARBUTHNOT, JOHN ARCIS-SUR-AUBE + ARCACHON ARCOLA + ARCADE ARCOS DE LA FRONTERA + ARCADELT ARCOSOLIUM + ARCADIA ARCOT + ARCADIUS (Roman emperor) ARCTIC + ARCADIUS (Greek grammarian) ARCTINUS + ARCELLA ARCTURUS + ARCESILAUS ARCUEIL + + + + +ARAM, EUGENE (1704-1759), English scholar, but more famous as the +murderer celebrated by Hood in his ballad, the _Dream of Eugene Aram_, +and by Bulwer Lytton in his romance of _Eugene Aram_, was born of humble +parents at Ramsgill, Yorkshire, in 1704. He received little education at +school, but manifested an intense desire for learning. While still +young, he married and settled as a schoolmaster at Netherdale, and +during the years he spent there, he taught himself both Latin and Greek. +In 1734 he removed to Knaresborough, where he remained as schoolmaster +till 1745. In that year a man named Daniel Clark, an intimate friend of +Aram, after obtaining a considerable quantity of goods from some of the +tradesmen in the town, suddenly disappeared. Suspicions of being +concerned in this swindling transaction fell upon Aram. His garden was +searched, and some of the goods found there. As, however, there was not +evidence sufficient to convict him of any crime, he was discharged, and +soon after set out for London, leaving his wife behind. For several +years he travelled through parts of England, acting as usher in a number +of schools, and settled finally at Lynn, in Norfolk. During his travels +he had amassed considerable materials for a work he had projected on +etymology, to be entitled a _Comparative Lexicon of the English, Latin, +Greek, Hebrew and Celtic Languages_. He was undoubtedly an original +philologist, who realized, what was then not yet admitted by scholars, +the affinity of the Celtic language to the other languages of Europe, +and could dispute the then accepted belief that Latin was derived from +Greek. Aram's writings show that he had grasped the right idea on the +subject of the Indo-European character of the Celtic language, which was +not established till J.C. Prichard published his book, _Eastern Origin +of the Celtic Nations_, in 1831. But he was not destined to live in +history as the pioneer of a new philology. In February 1758 a skeleton +was dug up at Knaresborough, and some suspicion arose that it might be +Clark's. Aram's wife had more than once hinted that her husband and a +man named Houseman knew the secret of Clark's disappearance. Houseman +was at once arrested and confronted with the bones that had been found. +He affirmed his innocence, and, taking up one of the bones, said, "This +is no more Dan Clark's bone than it is mine." His manner in saying this +roused suspicion that he knew more of Clark's disappearance than he was +willing to admit. He was again examined, and confessed that he had been +present at the murder of Clark by Aram and another man, Terry, of whom +nothing further is heard. He also gave information as to the place where +the body had been buried in St Robert's Cave, a well-known spot near +Knaresborough. A skeleton was dug up here, and Aram was immediately +arrested, and sent to York for trial. Houseman was admitted as evidence +against him. Aram conducted his own defence, and did not attempt to +overthrow Houseman's evidence, although there were some discrepancies in +that; but made a skilful attack on the fallibility of circumstantial +evidence in general, and particularly of evidence drawn from the +discovery of bones. He brought forward several instances where bones had +been found in caves, and tried to show that the bones found in St +Robert's Cave were probably those of some hermit who had taken up his +abode there. He was found guilty, and condemned to be executed on the +6th of August 1759, three days after his trial. While in his cell he +confessed his guilt, and threw some light on the motives for his crime, +by asserting that he had discovered a criminal intimacy between Clark +and his own wife. On the night before his execution he made an +unsuccessful attempt at suicide by opening the veins in his arm. + + + + +ARAMAIC LANGUAGES, a class of languages so called from Aram, a +geographical term, which in old Semitic usage designates nearly the same +districts as the Greek word Syria. Aram, however, does not include +Palestine, while it comprehends Mesopotamia (Heb. Aram of two rivers), a +region which the Greeks frequently distinguish from Syria proper. Thus +the Aramaic languages may be geographically defined as the Semitic +dialects originally current in Mesopotamia and the regions extending +south-west from the Euphrates to Palestine. (See SEMITIC LANGUAGES; +SYRIAC; TARGUM.) + + + + +ARANDA, PEDRO PABLO ABARCA DE BOLEA, COUNT OF (1719-1798), Spanish +minister and general, was born at the castle of Sietamo, a lordship of +his family near Huesca in Aragon, on the 1st of August 1719. The house +of Abarca was very ancient, a fact of which Don Pedro, who never forgot +that he was a "rico hombre" (noble) of Aragon, was deeply conscious. He +was educated partly at Bologna and partly at the military school of +Parma. In 1740 he entered the army as captain in the regiment +"Castilla," of which his father was proprietary colonel. On the death of +his father he became colonel, and served in the Italian campaigns of the +War of the Austrian Succession. In 1749 he married Dona Ana, daughter of +the 9th duke of Hijar, by whom he had one son, who died young, and a +daughter. During the following years he travelled and visited the camp +of Frederick the Great, whose system of drill he admired and afterwards +introduced into the Spanish army. After a short period of diplomatic +service in Portugal, where his exacting temper made it impossible for +him to agree with the premier, Pombal, he returned to Madrid, was made a +knight of the Golden Fleece, and director-general of artillery--a post +which he threw up, together with his rank of lieutenant-general, because +he was not allowed to punish certain fraudulent contractors. The king, +Ferdinand VI., exiled him to his estates, but Charles III. on his +accession took him into favour. He was again employed in diplomacy, and +then appointed to command an army against Portugal in 1763. In 1764 he +was made governor of Valencia. When in 1766 the king was driven from his +capital in a riot, he summoned Aranda to Madrid and made him president +of the council, and captain-general of New Castile. Until 1773 Aranda +was the most important minister in Spain. He restored order and aided +the king most materially in his work of administrative reform. But his +great achievements, which gave him a high reputation throughout Europe +with the philosophical and anti-clerical parties, were his expulsion of +the Jesuits, whom the king considered responsible for the riot of 1766, +and the active part he took in the suppression of the order. Aranda had +come much under foreign influence by his education and his travels, and +had acquired the reputation of being a confirmed sceptic. By Voltaire +and the Encyclopaedists he was erected into a hero from whom great +things were expected. His ability, his remarkable capacity for work, +and his popularity made him indispensable to the king. But he was a +trying servant, for his temper was captious and his tongue sarcastic, +while his aristocratic arrogance led him to display an offensive +contempt for the _golillas_ (the stiff collars), as he called the +lawyers and public servants whom the king preferred to choose as +ministers, and he permitted himself an amazing freedom of language with +his sovereign. At last Charles III. sent him as ambassador to Paris in a +disguised disgrace. Aranda held this position till 1787, but in Paris he +was chiefly known for his oddities of manner and for perpetual wrangling +with the French on small points of etiquette. He resigned his post for +private reasons. In the reign of Charles IV., with whom he had been on +familiar terms during the life of the old king, he was for a very short +time prime minister in 1792. In reality he was merely used as a screen +by the queen Maria Louisa and her favourite Godoy. His open sympathy +with the French Revolution brought him into collision with the violent +reaction produced in Spain by the excesses of the Jacobins, while his +temper, which had become perfectly uncontrollable with age, made him +insufferable to the king. After his removal from office he was +imprisoned for a short time at Granada, and was threatened with a trial +by the Inquisition. The proceedings did not go beyond the preliminary +stage, and Aranda died at Epila on the 9th of January 1798. + + See Don Jacobo de la Pezuela in the _Revista de Espana_, vol. xxv. + (1872); Don Antonio Ma. Fabie, in the _Diccionario general de politica + y administration_ of Don E. Suarez Inclan (Madrid, 1868), vol. i.; M. + Morel Fatio, _Etudes sur l'Espagne_ (2nd series, Paris, 1890). + (D. H.) + + + + +ARAN ISLANDS, or SOUTH ARAN, three islands lying across Galway Bay, on +the west coast of Ireland, in a south-easterly direction, forming a kind +of natural breakwater. They belong to the county Galway, and their +population in 1901 was 2863. They are called respectively--beginning +with the northernmost--Inishmore (or Aranmore), the Great Island; +Inishmaan, the Middle Island; and Inisheer, the Eastern Island. The +first has an elevation of 354 ft., the second of 259, and the third of +202. Their formation is carboniferous limestone. These islands are +remarkable for a number of architectural remains of a very early date. +In Inishmore there stand, on a cliff 220 ft. high, large remains of a +circular cyclopean tower, called Dun-Aengus, ascribed to the Fir-bolg or +Belgae; or, individually, to the first of three brothers, Aengus, +Conchobar and Nil, who reached Aran Islands from Scotland in the 1st +century A.D. There are seven other similar structures in the group. +Inishmore also bears the name of _Aran-na-naomh_, Aran-of-the-Saints, +from the number of religious recluses who took up their abode in it, and +gave a celebrity to the holy wells, altars and shrines, to which many +are still attracted. No less, indeed, than twenty buildings of +ecclesiastical or monastic character have been enumerated in the three +islands. On Inishmore are remains of the abbey of Killenda. Christianity +was introduced in the 5th century, and Aran soon became one of the most +famous island-resorts of religious teachers and ascetics. The +extraordinary fame of the foundations here has been inferred from the +inscription "VII. Romani" on a stone in the church Teampull Brecain on +Inishmore, attributed to disciples from Rome. The total area of the +islands is 11,579 acres. The Congested Districts Board made many efforts +to improve the condition of the inhabitants, especially by introducing +better methods of fishing. A curing station is established at Killeany, +the harbour of Inishmore. + + + + +ARANJUEZ (perhaps the ancient _Ara Jovis_), a town of central Spain, in +the province of Madrid, 30 m. S. of Madrid, on the left bank of the +river Tagus, at the junction of the main southern railways to Madrid, +and at the western terminus of the Aranjuez-Cuenca railway. Pop. (1900) +12,670. Aranjuez occupies part of a wide valley, about 1500 ft. above +the sea. Its formal, straight streets, crossing one another regularly at +right angles, and its uniform, two-storeyed houses were built in +imitation of the Dutch style, under the direction of Jeronimo, marquis +de Grimaldi (1716-1788), ambassador of Charles III. at the Hague. A +rapid in the Tagus, artificially converted into a weir, renders +irrigation easy, and has thus created an oasis in the midst of the +barren plateau of New Castile. On every side the town is surrounded by +royal parks and woods of sycamores, plane-trees and elms, often of +extraordinary size. The prevalence of the dark English elms, first +introduced into the country and planted here by order of Philip II. +(1527-1598), gives to the Aranjuez district a character wholly distinct +from that of other Spanish landscapes; and at an early period, despite +the unhealthy climate, and especially the oppressive summer heat, which +often approaches 100 deg. F., Aranjuez became a favourite residence of +the Spanish court. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the master of the +Order of Santiago had a country seat here, which passed, along with the +mastership, into the possession of the crown of Spain in 1522. Its +successive occupants, from the emperor Charles V. (1500-1558) down to +Ferdinand VII. (1784-1833), modified it according to their respective +tastes. The larger palace was built by Pedro Caro for Philip V. +(1683-1746), in the French style of the period. It overlooks the Jardin +de la Isla, a beautiful garden laid out for Philip II. on an island in +the Tagus, which forms the scene of Schiller's famous drama _Don +Carlos_. The Casa del Labrador, or Labourer's Cottage, as it is called, +is a smaller palace built by Charles IV. in 1803, and full of elaborate +ornamentation. The chief local industry is farming, and an annual fair +is held in September for the sale of live stock. Great attention is +given to the rearing of horses and mules, and the royal stud used to be +remarkable for the beauty of its cream-coloured breed. The treaty of +1772 between France and Spain was concluded at Aranjuez, which +afterwards suffered severely from the French during the Peninsular War. +Here, also, in 1808, the insurrection broke out which ended in the +abdication of Charles IV. + + For a fuller description of Aranjuez see D.S. Vinas y Rey, _Aranjuez_ + (Madrid, 1890); F. Nard, _Guia de Aranjuez, su historia y descripcion_ + (Madrid, 1851), (illustrated); Alvarez de Quindos, _Descripcion + historica del real basque y casa de Aranjuez_ (Madrid, 1804). + + + + +ARANY, JANOS (1817-1882), the greatest poet of Hungary after Petofi, was +born at Nagy-Szalonta on the 2nd of March 1817, the son of Gyorgy Arany +and Sara Megyeri; his people were small Calvinist yeomen of noble +origin, whose property consisted of a rush-thatched cottage and a tiny +plot of land. An only son, late born, seeing no companions of his own +age, hearing nothing but the voices of his parents and the hymns and +prayers in the little Calvinist chapel, Arany grew up a grave and +gentle, but by no means an ignorant child. His precocity was remarkable. +At six years of age he went to school at Szalonta, where he read +everything he could lay his hands upon in Hungarian and Latin. From 1832 +to 1836 Arany was a preceptor at Kis-Ujszallas and Debreczen, still a +voracious reader with a wider field before him, for he had by this time +taught himself French and German. Tiring of the monotony of a scholastic +life, he joined a troupe of travelling actors. The hardships he suffered +were as nothing compared with the pangs of conscience which plagued him +when he thought of the despair of his father, who had meant to make a +pastor of this prodigal son, to whom both church and college now seemed +for ever closed. At last he borrowed sixpence from the stage-manager and +returned home, carrying all his property tied up in a handkerchief. +Shortly after his home-coming his mother died and his father became +stone-blind. Arany at once resolved that it was his duty never to leave +his father again, and a conrectorship which he obtained at this time +enabled them to live in modest comfort. In 1840 he obtained a notaryship +also, and the same year married Juliana Ercsey, the penniless orphan +daughter of an advocate. The next few happy years were devoted to his +profession and a good deal of miscellaneous reading, especially of +Shakespeare (he learnt English in order to compare the original with his +well-thumbed German version) and Homer. Meanwhile the reactionaries of +Vienna were goading the Magyar Liberals into revolt, and Arany found a +safety-valve for his growing indignation by composing a satirical poem +in hexameters, entitled "The Lost Constitution." The Kisfaludy Society, +the great literary association of Hungary, about this time happened to +advertise a prize for the best satire on current events. Arany sent in +his work, and shortly afterwards was awarded the 25-gulden prize (7th of +February 1846) by the society, which then advertised another prize for +the best Magyar epic poem. Arany won this also with his _Toldi_ (the +first part of the present trilogy), and immediately found himself +famous. All eyes were instantly turned towards the poor country notary, +and Petofi was the first to greet him as a brother. In February of the +following year Arany was elected a member of the Kisfaludy Society. In +the memorable year 1848 the people of Szalonta elected him their deputy +to the Hungarian parliament. But neither now nor subsequently (1861, +1869) would he accept a parliamentary mandate. He wrote many articles, +however, in the gazette _Nepbaratja_, an organ of the Magyar government, +and served in the field as a national guard for eight or ten weeks. In +1849 he was in the civil service of the revolutionary government, and +after the final catastrophe returned to his native place, living as best +he could on his small savings till 1850, when Lajos Tisza, the father of +Kalman Tisza, the future prime minister, invited him to his castle at +Geszt to teach his son Domokos the art of poetry. In the following year +Arany was elected professor of Hungarian literature and language at the +Nagy-Koros gymnasium. He also attempted to write another epic poem, but +the time was not favourable for such an undertaking. The miserable +condition of his country, and his own very precarious situation, weighed +heavily upon his sensitive soul, and he suffered severely both in mind +and body. On the other hand reflection on past events made clear to him +not only the sufferings but the defects and follies of the national +heroes, and from henceforth, for the first time, we notice a bitterly +humorous vein in his writings. Thus _Bolond Istok_, the first canto of +which he completed in 1850, is full of sub-acrid merriment. During his +nine years' residence at Nagy-Koros, Arany first seriously turned his +attention to the Magyar ballad, and not only composed some of the most +beautiful ballads in the language, but wrote two priceless dissertations +on the technique of the ballad in general: "Something concerning +assonance" (1854), and "On Hungarian National Versification" (1856). + +When the Hungarian Academy opened its doors again after a ten years' +cessation, Arany was elected a member (15th of December 1858). On the +15th of July 1860 he was elected director of the revived Kisfaludy +Society, and went to Pest. In November, the same year, he started +_Szepirodalmi Figyelo_, a monthly review better known by its later name, +_Koszeru_, which did much for Magyar criticism and literature. He also +edited the principal publications of the society, including its notable +translation of _Shakespeare's Dramatic Works_, to which he contributed +the _Midsummer Night's Dream_ (1864), _Hamlet_ and _King John_ (1867). +The same year he won the Nadasdy prize of the Academy with his poem +"Death of Buda." From 1865 to 1879 he was the secretary of the Hungarian +Academy. + +Domestic affliction, ill-health and his official duties made these years +comparatively unproductive, but he issued an edition of his collected +poems in 1867, and in 1880 won the Karacsonyi prize with his translation +of the _Comedies of Aristophanes_ (1880). In 1879 he completed his epic +trilogy by publishing _The Love of Toldi_ and _Toldi's Evening_, which +were received with universal enthusiasm. He died suddenly on the 24th of +October 1882. The first edition of his collected works, in 8 volumes, +was published in 1884-1885. + +Arany reformed Hungarian literature. Hitherto classical and romantic +successively, like other European literatures, he first gave it a +national direction. He compelled the poetry of art to draw nearer to +life and nature, extended its boundaries and made it more generally +intelligible and popular. He wrote not for one class or school but for +the whole nation. He introduced the popular element into literature, but +at the same time elevated and ennobled it. What Petofi had done for +lyrical he did for epic poetry. Yet there were great differences between +them. Petofi was more subjective, more individual; Arany was more +objective and national. As a lyric poet Petofi naturally gave expression +to present moods and feelings; as an epic poet Arany plunged into the +past. He took his standpoint on tradition. His art was essentially +rooted in the character of the whole nation and its glorious history. +His genius was unusually rich and versatile; his artistic conscience +always alert and sober. His taste was extraordinarily developed and +absolutely sure. To say nothing of his other great qualities, he is +certainly the most artistic of all the Magyar poets. + + See _Posthumous Writings and Correspondence of Arany_, edited by + Laszlo Arany (Hung.), (Budapest, 1887-1889); article "Arany," in _A + Pallas Nagy Lexikona_, Kot 2 (Budapest, 1893); Mor Gaal, _Life of + Janos Arany_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1898); L. Gyongyosi, _Janos Arany's + Life and Works_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1901). Translations from Arany: + _The Legend of the Wondrous Hunt_ (canto 6 of _Buda's Death_), by D. + Butler (London, 1881); _Toldi, poeme en 12 chants_ (Paris, 1895); + _Dichtungen_ (Leipzig, 1880); _Konig Buda's Tod_ (Leipzig, 1879); + _Balladen_ (Vienna, 1886). (R. N. B.) + + + + +ARAPAHO (possibly from the Pawnee for "trader"), a tribe of North +American Indians of Algonquian stock. They formerly ranged over the +central portion of the plains between the Platte and Arkansas. They were +a brave, warlike, predatory tribe. With the Sioux and Cheyennes they +waged unremitting warfare upon the Utes. The southern divisions of the +tribe were placed (1867) on a reservation in the west of Indian +Territory (now Oklahoma), while the northern are in western Wyoming. The +southern section sold their reservations in 1892 and became American +citizens. The Arapahos number in all some 2000. + + See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN; H.R. Schoolcraft, _History of the Indian + Tribes of the United States_ (1851-1837, 6 vols.); _Handbook of + American Indians_, ed. F.W. Hodge (Washington, 1907). + + + + +ARARAT (Armen. _Massis_, Turk. _Egri Dagh_, i.e. "Painful Mountain," +Pers. _Koh-i-Nuh_, i.e. "Mountain of Noah,"), the name given to the +culminating point of the Armenian plateau which rises to a height of +17,000 ft. above the sea. The _massif_ of Ararat rises on the north and +east out of the alluvial plain of the Aras, here from 2500 ft. to 3000 +ft. above the sea, and on the south-west sinks into the plateau of +Bayezid, about 4500 ft. It is thus isolated on all sides but the +north-west, where a _col_ about 6900 ft. high connects it with a long +ridge of volcanic mountains. Out of the _massif_ rise two peaks, "their +bases confluent at a height of 8800 ft., their summits about 7 m. +apart." The higher, Great Ararat, is "a huge broad-shouldered mass, more +of a dome than a cone"; the lower, Little Ararat, 12,840 ft. on which +the territories of the tsar, the sultan, and the shah meet, is "an +elegant cone or pyramid, rising with steep, smooth, regular sides into a +comparatively sharp peak" (Bryce). On the north and west the slopes of +Great Ararat are covered with glittering fields of unbroken _neve_. The +only true glacier is on the north-east side, at the bottom of a large +chasm which runs into the heart of the mountain. The great height of the +snow-line, 14,000 ft., is due to the small rainfall and the upward rush +of dry air from the plain of the Araxes. The middle zone of Ararat, +5000-11,500 ft., is covered with good pasture, the upper and lower zones +are for the most part sterile. Whether the tradition which makes Ararat +the resting-place of Noah's Ark is of any historical value or not, there +is at least poetical fitness in the hypothesis, inasmuch as this +mountain is about equally distant from the Black Sea and the Caspian, +from the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. Another tradition--accepted +by the Kurds, Syrians and Nestorians--fixes on Mount Judi, in the south +of Armenia, on the left bank of the Tigris, near Jezire, as the Ark's +resting-place. There so-called genuine relics of the ark were exhibited, +and a monastery and mosque of commemoration were built; but the +monastery was destroyed by lightning in 776 A.D., and the tradition has +declined in credit. Round Mount Ararat, however, gather many traditions +connected with the Deluge. The garden of Eden is placed in the valley of +the Araxes; Marand is the burial-place of Noah's wife; at Arghuri, a +village near the great chasm, was the spot where Noah planted the first +vineyard, and here were shown Noah's vine and the monastery of St James, +until village and monastery were overwhelmed by a fall of rock, ice and +snow, shaken down by an earthquake in 1840. According to the Babylonian +account, the resting-place of the Ark was "on the Mountain of Nizir," +which some writers have identified with Mount Rowanduz, and others with +Mount Elburz, near Teheran. + +From the Armenian plateau, Ararat rises in a graceful isolated cone far +into the region of perennial snow. It was long believed by the Armenian +monks that no one was permitted to reach the "secret top" of Ararat with +its sacred remains, but on the 27th of September 1829, Dr. Johann Jacob +Parrot (1792-1840) of Dorpat, a German in the employment of Russia, set +foot on the "dome of eternal ice." Ararat has since been ascended by S. +Aftonomov (1834 and 1843); M. Wagner and W.H. Abich (1845); J. Chodzko, +N.W. Chanykov, P.H. Moritz and a party of Cossacks in the service of the +Russian government (1850); Stuart (1856); Monteith (1856); D.W. +Freshfield (1868); James Bryce (1876); A.V. Markov (1888); P. Pashtukhov +and H.B. Lynch (1893). Mr Freshfield thus described the mountain:--"It +stands perfectly isolated from all the other ranges, with the still more +perfect cone of Little Ararat (a typical volcano) at its side. Seen thus +early in the season (May), with at least 9000 ft. of snow on its slopes, +from a distance and height well calculated to permit the eye to take in +its true proportions, we agreed that no single mountain we know +presented such a magnificent and impressive appearance as the Armenian +Giant." There are a number of glaciers in the upper portion, and the +climate of the whole district is very severe. The greater part of the +mountain is destitute of trees, but the lower Ararat is clothed with +birches. The fauna and flora are both comparatively meagre. + +Both Great and Little Ararat consist entirely of volcanic rocks, chiefly +andesites and pyroxene andesites, with some obsidian. No crater now +exists at the summit of either, but well-formed parasitic cones occur +upon their flanks. There are no certain historic records of any +eruption. The earthquake and fall of rock which destroyed the village of +Arghuri in 1840 may have been caused by a volcanic explosion, but the +evidence is unsatisfactory. + +The name of Ararat also applies to the Assyrian _Urardhu_, the country +in which the Ark rested after the Deluge (Gen. viii. 4), and to which +the murderers of Sennacherib fled (2 Kings xix. 37; Isaiah xxxvii. 38). +The name Urardhu, originally that of a principality which included Mount +Ararat and the plain of the Araxes, is given in Assyrian inscriptions +from the 9th century B.C. downwards to a kingdom that at one time +included the greater part of the later Armenia. The native name of the +kingdom was _Biainas_, and its capital was _Dhuspas_, now Van. The first +king, Sarduris I. (c. 833 B.C.), subdued the country of the Upper +Euphrates and Tigris. His inscriptions are written in cuneiform, in +Assyrian, whilst those of his successors are in cuneiform, in their own +language, which is neither Aryan nor Semitic. The kings of Biainas +extended their kingdom eastward and westward, and defeated the Assyrians +and Hittites. But Sarduris II. was overthrown by Tiglath Pileser III. +(743 B.C.), and driven north of the Araxes, where he made Armavir, +_Armauria_, his capital. Interesting specimens of Biainian art have been +found on the site of the palace of Rusas II., near Van. Shortly after +645 B.C. the kingdom fell, possibly conquered by Cyaxares, and a way was +thus opened for the immigration of the Aryan Armenians. The name Ararat +is unknown to the Armenians of the present day. The limits of the +Biblical Ararat are not known, but they must have included the lofty +Armenian plateau which overlooks the plain of the Araxes on the north, +and that of Mesopotamia on the south. It is only natural that the +highest and most striking mountain in the district should have been +regarded as that upon which the Ark rested, and that the old name of the +country should have been transferred to it. + + See also H.B. Lynch, _Armenia_ (1901); Sayce, "Cuneiform Inscriptions + of Lake Van," in _Journal of Royal Asiatic Society_, vols. xiv., xx. + and xxvi.; Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient + classique_, tome iii., _Les Empires_ (Paris, 1899); J. Bryce, + _Transcaucasia and Ararat_ (4th ed., 1896); D.W. Freshfield, _Travels + in the Central Caucasus and Bashan_ (1869); Parrot, _Reise zum Ararat_ + (1834); Wagner, _Reise nach dem Ararat_ (1848); Abich, _Die Besteigung + des Ararat_ (1849); articles "Ararat," in Hastings' _Dictionary of the + Bible_, and the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_. (C. W. W.) + + + + +ARARAT, a municipal town of Ripon county, Victoria, Australia, 130 m. by +rail W.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3580. It lies at an elevation of +1028 ft. towards the western extremity of the Great Dividing range. It +is the commercial centre of the north-western grain and wool-producing +district and is also noted for its quartz and alluvial gold-mines. +Excellent wine is made, and flour-milling, leather-working, brick and +candle making and soap-boiling are the chief industries. The district +also yields the best timber in great quantity. Granite, bluestone, +limestone and slate abound in the neighbourhood. + + + + +ARAROBA POWDER, a drug occurring in the form of a yellowish-brown +powder, varying considerably in tint, which derives an alternative +name--Goa powder--from the Portuguese colony of Goa, where it appears to +have been introduced about the year 1852. The tree which yields it is +the _Andira Araroba_ of the natural order Leguminosae. It is met with in +great abundance in certain forests in the province of Bahia, preferring +as a rule low and humid spots. The tree is from 80 to 100 ft. high and +has large imparipinnate leaves, the leaflets of which are oblong, about +1-1/2 in. long and 3/4 in. broad, and somewhat truncate at the apex. The +flowers are papilionaceous, of a purple colour and arranged in panicles. +The Goa powder or araroba is contained in the trunk, filling crevices in +the heartwood. It is a morbid product in the tree, and yields to hot +chloroform 50% of a substance known officially as chrysarobin, which has +a definite therapeutic value and is contained in most modern +pharmacopoeias. It occurs as a micro-crystalline, odourless, tasteless +powder, very slightly soluble in either water or alcohol; it also occurs +in rhubarb root. This complex mixture contains pure chrysarobin +(C15H12O3), di-chrysarobin methylether (C30H23O7.OCH3), di-chrysarobin +(C30H24O7). Chrysarobin is a methyl trioxyanthracene and exists as a +glucoside in the plant, but is gradually oxidized to chrysophanic acid +(a dioxy-methyl anthraquinone) and glucose. This strikes a blood-red +colour in alkaline solutions, and may therefore cause much alarm if +administered to a patient whose urine is alkaline. The British +pharmacopoeia has an ointment containing one part of chrysarobin and 24 +of benzoated lard. + +Both internally and externally the drug is a powerful irritant. The +general practice amongst modern dermatologists is to use only +chrysophanic acid, which may be applied externally and given by the +mouth in doses of about one grain in cases of psoriasis and chronic +eczema. The drug is a feeble parasiticide, and has been used locally in +the treatment of ringworm. It stains the skin--and linen--a deep yellow +or brown, a coloration which may be removed by caustic alkali in weak +solution. + + + + +ARAS, the anc. _Araxes_, and the _Phasis_ of Xenophon (Turk. and Arab. +_Ras_, Armen. _Yerash_, Georg. _Rashki_), a river which rises south of +Erzerum, in the Bingeul-dagh, and flows east through the province of +Erzerum, across the Pasin plateau, and then through Russian Armenia, +passing between Mount Ararat and Erivan, and forming the Russo-Persian +frontier. Its course is about 600 m. long; its principal tributary is +the Zanga, which flows by Erivan and drains Lake Gokcha or Sevanga. It +is a rapid and muddy stream, dangerous to cross when swollen by the +melting of the snows in Armenia, but fordable in its ordinary state. It +formerly joined the Kura; but in 1897 it changed its lower course, and +now runs direct to the Kizil-agach Bay of the Caspian. On an island in +its bed stood Artaxata, the capital of Armenia from 180 B.C. to A.D. 50. + + + + +ARASON, JON (1484-1551), Icelandic bishop and poet, became a priest +about 1504, and having attracted the notice of Gottskalk, bishop of +Holar, was sent by that prelate on two missions to Norway. In 1522 he +succeeded Gottskalk in the see of Holar, but he was soon driven out by +the other Icelandic bishop, Ogmund of Skalholt. His exile, however, was +brief, and some years after his return he became involved in a dispute +with his sovereign, Christian III., king of Denmark, because he refused +to further the progress of Lutheranism in the island. Then in 1548, when +a large number of the islanders had accepted the reformed doctrines, +Arason and Ogmund joined their forces and attacked the Lutherans. Civil +war broke out, and in 1551 the bishop of Holar and two of his sons were +captured and executed. Arason, who was the last Roman Catholic bishop in +Iceland, is celebrated as a poet, and as the man who introduced printing +into the island. + + + + +ARATOR, of Liguria, a Christian poet, who lived during the 6th century. +He was an orphan, and owed his early education to Laurentius, archbishop +of Milan, and Ennodius, bishop of Pavia, who took great interest in him. +After completing his studies, he practised with success as an advocate, +and was appointed to an influential post at the court of Athalaric, king +of the Ostrogoths. About 540, he quitted the service of the state, took +orders and was elected sub-deacon of the Roman Church. He gained the +favour of Pope Vigilius, to whom he dedicated his _De Actibus +Aposlolorum_ (written about 544), which was much admired in the middle +ages. The poem, consisting of some 2500 hexameters, is of little merit, +being full of mystical and allegorical interpretations and long-winded +digressions; the versification, except for certain eccentricities in +prosody, is generally correct. + + Text by Hubner, 1850. See Leimbach, "Der Dichter Arator," in + _Theologische Studien und Kritik_ (1873); Manitius, _Geschichte der + christlich-lateinischen Poesie_ (1891). + + + + +ARATUS, Greek statesman, was born at Sicyon in 271 B.C., and educated at +Argos after the death of his father, at the hands of Abantidas, tyrant +of Sicyon. When twenty years old Aratus delivered Sicyon from its tyrant +by a bold _coup de main_. By enrolling it in the Achaean League (q.v.) +he secured it against Macedonia, and with funds received from Ptolemy +Philadelphus he pacified the returned exiles. Ever anxious to extend the +league, in which after 245 he was general almost every second year, +Aratus took Corinth by surprise (243), and with mingled threats and +persuasion won over other cities, notably Megalopolis (233) and Argos +(229), whose tyrants abdicated voluntarily. He fought successfully +against the Aetolians (241), and in 228 induced the Macedonian commander +to evacuate Attica. But when Cleomenes III. (q.v.) opened hostilities, +Aratus sustained several reverses, and was badly defeated near Dyme (226 +or 225). Rather than admit Cleomenes as chief of the league, where he +might have upset the existing timocracy, Aratus opposed all attempts at +mediation. As plenipotentiary in 224 he called in Antigonus Doson of +Macedonia, and helped to recover Corinth and Argos and to crush +Cleomenes at Sellasia, but at the same time sacrificed the independence +of the league. In 220-219 the Aetolians defeated him in Arcadia and +harried the Peloponnese unchecked. When Philip V. of Macedon came to +expel these marauders, Aratus became the king's adviser, and averted a +treacherous attack on Messene (215); before long, however, he lost +favour and in 213 was poisoned. The Sicyonians accorded him hero-worship +as a "son of Asclepius." To Aratus is due the credit of having made the +Achaean League an effective instrument against tyrants and foreign +enemies. But his military incapacity and his blind hatred of democratic +reform went far to undo his work. + + Polybius (ii.-viii.) follows the _Memoirs_ which Aratus wrote to + justify his statesmanship,--Plutarch (_Aratus_ and _Cleomenes_) used + this same source and the hostile account of Phylarchus; Paus. ii. 10; + see Neumeyer, _Aralos von Sikyon_ (Leipzig, 1886). (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +ARATUS, of Soli in Cilicia, Greek didactic poet, a contemporary of +Callimachus and Theocritus, was born about 315 B.C. He was invited +(about 276) to the court of Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia, where he +wrote his most famous poem, [Greek: Phainomena] (Appearances, or +Phenomena). He then spent some time with Antiochus I. of Syria; but +subsequently returned to Macedonia, where he died about 245. Aratus's +only extant works are two short poems, or two fragments of his one poem, +written in hexameters; an imitation of a prose work on astronomy by +Eudoxus of Cnidus, and [Greek: Diosaemeia] (on weather signs), chiefly +from Theophrastus. The work has all the characteristics of the +Alexandrian school of poetry. Although Aratus was ignorant of astronomy, +his poem attracted the favourable notice of distinguished specialists, +such as Hipparchus, who wrote commentaries upon it. Amongst the Romans +it enjoyed a high reputation (Ovid, _Amores_, i. 15, 16). Cicero, Caesar +Germanicus and Avienus translated it; the two last versions and +fragments of Cicero's are still extant. Quintilian (_Instit._ x. i, 55) +is less enthusiastic. Virgil has imitated the _Prognostica_ to some +extent in the _Georgics_. One verse from the opening invocation to Zeus +has become famous from being quoted by St Paul (Acts xvii. 28). Several +accounts of his life are extant, by anonymous Greek writers. + + Editio princeps, 1499; Buhle, 1793; Maass, 1893; _Aratea_ (1892), + _Commentariorum in Aratum Reliquiae_ (1898), by the same. English + translations: Lamb, 1848; Poste, 1880; R. Brown, 1885; Prince, 1895. + On recently discovered fragments, see H.I. Bell, in _Classical + Quarterly_, April 1907; also _Berliner Klassikertexte_, Heft v. 1, pp. + 47-54. + + + + +ARAUCANIA, the name of a large territory of Chile, South America, S. of +the Bio-bio river, belonging to the Araucanian Indians (see below) at +the time of their independence of Spanish and Chilean authority. The +loss of their political independence has been followed by that of the +greater part of their territory, which has been divided up into the +Chilean provinces of Arauco, Bio-bio, Malleco and Cautin, and the +Indians, much reduced in number, now live in the wooded recesses of the +three provinces last named. + + + + +ARAUCANIANS (or AUCA), a tribal group of South American Indians in +southern Chile (see above). Physically a fine race, their hardiness and +bravery enabled them successfully to resist the Incas in the 15th +century. Their government was by four _toquis_ or princes, independent +of one another, but confederates against foreign enemies. Each tetrarchy +was divided into five provinces, ruled by five chiefs called +_apo-ulmen_; and each province into nine districts, governed by as many +_ulmen_, who were subject to the apo-ulmen, as the latter were to the +toquis. These various chiefs (who all bore the title of ulmen) composed +the aristocracy of the country. They held their dignities by hereditary +descent in the male line, and in the order of primogeniture. The supreme +power of each tetrarchy resided in a council of the ulmen, who assembled +annually in a large plain. The resolutions of this council were subject +to popular assent. The chiefs, indeed, were little more than leaders in +war; for the right of private revenge limited their authority in +judicial matters; and they received no taxes. Their laws were merely +traditional customs. War was declared by the council, messengers bearing +arrows dipped in blood being sent to all parts of the country to summon +the men to arms. From the time of the first Spanish invasion (1535) the +Araucanians made a vigorous resistance, and after worsting the best +soldiers and the best generals of Spain for two centuries obtained an +acknowledgment of their independence. Their success was due as much to +their readiness in adopting their enemy's methods of warfare as to their +bravery. Realizing the inefficiency of their old missiles when opposed +to musket balls, they laid aside their bows, and armed themselves with +spears, swords or other weapons fitted for close combat. Their practice +was to advance rapidly within such a distance of the Spaniards as would +not leave the latter time to reload after firing. Here they received +without shrinking a volley, which was certain to destroy a number of +them, and then rushing forward in close order, fought their enemies hand +to hand. + +The Araucanians believe in a supreme being, and in many subordinate +spirits, good and bad. They believe also in omens and divination, but +they have neither temples nor idols, nor religious rites. Very few have +become Roman Catholics. They believe in a future state, and have a +confused tradition respecting a deluge, from which some persons were +saved on a high mountain. They divide the year into twelve months of +thirty days, and add five days by intercalation. They esteem poetry and +eloquence, but can scarcely be induced to learn reading or writing. + +The tribal divisions have little or no organization. Some 50,000 in +number, they spend a nomad existence wandering from pasture to pasture, +living in low skin tents, their herds providing their food. They still +preserve their warlike nature, though in 1870 they formally recognized +Chilean rule. In 1861 Antoine de Tounens (1820-1878), a French +adventurer in Chile, proclaimed himself king of Araucania under the +title of Orelie Antoine I., and tried to obtain subscriptions from +France to support his enterprise. But his pretensions were ludicrous; he +was quickly captured by the Chileans and sent back to France (1862) as a +madman; and though he made one more abortive effort in 1874 to recover +his "kingdom," and occupied his pen in magnifying his achievements, +nobody took him seriously except a few of the deluded Indians. + + See Domeyko, _Araucania y sus habitantes_ (Santiago, 1846); de Ginoux, + "Le Chili et les Araucans," in _Bull, de la soc, de geogr._ (1852); + E.R. Smith, _Araucamans_ (New York, 1855); J.T. Medina, _Los aborjenes + de Chile_ (Santiago, 1882); A. Polakowsky, _Die heutigen Araukanen_, + Globus No. 74 (Brunswick, 1898). + + + + +ARAUCARIA, a genus of coniferous trees included in the tribe +_Araucarineae_. They are magnificent evergreen trees, with apparently +whorled branches, and stiff, flattened, pointed leaves, found in Brazil +and Chile, Polynesia and Australia. The name of the genus is derived +from Arauco, the name of the district in southern Chile where the trees +were first discovered. _Araucaria imbricata_, the Chile pine, or "monkey +puzzle," was introduced into Britain in 1796. It is largely cultivated, +and usually stands the winter of Britain; but in some years, when the +temperature fell very low, the trees have suffered much. Care should be +taken in planting to select a spot somewhat elevated and well drained. +The tree grows to the height of 150 ft. in the Cordilleras of Chile. The +cones are from 8 to 8-1/2 in. broad, and 7 to 7-1/2 in. long. The wood +of the tree is hard and durable. This is the only species which can be +cultivated in the open air in Britain. _Araucaria brasiliana_, the +Brazil pine, is a native of the mountains of southern Brazil, and was +introduced into Britain in 1819. It is not so hardy as _A. imbricata_, +and requires protection during winter. It is grown in conservatories for +half-hardy plants. _Araucaria excelsa_, the Norfolk Island pine, a +native of Norfolk Island and New Caledonia, was discovered during +Captain Cook's second voyage, and introduced into Britain by Sir Joseph +Banks in 1793. It cannot be grown in the open air in Britain, as it +requires protection from frost, and is more tender than the Brazilian +pine. It is a majestic tree, sometimes attaining a height of more than +220 ft. The scales of its cones are winged, and have a hook at the apex. +_Araucaria Cunninghami_, the Moreton Bay pine, is a tall tree abundant +on the shores of Moreton Bay, Australia, and found through the littoral +region of Queensland to Cape York Peninsula, also in New Guinea. It +requires protection in England during the winter. _Araucaria Bidwilli_, +the Bunya-Bunya pine, found on the mountains of southern Queensland, +between the rivers Brisbane and Burnett, at 27 deg. S. lat., is a noble +tree, attaining a height of 100 to 150 ft., with a straight trunk and +white wood. It bears cones as large as a man's head. Its seeds are very +large, and are used as food by the natives. _Araucaria Rulei_, which is +a tree of New Caledonia, attains a height of 50 or 60 ft. _Araucaria +Cookii_, also a native of New Caledonia, attains a height of 150 ft. It +is found also in the Isle of Pines, and in the New Hebrides. The tree +has a remarkable appearance, due to shedding its primary branches for +about five-sixths of its height and replacing them by a small bushy +growth, the whole resembling a tall column crowned with foliage, +suggesting to its discoverer, Captain Cook, a tall column of basalt. + + + + +ARAUCO, a coast province of southern Chile, bounded N., E. and S. by the +provinces of Concepcion, Bio-bio, Malleco and Cautin. Area, 2458 sq. m.; +pop. (est. 1902) 70,635. The province originally covered the once +independent Indian territory of Araucania (q.v.), but this was +afterwards divided into four provinces. It is devoted largely to +agricultural pursuits. The capital Lebu (pop. in 1902, 3178) is situated +on the coast about 55 m. south of Conception, with which it is connected +by rail. + + + + +ARAVALLI HILLS, a range of mountains in India, running for 300 m. in a +north-easterly direction, through the Rajputana states and the British +district of Ajmere-Merwara, situated between 24 deg. and 27 deg. 10' N. +lat., and between 72 deg. and 75 deg. E. long. They consist of a series +of ridges and peaks, with a breadth varying from 6 to 60 m. and an +elevation of 1000 to 3000 ft., the highest point being Mount Abu, rising +to 5653 ft., near the south-western extremity of the range. Geologically +they belong to the primitive formation--granite, compact dark blue +slate, gneiss and syenite. The dazzling white effect of their peaks is +produced, not by snow, as among the Himalayas, but by enormous masses of +vitreous rose-coloured quartz. On the north their drainage forms the +Luni and Sakhi rivers, which fall into the Gulf of Cutch. To the south, +their drainage supplies two distinct river systems, one of which +debouches in comparatively small streams on the Gulf of Cambay, while +the other unites to form the Chambal river, a great southern tributary +of the Jumna, flowing thence via the Ganges, into the Bay of Bengal on +the other side of India. The Aravalli hills are for the most part bare +of cultivation, and even of jungle. Many of them are mere heaps of sand +and stone; others consist of huge masses of quartz. The valleys between +the ridges are generally sandy deserts, with an occasional oasis of +cultivation. At long intervals, however, a fertile tract marks some +great natural line of drainage, and among such valleys Ajmere city, with +its lake, stands conspicuous. The hills are inhabited by a very sparse +population of Mhairs, an aboriginal race. For long these people formed a +difficult problem to the British government. Previously to the British +occupation of India they had been accustomed to live, almost destitute +of clothing, by the produce of their herds, by the chase and by plunder. +But Ajmere having been ceded to the East India Company in 1818, the +Mhair country was soon afterwards brought under British influence, and +the predatory instincts of the people were at the same time controlled +and utilized by forming them into a Merwara battalion. As the peaceful +results of British rule developed, and the old feuds between the Mhairs +and their Rajput neighbours died out, the Mhair battalion was +transformed into a police force. The Aravalli mountaineers strongly +objected to this change, and pleaded a long period of loyal usefulness +to the state. They were accordingly again erected into a military +battalion and brought upon the roll of the British army. Under Lord +Kitchener's scheme of 1903 they were entitled the 50th Merwara Infantry. +The Aravalli hills send off rocky ridges in a north-easterly direction +through the states of Alwar and Jaipur, which from time to time reappear +in the form of isolated hills and broken rocky elevations to near Delhi. + + + + +ARAWAK ("meal-eaters," in reference to cassava, their staple food), a +tribe of South American Indians of Dutch and British Guiana. The Arawaks +have given their name to a linguistic stock of South America, the +Arawakan, which includes many once powerful tribes. The Arawakans were +once numerous, their tribes stretching from southern Brazil and Bolivia +to Central America, occupying the whole of the West Indies and having +settlements on the Florida seaboard. They were found by the Spaniards in +Haiti and possibly in the Bahamas, but the Caribs had expelled them from +most of the islands. The Arawaks proper were physically an undersized, +weakly people, peaceable agriculturists, by far the most civilized of +all Guiana peoples, being skilful weavers and workers in stone and gold. +The chief tribes which may be called Arawakan are the Anti, Arawak, +Barre, Goajiro, Guana, Manaos, Maneteneri, Maipuri, Maranho, Moxo, +Passe, Piro and Taruma. + + See Everard F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883). + + + + +ARBACES, according to Ctesias (Diodor. ii. 24 ff. 32), one of the +generals of Sardanapalus, king of Assyria and founder of the Median +empire about 830 B.C. But Ctesias's whole history of the Assyrian and +Median empires is absolutely fabulous; his Arbaces and his successors +are not historical personages. From the inscriptions of Sargon of +Assyria we know one "Arbaku Dynast of Arnashia" as one of forty-five +chiefs of Median districts who paid tribute to Sargon in 713 B.C. See +MEDIA. (Ed. M.) + + + + +ARBE (Serbo-Croatian _Rab_), an island in the Adriatic Sea, forming the +northernmost point of Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. (1900) 4441. Arbe is 13 m. +long; its greatest breadth is 5 m. The capital, which bears the same +name, is a walled town, remarkable, even among the Dalmatian cities, for +its beauty. It occupies a steep ridge jutting out from the west coast. +At the seaward end of this promontory is the 13th-century cathedral; +behind which the belfries of four churches, at least as ancient, rise in +a row along the crest of the ridge; while behind these, again, are the +castle and a background of desolate hills. Many of the houses are +roofless and untenanted; for, after five centuries of prosperity under +Venetian or Hungarian rule, an outbreak of plague in 1456 swept away the +majority of the townsfolk, and ruined the survivors. Some of the old +palaces are, nevertheless, of considerable interest; one especially as +the birthplace of the celebrated philosopher, Marc Antonio de Dominis. +Fishing and agriculture constitute the chief resources of the islanders, +whose ancient silk industry is still maintained. In 1018 the yearly +tribute due to Venice was fixed at ten pounds of silk or five pounds of +gold. + + + + +ARBELA (ARBA'IL, i.e. "Four-god-city"), an ancient town in Adiabene, the +capital in Assyrian and pre-Assyrian times of the country between the +greater and lesser Zab, and seat of an important cult of Ishtar. The +battle in which Alexander overthrew Darius in 331 B.C., though named in +the old books after Arbela, was probably fought at Gaugamela, some 60 m. +away (Yorck von Wartenburg, _Kurze Ubersicht der Feldzuge A. des Gr._). +The modern town of Erbil or Arbil, in the vilayet of Mosul, is about 40 +m. from Mosul on the road to Bagdad. The greater part of the town, which +seems at one time to have been very large, is situated on an artificial +mound about 150 ft. high. It became the seat of the Ayyubite sultan +Saladin in 1184; was bequeathed in 1233 to the caliphs of Bagdad; was +plundered by the Mongols in 1236 and in 1393 by Timur, and was taken in +1732 by the Persians under Nadir Shah. In the 14th century the +Christians were almost exterminated. The population, which varies from +2000 to 6000, is chiefly composed of Kurds. + +The ruins of another ARBELA (Irbid, Beth-Arbel) in Palestine, situated +near the west shore of the Sea of Galilee, a little north of its centre, +are not in themselves of high interest, but the site is noteworthy +through its connexion with the neighbouring caves in the lofty flank of +the Wadi Hamam, above which Arbela stood. These caves (called by the +Arabs Kulat ibn Ma'an) are apparently natural, but were enlarged and +fortified. They were used by the inhabitants of Arbela as a place of +refuge from the army of Bacchides, general of Demetrius III., king of +Syria, and were the resort of bandits in the reign of Herod the Great. +He laid siege to them, and his men could only gain access to the caves +by being let down from above. The caves were also fortified against the +Romans by Josephus. + + + + +ARBER, EDWARD (1836- ), English man of letters, was born in London on +the 4th of December 1836. From 1854 to 1878 he was a clerk in the +admiralty; from 1878 to 1881 lecturer on English, under Prof. H. Morley, +at University College; and from 1881 to 1894 professor of English at +Mason College, Birmingham. From 1894 he lived in London as emeritus +professor, being also a fellow of King's College. In 1905 he received +the honorary degree of D. Litt. at Oxford. He married in 1869, and had +two sons, one of them, E.A.N. Arber, becoming demonstrator in +palaeobotany at Cambridge. As a scholarly editor Professor Arber's +services to English literature are memorable. His name is associated +particularly with the series of "English Reprints" (1868-1880), by which +an accurate text of the works of many English authors, formerly only +accessible in rare or expensive editions, was placed within reach of the +general public. Among the thirty volumes of the series were Gosson's +_School of Abuse_, Ascham's _Toxophilus_, _Tottel's Miscellany_, +Naunton's _Fragmenta Regalia_, &c. It was followed by the "English +Scholar's Library" (16 vols.) which included the _Works_ (1884) of +Captain John Smith, governor of Virginia, and the _Poems_ (1882) of +Richard Barnfield. In his _English Garner_ (8 vols. 1877-1896) he made +an admirable collection of rare old tracts and poems; in 1899-1901 he +issued _British Anthologies_ (10 vols.), and in 1907 began a series +called _A Christian Library_. He also accomplished single-handed the +editing of two vast, and invaluable, English bibliographies: _A +Transcript of the Registers of the Stationers' Company, 1553-1640_ +(1875-1894), and _The Term Catalogues, 1668-1709; with a number for +Easter Term 1711_ (1904-1906), edited from the quarterly lists of the +booksellers. + + + + +ARBITRAGE, the term applied to the system of equalizing prices in +different commercial centres by buying in the cheaper market and selling +in the dearer. These transactions, or their converse, are mainly +confined to stocks and shares, foreign exchanges and bullion; and are +for the most part carried on between London and other European capitals +and largely with New York. When prices in London are affected by +financial or political causes, all other markets are sooner or later +influenced, as London is the banking and financial centre for the +commerce of the world. It may, however, also occur that some local event +of importance initiates a rise or fall in a particular market which must +ultimately affect other countries. For instance, a crisis in France +would immediately depress all French securities, and by exciting the +fears of capitalists would stimulate transfers of funds and raise all +the exchanges against France. + +In ordinary times those engaged in arbitrage operate with a very small +margin of profit. The great improvement in postal, telegraphic and +telephonic communication enables operators to close transactions with +amazing rapidity, while competition reduces the margin of profit to a +minimum. Operations in American stocks and shares are carried on between +London and New York on a vast scale, while transactions in African +mining shares are undertaken to a considerable extent between London and +Paris. The frequent fluctuations in the prices of the latter securities +offer a large and fruitful field to bold operators possessed of large +resources, while those who have small means often succumb in a +commercial crisis. As regards foreign exchange and bullion, arbitrage +operators stand on a fairly safe foundation, the fluctuations being +slight and involving little or no risk, although they yield a very small +margin of profit. Arbitrage operations are for these reasons resorted to +frequently by one country in supplying the requirements of another. The +slightest advantage in any market is put to profit, and as the margin in +ordinary exchange transactions is minute, the ability to operate in this +cross fashion renders business possible, which would otherwise be +impracticable. To give concrete instances of the working of arbitrage +the following may be cited:-- + +On the 21st of May 1906 the exchange on London in Vienna was telegraphed +from that city 24 kronen 4-3/4 cents; London, requiring to purchase +remittances, found that Antwerp had some Vienna to sell, and arranged to +buy there. The transactions worked out as follows:--The direct exchange +in Antwerp on London being 25.25-1/2, and Antwerp's selling price of +Vienna being 105 francs for 100 kronen, on dividing 25.25-1/2 by 105 an +exchange of 24.05-1/4 was obtained or 1/2 cent cheaper than the direct +exchange between Vienna and London. + +Again a portion of the proceeds of the Russian loan of 1906 had to be +remitted to Berlin from Paris. Having exhausted local balances in +Berlin, Paris on one side, and Berlin on the other, sought to prevent +gold shipments from Berlin, and thus cause stringency in that money +market. On the 21st of May 1906 Berlin was therefore seeking to sell +Paris in London at 81.35 marks for 100 francs, and draw on London for +the proceeds at 20.50. This transaction produced a parity between the +exchanges of 25.20, which left a small margin in London. + +Two instances of arbitrage of stocks are the following:--On the 24th of +March 1906, Japanese exchequer bonds, series 2 and 3, were bought in +Tokio at 93-1/4 and were paid for by telegraphic transfer at 24-3/8 +pence per yen, and were sold in London the same day at 94 for payment on +arrival of bonds. It took five weeks for the transmission of the bonds +to London, where they were dealt in on the fixed basis of exchange, +namely 24-1/2 pence per yen. The London price works out thus: + + 93.25 X 24.375 + -------------- = 92.77, + 24.50 + +to which must be added the loss of interest, as the firm in London paid +cash on the 24th of March for the telegraphic transfer, and did not +recover payment until the arrival of the bonds from Tokio five weeks +later. The following is a computation of the transaction:-- + + London price 92.77 + Five weeks at 5% .45 + English stamp 1/2% on nominal amount .50 + Insurance 1/8% .12 + ----- + 93.84 + +This sum represents the net cost to the arbitrage house in London, and +the money paid on the 28th of April left a profit of about 3/16%. The +bonds being "to bearer" insurance was necessary for the safety in this, +as in all similar transactions. + +In the next example, however, this expense was unnecessary, the bonds +being "inscribed." On the 21st of May 1906 American Steel common shares +were sold for cash in New York at 41-3/16 dollars per share, and were +bought in London at 42-7/32 for the account day, May 31st. These figures +are explained by the fact that transactions in the United States stocks +and shares are on the fixed basis of five dollars per pound sterling, +while as regards payments in New York the exchange varies daily. Railway +shares are generally 100 dollars each. In the London market, however, +five shares of 100 dollars would be L100 nominal. These shares, +therefore, cost in London, at the purchase price of 42-7/32, L42:4:5. +The money realized in New York for five shares at 41-3/16 was 205.93 +dollars. A cheque on London was bought at 4 dollars 85-1/4 cents, +realizing L42:8:9. It should be noted that the shares in these cases are +generally lent by the New York correspondent, thus saving loss of +interest. The resulting profit in this particular instance was 4s. 4d. +for each five shares, divided between the London and New York arbitrage +firms. Arbitrage operations with distant countries such as India are +large and mainly profitable. Arbitrage with India consists chiefly in +buying bills of exchange in London, such as India Council rupee bills +amounting to about 16 millions sterling annually, and commercial bills +drawn against goods exported to India. The counter-operation consists in +purchasing in India, for short or long delivery, sterling bills drawn +against exports to Great Britain of Indian produce, such as cotton, tea, +indigo, jute and wheat. These operations greatly facilitate trade and +the moving of produce from the interior of India to the seaports. +Without this assistance Great Britain's enormous trade could not be +carried on, and she would have to revert to the primitive system of +barter. The same advantages are afforded to her vast trade with China +and Japan, with the material difference that the supply of government +council bills is confined to the Indian trade. The balance of trade with +all countries is generally settled by specie shipments; hence, with the +Far East, silver and gold play an important part in arbitrage. + +It will thus be seen that arbitrage fills a useful place in commerce; +the profits are small because the competition is great; nevertheless +huge transactions employing thousands of clerks result from this system. + + The literature of the subject is extremely meagre. Lord Goschen's + _Theory of Foreign Exchanges_ (London, 1866) is general and + theoretical, but throws great light upon particular aspects of the + philosophy of arbitrage, without touching specially on the details of + the subject itself. The principal other works are: Kelly's _Cambist_ + (1811, 1835); Otto Swoboda, _Die kaufmannische Arbitrage_ (Berlin, + 1873), and _Borse und Actien_ (Cologne, 1869); Coquelin et Guillaumin, + _Dictionnaire de l'economie politique_ (Paris, 1851-1853); Ottomar + Haupt, _London Arbitrageur_ (London, 1870); Charles le Touze, _Traite + theorique et pratique du change_ (Paris, 1868); Tate, _Modern Cambist_ + (London, 1868); Simon Spitzer, _Ueber Munz- und Arbiragenrechnung_ + (Vienna, 1872); J.W. Gilbart, _Principles and Practice of Banking_ + (London, 1871); G. Clare, _The A B C of Foreign Exchanges_ (2nd ed., + 1895); _Money Market Primer and Key to the Exchanges_ (2nd ed., 1900); + J. Pallain, _Les Changes etrangers et les prix_ (Paris, 1905). + (Sw.) + + + + +ARBITRATION (Lat. _arbitrari_, to examine or judge), a term derived from +the nomenclature of Roman law, and applied to an arrangement for taking, +and abiding by, the judgment of a selected person in some disputed +matter, instead of carrying it to the established courts of justice. In +disputes between states, arbitration has long played an important part +(see ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL). The present article is restricted to +arbitration under municipal law; but a separate article is also devoted +to the use of arbitration in labour disputes (see ARBITRATION AND +CONCILIATION). + +_Roman Law._--Arrangements for avoiding the delay and expense of +litigation, and referring a dispute to friends or neutral persons, are a +natural practice, of which traces may be found in any state of society; +but it is from Roman Law that we derive arbitration as a system which +has found its way into the practice of European nations in general, and +has even evaded the dislike of the English common lawyers to the civil +law. The praetor, who had the arrangement of all trials or private suits +and the formal appointment of judges for them, referred the great +majority of such cases for decision to a judge who was styled usually +_judex_ but sometimes _arbiter_. The phrase _judex arbiterve_ frequently +occurs. The _judex_ and the _arbiter_ had the same functions, and +apparently the only express basis for the distinction between the two +words is that there might be several _arbitri_ but never more than one +_judex_ in a cause. The term _arbiter_ seems, however, to have been +sometimes used when the referee had a certain degree of latitude, and +was entitled to give weight to equitable considerations (Roby, _Inst. +Rom. Law_, i. 318; Hunter, _Roman Law_ (1897), p. 48; and see Cicero +_pro Rosc. Com._ 4, ss. 10-13; Gaius, _Inst._ iv. s. 163). Apart from +this system of compulsory reference by the praetor, Roman law recognized +a voluntary reference (_compromissum_) to an _arbiter_ or arbitrator by +the parties themselves. The arbitrator _ex compromisso sumptus_ had no +coercive jurisdiction, and in order to make his award effective, the +agreement of reference was confirmed by a stipulation and usually +provided a penalty (_poena, pecunia compromissa_) in case of +disobedience. The sum agreed on by way of penalty might be either +specific or unliquidated, e.g. "whatever the matter may be worth" +(_Dig._ iv., tit. 8, s. 28). The arbitrator _ex compromisso sumptus_, +like the judicial _arbiter_, was expected to take account of equitable +considerations in coming to a decision. If three arbitrators were +appointed, a majority could decide; in case of two being appointed and +not agreeing, the praetor would compel them to choose a third (Roby, +_ubi sup._, i. 320, 321; _Dig._ iv., tit. 8, s. 17). As in English law, +it was necessary that the award should cover all the points submitted +(_Dig._ iv., tit. 8, s. 21). + +_Law of England._--The law of England as to arbitration is now +practically summed up in the Arbitration Act of 1889. This statute is an +express code as to proceedings in all arbitration, but "criminal +proceedings by the crown" cannot be referred under it (ss. 13, 14). The +statute subdivides its subject-matter into two headings. I. References +by consent out of court; II. References under order of court. + + + References by consent of the court. + +(1) Here the first matter to be dealt with is the submission. A +submission is defined as a written agreement (it need not be signed by +both parties) to submit present or future differences to arbitration, +whether a particular arbitrator is named in it or not. The capacity of a +person to agree to arbitration, or to act as arbitrator, depends on the +general law of contract. A submission by an infant is not void, but is +voidable at his option (see INFANT). A counsel has a general authority +to deal with the conduct of an action, which includes authority to refer +it to arbitration, but he has no authority to refer an action against +the wishes of his client, or on terms different from those which his +client has sanctioned; and if he does so, the reference may be set +aside, although the limit put by the client on his counsel's authority +is not made known to the other side when the reference is agreed upon +(_Neale v. Gordon Lennox_, 1902, A.C. 465). The committee of a lunatic, +with the sanction of the judge in lunacy, may refer disputes to +arbitration. As an arbitrator is chosen by the parties themselves the +question of his eligibility is of comparatively minor importance; and +where an arbitrator has been chosen by both parties, the courts are +reluctant to set the appointment aside. This question has arisen chiefly +in contracts, for works, which frequently contain a provision that the +engineer shall be the arbitrator, in any dispute between the contractor +and his own employer. The practical result is to make the engineer judge +in his own cause. But the courts will not in such cases prevent the +engineer from acting, where the contractor was aware of the facts when +he signed the contract, and there is no reason to believe that the +engineer will be unfair (_Ives and Barker v. Willans_, 1894, 2 Ch. 478). +Even the fact that he has expressed an opinion on matters in dispute +will not of itself disqualify him (_Halliday v. Hamilton's Trustees_, +1903, 5 Fraser, 800). So, too, where a barrister was appointed +arbitrator, the court refused to stop the arbitration on the mere +ground that he was the client of a firm of solicitors, the conduct of +one of whom was in question (_Bright_ v. _River Plate Construction Co._, +1900, 2 Ch. 835). + +Under the law prior to the act of 1889 (a) an agreement to refer +disputes generally, without naming the arbitrators, was always +irrevocable, and an action lay for the breach of it, although the court +could not compel either of the parties to proceed under it; (b) an +agreement to refer to a particular arbitrator was revocable, and if one +of the parties revoked that particular arbitrator's authority he could +not be compelled to submit to it; (c) when, however, the parties had got +their tribunal fixed, and were proceeding to carry out the agreement to +refer, the act 9 and 10 Will. III. c. 15 provided that the submission +might be made a rule of court, a provision which gave the court power to +assist the parties in the trial of the case, and to enforce the award of +the arbitrators; (d) the statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (s. 39) put an +end to the power to revoke the authority of a particular arbitrator +after the reference to him had been made a rule of court; and--a +liability which existed also under the act of 9 and 10 Will. III. c. +15--any person revoking the appointment of an arbitrator after the +submission had been made a rule of court might be attached. The +Arbitration Act 1889 provides that a submission, unless a contrary +intention is expressed in it, is irrevocable except by leave of the +court or a judge, and is to have the same effect in all respects as if +it had been made an order of court. The object of this enactment was to +save the expense of making a submission a rule of court by treating it +as having been so made, and it leaves the law in this position, that +while the authority of an arbitrator, once appointed, is irrevocable, +there is no power--any more than there was under the old law--to compel +an unwilling party to proceed to a reference, except in cases specially +provided for by sections 5 and 6 of the act of 1889. The former of these +sections deals with the power of the court, the latter with the power of +the parties to a reference, to appoint an arbitrator in certain +circumstances. Section 5 provides that where a reference is to be to a +single arbitrator, and all the parties do not concur in appointing one, +or an appointed arbitrator refuses to act or becomes incapable of +acting, or where the parties or two arbitrators fail, when necessary, to +appoint an umpire or third arbitrator, or such umpire or arbitrator when +appointed refuses to act, or becomes incapable of acting, and the +default is not rectified after seven clear days' notice, the court may +supply the vacancy. Under section 6, where a reference is to two +arbitrators, one to be appointed by each party, and either the appointed +arbitrator refuses to act, or becomes incapable of acting, and the party +appointing him fails, after seven clear days' notice, to supply the +vacancy, or such party fails, after similar notice, to make an original +appointment, a binding appointment (subject to the power of the court to +set it aside) may be made by the other party to the reference. The court +may compel parties to carry out an arbitration, not only in the above +cases by directly appointing an arbitrator, &c., or by allowing one +appointed by a party to proceed alone with the reference, but also +indirectly by staying any proceedings before the legal tribunals to +determine matters which come within the scope of the arbitration. Where +the agreement to refer stipulates that the submission of a dispute to +arbitration shall be a condition precedent to the right to bring an +action in regard to it, an action does not lie until the arbitration has +been held and an award made, and it is usual in such cases not to apply +for a stay of proceedings, but to plead the agreement as a bar to the +action (_Viney_ v. _Bignold_, 1887, 20 Q.B.D. 172). The court will +refuse to stay proceedings where the subject-matter of the litigation +falls outside the scope of the reference, or there is some serious +objection to the fitness of the arbitrator, or some other good reason of +the kind exists. + +An arbitrator is not liable to be sued for want of skill or for +negligence in conducting the arbitration (_Pappa_ v. _Rose_, 1872, L.R. +7 C.P. 525). When a building contract provides that a certificate of the +architect, showing the final balance due to the contractor, shall be +conclusive evidence of the works having been duly completed, the +architect occupies the position of an arbitrator, and enjoys the same +immunity from liability for negligence in the discharge of his functions +(_Chambers_ v. _Goldthorpe_, 1901, 1 Q.B. 624). An arbitrator cannot be +compelled to act unless he is a party to the submission. + +An arbitrator (and the following observations apply _mutatis mutandis_ +to an umpire after he has entered on his duties) has power to administer +oaths to, or take the affirmations of, the parties and their witnesses; +and any person who wilfully and corruptly gives false evidence before +him may be prosecuted and punished for perjury (Arbitration Act 1889, +sched. i. and s. 22). At any stage in the reference he may, and shall if +he be required by the court, state in the form of a special case for the +opinion of the court any question of law arising in the arbitration. The +arbitrator may also state his award in whole or in part as a special +case (ib. s. 19), and may correct in an award any clerical mistake or +error arising from an accidental slip or omission. The costs of the +reference and the award--which, under sched. i. of the act, must be in +writing, unless the submission otherwise provides--are in the +arbitrator's discretion, and he has a lien on the award and the +submission for his fees, for which--if there is an express or implied +promise to pay them--he can also sue (_Crampton_ v. _Ridley_, 1887, 20 +Q.B.D. 48). An arbitrator or umpire ought not, however, to state his +award in such a way as to deprive the parties of their right to +challenge the amount charged by him for his services; and accordingly +where an umpire fixed for his award a lump sum as costs, including +therein his own and the arbitrators' fees, the award was remitted back +to him to state how much he allotted to himself and how much to the +arbitrators (in _Re Gilbert_ v. _Wright_, 1904, 20 _Times_ L.R. 164). +But in the absence of evidence to show that the fees charged by +arbitrators or umpire are extortionate, or unfair and unreasonable, the +courts will not interfere with them (_Llandrindod Wells Water Co._ v. +_Hawksley_, 1904, 20 _Times_ L.R. 241). + +If there is no express provision on the point in the submission, an +award under the Arbitration Act 1889 must be made within three months +after the arbitrator has entered on the reference, or been called upon +to act by notice in writing from any party to the submission. The time +may, however, be extended by the arbitrator or by the court. An umpire +is required to make his award within one month after the original or +extended time appointed for making the award of the arbitrators has +expired, or any later day to which he may enlarge it. The court may by +order remit an award to the arbitrators or umpire for reconsideration, +in which case the reconsidered award must be made within three months +after the date of the order. + +An award must be _intra vires_: it must dispose of all the points +referred; and it must be final, except as regards certain matters of +valuation, &c. (see in _Re Stringer and Riley Brothers_, 1901, 1 K.B. +105). An award may, however, be set aside where the arbitrator has +misconducted himself (an arbitrator may also be removed by the court on +the ground of misconduct), or where it is _ultra vires_, or lacks any of +the other requisites--above mentioned--of a valid award, or where the +arbitrator has been wilfully deceived by one of the parties, or some +such state of things exists. An award may, by leave of the court, be +enforced in the same manner as a judgment or decree to the same effect. +Under the Revenue Act 1906, s. 9, a uniform duty of ten shillings is +payable on awards in England or Ireland, and on decreets arbitral in +Scotland. + + Provisions for the arbitration of special classes of disputes are + contained in many acts of parliament, e.g. the Local Government Acts + 1888, 1894, the Agricultural Holdings (England) Acts 1883 to 1906, the + Small Holdings and Allotments Act 1907, the Light Railways Act 1896, + the Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890, the Workmen's + Compensation Act 1906, &c. + + The Conciliation Act 1896 provides machinery for the prevention and + settlement of trade disputes, and in 1892 a chamber of arbitration for + business disputes was established by the joint action of the + corporation of the city of London and the London chamber of commerce. + At the time when the London chamber of arbitration was established, + there was considerable dissatisfaction among the mercantile community + with the delays that occurred in the disposal of commercial cases + before the ordinary tribunals. But the special provision made by the + judges in 1895 for the prompt trial of commercial causes to a large + extent destroyed the _raison d'etre_ of the chamber of arbitration, + and it did not attain any great measure of success. + + + References under order of court. + +(2) The court or a judge may refer any question arising in any cause or +matter to an official or special referee, whose report may be enforced +like a judgment or order to the same effect. This power may be exercised +whether the parties desire it or not. The official referees are salaried +officers of court. The remuneration of special referees is determined by +the court or judge. An entire action may be referred, if all parties +consent, or if it involves any prolonged examination of documents, or +scientific or local examination, or consists wholly or partly of matters +of account. + + _Scots Law._--The Arbitration (Scotland) Act 1894, unlike the English + Arbitration Act 1889, did not codify the previously existing law, and + it becomes necessary, therefore, to deal with that law in some detail. + It differs in important particulars from the law of England. Although + (as in England apart from the Arbitration Act 1889) there is nothing + to prevent a verbal reference, submissions are generally not merely + written but are effected by deed. The deed of submission first defines + the terms of the reference, the name or names of the arbiters or + arbitrators, and the "oversman" or umpire, whose decision in the event + of the arbiters differing in opinion is to be final. Formerly, where + no oversman was named in the submission, and no power given to the + arbiters to name one, the proceedings were abortive if the arbiters + disagreed, unless the parties consented to a nomination. But under the + Arbitration (Scotland) Act 1894, s. 4, here arbiters differ in + opinion, they, or, if they fail to agree on the point, the court, on + the application of either party, may nominate an oversman whose + decision is to be final. The deed of submission next gives to the + arbiters the necessary powers for disposing of the matters referred + (e.g. powers to summon witnesses, to administer oaths and to award + expenses), and specifies the time within which the "decreet arbitral" + is to be pronounced. If this date is left blank, practice has limited + the arbiter's power of deciding to a year and a day, unless, having + express or clearly implied power in the submission, he exercises this + power, or the parties expressly or tacitly agree to its prorogation. + The deed of submission then goes on to provide that the parties bind + themselves, under a stipulated penalty to abide by the decreet + arbitral, that, in the event of the death of either of them, the + submission shall continue in force against their heirs and + representatives, and that they consent to the registration, for + preservation and execution, both of the deed itself and of the decreet + arbitral. The power to enforce the award depends on this last + provision. Under the common law of Scotland, a submission of future + disputes or differences to an arbiter, or arbiters, unnamed, was + ineffectual except where the agreement to refer did not contemplate + the decision of proper disputes between the parties but the adjustment + of some condition, or the liquidation of some obligation, contained in + the contract of which the agreement to submit formed a part. And by + the Arbitration (Scotland) Act 1894, s. 1, an agreement to refer to + arbitration is not invalid by reason of the reference being to a + person not named, or to be named by another, or to a person merely + described as the holder for the time being of any office or + appointment. An arbiter who has accepted office may be compelled by an + action in court of session to proceed with his duty unless he has + sufficient cause, such as ill-health or supervening interest, for + renouncing. The court may name a sole arbiter, where provision is made + for one only and the parties cannot agree (Arbitration [Scotland] Act + 1894, s. 2); and may name an arbiter where a party having the right or + duty to nominate one of two arbiters will not exercise it (_ib._ s. + 3). Scots law as to the requisites of a valid award is practically + identical with the law of England. The grounds of reduction of a + decreet arbitral are "corruption," "bribery," "false hold" (Scots Act + of Regulations 1695, s. 25). An attempt was made to include, under the + expression "constructive corruption," among these statutory grounds of + reduction, irregular conduct on the part of an arbitrator, with no + suggestion of any corrupt motive. But it was definitely overruled by + the House of Lords (_Adams_ v. _Great North of Scotland Railway Co._, + 1891, A.C. 31). The statutory definition of the grounds of reduction + was intended, however, merely to put an end to the practice which had + previously obtained of reviewing awards on their merits, and it does + not prevent the courts from setting aside an award where the + arbitrator has exceeded his jurisdiction, or disregarded any one of + the expressed conditions of the submission, or been guilty of + misconduct. A private arbiter cannot demand remuneration except in + virtue of contract, or by implication from the nature of the work + done, or if the reference is in pursuance of some statutory enactment + (e.g. the Lands Clauses [Scotland] Act 1845, s. 32). + + _Judicial References_ have been long known to the law of Scotland. + When an action is in court the parties may at any stage withdraw it + from judicial determination, and refer it to arbitration. This is done + by minute of reference to which the court interpones its authority. + When the award is issued it becomes the judgment of the court. The + court has no power to compel parties to enter into a reference of this + kind, and it is doubtful whether counsel can bind their clients in + such a matter. A judicial reference falls like the other by the elapse + of a year; and the court cannot review the award on the ground of + miscarriage. By the Court of Session Act 1850, s. 50, a provision is + introduced whereby parties to an action in the supreme court may refer + judicially any issue for trial to one, three, five or seven persons, + who shall sit as a jury, and decide by a majority. + + _Law of Ireland._--The Common Law Procedure Act (Ireland) 1856, which + is incorporated by s. 60 of the Supreme Court of Judicature Act + (Ireland) 1877, and thereby made applicable to all divisions of the + High Court of Justice, provides, on the lines of the English Common + Law Procedure Act 1854, for the conduct of arbitrations and the + enforcement of awards. Irish statute law, like that of England and + Scotland, contains numerous provisions for arbitration under special + enactments. + + _Indian and Colonial Law._--The provisions of the English Arbitration + Act 1889 have in substance been adopted by the Indian Legislature (see + Act ix. of 1899), and by many of the colonies (see, e.g., Act No. 13 + of 1895, Western Australia; No. 24 of 1898, Natal; c. 20 of 1899, + Bahamas; No. 10 of 1895, Gibraltar; No. 29 of 1898, Cape of Good Hope: + s. 7 of this last statute excludes from submission to arbitration + criminal cases, so far as prosecution and punishment are concerned, + and, without the special leave of the court, matters relating to + status, matrimonial causes, and matters affecting minors or other + perons under legal disability; Trinidad and Tobago, No. 35 of 1898). + +_United States._--The common law and statute law of the United States as +to arbitration bear a general resemblance to the law of England. + + + Voluntary submissions. + +All controversies of a civil nature, and any question of personal injury +on which a suit for damages will lie, although it may also be +indictable, may be referred to arbitration; but crimes, and perhaps +actions on penal statutes by common informers may not. The submission +may be effected sometimes by parol, sometimes by written instrument, +sometimes by deed or deed poll. Capacity to refer depends on the general +law of contractual capacity. The law of England as to the capacity to +act as an arbitrator and as to objections to an arbitrator on the ground +of interest has been closely followed by the American courts. The same +observation applies as to the requisites of an award, the mode of its +enforcement and the grounds on which it will be set aside. The +arbitrator has a lien on the award for his fees; and--a point of +difference from the English law--he may sue for them without an express +promise to pay (cf. _Goodall_ v. _Cooley_, 1854, 29 New Hamp. 48). At +common law, a submission is generally revocable at any time before +award; and it is also, in the absence of stipulation to the contrary, +revoked by the death of one of the parties. Provision has been made in +Pennsylvania for compulsory arbitration by an act of the 16th of June +1836 (see Pepper and Lewis, _Pennsylvania Digest, tit._ "arbitration"). + + + References by rule of court. + +The rules of court also of many of the states of the United States +provide for reference through the intervention of the court at any stage +in the progress of a litigation. Such submissions are usually declared +irrevocable by the rules providing for them. + + + Statutory arbitrations. + +In addition to voluntary submissions and references by rules of court +there are in America, as in the United Kingdom, various statutes which +provide for arbitration in particular cases. Most of these statutes are +founded on the 9 and 10 Will. III., c. 15, and 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 42, +s. 49, "by which it is allowed to refer a matter in dispute (not then in +court) to arbitrators, and agree that the submission be made a rule of +court. This agreement, being proved on the oath of one of the witnesses +thereto, is enforced as if it had been made at first a rule of court" +(Bouvier, _Law Dict_. s.v. "Arbitration"). + +Ample provision is made in America for the arbitration of labour +disputes. + + _Law of France._--Voluntary arbitration has always been recognized in + France. In cases of mercantile partnerships, arbitration was formerly + compulsory; but in 1856 (law of the 17th of July 1856) jurisdiction in + disputes between parties was conferred on the Tribunals of Commerce + (as to which see _Code de Commerce_, arts. 615 et seq.), and + arbitration at the present time is purely voluntary. The subject is + very fully dealt with in the _Code de Procedure Civile_ (arts. + 1003-1028). The submission to arbitration (_compromis_) must, on pain + of nullity, be acted upon within three months from its date (art. + 1007). The submission terminates (i.) by the death, refusal, + resignation or inability to act of one of the arbitrators; (ii.) by + the expiration of the period agreed upon, or of three months if no + time had been fixed; (iii.) by the disagreement of two arbitrators, + unless power be reserved to them to appoint an umpire (art. 1012). An + arbitrator cannot resign if he has once commenced to act, and can only + be relieved on some ground arising subsequently to the submission + (art. 1014). Each party to the arbitration is required to produce his + evidence at least fifteen days before the expiration of the period + fixed by the submission (art. 1016). If the arbitrators, differing in + opinion, cannot agree upon an umpire (_tiers arbitre_), the president + of the Tribunal of Commerce will appoint one, on the application of + either party (art. 1017). The umpire is required to give his decision + within one month of his acceptance of the appointment; before making + his award, he must confer with the previous arbitrators who disagreed + (art. 1018). Arbitrators and umpire must proceed according to the + ordinary rules of law, unless they are specially empowered by the + submission to proceed as _amiables compositeurs_ (art. 1019). The + award is rendered executory by an order of the president of the Civil + Tribunal of First Instance (art. 1020). Awards cannot be set up + against third parties (art. 1022), or attacked by way of opposition. + An appeal against an award lies to the Civil Tribunal of First + Instance, or to the court of appeal, according as the subject-matter, + in the absence of arbitration, would have been within the jurisdiction + of the justice of the peace, or of the Civil Tribunal of First + Instance (art. 1023). In the manufacturing towns of France, there are + also boards of umpires (_Conseils de Prud'hommes_) to deal with trade + disputes between masters and workmen belonging to certain specified + trades. + + _Other Foreign Laws._--The provisions of French law as to arbitration + are in force in Belgium (_Code de Proc. Civ._, arts. 1003 et seq.); + and a convention (8th of July 1899) between France and Belgium + regulates, _inter alia_, the mutual enforcement of awards. The law of + France has also been reproduced in substance in the Netherlands (Code + of Civil Procedure, arts. 620 et seq.). The German Imperial Code of + Procedure did not create any system of arbitration in civil cases. But + this omission was supplied in Prussia by a law of the 29th of March + 1879, which provided for the appointment, in each commune, of an + arbitrator (_Schiedsmann_) before whom conciliation proceedings in + contentious matters might be conducted. The procedure was gratuitous + and voluntary; and the functions of the arbitrator were not judicial; + he merely recorded the arrangement arrived at, or the refusal of + conciliation. This law was followed in Brunswick by a law of the 2nd + of July 1896, and in Baden by a law of the 16th of April 1886. In + Luxemburg, compulsory arbitration in matters affecting commercial + partnerships was abolished in 1879 (law of the 16th of April 1879). A + system of conciliation, similar to the Prussian, exists in Italy (laws + of the 16th of June 1892, and the 26th of December 1892) and in some + of the Swiss cantons (law of the 29th of April 1883). Spain (Code of + Civil Proc., arts. 1003-1028; Civil Code, arts. 1820-1821) and Sweden + and Norway (law of the 28th of October 1887) have followed the French + law. In Portugal, provision has been made for the creation in + important industrial centres, on the application of the administrative + corporations, of boards of conciliation (decrees of the 14th of August + 1889, and the 18th of May 1893). + + AUTHORITIES.--Russell, _Arbitration_ (London, 1906); _Annual Practice_ + (London, yearly); Redman, _Arbitration_ (London, 1897); Crewe, + _Arbitration Act of 1889_ (London, 1898); Pollock, _On Arbitrators_ + (London, 1906). As to Scots law: Bell, _On Arbitration_ (2nd ed., + Edinburgh, 1877); Erskine, _Principles_ (20th ed., Edinburgh, 1903). + As to American law: Morse, _Law of Arbitration_ (Boston, 1872). As to + foreign law generally: the texts of the laws cited, and the _Annuaire + de legislation etrangere_. (A. W. R.) + + + + +ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL. International arbitration is a proceeding in +which two nations refer their differences to one or more selected +persons, who, after affording to each party an opportunity of being +heard, pronounce judgment on the matters at issue. It is understood, +unless otherwise expressed, that the judgment shall be in accordance +with the law by which civilized nations have agreed to be bound, +whenever such law is applicable. Some authorities, notably the eminent +Swiss jurist, J.K. Bluntschli, consider that unless this tacit condition +is complied with, the award may be set aside. This would, however, be +highly inconvenient since international law has never been codified. A +fresh arbitration might have to be entered on to decide (1) what the law +was, (2) whether it applied to the matter in hand. Arbitration differs +from Mediation (q.v.) in so far as it is a judicial act, whereas +Mediation involves no decision, but merely advice and suggestions to +those who invoke its aid. + +_Arbitral Tribunals._--An international arbitrator may be the chief of a +friendly power, or he may be a private individual. When he is an +emperor, a king, or a president of a republic, it is not expected that +he will act personally; he may appoint a delegate or delegates to act on +his behalf, and avail himself of their labours and views, the ultimate +decision being his only in name. In this respect international +arbitration differs from civil arbitration, since a private arbitrator +cannot delegate his office without express authority. The analogy +between the two fails to hold good in another respect also. In civil +arbitration, the decision or award may be made a rule of court, after +which it becomes enforceable by writ of execution against person or +property. An international award cannot be enforced directly; in other +words it has no legal sanction behind it. Its obligation rests on the +good faith of the parties to the reference, and on the fact that, with +the help of a world-wide press, public opinion can always be brought to +bear on any state that seeks to evade its moral duty. The obligation of +an ordinary treaty rests on precisely the same foundations. Where there +are two or any other even number of arbitrators, provision is usually +made for an umpire (French _sur-arbitre_). The umpire may be chosen by +the arbitrators themselves or nominated by a neutral power. In the +"Alabama" arbitration five arbitrators were nominated by the president +of the United States, the queen of England, the king of Italy, the +president of the Swiss Confederation, and the emperor of Brazil +respectively. In the Bering Sea arbitration there were seven +arbitrators, two nominated by Great Britain, two by the United States, +and the remaining three by the president of the French Republic, the +king of Italy, and the king of Sweden and Norway respectively. In +neither of these cases was there an umpire; nor was any necessary, since +the decision, if not unanimous, lay with the majority. (See separate +articles on BERING SEA ARBITRATION and "ALABAMA" ARBITRATION.) + +Arbitral tribunals may have to deal with questions either of law or +fact, or of both combined. When they have to deal with law only, that is +to say, to lay down a principle or decide a question of liability, their +functions are judicial or quasi-judicial, and the result is arbitration +proper. Where they have to deal with facts only, e.g. the evaluation of +pecuniary claims, their functions are administrative rather than +judicial, and the term commission is applied to them. "Mixed +commissions," so called because they are composed of representatives of +the parties in difference, have been frequently resorted to for +delimitation of frontiers, and for settling the indemnities to be paid +to the subjects of neutral powers in respect of losses sustained by +non-combatants in times of war or civil insurrection. The two earliest +of these were nominated in 1794 under the treaty negotiated by Lord +Grenville with Mr John Jay, commonly called the "Jay Treaty," their +tasks being (1) to define the boundary between Canada and the United +States which had been agreed to by the treaty signed at Paris in 1783; +(2) to estimate the amount to be paid by Great Britain and the United +States to each other in respect of illegal captures or condemnation of +vessels during the war of the American Revolution. + +Although arbitrations proper may be thus distinguished from "mixed +commissions," it must not be supposed that any hard or fast theoretical +line can be drawn between them. Arbitrators strictly so called may (as +in the "Alabama" case) proceed to award damages after they have decided +the question of liability; whilst "mixed commissions," before awarding +damages, usually have to decide whether the pecuniary claims made are or +are not well founded. + +_Awards._--International awards, as already pointed out, differ from +civil awards in having no legal sanction by which they can be enforced. +On the other hand, they resemble civil awards in that they may be set +aside, i.e. ignored, for sufficient reason, as, for example, if the +tribunal has not acted in good faith, or has not given to each party an +opportunity of being heard, or has exceeded its jurisdiction. An +instance under the last head occurred in 1831, when it was referred to +the king of the Netherlands as sole arbitrator to fix the north-eastern +boundary of the state of Maine. The king's representatives were unable +to draw the frontier line by reason of the imperfection of the maps then +in existence, and he therefore directed a further survey. This direction +was beyond the terms of the reference, and the award, when made, was +repudiated by the United States as void for excess. The point in dispute +was only finally disposed of by the Webster-Ashburton treaty of 1842. + +_Subject-matter._--The history of international arbitration is dealt +with in the article PEACE, where treaties of general arbitration are +discussed, both those which embrace all future differences thereafter to +arise between the contracting parties, and also those more limited +conventions which aim at the settlement of all future differences in +regard to particular subjects, e.g. commerce or navigation. The rapid +growth of international arbitration in recent times may be gathered from +the following figures. Between 1820 and 1840, there were eight such +instances; between 1840 and 1860, there were thirty; between 1860 and +1880, forty-four; between 1880 and 1900, ninety. Of the governments +which were parties in these several cases Great Britain heads the list +in point of numbers, the United States of America being a good second. +France, Portugal, Spain and the Netherlands are the European states next +in order. The present article is concerned exclusively with arbitration +in regard to such existing differences as are capable of precise +statement and of prompt adjustment. These differences may be arranged in +two main groups:-- + + (a) Those which have arisen between state and state in their sovereign + capacities; + + (b) Those in which one state has made a demand upon another state, + ostensibly in its sovereign capacity, but really on behalf of some + individual, or set of individuals, whose interests it was bound to + protect. + +To group (a) belong territorial differences in regard to ownership of +land and rights of fishing at sea; to group (b) belong pecuniary claims +in respect of acts wrongfully done to one or more subjects of one state +by, or with the authority of, another state. To enumerate even a tenth +part of the successful arbitrations in recent times would occupy too +much space. Some prominent examples (dealt with elsewhere under their +appropriate titles) are the dispute between the United States and Great +Britain respecting the "Alabama" and other vessels employed by the +Confederate government during the American Civil War (award in 1872); +that between the same powers respecting the fur-seal fishery in Bering +Sea (award in 1893); that between Great Britain and Venezuela respecting +the boundary of British Guiana (award in 1899); that between Great +Britain, the United States and Portugal respecting the Delagoa railway +(award in 1900); that between Great Britain and the United States +respecting the boundary of Alaska (award in 1903). The long-standing +Newfoundland fishery dispute with France (finally settled in 1904) is +dealt with under Newfoundland. Other examples are shortly noticed in the +tables on p. 329, which although by no means exhaustive, sufficiently +indicate the scope and trend of arbitration during the years covered. +The cases decided by the permanent tribunal at the Hague established in +1900 are not included in these tables. They are separately discussed +later. + +_The Hague Tribunal._--The establishment of a permanent tribunal at the +Hague, pursuant to the Peace convention of 1899, marks a momentous epoch +in the history of international arbitration. This tribunal realized an +idea put forward by Jeremy Bentham towards the close of the 18th +century, advocated by James Mill in the middle of the 19th century, and +worked out later by Mr Dudley Field in America, by Dr Goldschmidt in +Germany, and by Sir Edmund Hornby and Mr Leone Levi in England. The +credit of the realization is due, in the first place, to the tsar of +Russia, who initiated the Hague Conference of 1899, and, in the second +place to Lord Pauncefote (then Sir Julian Pauncefote, British ambassador +at Washington), who urged before a committee of the conference the +importance of organizing a permanent international court, the service of +which should be called into requisition at will, and who also submitted +an outline of the mode in which such a court might be formed. The result +was embodied in the following articles of the Convention, signed on +behalf of sixteen of the assembled powers on the 29th of July 1899. + + (Art. 23). Each of the signatory powers is to designate within three + months from the ratification of the convention four persons at the + most, of recognized competence in international law, enjoying the + highest moral consideration, and willing to accept the duties of + arbitrators. Two or more powers may agree to nominate one or more + members in common, or the same person may be nominated by different + powers. Members of the court are to be appointed for six years and may + be re-nominated. (Art. 25). The signatory powers desiring to apply to + the tribunal for the settlement of a difference between them are to + notify the same to the arbitrators. The arbitrators who are to + determine this difference are, unless otherwise specially agreed, to + be chosen from the general list of members in the following + manner:--each party is to name two arbitrators, and these are to + choose a chief arbitrator or umpire (_sur-arbitre_). If the votes are + equally divided the selection of the chief arbitrator is to be + entrusted to a third power to be named by the parties. (Art. 26). The + tribunal is to sit at the Hague when practicable, unless the parties + otherwise agree. (Art. 27). "The signatory powers consider it a duty + in the event of an acute conflict threatening to break out between two + or more of them to remind these latter that the permanent court is + open to them. This action is only to be considered as an exercise of + good offices." Several of the powers nominated members of the + permanent court pursuant to Art. 25, quoted above, those nominated on + behalf of Great Britain being Lord Pauncefote, Sir Edward Malet, Sir + Edward Fry and Professor Westlake. On the death of Lord Pauncefote, + Major-General Sir John C. Ardagh was appointed in his place. + + + The pious fund of the Californias. + + _Hague Cases._--(1) The first case decided by the Hague court was + concerned with the "Pious Fund of the Californias." A fund bearing + this name was formed in the 18th century for the purpose of converting + to the Catholic faith the native Indians of Upper and Lower + California, both of which then belonged to Mexico, and of maintaining + a Catholic priesthood there. By a decree of 1842 this fund was + transferred to the public treasury of Mexico, the Mexican government + undertaking to pay interest thereon in perpetuity in furtherance of + the design of the original donors. After the sale of Upper California + to the United States, effected by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo + (1848), the Mexican government refused to pay the proportion of the + interest to which Upper California was entitled. The question of + liability was then referred to commissioners appointed by each state, + and, on their failing to agree, to Sir Edward Thornton, British + minister at Washington, who by his award, in 1875, found there was due + from Mexico to Upper California, or rather to the bishops there as + administrators of the fund, an arrear of interest amounting to nearly + $100,000, which was directed to be paid in gold. This award was + carried out, but payment of the current interest was again withheld as + from the 24th of October 1868. Claim was thereupon made on Mexico by + the United States on behalf of the bishops, but without success. + Ultimately, in May 1902, an agreement was come to between the two + governments which provided for the settlement of the dispute by the + Hague tribunal. The points to be determined were (1) whether the + matter was _res judicata_ by reason of Sir E. Thornton's award; (2) + whether, if not, the claim for the interest was just. The arbitrators + selected by the United States were Sir E. Fry and Professor F. de + Martens, and by Mexico, Professor Asser and Professor de Savornin + Lohman, both of Amsterdam. These four (none of whom, it will be + observed, was of the nationality of either party in difference) chose + for their umpire Professor Matzen, of Copenhagen, president of the + Landsthing there. In October 1902, the court decided both questions in + the affirmative, awarding the payment by Mexico of the annual sum + claimed, not in gold, but _en monnaie ayant cours legal au Mexique_. + The direction to pay in gold made by Sir E. Thornton was held to be + referable only to the mode of the execution of the award, and + therefore not to be _chose jugee_. + + + Great Britain, Germany and Italy versus Venezuela. + + (2) The second arbitration before the Hague court was more important + than the first, not only because so many of the great powers were + concerned in it, but also because it brought about the discontinuance + of acts of war. The facts may be stated shortly thus. By three several + protocols signed at Washington in February 1903, it was agreed that + certain claims by Great Britain, Germany and Italy, on behalf of their + respective subjects against the Venezuelan government should be + referred to three mixed commissions, and that for the purpose of + securing the payment of these claims 30 percent of the customs + revenues at the ports of La Guayra and Puerto Caballo should be + remitted in monthly instalments to the representative of the Bank of + England at Caracas. Prior to the date of these protocols, an attempt + had been made by Great Britain, Germany and Italy to enforce their + claims by blockade, and a further question arose as between these + three powers on the one hand, and the United States of America, + France, Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden and Norway, and Mexico + (all of whom had claims against Venezuela, but had abstained from + hostile action) on the other hand, as to whether the blockading powers + were entitled to preferential treatment. By three several protocols + signed in May 1903 this question was agreed to be submitted to the + Hague court, three members of which were to be named as arbitrators by + the tsar of Russia, but no arbitrator was to be a subject or citizen + of any of the signatory or creditor powers. The arbitrators named by + the tsar were M. Muraviev, minister of justice and attorney-general of + the Russian empire; Professor Lammasch, member of the Upper House of + the Austrian parliament; and M. de Martens, then member of the council + of the ministry of foreign affairs at St Petersburg. The arbitrators + by their award in February 1904 decided unanimously in favour of the + blockading powers and ordered payment of their claims out of the 30% + of the receipts at the two Venezuelan ports which had been set apart + to meet them. + + +------+----------------------------+--------------------------+-----------------------------------+------+ + |Dates | | | | | + | of | | | | Date | + |agree-| Parties. | Arbitrating Authority. | Subject-Matter. | of | + |ments | | | |award.| + | to | | | | | + |refer.| | | | | + | | + | TABLE I. | + | _Territorial Disputes_ (_Ownership_) | + | | + | 1857 | Holland and Venezuela | Queen of Spain | Island of Aves in Venezuela | 1865 | + | | | | | | + | 1869 | Great Britain and Portugal | President of United | Island of Bulama on West Coast of | 1870 | + | | | States | Africa | | + | 1872 | Great Britain and Portugal | President of French | Delagoa Bay (part of), Inyack and | 1875 | + | | | Republic | Elephant Is., S.E. Africa | | + | 1876 | Argentine Republic and | President of United | Territory between the Verde and | 1878 | + | | Paraguay | States | Pilcomayo river of Paraguay | | + | 1885 | Great Britain and Germany | Mixed Commission | Islets and guano deposits on S.W. | 1886 | + | | | | Coast of Africa | | + | 1886 | Bulgaria and Servia | Mixed Commission | Territory near the village of | 1887 | + | | | | Bergovo | | + | 1902 | Austria and Hungary | Mixed Commission (with | Territory in the district of Upper| 1902 | + | | | President of Swiss | Tatra | | + | | | Federal tribunal as | | | + | | | umpire) | | | + | | + | TABLE II. | + | _Delimitation of Frontiers._ | + | | + | 1869 | Great Britainand the | Lieutenant Governor of | The southern boundary of the S. | 1870 | + | | Transvaal | Natal | African Republic | | + | 1871 | Great Britain and the | The German Emperor | The San Juan water boundary | 1872 | + United States | | | | + | 1873 | Italy and Switzerland | Mixed Commission (with | The Canton of Ticino | 1874 | + | | | U.S. Minister at Rome | | | + | | | as umpire) | | | + | 1885 | Great Britain and Russia | Mixed Commission | North-western Afganistan | 1887 | + | | | | | | + | 1890 | France and Holland | Tsar of Russia | French Guiana and Dutch Guiana | 1891 | + | | | | | | + | 1895 | Great Britain and Portugal | President of the Italian | Manicaland 1897 | | + | | | Court of Appeal | | | + | 1897 | France and Brazil | President of the Swiss | River Yapoe named in the Treaty | 1900 | + | | | Confederation | of Utrecht 1813 | | + | 1901 | Great Britain and Brazil | King of Italy | British Guiana | 1904 | + | | | | | | + | 1903 | Great Britain and Portugal | King of Italy | Barotseland | 1905 | + | | + | TABLE III. | + | _Pecuniary Claims in respect of Seizures and Arrests._ | + | | + | 1851 | United States and Portugal | President of French | Seizure of the American privateer | 1852 | + | | | Republic | "General Armstrong" | | + | 1863 | Great Britain and Brazil | King of the Belgians | Arrest of three British officers | 1863 | + | | | | of the ship "La Forte" | | + | 1863 | Great Britain and Peru | Sentate of Hamburg | Arrest at Callao of Capt. Melville| 1864 | + | | | | White, a British subject | | + | 1870 | United States and Spain | Mixed Commission | The American S.S. "Col. Lloyd | 1870 | + | | | | Aspinwall" | | + | 1873 | Japan and Peru | Tsar of Russia | The Peruvian barque "Maria Luz" | 1875 | + | | | | | | + | 1874 | United States and Colombia | Mixed Commission | The American S.S. "Montijo" | 1875 | + | | | | | | + | 1879 | France and Nicaragua | French Court of Cassation| The French ship "La Phare" | 1880 | + | | | | | | + | 1885 | United States an Spain | Italian Minister at | The American S.S. "The Masonic" | 1885 | + | | | Madrid | | | + | 1888 | The United States and | British Minister at | The S.S. "Benjamin Franklin" and | 1890 | + | | Denmark | Athens | the barque "Catherine Augusta" | | + | 1895 | Great Britain and | Tsar of Russia, who | Arrest of the master of the "Costa| 1897 | + | | Netherlands | delegated his duties to| Rica" packet (a British subject)| | + | | | Professor F. de Martens| | | + +------+----------------------------+--------------------------+-----------------------------------+------+ + + + Great Britain, France and Germany versus Japan. + + (3) The third case before the Hague court was heard in 1904-1905. A + controversy not amenable to ordinary diplomatic methods arose between + Great Britain, France and Germany on the one hand and Japan on the + other hand as to the legality of a house-tax imposed by Japan on + certain subjects of those powers who held leases in perpetuity. The + question upon the true construction of certain treaties between the + European powers and Japan which had been made a few years previously. + By three protocols signed at Tokyo in August 1902 this question was + agreed to be submitted to arbitrators, members of the court at the + Hague, one to be chosen by each party with power to name an umpire. + The arbitrators chosen were M. Renault, professor of the law faculty + in Paris, and M. Montono, the Japanese envoy to the French capital. + They named as their umpire and president M. Gram, ex-minister of the + state of Norway. In May 1905, an award was pronounced by the majority + (M. Gram and M. Renault) in favour of the European contention, M. + Montono dissenting both from the conclusion of his colleagues and from + the reasons on which it was based. + + + Great Britain and the French flag at Muscat. + + (4) Barely two months had elapsed since the date of the last award + when the Hague court was again called into requisition. The scene of + dispute this time was on the S.E. coast of Arabia. Muscat, the capital + of the kingdom of Oman on that coast, is ruled by a sultan, whose + independence both Great Britain and France had, in March 1862, + "reciprocally engaged to respect." Notwithstanding this, the French + republic had issued to certain native dhows, owned by subjects of the + sultan, papers authorizing them to fly the French flag, not only on + the Oman littoral but in the Red Sea. A question thereupon arose as to + the manner in which the privileges thereby purported to be conferred + affected the jurisdiction of the sultan over such dhows, the masters + of which, as was alleged, used their immunity from search for the + purpose of carrying on contraband trade in slaves, arms and + ammunition. In October 1904 the two governments agreed to refer this + question to the Hague court. Chief Justice Melville W. Fuller, of the + Supreme Court of the United States, was named as arbitrator on the + part of Great Britain, M. de Savornin Lohrnan, who had acted in the + case of the Californias (No. 1), as arbitrator on the part of France. + The choice of an umpire was entrusted to the king of Italy. He named + Professor Lammasch, who, as we have seen, had acted in the arbitration + with Venezuela in 1903. + + A unanimous award was made in August 1905. It was held that although + generally speaking every sovereign may decide to whom he will accord + the right to fly his flag, yet in this case such right was limited by + the general act of the Brussels conference of July 1890 relative to + the African slave trade, an act which was ratified by France on the + 2nd of June 1892; that accordingly the owners and master of dhows who + had been authorized by France to fly the French flag before the + last-named date retained this authorization so long as France chose + to renew it, but that after that date such authorization was improper + unless the guarantees could establish that they had been treated by + France as her proteges within the meaning of that term as explained in + a treaty of 1863 between France and Morocco. A further point decided + was that the owners or master of dhows duly authorized to fly the + French flag within the ruling of the first point, did not enjoy, in + consequence of that fact, any such right of extra-territoriality as + would exempt them from the sovereignty and jurisdiction of the sultan. + Such exemption would be contrary to the engagement to respect the + independence of the sultan solemnly made in 1862. + +_Arbitral Procedure._--Not the least of the benefits of the Hague +convention of 1899 (strengthened by that of 1907) is that it contains +rules of procedure which furnish a guide for all arbitrations whether +conducted before the Hague court or not. These may be summarized as +follows:--The initial step is the making by the parties of a special +agreement clearly defining the subject of the dispute. The next is the +choice of the arbitrators and of an umpire if the number of arbitrators +is even. Each party then by its agents prepares and presents its case in +a narrative or argumentative form, annexing thereto all relevant +documents. The cases so presented are interchanged by transmission to +the opposite party. The hearing consists in the discussion of the +matters contained in the several cases, and is conducted under the +direction of the president who is either the umpire, or, if there is no +umpire, one of the arbitrators. The members of the tribunal have the +right of putting questions to the counsel and agents of the parties and +to demand from them explanation of doubtful points. The arbitral +judgment is read out at a public sitting of the tribunal, the counsel +and agents having been duly summoned to hear it. Any application for a +revision of the award must be based on the discovery of new evidence of +such a nature as to exercise a decisive influence on the judgment and +unknown up to the time when the hearing was closed, both to the tribunal +itself and to the party asking for the revision. These general rules are +universally applicable, but each case may require that special rules +should be added to them. These each tribunal must make for itself. + +One special and necessary rule is in regard to the language to be +employed. This rule must vary according to convenience and is therefore +made _ad hoc_. In case No. 1 noted above, the court allowed English or +French to be spoken according to the nationality of the counsel engaged. +The judgment was delivered in French only. In case No. 2 it was agreed +that the written and printed memoranda should be in English but might be +accompanied by a translation into the language of the power on whose +behalf they were put in. The oral discussion was either in English or +French as happened to be convenient. The judgment was drawn up in both +languages. In case No. 3 French was the official language throughout, +but the parties were allowed to make any communication to the tribunal, +in French, English, German or Japanese. In case No. 4 French was again +the official language, but the counsel and agents of both parties were +allowed to address the tribunal in English. The protocols and the +judgment were drawn up in French accompanied by an official English +translation. + +_Limits of International Arbitration._--Of the numerous treaties for +general arbitration which have been made during the 20th century that +between Great Britain and France (1903) is a type. This treaty contains +reservations of all questions involving the vital interests, the +independence or the honour of the contracting parties. The language of +the reservation is open to more interpretations than one. What, for +instance, is meant by the phrase "national independence" in this +connexion? If it be taken in its strict acceptation of autonomous state +sovereignty, the exception is somewhat of a truism. No self-respecting +power would, of course, consent to submit to arbitration a question of +life or death. This would be as if two men were to agree to draw lots as +to which should commit suicide in order to avoid fighting a duel. On the +other hand, if the exception be taken to exclude all questions which, +when decided adversely to a state, impose a restraint on its freedom of +action, then the exception would seem to exclude such a question as the +true interpretation of an ambiguous treaty, a subject with which +experience shows international arbitration is well fitted to deal. +Again, we may ask, what is meant by the phrase "national honour"? It was +thought at one time that the honour of a nation could only be vindicated +by war, though all that had happened was the slighting of its flag, or +of its accredited representative, during some sudden ebullition of local +feeling. France once nearly broke off peaceful relations with Spain +because her ambassador at London was assigned a place below the Spanish +ambassador, and on another occasion she despatched troops into Italy +because her ambassador at Rome had been insulted by the friends and +partisans of the pope. The truth is that the extent to which national +honour is involved depends on factors which have nothing to do with the +immediate subject of complaint. So long as general good feeling subsists +between two nations, neither will easily take offence at any +discourteous act of the other. But when a deep-seated antagonism is +concealed beneath an unruffled surface, the most trivial incident will +bring it to the light of day. "Outraged national honour" is a highly +elastic phrase. It may serve as a pretext for a serious quarrel whether +the alleged "outrage" be great or small. + +The prospects of the expansion of international arbitration will be more +clearly perceived if we classify afresh all state differences under two +heads:--(1) those which have a legal character, (2) those which have a +political character. Under "legal differences" may be ranged such as are +capable of being decided, when once the facts are ascertained, by +settled, recognized rules, or by rules not settled nor recognized, but +(as in the "Alabama" case) taken so to be for the purpose in hand. +Boundary cases and cases of indemnity for losses sustained by +non-combatants in time of war, of which several instances have already +been mentioned, belong to this class. To the same class belong those +cases in which the arbitrators have to adapt the provisions of an old +treaty to new and altered circumstances, somewhat in the way in which +English courts of justice apply the doctrine of "cy-pres." "Political +differences" on the other hand, are such as affect states in their +external relations, or in relation to their subjects or dependants who +may be in revolt against them. Some of these differences may be slight, +while others may be vital, or (which amounts to the same thing) may seem +to the parties to be so. All differences falling under the first of +these two general heads appear to be suitable for international +arbitration. Differences falling under the second general head are, for +the most part, unsuitable, and may only be adjusted (if at all) through +the mediation of a friendly power. + +The interesting problem of the future is--are we to regard this +classification as fixed or as merely transitory? The answer depends on +several considerations which can only be glanced at here. It may be +that, just as the usages of civilized nations have slowly crystallized +into international law, so there may come a time when the political +principles that govern states in relation to each other will be so +clearly defined and so generally accepted as to acquire something of a +legal or quasi-legal character. If they do, they will pass the line +which at present separates arbitrable from non-arbitrable matter. This +is the juridical aspect of the problem. But there is also an economic +side to it by reason of the conditions of modern warfare. Already the +nations are groaning under the burdens of militarism, and are for ever +diverting energies that might be employed in the furtherance of useful +productive work to purposes of an opposite character. The interruption +of maritime intercourse, the stagnation of industry and trade, the rise +in the price of the necessaries of life, the impossibility of adequately +providing for the families of those--call them reservists, "landwehr," +or what you will--who are torn away from their daily toil to serve in +the tented field,--these are considerations that may well make us pause +before we abandon a peaceful solution and appeal to brute force. Lastly, +there is the moral aspect of the problem. In order that international +arbitration may do its perfect work, it is not enough to set up a +standing tribunal, whether at the Hague or elsewhere, and to equip it +with elaborate rules of procedure. Tribunals and rules are, after all, +only machinery. If this machinery is to act smoothly we must improve our +motive power, the source of which is human passion and sentiment. +Although religious animosities between Christian nations have died out, +although dynasties may now rise and fall without raising half Europe to +arms, the springs of warlike enterprise are still to be found in +commercial jealousies, in imperialistic ambitions and in the doctrine of +the survival of the fittest which lends scientific support to both. +These must one and all be cleared away before we can enter on that era +of universal peace towards the attainment of which the tsar of Russia +declared, in his famous circular of 1898, the efforts of all governments +should be directed. Meanwhile it is legitimate to share the hope +expressed by President Roosevelt in his message to Congress of December +1905 that some future Hague conference may succeed in making arbitration +the customary method of settling international disputes in all save the +few classes of cases indicated above, and that--to quote Mr Roosevelt's +words--"these classes may themselves be as sharply defined and rigidly +limited as the governmental and social development of the world will for +the time being permit." + + AUTHORITIES.--Among special treatises are: Kamarowsky, _Le Tribunal + international_ (traduit par Serge de Westman) (Paris, 1887); Rouard de + Card, _Les Destinees de l'arbitrage international, depuis la sentence + rendue par le tribunal de Geneve_ (Paris, 1892); Michel Revon, + _L'Arbitrage international_ (Paris, 1892); Ferdinand Dreyfus, + _L'Arbitrage international_ (Paris, 1894) (where the earlier + authorities are collected); A. Merignhac, _Traite de l'arbitrage + international_ (Paris, 1895); Le Chevalier Descamps, _Essai sur + l'organisation de l'arbitrage international_ (Bruxelles, 1896); + Feraud-Giraud, _Des Traites d'arbitrage international general et + permanent, Revue de droit international_ (Bruxelles. 1897); + _Pasicrisie International_, by Senator H. Lafontaine (Berne, 1902); + _Recueils d'actes et protocols de la cour permanente d'Arbitrage_, + Langenhuysen Freres, the Hague. + + Of works in English there is a singular dearth. The most important is + by an American, J.B. Moore, _History of the International Arbitrations + to which the United States has been a Party_ (Washington, 1898). The + appendices to this work (which is in six volumes) contain, with much + other matter of great value, full historical notes of arbitrations + between other powers. Arbitration and mediation will be found briefly + noticed in Phillimore's _International Law_; in Sir Henry Maine's + _Lectures_, delivered in Cambridge in 1887; in W.E. Hall's + _International Law_, and more at length in an interesting paper + contributed by John Westlake to the _International Journal of Ethics_, + October 1896, which its author has reprinted privately. A London + journal, _The Herald of Peace and International Arbitration_, issued + some years ago a list of instances in which arbitration or mediation + had been successfully resorted to during the 19th century. David + Dudley Field, of New York, subsequently enlarged this list, which has + been continued under the title _International Tribunals_, by Dr W. + Evans Darby, and is published, along with the texts of several + projects for general arbitration, at the offices of the Peace Society, + 47 New Broad Street, London. (M. H. C.) + + + + +ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION. The terms "arbitration and conciliation" +as employed in this article, are used to describe a group of methods of +settling disputes between employers and work-people or among two or more +sets of work-people, of which the common feature is the intervention of +some outside party not directly affected by the dispute. If the parties +agree beforehand to abide by the award of the third party, the mode of +settlement is described as "arbitration." If there be no such agreement, +but the offices of the mediator are used to promote an amicable +arrangement between the parties themselves, the process is described as +"conciliation." The third party may be one or more disinterested +individuals, or a joint-board representative of the parties or of other +bodies or persons. + +The process here termed "arbitration" is rarely an arbitration in the +strict legal sense of the term (at least in the United Kingdom), because +of the defective legal personality of the associations or groups of +individuals who are usually parties to labour disputes, and the +consequent absence in the great majority of cases of a valid legal +"submission" of the difference to arbitration. Whether or not trade +unions of employers or workmen in the United Kingdom are capable of +entering through their agents into contracts which are legally binding +on their members it is fairly certain that the great majority of the +agreements actually made by the representatives of employers and workmen +to submit a dispute to the decision of a third party are of no legal +force except as regards the actual signatories. Broadly speaking, +therefore, the provisions of the Arbitration Act 1889, which +consolidated the law relating to arbitration in general, would as a rule +have no application to the settlement of collective disputes between +employers and workmen, even if the act had not been expressly excluded +by section 3 of the Conciliation Act of 1896 in the case of disputes to +which that act applies. Besides the absence of a legal "submission," +labour arbitrations differ from ordinary arbitrations in the fact that +the questions referred often (though by no means always) relate to the +terms on which future contracts shall be made, whereas the vast majority +of ordinary arbitrations relate to questions arising out of existing +contracts. The defective "personality" of the parties to labour disputes +also prevents the enforcement of an award by legal penalties. Since, +however, difficulties of enforcement affect not only settlements arrived +at by arbitration, but all agreements between bodies of employers and +work-people with regard to the terms of employment, they are most +appropriately considered at a later stage of this article. + +The term "conciliation" is ordinarily used to cover a large number of +methods of settlement, shading off in the one direction into +"arbitration" and in the other into ordinary direct negotiation between +the parties. In some cases conciliation only differs from arbitration in +the absence of a previous agreement to accept the award. The German +"_Gewerbegerichten_," when dealing with labour disputes, communicate a +decision to both parties, who must notify their acceptance or otherwise +(see below). Some of the state boards in America take similar action. +The conciliation boards established under the New Zealand Arbitration +Act of 1894 (see below) make recommendations, though either side may +decline to accept them and may appeal to the court of arbitration, which +in that colony has compulsory powers. Most frequently, however, in Great +Britain, the mediating party abstains from pronouncing a definite +judgment of his own, but confines himself to friendly suggestions with a +view of removing obstacles to an agreement between the parties. On the +other hand, it is not easy to define how far the "outside party" must be +independent of the parties to the dispute, in order that the method of +settlement may be properly described as "conciliation." There is a sense +in which a friendly conversation between an employer or his manager and +a deputation of aggrieved workmen is rightly described as +"conciliation," but such an interview would certainly not be covered by +the term as ordinarily used at the present day. Again, when the parties +are represented by agents (e.g. the officials of an employers' +association and of a trade union) the actual negotiators or some of them +may not personally be affected by the particular dispute, and may often +exercise some of the functions of the mediator or conciliator in a +manner not clearly to be distinguished from the action of an outside +party. It seems best, however, to exclude such negotiations from our +purview so long as those between whom they are carried on merely act as +the authorized agents for the parties affected. In the same way, a +meeting arranged _ad hoc_ between delegates of an employers' association +and a trade union, for the purpose of arranging differences as to the +terms on which the members of the association shall employ members of +the union is not usually classed as "conciliation," unless the meeting +is held in the presence of an independent chairman or conciliator, or in +pursuance of a permanent agreement between the associations laying down +the procedure for the settlement of disputes. If, however, the dispute +is considered and arranged not by a casual meeting between two +committees and deputations appointed _ad hoc_, but by a permanently +organized "joint committee" or board with a constitution, rules of +procedure and officers of its own, the process of settlement is by +ordinary usage described as "conciliation," even though the board be +entirely representative of the persons engaged in the industry. Such +joint boards, as will be seen, play a most important part in +conciliation at the present day, and they almost always have attached to +them some machinery for the ultimate decision by arbitration of +questions on which they fail to agree. Another form of conciliation is +that in which the mediating board represents a wider group of industries +than those affected by the dispute (e.g. the London and other +"district" boards referred to below). Moreover, in some of the most +important cases of settlement of disputes by conciliation, the mediating +party has not been a permanent board but a disinterested individual, +e.g. the mayor, county court judge, government official or member of +parliament. As will be seen below, the Conciliation Act now provides for +the appointment of "conciliators" by the Board of Trade. + +Voluntary trade boards, however (i.e. permanent joint boards +representing employers and work-people in particular trades), are at +once the most firmly established and the most important agencies in +Great Britain for the prevention and settlement of labour disputes. +Among the earliest of such bodies was the board of arbitration in the +Macclesfield silk trade, formed in 1849, in imitation of the French +"_Conseils de Prud'hommes_," but which only lasted four years. The first +board, however, which attained any degree of permanent success was that +established for the hosiery and glove trade in Nottingham in 1860, +through the efforts of A.J. Mundella. In 1864 a board was established in +the Wolverhampton building trades, with Rupert Kettle as chairman, and +in 1868 boards were formed for the pottery trade, the Leicester hosiery +trade and the Nottingham lace trade. In 1869 there was formed one of the +most important of the still existing boards, viz. the board of +arbitration and conciliation in the manufactured iron and steel trades +of the north of England, with which the names of Rupert Kettle, David +Dale and others are associated. In 1872 and 1873 joint committees were +formed in the Durham and Northumberland coal trades to deal with local +questions. The Leicester boot and shoe trade board, the first of an +elaborate system of local boards in this trade, was founded in 1875. +From about 1870 onwards there was a great movement for the establishment +of "sliding scales" in the coal and iron and steel trades, which by +regulating wages automatically rendered unnecessary the settlement of +general wages by conciliation or arbitration. These sliding scales, +however, usually had attached to them joint committees for dealing with +disputed questions. A sliding scale arranged by David Dale was attached +to the manufactured iron trade board in 1871. A sliding scale for the +Cleveland blast furnacemen came into force in 1879. Sliding scales were +also adopted in the coal trade in many districts, e.g. South Wales +(1875), Durham (1877) and Northumberland (1879). The movement was, +however, followed by a reaction, and several of the sliding scales in +the coal trade were terminated between 1887 and 1889. In 1902 the last +surviving sliding scale in the coal trade, viz. in South Wales, ceased +to exist and was replaced by a conciliation board. + +The formation on a large scale of conciliation boards in the coal trade +to fix the rate of wages dates from the great miners' dispute of 1893, +one of the terms of settlement agreed to at the conference held at the +foreign office under Lord Rosebery being the formation of a conciliation +board covering the districts affected. Northumberland followed in 1894, +Durham in 1895, Scotland in 1900 and South Wales in 1903. + +In 1907 an important scheme for the formation of conciliation boards for +railway companies and their employees was adopted as the result of the +action taken by the president of the Board of Trade to prevent a general +strike of railway servants in that year. Under this scheme separate +boards (sectional and general) were to be formed for the employees of +each railway company which adhered to the scheme, with provision for +reference in case of a deadlock to an umpire. + +The first general district board to be formed was that established in +London in 1890, through the London chamber of commerce, as a sequel to +the Mansion House committee which mediated in the great London dock +strike of 1889. The example was followed by several large towns, but the +action taken by the boards in most of these provincial districts has +been very limited. + +In addition there are two boards composed of representatives of +co-operators and trade-unionists for the settlement of disputes arising +between co-operative societies and their employees. + + + Constitution and functions of voluntary conciliation boards. + +The most typical form of machinery for the settlement of disputes by +voluntary conciliation is a joint board consisting of equal numbers of +representatives of employers and employed. The members of the board are +usually elected by the associations of employers and workmen, though in +some cases (e.g. in the manufactured iron trade board) the workmen's +representatives are elected not by their trade union but by meetings of +workmen employed at the various works. The chairman may be an +independent person, or, more usually, a representative of the employers, +the vice-chairman being a representative of the workmen. In the +arbitration and conciliation boards in the boot and shoe trade, +provision is made by which the chair may be occupied by representatives +of the employers and workmen in alternate years. An independent chairman +usually has a casting vote, which practically makes him an umpire in +case of equal voting, but where there is no outside chairman there is +often provision for reference of cases on which the board cannot agree +to an umpire, who may either be a permanent officer of the board elected +for a period of time (as in the case of several of the boards in the +boot and shoe trade), or selected _ad hoc_ by the board or appointed by +some outside person or body. Thus the choice of the permanent chairman +or umpire of the miners' conciliation board, formed in pursuance of the +settlement of the coal dispute of 1893 by Lord Rosebery, was left to the +speaker of the House of Commons. The nomination of umpires under the +Railway Agreement of 1907 was left to the speaker and the master of the +rolls. Since the passing of the Conciliation Act, several conciliation +boards have provided in their rules for the appointment of umpires by +the Board of Trade. + +Conciliation boards constituted as described above usually have rules +providing that there shall always be equality of voting as between +employer and workmen, in spite of the casual absence of individuals on +one side or the other. In order to expedite business it is sometimes +provided that all questions shall be first considered by a +sub-committee, with power to settle them by agreement before coming +before the full board. Boards of conciliation and arbitration conforming +more or less to the above type exist in the coal, iron and steel, boot +and shoe and other industries in the United Kingdom. A somewhat +different form of organization has prevailed in the cotton-spinning +trade (since the dispute of 1892-1893) and in the engineering trade +(since the engineering dispute of 1897-1898). In these important +industries there are no permanent boards for the settlement of general +questions, but elaborate agreements are in force between the employers' +and workmen's organizations which among other things prescribe the mode +in which questions at issue shall be dealt with and if possible settled. +In the first place, if the question cannot be settled between the +employer and his workmen, it is dealt with by the local associations or +committees or their officials, and failing a settlement in this manner, +is referred to a joint meeting of the executive committees of the two +associations. In neither agreement is there any provision for the +ultimate decision of unsettled questions by arbitration. The agreement +in the cotton trade is known as the "Brooklands Agreement," and a large +number of questions have been amicably settled under its provisions. In +the building trade, it is very customary for the local "working rules," +agreed to mutually by employers and employed in particular districts, to +contain "conciliation rules" providing for the reference of disputed +questions to a joint committee with or without an ultimate reference to +arbitration. Yet another form of voluntary board is the "district +board," consisting in most cases of representatives elected in equal +numbers by the local chamber of commerce and trades council +respectively. In the case, however, of the London Conciliation Board the +workmen's representatives are elected, twelve by specially summoned +meetings of trade union delegates and two by co-optation. The functions +of district boards are to deal with disputes in any trade which may +occur within their districts, and of course they can only take action +with the consent of both parties to the dispute, in this respect +differing from the majority of "trade" boards, which, as a rule, are +empowered by the agreement under which they are constituted to deal +with questions on the application of either party. Another interesting +type of board is that representing two or more groups of workmen and +sometimes their employers, with the object of settling "demarcation" +disputes between the groups of workmen (i.e. questions as to the limits +of the work which each group may claim to perform). Examples of such +boards are those representing shipwrights and joiners on the Clyde, Tyne +and elsewhere. While the arrangements for voluntary conciliation and +arbitration differ in this way in various industries, there is an +equally wide variation in the character and range of questions which the +boards are empowered to determine. For example, some boards in the coal +trade (e.g. the conciliation boards in Northumberland and the so-called +"Federated Districts") deal solely with the general rate of wages. +Others, e.g. the "joint committee" in Northumberland and Durham, confine +their attention solely to local questions not affecting the counties as +a whole. The Durham conciliation board deals with any general or county +questions. This distinction between "general" and "local" questions +corresponds nearly, though not entirely, to the distinction often drawn +between questions of the terms of future employment and of the +interpretation of existing agreements. Some conciliation boards are +unlimited as regards the scope of the questions which they may consider. +This was formerly the case with the boards in the boot and shoe trade, +but under the "terms of settlement" of the dispute in 1895 drawn up at +the Board of Trade, certain classes of questions (e.g. the employment of +particular individuals, the adoption of piece-work or time-work, &c.) +were wholly or partially withdrawn from their consideration, and any +decision of a board contravening the "terms of settlement" is null and +void. A special feature in the procedure for conciliation and +arbitration in the boot and shoe trade, is the deposit by each party of +L1000 with trustees, as a financial guarantee for the performance of +agreements and awards. A certain class of conciliation boards, mostly in +the Midland metal trades, were attached to "alliances" of employers and +employed, having for their object the regulation of production and of +prices (e.g. the Bedstead Trade Wages Board). None of these alliances, +however, have survived. + + + Legislation in the United Kingdom. + +At all events up to the year 1896, the development of arbitration and +conciliation as methods of settling labour disputes in the United +Kingdom was entirely independent of any legislation. Previously to the +Conciliation Act of 1896 several attempts had been made by parliament to +promote arbitration and conciliation, but with little or no practical +result, and the act of 1896 repealed all previous legislation on the +subject, at the same time excluding the operation of the Arbitration Act +of 1889 from the settlement of "any difference or dispute to which this +act applies." The laws repealed by the Conciliation Act need only a few +words of mention. During the 18th century the fixing of wages by +magistrates under the Elizabethan legislation gradually decayed, and +acts of 1745 and 1757 gave summary jurisdiction to justices of the peace +to determine disputes between masters and servants in certain +circumstances, although no rate of wages had been fixed that year by the +justices of the peace of the shire. These and other laws, relating +specially to disputes in the cotton-weaving trade, were consolidated and +amended by the Arbitration Act of 1824. This act seems chiefly to have +been aimed at disputes relating to piece-work in the textile trades, +though applicable to other disputes arising out of a wages contract. It +expressly excluded, however, the fixing of a rate of wages or price of +labour or workmanship at which the workmen should in future be paid +unless with the mutual consent of both master and workmen. The act gave +compulsory powers of settling the disputes to which it relates on +application of either party to a court of arbitrators representing +employers and workmen nominated by a magistrate. The award could be +enforced by distress or imprisonment. The act was subsequently amended +in detail, and by the "Councils of Conciliation" Act of 1867 power was +given to the home secretary to license "equitable councils of +conciliation and arbitration" equally representative of masters and +workmen, who should thereupon have the powers conferred by the act of +1824. The act contains provisions for the appointment of conciliation +committees, and other details which are of little interest seeing that +the act was never put into operation. Another amendment of the act of +1824 was made by the Arbitration (Masters and Workmen) Act of 1872, +which contemplated the conclusion of agreements between employers and +employed, designating some board of arbitration by which disputes +included within the scope of the former acts should be determined. A +master or workman should be deemed to be bound by an agreement under the +act, if he accepted a printed copy of the agreement and did not +repudiate it within forty-eight hours. Like the previous legislation, +however, the act of 1872 was inoperative. The evidence given before the +Royal Commission on Labour (1891-1894) disclosed the existence of a +considerable body of opinion in favour of some further action by the +state for the prevention or settlement of labour disputes, and some +impetus was given to the movement by the settlement through official +mediation of several important disputes, e.g. the great coal-miners' +dispute of 1893 by a conference presided over by Lord Rosebery, the +cab-drivers' dispute of 1894 by the mediation of the home secretary +(H.H. Asquith), and the boot and shoe trade dispute of 1895 by a Board +of Trade conference under the chairmanship of Sir Courtenay Boyle. In +these, and a few other less important cases, the intervention of the +Board of Trade or other department took place without any special +statutory sanction. The Conciliation Act passed in 1896 was framed with +a view to giving express authorization to such action in the future. + +This act is of a purely voluntary character. Its most important +provisions are those of section 2, empowering the Board of Trade in +cases "where a difference exists or is apprehended between any employer, +or any class of employers, and workmen, or between different classes of +workmen," to take certain steps to promote a settlement of the +difference. They may of their own initiative hold an inquiry or +endeavour to arrange a meeting between the parties under a chairman +mutually agreed on or appointed from the outside, and on the application +of either party they may appoint a conciliator or a board of +conciliation who shall communicate with the parties and endeavour to +bring about a settlement and report their proceedings to the Board of +Trade. On the application of both parties the Board of Trade may appoint +an arbitrator. In all cases the Board of Trade has discretion as to the +action to be taken, and there is no provision either for compelling the +parties to accept their mediation or to abide by any agreement effected +through their intervention. There are other provisions in the act +providing for the registration of voluntary conciliation boards, and for +the promotion by the Board of Trade of the formation of such boards in +districts and trades in which they are deficient. During the first +eleven years after the passage of the act the number of cases arising +under section 2 (providing for action by the Board of Trade for the +settlement of actual or apprehended disputes) averaged twenty-one per +annum, and the number of settlements effected fifteen. In the remaining +cases the Board of Trade either refused to entertain the application or +failed to effect a settlement, or the disputes were settled between the +parties during the negotiations. About three-quarters of the settlements +were effected by arbitration and one-quarter by conciliation. A number +of voluntary conciliation boards formed or reorganized since the passing +of the act provide in their rules for an appeal to the Board of Trade to +appoint an umpire in case of a deadlock. At least thirty-six trade +boards are known to have already adopted this course. The figures given +above show that the Conciliation Act of 1896 has not, like previous +legislation, been a dead letter, though the number of actual disputes +settled is small compared with the total number annually recorded. + + + Proposals for compulsion. + +Arbitration and conciliation in labour disputes as practised in the +United Kingdom are entirely voluntary, both as regards the initiation +and conduct of the negotiations and the carrying out of the agreement +resulting therefrom, In all these respects arbitration, though +terminating in what is called a binding award, is on precisely the same +legal footing as conciliation, which results in a mutual agreement. +Various proposals have been made (and in some cases carried into effect +in certain countries) for introducing an element of compulsion into this +class of proceeding. There are three stages at which compulsion may +conceivably be introduced, (1) The parties may be compelled by law to +submit their dispute to some tribunal or board of conciliation; (2) the +board of conciliation or arbitration may have power to compel the +attendance of witnesses and the production of documents; (3) the parties +may be compelled to observe the award of the board of arbitration. The +most far-reaching schemes of compulsory arbitration in force in any +country are those in force in New Zealand and certain states in +Australia. Bills have been introduced into the British House of Commons +for clothing voluntary boards of conciliation and arbitration, under +certain conditions, with powers to require attendance of witnesses and +production of documents, without, however, compelling the parties to +submit their disputes to these boards or to abide by their decisions. In +the United Kingdom, however, more attention has recently been given to +the question of strengthening the sanction for the carrying out of +awards and agreements than of compelling the parties to enter into such +arrangements. An interesting step towards the solution of the difficulty +of enforcement in certain cases is perhaps afforded by the provisions of +the terms of settlement of the dispute in the boot and shoe trade drawn +up at the Board of Trade in 1895. Under this agreement L1000 was +deposited by each party with trustees, who were directed by the +trust-deed to pay over to either party, out of the money deposited by +the other, any sum which might be awarded as damages by the umpire named +in the deed, for the breach of the agreement or of any award made by an +arbitration board in consonance with it. Very few claims for damages +have been sustained under this agreement. Nevertheless it cannot be +doubted that the pecuniary liability of the parties has given stability +to the work of the local arbitration boards, and the satisfaction of +both sides with the arrangement is shown by the fact that the trust-deed +which lapsed in 1900 has been several times renewed by common agreement +for successive periods of two years, and is now in force for an +indefinite period subject to six months' notice from either side. +Theoretically a trust-deed of this kind can only offer a guarantee up to +the point at which the original deposit on one side or the other is +exhausted, as it is impossible to compel either party to renew the +deposit. A proposal was made by the duke of Devonshire and certain of +his colleagues on the Royal Commission on Labour for empowering +associations of employers and employed to acquire, if they desired it, +sufficient legal personality and corporate character to enable them to +sue each other or their own members for breach of agreement. This would +give the association aggrieved by a breach of award the power of suing +the defaulting organization to recover damages out of their corporate +funds, while each association could exact penalties from its members for +such a breach. For this reason the suggestion has met with a good deal +of support by many interested in arbitration and conciliation, but has +been steadily opposed by representatives of the trade unions. + +The question is not free from difficulties. The object of the change +would be to convert what are at present only morally binding +understandings into legally enforceable contracts. But apart from the +possibility that some of such contracts would be held by the courts to +be void as being "in restraint of trade," the tendency might be to give +a strict legal interpretation to working agreements which might deprive +them of some of their effectiveness for the settlement of the conditions +of future contracts between employers and workmen, while possibly +deterring associations from entering into such agreements for fear of +litigation. Individuals, moreover, could avoid liability by leaving +their associations. In practice the cases of repudiation or breach of an +award or agreement are not common. In countries like New Zealand, where +the parties are compelled to submit their differences to arbitration, +some of the above objections do not apply. + + + Statistics of existing agencies. + +The following statistics are based on the reports of the Labour +department of the Board of Trade. The number of boards of conciliation +and arbitration known to be in existence in the United Kingdom is nearly +200, but a good many of these do little or no active work. Only about +one-third of these boards deal with actual cases in any one year, the +active boards being mainly connected with mining, iron and steel, +engineering and shipbuilding, boot and shoe and building trades. During +the ten years 1897-1906 the total number of cases considered by these +boards averaged about 1500 annually, of which they have settled about +half, the remainder having been withdrawn, referred back or otherwise +settled. About three-quarters of the cases settled were determined by +the boards themselves and only one-quarter by umpires. The great +majority of the cases settled were purely local questions. Thus more +than half the total were dealt with by the "joint committees" in the +Northumberland and Durham coal trades, which confine their action to +local questions, such as fixing the "hewing prices" for new seams. The +great majority of the cases settled did not actually involve stoppage of +work, the most useful work of these permanent boards being the +prevention rather than the settlement of strikes and lockouts. A certain +number of disputes are settled every year by the mediation or +arbitration of disinterested individuals, e.g. the local mayor or county +court judge. + + + Future scope and limits. + +The extent to which the methods of arbitration and conciliation can be +expected to afford a substitute for strikes and lockouts is one on which +opinions differ very widely. The difficulties arising from the +impossibility of enforcing agreements or awards by legal process have +already been discussed. Apart from these, however, it is evident that +both methods imply that the parties, especially the work-people, are +organized at least to the extent of being capable of negotiating through +agents. In some industries (e.g. agriculture or domestic service) this +preliminary condition is not satisfied; in others the men's leaders +possess little more than consultative powers, and employers may hesitate +to deal either directly or through a third party with individuals or +committees who have so little authority over those whom they claim to +represent. And even where the trade organizations are strong, some +employers refuse in any way to recognize the representative character of +the men's officials. The question of the "recognition" of trade unions +by employers is a frequent cause of disputes (see STRIKES AND +LOCK-OUTS.) It may be observed, however, that it often occurs that in +cases in which both employers and employed are organized into +associations which are accustomed to deal with each other, one or both +parties entertain a strong objection to the intervention of any outside +mediator, or to the submission of differences to an arbitrator. Thus the +engineering employers in 1897 were opposed to any outside intervention, +though ready to negotiate with the delegates chosen by the men. On the +other hand, the cotton operatives have more than once opposed the +proposal of the employers to refer the rate of wages to arbitration, and +throughout the great miners' dispute of 1893 the opposition to +arbitration came from the men. Naturally, the party whose organization +is the stronger is usually the less inclined to admit outside +intervention. But there have also been cases in which employers, who +refused to deal directly with trade union officials, have been willing +to negotiate with a mediator who was well known to be in communication +with these officials, e.g. in the case of the Railway Settlement of +1907. + +Apart, however, from the disinclination of one or both parties to allow +of any outside intervention, we have to consider how far the nature of +the questions in dispute may in any particular case put limits to the +applicability of conciliation or arbitration as a method of settlement. +Since conciliation is only a general term for the action of a third +party in overcoming the obstacles to the conclusion of an agreement by +the parties themselves, there is no class of questions which admit of +settlement by direct negotiation which may not equally be settled by +this method, provided of course that there is an adequate supply of +sufficiently skilful mediators. As regards arbitration the case is +somewhat different, seeing that in this case the parties agree to be +bound by the award of a third party. For the success of arbitration, +therefore, it is important that the general principles which should +govern the settlement of the particular question at issue should be +admitted by both sides. Thus in the manufactured iron trade in the north +of England, it has throughout been understood that wages should depend +on the prices realized, and the only question which an arbitrator has +usually had to decide has been how far the state of prices at the time +warranted a particular change of wage. On the other hand, there are many +questions on which disputes arise (e.g. the employment of non-union +labour, the restriction of piece-work, &c.) on which there is frequently +no common agreement as to principles, and an arbitrator may be at a loss +to know what considerations he is to take into account in determining +his award. Generally speaking, employers are averse from submitting to a +third party questions involving discipline and the management of their +business, while in some trades workmen have shown themselves opposed to +allowing an arbitrator to reduce wages beyond a certain point which they +wish to regard as a guaranteed "minimum." + +Another objection on the part of some employers and workmen to +unrestricted arbitration is its alleged tendency to multiply disputes by +providing an easy way of solving them without recourse to strikes or +lock-outs, and so diminishing the sense of responsibility in the party +advancing the claims. It is also sometimes contended that arbitrators, +not being governed in their decisions by a definite code of principles, +may tend to "split the difference," so as to satisfy both sides even +when the demands on one side or the other are wholly unwarranted. This, +it is said, encourages the formulation of demands purposely put high in +order to admit of being cut down by an arbitrator. One of the chief +practical difficulties in the way of the successful working of permanent +boards of conciliation, consisting of equal numbers of employers and +employed, with an umpire in case of deadlock, is the difficulty of +inducing business men whose time is fully occupied to devote the +necessary time to the work of the boards, especially when either side +has it in its power to compel recourse to the umpire, and so render the +work of the conciliation board fruitless. In spite of all these +difficulties the practice of arranging differences by conciliation and +arbitration is undoubtedly spreading, and it is to be remembered that +even in cases in which theoretically a basis for arbitration can +scarcely be said to exist, recourse to that method may often serve a +useful purpose in putting an end to a deadlock of which both parties are +tired, though neither cares to own itself beaten. + +_New Zealand._--The New Zealand Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration +Act 1894 is important as the first practical attempt of any importance +to enforce compulsory arbitration in trade disputes. The original act +was amended by several subsequent measures, and the law has been more +than once consolidated. The law provides for the incorporation of +associations of employers or workmen under the title of industrial +unions, and for the creation in each district of a joint conciliation +board, elected by these industrial unions, with an impartial chairman +elected by the board, to which a dispute may be referred by any party, a +strike or lock-out being thenceforth illegal. If the recommendation of +the conciliation board is not accepted by either party, the matter goes +to a court of arbitration consisting of two persons representing +employers and workmen respectively, and a judge of the supreme court. Up +to 1901 disputes were ordinarily required to go first to a board of +conciliation except by agreement of the parties, but now either party +may carry a dispute direct to the arbitration court. The amendment was +adopted because it was found in practice that the great majority of +cases went ultimately to the arbitration court, and conciliation board +proceedings were often mere waste of time. The award of the court is +enforceable by legal process, financial penalties up to L500 being +recoverable from defaulting associations or individuals. If the property +of an association is insufficient to pay the penalty, its members are +individually liable up to L10 each. It is the duty of factory inspectors +to see that awards are obeyed. The law provides for the extension of +awards to related trades, to employers entering the industry hereafter, +and in some cases to a whole industry. + +The above is only an outline of the principal provisions of this law, +under which questions of wages, hours and the relations of employers and +workmen generally in New Zealand (q.v.) industries became practically +the subject of state regulation. The act must more properly be judged as +a measure for the state regulation of industry, but as a method of +putting an end to labour disputes its success has only been partial. + +_Australia._--The laws which are practically operative in Australia with +respect to arbitration and conciliation are all based with modifications +on the New Zealand system. The first compulsory arbitration act passed +in Australia was the New South Wales Act of 1901. The principal points +of difference between this and the New Zealand act are that the +conciliation procedure is entirely omitted, the New South Wales measure +being purely an arbitration act. The arbitration court has greater power +over unorganized trades than in New Zealand, and the scope of its awards +is greatly enlarged by its power to declare any condition of labour to +be common rule of an industry, and thus binding on all existing and +future employers and work-people in that industry. In Western Australia +laws were passed in 1900 and 1902 which practically adopted the New +Zealand legislation with certain modifications in detail. + +In 1904 the commonwealth of Australia passed a compulsory arbitration +law based mainly on those in force in New Zealand and New South Wales, +and applicable to disputes affecting more than one Australian state. The +arbitration court is empowered to require any dispute within its +cognizance to be referred to it by the state authority proposing to deal +with it. There are other Australian laws which, though unrepealed (e.g. +the South Australian Act of 1894), are a dead-letter. Generally +speaking, the Australasian laws on arbitration and conciliation are more +stringent and far-reaching than any others in the world. + +_Canada._--In 1900 a conciliation act was passed by the Dominion +parliament resembling the United Kingdom act in most of its features, +and in 1903 the Canadian Railway Labour Disputes Act made special +provision for the reference of railway disputes to a conciliation board +and (failing settlement) to a court of arbitration. + +This act was consolidated with the Conciliation Act 1900 during 1906 in +an act respecting conciliation and labour, and in March 1907 the +Industrial Disputes Investigation Act became law by which machinery is +set up for the constitution of a board, on the application of either +side to a dispute in mines and industries connected with public +utilities, whenever a strike involving more than ten employees is +threatened. The provisions of the act may be extended to other +industries and railway companies, and their employees may take action +under either the Conciliation and Labour Act or the Industrial Disputes +Investigation Act. Under the Investigation Act it is unlawful for any +employer to cause a lock-out, or for an employee to go on strike on +account of any dispute prior to or during a reference of such dispute to +a board constituted under the act, or prior to or during a reference +under the provisions concerning railway disputes under the Conciliation +and Labour Act. There is nothing, however, in the act to prevent a +strike or lock-out taking place after the dispute has been investigated. + +_France._--The French Conciliation and Arbitration Law of December 1892 +provides that either party to a labour dispute may apply to the _juge de +paix_ of the canton, who informs the other party of the application. If +they concur within three days, a joint committee of conciliation is +formed of not more than five representatives of each party, which meets +in the presence of the _juge de paix_, who, however, has no vote. If no +agreement results the parties are invited to appoint arbitrators. If +such arbitrators are appointed and cannot agree on an umpire, the +president of the civil tribunal appoints an umpire. In the case of an +actual strike, in the absence of an application from either party it is +the duty of the _juge de paix_ to invite the parties to proceed to +conciliation or arbitration. The results of the action of the _juge de +paix_ and of the conciliation committee are placarded by the mayors of +the communes affected. The law leaves the parties entirely free to +accept or reject the services of the _juge de paix_. + +During the ten years 1897-1906 the act was put in force in 1809 +cases--viz. 916 on application of workmen; 49 of employers; 40 of both +sides; and 804 without application. Altogether 616 disputes were +settled--549 by conciliation and 67 by arbitration. + +_Germany._--In several continental European countries, courts or boards +are established by law to settle cases arising out of existing labour +contracts; e.g. the French "_Conseils de Prud'hommes_," the Italian +"_Probi-Viri_," and the German "_Gewerbegerichten_,"--and some of the +questions which come before these bodies are such as might be dealt with +in England by voluntary boards or joint committees. The majority, +however, are disputes between individuals as to wages due, &c., which +would be determined in the United Kingdom by a court of summary +jurisdiction. It is noteworthy, however, that the German industrial +courts (_Gewerbegerichten_) are empowered under certain conditions to +offer their services to mediate between the parties to an ordinary +labour dispute. The main law is that of 1890 which was amended in 1901. +In the case of a strike or lock-out the court must intervene on +application of both parties, and may do so of its own initiative or on +the invitation of one side. The conciliation board for this purpose +consists under the amending law of 1901 of the president of the court +and four or more representatives named by the parties in equal numbers +but not concerned in the dispute. Failing appointment by the parties the +president appoints them. Failing a settlement at a conference between +the parties in the presence of the president and assessors of the court, +the court arrives at a decision on the merits of the dispute which is +communicated to the parties, who are allowed a certain time within which +to notify their acceptance or rejection. The court has no power to +compel the observance of its decision, but in certain cases it may fine +a witness for non-attendance. In the first five years after the passage +of the amending law of 1901 (viz. 1902-1906) there were 1139 +applications for the intervention of the industrial courts: 492 +agreements were brought about and 107 decisions were pronounced by the +courts, of which 64 were accepted by both parties. + +_Switzerland._--The canton of Geneva enacted a law in 1900 providing for +the settlement by negotiation, conciliation or arbitration of the +general terms of employment in a trade, subject, however, to special +arrangements between employers and workmen in particular cases. The +negotiations take place between delegates chosen by the associations of +employers and employed, or failing them, by meetings summoned by the +council of state on sufficient applications. Failing settlement, the +council of state, on application from either party, is to appoint one or +more conciliators from its members, and if this fail the central +committee of the _Prud'hommes_, together with the delegates of employers +and workmen, is to form a board of arbitration, whose decision is +binding. Any collective suspension of work is illegal during the period +covered by the award or agreement. Up to the end of 1904 only seven +cases occurred of application of the law to industrial differences. In +Basel (town) a law providing for voluntary conciliation by means of +boards of employers and workmen with an independent chairman appointed +_ad hoc_ by the council of state of the canton, has been in force since +1897, but it remained practically unused until 1902. In the period from +January 1902 to May 1905, 18 disputes were dealt with and 10 settled +under this law. A similar law was adopted in St Gall in 1902. In the +three years 1902-1904, 10 disputes were dealt with and 3 settled. + +_Sweden._--By a law which came into force on the 1st of January 1907, +Sweden was divided into seven districts and in each district a +conciliator was appointed by the crown. The conciliator must reside +within his district and his principal duty is to promote the settlement +of disputes between employers and work-people or between members of +either class among themselves. He is also on request to advise and +otherwise assist employers and work-people in framing agreements +affecting the conditions of labour if and so far as agreements are +designed to promote good relations between the two classes and to +obviate stoppages of work. + +_United States._--In the United States several states have legislated on +the subject of conciliation and arbitration, among the first of such +acts being the "Wallace" Act of 1883, in Pennsylvania, which, however, +was almost inoperative. Altogether, 24 states have made constitutional +or statutory provision for mediation in trade disputes, of which 17 +contemplate the formation of permanent state boards. The only state laws +which require notice are those of Massachusetts and New York providing +for the formation of state boards of arbitration. The Massachusetts +board, founded in 1886, consists of one employer, one employed and one +independent person chosen by both. The New York board (1886) consists of +two representatives of different political parties, and one member of a +_bona fide_ trade organization within the state. In both states it is +the duty of the board, with or without application from the parties, to +proceed to the spot where a labour dispute has occurred, and to +endeavour to promote a settlement. The parties may decline its services, +but the board is empowered to issue a report, and on application from +either side to hold an inquiry and publish its decision, which (in +Massachusetts) is binding for six months, unless sixty days' notice to +the contrary is given by one side to the other. Several states, +including Massachusetts and New York, provide not only for state boards, +but also for local boards. + +In Massachusetts, during 1906, the state board dealt with 158 disputes. +Of these the board was appealed to as arbitrator in 95 cases. Awards +were rendered in 80 cases, 12 cases were withdrawn and 3 cases were +still pending at the end of the year. In New York the number of cases +dealt with is much smaller. + +Federal legislation can only touch the question of arbitration and +conciliation so far as regards disputes affecting commerce between +different states. Thus an act of June 1898 provides that in a dispute +involving serious interruption of business on railways engaged in +inter-state commerce, the chairman of the Inter-State Commerce +Commission and the commissioner of labour shall, on application of +either party, endeavour to effect a settlement, or to induce the parties +to submit the dispute to arbitration. While an arbitration under the act +is pending a strike or lock-out is unlawful. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the recent development of arbitration and + conciliation in the United Kingdom, see the _Annual Reports of the + Labour Department of the Board of Trade on Strikes and Lock-outs_ from + 1888 onwards. Since 1890 these reports have contained special + appendices on the work of arbitration boards. See also the _Labour + Gazette_ (the monthly journal of the Labour Department) from 1893 + onward, and the _Report on Rules of Voluntary Conciliation and + Arbitration Boards and Joint Committees_. The _Reports of the Royal + Commission on Labour_ (1891-1894) contain much valuable information on + the subject. For the working of the Conciliation Act see the _Reports_ + of the Board of Trade on their proceedings under the Conciliation Act + 1896. For the earlier history in the United Kingdom: Crompton, + _Industrial Conciliation_ (1876); Price, _Industrial Peace_ (1887). + For foreign and colonial developments: the third _Abstract of Foreign + Labour Statistics_ (1906), issued by the Board of Trade; _Report on + Government Industrial Arbitration_, by L.W. Hatch (Bulletin of Bureau + of Labour of United States Department of Commerce and Labour, + September 1905); the report of the French _Office du Travail_, _De la + conciliation et de l'arbitrage dans les conflits collectifs entre + patrons et ouvriers en France et a l'etranger_ (1893); the Annual + Reports of the same Department on _Strikes, Lockouts and Arbitration_; + the _Reports of the Massachusetts and New York State Arbitration + Boards_, and of the _New Zealand Department of Labour_; and the + _Labour Gazette_. See also the following general works: N.P. Gilman, + _Methods of Industrial Peace_ (Boston, 1904); A.C. Pigou, _Principles + and Methods of Industrial Peace_ (1905). (X.) + + + + +ARBOGAST (d. 394), a barbarian officer in the Roman army, at the end of +the 4th century. His nationality is uncertain, but Zosimus, Eunapius and +Sulpicius Alexander (a Gallo-Roman historian quoted by Gregory of Tours) +all refer to him as a Frank. Having served with distinction against the +Goths in Thrace, he was sent by Theodosius in 388 against Maximus, who +had usurped the empire of the west and had murdered Gratian. His +complete success, which resulted in the destruction of Maximus and his +sons and the pacification of Gaul, led Theodosius to appoint him chief +minister for his young brother-in-law Valentinian II. His rule was most +energetic; but while he favoured the barbarians in the imperial service, +and appointed them to high office, Valentinian, openly jealous of his +minister, sought to surround himself with Romans. As an offset to this, +Arbogast allied himself with the pagan element in Rome, while +Valentinian was strictly orthodox. In 392 Valentinian was secretly put +to death at Vienne (in Gaul), and Arbogast, naming as his successor +Eugenius, a rhetorician, descended into Italy to meet the expedition +which Theodosius was heading against him. He proclaimed himself the +champion of the old Roman gods, and as a response to the appeal of +Ambrose, is said to have threatened to stable his horses in the +cathedral of Milan, and to force the monks to fight in his army. His +defeat in the hard-fought battle of the Frigidus saved Italy from these +dangers. Theodosius, after a two days' fight, gained the victory by the +treachery of one of Arbogast's generals, sent to cut off his retreat. +Eugenius was captured and executed, but Arbogast escaped to the +mountains, where however he slew himself three days afterwards (8th of +September 394). Although we have only most distorted narratives upon +which to rely--pagan eulogy and Christian denunciation--Arbogast appears +to have been one of the greatest soldiers of the later empire, and a +statesman of no mean rank. His energy, and his apparent disdain for the +effete civilization which he protected, but which did not affect his +character, make his personality one of the most interesting of the 4th +century. + + See T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (1880), vol. i. chap. ii. + + + + +ARBOIS, a town of eastern France, in the department of Jura, on the +Cuisance, 29 m. N.N.E. of Lons-le-Saunier by rail. Pop. (1906) 3454. The +town is the seat of the tribunal of first instance of the arrondissement +of Poligny, and has a communal college. The church of St Just, founded +in the 10th century, has good wood-carving. An Ursuline convent, built +in 1764, serves as hotel de ville and law court, and a church of the +14th century is used as a market. There is an old chateau of the dukes +of Burgundy. Arbois is well known for its red and white wines, and has +saw-mills, tanneries and market gardens, and manufactures paper, oil and +casks. + + + + +ARBOIS DE JUBAINVILLE, MARIE HENRI D' (1827-1910), French historian and +philologist, was born at Nancy on the 5th of December 1827. In 1851 he +left the Ecole des Chartes with the degree of palaeographic archivist. +He was placed in control of the departmental archives of Aube, and +remained in that position until 1880, when he retired on a pension. He +published several volumes of inventorial abstracts, a _Repertoire +archeologique du departement_ in 1861; a valuable _Histoire des ducs et +comtes de Champagne depuis le VI^e siecle jusqu'a la fin du XI^e_, which +was published between 1859 and 1869 (8 vols.), and in 1880 an +instructive monograph upon _Les Intendants de Champagne_. But already he +had become attracted towards the study of the most ancient inhabitants +of Gaul; in 1870 he brought out an _Etude sur la declinaison des noms +propres dans la langue franque a l'epoque merovingienne_; and in 1877 a +learned work upon _Les Premiers Habitants de l'Europe_ (2nd edition in 2 +vols. 1889 and 1894). Next he concentrated his efforts upon the field of +Celtic languages, literature and law, in which he soon became an +authority. Appointed in 1882 to the newly founded professorial chair of +Celtic at the College de France, he began the _Cours de litterature +celtique_ which in 1908 extended to twelve volumes. For this he himself +edited the following works: _Introduction a l'etude de la litterature +celtique_ (1883); _L'Epopee celtique en Irlande_ (1892); _Etudes sur le +droit celtique_ (1895); and _Les Principaux Auteurs de l'antiquite a +consulter sur l'histoire des Celtes_ (1902). He was among the first in +France to enter upon the study of the most ancient monuments of Irish +literature with a solid philological preparation and without empty +prejudices. We owe to him also _Les Celtes depuis les temps les plus +recules jusqu'a l'an 100 avant noire ere_ (1904), and a study of +comparative law in _La Famille celtique_ (1905). Numerous detailed +studies upon the Gaulish names of persons and places took synthetic form +in the _Recherches sur l'origine de la propriete fonciere_ (1890), which +illumined one of the most interesting aspects of the Roman occupation of +Gaul. _The Recueil de memoires concernant la litterature et l'histoire +celtiques_, made by the most notable among his disciples on the occasion +of his seventy-eighth birthday (1906), was a well-deserved tribute to +his persevering and fruitful industry. He died in February 1910. + (C. B.*) + + + + +ARBOR DAY, the name applied in the United States of America to a day +appointed for the public planting of trees (see ARBOUR). Originating, or +at least being first successfully put into operation, in Nebraska in +1872 through the instrumentality of J. Sterling Morton, then president +of the state Board of Agriculture, it received the official sanction of +the state by the proclamation of Governor R.W. Furnas in 1874 and by the +enactment in 1885 of a law establishing it as a legal holiday in +Nebraska. The movement spread rapidly throughout the United States until +with hardly an exception every state and territory celebrates such a day +either as a legal or a school holiday. The time of celebration varies in +different states--sometimes even in different localities in the same +state--but April or early May is the rule in the northern states, and +February, January and December are the months in various southern +states. A like practice has been introduced in New Zealand. + + See N.H. Egleston, _Arbor Day: Its History and Observance_ + (Washington, 1896), Robert W. Furnas, _Arbor Day_ (Lincoln, Neb., + 1888), and R.H. Schauffler (ed.), _Arbor Day_ (New York, 1909). + + + + +ARBORETUM, the name given to that part of a garden or park which is +reserved for the growth and display of trees. The term, in this +restricted sense, was seemingly first so employed in 1838 by J.C. +Loudon, in his book upon arboreta and fruit trees. Professor Bayley +Balfour, F.R.S., the Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden in +Edinburgh, has described an arboretum as a living collection of species +and varieties of trees and shrubs arranged after some definite +method--it may be properties, or uses, or some other principle--but +usually after that of natural likeness. The plants are intended to be +specimens showing the habit of the tree or shrub, and the collection is +essentially an educational one. According to another point of view, an +arboretum should be constructed with regard to picturesque beauty rather +than systematically, although it is admitted that for scientific +purposes a systematic arrangement is a _sine qua non_. In this more +general respect, an arboretum or woodland affords shelter, improves +local climate, renovates bad soils, conceals objects unpleasing to the +eye, heightens the effect of what is agreeable and graceful, and adds +value, artistic and other, to the landscape. What Loudon called the +"gardenesque" school of landscape naturally makes particular use of +trees. By common consent the arboretum in the Royal Botanical Gardens at +Kew is one of the finest in the world. Its beginnings may be traced back +to 1762, when, at the suggestion of Lord Bute, the duke of Argyll's +trees and shrubs were removed from Whitton Place, near Hounslow, to +adorn the princess of Wales's garden at Kew. The duke's collection was +famous for its cedars, pines and firs. Most of the trees of that date +have perished, but the survivors embrace some of the finest of their +kind in the gardens. The botanical gardens at Kew were thrown open to +the public in 1841 under the directorate of Sir William Hooker. +Including the arboretum, their total area did not then exceed 11 acres. +Four years later the pleasure grounds and gardens at Kew occupied by the +king of Hanover were given to the nation and placed under the care of +Sir William for the express purpose of being converted into an +arboretum. Hooker rose to the occasion and, zealously reinforced by his +son and successor, Sir Joseph, established a collection which rapidly +grew in richness and importance. It is perhaps the largest collection of +hardy trees and shrubs known, comprising some 4500 species and botanical +varieties. A large proportion of the total acreage (288) of the Gardens +is monopolized by the arboretum. Of the more specialized public arboreta +in the United Kingdom the next to Kew are those in the Royal Botanic +Garden in Edinburgh and the Glasnevin Garden in Dublin. The collection +of trees in the Botanic Garden at Cambridge is also one of respectable +proportions. There is a small but very select collection of trees at +Oxford, the oldest botanical garden in Great Britain, which was founded +in 1632. In the United States the Arnold Arboretum at Boston ranks with +Kew for size and completeness. It takes its name from its donor, the +friend of Emerson. It was originally a well-timbered park, which, by +later additions, now covers 222 acres. Practically, it forms part of the +park system so characteristic of the city, being situated only 4 m. from +the centre of population. There is a fine arboretum in the botanical +gardens at Ottawa, in Canada (65 acres). On the continent of Europe the +classic example is still the _Jardin des Plantes_ in Paris, where, +however, system lends more of formality than of beauty to the general +effect. The collection of trees and shrubs at Schonbrunn, near Vienna, +is an extensive one. At Dahlem near Berlin the new _Kgl. Neuer +Botanischer Garten_ has been laid out with a view to the accommodation +of a very large collection of hardy trees and shrubs. There are now many +large collections of hardy trees and shrubs in private parks and gardens +throughout the British Islands, the interest taken in them by their +proprietors having largely increased in recent years. Rich men collect +trees, as they do paintings or books. They spare neither pains nor money +in acquiring specimens, even from distant lands, to which they often +send out expert collectors at their own expense. This, too, the Royal +Horticultural Society was once wont to do, with valuable results, as in +the case of David Douglas's remarkable expedition to North America in +1823-1824. It will be remembered that when the laird of Dumbiedikes lay +dying (Scott's _Heart of Midlothian_, chap, viii.) he gave his son one +bit of advice which Bacon himself could not have bettered. "Jock," said +the old reprobate, "when ye hae naething else to do; ye may be aye +sticking in a tree; it will be growing, Jock, when ye're sleeping." Sir +Walter assures us that a Scots earl took this maxim so seriously to +heart that he planted a large tract of country with trees, a practice +which in these days is promoted by the English and Royal Scottish +Arboricultural Societies. + + + + +ARBORICULTURE (Lat. _arbor_, a tree), the science and art of +tree-cultivation. The culture of those plants which supply the food of +man or nourish the domestic animals must have exclusively occupied his +attention for many ages; whilst the timber employed in houses, ships and +machines, or for fuel, was found in the native woods. Hence, though the +culture of fruit-trees, and occasionally of ornamental trees and shrubs, +was practised by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, the cultivation of +timber-trees on a large scale only took place in modern times. In the +days of Charlemagne, the greater part of France and Germany was covered +with immense forests; and one of the benefits conferred on France by +that prince was the rooting up of portions of these forests throughout +the country, and substituting orchards or vineyards. Artificial +plantations appear to have been formed in Germany sooner than in any +other country, apparently as early as the 15th century. In Britain +planting was begun, though sparingly, a century later. After the +extensive transfers of property on the seizure of the church lands by +Henry VIII., much timber was sold by the new owners, and the quantity +thus thrown into the market so lowered its price, as Hollingshed informs +us, that the builders of cottages, who had formerly employed willow and +other cheap and common woods, now built them of the best oak. The demand +for timber constantly increased, and the need of an extended surface of +arable land arising at the same time, the natural forests became greatly +circumscribed, till at last timber began to be imported, and the +proprietors of land to think, first of protecting their native woods, +afterwards of enclosing waste ground and allowing it to become covered +with self-sown seedlings, and ultimately of sowing acorns and mast in +such enclosures, or of filling them with young plants collected in the +woods--a practice which exists in Sussex and other parts of England even +now. Planting, however, was not general in England till the beginning of +the 17th century, when the introduction of trees was facilitated by the +interchange of plants by means of botanic gardens, which, in that +century, were first established in different countries. Evelyn's +_Sylva_, the first edition of which appeared in 1664, rendered an +extremely important service to arboriculture; and there is no doubt that +the ornamental plantations in which England surpasses all other +countries are in some measure the result of his enthusiasm. In +consequence of a scarcity of timber for naval purposes, and the +increased expense during the Napoleonic war of obtaining foreign +supplies, planting received a great stimulus in Britain in the early +part of the 19th century. After the peace of 1815 the rage for planting +with a view to profit subsided; but there was a growing taste for the +introduction of trees and shrubs from foreign countries, and for their +cultivation for ornament and use. The profusion of trees and shrubs +planted around suburban villas and country mansions, as well as in town +squares and public parks, shows how much arboriculture is an object of +pleasure to the people. While isolated trees and old hedgerows are +disappearing before steam cultivation, the advantages of shelter from +well-arranged plantations are more fully appreciated; and more attention +is paid to the principles of forest conservancy both at home and abroad. +In all thickly peopled countries the forests have long ceased to supply +the necessities of the inhabitants by natural reproduction; and it has +become needful to form plantations either by government or by private +enterprise, for the growth of timber, and in some cases for climatic +amelioration. This subject is, however, dealt with more fully under +FORESTS AND FORESTRY (q.v.); and the separate articles on the various +sorts of tree may be consulted for details as to each. + + + + +ARBOR VITAE (Tree of Life), a name given by Clusius to species of +_Thuja_. The name _Thuja_, which was adopted by Linnaeus from the +_Thuya_ of Tournefort, seems to be derived from the Greek word [Greek: +thuos], signifying sacrifice, probably because the resin procured from +the plant was used as incense. The plants belong to the natural order +Coniferae, tribe Cupressineae (Cypresses). _Thuja occidentalis_ is the +Western or American arbor vitae, the _Cupressus Arbor Vitae_ of old +authors. It is a native of North America, and ranges from Canada to the +mountains of Virginia and Carolina. It is a moderate-sized tree, and was +introduced into Britain before 1597, when it was mentioned in Gerard's +_Herbal_. In its native country it attains a height of about 50 ft. The +leaves are small and imbricate, and are borne on flattened branches, +which are apt to be mistaken for the leaves. When bruised the leaves +give out an aromatic odour. The flowers appear early in spring, and the +fruit is ripened about the end of September. In Britain the plant is a +hardy evergreen, and can only be looked upon as a large shrub or low +tree. It is often cut so as to form hedges in gardens. The wood is very +durable and useful for outdoor work, such as fencing, posts, etc. +Another species of arbor vitae is _Thuja orientalis_, known also as +_Biota orientalis_. The latter generic name is derived from the Greek +adjective [Greek: biotos], formed from [Greek: bios], life, probably in +connexion with the name "tree of life." This is the Eastern or Chinese +arbor vitae. It is a native of China. It was cultivated in the Chelsea +Physick Garden in 1752, and was believed to have been sent to Europe by +French missionaries. It has roundish cones, with numerous scales and +wingless seeds. The leaves, which have a pungent aromatic odour, are +said to yield a yellow dye. There are numerous varieties of this plant +in cultivation, one of the most remarkable of which is the variety +_pendula_, with long, flexible, hanging, cord-like branches; it was +discovered in Japan about 1776 by Carl Peter Thunberg, a pupil of +Linnaeus, who made valuable collections at the Cape of Good Hope, in the +Dutch East Indies and in Japan. The variety _pygmaea_ forms a small bush +a few inches high. + +_Thuja gigantea_, the red or canoe cedar, a native of north-western +America from southern Alaska to north California, is the finest species, +the trunk rising from a massive base to the height of 150 to 200 ft. It +was not introduced to Britain till 1853. It is one of the handsomest of +conifers, forming an elongated cone of foliage, which in some gardens +has already reached 70 or 80 ft. in height. It thrives in most kinds of +soils. The timber is easily worked and used for construction, especially +where exposed to the weather. + + + + +ARBOS, FERNANDEZ (1863- ), Spanish violinist and composer, was born in +Madrid, and trained at the conservatoire there, and later at Brussels +and at Berlin under Joachim. He became a professor at Hamburg and then +at Madrid, becoming famous meanwhile as one of the finest violinists of +the day; and after visiting England in 1890 and establishing his +reputation there, he became professor at the Royal College of Music in +London. As a composer he is best known by his violin pieces, and by a +comic opera, _El Centro de la Tierra_ (1895). + + + + +ARBOUR, or ARBOR (originally "herber" or "erber," O. Fr. _herbier_, from +Lat. _herbarium_, a collection of herbs, _herba_, grass; the word came +to be spelt "arber" through its pronunciation, as in the case of Derby, +and by the 16th century was written "arbour," helped by a confusion of +derivation from Lat. _arbor_, a tree, and by change of meaning), a +grass-plot or lawn, a herb-garden, or orchard, and a shady bower of +interlaced trees, or climbing plants trained on lattice-work. The +application of the word has shifted from the grass-covered ground, the +proper meaning, to the covering of trees overhead. "Arbor" (from the +Latin for "tree") is a term applied to the spindle of a wheel, +particularly in clock-making. + + + + +ARBROATH, or ABERBROTHOCK, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and +seaport of Forfarshire, Scotland. It is situated at the mouth of +Brothock water, 17 m. N.E. of Dundee by the North British railway, which +has a branch to Forfar, via Guthrie, on the Caledonian railway. Pop. +(1891) 22,821; (1901) 22,398. The town is under the jurisdiction of a +provost, bailies and council, and, with Brechin, Forfar, Inverbervie and +Montrose, returns one member to parliament. The leading industries +include the manufacture of sailcloth, canvas and coarse linens, tanning, +boot and shoe making, and bleaching, besides engineering works, iron +foundries, chemical works, shipbuilding and fisheries. The harbour, +originally constructed and maintained by the abbots, by an agreement +between the burgesses and John Gedy, the abbot in 1394, was replaced by +one more commodious in 1725, which in turn was enlarged and improved in +1844. The older portion was converted into a wet dock in 1877, and the +entrance and bar of the new harbour were deepened. A signal tower, 50 +ft. high, communicates with the Bell Rock (q.v.) lighthouse on the +Inchcape Rock, 12 m. south-east of Arbroath, celebrated in Southey's +ballad. The principal public buildings are the town-hall, a somewhat +ornate market house, the gildhall, the public hall, the infirmary, the +antiquarian museum (including some valuable fossil remains) and the +public and mechanics' libraries. The parish church dates from 1570, but +has been much altered, and the spire was added in 1831. The ruins of a +magnificent abbey, once one of the richest foundations in Scotland, +stand in High Street. It was founded by William the Lion in 1178 for +Tironesian Benedictines from Kelso, and consecrated in 1197, being +dedicated to St Thomas Becket, whom the king had met at the English +court. It was William's only personal foundation, and he was buried +within its precincts in 1214. Its style was mainly Early English, the +western gable Norman. The cruciform church measured 276 ft. long by 160 +ft. wide, and was a structure of singular beauty and splendour. The +remains include the vestry, the southern transept (the famous rose +window of which is still entire), part of the chancel, the southern wall +of the nave, part of the entrance towers and the western doorway. It was +here that the parliament met which on the 6th of April 1320 addressed to +the pope the notable letter, asserting the independence of their country +and reciting in eloquent terms the services which their "lord and +sovereign" Robert Bruce had rendered to Scotland. The last of the abbots +was Cardinal Beaton, who succeeded his uncle James when the latter +became archbishop of St Andrews. At the Reformation the abbey was +dismantled and afterwards allowed to go to ruin. Part of the secular +buildings still stand, and the abbot's house, or Abbey House as it is +now called, is inhabited. Arbroath was created a royal burgh in 1186, +and its charter of 1599 is preserved. King John exempted it from "toll +and custom" in every part of England excepting London. Arbroath is +"Fairport" of Scott's _Antiquary_, and Auchmithie, 3 m. north-east +("Musselcrag" of the same romance), is a quaint old-fashioned place, +where the men earn a precarious living by fishing. On each side of the +village the coast scenery is remarkably picturesque, the rugged +cliffs--reaching in the promontory of Red Head, the scene of a thrilling +incident in the _Antiquary_, a height of 267 ft.--containing many +curiously shaped caves and archways which attract large numbers of +visitors. At the 14th-century church of St Vigeans, 1 m. north of +Arbroath, stands one of the most interesting of the sculptured stones of +Scotland, with what is thought to be the only legible inscription in the +Pictish tongue. The parish--originally called Aberbrothock and now +incorporated with Arbroath for administrative purposes--takes its name +from a saint or hermit whose chapel was situated at Grange of Conon, +3-1/2 m. north-west. Two miles west by south are the quarries of +Carmyllie, the terminus of a branch line from Arbroath, which was the +first light railway in Scotland and was opened in 1900. + + + + +ARBUTHNOT, ALEXANDER (1538-1583), Scottish ecclesiastic and poet, +educated at St Andrews and Bourges, was in 1569 elected principal of +King's College, Aberdeen, which office he retained until his death. He +played an active part in the stirring church politics of the period, and +was twice moderator of the kirk, and a member of the commission of +inquiry into the condition of the university of St Andrews (1583). The +"correctness" of his attitude on all public questions won for him the +commendation of Catholic writers; he is not included in Nicol Burne's +list of "periurit apostatis"; but his policy and influence were misliked +by James VI., who, when the Assembly had elected Arbuthnot to the charge +of the church of St Andrews, ordered him to return to his duties at +King's College. He had been for some time minister of Arbuthnott in +Kincardineshire. His extant works are (_a_) three poems, "The Praises of +Wemen" (224 lines), "On Luve" (10 lines), and "The Miseries of a Pure +Scholar" (189 lines), and (_b_) a Latin account of the Arbuthnot family, +_Originis et Incrementi Arbuthnoticae Familiae Descriptio Historica_ +(still in MS.), of which an English continuation, by the father of Dr +John Arbuthnot, is preserved in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. The +praise of the fair sex in the first poem is exceptional in the +literature of his age; and its geniality may help us to understand the +author's popularity with his contemporaries. Arbuthnot must not be +confused with his contemporary and namesake, the Edinburgh printer, who +produced the first edition of Buchanan's _History of Scotland_ in 1582. +Some have discovered in the publication of this work a false clue to +James's resentment against the principal of King's College. + + The particulars of Arbuthnot's life are found in Calderwood, + Spottiswood, and other Church historians, and in Scott's _Fasti + Ecclesiae Scoticanae_. The poems are printed in Pinkerton's _Ancient + Scottish Poems_ (1786), i. pp. 138-155. + + + + +ARBUTHNOT, JOHN (1667-1735), British physician and author, was born at +Arbuthnott, Kincardineshire, and baptized on the 29th of April 1667. His +father, Alexander Arbuthnot, was an episcopalian minister who was +deprived of his living in 1689 by his patron, Viscount Arbuthnott, for +refusing to conform to the Presbyterian system. After his death, in +1691, John went to London, where he lived in the house of a learned +linen-draper, William Pate, and supported himself by teaching +mathematics. In 1692 he published _Of the Laws of Chance_ ..., based on +the Latin version, _De Ratociniis in ludo aleae_, of a Dutch treatise by +Christiaan Huygens. In 1692 he entered University College, Oxford, as a +fellow-commoner, acting as private tutor to Edward Jefferys; and in 1696 +he graduated M.D. at St Andrews university. In _An Examination of Dr +Woodward's Account of the Deluge_ (1697) he confuted an extraordinary +theory advanced by Dr William Woodward. An _Essay on the Usefulness of +Mathematical Learning_ followed in 1701, and in 1704 he became a fellow +of the Royal Society. He had the good fortune to be called in at Epsom +to prescribe for Prince George of Denmark, and in 1705 he was made +physician extraordinary to Queen Anne. Four years later he became royal +physician in ordinary, and in 1710 he was elected fellow of the Royal +College of Physicians. Arbuthnot's ready wit and varied learning made +him very valuable to the Tory party. He was a close friend of Jonathan +Swift and of Alexander Pope, and Lord Chesterfield says that even the +generous acknowledgment they made of his assistance fell short of their +real indebtedness. He had no jealousy of his fame as an author, and his +abundant imagination was always at the service of his friends. In 1712 +appeared "Law is a Bottomless Pit, Exemplify'd in the case of the Lord +Strutt, John Bull, Nicholas Frog and Lewis Baboon, who spent all they +had in a law-suit. Printed from a Manuscript found in the Cabinet of the +famous Sir Humphrey Polesworth." This was the first of a series of five +pamphlets advocating the conclusion of peace. Arbuthnot describes the +confusion after the death of the Lord Strutt (Charles II. of Spain), and +the quarrels between the greedy tradespeople (the allies). These put +their cause into the hands of the attorney, Humphrey Hocus (the duke of +Marlborough), who does all he can to prolong the struggle. The five +tracts are printed in two parts as the "History of John Bull" in the +_Miscellanies in Prose and Verse_ (1727, preface signed by Pope and +Swift). Arbuthnot fixed the popular conception of John Bull, though it +is not certain that he originated the character, and the lively satire +is still amusing reading. It was often asserted at the time that Swift +wrote these pamphlets, but both he and Pope refer to Arbuthnot as the +sole author. In the autumn of the same year he published a second +satire, "Proposals for printing a very Curious Discourse in Two Volumes +in Quarto, entitled, [Greek: Psendologia Politikae]; or, A Treatise of +the Art of Political Lying," best known by its sub-title. This ironical +piece of work was not so popular as "John Bull." "'Tis very pretty," +says Swift, "but not so obvious to be understood." Arbuthnot advises +that a lie should not be contradicted by the truth, but by another +judicious lie. "So there was not long ago a gentleman, who affirmed that +the treaty with France for bringing popery and slavery into England was +signed the 15th of September, to which another answered very +judiciously, not by opposing truth to his lie, that there was no such +treaty; but that, to his certain knowledge, there were many things in +that treaty not yet adjusted." + +Arbuthnot was one of the leading spirits in the Scriblerus Club, the +members of which were to collaborate in a universal satire on the abuses +of learning. _The Memoirs of the extraordinary Life, Works, and +Discoveries of Martinus Scriblerus_, of which only the first book was +finished, first printed in Pope's _Works_ (1741), was chiefly the work +of Arbuthnot, who is at his best in the whimsical account of the birth +and education of Martin. Swift, writing on the 3rd of July 1714 to +Arbuthnot, says:--"To talk of Martin in any hands but yours, is a folly. +You every day give better hints than all of us together could do in a +twelvemonth: and to say the truth, Pope who first thought of the hint +has no genius at all to it, to my mind; Gay is too young: Parnell has +some ideas of it, but is idle; I could put together, and lard, and +strike out well enough, but all that relates to the sciences must be +from you." + +The death of Queen Anne put an end to Arbuthnot's position at court, but +he still had an extensive practice, and in 1727 he delivered the +Harveian oration before the Royal College of Physicians. Lord +Chesterfield and William Pulteney were his patients and friends; also +Mrs Howard (Lady Suffolk) and William Congreve. His friendship with +Swift was constant and intimate; he was friend and adviser to Gay; and +Pope wrote (2nd of August 1734) that in a friendship of twenty years he +had found no one reason of complaint from him. Arbuthnot's youngest son, +who had just completed his education, died in December 1731. He never +quite recovered his former spirits and health after this shock. On the +17th of July 1734 he wrote to Pope: "A recovery in my case, and at my +age, is impossible; the kindest wish of my friends is Euthanasia." In +January 1735 was published the "Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot," which forms +the prologue to Pope's satires. He died on the 27th of February 1735 at +his house in Cork Street, London. + +Among Arbuthnot's other works are:--_An Argument for Divine Providence, +taken from the constant regularity observed in the Births of both sexes_ +(Phil. Trans. of the Royal Soc., 1710); "Virgilius Restauratus," printed +in the second edition of Pope's _Dunciad_ (1729); _An Essay concerning +the Effects of Air on Human Bodies_ (1733); _An Essay concerning the +Nature of Ailments_ ... (1731); and a valuable _Table of Ancient Coins, +Weights and Measures_ (1727), which is an enlargement of an earlier +treatise (1705). He had a share in the unsuccessful farce of _Three +Hours after Marriage_, printed with Gay's name on the title-page (1717). +Some pieces printed in _A Supplement to Dr Swift's and Mr Pope's +Works_ ... (1739) are there asserted to be Arbuthnot's. _The +Miscellaneous Works of the late Dr Arbuthnot_ were published at Glasgow +in an unauthorized edition in 1751. This includes many spurious pieces. + + See _The Life and Works of John Arbuthnot_ (1892), by George A. + Aitken. + + + + +ARCACHON, a coast town of south-western France, in the department of +Gironde, 37 m. W.S.W. of Bordeaux on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) +9006. Arcachon is situated on the southern border of the lagoon of +Arcachon at the foot of dunes covered with splendid pine-woods. It +comprises two distinct parts, the summer town, extending for 2-1/2 m. +along the shore, and bordered by a firm sandy beach, frequented by +bathers, and the winter town, farther inland, consisting of numerous +villas scattered amongst the pines. + +Owing to the mildness of its climate the winter town is a resort for +consumptive patients. The principal industries are oyster-breeding, +which is conducted on a very large scale, and fishing. The port has +trade with Spain and England. + + + + +ARCADE, in architecture, a range of arches, supported either by columns +or piers; isolated in the case of those separating the nave of a church +from the aisles, or forming the front of a covered ambulatory, as in the +cloisters in Italy and Sicily, round the Ducal Palace or the Square of +St Mark's, Venice, round the courts of the palaces in Italy, or in Paris +round the Palais-Royal and the Place des Vosges. The earliest examples +known are those of the Tabularium, the theatre of Marcellus, and the +Colosseum, in Rome. In the palace of Diocletian at Spalato the principal +street had an arcade on either side, the arches of which rested direct +on the capital without any intervening entablature or impost block. The +term is also applied to the galleries, employed decoratively, on the +facades of the Italian churches, and carried round the apses where they +are known as eaves-galleries. Sometimes these arcades project from the +wall sufficiently to allow of a passage behind, and sometimes they are +built into and form part of the wall; in the latter case, they are known +as blind or wall arcades; and they were constantly employed to decorate +the lower part of the walls of the aisles and the choir-aisles in +English churches. Externally, blind arcades are more often found in +Italy and Sicily, but there are examples in England at Canterbury, Ely, +Peterborough, Norwich, St John's (Chester), Colchester and elsewhere. +Internally, the oldest example is that of the old refectory in +Westminster Abbey (fig. 1). Sometimes the design is varied with +interlacing arches as in St John's Devizes (fig. 2), and Beverley +Minster (fig. 3). In Sicily and the south of Italy these interlacing +arcades are the special characteristic of the Saracenic work there +found, and their origin may be found in the interlaced arches of the +Mosque of Cordova in Spain. In the cathedral of Palermo and at Monreale +they are carried round the apses at the east end. At Caserta-Vecchia, in +South Italy, they decorate the lantern over the crossing, and at Amain +the turrets on the north-west campanile. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Arcade, Westminster Abbey.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Arcade, St John's, Devizes.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Triforium at Beverley. + +From Rickman's _Styles of Architecture_, by permission of Parker & Co.] + +The term is also applied to the covered passages which form +thoroughfares from one street to another, as in the Burlington Arcade, +London; in Paris such an arcade is usually called _passage_, and in +Italy _galleria_. (R. P. S.) + + + + +ARCADELT, or ARCHADELT, JACOB (c. 1514-c. 1556), a Netherlands composer, +of the early part of the Golden Age. In 1539 he left a position at +Florence to teach the choristers of St Peter's, Rome, and became one of +the papal singers in 1540. He was a prolific church composer, but the +works published in his Italian time consist entirely of madrigals, five +books of which, published at Venice, probably gave a great stimulus to +the beginnings of the Venetian school of composition. In 1555 he left +Italy and entered the service of Cardinal Charles of Lorraine, duke of +Guise, and after this published three volumes of masses, besides +contributing motets to various collections. The _Ave Maria_, ascribed to +him and transcribed as a pianoforte piece by Liszt, does not seem to be +traced to an earlier source than its edition by Sir Henry Bishop, which +has possibly the same kind of origin in Arcadelt as the hymn tune +"Palestrina" has in the delicate and subtle _Gloria_ of Palestrina's +_Magnificat Quinti Toni_, the fifth in his first _Book of Magnificats_. + + + + +ARCADIA, a district of Greece, forming the central plateau of +Peloponnesus. Shut off from the coast lands on all sides by mountain +barriers, which rise in the northernpeaks of Erymanthus (mod. _Olonos_) +to 7400, of Cyllene (Ziria) to 7900, in the southern corner buttresses +of Parthenium and Lycaeum to more than 5000 ft., this inland plateau is +again divided by numerous subsidiary ranges. In eastern or "locked" +Arcadia these heights run in parallel courses intersected by +cross-ridges, enclosing a series of upland plains whose waters have no +egress save by underground channels or _zerethra_. The western country +is more open, with isolated mountain-groups and winding valleys, where +the Alpheus with its tributaries the Ladon and Erymanthus drains off in +a complex river-system the overflow from all Arcadia. The ancient +inhabitants were a nation of shepherds and huntsmen, worshipping Pan, +Hermes and Artemis, primitive nature-deities. The difficulties of +communication and especially the lack of a seaboard seriously hindered +intercourse with the rest of Greece. Consequently the same population, +whose origins Greek tradition removed back into the world's earliest +days, held the land throughout historic times, without even an admixture +of Dorian immigrants. Their customs and dialect persisted, the latter +maintaining a peculiar resemblance to that of the equally conservative +Cypriotes. Thus Arcadia lagged behind the general development of Greece, +and its political importance was small owing to chronic feuds between +the townships (notably between Mantineia and Tegea) and the readiness of +its youth for mercenary service abroad. + +The importance of Arcadia in Greek history was due to its position +between Sparta and the Isthmus. Unable to force their way through +Argolis, the Lacedaemonians early set themselves to secure the passage +through the central plateau. The resistance of single cities, and the +temporary union of the Arcadians during the second Messenian war, did +not defer the complete subjugation of the land beyond the 6th century. +In later times revolts were easily stirred up among individual cities, +but a united national movement was rarely concerted. Most of these +rebellions were easily quelled by Sparta, though in 469 and again in 420 +the disaffected cities, backed by Argos, formed a dangerous coalition +and came near to establishing their independence. A more whole-hearted +attempt at union in 371 after the battle of Leuctra resulted in the +formation of a political league out of an old religious synod, and the +foundation of a federal capital in a commanding strategic position (see +MEGALOPOLIS). But a severe defeat at the hands of Sparta in 368 (the +"tearless battle") and the recrudescence of internal discord soon +paralysed this movement. The new fortress of Megalopolis, instead of +supplying a centre of national life, merely accentuated the mutual +jealousy of the cities. During the Hellenistic age Megalopolis stood +staunchly by Macedonia; the rest of Arcadia rebelled against Antipater +(330, 323) and Antigonus Gonatas (266). Similarly the various cities +were divided in their allegiance between the Achaean and the Aetolian +leagues, with the result that Arcadia became the battleground of these +confederacies, or fell a prey to Sparta and Macedonia. These conflicts +seem to have worn out the land, which already in Roman times had fallen +into decay. An influx of Slavonic settlers in the 8th century A.D. +checked the depopulation for a while, but Arcadia suffered severely from +the constant quarrels of its Frankish barons (1205-1460). The succeeding +centuries of Turkish rule, combined with an Albanian immigration, raised +the prosperity of the land, but in the Wars of Independence the +strategic importance of Arcadia once more made it a centre of conflict. +In modern times the population remains sparse, and pending the complete +restoration of the water conduits the soil is unproductive. The modern +department of Arcadia extends to the Gulf of Nauplia with a sea-coast of +about 40 m. + + AUTHORITIES.--Strabo pp. 388 sq.; Pausanias viii.; W.M. Leake, + _Travels in the Morea_ (London, 1830), chs. iii., iv., xi.-xviii., + xxiii.-xxvi.; E. Curtius, _Peloponnesos_ (Gotha, 1851), i. 153-178; + H.F. Tozer, _Geography of Greece_ (London, 1873), pp. 287-292; E.A. + Freeman, _Federal Government_ (ed. 1893, London), ch. iv. S 3; B.V. + Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 372-373; B. Niese in + _Hermes_ (1899), pp. 520 f. (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +ARCADIUS (378-408), Roman emperor, the elder son of Theodosius the +Great, was created Augustus in 383, and succeeded his father in 395 +along with his brother Honorius. The empire was divided between them, +Honorius governing the two western prefectures (Gaul and Italy), +Arcadius the two eastern (the Orient and Illyricum). Both were feeble, +and, in Gibbon's phrase, slumbered on their thrones, leaving the +government to others. Arcadius submitted at first to the guidance of the +praetorian prefect Rufinus, and, after his murder (end of 395) by the +troops, to the counsels of the eunuch Eutropius (executed end of 399). +His consort Eudoxia (daughter of a Frank general, Bauto), a woman of +strong will, exercised great influence over him; she died in 404. In the +last year of his reign, Anthemius (praetorian prefect) was the chief +adviser and support of the throne. The first years of the reign were +marked by the ravaging of the Greek peninsula by the West Goths under +Alaric (q.v.) in 395-396. The movement of the Goth Gainas (who held the +post of master of soldiers) in 399-400 is less famous but was more +dangerous. At that time there were two rival political parties at +Constantinople, the "Roman" party led by Aurelian (son of Taurus), +praetorian prefect, and supported by the empress and a Germanizing and +Arianizing party led by Aurelian's brother (possibly Caesarius, +praetorian prefect in 400). Gainas entered into a close league with the +latter; fomented a Gothic rebellion in Phrygia; and forced the emperor +to put Eutropius to death. For some months he and the party which he +supported were supreme in Constantinople. He was, however, finally +forced to leave, and having plundered for some time in Thrace was +captured and killed by the loyal Goth Fravitta. The Roman party +recovered its power; Aurelian was again praetorian prefect in 402; and +the Germanization which was to befall the western world was averted from +the east. Another important question was decided in this reign, the +relation of the patriarch of Constantinople to the emperor. The struggle +between the court and the patriarch John Chrysostom (q.v.), who assumed +an independent attitude and gravely offended the empress by his sermons +against the worldliness and frivolity of the court, with open allusions +to herself, resulted in his fall and exile (404). This virtually +determined the subordination of the patriarch of Constantinople to the +emperor. The rivalry of the see of Alexandria with Constantinople was +also displayed in the contest, Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, +assisting the court in bringing about the fall of Chrysostom. Throughout +the reign of Arcadius there was estrangement and jealousy between the +two brothers or their governments. The principal ground of this +hostility was probably dissatisfaction on both sides with the +territorial partition. The line had been drawn east of Dalmatia. The +ministers of Arcadius desired to annex Dalmatia to his portion, while +the general Stilicho, who was supreme in the west, wished to wrest from +the eastern realm the prefecture of Illyricum or a considerable part of +it. His designs were unsuccessful, and during the reign of Theodosius +II., son of Arcadius (who died in 408), Dalmatia was transferred to the +dominion of the eastern ruler. + + AUTHORITIES.--Ancient: Fragments of Eunapius and Olympiodorus (in + Muller's _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, vol. iv.); fragments of + Philostorgius, Socrates, Sozomen, Zosimus, Synesius of Cyrene ("The + Egyptian"), Claudian. Modern: Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_, vol. iii., + ed. Bury; J.B. Bury, _Later Roman Empire_, vol. i. (1889); T. Hodgkin, + _Italy and her Invaders_, vol. i. (ed. 2, 1892); Guldenpenning, + _Geschichte des ostromischen Reiches unter den Kaisern Arcadius und + Theodosius II._ (1885). + + + + +ARCADIUS, of Antioch, Greek grammarian, flourished in the 2nd century +A.D. According to Suidas, he wrote treatises on orthography and syntax, +and an onomaticon (vocabulary), described as a wonderful production. An +epitome of the great work of Herodian on general prosody in twenty +books, wrongly attributed to Arcadius, is probably the work of +Theodosius of Alexandria or a grammarian named Aristodemus. This epitome +([Greek: Peri Tonon]) only includes nineteen books of the original work; +the twentieth is the work of a forger of the 16th century. Although +meagre and carelessly put together, it is valuable, since it preserves +the order of the original and thus affords a trustworthy foundation for +its reconstruction. + + Text by Barker, 1823; Schmidt, 1860; see also Galland, _De Arcadii qui + fertur libra de accentibus_ (1882). + + + + +ARCELLA (C.G. Ehrenberg), a genus of lobose Rhizopoda, characterized by +a chitinous plano-convex shell, the circular aperture central on the +flat ventral face, and more than one nucleus and contractile vacuole. It +can develop vacuoles, or rather fine bubbles of carbonic acid gas in its +cytoplasm, to float up to the surface of the water. + + + + +ARCESILAUS (316-241 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and founder of the New, +or Middle, Academy (see ACADEMY, GREEK). Born at Pitane in Aeolis, he +was trained by Autolycus, the mathematician, and later at Athens by +Theophrastus and Crantor, by whom he was led to join the Academy. He +subsequently became intimate with Polemon and Crates, whom he succeeded +as head of the school. Diogenes Laertius says that he died of excessive +drinking, but the testimony of others (e.g. Cleanthes) and his own +precepts discredit the story, and he is known to have been much +respected by the Athenians. His doctrines, which must be gathered from +the writings of others (Cicero, _Acad._ i. 12, iv. 24; _De Orat._ iii. +18; Diogenes Laertius iv. 28; Sextus Empiricus, _Adv. Math._ vii. 150, +_Pyrrh. Hyp._ i. 233), represent an attack on the Stoic [Greek: +phantasia katalaeptikae] (_Criterion_) and are based on the sceptical +element (see SCEPTICISM) which was latent in the later writings of +Plato. He held that strength of intellectual conviction cannot be +regarded as valid, inasmuch as it is characteristic equally of +contradictory convictions. The uncertainty of sensible _data_ applies +equally to the conclusions of reason, and therefore man must be content +with _probability_ which is sufficient as a practical guide. "We know +nothing, not even our ignorance"; therefore the wise man will be content +with an agnostic attitude. He made use of the Socratic method of +instruction and left no writings. His arguments were marked by incisive +humour and fertility of ideas. + + See R. Brodeisen, _De Arcesila philosopho_ (1821); Aug. Geffers, _De + Arcesila_ (1842); Ritter and Preller, _Hist, philos. graec._ (1898); + Ed. Zeller, _Phil. d. Griech._ (iii. 1448); and general works under + SCEPTICISM. + + + + +ARCH, JOSEPH (1826- ), English politician, founder of the National +Agricultural Labourers' Union, was born at Barford, a village in +Warwickshire, on the 10th of November 1826. His parents belonged to the +labouring class. He inherited a strong sentiment of independence from +his mother; and his objections to the social homage expected by those +whom the catechism boldly styled his "betters" made him an "agitator." +Having educated himself by unremitting exertions, and acquired fluency +of speech as a Methodist local preacher, he founded in 1872 the National +Agricultural Labourers' Union, of which he was president. A rise then +came in the wages of agricultural labourers, but this had the unforeseen +effect of destroying the union; for the labourers, deeming their object +gained, ceased to "agitate." Mr Arch nevertheless retained sufficient +popularity to be returned to parliament for north-west Norfolk in 1885; +and although defeated next year owing to his advocacy of Irish Home +Rule, he regained his seat in 1892, and held it in 1895, retiring in +1900. He was deservedly respected in the House of Commons; seldom has an +agitator been so little of a demagogue. + + A biography written by himself or under his direction, and edited by + Lady Warwick (1898), tells the story of his career. + + + + +ARCH,[1] in building, a constructional arrangement of blocks of any hard +material, so disposed on the lines of some curve that they give mutual +support one to the other. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The blocks, which are technically known as voussoirs, should be of a +wedge shape, the centre or top block (see fig. 1, A) being the keystone +A; the lower blocks B B which rest on the supporting pier are the +springers, the upper surface of which is called the skewback, C C; the +side blocks, as D, are termed the haunches. The lower surface or soffit +of the arch is the intrados, E, and the upper surface the extrados, F. +The rise of the arch is the distance from the springing to the soffit, +G, the width between the springers is called the span, H, and the radius +I. The triangular spaces between the arches are termed spandrils, K. + +The arch is employed for two purposes:--(1) to span an opening in a wall +and support the superstructure; (2) when continuous to form a vault +known as a barrel or waggon vault. + +The arch has been used from time immemorial by every nation, but owing +to the tendency of the upper portion to sink, especially when bearing +any superincumbent weight, it requires strong lateral support, and it is +for this reason that in the earliest examples in unburnt brick at Nippur +in Chaldaea, _c._ 4000 B.C., and at Rakakna (Requaqna) and Dendera in +Egypt, 3500-3000 B.C., it was employed only below the level of the +ground which served as an abutment on either side. + +In the building of an arch, the voussoirs have to be temporarily +supported, until the keystone is inserted. This at the present day is +effected by means of centreing an assemblage of timbers framed together, +with its upper surface of the same form as the arch required; the +voussoirs are laid on the centreing till the ring of the arch is +completed. In the case of arches of small span, such as the early +examples referred to, limited to about 6 ft., such centreing might be +dispensed with in various ways, but it is difficult to see how the +arches of the great entrance gateways, shown in the Assyrian +bas-reliefs, could have been built without temporary support of some +kind. In those days, when any amount of labour could be obtained, even +the erection of a temporary wall might have been less costly than the +employment of timber, of which there was great scarcity. + +The Assyrian tradition would seem to have descended first to the +Parthian builders, who in the palace of El Hadr built semicircular +arches with regular voussoirs decoratively treated. The Sassanians who +followed them employed the elliptical or egg-shaped arch, of which the +lower part was built in horizontal courses up to about one-third of the +height, which lessened the span of the arched portion. + +In Europe the earliest arches were those built by the Etruscans, either +over canals (see article ARCHITECTURE: _Etruscan_), or in the entrance +gateways of their towns. The skew-arch in the gateway at Perugia shows +great knowledge in its execution. From the Etruscans the adoption of the +arch passed to the Romans, who certainly employed centreing of some +kind, but always economized its use, as is clearly shown by Choisy. +Although their walls from the Augustan age were built in concrete, +arches of brick were always turned over their entrance doorways, +sometimes in two or three rings. The Romans utilized the arch in other +ways, sometimes burying it in their concrete construction, as in their +vaults, and sometimes introducing it as a veneer only, as in the +Pantheon. In their monumental structures in stone, the arch was +sometimes built with regular voussoirs, i.e. with a semicircular +extrados, and sometimes with the joint carried far beyond. The latter +was not done in the early examples of the Tabularium and the Theatre of +Marcellus, but in the Colosseum and all the arches of triumph the joints +run through the spandrils, notwithstanding the recognition of the arch +proper by its moulded archivolt. + +Although the value of the pointed arch as a stronger constructional +feature than the semicircular (owing to the tendency to sink in the +keystone of the latter) had been recognized by the Assyrian builders, +who employed it in their drains, it was not used systematically as an +architectural feature till the 9th century, in the mosque of Tulun at +Cairo; it seems to have been regarded by the Mahommedans as an emblem of +their faith, and its use spread through Syria to Persia, was brought to +Sicily from Egypt, and was taken back by the Sicilian masons to +Palestine and employed throughout the Crusaders' churches during the +12th century. As the pointed arch had already, for constructional +reasons, been employed in Perigord from the commencement of the 11th +century, it does not follow that the Crusaders brought it from +Palestine, but there is no doubt that its universal employment in France +early in the 12th century may have been partly due to its adoption in +the Crusaders' churches. At first in Gothic work both the semicircular +and pointed arches were used simultaneously in the same building, the +larger arches being pointed, the smaller ones and windows being +semicircular. The great value of the pointed arch in vaulting is +described in the article VAULT. + +We have suggested that the pointed arch became an emblem of Mahommedan +faith, and it was introduced in India but not as a constructive feature, +for the Hindus objected to the arch, which they say _never sleeps_, +meaning that it is always exerting a thrust which tends to its +destruction. In India therefore it was built in horizontal courses with +vertical slabs leaning against one another to form the apex. The Moors +of north Africa, however, never employed it, preferring the horseshoe +arch which they brought into Spain and developed in the mosque of +Cordova. In the additions made to this mosque the prayer chamber was +enriched by the caliph Mansur, who, to eke out the height, raised arch +upon arch. In the Alhambra it appears in the decorative plaster work, +and travels northwards into the south of France, where at Le Puy and +elsewhere it is found decorating doorways and windows; in England it was +employed towards the end of the 12th century. + +About the middle of the 14th century at Gloucester the four-centred +pointed arch was introduced, which became afterwards the leading +characteristic feature of the Tudor style. In France they adopted the +three-centred arch in the 15th century. + +The ogee arch was the natural result of the development of tracery in +the commencement of the 14th century, and in Gloucester (about 1310) the +foliations were run one into the other without the enclosing circles. +About the middle of the 14th century, in the arcade of the first storey +of the ducal palace in Venice, flowing tracery is found, from which the +ogee arch there was probably derived, as throughout Venice it becomes +the favourite feature in domestic architecture of that and the +succeeding century. + +The arches are of various forms as follows:-- + +[Illustration: + + 2. Semicircular arch, the centre of which is in the same line with its + springers. + + 3. Segmental arch, where the centre is below the springing. + + 4. Horseshoe arch, with the centre above the springing; employed in + Moorish architecture. + + 5. Stilted arches, where the centre is below the springing, but the + sides are carried down vertically. + + 6. Equilateral pointed arches, described from two centres, the radius + being the whole width of the arch. + + 7. Drop arches, with centres within the arch. + + 8. Lancet arches, with centres outside the arch. + + 9. Three centre arches, employed in French Flamboyant. + + 10. Four centre arches, employed in the Perpendicular and Tudor + periods. + + 11. Ogee arches, with curves of counter flexure, found in English + Decorated and French Flamboyant. + + 12. Pointed horseshoe arches, found in the mosque of Tulun, Cairo, 9th + century. + + 13. Pointed foiled arches, in the arcades of Beverley Minster (_c_. + 1230) and Netley Abbey. + + 14. Cusped arch; Christchurch Priory, Hants. + + 15. Multifoil cusped arch, invented by the Moors at Cordova in the + 10th century. + + 16. Flat arch, where the soffit is horizontal and sometimes slightly + cambered (dotted line). + + 17. Upright elliptical arch, sometimes called the egg-shaped arch, + employed in Egyptian and Sassanian architecture. + + 18. The Tuscan arch, where the extrados takes the form of a pointed + arch. + + 19. The joggled arch used in medieval chimneypieces and in Mahommedan + architecture. + + 20. The discharging or relieving arch, built above the architrave or + lintel to take off the weight of the superstructure. + + 21. The relieving arch as used in Egypt, in the pyramid of Cheops; and + in Saxon architecture, where it was built with Roman bricks or tiles, + or consisted of two sloping slabs of stone.] + (R. P. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The ultimate derivation of "arch" is the Latin _arcus_, a bow, or + arch, in origin meaning something bent, from which through the French + is also derived "arc," a curve. In French there are two words + _arche_, one meaning a chest or coffer, from Latin _arca_ (_arcere_, + to keep close), hence the English "ark"; the other meaning a vaulted + arch, such as that of a bridge, and derived from a Low Latin + corruption of _arcus_, into arca (du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v.). The + word "arch," prefixed to names of offices, seen in "archbishop," + "archdeacon," "archduke," &c., means "principal" or "chief," and + comes from the Greek prefix [Greek: arx-] or [Greek: arxi-] from + [Greek: arxein], to begin, lead, or rule; it is also prefixed to + other words, and usually with words implying hatred or detestation, + such as "arch-fiend", "arch-scoundrel"; it is from an adaptation of + this use, as seen in such expressions as "arch-rogue," extended to + "arch-look," "arch-face," that the word comes to mean a mischievous, + roguish expression of face or demeanour. + + + + +ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: archaia], ancient things, and [Greek: +logos], theory or science), a general term for the study of antiquities. +The precise application of the term has varied from time to time with +the progress of knowledge, according to the character of the subjects +investigated and the purpose for which they were studied. At one time it +was thought improper to use it in relation to any but the artistic +remains of Greece and Rome, i.e. the so-called _classical archaeology_ +(now dealt with in this encyclopaedia under the headings of GREEK ART +and ROMAN ART); but of late years it has commonly been accepted as +including the whole range of ancient human activity, from the first +traceable appearance of man on the earth to the middle ages. It may thus +be conceived how vast a field archaeology embraces, and how intimately +it is connected with the sciences of geology (q.v.) and anthropology +(q.v.), while it naturally includes within its borders the consideration +of all the civilizations of ancient times. + +In dealing with so vast a subject, it becomes necessary to distinguish. +The archaeology of zoological species constitutes the sphere of +palaeontology (q.v.), while that of botanical species is dealt with as +palaeobotany (q.v.); and every different science thus has its +archaeological side. For practical purposes it is now convenient to +separate the sphere of archaeology in its relation to the study of the +purely _artistic_ character of ancient remains, from that of the +investigation of these remains as an instrument for arriving at +conclusions as to the political and social _history_ of the nations of +antiquity; and in this work the former is regarded primarily as "art" +and dealt with in the articles devoted to the history of art or the +separate arts, while "archaeology" is particularly regarded as the study +of the evidences for the history of mankind, whether or not the remains +are themselves artistically and aesthetically valuable. In this sense a +knowledge of the archaeology is part of the materials from which every +historical article in this encyclopaedia is constructed, and in recent +years no subject has been more fertile in yielding information than +"archaeology," as representing the work of trained excavators and +students of antiquity in all parts of the world, but notably in the +countries round the Mediterranean. It is for its services in +illuminating the days before those of documentary history and for +checking and reinforcing the evidence of the raw material (the +"unwritten history" of architecture, tombs, art-products, &c.), that +recent archaeological work has been so notable. The work of the literary +critic and historian has been amplified by the spade-work of the expert +excavator and explorer to an extent undreamt of by former generations; +and ancient remains, instead of being treated merely as interesting +objects of art, have been forced to give up their secret to the +historian, as evidence for the period, character and affiliations of the +peoples who produced and used them. The increase of precise knowledge of +the past, due to greater opportunities of topographical research, more +care and observation in dealing with ancient remains and improved +methods of studying them in museums (q.v.) and collections, has led to +more accurate reading of results by a comparison of views, under the +auspices of learned societies and institutions, thus raising archaeology +from among the more empirical branches of learning into the region of +the more exact sciences. This change has improved not only the status of +archaeology but also its material, for the higher standard of work now +demanded necessarily acts as a deterrent on the poorly equipped worker, +and the tendency is for the general result to be of a higher quality. + +The archaeological details concerning all subjects which have their +"unwritten history" are dealt with in the separate articles in this +work, including the ancient civilizations of Assyria, Egypt and other +countries and peoples, while the articles on separate sites where +excavations have been particularly noteworthy may be referred to for +their special interest; see also ANTHROPOLOGY; ETHNOLOGY, &c. It remains +here to deal generally with the early conditions of the prehistoric +ancient world in their broader aspects, which constitute the +starting-place for the archaeologist in various parts of the world at +different times, and the foundations of our present understanding of the +primitive epochs in the history of man. + + + Quaternary period. + +The beginning of archaeology, as the study of pre-documentary history, +may be broadly held to follow on the last of the geological periods, +viz., the Quaternary, though it is claimed, and with some reason, that +traces of man have been found in deposits of the preceding or Tertiary +period. Although there is no valid reason against the existence of +Tertiary man, it must be confessed that the evidence in favour of the +belief is of a very inconclusive and unconvincing kind. The discussion +has been mainly confined to the two questions (1) whether the deposit +containing the relics was without doubt of Tertiary times, and (2) +whether the objects found showed undoubted signs of human workmanship. +Vast quantities of material have been brought forward, and endless +discussions have taken place, but hitherto without carrying entire +conviction to the minds of the more serious and cautious students of +prehistoric archaeology. A chronic difficulty, and one which can never +be entirely removed, is our ignorance of the precise methods of nature's +working. It is an obvious fact, that natural forces, such as glacial +action, earthquakes, landslips and the like, must crush and chip flints +and break up animal remains, grinding and scratching them in masses of +gravel or sand. If it were possible to determine with precision what' +were the peculiarities of the flint or bone, thus altered by natural +agencies, it would be easy to separate them from others purposely made +by man to serve some useful end. Our present knowledge, however, does +not allow us to go so far in dealing with the ruder early attempts of +man to fabricate weapons or implements. Even the one feature that is +commonly held to determine human agency, the "bulb of percussion," +cannot be considered satisfactory, without collateral evidence of some +kind. Flint breaks with what is called a conchoidal fracture, as do many +other substances, such as glass. Thus on the face of a flint flake, at +the end where the blow was delivered to detach it from the nodule, is +seen a lump or bulb, which is usually regarded as evidence of human +workmanship. To produce such a bulb it is necessary to deliver a +somewhat heavy blow of a peculiar kind at a particular point of a +flattened surface; and the operation requires a certain amount of +practice. The fulfilment of all the necessary conditions might well be a +rare occurrence in nature, and the bulb of percussion has come to be +regarded as the hall-mark of human manufacture; but recent +investigations have shown that the intervention of man is not necessary +and that natural forces frequently produce a similar result. When, +therefore, it is a question whether or no a group of rude flints are of +human workmanship, evidence of design or purpose in their forms must be +established. If this be found, and in addition if a number of flints, +all having this character of design, be found together, then and then +only is it safe to admit them into the domain of archaeology. There can +be no doubt that much time and energy have been wasted, and a number of +intelligent workers have been fruitlessly occupied in following up +archaeological will-o'-the-wisps, through neglecting this elementary +precaution. + + + Eolithic. + +Whether or no man produced flint implements before Quaternary times, it +would seem to be a necessity that he should have passed through an +earlier stage, before arriving at the precision of workmanship and the +fixed types found in the old Stone Age deposits known as palaeolithic. +It is now claimed that this earlier and ruder stage has actually been +discovered in what are known as the Plateau-gravels of Kent, in Belgium, +and even in Egypt, and the name of eolithic ([Greek: eos], dawn, [Greek: +lithos], stone) has been bestowed upon them. The controversy as to the +human character has been very keen, some alleging that the fractured +edges and even the definite and fairly constant types are entirely +produced by natural forces. Sir Joseph Prestwich in England, and Alfred +Rutot in Belgium, the latter arguing from his own discoveries in that +country, have strongly supported the artificial character of the relics. +On the other hand it is pointed out that the existence of these +implements on the high levels of Kent furnished confirmation of Sir +Joseph Prestwich's theory of the submergence of the district, and that +his support was thus somewhat biassed, while the geological conditions +in Belgium are not quite comparable with those of the Kent plateau; and +the Belgian evidence, whatever it may be worth in itself, is of no avail +as corroboration of the Kentish case. It is to be regretted that the +conditions are not more convincing, for, as stated above, they agree +fairly well with the evolution theory of man's handiwork, and if they +could be accepted, would carry back the evidences to a more remote time +when the physical features of Kent were of a very different character. +The critics of eoliths have brought forward some facts that at first +sight would seem to be of a very damaging nature. It was observed that +in the process of cement manufacture the flints that had passed through +a rotary machine in which they were violently struck by its teeth or +knocked against each other, possessed just those features that were +claimed as indisputable proof of man's handiwork, and that even the +forms were the same. These statements have, of course, been met by +counter-statements equally forcible, and the matter may still be +considered to be in suspense. The great struggle, therefore, is now more +closely restricted to the nature of the chipping than as to the +quasi-geological question, and if the solution is ever to be found, it +will be by means of a closer examination and a better understanding of +the difference between intentional and accidental flaking. + + + Palaeolithic. + +On reaching the Palaeolithic period we come to firmer ground and to +evidence that is more certain and generally accepted. This evidence is +fundamentally geological, inasmuch as the age of the archaeological +remains is dependent upon that of the beds in which they are found. That +they were deposited at the same time is now no longer questioned. The +flints are found to have the same colour and surface characteristics as +the unworked nodules among which they lie, and are generally rolled and +abraded in the same way. This in itself suffices to show that the worked +and unworked flints were deposited in their present stratigraphical +position at the same time. The remote age of the beds themselves is +demonstrated by the presence of bones of animals either now extinct or +found only in far distant latitudes, such as the mammoth, reindeer, +rhinoceros, &c., and in some cases these bones are found in such +relative positions as to prove they were deposited with the flesh still +adhering to them, and also that the animal was contemporary with the +makers of the flint implements. Evidence of a somewhat different kind is +provided for the palaeolithic period by certain caverns that have been +discovered in England and on the continent. In these limestone caves +palaeolithic man has lived, slept, eaten his food and made his tools and +weapons. Much of his handiwork has been left, with the bones of animals +on which he lived, scattered upon the floor of the cave, and has been +sealed up by the infiltration of lime-charged water, so that the deposit +remains, untouched to our own day, below an impermeable bed of +stalagmite. In such circumstances there can be no doubt of the +contemporaneous character of the remains, natural or artificial, if +found on the same level. Moreover, so far as type is a criterion of age, +the flint tools found in the cave deposits tend to confirm the date +assigned to those of the river-gravels. + +It is fairly certain that about the middle of the Tertiary period the +northern hemisphere possessed a temperate climate, such that even the +polar regions were habitable. But the physical aspect of northern Europe +was very different from that of Quaternary times. North of a line drawn +roughly from southern England to St Petersburg all was sea. It was +during the latter half of the Tertiary period that the continent assumed +its present general form, though even in Pleistocene (Quaternary) times +England and Ireland formed part of it. The great change of climate from +temperate to arctic conditions during the latter half of the Tertiary +period has been interpreted in various ways, no one of which is yet +universally accepted. There can be little doubt, however, that no single +cause was responsible for so complete a change. There may have been some +alteration in the relative positions of the earth and the sun, which +would conceivably have produced it; but what is practically certain is +that the physical geography of northern Europe was affected by +considerable difference in level, and it is clear that the raising of +mountain ranges and the general elevation of the continent must +necessarily have reacted on the climatic conditions. If in the later +Tertiary time we find that the Alps, the Carpathians and the Caucasus +have come into existence, it is not surprising to find that these huge +condensers have brought about a humid condition of the continent to such +an extent that this phase has been called the Pluvial Age. The humidity, +however, was in some ways only a secondary result of the protrusion of +high mountain ranges. The primary cause of the physical conditions that +we now find in the valleys and plains was the formation of glaciers. +These rivers of ice descending far into the lower levels during the +winter months, melted during the summer, causing enormous volumes of +water to rush through the valleys and over the plains, carrying with it +masses of mud and boulders which were left stranded sometimes at immense +distances. The intensity and force of the rivers thus formed would +depend upon two factors, first the extent of the watershed, and +secondly, the height of the mountains from which the water was derived. +The result of increasing cold was that in course of time the northern +hemisphere was surmounted by a cap of ice, of immense thickness (about +6000 ft.) in the Scandinavian area and gradually becoming thinner +towards the south, but at no time does it seem to have extended quite to +the south of England. This is proved by the absence of boulder-clay +(glacial mud) in the districts south of London. These arctic conditions +were not, however, continuous, but alternated with periods of a much +less rigorous temperature during what has been called the Ice Age. +Remains both of mammals and plants have been found, under conditions +that are held to prove this alternation. + +Such being the natural forces at work remodelling the surface of the +earth; forces of such gigantic power as to be almost inconceivable in +these more placid times, it can easily be understood how, in the course +of the many thousands of years before the Quaternary period, when the +surface of the globe attained its present aspect, the powerful +river-systems of Europe wore their beds deep into the solid rocks. In +some cases in Europe the erosive power of the river has worn through its +bed to such an extent that the present stream is some hundreds of feet +lower than its forerunner in palaeolithic times. From various causes, +however, the rivers did not always wear for themselves a deep channel, +but spread themselves over a wide area. This seems to have been the case +with the Thames near London: the river-bed is not of any great depth, +but at various periods it has occupied the space between Clapton on the +north-east and Clapham on the south-west. It must not be assumed that +the whole of this area of 7 m. or more was filled by the river at any +one time, but rather that during the course of the palaeolithic period +the river had its bed somewhere between these two limits. For instance, +it is probable that at one period the bank of the Thames was at a point +nearly midway between the northern and southern limits, where Gray's Inn +Road now stands. It was here that the earliest recorded palaeolithic +implement (now in the British Museum) was found towards the close of +the 17th century in association with mammoth bones. But it is safe to +say that the Thames was a very much wider and more imposing river in +palaeolithic times than it is now, when its average width at London is +under 300 yds. As, in the course of ages, it changed its bed and by +degrees lessened in size and volume, it would leave, on the terraces +formed on its banks, the deposits of brick-earth and gravel brought down +by the stream, and it is on these terraces that the relics of +palaeolithic man are found, sometimes in great quantities. It will be +obvious from the nature of the case that the highest terraces, and those +farthest apart, should contain the earliest implements; but it is by no +means easy in the present state of the land surface and with our present +knowledge, to place the remains in their relative sequence. More +accurate observation, and a better understanding of the conditions under +which these deposits were made, should solve many such problems. Much +light has been thrown upon many points by Worthington Smith, who has +excavated with great care two palaeolithic floors at Clapton and at +Caddington near Dunstable. The latter discovery was of quite exceptional +interest as confirming the geological evidence by that of archaeology. +In this case the original level at which palaeolithic man had worked was +clearly defined, and was prolific of dark-grey implements, which had +evidently been made on the spot, as Smith found that many of the flakes +could be replaced on the blocks or cores from which they had been struck +by palaeolithic man; there were also the flint hammers that had been +used in the operation. Above the floor was a layer of brick-earth, again +covered by contorted drift, in which also implements occurred, but of a +very different kind from those found below. In place of being sharp and +unabraded, and with the refuse flakes accompanying them, they were +rolled and disfigured, of an ochreous tint, and evidently had been +transported in the drift from a much higher level now no longer +existing, as the site where they occurred is the highest in the +vicinity, about 500-600 ft. above sea-level. Here then we have a clear +case of palaeolithic man being compelled to abandon his working place on +the lower level by the descent of the waters containing the products of +his own forerunners, probably then very remote. In this case the +sequence of the various strata may be considered certain, and the +remains thus accurately determined and correlated are naturally of +extreme value and importance. But even this does not enable us to +diagnose another discovery unless the internal evidence is equally clear +and conclusive. One point of importance that may be noted is that the +older abraded implements were mostly of the usual drift type, while the +more recent ones from the "floor" contained forms more highly developed +and elaborated, such as occur in the French caves. Explorations of this +kind, carefully conducted in a strictly scientific spirit by men of +training and intelligence, are the only means by which real progress +will be made in this puzzling branch of archaeology. + +Although many problems yet remain to be solved in England, its small +area, and the relatively large number of workers, have together sufficed +to put the main facts of the earlier stages of man's existence on a +fairly satisfactory basis. In France, owing to the richness of the +results, a great number of trained and ardent workers have made equal, +if not better, progress. But unfortunately the real scientific spirit is +not invariably found. Not so long ago an apparently serious writer in a +well-known scientific magazine gave a detailed account of his studies in +primitive methods and explained at great length his attempts at the +manufacture of flint and stone implements. He found by the processes he +adopted that it was much more easy for him to produce a polished +implement than one merely flaked. From this fact he seriously argued +that a great mistake had been made in the relative ages of the neolithic +and palaeolithic periods, and that the former must necessarily be the +older of the two. The evidence of geological position and of the +mammalian remains accompanying the obviously older flints was entirely +disregarded, just as on the other hand it was forgotten that in regard +to neolithic remains the proofs were in every way in favour of a +relatively modern origin. Such attempts not only bring the serious study +of early man into disrepute, but tend to retard the progress of real +knowledge and are therefore to be deplored and when possible +discouraged. + + + Cave Period. + +Caves (q.v.) have been at all periods regarded as something uncanny and +mysterious, with perhaps a tinge of the supernatural. In classical times +they were associated with semi-divine beings, with oracles, and even +with the gods themselves, while half the legends of dwarfs and gnomes +that run through the folk-lore of medieval and modern Europe are +associated with caves. They have been used as shelters or habitations at +all times, and in examining them it is fully as necessary to sift the +evidence of age as it would be in dealing with the river-gravels. Their +exploration in the first instance may well have been due to chance, but +it is fairly certain that during the 16th century the search for the +horn of the unicorn as an antidote to disease, was responsible for the +opening up of a certain number. Among the finds were no doubt the fossil +bones of Quaternary animals to which mythical names and imaginary +properties were attached, and the popular belief in such amulets +naturally gave a great impetus to the search. It is, however, only a +little more than a century ago that these investigations took anything +like a scientific turn, and even then they had only a palaeontological +end in view. The idea that archaeology entered into the matter was not +at all realized for some years. The remains of many extinct or migrated +animals, such as the hyena, grizzly bear, reindeer and bison, were found +in quantities in the now famous cave at Gailenreuth in Franconia; and +later, William Buckland explored the equally well-known hyena-cave at +Kirkdale in Yorkshire, where he demonstrated that these animals had +lived on the spot, feeding on the mammoth, rhinoceros and other +creatures that had been their prey. The remains of man, however, had not +been found, nor were they even looked for. It was not until Kent's +cavern, near Torquay, was examined by the Rev. J. McEnery, that man was +clearly proved to have been contemporary with these extinct beasts. So +contrary was this contention to the ideas prevalent in the second +quarter of the 19th century, that the pioneer in this work had died (in +1841) before the immense importance of his discovery was admitted. To +Godwin Austen in the first place and to W. Pengelley in the second, with +the aid of the British Association, was due the vindication of McEnery's +veracity and accuracy. + +Several circumstances conspire to give a special interest to Kent's +cavern, and not the least is the fact that the age and appearance of the +various strata indicate that it has been the home or the refuge of human +beings at all ages even up to medieval times, and perhaps from a period +even more remote than is the case elsewhere. In the black mould that +formed the uppermost layer were found fragments of medieval pottery, and +relatively in close proximity were ancient British and Roman remains as +well as relics of the earliest days of metallurgy, in the shape of +bronze fragments. The two thousand years or more that may have separated +the oldest from the most modern of these later products, is as nothing +in comparison with the immense intervals that lie between the earliest +of them and the infinitely more remote period when gigantic mammals +first inhabited the cave. Attempts have been made from time to time to +express in years what the interval must have been: but as the +computations have differed by hundreds of thousands of years, according +to the method adopted, it is scarcely wise to do more than speculate. +Beneath the black mould, containing what may be called the recent +remains, was a layer of stalagmite, some feet in thickness; and under +this at one place was a great quantity of charcoal, which has been with +good reason assumed to show the site of fireplaces. A quantity of +implements of palaeolithic type was found, but the main layer at this +level consisted of a reddish clay known as cave-earth, and in this +deposit were implements both of flint and horn, as well as bones of +extinct animals. The flint implements were mostly of the usual +river-drift type, but some were of types generally confined to +cave-deposits of this period; while the barbed harpoon heads, and more +especially a bone needle, were definitely of the cave class, so well +represented in the caves of Dordogne. Again, below the cave-earth was a +_breccia_ formed of limestone and sandstone pebbles cemented together by +a calcareous paste. In this also were found implements and bones of +bears. + +The succession of strata indicated above may be taken as typical of the +caverns used by palaeolithic man, the breccia and stalagmite flooring +being in themselves proof of a very considerable age, while the +association in the former, or under the latter, of remains of human +handiwork, with bones of extinct animals, may be safely taken to show +contemporaneous existence. + +Once the mind has fairly grasped the fact that man was living at so +remote a time, it is a simple and natural conclusion that he should have +provided himself with weapons and tools more or less rudely fashioned +from the stones he found ready to his hand. The analogy of the recently +extinct Tasmanian is sufficient to show that even the meanest savage is +not without such aids. But the caves of France, of the same palaeolithic +period, and used by men theoretically in the same stage of culture, +bring before us a race of artists of first-rate capacity, who for +accuracy of observation, and for skill in indicating the character and +peculiarities of the animals around them, have never been surpassed. +Such a statement sounds like a contradiction in terms. We are dealing +with human beings whose intellect, to judge by their physical +characters, should be on a level with that of the Fuegian or the +Australian black, and far below that of the Maori or the Sandwich +Islander. Yet none of these gentle and relatively cultured brown races +produced anything in the nature of art that can in any sense be compared +with the masterly drawings or sculptures of the cave-men of France. The +best-known of the engravings, that of the mammoth on a piece of ivory, +is in the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. It is evidently intended to be +nothing more than a sketch, the lines of the finely curved tusks being +repeated several times in the desire for accuracy. But the heavy +lumbering walk of the ponderous beast, his attitude, and even the +character of the hairy hide, are all shown or suggested with a skill and +freedom that not only denotes daily familiarity with the thing +represented, but a most complete mastery of the art of translating the +idea into simple line. This mammoth-drawing is probably the most +important and monumental of its class, but there are many others that +possess artistic qualities not less remarkable, while they have in +addition a grace and beauty of line not less astonishing. One of these, +in the British Museum, the head of an ibex-like creature, is outlined +with a decision and refinement that can scarcely be surpassed, and many +other sketches in horn or stone in the same collection show a keen +appreciation of the characteristic features of the different animals as +well as a masterly deftness in the handling of the graving-tool. If we +are forced to marvel at the graphic skill of the cave-men, their +sculptures in the round are on a still higher plane, as may be seen in +the figures of reindeer in ivory in the British Museum. While they are +not highly finished, they show a complete understanding of the animal's +peculiar forms and contours, which are rendered in a direct, +unhesitating way that should betoken a long period of artistic training +and an executive power uncommon at any time. These drawings and +sculptures have always been appreciated and even regarded as being of a +much more advanced style than was to be expected among men who are +always classed in the lower grades of culture. But enough stress has not +hitherto been laid on the artistic quality of the work, which would be +considered fine at any time in the world's history. This high artistic +level was attained by a race of men whom we cannot credit with any great +intellectual equipment; men, moreover, who were engaged in a daily +struggle for the barest necessaries of life, in a trying climate and +surrounded by a fauna whose means of attack and defence were infinitely +superior to their own. There are many astonishing problems in +archaeology, but none so badly in need of solution. Had the discovery +been confined to a single drawing or even to a single site, fraud or a +misreading of the conditions might have been alleged, but the case is +very different. The drawings and sculptures have been found generally +enough in France to demonstrate that such artistic power was fairly +common, while the question of the authenticity and period of the +discoveries has long since been satisfactorily settled. It is true that +the climatic conditions in pleistocene France were more favourable to +man than was the case farther north, but even an agreeable climate does +not necessarily produce an artistic race; if it were so, the Polynesians +would probably be the greatest artists the world has ever seen. The +physical remains of palaeolithic man, even when found under +unquestionable conditions, are, however, so scanty, that it is unlikely +that the important question of the race or races inhabiting central and +northern Europe will ever be settled by their means. The evidence at +present is in favour of two very different types, one dwarfish and +brutal (Canstadt), the other more advanced and noble in physical +character (Cro-Magnon). To the latter were due the artistic productions, +and until further physical evidence is forthcoming recourse must be had +to the most minute examination of the objects themselves and to accurate +observation of the conditions under which they are found. So far as our +present materials go, these are the only means by which more light may +be thrown on the many problems of early man. + +In spite of the unquestioned and unquestionable character of +palaeolithic discoveries in general, it must not be assumed that there +has been an absence of falsification, forgery, and what the French call +"mystification"; on the contrary, such attempts to meet the demand have +been common enough. Apart from Edward Simpson, who was notorious as +"Flint Jack" in the middle of the 19th century, many others, both in +England and on the continent of Europe, have devoted themselves to this +peculiar industry. Boucher de Perthes tried to conquer the scepticism of +some of his friends who doubted the human origin of the Abbeville +flints, by unwisely offering his workmen a reward for the discovery of +human bones in the same beds. The Moulin Quignon jaw was accordingly +produced, and became the subject of much controversy; but the evidence +finally showed that it had originally come from elsewhere. The cave +drawings also have found their imitators in modern times. One Meillet, a +man of education, took a special pleasure in the production of spurious +examples, and even published an account of his pretended discoveries. +But here, as in all the attempts at imitation of the cave drawings, the +modern efforts were betrayed by their poor artistic quality, and a +comparison of the new discoveries with the old was generally enough to +disclose the forgery. Two drawings on bone of a wolf and a bear, +declared to have been found in a cave at Thayingen in Switzerland, were +afterwards shown to have been copied from a child's picture-book. In +Switzerland also a brisk trade was carried on some years ago in false +antiquities said to come from the Lake-dwellings; and fantastic types of +tools and implements were placed on the market. In Italy, too, a lively +discussion has taken place of late years over the authenticity of +curiously shaped flint implements from the neighbourhood of Verona; +while America has provided similar food for discussion in the well-known +Lenape stone and the Calaveras skull. The former bears drawings of the +French cave type, while the latter if genuine would carry back the story +of man in the American continent before Pliocene times. + + + Mesolithic. + +An apparent break in the continuity of man's history in Europe occurs at +the end of the palaeolithic period. Attempts have been made to bridge +the gap by means of a "mesolithic" period ([Greek: mesos], middle); but +it would not seem probable that the missing links will occur at all +events so far north as Britain. We leave palaeolithic man in a cold +climate, surrounded by a somewhat mixed fauna that formed his prey. We +know him as a hunter and artist, but the remains show that he had no +knowledge of pottery till towards the close of the period. Among the +humbler arts he practised at least sewing, and lived in caves or took +shelter at the base of overhanging rocks; but like the Australian, he +frequently camped in the open. His successor of the later Stone Age +(neolithic) we find to be a very different character and with very +different surroundings. The configuration of the land in which he lived +is practically the same as we now see it. The severe arctic conditions +with the appropriate fauna had entirely disappeared, and the +introduction of new arts must have radically changed his daily life. The +most important of these are the training of domestic animals, +agriculture, and the development of pottery. What were the burial rites +of palaeolithic man we have at present no means of knowing, but for his +neolithic successor we know that these were matters of great moment. The +abundance of arrowheads of flint indicate the common use of the bow and +arrow as a weapon, while the art of weaving marks an immense stride in +the direction of comfort and civilization. Of the form and construction +of his dwelling we have only a limited knowledge, derived with some +uncertainty from the analogy of the dwellings for the dead (barrows) and +more certainly from the remains of the villages found erected on piles +on the shores of lakes. + +A much-debated question arises here that cannot be passed over. The +changes just mentioned are not such as would be produced by internal +causes alone. Much of the evidence is in favour of neolithic man being +an immigrant, coming into northern and central Europe long after +palaeolithic man and his characteristic fauna had disappeared. Where did +the earlier race go and who are its modern representatives, if any? The +answers to this question are many. W. Boyd Dawkins is of opinion that +the reindeer was followed by man in its journey to the north after the +retreating glaciers, and that the modern representative of palaeolithic +man is the Eskimo. His arguments are ingenious but unconvincing; they +mainly consist in the similarity of the habits of both races in using +harpoons and implements of similar form and make, their power of carving +and drawing on bone, the absence of pottery, disregard of the dead, &c. +As to the positive evidence, it is almost enough to say that the Eskimo, +like the cave-men, used the material nearest to hand that served their +purpose, and that nothing is more remarkable than the similarity of +primitive weapons used by widely separated peoples; while the negative +evidence as to the absence of pottery is of little value; their +conditions of life would allow them neither to make it nor keep it. Till +recently we had no evidence at all of the treatment of the dead by +palaeolithic man, but this is no longer the case; the discoveries in the +Grottes de Grimaldi, Monaco, show several methods of burial, near a +hearth, or in rude stone cists (see Dr Verneau in _L'Anthropologie_, +xvii. 291). A stronger argument would be furnished if it could be shown +that by his physical character the Eskimo is an intruder in his present +home, and is unrelated to his neighbours. But this has not yet been +done, and the skulls of the Eskimo do not resemble any of those hitherto +found in the caves. In fact, what evidence there is on the subject is +rather against than in favour of the wanderings northward of the +inhabitants of the caves. There are indications, on the other hand, that +in the south of France, in the Pyrenees, the reindeer was in existence, +with man, at a later period than that of the caves, while the type of +skull is that of Cro-Magnon. Here, therefore, it may be that something +like a bridging of the gap between palaeolithic and neolithic times may +be forthcoming. But it still remains to be found, and for the present we +must be content with uncertainty. + + + Neolithic. + +The neolithic period has often been loosely called the age of polished +stone, from the fact that in no case has a polished or ground stone +implement been found in a palaeolithic deposit. The term is not only +loose but inaccurate. In the first place, there is no reason why the +cave-men should not be found to have polished a stone implement on +occasion, for they habitually polished their weapons of bone. Secondly, +neolithic man was by no means uniform in his methods; he polished or +ground the surfaces of such tools or weapons as would be improved by the +process; but to take a common instance, he found that the efficacy of +his arrow-point was sufficient when chipped only, and polishing is only +occasionally found, as in Ireland. Many other implements also are found +in neolithic times with no trace of grinding and yet with every +appearance of being complete. + +The most trustworthy evidence with regard to this and the succeeding +archaeological periods is to be found in the grave-mounds. For the +earlier part of the neolithic age, however, these are by no means +fruitful of relics. From their shape they are called in England "long +barrows" to distinguish them from the round barrows which belong to a +succeeding time, though evidence is being accumulated to show that this +division is not of universal application. Long barrows are by no means +of such frequent occurrence in Britain as the round variety; they are +most common in Wiltshire, Gloucestershire and Dorset, and occur as far +north as Caithness. Some of them contain within the mound a stone +chamber, at times with a gallery leading to it, and in the chamber the +interment or interments took place. Similar barrows have been found on +the continent of Europe, and both in Britain and abroad have one feature +in common, viz. that no metal, with possibly the exception of gold, has +ever been found in them. This similarity of burial custom, though it may +conceivably indicate intercourse, certainly does not prove identity of +race, as has been sometimes claimed. The type of skulls found in the +interment is clear evidence against such an assumption. + +In Britain, the burials were at times by inhumation only, and +occasionally a great number of bodies were interred in the same barrow: +at others, cremation had preceded burial. Another remarkable feature is +that in many instances it is certain from the relative position of the +bones of the unburnt burials that the corpse had been allowed to decay +before the burial took place. This curious practice is known among many +savage tribes of the present day. Its occurrence in Britain has been +adduced in favour of the prevalence of cannibalism at this time, and not +altogether without reason. While metal is entirely absent in the long +barrows (and in fact relics of any kind are very rarely found), it is +significant that in the succeeding round barrows also metal occurs but +seldom, and then always of the types attributed to the earliest part of +the Bronze Age. When, therefore, the mound pottery is of a class that +may well be anterior to metal, and no metal is found with the burial, it +is not unreasonable to assign such barrows to the Stone Age. A similar +argument may be applied to the stone implements, but in the opposite +direction. Many stone implements are found either isolated, or perhaps +with no other relics that serve to fix their period. The material alone +is often considered sufficient evidence of their being before the age of +metals; but it is at any rate quite certain that a large number of stone +axes, more particularly those with a socket for the handle, belong +really to the Bronze Age. This uncertainty makes any account of the +neolithic age difficult, unless the material is taken as the main basis. + +Neolithic man, like his forerunners, still recognized that flint and +allied stones provided the best material for his cutting and piercing +implements, though he made use to a great extent of other hard stones +that came ready to his hand. The mining of flint was undertaken on a +large scale, and great care was taken to get down to the layer +containing the best quality. In Norfolk, at Grime's Graves, and in +Sussex, at Cissbury near Worthing, the flint shafts have been carefully +explored by William Greenwell, General Pitt-Rivers and others. The +system was to sink two shafts some little distance apart and deep enough +to reach the desired flint-bed, and the two shafts were then joined by a +gallery at the bottom. At Grime's Graves large numbers of deer's horns +were found, which had evidently been used as picks, as is proved by the +marks found in the chalk walls; and the horn had been trimmed for the +purpose. Cups of chalk were also found in the galleries and were +believed to have been used as lamps. At Cissbury great quantities of +unfinished and defective implements were found in the work, as well as +horn tools, as in Norfolk. At such factories the primitive appliances +correspond very closely with those in use among existing savages. The +pebble was used as a hammer or an anvil, and the more delicate flaking +was done by pressure with a piece of horn rather than by blows. +Naturally enough the number of completed implements found in these +factories is small; the finished tools would be bartered at once and +carried away from the factory. All the animal remains found in these +pits belong to present geological conditions, thus emphasizing what has +been stated above, that the absence of polished implements is no +evidence for great age. Many other factories have been found in Britain, +in Ireland and on the continent of Europe: at Grovehurst in Kent, at +Stourpaine near Blandford, at Whitepark Bay, county Antrim, and in +Belgium at Spiennes. Among the North American Indians the method would +seem to have been somewhat different. After journeying to the site of a +suitable quality of stone, they did not always complete the implements +on the spot, but made a number of oval chipped disks of good stone which +they carried away and worked up into the required implements at their +leisure. These disks bear a strong likeness to some of the ovate +implements from the Drift in Europe; in fact, but for the difference of +surface condition or patina, they would be identical. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD + + 1. French Drift + 2. English Drift. + 3. French transition (Le Moustier). + 4. French Cave Period. + 5. English Cave Period.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + SCULPTURE AND ENGRAVINGS OF THE CAVE PERIOD. FROM DORDOGNE, FRANCE.] + +[Illustration: PLATE III. + + WALL PAINTINGS OF THE CAVE PERIOD CAVERN OF ALTAMIRA, SANTANDER, + SPAIN. + + OUTLINE OF WALL-PAINTINGS, ALTAMIRA, LENGTH ABOUT 45-1/2 FT (_cf_ + PAINTING, Plate 1.) + + By permission, from _La Caverne d'Altamira_ by Cartaulhac and Breuil + Monaco 1906.] + +[Illustration: PLATE IV. + + NEOLITHIC PERIOD. + + 1. Flint and stone implements, England. + 2. Flint arrow-heads, England. + 3. Arrow-heads, Ireland. + 4. Flint and stone implements, Denmark. + 5. Flint implements, France. + 6. Flint implements, Egypt.] + +While the severe climatic conditions that preceded the neolithic age +restricted the presence of man to the more temperate parts of the globe, +it may be assumed that in neolithic times there was nothing to prevent +him from occupying the greater part of the earth's surface, short of the +neighbourhood of the two poles. Thus it may be expected that an age of +stone will be found, if looked for, in every part of the globe. So far +as our present knowledge goes, all is in favour of the use of stone +before metals, in all countries. The one material requires no special +treatment before being adapted to man's use, while the other demands +considerable knowledge, even if reasoning power have but little place in +the process. Thus the probabilities are here borne out by the facts. In +the extensive "kitchen-middens" of Japan are found great numbers of +chert implements mixed with pottery of a primitive type, recalling that +of European early Bronze Age barrows, while the succeeding periods of +metal are equally clear. Even in the Far East, therefore, the same +sequence is to be observed. In China, the conditions are more obscure. +The superstitious regard for ancestors has prevented the exploration of +ancient tombs in that country, and thus systematic search has been +impossible, while the precise details of the discovery of such relics as +have come to light are difficult to obtain. In spite of the assertion +that China had no Stone Age, it is surely more probable, in the absence +of exact knowledge, that she followed the normal course. Modern +territorial divisions, more especially if they are independent of the +natural physical conditions of the land, such as mountain ranges, great +rivers and the like, have but little value in considering the race +problems of remote ages. If, therefore, we find that, in the countries +bordering on what is now the Chinese empire, the ancient inhabitants +followed the same broad lines of culture that are evident elsewhere, it +is easy to believe that China too was normal in this respect. The +negroes and Bantu races of Africa also were thought to have passed +direct to the use of iron, perhaps owing to the existence on the Nile of +a civilization of great antiquity, which enabled them to pass over the +intervening stages. Inherently improbable, this is now known not to have +been the case. Stone implements, whether ground or merely chipped, have +been discovered on the Congo, and more recently on the Zambezi. It is +quite true that in both cases they are found in superficial deposits, +and may be of any age. But here again the probabilities are greatly in +favour of their having been in use before iron was known. While stone +tools, such as knives or arrow-heads, may possess qualities that render +them superior to bronze or copper, it is certain that once the working +of iron was understood, its superiority to stone would at once be +perceived, and the stone tools be discarded. There can be little doubt +that investigations in Central Africa will demonstrate that the same +course was followed there as elsewhere. In South Africa, in Egypt and in +Somaliland large quantities of stone implements have been discovered, +and of the great age of most of them there can be no doubt. Some from +the banks of the Nile have even been claimed as "eolithic"; but here, as +in Europe, We can only say that the case is not proven: General +Pitt-Rivers did good service in Egypt by discovering among the +stratified gravels near Thebes a number of rude flints bearing +unmistakeable signs of human workmanship, but he described them merely +as of "palaeolithic type," and deplored the absence of mammalian remains +in the gravels. At the same time he pointed out that the bulk of the +implements claimed as palaeolithic (and, it may be, correctly) are found +on the surface, and therefore cannot be dissociated from the surface +types; hence form alone cannot be trusted to determine age. Further, we +are by no means well informed as to the value of patination in flints +found on the surface in Egypt. The depth and intensity of the patination +would no doubt have a direct relation to the age of the implement, if +only it could be proved that all of them had been equally subjected to +the conditions that produced the discoloration. But this is clearly +impossible. Some implements may conceivably have been continuously on +the surface of the desert from the time they were made, and have been +acted upon by the sun and air for many thousands of years, while others, +though of equal age, may have been covered by sand or otherwise +protected for a large part of the intervening centuries. Patination, +therefore, like form, can only claim a conditional value. It is at the +best an uncertain indication of age, as great age may be possible +without it. Similarly, in Somaliland, the condition of the implements is +very curious, and in some respects puzzling, while their forms resemble +those from the Drift in Europe. But as to the climatic conditions we +know nothing, and it is therefore useless to speculate on the condition +of the stones; as to the geology we know next to nothing, and no +mammalian remains give us a helping hand, while the form alone is a +dangerous foundation for argument. + + + Europe and America. + +Investigations in the more remote parts of the world, though they may +occasionally produce some startling novelty in the history of mankind, +can scarcely be expected to furnish the same trustworthy continuous +story as is to be found in the European area. Here history provides us +with a fairly truthful account of what has happened for a period varying +from two to three thousand years, or in some places even longer, and we +are thus able to judge whether particular discoveries come into the +historical stage or not. In more primitive lands where history (if there +be any) partakes more of the character of mythical tradition, the task +of defining the period to which particular discoveries belong is +rendered much more difficult. In America, where history may be said to +have begun five hundred years ago, such a feat is of course impossible, +until a great deal of work on comparative lines has been accomplished. +The accounts of the civilization of Mexico and Peru at the time of the +Spanish conquest show a state of culture which in some respects must +have put the Spaniards to shame, while in others it was primitive in the +extreme. As regards internal communications, the working of gold and +copper, and the manufacture and decoration of pottery, these American +kingdoms were on a level with all but the most advanced nations; but of +history in the true sense of the word they have none. In spite of this, +it is by no means a hopeless task to disentangle the apparent confusion +of their archaeology. It is now fairly well known what were the races or +tribes that inhabited particular districts, and it is thus easy to make +a _corpus_ of the types adopted by the various peoples. This is the +first certain step in the application of archaeological method. By +degrees, as these types become familiar to the trained eye, it will not +be difficult to arrange them in a progressive series, from the earliest +in style to the latest. That this will be done by the archaeologists of +the American continent, even with the present scanty materials, there +can be little doubt. Numbers of young and enthusiastic workers have now +had a good training in exploration in historical lands, and will +usefully employ their experience on the antiquities of their own +country. But if once a key be found to the ancient Mexican inscriptions, +so plentifully scattered through the ancient monuments, it may be that +enlightenment will come even more suddenly and more surely. The one +problem that is of the greatest interest still awaits solution, viz. +whether there is any relation, in culture or more remotely in race, +between the inhabitants of ancient America and those of Europe or Asia. +One thing is certain, that if there be any connexion, it is of infinite +remoteness. But it is at any rate noteworthy that the same designs, +patterns and even games are found in ancient Mexico and in India or +China; and whether these resemblances arise from relations between the +peoples using them or from accident, is a problem well worth +investigation. + +In countries like Scandinavia or Switzerland, the story of the early +ages is clear and comparatively free from complications. The one by its +remoteness was left to develop with but little help from the rest of +Europe up to historical times; the other, protected on so many sides by +its mountain ranges, seems to have enjoyed a peaceful existence during +the Stone and Bronze Ages. A community of fishermen and agriculturists, +they led a calm domestic life on the edges of their many lakes where +they constructed dwellings on piles with only a gangway to the shore, to +prevent the attacks of predatory animals. The practice of building +houses in lakes was a common one not only in Switzerland, but also in +Britain and in Ireland, as in modern times among the natives of New +Guinea. Besides securing the safety of the inhabitants, it had the not +unimportant advantage of being more healthy; all refuse of food and +other useless matter could at once be thrown into the water where it +would be harmless. A similar form of dwelling is the Irish "crannog," +constructed on an island or shoal in a lake, in some cases artificially +heightened so as to bring it above water. These crannogs were probably +inhabited in Ireland up to comparatively recent times, if one may judge +by the remains found on the sites. + +It must not be forgotten that although the neolithic period had many +phases, yet its duration is in no way comparable to the incalculable +length of the palaeolithic age. For a variety of reasons it is thought +that one of the earliest stages of neolithic times is represented by the +now well-known kitchen-middens (refuse-heaps) of Denmark. These heaps +are often of great size, sometimes reaching 10 ft. in height, and nearly +350 yds. in length. Here along the coast line the natives of Denmark +lived, apparently building their huts upon the mounds and cooking their +food upon hearths of stone. The conditions of their daily life would +seem to have resembled those of the natives of Tierra del Fuego. Their +implements of flint seem to have been chipped only, and it is +conjectured that the few polished and more highly finished implements +that have been found in the middens are importations from more cultured +tribes living inland. Their food was in very great part composed of +shell-fish, though they evidently caught and ate various kinds of deer, +boar and a variety of carnivorous animals. The race which made these +mounds is believed to have been akin to the Lapps, and their dwellings +can hardly have been anything more than the rudest protection from the +weather. The Swiss lake-dwellers were far more advanced, even in the +Stone Age; their dwellings were elaborately planned and constructed, and +remains of them have been plentifully found in the various Swiss lakes. +Various forms of construction were adopted: in one the foundations +consisted of poles driven into the bed of the lake; in others a kind of +framework simply rested on the bottom, and in a third, the substructure +was formed of layers of sticks reaching from the bottom of the lake up +to the surface. The walls were of wattle, closed up with clay to keep +out the weather; the hearths were of stone slabs, and the floors of clay +well trodden down. Practically the same type of dwelling seems to have +continued through the Stone and Bronze Ages, though on some sites no +metal whatever is found and it is therefore assumed that these are of +the earlier period. These people cultivated the land, growing wheat and +barley; they were also hunters and fishermen, capable of manufacturing +pottery without the aid of the wheel, which had not yet come into use so +far north; and they wove mats and garments, while ropes and netting are +plentiful. Their tools and weapons were made of stone, and to a great +extent of deer's horn. Human remains are hardly ever found on the sites +of the lake-dwellings, and it is therefore uncertain what were the +social affinities of the people; but the evidence of the sites is in +favour of the same race being continuous into the Bronze Age, when their +condition was more comfortable, as is shown by the abundant remains of +domesticated animals. + + + Stone Age relics. + +Among the most notable and obvious relics of prehistoric times, both in +Britain and in many other countries such as Spain, Portugal, France and +even India, are gigantic circles and avenues of stone and dolmens (see +STONE MONUMENTS). These enduring monuments have excited the wonder of +countless generations, and lent themselves to superstitious practices +down to modern times. But the precise purpose for which they were +erected and even the period to which they belonged, had never been +definitely settled. They had been called burial places of great chiefs, +and not unnaturally had been thought by others to have been temples or +places of primitive worship used by the Druids, who moreover were often +credited with their erection. Obviously such a question called for +settlement, and the British Association in the year 1898 appointed a +committee to investigate these stone circles with a view to ascertaining +their age. Operations were begun at the well-known circle of Arbor Low, +south of Buxton in Derbyshire; careful excavations were made through the +ditch and the encircling mound and also within the circle, and although +the evidence was not of the most complete kind, yet the committee came +to the conclusion that the circle belonged to the end of the neolithic +age. At Arbor Low all the stones are now lying on the ground (although, +to judge from the other circles in England, they were certainly once +upright), and the opportunities for surveying were thereby much +diminished. It is a fortunate circumstance, therefore, that the fall of +one of the stones at Stonehenge (q.v.) at the end of the 19th century, +and the increasingly perilous state of some of the others, caused the +owner, with the advice of the Society of Antiquaries of London, to +undertake the raising of the great leaning stone in the interior of the +circle. The work was superintended by W. Gowland, F.S.A., who made +special investigations during the necessary digging, for the purpose of +recovering any remains of man's handiwork that had been left by the +builders of the monument. In this he was very successful, finding in the +course of the very limited excavation at the base of the monolith, a +great number of stone mauls or hammers that corresponded so nearly with +the bruised surfaces of the monoliths, that there can be no doubt of +their having been used to dress the standing stones. + +From a review of all the evidence of an archaeological nature that was +to be obtained, Gowland came to the conclusion that the construction of +Stonehenge belonged to the latter part of the neolithic age. No trace of +a metal implement occurred in any of the debris. This would of itself be +an interesting fact, but it became infinitely more interesting from +researches in quite another direction, which brought corroborative +evidence of a curious kind. For many years Sir Norman Lockyer and Prof. +Penrose were engaged in examining the orientation of temples in Egypt +and Greece, with a view to determining on what astronomical principle, +if any, the plans had been laid down. With a rectangular plan, and with +portions of the interior still well defined, they were able by elaborate +calculation to determine that the temples had been definitely planned +with relation to the rising or setting of the sun or of a particular +star. Having been successful in these investigations they proceeded to +apply the test to Stonehenge. The experiment was made on the longest day +in the year 1901. Owing to a gradual change in the obliquity of the +earth's orbit, the point of sunrise on corresponding days of each year +is not constant; and though the difference is hardly perceptible from +year to year, in the course of centuries it becomes great enough for use +as a measure of time. Enough remains of the monument to show the +direction of sunrise at the time that Stonehenge was erected, it being +always assumed that the coincidence of the main axis with the central +line of the Avenue was designed with reference to sunrise on the longest +day of the year. At the date of the experiment it was found that the sun +had shifted nearly two diameters in the interval, and this variation +gives a date of about 1680 B.C., which practically confirms the verdict +of archaeology and seems to prove, moreover, that Stonehenge was a +temple of the sun. + +Stonehenge therefore may be taken as marking for Britain the close of +the neolithic period and heralding the dawn of a new era, in which the +inhabitants of the British Isles first acquired the art of working +metal. + + + Bronze Age. + +There is reason to believe that the transition from the use of stone to +that of bronze was not due to the peaceful advance of civilization, but +rather to the irruption of an Aryan race from the south-east of Europe +into the countries to the west and north. Of these people the Celts are +to some extent the representatives at a somewhat more recent period. +Here, however, we are dealing with terms the precise meaning of which is +not yet generally admitted, and which, moreover, have too intimate a +relation to the problems of philology to be fully discussed here (see +INDO-EUROPEAN). The term Aryan (q.v.) itself is not free from +objections. It was held by Max Muller to relate to a language and a +civilization that took its rise in Central Asia, while others now +contend that, although it is the mother language of the Sanskrit, Greek, +Latin, Teutonic and Celtic languages, it might equally well have +originated in Europe. However this may be, and even this brief statement +shows how wide a field the arguments would cover, there can be little +doubt that the Bronze Age Celts were of this stock, and that in course +of time they gradually spread their language and culture over a large +part of Europe. Whether or no the knowledge of bronze started from one +or more centres, it gradually spread from the south-east of Europe until +it reached Scandinavia; the dates being roughly in Crete, 3000 B.C.; in +Sicily, 2500 B.C.; in central France, 2000 B.C.; in Britain and in +Scandinavia 1800 B.C. The appearance of the Celts in Britain is +indicated by the presence of the round barrows. They were a fairly tall, +short-headed race, using cremation and also inhumation in their burials, +skilful in the manufacture of pottery and of the simpler forms of bronze +implements, and freely using bone, jet, and at times amber, while gold +was well known and evidently greatly esteemed. In the early centuries of +the Bronze Age, swords, spears and shields were apparently quite +unknown, the principal metallic products being flat axes, simple knives +or daggers, and small tools or ornaments. In the burial places the +bodies, if unburnt, are nearly always found in a crouching position, as +if in the attitude of sleep; if cremated, the burnt bones are generally +enshrined in an urn under the tumulus, the burial being sometimes in a +cist formed of large stones. The pottery vessels are remarkable in more +ways than one. In the first place they would seem to have been specially +made for the burial rites, for whenever domestic pottery has been found, +it is of quite a different character, unornamented and simple in +outline. It must be confessed, however, that this latter is by no means +common. The sepulchral vessels are at times highly decorated, and +sometimes of great size. They are invariably hand made, and though they +are by no means well fired they are never sun-dried, as is often said to +be the case. A common kind of decoration is produced by impressing +twisted cords in the damp clay, and this is believed with some reason to +have had its origin in the practice of winding cords round the unbaked +vessel to prevent distortion before or during the process of firing. +That operation would of course burn away the cord and leave only its +impression on the urn. Other forms of ornament are also used, incised +lines in rudely geometrical designs, impressions of the end of a stick, +and at times rows of hollows produced by the finger or thumb. The method +of the burial, beyond giving an insight into the art of the period, also +helps us to realize to some extent the ideas of primitive man. The +underlying reason for careful and ceremonial burial is not always +readily understood, apart from a knowledge of the ritual, such as +existed in ancient Egypt. But in the Bronze Age in Britain it was the +custom to bury with the dead not only carefully made vessels which +doubtless contained food for the journey to the lower world, but also +the ornaments and weapons of the deceased. Often the bonea of a pig have +been found in the grave, doubtless representing part of the provender +which could not conveniently be placed in the so-called food-vessel. +Such practices indicate with a fair amount of certainty a belief in a +future life in another world, where probably the conditions were thought +to be much the same as in this. The burial of the weapons and other +property of a dead man is, however, not always due to the belief that he +may need them in some future state. The reason may well be that it would +be thought unlucky for a survivor to use them. + +Just as the neolithic age was immeasurably shorter than the +palaeolithic, but was notable for great improvements in the arts of +life, so the Bronze Age in its turn was shorter than the neolithic age, +and again witnessed even more marked advance in culture. It is in fact +an illustration of the truism that each step in knowledge renders all +that follow less laborious; but it is not easy to understand how the +transition from stone to metal came about, nor why bronze came to be the +chosen metal rather than iron. Bronze, in the first place, is a +composite metal, a mixture of copper and tin, while iron can be at once +reduced from its ores; indeed, in the form of meteoric iron, it is +already metallic, and needs but a hammer to produce whatever form may be +wanted. From the archaeological point of view, there is, however, good +reason for believing that bronze preceded iron. The forms of axes that +are without doubt the earliest, are in outline much the same as the +stone prototype, being only thinner in proportion. Then again, iron +implements are never found on the earlier sites, and if they had been in +existence some of them certainly would remain: further, at the end of +the Bronze Age it is found that the forms of weapons in that metal are +exactly copied in iron, as, for instance, at Hallstatt (q.v.) in the +Salzkammergut, the famous cemetery which best illustrates the passage +from the use of bronze to that of iron. It has been claimed that bronze +was preceded by copper, a sequence which seems inherently probable; and +whether or no it was general enough or enduring enough to constitute a +period, there can be no reasonable doubt that in the Mediterranean area, +and in central Europe, as well as in Ireland, great numbers of +implements were made of copper alone without any appreciable admixture +of tin. The casting of pure copper presents certain difficulties, in +that the metal is not adapted for anything but a mould open to the air, +and this would limit its utility, until the discovery that tin in a +certain proportion (roughly 1:9) not only made the resulting metal much +harder and better fitted for cutting-tools and weapons, but at the same +time rendered possible the use of closed moulds. + +There are thus two problems in connexion with the history of the Bronze +Age. How was the metal discovered? And by whom or where? As to the +first, it must be remembered that in some parts of the world, e.g. in +China and in Cornwall, copper and tin are found together, and it may +well be that tin was first accidentally included as an impurity, which, +had it been noticed, would have been eliminated. Once it was found to +produce a more useful metal, the blend would be deliberately made, and +repeated trials would eventually demonstrate the most suitable +proportion of one metal to the other. The question of where it was first +discovered is one that is not likely to be answered with certainty, but +the one essential is the presence of the two metals in one and the same +locality. Tin does not exist in either Egypt or Mesopotamia, although +bronze articles from the fourth and third millennium respectively B.C. +have been found in these countries. The tin to produce the mere metal +must have come from some foreign country; and the choice seems to be +very small. Spain at the other end of the Mediterranean is unlikely, and +Britain still more so; central Asia, Asia Minor, or China again seem too +remote; for the spread of metallurgy from these centres would imply a +trade connexion nearly 4000 B.C. In later times, later perhaps by 3000 +years, Spain and Britain were undoubtedly among the chief sources of the +tin supply of Europe and of the Mediterranean generally; but it will +long remain a problem where bronze was first produced. There is indeed, +no real necessity for confining its origin to a single locality; it is +easily conceivable that the invention occurred independently in more +places than one. + +The history of early metallurgy has been carefully studied by W. +Gowland, who communicated the results of his researches to the Society +of Antiquaries of London in 1899. In his opinion the ores from which +copper was first obtained by smelting were originally found as pebbles +or boulders in the beds of streams, where man in the Stone Age had been +accustomed to search for stones to convert into implements; and in the +same way the beds of rivers were for a long subsequent period the only +sources of tin. Actual mining belongs in his opinion to a far later +period, and naturally had its origin in the discovery of outcrops of the +metal on the surface. By the simple application of fire, lumps of ore +were reduced to a smaller size, and were then prepared for smelting by +further reduction to the condition of a coarse powder. This latter +process was carried out in the same way that grain was crushed between +two stones; and stone-mills, doubtless used for the purpose, have been +found in ancient workings in Wales. The next stage would be the furnace, +and there can be little doubt that this would be of the simplest kind, +merely a hole in the ground with the fire covering the metal, and with +nothing but a natural draught. But Gowland holds that even with these +singularly inadequate appliances, copper could be smelted from the +surface ores, though the output would naturally be of the most uncertain +and intermittent character, depending, as it must have done, on the +wind. And until the discovery of bellows or some other method of +increasing the draught of air, no progress could be made in this +direction. With regard to the resulting metal, viz. copper, we have +certain knowledge. From time to time there are found in the earth in +Britain and elsewhere, hoards of fragmentary or imperfect bronze +implements, portions of axes, swords, rings, &c., all of which have been +failures in castings. These hoards are assumed to have been gathered +together by the bronze founders to be recast into perfect and useful +implements. Now, frequently associated with these hoards are portions of +cakes of pure copper, originally circular in shape, flat on one face and +convex on the other, like a lens with one flat face. The form of these +cakes is in itself a fair proof of the prevalence of the method of +smelting described above, as it is quite clear that the convex face of +the cake followed the contour of the hole in the ground above which the +fire was placed. The cakes are generally found broken up into small +handy blocks. This can only be done in one way, viz. by watching the +cake, after the fire and slag has been raked off it, until it is on the +point of becoming solid, when it is quickly pulled out of the hole and +broken up. It will be noted that while the implements in these founders' +hoards are invariably of bronze, the cakes are as invariably of copper. +This is at first sight puzzling, until it is realized that these +founders probably carried the tin necessary for forming bronze in the +form of ore, and that tin ore in its pure state is a snuff-coloured +powder very easily overlooked when lying on the earth, which it might +very nearly resemble in colour, though it would be much heavier. Thus it +is probable that in many such discoveries the tin ore has accompanied +the copper cakes and bronze fragments, but has hitherto eluded the eyes +of the finder. Not only have we this conclusive evidence of the methods +by which Bronze Age man produced his raw material, but the discovery of +crucibles and moulds takes us a step further towards the finished +implements. The crucibles are generally simple bowls of thick clay with +an extension of the lip at one side to pour out the molten metal. +Several of these, with plentiful traces of metal still remaining in +them, were found by the brothers Siret in the Bronze Age settlement at +El Argar in Murcia. In the same place also were found moulds of stone +for the casting of simple triangular axes. These were of the class known +as open moulds, one stone being hollowed to the desired form, the other +half being simply a flat cover, with no relation to the form of the +implement to be produced. From the nature of the metal, such a mould is +the only kind in which the casting of an efficient copper implement +would be possible; and among the objects discovered by the Sirets were +articles in plenty of pure copper. + +Much has been written in support of the theory that the bronze tools and +implements found in this or that country must have been importations +from southern and more highly civilized lands. More particularly has +this been alleged with regard to Britain, which, lying as it did on the +extreme limit of the ancient world, was regarded as being dependent on +the continent for the more complex weapons. The constant discovery, +however, of these hoards of rough metal, as well as of moulds of the +highest finish for casting swords, daggers, celts, and almost every kind +of ancient bronze implement and weapon known to us, provides a +conclusive proof of the contrary. The occurrence of a foreign type of +implement is so rare as to be a source of especial gratification to the +collector who secures it; and it may be taken that, in general terms, +all the bronze swords, daggers and spears found in Britain were of home +manufacture. Relations with the continent, however, did exist, as is +shown by the occurrence of an Irish type of gold ornament in France and +Scandinavia, and by the similarity of ornamental motives in the British +Isles and elsewhere. Among the continental races it is natural to find +intercommunication more common, owing to the absence of natural +barriers. The weapons of the Bronze Age were swords, spears, daggers and +axes (celts), though the last would be equally well adapted for more +peaceful purposes. The swords were usually of a narrow leaf shape, cast +with the handle in one piece, the mounting of the grip and the pommel +being added. For perfection of workmanship the weapons of this period +have never been surpassed, and the skill of adjustment in the moulds, +the fine and equal quality of the metal, and the flawless condition of +the surfaces still excite wonder among the most expert of modern +founders. The cutting edges of swords and "celts" were often, if not +always, hammered to serve the double purpose of hardening that part of +the weapon and sharpening the edge. In the case of the axe-heads +(celts), this hammering had a distinct influence on the evolution of the +form of the implement. The earliest celts, whether of copper or bronze, +were in form, copies of their stone prototypes, and curiously enough +exactly like the ordinary woodman's axe of to-day, but of course without +the socket for the handle. Hammering rendered the cutting edge both +broader and thinner, giving it at the same time a curved outline. This +widened curve eventually became an ornamental feature, the two ends of +the cutting edge becoming curved points and adding greatly to the +elegance of the outline. Later, the other edges were finished by +hammering also, at times in a simple ornamental fashion; and whether for +greater rigidity or for some other reason, flanges were produced in the +same way on those edges, which again affected the ultimate form of the +celt. The early flat celt was no doubt simply fixed in a perforated +wooden handle, which would naturally tend to split if wielded with any +vigour. The side-flanges were in course of time utilized to prevent +this, by allowing the use of a different form of handle. In place of the +simple straight handle, a branch was cut with an elbow-joint, and its +shorter limb then divided into two prongs, between which the metal +passed, while the flanges, beaten up from the edges, overlapped the two +forks; and no doubt a lashing of sinew was added to render the whole +secure. This made a good serviceable tool or weapon, and prevented the +splitting of the handle; but still another step was taken. The flanges +on the edges met over the prong of the handle on either side, while the +upper end of the celt itself eventually became a mere septum dividing +the two openings. This septum was finally judged to be useless, and done +away with; and the celt was cast with one hollow only for the reception +of the ends of the handle; thus the flat celt became, by a natural +process of evolution and improvement, a socketed celt. It is a curious +fact, however, that the modern form of axe where the handle passes +through a socket in the metal itself does not seem to have been much in +favour in the Bronze Age, although it was a stone form that certainly +survived into the succeeding period. + +This and other shortcomings in what must have been the universal weapon +and implement of the race, were remedied from time to time by various +improvements in the form of the bronze axe-head and the method of +hafting; and the various stages of development, from the flat blade of +copper or bronze to the socketed implement and even to a pattern now in +use, can still be traced in the Bronze Age specimens that have come down +to us. + +[Illustration: PLATE V. + + SEPULCHRAL POTTERY, BRITISH ISLES (BRONZE AGE). + + 1-3, Drinking cups or beakers. 4-9, Food vessels. 10-12, Cinerary + urns. + + SEPULCHRAL POTTERY FROM THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE (NEOLITHIC, BRONZE, + AND IRON AGES). + + STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE CELT OR IMPLEMENT OF CHISEL FORM. + + (1) From stone to metallic form. + (2) Growth of the stop ridge to palstave. + (3) Growth of the wings to socket-celt. + + By permission, from the British Museum _Guide to the Bronze Age._] + +[Illustration: PLATE VI. + + 1. Bronze shield with red enamel ornaments, found in the Thames near + Battersea; about 31 in. long. + + Chariot burial of a Gaulish chief, Somme Bionne, Marne, France. + + Bronze mounted wooden bucket found in a pit burial at Aylesford. + + Early Iron Age. + + Horned bronze helmet with traces of enamel ornament, found in the + Thames near Waterloo Bridge. + + The objects here represented are all in the British Museum. + + By permission, from the British Museum _Guide to the Early Iron Age._] + + + Iron age. + +With the discovery of iron as the ideal metal for cutting implements and +weapons, we enter into the millennium before the Christian era; for +roughly speaking, the development of the civilization associated with +the gradual substitution of iron for bronze began about 1000 B.C. Again +we look towards the south-east of Europe for the earliest evidence of +this great advance; from that quarter it gradually spread over the whole +continent, reaching the more northern parts about five hundred years +later. In Egypt, the home of a marvellous civilization at a very early +time, the conditions were different, and there is reason to suppose that +iron was known there long before it was in use on the northern side of +the Mediterranean. Our knowledge of the dates at which iron was first +known in parts of Asia is still very limited, and further discoveries +must be awaited. + + + Ireland. + +The archaeology of Ireland presents features in many respects different +from those of the rest of the British Islands in the Stone and Bronze +Ages. Such affinities in style as are traceable connect it rather with +Scotland than with any part of the south, a fact doubtless due to +proximity as well as in part to race connexions. A special feature is +the astonishing quantity of gold that was produced in Ireland during the +early Bronze Age. The frequent discovery of gold ornaments of this time +has enriched to a surprising degree the museum of the Royal Irish +Academy in Dublin, while many private and public collections both in +Ireland and elsewhere contain a considerable number of similar relics. +If these represented the total wealth of gold of the Bronze Age the +amount would probably exceed that of any ancient period in any country, +except perhaps the republic of Colombia in South America. But the known +remains can only be a small proportion of the original wealth. Vast +quantities must have been discovered from medieval times onwards, nearly +all of which would be melted down, owing to the ignorance of the finders +or to the uncertainty of ownership. Further, it may be taken as certain +that there still remains in the earth a great mass of the metal which +may or may not be discovered at some future time. If it were by any +means possible to estimate what these united categories would amount to, +the result would scarcely be credited. It is well known that gold has +been, and still is, found in Ireland; but it is hard to believe that +there were no richer deposits than are now known. It is at any rate +certain that the rivers were worked as late as the opening centuries of +our era. In the Bronze Age the most characteristic ornaments were +penannular objects of all sizes from a small finger ring up to an +armlet, generally known as "ring money" from the difficulty of assigning +a definite use to the whole series; and the flat, crescent-shaped, +diadem-like objects called "lunulae," which are perhaps even more +definitely characteristic of Ireland. Such objects of gold, if +ornamented at all, are, like some of the flat axe-heads, engraved with +simple geometrical patterns, lozenge-shaped chequers and the like, a +type of decoration in itself easily determined as being of the Bronze +Age, but bearing at the same time an interesting and very curious +analogy to remains of the same period from the Iberian Peninsula, more +especially from Portugal. If any overland culture-relations existed +between the two countries, it would be only reasonable to expect the +occurrence of the objects in question in the intervening districts. But +so far nothing of the kind has been discovered. Moreover, had it been an +isolated instance of resemblance it might be negligible, but an equally +odd similarity is found in the fact that the Irish were in the habit of +grinding the faces of their flint arrow-heads, an apparently useless +refinement, while the Portuguese of the early Bronze Age did the same. +Again, the dolmens of Ireland bear a distinct resemblance to those of +Spain and Portugal, while the French dolmens, with few exceptions in the +north, have a different character. These curious points are in favour of +the tradition that the original inhabitants of Ireland were of Iberian +origin, and further, that they did not come overland but by sea, and +there are indeed signs of extensive navigation in the Bronze Age of +northern Europe. It was perhaps in the middle of our Bronze Age, say +about 1000 B.C., that this Iberian race was supplanted by the Celts, who +took a considerable time to emerge from their native barbarism. It is, +at any rate, fairly certain that for some hundreds of years previous to +this Celtic invasion, Ireland was an enormously rich country, supplying +not only herself, but also Britain and part of the Atlantic seaboard +with gold. The fact became eventually an ingrained tradition in the +history of the country, subsisting in Irish literature for centuries +after the Christian era. Such natural wealth must have produced in these +early times a marked effect on the relations and culture of these +Iberian Irish, and one might reasonably expect a much higher level of +luxury and wealth than is indicated by the remains commonly found. With +the opportunities provided by communication with the continent, and the +interchange of goods, with all the chances of benefiting by ideas +current among other races, it is astonishing that Ireland did not play a +more prominent part in Europe, more than a thousand years before the +Christian era. + + + Mediterranean area. + +While gold as a metal was known in Europe, even before copper, it is a +curious fact that silver was almost unknown, and hardly ever used. One +of the most interesting sites for the metal, at about the same period of +which we have just been speaking in Ireland, was the Mediterranean coast +of Spain. Here in the neighbourhood of Almeria have been found remains +of a large and apparently prosperous population ranging from the Stone +Age to the end of the Bronze Age, with houses and tombs, besides the +fortifications rendered necessary, in the later period, by their +possession of the rare and precious metal, silver. Rare it certainly +was, for the quantity found was exceedingly small, tiny slender rings +for the fingers or the ears, and rivets to hold the axe-blade in its +handle; but nothing to compare with the lavish richness of the American +mines. The interesting race who occupied these dwellings and finally +were laid to rest in the adjoining graves were evidently connected more +or less closely with the peoples inhabiting the eastern coasts of the +Mediterranean. + +Recent discoveries in the central Mediterranean area not only furnish +new and trustworthy (though none the less surprising) dates in ancient +history, but may also bridge the distance between the Levant and the +Pillars of Hercules. The results achieved by Arthur Evans and other +distinguished explorers in Crete (q.v.) opened a new chapter in the +history of European civilization, and may fitly be compared with the +excavation of Troy, Mycenae and Tiryns by Schliemann some thirty years +before. The progress of archaeology in the interval can be well tested +by a comparison of the discussions to which the two series of +discoveries gave rise. The mistaken attributions and unfortunate +animosities in connexion with earlier excavations are almost forgotten, +while the brilliant discoveries in the island of King Minos have not +only themselves been made on scientific principles, but are illumined by +the splendid revelation of the civilizations of the Mycenaean and the +pre-Mycenaean era. + + + Classical. + +A great change indeed took place in the methods of classical study +during the last decade of the 19th century, a change which affected the +entire character of future classical research. It was formerly the +common habit among students and professors of archaeology to confine +their attention and their interests entirely to classical texts and even +to classical sites, rejecting as outside the scope of their studies +anything that was not manifestly beautiful as art. Whatever was +primitive in its aspect, or wanting in the familiar characteristics that +had for centuries been associated with Greek art, was either rejected +entirely or at any rate relegated to a second place, as having but a +poor claim to be classed with objects of the finer periods. The result +was necessarily misleading. The uninstructed majority very naturally +regarded the art of Pheidian times as a thing of supernatural growth, +which had been bestowed by divine favour upon a chosen spot on the +earth, without a human parentage, and almost without leaving any +descendants. The evolutionary methods of other branches of science, +however, were by degrees brought to bear upon the sacred precincts of +pure Greek art. It was found that the crude products of the second +millennium B.C., the formless images evolved by the uncultured dwellers +in the Mediterranean area more than a thousand years before the time of +Pheidias, were in truth the prototypes of the creations of himself and +his contemporaries. This step being taken, the rest became easy. The +most commonplace and ordinary relics were collected with as much avidity +as they had formerly been rejected, in the belief that their simple +forms would aid in the elucidation of their more complex and highly +elaborated descendants. This minute attention, moreover, was not only +given to the works of man, but even the remains of humanity received the +attention they merited. It has been rightly thought, during recent +years, that the question of race was a factor that deserved treatment in +dealing with works of art of early times; and that natural evolution due +to man's tendency to change with time, might not be sufficient to +account for the differences of type observed in human remains from the +same country. For this reason, not only the objects associated with the +burial have been preserved, but also the skeleton itself. This has been +examined, measurements taken and recorded for comparison, and inferences +made, sometimes of a surprising character. For example, if a cemetery be +found with a preponderance of tall, long-headed skeletons in a district +where the prevailing type of skeleton is short and brachycephalic +(short-headed), the observer may reasonably expect a different kind of +burial-furniture, and suspect an intruding race. In this particular +respect, archaeology owes a signal debt to physical anthropology and to +anthropological methods in general. The combination of the two is far +more likely to lead to a reasonable and satisfactory conclusion than +would be possible if the one branch of science had been pursued alone. + + + Value of ethnology. + +When once the existence of abundant remains of prehistoric man had been +admitted, and their study had received recognition as a branch of +science, the evidence supplied by the relics themselves and by their +relation to extinct or existing animals would have sufficed to give a +considerable insight into the conditions of primitive life. But, +fortunately, corroborative evidence of the most useful kind was at hand, +and has been of the greatest service in solving what might otherwise +have been insoluble problems. Though the progress of civilization, and +more especially the ever increasing rapidity of communication are +rapidly changing the habits of life among the primitive peoples in +various parts of the world, yet till past the middle of the 19th +century, a certain number of tribes, if not races, were still in the +Stone Age. Even at the present day stone-using tribes still exist, +although by chance metal may be known to them. The importance of the +study of their conditions of life and their technical processes, and of +the collecting of their implements for the express purpose of +illustrating prehistoric man, was recognized by Henry Christy +(1810-1865), who had made extensive investigations and collected relics +in conjunction with Edouard Lartet in the now famous caverns of the +Dordogne, at a time when such explorations were somewhat of a novelty; +and concurrently he formed a large collection of the productions of +existing savage peoples, both collections after his death passing to the +British Museum, his intention being that the one should elucidate the +ether. (It is only fair to his memory, however, to state here that, by +his express wish, the most important of the relics that he had obtained +from the Dordogne caves were returned to France where they now are. Such +instances of international courtesy are rare enough to deserve mention.) +The value and interest of such a series can scarcely be over-rated. +Almost till the 20th century, the Indians of North America, the +Australian and Tasmanian natives, as well as those of New Zealand and +the many archipelagoes of the Pacific, were, if not ignorant of the use +of metals, at least habitually using stone where civilized man would use +metal. The Maori made his war club of jade and the pounders for +preparing his food of stone. The Australian had his stone axe-blade; and +low as he stands in the culture scale, his spear-heads are chipped with +an exquisite precision. The Papuan of inland New Guinea is still making +his weapons of stone and wood; while until quite recently the North +American Indian was making his delicate stone arrow points, and the +Solomon islander his beautiful polished stone axe-blades. The knowledge +gained by the study of a large series of such objects enables us to fill +up very many gaps in the story of early man as told by his own remains. +In fact, in this respect, the value of the comparison is much greater +than could reasonably be expected; for, whatever may be the reason, +nothing is more marked than the extraordinary similarity of stone +implements at all times and over the whole world. An arrow-point made by +a Patagonian Indian, one from a Japanese shell mound, and a third of the +Stone Age from Ireland, are found to be practically identical. Whether +it is that the same material and the same necessity naturally produce a +like result, or whether there has existed throughout a continuity of +type, is a question that will never be satisfactorily answered. The +results, however, are of eminently practical value. The arrow-heads of +neolithic man, which are found by hundreds all over Europe, may be seen +fixed in their shafts in the hands of an American Indian; rude pieces of +quartz, which unmounted would escape notice as implements, are seen to +make excellent tools when mounted in a handle by the Australian black, +while flakes of slate find a use when mounted as skinning knives by the +Eskimo. + + + Organized study. + +Now that the narrower conception of archaeology as a minor branch of +classical studies has been given up, the new science has gradually won +its way to universal recognition; and anthropology, a still wider +subject but in many points closely allied to the scientific study of +ancient remains, has still more recently found favour at all the leading +universities, and practical measures have been taken to establish the +study on a firm and scientific basis. Apart from this official +encouragement, much has been done towards the systematization and +teaching of archaeology by practical excavators, whose pupils have +attained considerable numbers and celebrity. Something has been done, +too, in the national and provincial museums, to present the relics of +past ages in an intelligible manner, so that the collections no longer +consist of curiosities but of documents rich in instruction and interest +even to the general visitor. The progress of photography, as well as the +improvement and cheapening of methods of illustration, have also +assisted enormously in the advance of archaeology; and similarly, the +antiquities exhibited in museums and private collections to illustrate +and amplify written records, have in the last generation received much +attention on their own account, and have reacted in various ways on the +teaching of ancient history. In some countries a further step in general +education has been taken, and the lamentable waste of archaeological +material arrested to some extent by the distribution of pictures and +diagrams among schools and institutions, to call attention to the more +ordinary local types, and to encourage those who are likely to discover +them in the soil to save them from destruction and render them available +for scientific study. A certain familiarity on the part of the young +with the mere appearance of antiquities that come to light continually +and are almost as often discarded or destroyed, would probably result in +valuable additions being made to the available data. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most useful general works are the + following:--Salomon Reinach, _Epoque des alluvions et des cavernes_ + (Musee de St Germain); Hoernes, _Der diluviale Mensch in Europa;_ Sir + John Evans, _Stone Implements of Great Britain_, and _Bronze + Implements of Great Britain;_ Boyd Dawkins, _Cave-hunting_, and _Early + Man in Britain;_ Greenwell, _British Barrows;_ W.G. Smith, _Man the + Primeval Savage;_ James Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe;_ Mortillet, _Le + Prehistorique;_ Robert Munro, _Lake Dwellings of Europe;_ Ridgeway, + _Early Age of Greece;_ Jos. Anderson, _Scotland in Pagan Times;_ the + works of Oscar Montelius and Sophus Muller; _L'Anthropologie, + Materiaux pour l'histoire primitive de l'homme;_ Christy and Lartet, + _Reliquiae Aquitanicae;_ A. Michaelis, _A Century of Archaeological + Discovery_ (Eng. trans., 1908). See also ANTHROPOLOGY, and authorities + mentioned there; STONE AGE; BRONZE AGE; IRON AGE, &c.; GEOLOGY; and + the articles on different countries and sites. (C. H. Rd.) + + + + +ARCHAEOPTERYX. The name of _Archaeopteryx lithographica_ was based by +Hermann von Meyer upon a feather (Gr. [Greek: pteryx], wing) found in +1861 in the lithographic slate quarries of Solenhofen in Bavaria, the +geological horizon being that of the Kimmeridge clay of the Upper Oolite +or Jurassic system. In the same year and at the same place was +discovered the specimen (figs. 1 and 3) now in the British Museum, +named by Andreas Wagner _Griphosaurus._ Sir R. Owen has described it as +_A. macroura._ Stimulated by the high price paid by the British Museum, +the quarry owners diligently searched, and in 1872 another, much finer, +preserved specimen was found. This was bought by K.W. v. Siemens, who +presented it to the Berlin Museum. The late W. Dames has written an +excellent monograph on it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The British Museum specimen.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The specimen in the Museum fur Naturkunde, +Berlin. After a photograph taken from a cast.] + +_Archaeopteryx_ was a bird, without any doubt, but still with so many +low, essentially reptilian characters that it forms a link between these +two classes. About the size of a rook, its most obvious peculiarity is +the long reptilian tail, composed of 20 vertebrae and not ending in a +pygostyle. The last dozen vertebrae each carry a pair of well-developed +typical quills. Upon these features of the tail E. Haeckel established +the subclass Saururae, containing solely Archaeopteryx, in opposition to +the Ornithurae, comprising all the other birds. Herein he has been +followed by many zoologists. However, the fact that various recent birds +possess the same kind of caudal skeleton, likewise without a pygostyle, +although reduced to at least 13 vertebrae, shows that the two terms do +not express a fundamental difference. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Tail of British Museum specimen.] + +The importance of _Archaeopteryx_ justifies the following descriptive +detail. Vertebral column composed of about 50 vertebrae, viz. 10-11 +cervical, 12-11 thoracic, 2 lumbar, 5-6 sacral, and 20 or 21 caudal, +with a total caudal length of the Berlin specimen of 7 in. The cervical +and thoracic vertebrae seem to be biconcave; the cervical ribs are much +reduced and were apparently still movable; the thoracic ribs are devoid +of uncinate processes. Paired abdominal ribs are doubtful. Scarcely +anything is known of the sternum, and little of the shoulder-girdle, +except the very stout furcula; scapula typically bird-like. Humerus +about 2-1/2 in. long, with a strong crista lateralis, which indicates a +strongly developed great pectoral muscle and hence, by inference, the +presence of a keel to the sternum. Radius and ulna typically avine, 2.1 +in. in length. Carpus with two separate bones. The hand skeleton +consists of 3 completely separate metacarpals, each carrying a complete, +likewise free, finger; the shortened thumb with 2, the index with 3, the +third with 4 phalanges; each finger with a curved claw. The whole wing +is consequently, although essentially avine, still reptilian in the +unfused state of the metacarpals and the numbers of the phalanges. The +pelvis is imperfectly known. The preacetabular portion of the ilium is +shorter than the posterior half. The hind-limb is typically avine, with +intertarsal joint, distally reduced fibula, and the three elongated +metatarsals which show already considerable anchylosis; reduction of the +toes to four, with 2, 3, 4 and 5 phalanges; the hallux is separate, and +as usual in recent birds posterior in position. Skull bird-like, except +that the short bill cannot have been enclosed in a horny rhamphotheca, +since the upper jaw shows a row of 13, the lower jaw 3 conical teeth, +all implanted in distinct sockets. + +The remiges and rectrices indicate perfect feathers, with shaft and +complete vanes which were so neatly finished that they must have +possessed typical radii and hooklets. Some of the quills measure fully 5 +in. in length. Six or seven remiges were attached to the hand, ten to +the ulna. + +It is idle to speculate on the habits of this earliest of known birds. +That it could fly is certain, and the feet show it to have been well +adapted to arboreal life. The clawed slender fingers did not make +_Archaeopteryx_ any more quadrupedal or bat-like in its habits than is a +kestrel hawk, with its equally large, or even larger thumb-claw. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. v. Meyer, _Neues Jahrb.f. Mineralog._ (1861), p. + 679; Sir R. Owen, "On the Archaeopteryx von Meyer..." _Phil. Trans._, + 1863, pp. 33-47, pls. i.-iv.; T.H. Huxley, "Remarks on the Skeleton of + the Archaeopteryx and on the relations of the bird to the reptile," + _Geol. Mag. i._, 1864, pp. 55-57; C. Vogt, "L'Archaeopteryx macrura," + _Revue scient. de la France et de l'etranger_, 1879, pp. 241-248; W. + Dames, "Uber Archaeopteryx," _Palaeontol. Abhandl._ ii. (Berlin, + 1884); _Idem_, "Uber Brustbein Schulter- und Beckengurtel der + Archaeopteryx," _Math. naturw. Mitth._ Berlin. vii. (1897), pp. + 476-492. (H. F. G.) + + + + +ARCHAISM (adj. "archaic"; from Gr. [Greek: harchaios], old), an +old-fashioned usage, or the deliberate employment of an out-of-date and +ancient mode of expression. + + + + +ARCHANGEL (ARCHANGELSK), a government of European Russia, bounded N. by +the White Sea and Arctic Ocean, W. by Finland and Olonets, S. by +Vologda, and E. by the Ural mountains. It comprehends the islands of +Novaya-Zemlya, Vaygach and Kolguev, and the peninsula of Kola. Its area +is 331,505 sq. m., and its population in 1867 was 275,779 and in 1897, +349,943. The part which lies within the Arctic Circle is very desolate +and sterile, consisting chiefly of sand and reindeer moss. The winter is +long and severe, and even in summer the soil is frozen. The rivers +(Tuloma, Onega, Dvina, Mezen and Pechora) are closed in September and +scarcely thaw before July. The Kola peninsula is, however, diversified +by hills exceeding 3000 ft. in altitude and by large lakes (e.g. +Imandra), and its coast enjoys a much more genial climate. South of the +Arctic Circle the greater part of the country is covered with forests, +intermingled with lakes and morasses, though in places there is +excellent pasturage. Here the spring is moist, with cold, frosty nights; +the summer a succession of long foggy days; the autumn again moist. The +rivers are closed from October to April. The inhabitants of the northern +districts--nomad tribes of Samoyedes, Zyryans, Lapps, and the Finnish +tribes of Karelians and Chudes--support themselves by fishing and +hunting. In the southern districts hemp and flax are raised, but grain +crops are little cultivated, so that the bark of trees has often to be +ground up to eke out the scanty supply of flour. Potatoes are grown as +far north as 65 deg. Shipbuilding is carried on, and the forests yield +timber, pitch and tar. Excellent cattle are raised in the district of +Kholmogory on the Dvina, veal being supplied to St Petersburg. Gold is +found in the districts of Kola, naphtha and salt in those of Kem and +Pinega, and lignite in Mezen. Sulphurous springs exist in the districts +of Kholmogory and Shenkursk. The industry and commerce are noticed below +in the article on the town Archangel, which is the capital. The +government is divided into nine districts, the chief towns of which +are--Alexandrovsk or Kola (pop. 300), Archangel (q.v.), Kem (1825), +Kholmogory (1465), Mezen (2040), Novaya-Zemlya (island), Pechora, Pinega +(1000) and Shenkursk (1308). + + See A.P. Engelhardt, _A Russian Province of the North_ (Eng. trans., + by H. Cooke, 1899). + + + + +ARCHANGEL (ARCHANGELSK), chief town of the government of Archangel, +Russia, at the head of the delta of the Dvina, on the right bank of the +river, in lat. 64 deg. 32' N. and long. 40 deg. 33' E. Pop. (1867) +19,936; (1897) 20,933. As early as the 10th century, if not earlier, the +Norsemen frequented this part of the world (Bjarmeland) on trading +expeditions; the best-known is that made by Ottar or Othere between 880 +and 900 and described (or translated) by Alfred the Great, king of +England. The modern town dates, however, from the visit of the English +voyager, Richard Chancellor, in 1553. An English factory was erected on +the lower Dvina soon after that date, and in 1584 a fort was built, +around which the town grew up. Archangel was for long the only seaport +of Russia (or Muscovy). The tsar Boris Godunov (1598-1605) threw the +trade open to all nations; and the chief participants in it were +England, Holland and Germany. In 1668-1684 the great bazaar and trading +hall was built, principally by Tatar prisoners. In 1691-1700 the exports +to England averaged L112,210 annually. After Peter the Great made St +Petersburg the capital of his dominions (1702), he placed Archangel +under vexatious commercial disabilities, and consequently its trade +declined. In 1762 it was granted the same privileges as St Petersburg, +and since then it has gradually recovered its former prosperity. It is +the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral (1709-1743), a museum, the +monastery of the Archangel Michael (whence the city gets its name), an +ecclesiastical seminary, a school of navigation and a naval hospital. +Linen, leather, canvas, cordage, mats, tallow, potash and beer are +manufactured. There is a lively trade with St Petersburg, and the +sea-borne exports, which consist chiefly of timber, flax, linseed, oats, +flour, pitch, tar, skins and mats, amount in value to about 1-1/2 +millions sterling annually (82-1/2 % for timber), but the imports +(mostly fish) are worth only about L200,000. A fish fair is held every +year on the 1st (15th) of September. Archangel communicates with the +interior of Russia by river and canal, and has a railway line (522 m.) +to Yaroslavl. The harbour, deepened to 18-1/4 ft., is about a mile below +the city, and is accessible from May to October. About 12 m. lower down +there are a government dockyard and merchants' warehouses. A new +military harbour, Alexandrovsk or Port Catherine, has been made on +Catherine (Ekaterininsk) Bay, on the Murman coast of the Kola peninsula. +The shortest day at Archangel has only 3 hrs. 12 min., the longest 21 +hrs. 48 min. of daylight. + + + + +ARCHBALD, a borough of Lackawanna county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., in the +N.E. part of the state, 10 m. N.E. of Scranton. Pop. (1890) 4032; (1900) +5396; (1869 foreign-born); (1910) 7194. It is served by the Delaware & +Hudson, and the New York, Ontario & Western railways, and by an +interurban electric line. It is about 900 ft. above sea-level; in the +vicinity are extensive deposits of anthracite coal, the mining and +breaking of which is the principal industry; silk throwing and weaving +is another industry of the borough. At Archbald is a large glacial "pot +hole," about 20 ft. in diameter and 40 ft. in depth. Archbald, named in +honour of James Archbald, formerly chief engineer of the Delaware & +Hudson railway, was a part of Blakely township (incorporated in 1818) +until 1877, when it became a borough. + + + + +ARCHBISHOP (Lat. _archiepiscopus_, from Gr. [Greek: harchiepiskopos]), +in the Christian Church, the title of a bishop of superior rank, +implying usually jurisdiction over other bishops, but no superiority of +order over them. The functions of the archbishop, as at present +exercised, developed out of those of the metropolitan (q.v.); though the +title of archbishop, when it first appeared, implied no metropolitan +jurisdiction. Nor are the terms interchangeable now; for not all +metropolitans are archbishops,[1] nor all archbishops metropolitans. The +title seems to have been introduced first in the East, in the 4th +century, as an honorary distinction implying no superiority of +jurisdiction. Its first recorded use is by Athanasius, bishop of +Alexandria, who applied it to his predecessor Alexander as a mark of +respect. In the same way Gregory of Nazianzus bestowed it upon +Athanasius himself. In the next century its use would seem to have been +more common as the title of bishops of important sees; for several +archbishops are stated to have been present at the council of Chalcedon +in 451. In the Western Church the title was hardly known before the 7th +century, and did not become common until the Carolingian emperors +revived the right of the metropolitans to summon provincial synods. The +metropolitans now commonly assumed the title of archbishop to mark their +pre-eminence over the other bishops; at the same time the obligation +imposed upon them, mainly at the instance of St Boniface, to receive the +_pallium_ (q.v.) from Rome, definitely marked the defeat of their claim +to exercise metropolitan jurisdiction independently of the pope. + +At the present day, the title of archbishop is retained in the Roman +Catholic Church, the various oriental churches, the Anglican Church, and +certain branches of the Lutheran (Evangelical) Church. + + + Roman Catholic Church. + +In the Roman Catholic Church the powers of the archbishop are +considerably less extensive than they were in the middle ages. According +to the medieval canon law, based on the decretals, and codified in the +13th century in the _Corpus juris canonici_, by which the earlier powers +of metropolitans had been greatly curtailed, the powers of the +archbishop consisted in the right (1) to confirm and consecrate +suffragan bishops; (2) to summon and preside over provincial synods; (3) +to superintend the suffragans and visit their dioceses, as well as to +censure and punish bishops in the interests of discipline, the right of +deprivation, however, being reserved to the pope; (4) to act as a court +of appeal from the diocesan courts; (5) to exercise the _jus +devolutionis_, i.e. present to benefices in the gift of bishops, if +these neglect their duty in this respect. These rights were greatly +curtailed by the council of Trent. The confirmation and consecration of +bishops (q.v.) is now reserved to the Holy See. The summoning of +provincial synods, which was made obligatory every three years by the +council, was long neglected, but is now more common wherever the +political conditions, e.g. in the United States, Great Britain and +France, are favourable. The disciplinary powers of the archbishop, on +the other hand, can scarcely be said to survive. The right to hold a +visitation of a suffragan's diocese or to issue censures against him +was, by Sess. xxiv. c. 3 _de ref._, of the council of Trent, made +dependent upon the consent of the provincial synod after cause shown +(_causa cognita et probata_); and the only two powers left to the +archbishop in this respect are to watch over the diocesan seminaries and +to compel the residence of the bishop in his diocese. The right of the +archbishop to exercise a certain disciplinary power over the regular +orders is possessed by him, not as archbishop, but as the delegate _ad +hoc_ of the pope. Finally, the function of the archbishop as judge in a +court of appeal, though it still subsists, is of little practical +importance now that the clergy, in civil matters, are universally +subject to the secular courts. + +Besides archbishops who are metropolitans there are in the Roman +Catholic Church others who have no metropolitan jurisdiction. Such are +the titular archbishops _in partibus_, and certain archbishops of +Italian sees who have no bishops under them. Archbishops rank +immediately after patriarchs and have the same precedence as primates. +The right to wear the _pallium_ is confined to those archbishops who are +not merely titular. It must be applied for, either in person or by +proxy, at Rome by the archbishop within three months of his consecration +or enthronement, and, before receiving it, he must take the oaths of +fidelity and obedience to the Holy See. Until the _pallium_ is granted, +the archbishop is known only as archbishop-elect, and is not empowered +to exercise his _potestas ordinis_ in the archdiocese nor to summon the +provincial synod and exercise the jurisdiction dependent upon this. He +may, however, exercise his purely _episcopal_ functions. The special +ensign of his office is the cross, _crux erecta_ or _gestatoria_, +carried before him on solemn occasions (see CROSS). + + + Eastern Church. + +In the Orthodox and other churches of the East the title of archbishop +is of far more common occurrence than in the West, and is less +consistently associated with metropolitan functions. Thus in Greece +there are eleven archbishops to thirteen bishops, the archbishop of +Athens alone being metropolitan; in Cyprus, where there are four bishops +and only one archbishop, all five are of metropolitan rank. + + + Lutheran church. + +In the Protestant churches of continental Europe the title of archbishop +has fallen into almost complete disuse. It is, however, still borne by +the Lutheran bishop of Upsala, who is metropolitan of Sweden, and by the +Lutheran bishop of Abo in Finland. In Prussia the title has occasionally +been bestowed by the king on general superintendents of the Lutheran +church, as in 1829, when Frederick William III. gave it to his friend +and spiritual adviser, the celebrated preacher, Ludwig Ernst Borowski +(1740-1831), general superintendent of Prussia (1812) and bishop (1816). + + + Church of England. + +In the Church of England and its sister and daughter churches the +position of the archbishop is defined by the medieval canon law as +confirmed or modified by statute since the Reformation. It is, +therefore, as regards both the _potestas ordinis_ and jurisdiction, +substantially the same as in the Roman Catholic Church, save as modified +on the one hand by the substitution of the supremacy of the crown for +that of the Holy See, and on the other by the restrictions imposed by +the council of Trent. + +The ecclesiastical government of the Church of England is divided +between two archbishops--the archbishop of Canterbury, who is "primate +of all England" and metropolitan of the province of Canterbury, and the +archbishop of York, who is "primate of England" and metropolitan of the +province of York. The jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury as +primate of all England extends in certain matters into the province of +York. He exercised the jurisdiction of _legatus natus_ of the pope +throughout all England before the Reformation, and since that event he +has been empowered, by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, to exercise certain powers +of dispensation in cases formerly sued for in the court of Rome. Under +this statute the archbishop continues to grant special licences to +marry, which are valid in both provinces; he appoints notaries public, +who may practise in both provinces; and he grants dispensations to +clerks to hold more than one benefice, subject to certain restrictions +which have been imposed by later statutes. The archbishop also continues +to grant degrees in the faculties of theology, music and law, which are +known as Lambeth degrees. His power to grant degrees in medicine, +qualifying the recipients to practise, was practically restrained by the +Medical Act 1858. + +The archbishop of Canterbury exercises the twofold jurisdiction of a +metropolitan and a diocesan bishop. As metropolitan he is the guardian +of the spiritualities of every vacant see within the province, he +presents to all benefices which fall vacant during the vacancy of the +see, and through his special commissary exercises the ordinary +jurisdiction of a bishop within the vacant diocese. He exercises also an +appellate jurisdiction over each bishop, which, in cases of licensed +curates, he exercises personally under the Pluralities Act 1838; but his +ordinary appellate jurisdiction is exercised by the judge of the Arches +court (see ARCHES, COURT OF). The archbishop had formerly exclusive +jurisdiction in all causes of wills and intestacies, where parties died +having personal property in more than one diocese of the province of +Canterbury, and he had concurrent jurisdiction in other cases. This +jurisdiction, which he exercised through the judge of the Prerogative +court, was transferred to the crown by the Court of Probate Act 1857. +The Arches court was also the court of appeal from the consistory courts +of the bishops of the province in all testamentary and matrimonial +causes. The matrimonial jurisdiction was transferred to the crown by the +Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. The court of Audience, in which the +archbishop presided personally, attended by his vicar-general, and +sometimes by episcopal assessors, has fallen into desuetude. The +vicar-general, however, exercises jurisdiction in matters of ordinary +marriage licences and of institutions to benefices. The master of the +faculties regulates the appointment of notaries public, and all +dispensations which fall under 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21. + +A right very rarely exercised by the archbishop of Canterbury, but one +of great importance, is that of the visitation and deprivation of +inferior bishops. Since there is no example of the archbishop of York +exercising or being reputed to have such disciplinary jurisdiction over +his suffragans,[2] and this right could, according to the canon law +cited above, in the middle ages only be exercised normally in concert +with the provincial synod, it would seem to be a survival of the special +jurisdiction enjoyed by the pre-Reformation archbishop as _legatus +natus_ of the pope. It was somewhat freely exercised by Cranmer and his +successors immediately after the Reformation; but the main precedent now +relied upon is that of Dr Watson, bishop of St Davids, who was deprived +in 1695 by Archbishop Tennison for simony and other offences, the +legality of the sentence being finally confirmed by the House of Lords +on the 25th of January 1705. It was proved in the course of the long +argument in this case that the archbishop of Canterbury had undoubtedly +exercised such independent power of visitation both before and after the +Reformation; and it was on this precedent that in 1888 the judicial +committee of the privy council mainly relied in deciding that the +archbishop had the right to cite before him the bishop of Lincoln (Dr +Edward King), who was accused of certain irregular ritual practices. The +trial began on the 12th of February 1889 before the archbishop and +certain assessors, the protest of Dr King, based on the claim that he +could only be tried in a provincial synod, being overruled by Archbishop +Benson on the grounds above stated. The main importance of the "Lincoln +Judgment," delivered on the 21st of November 1890, is that it set a new +precedent for the effective jurisdiction of the archbishop, based on the +ancient canon law, and so did something towards the establishment of a +purely "spiritual" court, the absence of which had been one of the main +grievances of a large body of the clergy. + +It is the privilege of the archbishop of Canterbury to crown the kings +and queens of England. He is entitled to consecrate all the bishops +within his province and was formerly entitled, upon consecrating a +bishop, to select a benefice within his diocese at his option for one of +his chaplains, but this practice was indirectly abolished by 3 and 4 +Vict. c. III, S 42. He is entitled to nominate eight chaplains, who had +formerly certain statutory privileges, which are now abolished. He is +_ex officio_ an ecclesiastical commissioner for England, and has by +statute the right of nominating one of the salaried ecclesiastical +commissioners. + +The archbishop exercises the ordinary jurisdiction of a bishop over his +diocese through his consistory court at Canterbury, the judge of which +court is styled the commissary-general of the city and diocese of +Canterbury. The archbishop holds a visitation of his diocese personally +every three years, and he is the only diocesan who has kept up the +triennial visitation of the dean and chapter of his cathedral.[3] The +archbishop of Canterbury takes precedence immediately after princes of +the blood royal and over every peer of parliament, including the lord +chancellor. + +The archbishop of York has immediate spiritual jurisdiction as +metropolitan in the case of all vacant sees within the province of York, +analogous to that which is exercised by the archbishop of Canterbury +within the province of Canterbury. He has also an appellate jurisdiction +of an analogous character, which he exercises through his provincial +court, whilst his diocesan jurisdiction is exercised through his +consistorial court, the judges of both courts being nominated by the +archbishop. His ancient testamentary and matrimonial jurisdiction was +transferred to the crown by the same statutes which divested the see of +Canterbury of its jurisdiction in similar matters. It is the privilege +of the archbishop of York to crown the queen consort and to be her +perpetual chaplain. The archbishop of York takes precedence over all +subjects of the crown not of royal blood, but after the lord high +chancellor of England. He is ex officio an ecclesiastical commissioner +for England (see further ENGLAND, CHURCH OF). + +The Church of Ireland had at the time of the Act of Union four +archbishops, who took their titles from Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam. +By acts of 1833 and 1834, the metropolitans of Cashel and of Tuam were +reduced to the status of diocesan bishops. The two archbishoprics of +Armagh and Dublin are maintained in the disestablished Church of +Ireland. + +The title archbishop has been used in certain of the colonial churches, +e.g. Australia, South Africa, Canada, and the West Indies, since 1893, +when it was assumed by the metropolitans of Canada and Rupert's Land +(see ANGLICAN COMMUNION). Archbishops have the title of His (or Your) +Grace and Most Reverend Father in God. + + See Hinschius, _System des katholischen Kirchenrechts_ (Berlin, 1869), + also article "Erzbischof," in Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (1898); + Phillimore, _The Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England_, and + authorities there cited. (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In the Roman Church it is safe to say that all metropolitans are + archbishops. In, e.g., the Scottish and American episcopal churches, + however, the metropolitan is the senior bishop _pro tem._ + + [2] Unless the case of the claim of Mark, bishop of Carlisle, to be + tried by his ordinary instead of by a temporal court, be a precedent + (Phillimore, _Eccles. Law_, p. 74, ed. 1895). + + [3] The court of Peculiars is no longer held, inasmuch as the + peculiars have been placed by acts of parliament under the ordinary + jurisdiction of the bishops of the respective dioceses in which they + are situated. + + + + +ARCHCHANCELLOR (Lat. _Archicancellarius_; Ger. _Erzkanzler_), or chief +chancellor, a title given to the highest dignitary of the Holy Roman +Empire, and also used occasionally during the middle ages to denote an +official who supervised the work of chancellors or notaries. + +In the 9th century Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, in his work, _De ordine +palatii et regni_, speaks of a _summus cancellarius_, evidently an +official at the court of the Carolingian emperors and kings. A charter +of the emperor Lothair I. dated 844 refers to Agilmar, archbishop of +Vienne, as archchancellor, and there are several other references to +archchancellors in various chronicles. This office existed in the German +kingdom of Otto the Great, and about this time it appears to have become +an appanage of the archbishopric of Mainz. When the Empire was restored +by Otto in 962, a separate chancery seems to have been organized for +Italian affairs, and early in the 11th century the office of +archchancellor for the kingdom of Italy was in the hands of the +archbishop of Cologne. The theory was that all the imperial business in +Germany was supervised by the elector of Mainz, and for Italy by the +elector of Cologne. However, the duties of archchancellor for Italy were +generally discharged by deputy, and after the virtual separation of +Italy and Germany, the title alone was retained by the elector. When the +kingdom of Burgundy or Arles was acquired by the emperor Conrad II. in +1032 it is possible that a separate chancery was established for this +kingdom. However this may be, during the 12th century the elector of +Trier took the title of archchancellor for the kingdom of Arles, +although it is doubtful if he ever performed any duties in connexion +with this office. This threefold division of the office of imperial +archchancellor was acknowledged in 1356 by the Golden Bull of the +emperor Charles IV., but the duties of the office were performed by the +elector of Mainz. The office in this form was part of the constitution +of the Empire until 1803 when the archbishopric of Mainz was +secularized. The last elector, Karl Theodor von Dalberg, however, +retained the title of archchancellor until the dissolution of the Empire +in 1806. H. Reincke in _Der alte Reichstag und der neue Bundesrat_ +(Tubingen, 1906) points out a marked resemblance between the medieval +archchancellor and the German imperial chancellor of the present day. + + See du Cange, _Glossarium_, s. "Archicancellarius"; and CHANCELLOR. + + + + +ARCHDEACON (Lat. _archidiaconus_, Gr. [Greek: archidiakonos]), a high +official of the Christian Church. The office of archdeacon is of great +antiquity. So early as the 4th century it is mentioned as an established +office, and it is probable that it was in existence in the 3rd. +Originally the archdeacon was, as the name implies, the chief of the +deacons attached to the bishop's cathedral, his duty being, besides +preaching, to supervise the deacons and their work, i.e. more especially +the care of the sick and the arrangement of the externals of divine +worship. Even thus early their close relation to the bishop and their +employment in matters of episcopal administration gave them, though only +in deacons' orders, great importance, which continually developed. In +the East, in the 5th century, the archdeacons were already charged with +the proof of the qualifications of candidates for ordination; they +attended the bishops at ecclesiastical synods, and sometimes acted as +their representatives; they shared in the administration of sees during +a vacancy. In the West, in the 6th and 7th centuries, besides the +original functions of their office, archdeacons had certain well-defined +rights of visitation and supervision, being responsible for the good +order of the lower clergy, the upkeep of ecclesiastical buildings and +the safe-guarding of the church furniture--functions which involved a +considerable disciplinary power. During the 8th and 9th centuries the +office tended to become more and more exclusively purely administrative, +the archdeacon by his visitations relieving the bishop of the minutiae +of government and keeping him informed in detail of the condition of his +diocese. The archdeacon had thus become, on the one hand, the _oculus +episcopi_, but on the other hand, armed as he was with powers of +imposing penance and, in case of stubborn disobedience, of +excommunicating offenders, his power tended more and more to grow at the +bishop's expense. This process received a great impulse from the +erection in the 11th and 12th centuries of defined territorial +jurisdictions for the archdeacons, who had hitherto been itinerant +representatives of the central power of the diocese. The dioceses were +now mapped out into several archdeaconries (_archidiaconatus_), which +corresponded with the political divisions of the countries; and these +defined spheres, in accordance with the prevailing feudal tendencies of +the age, gradually came to be regarded as independent centres of +jurisdiction.[1] The bishops, now increasingly absorbed in secular +affairs, were content with a somewhat theoretical power of control, +while the archdeacons rigorously asserted an independent position which +implied great power and possibilities of wealth. The custom, moreover, +had grown up of bestowing the coveted office of archdeacon on the +provosts, deans and canons of the cathedral churches, and the +archdeacons were thus involved in the struggle of the chapters against +the episcopal authority. By the 12th century the archdeacon had become +practically independent of the bishop, whose consent was only required +in certain specified cases. + +The power of the archdeacon reached its zenith at the outset of the 13th +century. Innocent III. describes him as _judex ordinarius_, and he +possesses in his own right the powers of visitation, of holding courts +and imposing penalties, of deciding in matrimonial causes and cases of +disputed jurisdiction, of testing candidates for orders, of inducting +into benefices. He has the right to certain procurations, and to appoint +and depose archpriests and rural deans. And these powers he may exercise +through delegated _officiales_. His jurisdiction has become, in fact, +not subordinate to, but co-ordinate with that of the bishop. Yet, so far +as orders were concerned, he remained a deacon; and if archdeacons were +often priests, this was because priests who were members of chapters +were appointed to the office. + +From the 13th century onward a reaction set in. The power of the +archdeacons rested upon custom and prescription, not upon the canon law; +and though the bishops could not break, they could circumvent it. This +they did by appointing new officials to exercise in their name the +rights still reserved to them, or to which they laid claim. These were +the _officiales:_ the _officiales foranei_, whose jurisdiction was +parallel with that of the archdeacons, and the _officiales principales_ +and vicars-general, who presided over the courts of appeal. The clergy +having thus another authority, and one moreover more canonical, to +appeal to, the power of the archdeacons gradually declined; and, so far +as the Roman Catholic Church is concerned, it received its death-blow +from the council of Trent (1564), which withdrew all matrimonial and +criminal causes from the competence of the archdeacons, forbade them to +pronounce excommunications, and allowed them only to hold visitations in +connexion with those of the bishop and with his consent. These decrees +were not, indeed, at once universally enforced; but the convulsions of +the Revolutionary epoch and the religious reorganization that followed +completed the work. In the Roman Church to-day the office of archdeacon +is merely titular, his sole function being to present the candidates for +ordination to the bishop. The title, indeed, hardly exists save in +Italy, where the archdeacon is no more than a dignified member of a +chapter, who takes rank after the bishop. The ancient functions of the +archdeacon are exercised by the vicar-general. In the Lutheran church +the title _Archidiakonus_ is given in some places to the senior +assistant pastor of a church. + +In the Church of England, on the other hand, the office of archdeacon, +which was first introduced at the Norman conquest, survives, with many +of its ancient duties and prerogatives. Since 1836 there have been at +least two archdeaconries in each diocese, and in some dioceses there are +four archdeacons. The archdeacons are appointed by their respective +bishops, and they are, by an act of 1840, required to have been six full +years in priest's orders. The functions of the archdeacon are in the +present day ancillary in a general way to those of the bishop of the +diocese. It is his especial duty to inspect the churches within his +archdeaconry, to see that the fabrics are kept in repair, and to hold +annual visitations of the clergy and churchwardens of each parish, for +the purpose of ascertaining that the clergy are in residence, of +admitting the newly elected churchwardens into office, and of receiving +the presentments of the outgoing churchwardens. It is his privilege to +present all candidates for ordination to the bishop of the diocese. It +is his duty also to induct the clergy of his archdeaconry into the +temporalities of their benefices after they have been instituted into +the spiritualities by the bishop or his vicar-general. Every archdeacon +is entitled to appoint an official to preside over his archidiaconal +court, from which there is an appeal to the consistory court of the +bishop. The archdeacons are _ex officio_ members of the convocations of +their respective provinces. + +It is the privilege of the archdeacon of Canterbury to induct the +archbishop and all the bishops of the province of Canterbury into their +respective bishoprics, and this he does in the case of a bishop under a +mandate from the archbishop of Canterbury, directing him to induct the +bishop into the real, actual, and corporal possession of the bishopric, +and to install and to enthrone him; and in the case of the archbishop, +under an analogous mandate from the dean and chapter of Canterbury, as +being guardians of the spiritualities during the vacancy of the +archiepiscopal see. In the colonies there are two or more archdeacons in +each diocese, and their functions correspond to those of English +archdeacons. In the Episcopal church of America the office of archdeacon +exists in only one or two dioceses. + + See Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, ii., SS 86. 87; Schroder, _Die + Entwicklung des Archdiakonats bis zum 11. Jahrhundert_ (Munich, 1890); + Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1882-1901); + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 1896); Phillimore, + _Ecclesiastical Law_, part ii. chap. v. (London, 1895). (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Archdeaconries were, indeed, sometimes treated as ordinary fiefs + and were held as such by laymen. Thus Ordericus Vitalis says that + "(Fulk) granted to the monks the archdeaconry which he and his + predecessors held in fee of the archbishop of Rouen" (_Hist. Eccl._ + iii. 12). + + + + +ARCHDUKE (Lat. _archidux_, Ger. _Erzherzog_,) a title peculiar now to +the Austrian royal family. According to Selden it denotes "an excellency +or pre-eminence only, not a superiority or power over other dukes, as in +archbishop it doth over other bishops." Yet in this latter sense it +would seem to have been assumed by Bruno of Saxony, archbishop of +Cologne, and duke of Lorraine (953-965), when he divided his duchy into +the dukedoms of Upper and Lower Lorraine. The designation was, however, +exceedingly rare during the middle ages. The title of archduke of +Lorraine ceased with the circumstances which had produced it. The later +dynasties of Brabant and Lorraine, when these fiefs became hereditary, +bore only the title of duke. The house of Habsburg, therefore, did not +acquire this title with the inheritance of the dukes of Lorraine. Nor +does it occur in any of the charters granted to the dukes of Austria by +the emperors; though in that creating the first duke of Austria the +_archiduces palatii, i.e._ the principal dukes of the court, are +mentioned. The "Archidux Austriae, seu Austriae inferioris" is spoken of +by Abbot Rudolph (d. 1138) in his chronicles of the abbey of St Trond +(_Gesta Abbatum Trudonensium_) but this is no more than a rhetorical +flourish, and the title of "archduke palatine" (Pfalz-Erzherzog) was, in +fact, assumed first by Duke Rudolph IV. (d. 1365), and was one of the +rights and privileges included in his famous forgery of the year 1358, +the _privilegium maius_, which purported to have been bestowed by the +emperor Frederick I. on the dukes of Austria in extension of the genuine +_privilegium minus_ of 1156, granted to the margrave Henry II. Rudolph +IV. used the title on his seals and charters till he was compelled to +desist by the emperor Charles IV. The title was also assumed for a time, +probably on the strength of the _privilegium maius_, by Duke Ernest of +Styria (d. 1424); but it did not legally belong to the house of +Habsburg until 1453, when Duke Ernest's son, the emperor Frederick III. +(Frederick V., duke of Styria and Carinthia, 1424-1493, of Austria, +1463-1493), confirmed the _privilegium maius_ and conferred the title of +archduke of Austria on his son Maximilian and his heirs. The title +archduke (or archduchess) is now borne by all members of the Austrian +imperial house. + + See John Selden, _Titles of Honor_ (1672); Antonius Matthaeus, _De + nobilititate, de principibus, deducibus, &c., libriquatuor_ (Amsterdam + and Leiden, 1696, lib. i. cap. 6); Pfeffel, _Abrege chronologique de + l'hist, el du droit public d'Allemagne_ (Paris, 1766); Brinckmeier, + _Glossarium diplomaticum, &c._ (1850-1863, 2 vols.); J.F. Joachim, + "Abhandlung von dem Titel 'Erzherzog,' welchen das Haus Oesterreich + fuhrt." in _Prufende Gesellschaft zu Halle, 7_; F. Wachter, art. + "Erzherzog," in _Allgem. Encykl. der Wissenschiften u. Kunste_ (1842, + pub. by Ersch and Gruber); A. Huber, _Ueber die Entstehungszeit der + oesterreichischen Freiheitsbriefe_ (Vienna, 1860); W. Erben, _Das + Privilegium Friedrichs I. fur das Herzogtum Osterreich_ (Vienna, + 1902). + + + + +ARCHEAN SYSTEM (from [Greek: archae], beginning), in geology. Below the +lowest distinctly fossiliferous strata, that is, below those Cambrian +rocks which bear the _Olenellus_ fauna, there lies a great mass of +stratified, metamorphic and igneous rock, to which the non-committal +epithet "pre-Cambrian" is often applied; and indeed in not a few +instances this general term is sufficiently precise for the present +state of our knowledge. Nevertheless there are large tracts, both in the +Old World and in the New, in which a subdivision of this assemblage of +ancient rocks is not only possible but desirable. It is quite clear in +certain regions that there is a lowermost group with a prevailing +granitoid, gneissic and schistose facies, mainly of igneous origin, +above which there are one or several groups bearing a distinctly +sedimentary aspect. It is to this lowermost gneissic group that the term +"Archean" may be conveniently limited. + +[Illustration: Distribution of Archean Rocks.] + +Thus, while the name "pre-Cambrian" may be used to indicate all these +very old rocks whenever there is still any difficulty in subdividing +them further, it is an advantage to have a special appellation for the +oldest group where this can be distinguished. + +It must be pointed out that the term "Archean" has been used as a +synonym for pre-Cambrian; and that the expressions _Azoic_ (from +[alpha]-, privative; [Greek: zoae], life), _Eozoic_ (from [Greek: aeos], +dawn), and _Fundamental Complex_, have been employed in somewhat the +same sense. _Archeozoic_ has been proposed by American writers to apply +to the lowest pre-Cambrian rocks with the same significance as "Archean" +in the restricted sense employed here; but it is perhaps safer to avoid +any reference to the supposed stage of life development where all direct +evidence is non-existent. The so-called "Azoic" rocks have already been +made to yield evidence of life, and there is no reason to presuppose the +impossibility of finding other records of still earlier organisms. + +The prevailing rocks of the Archean system are igneous, with +metamorphosed varieties of the same; sedimentary rocks, distinctly +recognizable as such, are scarce, though highly metamorphosed rocks +supposed to be sediments, in some regions, take an important place. + +There are several features which are peculiarly characteristic of the +Archean rocks:--(1) the extraordinary complexity of the assemblage of +igneous materials; (2) the extreme metamorphism and deformation which +nearly all the rocks have suffered; and (3) the inextricable +intermixture of igneous rocks with those for which a sedimentary origin +is postulated. Wherever the Archean rocks have been closely examined two +great groups of rocks are distinguishable, an older, schistose group and +a younger, granitoid and gneissic group. For many years the latter was +supposed to be the older, hence the epithets "primitive" or +"fundamental" were applied to it. Now, however, it has been shown, both +in Europe and in North America, that in certain regions a schistose +series is penetrated by a gneissose series and when this occurs the +schists must be the older. But bearing in mind the difficulties of +interpretation, it is not at all unreasonable to assume that there may +yet be regions where the gneissose rocks are the oldest; for where no +schistose series is present there may be no criterion for estimating the +age of the granites and gneisses. The exceedingly great difficulties +which lie in the way of every attempt to unravel the history of an +Archean rock-complex cannot be too forcibly emphasized; for to be able +to demonstrate the order of events and succession of rocks we should at +least know whether we are dealing with sediments, flows of volcanic +material, or intrusions, yet in many instances this cannot be done. In +some areas the gradual passage of highly foliated and metamorphosed +schists may be traced into comparatively unaltered arkoses, greywackes, +conglomerates; or into volcanic lava-flows, pyro-clastic rocks or dikes; +or again through a gneissose rock into a granite or a gabbro; but the +districts wherein these relationships have been thoroughly worked out +are very few. + +This much may be said, that where the Archean system has been most +carefully studied, there appears to be (1) a schistose series, of itself +by no means simple but containing the foliated equivalents of +sedimentary and igneous rocks; into this series a gneissose group (2) +has been intruded in the form of batholites, great sheets and sills with +accompanying intrusional prolongations into the schists; subsequently, +into the gneisses and schists, after they had been further deformed, +sheared and foliated, another set (3) of dikes or thin sheet-like +intrusions penetrated. All this, namely, the formation of sediments, the +outpouring of volcanic rocks, their repeated deformation by powerful +dynamic agencies and then their penetration by dikes and sheets had been +completed and erosion had been at work upon the hardened and exposed +rocks, before the earliest pre-Cambrian sediment was deposited. + +There has been much premature speculation as to the nature and origin of +these very ancient rocks. The prevalence of regular foliation with +layers of different mineral composition, producing a close resemblance +to bedding, has led some to imagine that the gneisses and schists were +themselves the product of the primeval oceans, a supposition that is no +longer worthy of further discussion. Others have supposed that the +gneisses were largely produced by the resorption and fusion of older +sediments in the molten interior of the earth; there is no evidence that +this has taken place upon an extended scale, though there is reason to +believe that something of this kind has happened in places, and there is +in the hypothesis nothing radically untenable. In one way the +sedimentary schists have undoubtedly been incorporated within the +gneissose mass, namely, by the extremely thorough and intimate +penetration of the former by the latter along planes of foliation; and +when a complex mass such as this has been further sheared and +metamorphosed, a uniform gneiss appears to result from the intermixture. + +A not uncommon cause of the apparently bedded arrangement of layers of +different mineralogical composition may be traced to the original +differentiation of the granitoid magma into different mineral-sheets. +When these mineralogically different layers were forced into other +rocks, sometimes before the complete consolidation of the former and +sometimes subsequent to it, in the generally metamorphosed condition of +the whole, it is easy to see a superficial resemblance to bedding. + +The Archean rocks have frequently been spoken of as the original crust +of the earth; but even granting a cooling molten globe with a +first-formed stony surface, it is tolerably clear that such a crust has +nowhere yet been found, nor is it ever likely to be discovered. The very +earliest recognizable sediments are the result of the destruction of +still earlier exposures of rock; the oldest known volcanic rocks were +poured upon a surface we can no longer distinguish, and as for the great +granitoid masses, they could only have been formed under the pressure of +superincumbent masses of material. The earliest known sediments must +have been deep in the zones of shearing and rock flowage before the +first pre-Cambrian denudation. The time required for these changes is +difficult to conceive. + +As regards the life of the Archean, or, as some call it, the +"Archeozoic" period, we know nothing. The presence of carbonaceous shale +and graphitic schists as well as of the altered sedimentary iron ores +has been taken as indicative of vegetable life. Similarly, the +occurrence of limestones suggests the existence of organic activity, but +direct evidence is wanting. Much interest naturally attaches to this +remote period, and when Sir William E. Logan in 1854 found the +foraminifera-like _Eozoon Canadense_, high hopes of further discoveries +were entertained, but the inorganic nature of this structure has since +been clearly proved. + +_Distribution._--It is generally assumed that the Archean rocks underlie +all the younger formations over the whole globe, and presumably this is +the only system that does so. Naturally, the area of its outcrop is +limited, for, directly or indirectly, all the younger rock groups must +rest upon it. + +It has been estimated that Archean rocks appear at the surface over +one-fifth of the land area (omitting coverings of superficial drifts). +This estimate is no more than the roughest approximation, and is liable +at any time to revision as our knowledge of little-known regions is +increased. It must ever be borne in mind that the presence of a +gneissose or schistose complex does not in itself imply the Archean age +of such a set of rocks. Local manifestations of a similar petrological +facies may and do appear which are of vastly inferior geological age; +and unless there is unequivocal evidence that such rocks lie beneath the +oldest fossil-bearing strata, there can be no absolute certainty as to +their antiquity. It is more than likely that certain occurrences of +gneiss and schist, at present regarded as Archean, may prove on fuller +examination to be metamorphosed representatives of younger periods. + + _Britain._--The most important exposure of Archean rocks in Britain is + in the north-west of Scotland, where they form the mainland in + Sutherland and Ross-shire, and appear also in the outer Hebrides. + Their great development in the isle of Lewis has given rise to the + term "Lewisian" (Hebridean), by which the gneisses of this region are + now generally known. The Lewisian series comprises two great groups of + rocks, (1) the so-called "fundamental complex," an assemblage of acid, + basic and intermediate irruptive rocks, associated together in a + complex of extraordinary intricacy, and (2) a series of dikes, which + like the rocks they traverse, show every gradation from ultra-basic to + ultra-acid types. But the above bald statement conveys no idea of the + complexity of the series, for before the "fundamental complex" had + been pierced by the later dike system it had been subjected to severe + dynamo-metamorphism and many of the massive rocks had been folded, + thrust and sheared, and a very general state of foliation had been + produced. Nor was this all, for after the intrusion of the dikes, + great movements brought about vertical dislocations, and thrust + planes, which traversed the rocks at all angles, accompanied by still + further internal shearing and superinduced foliation. + + In the valley of Loch Maree and thence south-westward into Glenelg, a + series of mica-schists, quartz-schists, saccharoid limestones and + graphitic schists has been regarded as a group of sedimentary origin + through which the Lewisian rocks have been irrupted. + + In England several small masses of gneiss, notably at Primrose Hill on + the Wrekin, Shropshire, in the Malvern hills, and on the island of + Anglesey in North Wales, are supposed to correspond with the Lewisian + of Scotland. + + _North America._--In this continent there is a great development of + Archean rocks in Canada. On the eastern side it covers nearly the + whole of the Labrador peninsula, and extends into Baffin Bay and + possibly over much of Greenland; a broad tract unites the great lake + region with Labrador, and from the same region, by way of the + Mackenzie valley, a similar tract extends in a north-westerly + direction to the Arctic Ocean. This northern (Canadian) area of + Archean includes portions of the states of Minnesota, Michigan, + Wisconsin and the Adirondack region of New York. On the western side + of the continent a series of disconnected exposures of Archean rocks + runs downwards in a narrow belt from Alaska to New Mexico; and on the + eastern side a similar belt reaches from Newfoundland to Alabama. + + Much attention is now being given to the more scattered exposures of + Archean rocks, but the best-known area is the classical ground in the + vicinity of Lake Superior and Lake Huron and in the Ottawa gneiss + region of Canada. Some of the more important districts are the + following:-- + + Rainy Lake district, Canada: The Archean rocks here consist of altered + diorites and diabases (the lower Keewatin series) and black hornblende + schists (probably altered igneous rocks), with mica gneisses which are + perhaps of sedimentary origin. + + The Mona and Kiticni schists; metamorphosed lava and tuffs, with + serpentine and dolomite, probably derived from peridotites; there are + also gneissic granites and syenites. + + In the Menominee region of Michigan and Wisconsin, the Quinnesec + schist series mainly consist of schistose quartz porphyry with + associated gneisses. + + In the Mesaba district of Minnesota the Archean consists of a complex + of more or less foliated igneous rocks mostly basic in character. + + The Archean of the Vermilion district of Minnesota comprises the + Soudan formation, an altered sedimentary series with banded cherts, + jasper and magnetite schists; the iron ores are extensively mined. At + the base is a conglomerate containing pebbles from the formation + below, the Ely greenstone, which is made up of altered basalts and + andesites, generally in a schistose condition, but occasionally + exhibiting spherulitic structures. Into these two formations a series + of granites have been intruded. + + _Europe._--In Scandinavia, as in Scotland, the pre-Cambrian is + represented by an earlier and a later series of rocks of which the + former (Grundfjeldet, Urberget) may be taken to be the equivalent of + the Lewisian gneisses. This assemblage of coarse red and grey banded + gneisses, with associated granulites and many varieties of acid, basic + and intermediate rocks in a gneissose condition, is intimately related + to a highly metamorphosed sedimentary series comprising limestones, + quartzites and schists, which, as in Scotland, is apparently older + than the gneisses. Similar rocks occur in Sweden and Finland. + + In Bavaria and Bohemia the Archean is divisible into a lower red + gneiss, a comparatively simple series, called by C.W. von Gumbel the + "gneiss of Bojan"; and an upper, grey gneiss with other schistose + rocks, serpentine and graphitic limestone, termed by the same author + the "Hercynian gneiss." + + In Brittany a gneissose and schistose igneous series lies at the base + of the pre-Cambrian. The pre-Cambrian cores of the eastern and central + Pyrenees, consisting of gneiss, schists and altered limestones, are + presumably of Archean age. + + _Asia, Australia, &c._--In northern China, mica-gneisses and + granite-gneisses with associated schists may be regarded as Archean. + In India the system is represented by the Bundelkhand gneiss and the + central older gneisses of the Himalayas. In Japan, in the Abukuma + plateau, there is much granite, gneiss and schist which may be of this + age. In Australia, similar rocks are recognized as Archean in South + Australia and Westralia, and they are estimated to cover an area of no + less than 20,000 sq. m.; in Tasmania they are well developed on the + western side. Although a great area is occupied by crystalline rocks + in New Zealand, the Archean age of any portion of the series is not + yet satisfactorily established; the lower granites and gneisses may + belong to this period. Africa contains enormous tracts of crystalline + gneisses, granites and schists, and some of these are almost certainly + of Archean age; but in the present state of our knowledge it is + impossible to speak more exactly. + + REFERENCES.--A good general account of the Archean system will be + found in Sir A. Geikie's _Text Book of Geology_, vol. ii., 4th ed. + (1903), and in T.C. Chamberlin and R.D. Salisbury's _Geology_, vol. + ii. (1906); these volumes contain references to all important + literature. (J. A. H.) + + + + +ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA (1st century B.C.), general of Mithradates the +Great in the war against Rome. In 87 B.C. he was sent to Greece with a +large army and fleet, and occupied the Peiraeus after three days' +fighting with Bruttius Sura, prefect of Macedonia, who in the previous +year had defeated Mithradates' fleet under Metrophanes and captured the +island of Sciathus. Here he was besieged by Sulla, compelled to withdraw +into Boeotia, and completely defeated at Chaeroneia (86). A fresh army +was sent by Mithradates, but Archelaus was again defeated at Orchomenus, +after a two days' battle (85). On the conclusion of peace, Archelaus, +finding that he had incurred the suspicion of Mithradates, deserted to +the Romans, by whom he was well received. Nothing further is known of +him. + + Appian, _Mithrid_. 30, 49, 56, 64; Plutarch, _Sulla_, 11, 16-19, 20, + 23; _Lucullus_, 8. + +ARCHELAUS, king of Egypt, was his son. In 56 B.C. he married Berenice, +daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, queen of Egypt, but his reign only lasted +six months. He was defeated by Aulus Gabinius and slain (55). + + See Strabo xii. p. 558, xvii. p. 796; Dio Cassius xxxix. 57-58; + Cicero, _Pro Rabirio_, 8; Hirtius (?), _Bell. Alex_. 66; also + PTOLEMIES. + +ARCHELAUS, king of Cappadocia, was grandson of the last named. In 41 +B.C. (according to others, 34), he was made king of Cappadocia by Mark +Antony, whom, however, he deserted after the battle of Actium. Octavian +enlarged his kingdom by the addition of part of Cilicia and Lesser +Armenia. He was not popular with his subjects, who even brought an +accusation against him in Rome, on which occasion he was defended by +Tiberius. Subsequently he was accused by Tiberius, when emperor, of +endeavouring to stir up a revolution, and died in confinement at Rome +(A.D. 17). Cappadocia was then made a Roman province. Archelaus was said +to have been the author of a geographical work, and to have written +treatises _On Stones_ and _Rivers_. + + Strabo xii. p. 540; Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 37, _Caligula_, 1; Dio + Cassius xlix. 32-51; Tacitus, _Ann_. ii. 42. + + + + +ARCHELAUS, king of Judaea, was the son of Herod the Great. He received +the kingdom of Judaea by the last will of his father, though a previous +will had bequeathed it to his brother Antipas. He was proclaimed king by +the army, but declined to assume the title until he had submitted his +claims to Augustus at Rome. Before setting out, he quelled with the +utmost cruelty a sedition of the Pharisees, slaying nearly 3000 of them. +At Rome he was opposed by Antipas and by many of the Jews, who feared +his cruelty; but Augustus allotted to him the greater part of the +kingdom (Judaea, Samaria, Ituraea) with the title of ethnarch. He +married Glaphyra, the widow of his brother Alexander, though his wife +and her second husband, Juba, king of Mauretania, were alive. This +violation of the Mosaic law and his continued cruelty roused the Jews, +who complained to Augustus. Archelaus was deposed (A.D. 7) and banished +to Vienne. The date of his death is unknown. + +Archelaus is mentioned in Matt. ii. 22, and the parable of Luke xix. 11 +f. probably refers to his journey to Rome. + + See Schurer, _Gesch. des judischen Volkes_, i. 449-453. + (J. H. A. H.) + + + + +ARCHELAUS, king of Macedonia (413-399 B.C.), was the son of Perdiccas +and a slave mother. He obtained the throne by murdering his uncle, his +cousin and his half-brother, the legitimate heir, but proved a capable +and beneficent ruler. He fortified cities, constructed roads and +organized the army. He endeavoured to spread among his people the +refinements of Greek civilization, and invited to his court, which he +removed from Aegae to Pella, many celebrated men, amongst them Zeuxis, +Timotheus, Euripides and Agathon. In 399 he was killed by one of his +favourites while hunting; according to another account he was the victim +of a conspiracy. + + Diodorus Siculus xiii. 49, xiv. 37; Thucydides ii. 100. See MACEDONIA. + + + + +ARCHELAUS OF MILETUS, Greek philosopher of the 5th century B.C., was +born probably at Athens, though Diogenes Laertius (ii. 16) says at +Miletus. He was a pupil of Anaxagoras, and is said by Ion of Chios +(_ap_. Diog. Laert. ii. 23) to have been the teacher of Socrates. Some +argue that this is probably only an attempt to connect Socrates with the +Ionian school; others (e.g. Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_) uphold the story. +There is similar difference of opinion as regards the statement that +Archelaus formulated certain ethical doctrines. In general, he followed +Anaxagoras, but in his cosmology he went back to the earlier Ionians. He +postulated primitive Matter, identical with air and mingled with Mind, +thus avoiding the dualism of Anaxagoras. Out of this conscious "air," by +a process of thickening and thinning, arose cold and warmth, or water +and fire, the one passive, the other active. The earth and the heavenly +bodies are formed from mud, the product of fire and water, from which +springs also man, at first in his lower forms. Man differs from animals +by the possession of the moral and artistic faculty. No fragments of +Archelaus remain; his doctrines have to be extracted from Diogenes +Laertius, Simplicius, Plutarch and Hippolytus. + + See IONIAN SCHOOL; for his ethical theories see T. Gomperz, _Greek + Thinkers_ (Eng. trans., 1901), vol. i. p. 402. + + + + +ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELM VON (1743-1812), German historian, was born +at Langfuhr, a suburb of Danzig, on the 3rd of September 1743. From the +Berlin Cadet school he passed into the Prussian army at the age of +sixteen, and took part in the last campaigns of the Seven Years' War. +Retiring from military service, on account of his wounds, with the rank +of captain in 1763, he travelled for sixteen years and visited nearly +all the countries of Europe, and resided in England for ten years +(1769-1779). Returning to Germany in 1780, he obtained a lay canonry at +the cathedral of Magdeburg, and immediately entered upon a literary +career by publishing the periodical _Litteratur- und Volkerkunde_ +(Leipzig, 1782-1791). This was followed in 1785 by _England und Italien_ +(2nd ed., Leipzig, 1787), in which he gives a remarkably unprejudiced +appreciation of English political and social institutions. Between 1789 +and 1798 he published his _Annalen der britischen Geschichte_ (20 vols). +But the work by which he is best known to fame is his brilliantly +written history of the Seven Years' War, _Geschichte des siebenjahrigen +Krieges_ (first published in the _Berliner historisches Taschenbuch_ of +1787, and later in 2 vols., Berlin, 1793; 13th ed., Leipzig, 1892). This +work, though as regards the main facts and details it only follows other +writers, is still a useful source of information upon the epoch with +which it deals. In 1792 Archenholz removed to Hamburg, and there, from +1792 to 1812, edited the journal _Minerva_, which had a great reputation +for its literary, historical and political information. Archenholz died +at his country seat, Oyendorf, near Hamburg, on the 28th of February +1812. + + + + +ARCHER, WILLIAM (1856- ), English critic, was born at Perth on the +23rd of September 1856, and was educated at Edinburgh University. He +became a leader-writer on the _Edinburgh Evening News_ in 1875, and +after a year in Australia returned to Edinburgh. In 1879 he became +dramatic critic of the _London Figaro_, and in 1884 of the _World_. In +London he soon took a prominent literary place. Mr Archer had much to do +with introducing Ibsen to the English public by his translation of _The +Pillars of Society_, produced at the Gaiety Theatre, London, in 1880. He +also translated, alone or in collaboration, other productions of the +Scandinavian stage: Ibsen's _Doll's House_ (1889), _Master Builder_ +(1893); Edvard Brandes's _A Visit_ (1892); Ibsen's _Peer Gynt_ (1892); +_Little Eyolf_ (1895); and _John Gabriel Borkman_ (1897); and he edited +_Henrik Ibsen's Prose Dramas_ (5 vols., 1890-1891). Among his critical +works are:--_English Dramatists of To-day_ (1882); _Masks or Faces?_ +(1888); five vols. of critical notices reprinted, _The Theatrical World_ +(1893-1897); _America To-day, Observations and Reflections_; _Poets of +the Younger Generation_ (1901); _Real Conversations_ (1904). + + + + +ARCHERMUS, a Chian sculptor of the middle of the 6th century B.C. His +father Micciades, and his sons, Bupalus and Athenis, were all sculptors +of marble, using doubtless the fine marble of their native land. The +school excelled in draped female figures. Archermus is said by a +scholiast (on Aristophanes' _Birds_, v. 573) to have been the first to +represent Victory and Love with wings. This statement gives especial +interest to a discovery made at Delos of a basis signed by Micciades and +Archermus which was connected with a winged female figure in rapid +motion (see GREEK ART), a figure naturally at first regarded as the +Victory of Archermus. Unfortunately further investigation has +discredited the notion that the statue belongs to the basis, which seems +rather to have supported a sphinx. + + + + +ARCHERY, + + History in war. + +the art and practice of shooting with the bow (_arcus_) and arrow, or +with crossbow and bolts. Though these weapons are by no means widely +used amongst savage tribes of the present day, their origin is lost in +the mists of antiquity. Amongst the great peoples of ancient history +the Egyptians were the first and the most famous of archers, relying on +the bow as their principal weapon in war. Their bows were somewhat +shorter than a man, and their arrows varied between 2 ft. and 2 ft. 8 +in. in length. Here, as elsewhere, flint heads for arrows were by no +means rare, but bronze was the usual material employed. The Biblical bow +was of reed, wood or horn, and the Israelites used it freely both in war +(Gen. xlviii. 22) and in the chase (xxi. 20). The Assyrians also were a +nation of archers. Amongst the Greeks of the historic period archery was +not much in evidence, in spite of the tradition of Teucer, Ulysses and +many other archers of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. The Cretans, however, +supplied Greek armies with the bowmen required. In the "Ten Thousand" +figured two hundred Cretan bowmen of Sosias' corps. Rustow and Kochly +(_Geschichte des griechischen Kriegwesens_, p. 131) estimate the range +of the Cretan bow at eighty to one hundred paces, as compared with the +sling-bullet's forty or fifty, and the javelin's thirty to forty. The +Romans as a nation were, equally with the Greeks, indifferent to +archery; in their legions the archer element was furnished by Cretans +and Asiatics. On the other hand nearly all Asiatic and derived nations +were famous bowmen, from the nations who fought under Xerxes' banner +onwards. The Persian, Scythian and Parthian bow was far more efficient +than the Cretan, though the latter was not wanting in the heterogeneous +armies of the East. The _sagittarii_, three thousand strong, who fought +in the Pharsalian campaign, were drawn from Crete, Pontus, Syria, &c. +But the Roman view of archery was radically altered when the old +legionary system perished at Adrianople (A.D. 378). After this time the +armies of the empire consisted in great part of horse-archers. Their +missiles, we are told, pierced cuirass and shield with ease, and they +shot equally well dismounted and at the gallop. These troops, combined +with heavy cavalry and themselves not unprovided with armour, played a +decisive part in the Roman victories of the age of Belisarius and +Narses. The destruction of the Franks at Casilinum (A.D. 554) was +practically the work of the horse-archers. + +In the main, the nations whose migrations altered the face of Europe +were not archers. Only with the Welsh, the Scandinavians, and the +peoples in touch with the Eastern empire was the bow a favourite weapon. +The edicts of Charlemagne could not succeed in making archery popular in +his dominions, and Abbot Ebles, the defender of Paris in 886, is almost +the only instance of a skilled archer in the European records of the +time. The sagas, on the other hand, have much to say as to the feats of +northern heroes with the bow. With English, French and Germans the bow +was the weapon of the poorest military classes. The Norman archers, who +doubtless preserved the traditions of their Danish ancestors, were in +the forefront of William's line at Hastings (1066), but contemporary +evidence points conclusively to the short bow, drawn to the chest, as +the weapon used on this occasion. The combat of Bourgtheroulde in 1124 +shows that the Normans still combined heavy cavalry and archers as at +Hastings. Horse-archers too (contrary to the usual belief) were here +employed by the English. + +Yet the "Assize of Arms" of 1181 does not mention the bow, and Richard +I. was at great pains to procure crossbowmen for the Crusades. The +crossbow had from about the 10th century gradually become the principal +missile weapon in Europe, in spite of the fact that it was condemned by +the Lateran Council of 1139. As early as 1270 in France, and rather +later in Spain, the master of the crossbowmen had become a great +dignitary, and in Spain the weapon was used by a _corps d'elite_ of men +of gentle birth, who, with their gay apparel, were a picturesque feature +of continental armies of the period. But the Genoese, Pisans and +Venetians were the peoples which employed the crossbow most of all. Many +thousand Genoese crossbowmen were present at Crecy. + +It was in the Crusades that the crossbow made its reputation, opposing +heavier weight and greater accuracy to the missiles of the +horse-archers, who invariably constituted the greatest and most +important part of the Asiatic armies. So little change in warfare had +centuries brought about that a crusading force in 1104 perished at +Carrhae, on the same ground and before the same mounted-archer tactics, +as the army of Crassus in 55 B.C. But individually the crusading +crossbowman was infinitely superior to the Turkish or Egyptian +horse-archer. + + + English use. + +England, which was to become the country of archers _par excellence_, +long retained the old short bow of Hastings, and the far more efficient +crossbow was only used as a rule by mercenaries, such as the celebrated +Falkes de Breaute and his men in the reign of John. South Wales, it +seems certain, eventually produced the famous long-bow. In Ireland, in +Henry II.'s time, Strongbow made great use of Welsh bowmen, whom he +mounted for purposes of guerrilla warfare, and eventually the prowess of +Welsh archers taught Edward I. the value of the hitherto discredited +arm. At Falkirk (q.v.), once for all, the long-bow proved its worth, and +thenceforward for centuries it was the principal weapon of English +soldiers. By 1339, archers had come to be half of the whole mass of +footmen, and later the proportion was greatly increased. In 1360 Edward +III. mounted his archers, as Strongbow had done. The long-bow was about +5 ft., and its shaft a cloth-yard long. Shot by a Welsh archer, a shaft +had penetrated an oak door (at Abergavenny in 1182) 4 in. thick and the +head stood out a hand's breadth on the inner side. Drawn to the right +ear, the bow was naturally capable of long shooting, and in Henry +VIII.'s time practice at a less range than one furlong was forbidden. In +rapidity it was the equal of the short bow and the superior of the +crossbow, which weapon, indeed, it surpassed in all respects. Falkirk, +and still more Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt, made the English archers +the most celebrated infantry in Europe, and the kings of England, in +whatever else they differed from each other, were, from Edward II. to +Henry VIII., at one in the matter of archery. In 1363 Edward III. +commanded the general practice of archery on Sundays and holidays, all +other sports being forbidden. The provisions of this act were from time +to time re-issued, particularly in the well-known act of Henry VIII. The +price of bows and arrows was also regulated in the reign of Edward III., +and Richard III. ordained that for every ton of certain goods imported +ten yew-bows should be imported also, while at the same time long-bows +of unusual size were admitted free of duty. In order to prevent the too +rapid consumption of yew for bow-staves, bowyers were ordered to make +four bows of wych-hazel, ash or elm to one of yew, and only the best and +most useful men were allowed to possess yew-bows. Distant and exposed +counties were provided for by making bowyers, fletchers, &c., liable +(unless freemen of the city of London) to be ordered to any point where +their services might be required. In Scotland and Ireland also, +considerable attention was paid to archery. In 1478 archery was +encouraged in Ireland by statute, and James I. and James IV. of +Scotland, in particular, did their best to stimulate the interest of +their subjects in the bow, whose powers they had felt in so many battles +from Falkirk to Homildon Hill. + + + Decline as weapon. + +The introduction of hand-firearms was naturally fatal to the bow as a +warlike weapon, but the conservatism of the English, and the +non-professional character of wars waged by them, added to the technical +deficiencies of early firearms, made the process of change in England +very gradual. The mercenary or professional element was naturally the +first to adopt the new weapons. At Pont de l'Arche in 1418 the English +had "_petits canons_" (which seem to have been hand guns), and during +the latter part of the Hundred Years' War their use became more and more +frequent. The crossbow soon disappeared from the more professional +armies of the continent. Charles the Bold had, before the battle of +Morat (1476), ten thousand _coulevrines a main_. But in the hands of +local forces the crossbow lingered on, at least in rural France, until +about 1630. Its last appearance in war was in the hands of the Chinese +at Taku (1860). But the long-bow, an incomparably finer weapon, endured +as one of the principal arms of the English soldier until about 1590. +Edward IV. entered London after the battle of Barnet with 500 "smokie +gunners" (foreign mercenaries), but at that engagement Warwick's centre +consisted solely of bows and bills (1471). The new weapons gradually +made their way, but even in 1588, the year of the Armada, the local +forces of Devonshire comprised 800 bows to 1600 "shot," and 800 bills to +800 pikes. But the Armada year saw the last appearance of the English +archer, and the same county in 1598 provides neither archers nor +billmen, while in the professional army in Ireland these weapons had +long given way to musket and caliver, pike and halberd. Archers appeared +in civilized warfare as late as 1807, when fifteen hundred "baskiers," +horse-archers, clad in chain armour, fought against Napoleon in Poland. + +As a weapon of the chase the bow was in its various forms employed even +more than in war. The rise of archery as a sport in England was, of +course, a consequence of its military value, which caused it to be so +heartily encouraged by all English sovereigns. + + + Japan. + +The Japanese were from their earliest times great archers, and the bow +was the weapon _par excellence_ of their soldiers. The standard length +of the bow (usually bamboo) was 7 ft. 6 in., of the arrow 3 ft. to 3 ft. +9 in. Numerous feats of archery are recorded to have taken place in the +"thirty-three span" halls of Kioto and Tokyo, where the archer had to +shoot the whole length of a very low corridor, 128 yds. long. Wada +Daihachi in the 17th century shot 8133 arrows down the corridor in +twenty-four consecutive hours, averaging five shots a minute, and in +1852 a modern archer made 5583 successful shots in twenty hours, or over +four a minute. + + + History of Sport. + +_The Pastime of Archery._--The use of the bow and arrow as a pastime +naturally accompanied their use as weapons of war, but when the gun +began to supersede the bow the pastime lost its popularity. Charles II., +however, and his queen, Catherine of Braganza, interested themselves in +English archery, the queen in 1676 presenting a silver badge or shield +to the "Marshall of the Fraternity of Archers," which badge, once the +property of the Finsbury Archers, was transferred to the keeping of the +Royal Toxophilite Society, when in 1841 the two clubs combined. The +Toxophilite Society was founded in 1781; for though in the north archery +had long been practised, its resuscitation in the south really dates +from the formation of this club by Sir Ashton Lever. This society +received the title of "Royal" in 1847, though it had long been +patronized by royalty. It is an error to suppose that the Finsbury +Archers were connected with the Archers' division of the Hon. Artillery +Company, but many members of the Toxophilite Society joined that +division, and used its ground for shooting, securing, however, a London +ground of their own in the district where Gower Street, W.C., now is. +When this ground became unavailable, the shooting probably took place at +Highbury, and later in 1820, on Lord's cricket ground, the present +ground in the Inner Circle of Regent's Park, near the Botanical Gardens, +not being acquired till 1833. The society may be regarded as the most +important body connected with archery, most of the leading archers +belonging to it, though the Grand National Archery Society controls the +public meetings. Among its more important events is the shooting of 144 +arrows at 100 yds. for the Crunder Cup and Bugle. In the early days of +the club targets of different sizes were used at the different ranges, +and the scores were recorded in money (e.g. "Mr Elwin, 86 hits, +L5:5:6"). The Woodmen of Arden can claim an almost equal antiquity, +having been founded--some say "revived"--in 1785. The number of members +is limited to 80; at one time there were 81, Sir Robert Peel having been +elected as a supernumerary by way of compliment. The headquarters of the +Woodmen are at Meriden in Warwickshire; the club has a nominal authority +over vert and venison, whence its officers bear appropriate +names-warden, master-forester and verderers; and the annual meeting is +called the Wardmote. The master-forester, or captain for the year, is +the maker of the first "gold" at the annual target; he who makes the +second is the senior verderer. The club devotes itself to the +old-fashioned clout-shooting at long ranges, reckoned by "scores," nine +score meaning 180 yds., and so on. (_Vide_ "Clout-shooting" _infra_.) +The chief matches in which the Woodmen engage are those against the +Royal Company of Scottish Archers. The Royal British Bowmen date back to +the end of the 18th century. Like many others, during the Napoleonic war +they suspended operations, revived when peace was made. The club was +finally dissolved in 1880. The Royal Kentish Bowmen were founded in +1785, but did not survive the war. John O'Gaunt's Bowmen, who still meet +at Lancaster, were revived, not created, at the same time, and still +flourish. The Herefordshire Bowmen only shoot at 60 yds., while the West +Berks Society is limited to twelve members, who meet at each other's +houses, except for their Autumn Handicap, shot on the Toxophilite +Grounds--216 arrows at 100 yds. The Royal Company of Archers is the +chief Scottish society. Originally a semi-military body constituted in +1676, it practised archery as a pastime from the time of its foundation, +several meetings being held in the first few years of its existence. It +devoted itself to "rovers," or long-range shooting at the "clout," among +its most interesting trophies being the "Musselburgh Arrow," first shot +for in 1603, possibly even earlier, in that town; the competition was +then open to all comers, for archery was long popular in Scotland, +especially at Kilwinning, the headquarters of popinjay (q.v.) shooting. +Other prizes are the "Peebles Silver Arrow," dating back to 1626, the +"Edinburgh Silver Arrow" (1709), the "Selkirk Arrow," a very ancient +prize, the "Dalhousie Sword," the "Hopetoun Royal Commemoration Prize," +and others, shot for at ranges of 180 or 200 yds. The most curious is +the "Goose Medal." Originally a goose was buried in a butt with only its +head visible, and this was the archers' mark; now a small glass globe is +substituted. The "Popingo (Popinjay) Medal," for which a stuffed parrot +was once used as the mark, is now contested at the ordinary butts. The +Kilwinning Society of Archers, founded in 1688, did not disband till +1870; the Irvine Toxophilites flourished from 1814 till about 1867. But +of all societies the Grand National Archery Society, regulating the +great meetings, though comparatively young, is the most important. +Various open meetings were already in existence, but in 1844 a few +leading archers projected a Grand National Meeting, which was held in +York in that year and in 1845 and 1846, and subsequently in other +places. But the society did not exist as such till 1861, after the +meeting held at Liverpool, since when, notwithstanding some financial +troubles, it has been the legislative and managing body of English +archery. The chief meetings are the "Championship," the "Leamington and +Midland Counties," the "Crystal Palace," the "Grand Western" and the +"Grand Northern." For some years a "Scottish Grand National" was held, +but fell into abeyance. The "Scorton Arrow" is no longer shot for in the +Yorkshire village of that name, but the meeting, held regularly in the +county, dates back to 1673 by record, and is probably far older. The +silver arrow and the captaincy are awarded to the man who makes the +first gold; the silver bugle and lieutenancy to the first red; the gold +medal to most hits, and a horn spoon to the last white. + +In the United States archery has had a limited popularity. The only one +of the early clubs that lasted long was the "United Bowmen of +Philadelphia," founded in 1828, but defunct in 1859. There was a revival +twenty years later, when a National Association was formed; and various +meetings were held annually and championships instituted, but there was +never any popular enthusiasm for the sport, though it showed signs of +increasing favour towards the end of the 19th century. The longer ranges +are not greatly favoured by American archers, though at some meetings +the regulation "York Round" (_vide infra_ under "Targets") and the +"National" are shot. Other rounds are the "Potomac," 24 arrows at 80, 24 +at 70, and 24 at 60 yds.; the "Double American," 60 arrows each at 60, +50 and 40 yds.; and the "Double Columbia," for ladies, 48 each at 50, 40 +and 30 yds. In team matches ladies shoot 96 arrows at 50 yds., gentlemen +96 at 60. + + _The Bow._--As used in the pastime of archery the length of the bows + does not vary much, though it bears some relation to the length of + the arrow and the length of the arrow to the strength of the archer, + to which the weight of the bow has to be adapted. The proper weight of + a bow is the number of lb. which, attached to the string, will draw a + full-length arrow to its head. For men's bows the drawing-power varies + from 40 to 60 lb., anything above this being extreme; ladies' bows + draw from 24 to 32 lb. Estimating 50 lb. as a fair average, such a bow + would be 6 ft. 1 in. long for a 30-in., 6 ft. for a 28-in., and 5 ft. + 11 in. for a 27-in. arrow, but the height as well as the strength of + the archer have to be considered. Similarly a lady's bow on the + average measures about 5 ft. 6 in. and her arrows 25 in. Modern bows + are either made entirely of yew (occasionally of other woods), when + they are called "self-bows," or of a combination of woods, when they + are called "backed-bows." Self-bows are rarely or never made in a + single stave, owing to the difficulty of obtaining true and flawless + wood of the necessary length; hence two staves joined by a double + fish-joint, which forms the centre of the bow, are used, tested and + adjusted so that they may be as equally elastic as possible. The best + yew is imported from Italy and Spain, and is allowed to season for + three years before it is made into a bow, which again is not used till + it is two years older. In backed-bows the belly, the rounded part + nearest to the string, is generally but not necessarily made of yew, + the back, or flat part, of yew (the best), hickory, lance or other + woods, glued together in strips. The centre of the bow, for about 18 + in., should be stiff and resisting, then tapering off gradually to the + horns in which the string is fitted, the greatest care being taken + that the two limbs are uniform. The bow of self-yew is generally + considered more agreeable to handle and has a better "cast," throwing + the arrow more smoothly and with less jar, and since no glued parts + are exposed, it is less liable to injury from wet. On the other hand, + "crysals" (tiny cracks, which are apt to extend) are more frequent in + this class of bow. Self-yew bows cost L8 or L10, where a good + backed-bow can be bought for about half that. The self-bow is more + sensitive than other bows, and its work is mostly done during the last + few inches of the pull, where the backed-bow pulls evenly throughout. + The backed-bow should be perfectly straight in the back, but after use + often loses its shape either by "following the string," i.e. getting + bent inwards on the string-side, or by becoming "reflex" (bending the + opposite way). Self-bows are even more apt to lose their shape than + backed-bows, as there is no hard wood to counteract the natural grain. + A bow that is strongly reflexed at the ends is known as a "Cupid's + bow." To form the handle the wood of the bow is left thick in the + centre, and braid, leather or indiarubber is wound round it to give a + better grip. + + _The String and Stringing._--The string is made of three strands of + hemp, dressed with a preparation of glue, and should be perfectly + round, smooth and not frayed, as a broken string may result in a + broken bow. The string, at its centre, is 6 in. from the belly of the + man's bow; 5 in. in the lady's bow. The clenched fist with the thumb + upright was the old, rough and ready estimate, known as "fist-mele." + For a few inches above and below the nocking point the string is + lapped with carpet-thread to save it from fraying by contact with the + arm; the nocking point being made by another lapping of filoselle + silk, so that the string may exactly fit the nock of the arrow. When a + bow is properly strung the string should be longitudinally along the + middle of the belly. + + _Arrows and Nocking._--The parts of the arrow are the shaft, the + "nock" or notch, the "pile" or point, and the feathers. The shaft is + made of seasoned red deal, and may be "self" or "footed." Most arrows + are "footed," i.e. a piece of hard wood to which the pile is attached + is spliced to the deal shaft, which should be perfectly straight and + stiff. The shaft is made in several shapes. Most archers prefer the + "parallel" pattern--the shaft being the same size from nock to pile; + the next is the "barrelled," the shape being thick in the centre and + tapering towards the ends. The "bob-tail" diminishes from the pile to + the nock; the "chested" tapers from the middle to the pile. The pile + should not be taper but cylindrical, "broadshouldered" where the point + begins. The nock is cut square. There are three feathers, the body + feathers of a turkey or peacock being the best. They should all curve + the same way, are about 1-1/2 in. long and 1/2 in. deep, with the ends + near the nock either square, or balloon-shaped. The weight of an arrow + is its weight in new English silver; a five-shilling arrow is heavy + for a man's bow, while four-shillings is light. A 28-in. arrow for a + 50-lb. bow may weigh four-and-ninepence; a 27-in. arrow + four-and-sixpence. This may serve as a rough standard. + + _Other Implements._--The archer uses finger-tips, or a "tab" of + leather, to protect the fingers against the string, and a leather + "bracer" to protect the left arm from its blow. Quivers are not now + used except by ladies. A special box for carrying bows and arrows + about; a proper cupboard, known as an "ascham," in which they may be + kept at home in a dry, even temperature, not too hot; and a baize or + leather case for use on the ground, are important minor articles of + equipment. + + _Targets, Scoring and Handicapping._--The targets, 4 ft. in diameter, + are made of straw 3 to 4 in. thick, and are supported sloping slightly + backwards by an iron stand. The faces are of floor-cloth painted with + concentric rings, 4-4/5 in. each in breadth. The outer ring, white, + counts one point; the next, black, three; the next, blue, five; the + next, red, seven; and the next, gold--a complete circle of 4-4/5 in. + radius--nine. The exact centre of the gold is called the "pin-hole." + The targets are set up in pairs, facing each other, the distances for + men being 100, 80 and 60 yds.; for ladies, 60 and 50; for convenience, + 5 yds. are added to allow for a shooting-line that distance in front + of each target. The centre of the gold should be 4 ft. from the + ground. Each archer shoots three arrows--an "end"--at one target; they + then cross over and mark the scores. If an arrow cuts two rings, the + archer is credited with the value of the higher one. In matches a + "York Round" or a "St George's Round" is usually shot by men, the + former consisting of 144 arrows, 72 at 100 yds., 48 at 80 yds., and 24 + at 60 yds., the latter of 36 arrows at each of these distances. One + York Round only is shot on a day; a double York Round is shot, one on + each day, at the more important meetings. Ladies usually shoot the + "National Round" of 48 arrows at 60 yds. and 24 at 50 yds. At most + meetings the prizes are awarded on the gross scores; at others, + including the Championship meeting, on points, two points for the + highest score on the round and two for most hits on the round, one + point each for highest score and most hits at each of the three + ranges, ten points in all. Ladies' scores are calculated similarly. To + decide the Championship, the Grand National Archery Society passed a + rule in 1894 that "The Champion prizes shall be awarded to the archer + gaining the greatest number of points, provided that those for gross + hits or gross score are included; any points won by other archers + shall be redistributed among those gaining the points for gross hits + or gross score." Handicapping may be done by "rings," the winner of a + first prize not being allowed to count "whites" at subsequent + meetings, and "blacks" and "blues" being lost for further successes. + Better methods are (1) to deduct a percentage from the gross score of + successful shooters, (2) to handicap by points, as in other pastimes, + or (3) to rate a shooter according to the average of his last year's + performances, re-rating him monthly, or at convenient intervals, the + system being to add his average of the current year to his average of + last year, and divide the sum by two to form his new rating. + + _Clout and Long Distance Shooting._--This form of archery is chiefly + supported by the Woodmen of Arden and the Royal Company. At 100 yds., + the target (smaller by 4 in. than the usual one, but with an inner + white circle instead of the blue) is set up against a butt only 18 in. + from the ground, but for nine-score, ten-score, and twelve-score + shooting it is a white target, 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, with a black + centre. The target, the centre and the arrow that hits the centre are + each known as a "clout." Hits and misses are signalled by a marker + stationed, rather perilously, by the side of the butt. The target is + sloped backwards to an angle of 60 deg., with rings marked round it on + the ground at distances of 1-1/2 ft., 3 ft., 6 ft. and 9 ft., a hit in + the outer ring counting one, and in the next two, and so on, the clout + or centre counting six. For the longer ranges lighter arrows are used. + The Scottish clout was a piece of canvas, stretched on a frame; the + range 180 or 200 yds.; all arrows counted one that were within 24 ft. + of the target, the clout counting two. Modern archers have paid scant + attention to mere distance-shooting, which is an art of its own, but + their experiments prove that with a fairly heavy bow, say 60 lb. or 63 + lb., and a long light arrow, known as a "flight arrow," a good archer + should be able to reach 300 or 310 yds. With a heavier bow, properly + under control, 50 or 60 yds. might be added to this by a strong man. + These experiments seem to be verified by a quotation from Shakespeare + (Henry IV. Act iii. Sc. 2): "A' would have clapped i' the clout and + twelve score, and carried you a forehand shaft a fourteen and fourteen + and a half," i.e. 280 or 290 yds. Instances are recorded of Englishmen + shooting 340 and 360 yds., but in 1795 Mahmoud Effendi of the Turkish + embassy shot 482 yds. with a Turkish bow, and Sultan Selim 972. The + Turk, however, used a Turkish bow and a 14-in. arrow, with a grooved + rest on his left arm along which the arrow passed, to compensate for + the difference between the draw of the bow and the shortness of the + arrow. The diplomatist's shot is supported by good evidence, but the + sultan's is regarded as improbable at least. + + _Championship and Scores._--The British championship meetings, + instituted in 1844, are conducted under the laws of the Grand National + Archery Society: the prizes, apart from the Challenge prizes, are + given in money, there being also a rule that any one who makes three + golds at one end receives a shilling from all others of the same sex + who are shooting. The most notable champion was Horace A. Ford (d. + 1880), who held the title for eleven consecutive years, 1849 to 1859 + inclusive, and again in 1867. He made a four-figure score at four + other championship meetings, his highest, 1251 (in 1857) for 245 hits + being unapproached. To him the modern scientific practice of archery + must largely be attributed, together with its improvement and its + popularity. The names of G. Edwards, Major C. Hawkins Fisher, H.H. + Palairet, C.E. Nesham, and G.E.S. Fryer, are also notable as + champions. Among ladies Mrs Horniblow was champion for eleven years + between 1852 and 1881, Miss Legh for nineteen years between 1880 and + 1908; Mrs Piers Legh, Miss Betham and Mrs Bowly claim the title on + four occasions. Mrs Bowly's score of 823 (1894) was the highest made + for the championship till Miss Legh made 825 with 143 hits--only one + arrow missed altogether--in 1898; beating her own record with a score + of 841 (143 hits) in 1904. It should not be forgotten that as the + championship is awarded by points, the highest score does not + necessarily win. + + See Roger Ascham, _Toxophilus_ (1545), edited by Edward Arber (London, + 1868); _The Arte of Warre_, by William Garrard (London 1591); _The + Arte of Archerie_, by Gervase Markham (London, 1634); _Ancient and + Modern Methods of Arrow Release_, by E.S. Morse (1885); _The English + Bowman_, by T. Roberts (London, 1801); _A Treatise on Archery_, by + Thomas Waring (London, 9th ed., 1832); _The Theory and Practice of + Archery_, by Horace A. Ford (new ed., London, 1887); _Archery_, by + C.J. Longman and H. Walrond (Badminton Library, London, 1894). + (W. J. F.) + + + + +ARCHES, COURT OF, the English ecclesiastical court of appeal of the +archbishop of Canterbury, as metropolitan of the province of Canterbury, +from all the consistory and commissary courts in the province. It +derives its name from its ancient place of judicature, which was in the +church of _Beata Maria de Arcubus_ --St Mary-le-Bow or St Mary of the +Arches, "by reason of the steeple thereof raised at the top with stone +pillars in fashion like a bow bent archwise." This parish was the chief +of thirteen locally situated within the diocese of London but exempt +from the bishop's jurisdiction, and it was no doubt owing to this +circumstance that it was selected originally as the place of judicature +for the archbishop's court. The proper designation of the judge is +official principal of the Arches court, but by custom he came to be +styled the dean of the Arches, a title belonging formerly to the chief +official of the subordinate court. Originally, the official principal +exercised metropolitan jurisdiction, while the dean of the Arches +exercised the "peculiar" jurisdiction. The jurisdictions called +"peculiars" at one time numbered nearly 300 in England. They were +originally introduced by the pope for the purpose of curtailing the +bishop's legitimate authority within his diocese; "an object which," +says Phillimore, "they certainly attained, to the great confusion of +ecclesiastical jurisdiction for many years." The dean of the Arches +originally had jurisdiction over the thirteen London parishes above +mentioned, but as the official principal was often absent as ambassador +on the continent, he became his substitute, and gradually the two +offices were blended together. The original office of the dean of the +Arches may now be regarded as extinct, though the title is still +popularly used, for no dean of the Arches has been appointed _eo nomine_ +for several centuries, and by an act of 1838 bishops have jurisdiction +over all peculiars within their diocese. The judge of the Arches court +was until 1874 appointed by the archbishop of Canterbury by patent +which, when confirmed by the dean and chapter of Canterbury, conferred +the office for the life of the holder. He took the oaths of office +required by the 127th canon. But by the Public Worship Regulation Act +1874 the two archbishops were empowered, subject to the approval of the +sovereign by sign-manual, from time to time to appoint a practising +barrister of ten years' standing, or a person who had been a judge of +one of the superior courts (being a member of the Church of England) to +be, during good behaviour, a judge for the purpose of exercising +jurisdiction under that act, and it was enacted (sec. 7) that on a +vacancy occurring in the office of official principal of the Arches +court the judge should become _ex officio_ such official principal. In +this way the late Lord Penzance became dean on the retirement of Sir +Robert Phillimore in 1875. Lord Penzance received in 1878 a supplemental +patent as dean from Archbishop Tait, but did not otherwise fulfil the +conditions observed on the appointment of his predecessors. On Lord +Penzance's retirement in 1899, his successor, Sir Arthur Charles, +received a patent from the archbishop of Canterbury as official +principal of the Arches court, and he took the oaths of office according +to the practice before the Public Worship Regulation Act. He was +subsequently and separately appointed judge under that act. Sir A. +Charles resigned in 1903 and was succeeded by Sir L.T. Dibdin, who +qualified in the same way as his immediate predecessor. The official +principal of the Arches court is the only ecclesiastical judge who is +empowered to pass a sentence of deprivation against a clerk in holy +orders. The appeals from the decisions of the Arches court were formerly +made to the king in chancery, but they are now by statute addressed to +the king in council, and they are heard before the judicial committee of +the privy council. By an act of Henry VIII. (Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction +Act 1532) the Arches court is empowered to hear, in the first instance, +such suits as are sent up to it by letters of request from the +consistorial courts of the bishops of the province of Canterbury, and by +the Church Discipline Act 1840, this jurisdiction is continued to it, +and it is further empowered to accept letters of request from the +bishops of the province of Canterbury after they have issued commissions +of inquiry under that statute, and the commissioners have made their +report. + +The Arches court was also the court of appeal from the consistory courts +of the bishops of the province in all testamentary and matrimonial +causes. The matrimonial jurisdiction was transferred to the crown by the +Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. Under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892 an +appeal lies from the judgment of a consistory court under that act, in +respect of fact by leave of the appellate court, and in respect of law +without leave, to either the Arches court or the judicial committee of +the privy council at the option of the appellant. Under the Benefices +Act 1898 the official principal of the archbishop is required to +institute a presentee to a benefice if the tribunal constituted under +that act decides that there is no valid ground for refusing institution +and the bishop of the diocese notwithstanding fails to institute him. +After the College of Advocates was incorporated and had established +itself in Doctors' Commons, the archbishop's court of appeal, as well as +his prerogative court, were usually held in the hall of the College of +Advocates, but after the destruction of the buildings of the college, +the court of appeal held its sittings, for the most part, in Westminster +Hall. For many years past there has been but little business in the +Arches court, mainly owing to the unwillingness of a large number of the +clergy to recognize the jurisdiction of what they deny to be any longer +a spiritual court, and the consistent use by the bishops of their right +of veto in the case of prosecutions under the Public Worship Regulation +Act. On the rare occasions when a sitting of the court is necessary, it +is held in the library of Lambeth Palace, or at the Church House, +Westminster. + + + + +ARCHESTRATUS, of Syracuse or Gela, a Greek poet, who flourished about +330 B.C. After travelling extensively in search of foreign delicacies +for the table, he embodied the result in a humorous poem called [Greek: +Hedupatheta], afterwards freely translated by Ennius under the title +_Heduphagetica_. About 300 lines of this gastronomical poem are +preserved in Athenaeus. The writer, who has been styled the Hesiod or +Theognis of gluttons, parodies the style of the old gnomic poets; chief +attention is paid to details concerning fish. + + Ribbeck, _Archestrati Reliquiae_ (1877); Brandt, _Corpusculum Poesis + Epicae Graecae ludibundae_, i. 1888; Schmid, _De Archestrati Gelensis + Fragmentis_ (1896). + + + + +ARCHIAC, ETIENNE JULES ADOLPHE DESMIER DE SAINT SIMON, VICOMTE D' +(1802-1868), French geologist and palaeontologist, was born at Reims on +the 24th of September 1802. He was educated in the Military School of St +Cyr, and served for nine years as a cavalry officer until 1830, when he +retired from the service. Prior to this he had published an historical +romance; but now geology came to occupy his chief attention. In his +earlier scientific works, which date from 1835, he described the +Tertiary and Cretaceous formations of France, Belgium and England, and +dealt especially with the distribution of fossils geographically and in +sequence. Later on he investigated the Carboniferous, Devonian and +Silurian formations. His great work, _Histoire des progres de la +geologie_, 1834-1859, was published in 8 volumes at Paris (1847-1860). +In 1853 the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society was awarded to +him. In the same year, with Jules Haime (1824-1856), he published a +monograph on the Nummulitic formation of India. In 1857 he was elected a +member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1861 he was appointed +professor of palaeontology in the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. +Of later works his _Paleontologie stratigraphique_, in 3 vols. +(1864-1865); his _Geologie et paleontologie_ (1866); and his +palaeontological contributions to de Tchihatcheff's _Asie mineure_ +(1866), may be specially mentioned. + +He died on the 24th of December 1868. + + See _Notice sur les travaux scientifiques du vicomte d'Archiac_, par + A. Gaudry (Meulan, 1874); _Extrait du Bull. Soc. Geol. de France_, + ser. 3, t. ii. p. 230 (1874). + + + + +ARCHIAS, AULUS LICINIUS, Greek poet, was born at Antioch in Syria 120 +B.C. In 102, his reputation having been already established, especially +as an improvisatore, he came to Rome, where he was well received amongst +the highest and most influential families. His chief patron was +Lucullus, whose gentile name he assumed. In 93 he visited Sicily with +his patron, on which occasion he received the citizenship of Heracleia, +one of the federate towns, and indirectly, by the provisions of the lex +Plautia Papiria, that of Rome. In 61 he was accused by a certain Gratius +of having assumed the citizenship illegally; and Cicero successfully +defended him in his speech _Pro Archia_. This speech, which furnishes +nearly all the information concerning Archias, states that he had +celebrated the deeds of Marius and Lucullus in the Cimbrian and +Mithradatic wars, and that he was engaged upon a poem of which the +events of Cicero's consulship formed the subject. The Greek Anthology +contains thirty-five epigrams under the name of Archias, but it is +doubtful how many of these (if any) are the work of the poet of Antioch. + + Cicero, _Pro Archia_; T. Reinach, _De Archia Poeta_ (1890). + + + + +ARCHIDAMUS, the name of five kings of Sparta, of the Eurypontid house. + +1. The son and successor of Anaxidamus. His reign, which began soon +after the close of the second Messenian War, is said to have been quiet +and uneventful (Pausanias iii. 7. 6). + +2. The son of Zeuxidamus, reigned 476-427 B.C. (but see LEOTYCHIDES). He +succeeded his grandfather Leotychides upon the banishment of the latter, +his father having already died. His coolness and presence of mind are +said to have saved the Spartan state from destruction on the occasion of +the great earthquake of 464 (Diodorus xi. 63; Plutarch, _Cimon_, 16), +but this story must be regarded as at least doubtful. He was a friend of +Pericles and a man of prudence and moderation. During the negotiations +which preceded the Peloponnesian War he did his best to prevent, or at +least to postpone, the inevitable struggle, but was overruled by the war +party. He invaded Attica at the head of the Peloponnesian forces in the +summers of 431, 430 and 428, and in 429 conducted operations against +Plataea. He died probably in 427, certainly before the summer of 426, +when we find his son Agis on the throne. + + Herod, vi. 71; Thuc. i. 79-iii. 1; Plut. _Pericles_, 29. 33; Diodorus + xi. 48-xii. 52. + +3. The son and successor of Agesilaus II., reigned 360-338 B.C. During +his father's later years he proved himself a brave and capable officer. +In 371 he led the relief force which was sent to aid the survivors of +the battle of Leuctra. Four years later he captured Caryae, ravaged the +territory of the Parrhasii and defeated the Arcadians, Argives and +Messenians in the "tearless battle," so called because the victory did +not cost the Spartans a single life. In 364, however, he sustained a +severe reverse in attempting to relieve a besieged Spartan garrison at +Cromnus in south-western Arcadia. He showed great heroism in the defence +of Sparta against Epaminondas immediately before the battle of Mantineia +(362). He supported the Phocians during the Sacred War (355-346), moved, +no doubt, largely by the hatred of Thebes which he had inherited from +his father; he also led the Spartan forces in the conflicts with the +Thebans and their allies which arose out of the Spartan attempt to break +up the city of Megalopolis. Finally he was sent with a mercenary army to +Italy to protect the Tarentines against the attacks of Lucanians or +Messapians; he fell together with the greater part of his force at +Mandonion[1] on the same day as that on which the battle of Chaeronea +was fought. + + Xen. _Hell._ v. 4, vi. 4, vii. 1. 4, 5; Plut. _Agis_, 3, _Camillus_, + 19, _Agesilaus._ 25, 33, 34, 40; Pausanias iii. 10, vi. 4; Diodorus + xv. 54, 72, xvi. 24, 39, 59, 62, 88. + +4. The son of Eudamidas I., grandson of Archidamus III. The dates of his +accession and death are unknown. In 294 B.C. he was defeated at +Mantineia by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who invaded Laconia, gained a second +victory close to Sparta, and was on the point of taking the city itself +when he was called away by the news of the successes of Lysimachus and +Ptolemy in Asia Minor and Cyprus. + + Plut. _Agis_, 3, _Demetrius_, 35; Pausanias, i. 13. 6, vii. 8. 5; + Niese, _Gesch. der griech. u. makedon. Slaalen_, i. 363. + +5. The son of Eudamidas II., grandson of Archidamus IV., brother of Agis +IV. On his brother's murder he fled to Messenia (241 B.C.). In 227 he +was recalled by Cleomenes III., who was then reigning without a +colleague, but shortly after his return he was assassinated. Polybius +accuses Cleomenes of the murder, but Plutarch is probably right in +saying that it was the work of those who had caused the death of Agis, +and feared his brother's vengeance. + + Plutarch, _Cleomenes_, i. 5; Polybius v. 37, viii. I; Niese, _op. + cit._ ii. 304, 311. (M. N. T.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] So Plut. _Agis_, 3 (all MSS.). Following Cellarius, some + authorities read Manduria or Mandyrium. + + + + +ARCHIL (a corruption of "orchil," Ital. _oricello_, the origin of which +is unknown), a purple dye obtained from various species of lichens. +Archil can be extracted from many species of the genera _Roccella_, +_Lecanora_, _Umbilicaria_, _Parmelia_ and others, but in practice two +species of _Roccella_--_R. tinctoria_ and _R. fuciformis_--are almost +exclusively used. These, under the name of "orchella weed" or "dyer's +moss," are obtained from Angola, on the west coast of Africa, where the +most valuable kinds are gathered; from Cape Verde Islands; from Lima, on +the west coast of South America; and from the Malabar coast of India. +The colouring properties of the lichens do not exist in them ready +formed, but are developed by the treatment to which they are subjected. +A small proportion of a colourless, crystalline principle, termed +orcinol (a dioxytoluene), is found in some, and in all a series of acid +substances, erythric, lecanoric acids, &c. Orcinol in presence of oxygen +and ammonia takes up nitrogen and becomes changed into a purple +substance, orceine (C7H7NO3), which is essentially the basis of all +lichen dyes. Two other colouring-matters, azoerythin and erythroleinic +acid, are sometimes present. Archil is prepared for the dyer's use in +the form of a "liquor" (archil) and a "paste" (persis), and the latter, +when dried and finely powdered, forms the "cudbear" of commerce, a dye +formerly manufactured in Scotland from a native lichen, _Lecanora +tartarea_. The manufacturing process consists in washing the weeds, +which are then ground up with water to a thick paste. If archil paste is +to be made this paste is mixed with a strong ammoniacal solution, and +agitated in an iron cylinder heated by steam to about 140 deg. F. till +the desired shade is developed--a process which occupies several days. +In the preparation of archil liquor the principles which yield the dye +are separated from the ligneous tissue of the lichens, agitated with a +hot ammoniacal solution, and exposed to the action of air. When +potassium or sodium carbonate is added, a blue dye known as litmus, much +used as an "indicator," is produced. French purple or lime lake is a +lichen dye prepared by a modification of the archil process, and is a +more brilliant and durable colour than the other. The dyeing of worsted +and home-spun cloth with lichen dyes was formerly a very common domestic +employment in Scotland; and to this day, in some of the outer islands, +worsted continues to be dyed with "crottle," the name given to the +lichens employed. + + + + +ARCHILOCHUS, Greek lyric poet and writer of lampoons, was born at Paros, +one of the Cyclades islands. The date of his birth is uncertain, but he +probably flourished about 650 B.C.; according to some, about forty years +earlier but certainly not before the reign of Gyges (687-652), whom he +mentions in a well-known fragment. His father, Telesicles, who was of +noble family, had conducted a colony to Thasos, in obedience to the +command of the Delphic oracle. To this island Archilochus himself, hard +pressed by poverty, afterwards removed. Another reason for leaving his +native place was personal disappointment and indignation at the +treatment he had received from Lycambes, a citizen of Paros, who had +promised him his daughter Neobule in marriage, but had afterwards +withdrawn his consent. Archilochus, taking advantage of the licence +allowed at the feasts of Demeter, poured out his wounded feelings in +unmerciful satire. He accused Lycambes of perjury, and his daughters of +leading the most abandoned lives. Such was the effect produced by his +verses, that Lycambes and his daughters are said to have hanged +themselves. At Thasos the poet passed some unhappy years; his hopes of +wealth were disappointed; according to him, Thasos was the meeting-place +of the calamities of all Hellas. The inhabitants were frequently +involved in quarrels with their neighbours, and in a war against the +Saians--a Thracian tribe--he threw away his shield and fled from the +field of battle. He does not seem to have felt the disgrace very keenly, +for, like Alcaeus and Horace, he commemorates the event in a fragment in +which he congratulates himself on having saved his life, and says he can +easily procure another shield. After leaving Thasos, he is said to have +visited Sparta, but to have been at once banished from that city on +account of his cowardice and the licentious character of his works +(Valerius Maximus vi. 3, _externa_ 1). He next visited Siris, in lower +Italy, a city of which he speaks very favourably. He then returned to +his native place, and was slain in a battle against the Naxians by one +Calondas or Corax, who was cursed by the oracle for having slain a +servant of the Muses. + +The writings of Archilochus consisted of elegies, hymns--one of which +used to be sung by the victors in the Olympic games (Pindar, _Olympia_, +ix. i)--and of poems in the iambic and trochaic measures. To him +certainly we owe the invention of iambic poetry and its application to +the purposes of satire. The only previous measures in Greek poetry had +been the epic hexameter, and its offshoot the elegiac metre; but the +slow measured structure of hexameter verse was utterly unsuited to +express the quick, light motions of satire. Archilochus made use of the +iambus and the trochee, and organized them into the two forms of metre +known as the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetrameter. The trochaic +metre he generally used for subjects of a serious nature; the iambic for +satires. He was also the first to make use of the arrangement of verses +called the epode. Horace in his metres to a great extent follows +Archilochus (_Epistles_, i. 19. 23-35). All ancient authorities unite in +praising the poems of Archilochus, in terms which appear exaggerated +(Longinus xiii. 3; Dio Chrysostom, _Orationes_, xxxiii.; Quintilian x. +i. 60; Cicero, _Orator_, i.). His verses seem certainly to have +possessed strength, flexibility, nervous vigour, and, beyond everything +else, impetuous vehemence and energy. Horace (_Ars Poetica_, 79) speaks +of the "rage" of Archilochus, and Hadrian calls his verses "raging +iambics." By his countrymen he was reverenced as the equal of Homer, and +statues of these two poets were dedicated on the same day. + + His poems were written in the old Ionic dialect. Fragments in Bergk, + _Poetae Lyrici Graeci_; Liebel, _Archilochi Reliquiae_ (1818); A. + Hauvette-Besnault, _Archiloque, sa vie et ses poesies_ (1905). + + + + +ARCHIMANDRITE (from Gr. [Greek: archon], a ruler, and [Greek: mandra], a +fold or monastery), a title in the Greek Church applied to a superior +abbot, who has the supervision of several abbots and monasteries, or to +the abbot of some specially great and important monastery, the title for +an ordinary abbot being hegumenos. The title occurs for the first time +in a letter to Epiphanius, prefixed to his _Panarium_ (c. 375), but the +_Lausiac History_ of Palladius may be evidence that it was in common use +in the 4th century as applied to Pachomius (q.v.). In Russia the bishops +are commonly selected from the archimandrites. The word occurs in the +_Regula Columbani_ (c. 7), and du Cange gives a few other cases of its +use in Latin documents, but it never came into vogue in the West. Owing +to intercourse with Greek and Slavonic Christianity, the title is +sometimes to be met with in southern Italy and Sicily, and in Hungary +and Poland. + + See the article in the _Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et de + liturgie_. + + + + +ARCHIMEDES (c. 287-212 B.C.), Greek mathematician and inventor, was born +at Syracuse, in Sicily. He was the son of Pheidias, an astronomer, and +was on intimate terms with, if not related to, Hiero, king of Syracuse, +and Gelo his son. He studied at Alexandria and doubtless met there Conon +of Samos, whom he admired as a mathematician and cherished as a friend, +and to whom he was in the habit of communicating his discoveries before +publication. On his return to his native city he devoted himself to +mathematical research. He himself set no value on the ingenious +mechanical contrivances which made him famous, regarding them as beneath +the dignity of pure science and even declining to leave any written +record of them except in the case of the [Greek: sphairopoiia] +(_Sphere-making_), as to which see below. As, however, these machines +impressed the popular imagination, they naturally figure largely in the +traditions about him. Thus he devised for Hiero engines of war which +almost terrified the Romans, and which protracted the siege of Syracuse +for three years. There is a story that he constructed a burning mirror +which set the Roman ships on fire when they were within a bowshot of the +wall. This has been discredited because it is not mentioned by Polybius, +Livy or Plutarch; but it is probable that Archimedes had constructed +some such burning instrument, though the connexion of it with the +destruction of the Roman fleet is more than doubtful. More important, as +being doubtless connected with the discovery of the principle in +hydrostatics which bears his name and the foundation by him of that +whole science, is the story of Hiero's reference to him of the question +whether a crown made for him and purporting to be of gold, did not +actually contain a proportion of silver. According to one story, +Archimedes was puzzled till one day, as he was stepping into a bath and +observed the water running over, it occurred to him that the excess of +bulk occasioned by the introduction of alloy could be measured by +putting the crown and an equal weight of gold separately into a vessel +filled with water, and observing the difference of overflow. He was so +overjoyed when this happy thought struck him that he ran home without +his clothes, shouting [Greek: euraeka, euraeka], "I have found it, I +have found it." Similarly his pioneer work in mechanics is illustrated +by the story of his having said [Greek: dos moi pon sto kai kino taen +gaen] (or as another version has it, in his dialect, [Greek: pa bo kai +kino tan gan]), "Give me a place to stand and I (will) move the earth." +Hiero asked him to give an illustration of his contention that a very +great weight could be moved by a very small force. He is said to have +fixed on a large and fully laden ship and to have used a mechanical +device by which Hiero was enabled to move it by himself: but accounts +differ as to the particular mechanical powers employed. The water-screw +which he invented (see below) was probably devised in Egypt for the +purpose of irrigating fields. + +Archimedes died at the capture of Syracuse by Marcellus, 212 B.C. In the +general massacre which followed the fall of the city, Archimedes, while +engaged in drawing a mathematical figure on the sand, was run through +the body by a Roman soldier. No blame attaches to the Roman general, +Marcellus, since he had given orders to his men to spare the house and +person of the sage; and in the midst of his triumph he lamented the +death of so illustrious a person, directed an honourable burial to be +given him, and befriended his surviving relatives. In accordance with +the expressed desire of the philosopher, his tomb was marked by the +figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder, the discovery of the +relation between the volumes of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder +being regarded by him as his most valuable achievement. When Cicero was +quaestor in Sicily (75 B.C.), he found the tomb of Archimedes, near the +Agrigentine gate, overgrown with thorns and briers. "Thus," says Cicero +(_Tusc. Disp._, v. c. 23, S 64), "would this most famous and once most +learned city of Greece have remained a stranger to the tomb of one of +its most ingenious citizens, had it not been discovered by a man of +Arpinum." + + _Works._--The range and importance of the scientific labours of + Archimedes will be best understood from a brief account of those + writings which have come down to us; and it need only be added that + his greatest work was in geometry, where he so extended the method of + _exhaustion_ as originated by Eudoxus, and followed by Euclid, that it + became in his hands, though purely geometrical in form, actually + equivalent in several cases to _integration_, as expounded in the + first chapters of our text-books on the integral calculus. This remark + applies to the finding of the area of a parabolic segment (mechanical + solution) and of a spiral, the surface and volume of a sphere and of a + segment thereof, and the volume of any segments of the solids of + revolution of the second degree. + + The extant treatises are as follows:-- + + (1) _On the Sphere and Cylinder_ (Greek: Peri sphairas kai + kylindron]). This treatise is in two books, dedicated to Dositheus, + and deals with the dimensions of spheres, cones, "solid rhombi" and + cylinders, all demonstrated in a strictly geometrical method. The + first book contains forty-four propositions, and those in which the + most important results are finally obtained are: 13 (surface of right + cylinder), 14, 15 (surface of right cone), 33 (surface of sphere), 34 + (volume of sphere and its relation to that of circumscribing + cylinder), 42, 43 (surface of segment of sphere), 44 (volume of sector + of sphere). The second book is in nine propositions, eight of which + deal with segments of spheres and include the problems of cutting a + given sphere by a plane so that (a) the surfaces, (b) the volumes, + of the segments are in a given ratio (Props. 3, 4), and of + constructing a segment of a sphere similar to one given segment and + having (a) its volume, (b) its surface, equal to that of another + (5, 6). + + (2) _The Measurement of the Circle_ ([Greek: Kuklou metraesis]) is a + short book of three propositions, the main result being obtained in + Prop. 2, which shows that the circumference of a circle is less than + 3-1/7 and greater than 3-10/71 times its diameter. Inscribing in and + circumscribing about a circle two polygons, each of ninety-six sides, + and assuming that the perimeter of the circle lay between those of the + polygons, he obtained the limits he has assigned by sheer calculation, + starting from two close approximations to the value of [root]3, which + he assumes as known (265/153 < [root]3 < 1351/780). + + (3) _On Conoids and Spheroids_ ([Greek: Peri konoeideon kai + sphairoeideon]) is a treatise in thirty-two propositions, on the + solids generated by the revolution of the conic sections about their + axes, the main results being the comparisons of the volume of any + segment cut off by a plane with that of a cone having the same base + and axis (Props. 21, 22 for the paraboloid, 25, 26 for the + hyperboloid, and 27-32 for the spheroid). + + (4) _On Spirals_ ([Greek: Peri helikon]) is a book of twenty-eight + propositions. Propositions 1-11 are preliminary, 13-20 contain + tangential properties of the curve now known as the spiral of + Archimedes, and 21-28 show how to express the area included between + any portion of the curve and the radii vectores to its extremities. + + (5) _On the Equilibrium of Planes or Centres of Gravity of Planes_ + ([Greek: Peri hepipedon isorropion ae kentra baron hepipedon]). This + consists of two books, and may be called the foundation of theoretical + mechanics, for the previous contributions of Aristotle were + comparatively vague and unscientific. In the first book there are + fifteen propositions, with seven postulates; and demonstrations are + given, much the same as those still employed, of the centres of + gravity (1) of any two weights, (2) of any parallelogram, (3) of any + triangle, (4) of any trapezium. The second book in ten propositions is + devoted to the finding the centres of gravity (1) of a parabolic + segment, (2) of the area included between any two parallel chords and + the portions of the curve intercepted by them. + + (6) _The Quadrature of the Parabola_ ([Greek: Tetragonisaeos + parabolaes]) is a book in twenty-four propositions, containing two + demonstrations that the area of any segment of a parabola is 4/3 of + the triangle which has the same base as the segment and equal height. + The first (a mechanical proof) begins, after some preliminary + propositions on the parabola, in Prop. 6, ending with an integration + in Prop. 16. The second (a geometrical proof) is expounded in Props. + 17-24. + + (7) _On Floating Bodies_ ([Greek: Peri ochoumenon]) is a treatise in + two books, the first of which establishes the general principles of + hydrostatics, and the second discusses with the greatest completeness + the positions of rest and stability of a right segment of a paraboloid + of revolution floating in a fluid. + + (8) The _Psammites_ ([Greek: Psammitaes], Lat. _Arenarius_, or sand + reckoner), a small treatise, addressed to Gelo, the eldest son of + Hiero, expounding, as applied to reckoning the number of grains of + sand that could be contained in a sphere of the size of our + "universe," a system of naming large numbers according to "orders" and + "periods" which would enable any number to be expressed up to that + which we should write with 1 followed by 80,000 ciphers! + + (9) _A Collection of Lemmas_, consisting of fifteen propositions in + plane geometry. This has come down to us through a Latin version of an + Arabic manuscript; it cannot, however, have been written by Archimedes + in its present form, as his name is quoted in it more than once. + + Lastly, Archimedes is credited with the famous _Cattle-Problem_, + enunciated in the epigram edited by G.E. Lessing in 1773, which + purports to have been sent by Archimedes to the mathematicians at + Alexandria in a letter to Eratosthenes. Of lost works by Archimedes we + can identify the following: (1) investigations on _polyhedra_ + mentioned by Pappus; (2) [Greek: Harchai], _Principles_, a book + addressed to Zeuxippus and dealing with the _naming of numbers_ on the + system explained in the _Sand Reckoner_; (3) [Greek: Peri zygon], _On + balances or levers_; (4) [Greek: Kentrobarika], _On centres of + gravity_; (5) [Greek: Katoptrika], an optical work from which Theon of + Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction; (6) [Greek: Hephodion], a + _Method_, mentioned by Suidas; (7) [Greek: Peri sphairopoiias], _On + Sphere-making_, in which Archimedes explained the construction of the + sphere which he made to imitate the motions of the sun, the moon and + the five planets in the heavens. Cicero actually saw this contrivance + and describes it (_De Rep._ i. c. 14, SS 21-22). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _editio princeps_ of the works of Archimedes, with + the commentary of Eutocius, is that printed at Basel, in 1544, in + Greek and Latin, by Hervagius. D. Rivault's edition (Paris, 1615) gave + the enunciations in Greek and the proofs in Latin somewhat retouched. + A Latin version of them was published by Isaac Barrow in 1675 (London, + 4to); Nicolas Tartaglia published in Latin the treatises on _Centres + of Gravity_, on the _Quadrature of the Parabola_, on the _Measurement + of the Circle_, and on _Floating Bodies_, i. (Venice, 1543); Trojanus + Curtius published the two books on _Floating Bodies_ in 1565 after + Tartaglia's death; Frederic Commandine edited the Aldine edition of + 1558, 4to, which contains _Circuli Dimensio_, _De Lineis Spiralibus_, + _Quadratura Paraboles_, _De Conoidibus et Spheroidibus_, and _De + numero Arenae_; and in 1565 the same mathematician published the two + books _De iis quae vehuntur in aqua_. J. Torelli's monumental edition + of the works with the commentaries of Eutocius, published at Oxford in + 1792, folio, remained the best Greek text until the definitive text + edited, with Eutocius' commentaries, Latin translation, &c., by J.L. + Heiberg (Leipzig, 1880-1881) superseded it. The _Arenarius_ and + _Dimensio Circuli_, with Eutocius' commentary on the latter, were + edited by Wallis with Latin translation and notes in 1678 (Oxford), + and the _Arenarius_ was also published in English by George Anderson + (London, 1784), with useful notes and illustrations. The first modern + translation of the works is the French edition published by F. Peyrard + (Paris, 1808, 2 vols. 8vo.). A valuable German translation with notes, + by E. Nizze, was published at Stralsund in 1824. There is a complete + edition in modern notation by T.L. Heath (_The Works of Archimedes_, + Cambridge, 1897). On Archimedes himself, see Plutarch's _Life of + Marcellus_. (T. L. H.) + + + + +ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OF, a machine for raising water, said to have been +invented by Archimedes, for the purpose of removing water from the hold +of a large ship that had been built by King Hiero II. of Syracuse. It +consists of a water-tight cylinder, enclosing a chamber walled off by +spiral divisions running from end to end, inclined to the horizon, with +its lower open end placed in the water to be raised. The water, while +occupying the lowest portion in each successive division of the spiral +chamber, is lifted mechanically by the turning of the machine. Other +forms have the spiral revolving free in a fixed cylinder, or consist +simply of a tube wound spirally about a cylindrical axis. The same +principle is sometimes used in machines for handling wheat, &c. (see +CONVEYORS). + + + + +ARCHIPELAGO, a name now applied to any island-studded sea, but +originally the distinctive designation of what is now generally known as +the Aegean Sea ([Greek: Aigaion pelagos]), its ancient name having been +revived. Several etymologies have been proposed: e.g. (1) it is a +corruption of the ancient name, _Egeopelago_; (2) it is from the modern +Greek, [Greek: Hagio pelago], the Holy Sea; (3) it arose at the time of +the Latin empire, and means the Sea of the Kingdom (_Archi_); (4) it is +a translation of the Turkish name, Ak Denghiz, _Argon Pelagos_, the +White Sea; (5) it is simply _Archipelagus_, Italian, _arcipelago_, the +chief sea. For the Grecian Archipelago see AEGEAN SEA. Other +archipelagoes are described in their respective places. + + + + +ARCHIPPUS, an Athenian poet of the Old Comedy, who flourished towards +the end of the 5th century B.C. His most famous play was the _Fishes_, +in which he satirized the fondness of the Athenian epicures for fish. +The Alexandrian critics attributed to him the authorship of four plays +previously assigned to Aristophanes. Archippus was ridiculed by his +contemporaries for his fondness for playing upon words (Schol. on +Aristophanes, _Wasps_, 481). + + Titles and fragments of six plays are preserved, for which see T. + Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta_, i. (1880); or A. Meineke, + _Poetarum Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_ (1855). + + + + +ARCHITECTURE (Lat. _architectura_, from the Gr. [Greek: harchitekton], a +master-builder), the art of building in such a way as to accord with +principles determined, not merely by the ends the edifice is intended to +serve, but by high considerations of beauty and harmony (see FINE ARTS). +It cannot be defined as the art of building simply, or even of building +well. So far as mere excellence of construction is concerned, see +BUILDING and its allied articles. The end of building as such is +convenience, use, irrespective of appearance; and the employment of +materials to this end is regulated by the mechanical principles of the +constructive art. The end of architecture as an art, on the other hand, +is so to arrange the plan, masses and enrichments of a structure as to +impart to it interest, beauty, grandeur, unity, power. Architecture thus +necessitates the possession by the builder of gifts of imagination as +well as of technical skill, and in all works of architecture properly +so called these elements must exist, and be harmoniously combined. + +Like the other arts, architecture did not spring into existence at an +early period of man's history The ideas of symmetry and proportion which +are afterwards embodied in material structures could not be evolved +until at least a moderate degree of civilization had been attained, +while the efforts of primitive man in the construction of dwellings must +have been at first determined solely by his physical wants. Only after +these had been provided for, and materials amassed on which his +imagination might exercise itself, would he begin to plan and erect +structures, possessing not only utility, but also grandeur and beauty. +It may be well to enumerate briefly the elements which in combination +form the architectural perfection of a building. These elements have +been very variously determined by different authorities. Vitruvius, the +only ancient writer on the art whose works have come down to us, lays +down three qualities as indispensable in a fine building: _Firmitas, +Utilitas, Venustas_, stability, utility, beauty. From an architectural +point of view the last is the principal, though not the sole element; +and, accordingly, the theory of architecture is occupied for the most +part with aesthetic considerations, or the principles of beauty in +designing. Of such principles or qualities the following appear to be +the most important: size, harmony, proportion, symmetry, ornament and +colour. All other elements may be reduced under one or other of these +heads. + +With regard to the first quality, it is clear that, as the feeling of +power is a source of the keenest pleasure, size, or vastness of +proportion, will not only excite in the mind of man the feelings of awe +with which he regards the sublime in nature, but will impress him with a +deep sense of the majesty of human power. It is, therefore, a double +source of pleasure. The feelings with which we regard the Pyramids of +Egypt, the great hall of columns at Karnak, the Pantheon, or the +Basilica of Maxentius at Rome, the Trilithon at Baalbek, the choir of +Beauvais cathedral, or the Arc de l'Etoile at Paris, sufficiently attest +the truth of this quality, _size_, which is even better appreciated when +the buildings are contemplated simply as masses, without being disturbed +by the consideration of the details. + +Proportion itself depends essentially upon the employment of +mathematical ratios in the dimensions of a building. It is a curious but +significant fact that such proportions as those of an exact cube, or of +two cubes placed side by side--dimensions increasing by one-half (e.g., +20 ft. high, 30 wide and 45 long)--or the ratios of the base, +perpendicular and hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle (e.g. 3, 4, 5, +or their multiples)--please the eye more than dimensions taken at +random. No defect is more glaring or more unpleasant than want of +proportion. The Gothic architects appear to have been guided in their +designs by proportions based on the equilateral triangle. + +By harmony is meant the general balancing of the several parts of the +design. It is proportion applied to the mutual relations of the details. +Thus, supported parts should have an adequate ratio to their supports, +and the same should be the case with solids and voids. Due attention to +proportion and harmony gives the appearance of stability and repose +which is indispensable to a really fine building. Symmetry is uniformity +in plan, and, when not carried to excess, is undoubtedly effective. But +a building too rigorously symmetrical is apt to appear cold and +tasteless. Such symmetry of general plan, with diversity of detail, as +is presented to us in leaves, animals, and other natural objects, is +probably the just medium between the excesses of two opposing schools. + +Next to general beauty or grandeur of form in a building comes +architectural ornament. Ornament, of course, may be used to excess, and +as a general rule it should be confined to the decoration of +constructive parts of the fabric; but, on the other hand, a total +absence or a paucity of ornament betokens an unpleasing poverty. +Ornaments may be divided into two classes--mouldings and the sculptured +representation of natural or fanciful objects. Mouldings, no doubt, +originated, first, in simply taking off the edge of anything that might +be in the way, as the edge of a square post, and then sinking the +chamfer in hollows of various forms; and thence were developed the +systems of mouldings we now find in all styles and periods. Each of +these has its own system; and so well are their characteristics +understood, that from an examination of them a skilful architect will +not only tell the period in which any building has been erected, but +will even give an estimate of its probable size, as professors of +physiology will construct an animal from the examination of a single +bone. Mouldings require to be carefully studied, for nothing offends an +educated eye like a confusion of mouldings, such as Roman forms in Greek +work, or Early English in that of the Tudor period. The same remark +applies to sculptured ornaments. They should be neither too numerous nor +too few, and above all, they should be consistent. The carved ox skulls, +for instance, which are appropriate in a temple of Vesta or of Fortune +would be very incongruous on a Christian church. + +Colour must be regarded as a subsidiary element in architecture, and +although it seems almost indispensable and has always been extensively +employed in interiors, it is doubtful how far external colouring is +desirable. Some contend that only local colouring, i.e. the colour of +the materials, should be admitted; but there seems no reason why any +colour should not be used, provided it be employed with discretion and +kept subordinate to the form or outline. + +_Origin of the Art._--The origin of the art of architecture is to be +found in the endeavours of man to provide for his physical wants; in the +earliest days the cave, the hut and the tent may have given shelter to +those who devoted themselves to hunting and fishing, to agriculture and +to a pastoral and nomadic life, and in many cases still afford the only +shelter from the weather. There can be no doubt, however, that climate +and the materials at hand affect the forms of the primitive buildings; +thus, in the two earliest settlements of mankind, in Chaldaea and Egypt, +where wood was scarce, the heat in the day-time intense, and the only +material which could be obtained was the alluvial clay, brought down by +the rivers in both those countries, they shaped this into bricks, which, +dried in the sun, enabled them to build rude huts, giving them the +required shelter. These may have been circular or rectangular on plan, +with the bricks laid in horizontal courses, one projecting over the +other, till the walls met at the top. The next advance in Egypt was made +by the employment of the trunks of the palm tree as a lintel over the +doorway, to support the wall above, and to cover over the hut and carry +the flat roof of earth which is found down to the present day in all hot +countries. Evidence of this system of construction is found in some of +the earliest rock-cut tombs at Giza, where the actual dwelling of the +deceased was reproduced in the tomb, and from these reproductions we +gather that the corners, or quoins of the hut were protected by stems of +the douva plant, bound together in rolls by the leaves, which, in the +form of torus rolls, were also carried across the top of the wall. Down +to the present day the huts of the fellahs are built in the same way, +and, surmounted as they are by pigeon-cots, bear so strong a resemblance +to the pylons and the walls of the temples as at all events to suggest, +if not to prove, that in their origin these stone erections were copies +of unburnt brick structures. From long exposure in the sun, these bricks +acquire a hardness and compactness not much inferior to some of the +softer qualities of stone, but they are unable to sustain much pressure; +consequently it is necessary to make the walls thicker at the bottom +than at the top, and it is this which results in the batter or raking +sides of all the unburnt brick walls. The same raking sides are found in +all their _mastabas_, or tombs, sometimes built in unburnt brick and +sometimes in stone, in the latter case being simple reproductions of the +former. In some of the early mastabas, built in brick, either to vary +the monotony of the mass and decorate the walls, or to ensure greater +care in their construction, vertical brick pilasters are provided, +forming sunk panels. These form the principal decoration, as reproduced +in stone, of an endless number of tombs, some of which are in the +British Museum. At the top of each panel they carve a portion of trunk +necessary to support the walls of brick, and over the doorway a similar +feature. In Chaldaea the same decorative features are found in the stage +towers which constituted their temples, and broad projecting buttresses, +indented panels and other features, originally constructive, form the +decorations of the Assyrian palaces. There also, built in the same +material, unburnt brick, the walls have a similar batter, though they +were faced with burnt bricks. In later times in Greece and Asia Minor, +where wood was plentiful, the stone architecture suggests its timber +origin, and though unburnt brick was still employed for the mass of the +walls, the remains in Crete and the representations in painting, &c., +show that it was encased in timber framing, so that the raking walls +were no longer a necessary element in their structure. The clearest +proofs of original timber construction are shown in the rock-cut tombs +of Lycia, where the ground sill, vertical posts, cross beams, purlins +and roof joists are all direct imitations of structures originally +erected in wood. + +The numerous relics of structures left by primeval man have generally +little or no architectural value; and the only interesting problem +regarding them--the determination of their date and purpose and of the +degree of civilization which they manifest--falls within the province of +archaeology (see ARCHAEOLOGY; BARROW; LAKE-DWELLINGS; STONE MONUMENTS). + +Technical terms in architecture will be found separately explained under +their own headings in this work, and in this article a general +acquaintance with them is assumed. A number of architectural subjects +are also considered in detail in separate articles; see, for instance, +CAPITAL; COLUMN; DESIGN; ORDER; and such headings as ABBEY; AQUEDUCT; +ARCH; BASILICA; BATHS; BRIDGES; CATACOMB; CRYPT; DOME; MOSQUE; PALACE; +PYRAMID; TEMPLE; THEATRE; &c., &c. Also such general articles on +national art as CHINA: _Art_; EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_; GREEK ART; +ROMAN ART; &c., and the sections on architecture and buildings under the +headings of countries and towns. + +In the remainder of this article the general history of the evolution of +the art of architecture will be considered in various sections, +associated with the nations and periods from which the leading historic +styles are chronologically derived, in so far as the dominant influences +on the art, and not the purely local characteristics of countries +outside the main current of its history, are concerned; but the +opportunity is taken to treat with some attempt at comprehensiveness the +leading features of the architectural history of those countries and +peoples which are intimately connected with the development of modern +architecture. + +These consecutive sections are as follows:-- + + Egyptian + Assyrian + Persian + Greek + Parthian + Sassanian + Etruscan + Roman + Byzantine + Early Christian + Early Christian Work in Central Syria + Coptic Church in Egypt + Romanesque and Gothic in-- + Italy + France + Spain + England + Germany + Belgium and Holland + Renaissance: Introduction + Italy + France + Spain + England + Germany + Belgium and Holland + Mahommedan + + Finally, a section on what can only be collectively termed _Modern_ + architecture deals with the main lines of the later developments down + to the present day in the architectural history of different + countries. (R. P. S.) + + + EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE + + Although structures discovered in Chaldaea, at Tello and Nippur, + seeming to date back to the fifth millennium B.C., suggest that the + earlier settlements of mankind were in the valley of the Tigris and + Euphrates, north of the Persian Gulf, it is to Egypt that we must turn + for the most ancient records of monumental architecture (see also + EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_). The proximity of the ranges of hills + (the Arabian and Libyan chains) to the Nile, and the facilities which + that river afforded for the transport of the material quarried in + them, enabled the Egyptians at a very early period to reproduce in + stone those structures in unburnt brick to which we have already + referred. + + Although the great founder of the first Egyptian monarchy is reputed + to be Menes, the Thinite who traditionally founded the capital at + Memphis, he was preceded, according to Flinders Petrie, by an earlier + invading race coming from the south, who established a monarchy at + This near Abydos, having entered the country by the Kosseir road from + the Red Sea; and this may account for the early tradition that it was + the Ethiopians who founded the earliest dynastic race, "Ethiopians" + being a wide term which may embrace several races. + + Egyptian architecture is usually described under the principal periods + in which it was developed. They are as follows[1]:--(A) the Memphite + kingdom, whose capital was at Memphis, south-west of Cairo, the Royal + Domain extending south some 30 to 40 m.; (B) the first Theban kingdom + with Thebes as the capital; this covers three dynasties. Then follows + an interregnum of five dynasties, when the invasion of the Hyksos took + place; this was architecturally unproductive. On the expulsion of the + Hyksos there followed (C) the second Theban kingdom, consisting of + three dynasties, under whose reign the finest temples were erected + throughout the country. After 1102 followed six dynasties (1102-525 + B.C.), with capitals at Sais, Tanis and Bubastis, when the decadence + of art and power took place. Then followed the Persian invasion, + 525-331 B.C., which was destructive instead of being reproductive. On + the defeat of the Persians by Alexander the Great, and after his death + in 323 B.C., was founded (D) the Ptolemaic kingdom, with Alexandria as + the capital. A great revival of art then took place, which to a + certain extent was carried on under the Roman occupation from 27 B.C., + and lasted about 300 years. + + With the exception of a small temple, found by Petrie in front of the + temple of Medum, and the so-called "Temple of the Sphinx," the only + monuments remaining of the Memphite kingdom are the Pyramids, which + were built by the kings as their tombs, and the _mastabas_, in which + the members of the royal family and of the priests and chiefs were + buried. The mastaba (Arabic for "bench") was a tomb, oblong in plan, + with battering side and a flat roof, containing various chambers, of + which the principal were (1) the Chapel for offerings, (2) the Serdab, + in which the Ka or double of the deceased was deposited, and (3) the + well, always excavated in the rock, in which the mummy was placed. + + The three best-known pyramids are those situated about 7 m. south-west + of Cairo, which were built by the second, third and fourth kings of + the fourth dynasty,--Khufu (c. 3969-3908 B.C.), Khafra (c. 3908-3845 + B.C.), and Menkaura (c. 3845-3784 B.C.), who are better known as + Cheops, Cephren and Mycerinus. The first of these is the largest and + most remarkable in its construction and setting out. The pyramid of + Cephren was slightly smaller, and that of Mycerinus still more so, + compensated for by a casing in granite. The dimensions and other + details are given in the article PYRAMIDS. From the purely + architectural point of view they are the least impressive of masses, + and their immense size is not realized until on a close approach. + + The temple of the Sphinx, attributed to Cephren, is T-shaped in plan, + with two rows of square piers down the vertical and one row down the + cross portion. These carried a flat roof of stone. The temple is + remarkable for the splendid finish given to the granite piers, and to + the alabaster slabs which cased the rock in which it had been + partially excavated (but see EGYPT: _History_, I.). + + The Serapeum at Sakkara, in which the sacred bulls were embalmed and + buried, the tomb of Ti (a fifth dynasty courtier), and the tombs of + the kings and queens of Thebes, have no special architectural features + which call for description here. + + We pass on to the first Theban kingdom, the eighth king of which, + Nebhepre Menthotp III., built the temple lately discovered on the + south side of the temple at Deir-el-Bahri, of which it is the + prototype. It was a sepulchral temple, and being built on rising + ground was approached by flights of steps. In the centre was a solid + mass of masonry which, it is thought by some authorities, was crowned + by a pyramid. This was surrounded by a double portico with square + piers in the outer range, and octagonal piers in the inner range, + there being a wall between the two ranges. + + The earliest tombs in which the _column_ (q.v.) appears, as an + architectural feature, are those at Beni Hasan, attributed to the + period of Senwosri (formerly read Usertesen) I., the second king of + the twelfth dynasty. These are carved in the solid rock. There are two + types, the Polygonal column, sometimes in error called the + Protodoric, which was cut in the rock in imitation of a wooden column, + and a second variety known as the Lotus column, which is employed + inside, supporting the rock-cut roof, but having such slender + proportions as to suggest that it was copied from the posts of a + porch, round which the Lotus plant had been tied. + + The culminating period of the Egyptian style begins with the kings of + the eighteenth dynasty, their principal capital being Thebes, + described by Herodotus as the "City with the Hundred Gates"; and + although the execution of the masonry is inferior to that of the older + dynasties, the grandeur of the conception of their temples, and the + wealth displayed in their realization entitle Thebes to the most + important position in the history of the Egyptian style, especially as + the temples there grouped on both sides of the river exceed in number + and dimensions the whole of the other temples throughout Egypt. This + to a certain extent may possibly be due to the distance of Thebes from + the Mediterranean, which has contributed to their preservation from + invaders. We have already referred to the probable origin of the + peculiar batter or raking side given to the walls of the pylons and + temples, with the Torus moulding surrounding the same and crowned with + the cavetto cornice. What, however, is more remarkable is the fact + that, once accepted as an important and characteristic feature, it + should never have been departed from, and that down to and during the + Roman occupation the same batter is found in all the temples, though + constructively there was no necessity for it. The strict adherence to + tradition may possibly account for this, but it has resulted in a + magnificent repose possessed by these structures, which seem built to + last till eternity. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of the Temple of Chons. + + A, Pylon. + B, Great court. + C, Hall of columns. + D, Priest's hall. + E, Sanctuary.] + + An avenue with sphinxes on both sides forms the approach to the + temple. These avenues were sometimes of considerable length, as in the + case of that reaching from Karnak to Luxor, which is 1-1/2 m. long. + The leading features of the temple (see fig. 1) were:--(A) The pylon, + consisting of two pyramidal masses of masonry crowned with a cavetto + cornice, united in the centre by an immense doorway, in front of which + on either side were seated figures of the king and obelisks. (B) A + great open court surrounded by peristyles on two or three sides. (C) A + great hall with a range of columns down the centre on either side, + forming what in European architecture would be known as nave and + aisles, with additional aisles on each side; these had columns of less + height than those first mentioned, so as to allow of a clerestory, + lighting the central avenue. (D) Smaller halls with their flat roofs + carried by columns. And finally (E) the sanctuary, with passage round + giving access to the halls occupied by the priest. + + Broadly speaking, the temples bear considerable resemblance to one + another (see TEMPLE), except in dimensions. There is one important + distinction, however, to be drawn between the Theban temples and those + built under the Ptolemaic rule. In these latter the halls are not + enclosed between pylons, but left open on the side of the entrance + court with screens in between the columns, the hall being lighted from + above the screens. The temples of Edfu, Esna and Dendera are thus + arranged. + + The great temple of Karnak (fig. 2) differs from the type just + described, in that it was the work of many successive monarchs. Thus + the sanctuary, built in granite, and the surrounding chambers, were + erected by Senwosri (Usertesen) I. of the twelfth dynasty. In front of + this, on the west side, pylons were added by Tethmosis (Thothmes, + Tahutmes) I. (1541-1516), enclosing a hall, in the walls of which were + Osirid figures. In front of this a third pylon was added, which Seti + (Sethos) I. utilized as one of the enclosures of the great hall of + columns (fig. 3), measuring 170 ft. deep by 329 ft. wide, having added + a fourth pylon on the other side to enclose it. Again in front of this + was the great open court with porticoes on two sides, and a great + pylon, forming the entrance. In the rear of all these buildings, and + some distance beyond the sanctuary, Tethmosis III. (1503-1449) built a + great colonnaded hall with other halls round, considered to have been + a palace. All these structures form a part only of the great temple, + on the right and left of which (i.e. to the north-east and south-west) + were other temples preceded by pylons and connected one with the other + by avenues of sphinxes. Though of small size comparatively, one of the + best preserved is the temple of Chons, built by Rameses III. It was + from this temple that an avenue of sphinxes led to the temple of + Luxor, which was begun by Amenophis III. (1414-1379 B.C.), and + completed by Rameses II. (1300-1234). + + On the opposite or west bank of the Nile are the temple of Medinet + Abu, the Ramesseum, the temples of Kurna and of Deir-el-Bahri; the + last being a sepulchral temple, which, built on rising ground, had + flights of steps leading to the higher level (fig. 4), and porticoes + with square piers at the foot of each terrace. In the rear on the + right-hand side was found an altar, the only example of its kind known + in Egypt. The halls behind this and the portico of the right flank had + polygonal columns. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2. + + PLAN OF KARNAK. + + From Murray's Handbook for Egypt, by permission of Mr. Edward + Stanford.] + + In the palace of Tell el-Amarna, built shortly before 1350 B.C. by the + heretic king Akhenaton (whose name was originally Amenophis IV.), and + discovered by Petrie, there were no special architectural + developments, but the painted decoration of the walls and pavements + assumed a literal interpretation of natural forms of plants and + foliage and of birds and animals, recalling to some extent that found + at Cnossus in Crete. + + Ascending the river from Cairo, the first temples of which important + remains exist are the two at Abydos. One of these has an exceptional + plan, with seven sanctuaries in the rear. It was built by Seti I., and + consists of an outer portico with square piers, a hall with two rows + of columns down to the centre, and a second hall with three rows of + columns. These halls are placed longitudinally to give access to the + seven sanctuaries. The second temple is of the ordinary type, with + pylon, court with portico on all four sides, two halls of columns, and + three sanctuaries in the rear. The next temple is that of Dendera, + commenced under the second Ptolemy but not completed until the reign + of Nero. It has been completely excavated, and retains the whole of + its external walls. Above Thebes is the temple of Esna, of which the + hall of columns only has been cleared out. The capitals of the front + belong to the lotus-bud type, and those of the interior are carved + with many varieties of river plant. The temple of Edfu is the best + preserved in Egypt. Its plan (fig. 5) would seem to have been + determined from the first, and it is singular to note that it presents + the traditional type of plan, which in the Theban examples was evolved + from additions made by successive monarchs. In dimensions it is but + little inferior to these. Its pylon (fig. 6) is 250 ft. wide and 150 + ft. high; the first court has porticoes on three sides. The great hall + of columns, all of which here are of the same height, is lighted from + above (fig. 7), the screen facing the court. Then follow the second + hall of columns, two vestibules, and the sanctuary, surrounded by a + passage giving access to the priest's rooms round. The temple of Kom + Ombo, which comes next, was dedicated to two deities, and had + therefore two sanctuaries. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section through Hall of Columns, Karnak. a, + Clerestory window.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Temple of Deir-el-Bahri, conjectural + restoration by Prof. E. Brune.] + + The temples of Philae owe much of their beauty and picturesqueness to + the island on which they are situated; their plans, and that of the + long porticoes in front of the pylons of the great temple, being + fitted to the irregularity of the site. In the first court is a + well-preserved example of the Mammeisi temple (see TEMPLE), the + sanctuary and other rooms in which are entirely enclosed in a + peristyle. It was built by Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 B.C.). A second + monarch of the same name (about 125 B.C.) built the pavilion on the + north side of the island, known as "Pharaoh's bed," the roof of which + was covered with stone slabs, resting on timber beams. In consequence + of the building of the Assuan dam all these temples are submerged for + the greater part of the year. The principal temples between Philae and + the second cataract are:--Dabod, of which little remains; Kartassi; + Kalabsha, still preserving its pylon and great hall of columns; the + Bet el-Wali, in which are two ancient polygonal columns; Gerf Husen, + partially cut in the rock; Dakka; Wadi es-Sebu'a; and lastly Abu + Simbel. Owing to the proximity of the ranges of hills to the Nile, + there was no room for the ordinary type of temple at Abu Simbel, so + that those founded here by Rameses the Great (c. 1300-1234 B.C.) were + excavated in the rock. In the place of the pylon the side of the cliff + was worked off, leaving in relief four immense seated figures, 66 ft. + high. The first hall had three aisles, divided by four piers on each + side, in front of which Osirid figures (18 ft. high) were carved; + beyond was a second hall, vestibule and sanctuary. The long + rectangular chambers on each side are provided with benches cut in the + rock. The depth of the temple is 90 ft. There is a second temple of + smaller size which faces the Nile. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plan of the Temple of Edfu. + + AA, Pylon. + B, Entrance door. + C, Great Court. + D, Hall of Columns. + E, Second Hall. + F, Hall of the Altar. + G, Hall of the Centre. + H, Sanctuary. + KK, Storerooms.] + + We have already referred to the lotus columns at Beni Hasan; these, + when employed constructionally to carry stone roofs, assumed a far + more solid appearance, and the stems of the lotus plant carved in the + earlier examples were omitted in the later, in order to give more + surface for intaglio carving. The capital and its neck still retain + the lotus buds and the bands which tied them round the column. In the + central avenues of the great halls the columns had bell capitals, the + decoration of which was based on the flower of the papyrus. There are + a few examples of the palm capital, often carved in granite, which + date from an early period. Commencing with the Ptolemaic revival the + capitals assume a much greater variety of form, their decoration being + based on river plants; but here again the lotus plant, which seems + still to be the favourite type, predominates, the buds in various + degrees of their growth alternating one with the other. All these + varieties of form are described in the article CAPITAL, but two or + three may be mentioned here, as they depart from the usual type. The + Hathor-headed capital, with faces on all four sides, and surmounted + with a miniature shrine, is found at Dendera, Philae and other temples + of the Ptolemaic or Roman periods; one of the earliest examples, but + without the shrine, dates back to Tethmosis III. (1503-1449 B.C.). As + a distinct type of pier decoration, the Osirid figures at Medinet Abu, + at Karnak, Gerf Husen, Abu Simbel and other temples, constitute + important features: the figure is carved in front of the pier and does + not serve any constructive function. + + With the exception of the great building in the rear of the temple at + Karnak, built by Tethmosis III., and the pavilion of Medinet Abu on + the west bank of the Nile at Thebes, no palatial residences of any + importance have yet been found, from which it might be inferred that + the king, being the head of the Egyptian religion, occupied with his + family the sacred precincts of the temple; but large as these temple + enclosures are, there would have been no room for the immense army of + attendants and servants required in an Oriental court. Moreover, the + darkness of the halls and the rigid enclosures would have made a + residence in them anything but cheerful. There are two instances + where, in consequence of the subsequent desertion of the site, remains + have been found of ancient towns. At Tell el-Amarna, built by the + heretic king, Akhenaton, portions of the houses remain, and at Kahun, + in the Fayum, Petrie discovered the walls of a town which, erected for + the overseers and workmen employed in the construction of the pyramid + of Illahun, built by Senwosri (Usertesen) II. (2684-2666 B.C.), was + abandoned when the pyramid was completed. The houses were all built in + unburnt brick, and in those cases where the rooms exceeded 8 or 9 ft. + in width, columns in stone or wood were employed to assist in carrying + the roof, which was constructed of beams carrying smaller timbers + covered over with a flat roof of mud. The plans of the houses were not + unlike those found in Pompeii, with open courts and porticoes and no + external windows. The streets ran at right angles to one another, and + the houses varied in size from the workman's hut, of one room, to the + overseer's house with several rooms and courts; the principal + residence, in the centre, occupied by the governor of the town, being + of still larger dimensions. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Exterior of the Pylon of the Temple of Edfu.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Facade of the Great Hall of Columns of the + Ptolemaic temple at Edfu.] + + Further knowledge of the Egyptian dwellings is chiefly derived from + the "soul-houses" recently discovered by Petrie, and from the + paintings in the tombs, which suggest that they corresponded to that + class of residence which in Rome was known as a villa, viz. a series + of detached buildings built in immense enclosures, with porticoes + round, groves of trees, artificial lakes, &c. The walls, gates and + buildings were all built probably in unburnt brick, and the whole + site, if on the borders of the river, raised on great mounds. In this + respect they accord with the houses of the fellah at the present day, + which are raised on the accumulation of centuries, for when, owing to + the rise of the Nile, the houses succumb to the moisture creeping up, + another house is built on the top. The representations in paintings + show that the houses were chiefly built in unburnt brick, and they + sometimes were of two or three storeys with windows in the upper + floors, and a flat roof with a kind of dormer known as the Mulhuf, + turned towards the north-west to ventilate the house. The paintings + frequently represent the store-rooms, or granaries; and the + preservation of those built by Rameses the Great, in the rear of the + Ramesseum at Thebes, as granaries to hold corn, enables us to follow + their construction. These granaries consist of a series of long + cellars, about 12 to 14 ft. wide, placed side by side, and roofed over + with elliptical barrel vaults. The reason for the elliptical form and + the method of their construction is given in the article VAULT (q.v.). + + The pavilion of Medinet Abu was built in stone, and consequently has + been preserved more or less complete to our day. It consisted of three + storeys with a flat roof and battlement round, said to be in imitation + of those on a Syrian fortress, as they are quite unlike anything else + in Egypt. The floors were in wood, but there are traces of a stone + staircase. The windows, of large size, were filled with thin stone + slabs pierced with vertical slits, like those of the hall of columns + at Karnak. (R. P. S.) + + + ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE + + About 3800 B.C. the earlier inhabitants of Chaldaea or Babylonia were + invaded and absorbed by a Semitic race, whose first monarch was Sargon + of Agade (Akkad). 1800 years later, emigrations took place northward, + and founded Nineveh on the banks of the Tigris, about 250 m. north of + Babylon. 1200 years later, the Assyrians began building the + magnificent series of palaces from which were brought the winged + man-headed bulls and the sculptured slabs now in the British Museum. + The leading characteristics of the style, and the nature of the + structures, temples and palaces, evolved by the Chaldaeans (or first + Babylonian empire), the Assyrians, and the new Babylonian empire, are + similar; they are best known by those which represent a culmination of + the style in north Mesopotamia, and are therefore described here. + + By a singular coincidence the remains of the oldest building found at + Nippur (Niffar), in lower Mesopotamia, bear a close resemblance to the + oldest pyramid in Egypt, Medum, before it received its final casing. + The latter, however, is known to have been a tomb, whereas the + structure at Nippur was a temple, which took the form of a _ziggurat_ + or stage tower. It consisted of several storeys built one over the + other, the upper storey in each case being set back behind the lower, + in order to leave a terrace all round. In some cases the terrace was + wider in front, to give space for staircases ascending from storey to + storey. In consequence of the extreme flatness of the country and its + liability to sudden inundations, it became necessary, when erecting + buildings of any kind, to raise them on mounds of earth. The more + important the structure, the higher was it deemed necessary to raise + it, so as to make it the most conspicuous feature in the landscape. + The result is that from Abu Shahrain, the most southern town, to + Akarkuf (Aqarquf), 220 m. north, there are a series of immense mounds, + sometimes nearly a mile in diameter, and rising to a height of 200 + ft., crowned with the remains of towns, which, notwithstanding the + thirty centuries more or less during which they have been exposed to + the torrential rains and the destructive agencies of man, form still + the most prominent features in the country. The structures which were + raised on the mound, i.e. the temples and palaces with their enclosure + walls, were all built with bricks made of the alluvial clay of the + country, shaped in wooden moulds and dried in the heat of the sun, a + heat so intense that they acquired sometimes the hardness of the + inferior qualities of stone. The walls of the temples, palaces and + enclosures had the same batter as that already referred to in the + preceding section on Egypt. In the latter country they were reproduced + in stone, of which there were many quarries on either side of the + Nile; in Chaldaea they were obliged to content themselves with the + preservation of their ziggurats by outer casings of burnt brick and + with pavements of tiles for their terraces. In order to vary the + monotony of their temple walls, and perhaps to give them greater + strength, they built vertical bands or buttresses at intervals, or + they sank panels in the walls to two depths, a natural decoration to + which brick work lends itself; and these two methods, which were + employed in early times, were followed by the Assyrians in the palaces + of Nimrud, Nineveh and Khorsabad. + + The earlier settlements were those founded between the mouths of the + Tigris and the Euphrates, on what was then the shore of the Persian + Gulf, now some 140 m. farther south. The principal towns where the + remains of ziggurats have been found, all on the borders of the + Euphrates, beginning with the most southern, are:--Abu Shahrain + (Eridu); Mugheir (Ur of the Chaldees); Senkera (? Ellasar or Larsa); + Warka (Erech); Tello (Eninnu); Nippur; Birs Nimrud (Borsippa); Babil + (Babylon); El Ohemir (Kish); Abu Habba (Sippara); and Akarkuf + (Durkurigalsu). + + Although the ziggurats at Warka, Nippur and Tello are probably of + older foundation, the great temple of Borsippa at Birs Nimrud is in + better preservation, having been restored or rebuilt by + Nebuchadrezzar, and may be taken as a typical example. The ground + storey was 272 ft. square, and, according to Fergusson, 45 ft. high. + The upper storeys or stages receded back, one behind the other, so as + to leave a terrace all round. Although it is not possible to trace + more than four storeys, it is known from the description on a cylinder + found on the site that there were seven storeys, dedicated to the + planets, each coloured with the special tint prescribed. The total + height was about 160 ft., and on the top was a shrine dedicated to the + god Nebo. An invaluable record of the researches which have been made + during the last three centuries or more is given in H.V. Hilprecht's + _Explorations in Bible Lands during the 19th Century_. Two or three of + them might be mentioned here. At Warka Mr Kenneth Loftus uncovered a + wall, strengthened by buttresses 15 ft. wide and projecting 18 in., + between which were panels filled with a series of semicircular shafts + side by side, both buttresses and shafts being decorated with + geometrical patterns consisting of small earthenware cones embedded in + the wall, the ends of which were enamelled in various colours. The + design of these patterns is so unlike anything found in Assyrian work, + but bears so close a resemblance to the geometrical designs carved on + the columns at Diarbekr ascribed to the Parthians, that this wall may + have been built at a much later period; and this becomes the more + probable in view of the discoveries made subsequently at Tello and + Nippur, where Parthian palaces have been found, crowning the summits + of the ancient Chaldaean mounds. In both these towns the researches + made in later years have been carried out far more methodically than + previously, and, following the example of Schliemann, excavations have + been made to great depths, careful notes being taken of the strata + shown by the platforms at different levels. At Tello, de Sarzac + discovered the magnificent collection of statues of diorite now in the + Louvre, one of them (unfortunately headless) of Gudea, priest-king and + architect of Lagash, seated and carrying on his lap a tablet, on which + is engraved the plan of a fortified enclosure, whilst a divided scale + and a stylos are carved in relief near the upper and right-hand side. + A silver inlaid vase of Entemena, also priest-king of Lagash (about + 3950 B.C.), and other treasures, were found on the same site. + + At Nippur (the ancient Calneh) the research undertaken by the + university of Pennsylvania resulted in the discovery, under a ziggurat + dated from 4000-4500 B.C., of a barrel-vaulted tunnel, in the floor of + which were found terra-cotta drain pipes with flanged mouths. At a + later date (3750 B.C.) Naram-Sin, the son of Sargon, had built over + the older ziggurat a loftier and larger temple, above which was a + third built by Ur Gur (2500 B.C.), which still retained its burnt + brick casing, 5 ft. thick. Crowning all these was the Parthian palace + mentioned in the section on Parthian architecture below. The result of + these researches has not only carried back the date of the earlier + settlements to a prehistoric period quite unknown, but has suggested + that if similar researches are carried out in other well-known mounds, + among which the great city of Babylon should be counted as the most + important, further revelations may still be made. + + [Illustration: From _The History of Art in Chaldaea and Assyria_, by + permission of Chapman & Hill, Ltd. + + FIG. 8--Plan of the Palace at Khorsabad. + + A, Principal courtyard. + B, The harem. + C, The offices. + DD, The halls of state. + E, Official residences. + F, The king's residence. + G, The ziggurat or temple.] + + But we have now to pass to the principal cities of the Assyrian + monarchy on the river Tigris. At Nineveh, the capital, which is about + 250 m. north of Babylon, the remains of three palaces have been found, + those of Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.), Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.), and + Assurbampal (668-626 B.C.). At Nimrud (the ancient Calah, founded by + Assur), 20 m. south of Nineveh, are also three palaces, one (the + earliest known) built by Assurnazirpal (885-860 B.C.), the others by + Shalmaneser II. (860-825 B.C.) and Esarhaddon. At Balawat, 10 m. east + of Niniveh, was a second palace of Shalmaneser II., and at Khorsabad, + 10 m. north-east of Nineveh, the palace (fig. 8) built by Sargon + (722-705 B.C.), which was situated on the banks of the Khanser, a + tributary of the Tigris. As this palace is one of the most extensive + of those hitherto explored, its description will best give the general + idea of the plan and conception of an Assyrian palace. + + The palace was built on an immense platform, made of sun-dried bricks, + enclosed in masonry, and covering an area of nearly one million square + feet, raised 48 ft. above the town level. The principal front of the + palace measured 900 ft., there being a terrace in front. The approach + was probably by a double inclined ramp which chariots and horses could + mount. A central and two side portals (fig. 9), flanked with winged + human-headed bulls (now in the British Museum), led to the principal + courtyard (A), measuring 300 ft. by 240 ft. The block (B) on the left + of the court, containing smaller courts and rooms, constituted the + harem; that on the right the offices (C); those in the rear the halls + of state (DDD), the residences of the officers of the court (E), the + king's private apartments (F) being on the left, facing the ziggurat + or temple (G). In the extreme rear were other state rooms with + terraces probably laid out as gardens and commanding a view of the + river and country beyond. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Entrance gateway, Palace of Khorsabad.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Bas-relief of group of buildings at Kuyunjik. + (After Layard.)] + + As there must have been nearly 700 rooms in the palace, the + destination of the greater number of which it would be difficult to + determine, it will be sufficient to refer only to those state rooms in + which the principal sculptured slabs were found, and which decorated + the lower 9 ft. of the walls. The two chief factors to be noted are + (1) the great length of the halls compared with their width, the chief + hall being 150 ft. long and 30 ft. wide, and (2) the immense thickness + of the walls, which measured 28 ft. The only reason for walls of this + thickness would be to resist the thrust of a vault, and as La Place, + the French explorer, found many blocks of earth of great size, the + soffits of which were covered with stucco and had apparently fallen + from a height, he was led to the conclusion, now generally accepted, + that these halls were vaulted. These discoveries, and the fact that in + none of the palaces excavated has a single foundation of the base of + any column been found, quite dispose of Fergusson's restoration, which + was based on the palaces of Persepolis. Moreover, the two climates are + entirely different. In the mountainous country of Persia the breezes + might be welcomed, but in Mesopotamia the heat is so intense that + every precaution has to be taken to protect the inmates of the house + or palace. Thick walls and vaults were a necessity in Nineveh, and + even the windows or openings must have been of small dimensions. No + windows have been found, nor are any shown on the bas-reliefs, except + on the upper parts of towers. It is possible therefore that the light + was admitted through terra-cotta pipes or cylinders, of which many + were found on the site, and this is the modern system of lighting the + dome in the East. Although no remains have ever been found of domes in + any of the Assyrian palaces, the representation of many domical forms + is given in a bas-relief found at Kuyunjik (fig. 10), suggesting that + the dome was often employed to roof over their halls. + + Reference has already been made to the bas-reliefs which decorated the + lower portion of the great halls; the less important rooms had their + walls covered with stucco and painted. Externally the architectural + decoration was of the simplest kind; the lower portion of the walls + was faced with stone; and the monumental portals, in addition to the + winged bulls which flanked them, had deep archivolts in coloured + enamels on glazed brick, with figures and rosettes in bright colours. + A similar decoration would seem to have been applied to the + crenellated battlements, which crowned all the exterior walls, as also + those of the courts. The buttresses inside the courts, and the towers + which flanked the chief entrance, were decorated with vertical + semicircular mouldings of brick. This system of decoration is also + found in the ziggurats or observatories behind the harem, where the + three lower storeys still exist. A winding ramp was carried round this + tower, the storeys of which were set back one behind the other, the + burnt brick paving of the ramp and the crenellated battlements forming + a parapet, portions of which are still _in situ_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Plan of Persepolis.] + + Although not unknown in either Chaldaea or Assyria, the stone column, + according to Perrot and Chipiez, found no place in those structures of + crude brick of which the real architecture of Mesopotamia consisted. + Only one example in stone, in which the shaft and capital together are + 3 ft. 4 in. in height, has been found. Two bases of similar design to + the capital are supposed to have supported wooden columns carrying an + awning. There are representations in the bas-reliefs of kiosks in a + garden, the columns in which, with volute capitals, are supposed to + have been of wood sheathed in metal, and on the bronze bands of the + Balawat gates in the British Museum are representations of the + interior of a house with wood columns and bracket capitals, and + several awnings carried by posts. Small windows are shown in some of + the bas-reliefs, with balustrades of small columns, which were + doubtless copied from the ivory plaques found at Nimrud and now in the + British Museum. (R. P. S.) + + + PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE + + The origin of Persian architecture must be sought for in that of the + two earlier dynasties,--the Assyrian and Median, to whose empire the + Persian monarchy succeeded by conquest in 560 B.C. From the former, it + borrowed the raised platform on which their palaces were built, the + broad flights of steps leading up to them and the winged human-headed + bulls which flank the portals of the propylaea. From Media it would + seem to have derived the great halls of columns and the porticoes of + the palaces, so clearly described by Polybius (x. 24) as existing at + Ecbatana; the principal difference being that the columns of the stoas + and peristyle, which there consisted of cedar and cypress covered with + silver plates, were in the Persian palaces built of stone. The + ephemeral nature of the one material, and the intrinsic value of the + other, are sufficient to account for their entire disappearance; but + as Ecbatana was occupied by Darius and Xerxes as one of their + principal cities, the stone column, bases and capitals, which still + exist there, may be regarded as part of the restoration and rebuilding + of the palace; and as they are similar to those found at Persepolis + and Susa, it is fair to assume that the source of the first + inspiration of Persian architecture came from the Medians, especially + as Cyrus, the first king, was brought up at the court of Astyages, the + last Median monarch. + + The earliest Persian palace, of which but scanty remains have been + found, was built at Pasargadae by Cyrus. There is sufficient, however, + to show that it was of the simplest kind, and consisted of a central + hall, the roof of which was carried by two rows of stone columns, 30 + ft. high, and porticoes _in antis_ on two if not on three sides. + + The great platform, also at Pasargadae, known as the Takht-i-Suleiman, + or throne of Solomon, covered an area of about 40,000 sq. ft., and is + remarkable for the beauty of its masonry and the large stones of which + it is built. These are all sunk round the edge, being the earliest + example of what is known as "drafted masonry," which at Jerusalem and + Hebron gives so magnificent an effect to the great walls of the temple + enclosures. No remains have ever been traced on this platform of the + palace which it was probably built to support. + + We pass on therefore to Persepolis, the most important of the Persian + cities, if we may judge by the remains still existing there. Here, as + at Pasargadae, builders availed themselves of a natural rocky + platform, at the foot of a range of hills, which they raised in parts + and enclosed with a stone wall. Here the masonry is not drafted, and + the stones are not always laid in horizontal courses, but they are + shaped and fitted to one another with the greatest accuracy, and are + secured by metal clamps. The plan (fig. 11) shows the general + configuration of the platform on which the palaces of Persepolis are + built, which covered an area of about 1,600,000 sq. ft. The principal + approach to it was at the north-west end, up a magnificent flight of + steps (A) with a double ramp, the steps being 22 ft. wide, with a + tread of 15 in. and a rise of 4, so that they could be ascended by + horses. The first building opposite this staircase was the entrance + gateway or propylaea (B), a square hall, with four columns carrying + the roof and with portals in the front and rear flanked by winged + bulls. The earliest palace on the platform (D) is that which was built + by Darius, 521 B.C. It was rectangular on plan, raised on a platform + approached by two flights of steps, and consisted of an entrance + portico of eight columns, in two rows of four placed _in antis_, + between square chambers, in which were probably staircases leading to + the roof. This portico led to the great hall, square on plan, whose + roof was carried by sixteen columns in four rows. This hall was + lighted by two windows on each side of the central doorway, all of + which, being in stone, still exist, the lintels and jambs of both + doors and windows being monolithic. The walls between these features, + having been built in unburnt brick, or in rubble masonry with clay + mortar, have long since disappeared. There were other rooms on each + side of the hall and an open court in the rear. The bases of the + columns of the portico still remain _in situ_, as also one of the + antae in solid masonry; and as these in their relative position and + height are in exact accordance with those represented on the tomb of + Darius (fig. 12) and other tombs carved in the rock near Persepolis + (q.v.), there is no difficulty in forming a fairly accurate + conjectural restoration of the same. In the representation of this + palace, as shown on the tomb, and above the portico, has been + sculptured the great throne of Darius, on which he sat, rendering + adoration to the Sun god. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--The Tomb of Darius, cut in the cliff at + Nakshi Rustam, near Persepolis.] + + All the other palaces on the site, built or added to by various + monarchs and at different periods, preserve very much the same plan, + consisting always of a great square hall, the roof of which was + carried by columns, with one or more porticoes round, and smaller + rooms and courts in the rear. In one of the palaces (G) the roof was + carried by 100 columns in ten rows of ten each. The most important + building, however, and one which from its extent, height and + magnificence, is one of the most stupendous works of antiquity, is the + great palace of Xerxes (C), which, though it consists only of a great + central hall and three porticoes, covered an area of over 100,000 sq. + ft., greater than any European cathedral, those of Milan and St + Peter's at Rome alone excepted. + + It was built on a platform raised 10 ft. above the terrace and + approached by four flights of steps on the north side, the principal + entrance. The columns of the porticoes and of the great hall were 65 + ft. high, including base and capital. In the east and west porticoes + the capitals consist only of the double bull or griffin; the cross + corbels on their backs, similar to those shown on the tomb of Darius, + have disappeared, being probably in wood. In the north or entrance + portico, and in the great hall, the capitals are of a much more + elaborated nature, as under the double capital was a composition of + Ionic capitals set on end, and below that the calix and pendant leaves + of the lotus plant. It can only be supposed that Xerxes, thinking the + columns of the east portico required more decoration, instructed his + architects to add some to those of the entrance portico and hall, and + that they copied some of the spoils brought from Branchidae and others + from Egypt. + + Fig. 13 shows the plan of the palace according to the researches of Mr + Weld Blundell, who found the traces of the walls surrounding the great + hall and of the square chambers at the angles, and also proved that + the lines of the drains as shown in Coste's and Texier's plans were + incorrect. M. Dieulafoy also traced the existence of walls enclosing + the Apadana at Susa from the paving of the hall and the portico which + stopped on the lines of the wall. The plan of the palace at Susa was + similar to that of the palace of Xerxes, except that on the side + facing the garden facing south the apadana or throne room was left + open. M. Dieulafoy's discoveries at Susa of the frieze of archers, the + frieze of the lions, and other decorations of the walls flanking the + staircase, all executed in bright coloured enamels on concrete blocks, + revealed the exceptional beauty of the decoration both externally and + internally applied to the Persian palaces. + + [Illustration: From R.P. Spier's _Architecture, East and West_. + + FIG. 13.--Plan of the Hall of Xerxes.] + + The only other monumental works of Persian architecture are the tombs; + to those cut in the solid rock, of which there are some examples, we + have already referred. The most ancient tomb is that erected to Cyrus + the Elder at Pasargadae, and consists of a small shrine or cella in + masonry raised on a series of steps, inspired (according to Fergusson) + by the ziggurat or terrace-temples of Assyria, but on a small scale. + The tomb was surrounded on three sides by porticoes of columns. There + are two other tombs, one at Persepolis and one at Pasargadae--small + square towers with an entrance opening high up on one side, sunk + panels in the stone, and a dentil cornice, copied from early Ionian + buildings. (R. P. S.) + + + GREEK ARCHITECTURE + + _Prehistoric Period._--We have now to retrace our steps and go back to + the prehistoric period of Greek architecture, to the origin and early + development of that style which sowed the seed and determined the + future form and growth of all subsequent European art. + + The discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek + architecture owes much less than was at one time supposed to Egyptian + and Chaldaean architecture; and although from very early times there + may have been a commercial exchange between the several countries, the + objects imported suggested only new and various schemes of decorative + design, and exercised no influence on the development of architectural + style. The remains of the palace at Cnossus in Crete, together with + the representations in fresco painting and other decorative objects, + show that whilst the lower part of the walls under the level of the + ground and up to a height of 5 ft. above were all built in well-worked + masonry, the upper portions were constructed in unburnt brick with + timber framing, which not only gave strength and solidity to the + walls, but carried the cross beams and timbers of intermediate floors + and the roof, and further, that the walls were always vertical, which + was not the case in Egypt or Chaldaea. + + The principal remains discovered by Dr Arthur J. Evans (see CRETE) are + described by him as belonging to the later Minoan age, from which it + may be inferred they are the result of same centuries of previous + development. What, however, is most remarkable is the admirable + planning of the whole palace, the bringing together, under one roof + and in proper and regular intercommunication, of the numerous + services, which in a palace are somewhat complicated. The palace + measured about 400 ft. square, and was built round an open court, + nearly 200 ft. long by 90 ft. wide; as the same arrangement was found + at Phaestus, excavated by the Italian archaeologists, it may be + assumed to have been the Cretan plan. It was built on the crest of a + hill, and in the western or highest portion was the court entrance + from the agora to the megaron or throne-room, and the halls of the + officers of the state. In the lower portion facing the east (the rooms + in which were two storeys below the level of the court on account of + the slope of the hill) was the private suite of apartments of the king + and queen. All the services of the palace were at the north end of the + palace, where the entrance gateway to the central court was situated. + This northern entrance, Dr Evans points out, "represents the main + point of intercourse between the palace and the city on the one hand + and the port on the other." This is the only part of the palace in + which there is evidence of some kind of fortification, as the road of + access is dominated by a tower or bastion. Other provisions also in + the plan of the western entrance suggest that its passage was guarded + to some extent. In this respect the palace of Tiryns, excavated by Dr + Schliemann, presents an entirely different aspect; the whole + stronghold bears a singular resemblance to a fortified castle of the + middle ages; a high wall from 24 to 50 ft. thick surrounded the + acropolis, and the inclined paths of approach and the double gateways + gave that protection at Tiryns which at Cnossus was assured, as Dr + Evans remarks, by the bulwarks of the Minoan navy. The area on the + spur of the hill, on which the citadel of Tiryns was placed, was very + much smaller, but if we accept the forecourt at Tiryns as equivalent + to the great central court at Cnossus, there are great similarities in + the plans of the two palaces. The propylaea, the altar court, the + portico, and the megaron are found in both, and those details which + are missing in the one are found in the other. The discoveries at + Cnossus have enabled Dr Evans to reconstitute the timber columns, of + which the bases only were found at Tiryns, and the spur walls of the + portico of the megaron and the sills of the doorways at Tiryns give + some clue to the restoration of similar features at Cnossus; and if in + the latter palace we find the origin of the Doric column, at Tiryns is + found that of the antae and of the door linings, further substantiated + by the careful analysis made by Dr Dorpfeld of the Heraeum at Olympia. + + The reconstruction by Dr Evans of the timber columns at Cnossus, which + tapered from the top downwards, the lower diameter being about + six-sevenths of the upper, has little historical importance (see + ORDER), so that we may now pass on to the next early monument of + importance, the tomb of Agamemnon, the principal and the best + preserved of the beehive tombs found at Mycenae and in other parts of + Greece. This tomb consists of three parts, the _dromos_ or open + entrance passage, the _tholos_ or circular portion domed over, and a + smaller chamber excavated in the rock and entered from the larger one. + The tomb was subterranean, the masonry being concealed beneath a large + mound of earth. The domed part, 48 ft. 6 in. in diameter and 45 ft. + high, is built in horizontal courses of stone, which project one over + the other till they meet at the top. Subsequently the projecting edges + were dressed down, so that the section through the dome is nearly that + of an equilateral triangle. Notwithstanding the great thickness of the + lintel (3 ft.) over the entrance doorway, the Mycenaeans left a + triangular void over, to take off the superincumbent weight, + subsequently (it is supposed) filled with sculpture, as in the Lions' + Gate at Mycenae. The doorway was flanked by semi-detached columns 20 + ft. high, the shafts of which tapered downwards like those + reconstituted at Cnossus; the shafts rested on a base of three steps, + and carried a capital with echinus and abacus. These shafts carried a + lintel which has now disappeared; the wall above was set back, and was + at one time faced with stone slabs carved with spiral and other + patterns, of which there are fragments in various museums, the most + important remains being those of the shafts, of which the greater + part, which was brought over to England in the beginning of the 19th + century by the 2nd marquess of Sligo, was presented by the 5th + marquess to the British Museum in 1905. These shafts, as also the + echinus moulding of the capitals, are richly carved with the chevron + and spirals, probably copied from the brass sheathing of wood columns + and doorways referred to by Homer. + + _The Archaic Period._--The buildings just referred to belong to what + is known as the prehistoric age in Greece; the dispersion of the + tribes by invaders from the north about 1100 B.C. destroyed the + Mycenaean civilization, and some centuries have to pass before we + reach the results of the new development. Among the invaders the + Dorians would seem to have been the chief leaders, who eventually + became supreme. They brought with them from Olympus the worship of + Apollo, so that henceforth the sanctuary of the god takes the place of + the megaron of the king. From Greece the Dorians spread their colonies + through the Greek islands and southern Italy. Later they passed on to + Sicily and founded Syracuse, and subsequently Selinus and Agrigentum + (Acragas). The prosperity of all these colonies is shown in the + splendid temples which they built in stone, the remains of many of + which have lasted to our day. + + [Illustration: From Curtius and Adler's _Olympia_, by permission of + Behrend & Co. + + FIG. 14.--Plan of the Heraeum. A, Peristyle; B, Pronaos; C, Naos; D, + Opisthodomus; E, Base of statue of Hermes.] + + The earliest Greek temple of which remains have been discovered[2] is + that of the Heraeum at Olympia, ascribed to about 1000 B.C. Its plan + (fig. 14) shows that the enclosure of the sanctuary and its porticoes + in a peristyle had already been found necessary, if only to protect + the walls of the cella, built in unburnt brick on a stone plinth; + further, that the antae of the portico and the dressings of the + entrance were in wood; and, following Pausanias' statement relative to + the wood column in the opisthodomos, all the columns of the peristyle + were in that material, gradually replaced by stone columns as they + decayed, evidenced by the character of their capitals, which in style + date from the 6th century B.C. to Roman times. The ephemeral nature of + the materials employed in this and other early temples, and the risk + of fire, must have naturally led to the desire to render the Greek + sanctuaries more permanent by the employment of stone. But the Greeks + were always timid as regards the bearing value of that material, and + would seem to have imagined that unless the blocks were of megalithic + dimensions it was impossible to build in stone. This may be gathered + from the remains of the earliest example found, the temple of Apollo + in the island of Ortygia, Syracuse, where the monolith columns had + widely projecting capitals, the abaci of which were set so close + together that the intercolumniation was less than one diameter of the + column. + + Following the temple of Apollo at Syracuse is the temple of Corinth, + ascribed to 650 B.C., of which seven columns remain _in situ_, all + monoliths, and the Olympieum at Syracuse. Nearly contemporary with the + latter is one of the temples at Selinus in Sicily, 630 B.C., + remarkable for the archaic nature of its sculptured metopes. Of later + date there are five or six other temples in Selinus, all overthrown by + earthquakes; the temple of Athena at Syracuse, which having been + converted into a church is in fair preservation; an unfinished temple + at Segesta; and six at Agrigentum, built on the brow of a hill facing + the sea, one of which was so large that it was necessary to build in + walls between the columns. + + In Magna Graecia, in the acropolis at Tarentum, are the remains of a + 7th century temple and three at Paestum about a century later in date. + In one of these, the temple of Poseidon (figs. 15 and 16) the columns + which carried the ceiling and roof over the cella are still standing; + these are in two stages superimposed with an architrave between them, + and although there are no traces in this instance of a gallery, they + serve to render more intelligible Pausanias' description of that which + existed in the temple of Zeus at Olympia. + + The temple of Assus in Asia Minor is an early example remarkable for + its sculptured architrave, the only one known, and in the temple of + Aphaea in Aegina (q.v.) we find the immediate predecessor of the + Parthenon, if we may judge by its sculpture and the proportions of its + columns. + + So far we have only referred to the early temples of the Doric order; + of the origin and development of those of the Ionic order far less is + known. The earliest examples are those of the temple of Apollo at + Naucratis in Egypt, and of the archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus, + both about 560 B.C. The remains of the latter, discovered by Wood, are + now in the British Museum; they consist of two capitals, one with a + portion of a shaft in good preservation; the sculptured drum and the + base of one of the columns, inscribed with the name of Croesus, who is + known to have contributed to it; two other bases, and the cornice or + cymatium. The treasury of the Cnidians at Delphi was Ionic, judging by + the carved ornament enriching the cornice and architraves, and in the + Naxian votive column we have another early example of an early voluted + capital. + + The tombs of Tantalais, near Smyrna, and of Alyattes, near Sardis, + belong to the same date as those we shall find in Etruria. The Harpy + tomb, now in the British Museum, built after 547 B.C., is the + predecessor of many other Lycian tombs of the 5th and 4th centuries, + to which we return. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Plan of the Temple of Poseidon at Paestum.] + + As already pointed out, in the temple of Hera at Olympia (10th century + B.C.), we find the complete plan of an hexastyle peripteral Greek + temple, where columns originally in wood supported a wood architrave + and superstructure protected by terra-cotta plaques and roofed over + with tiles. The temple of Apollo at Syracuse, and the temple at + Corinth (7th century B.C.) represent the earliest examples in stone, + and in the temple of Poseidon at Paestum (6th century) are preserved + the columns of the cella which carried the ceiling and roof. The + structural development therefore of the temple was completed, and no + great constructional improvements reveal themselves after 550 B.C. The + next century would seem to have been chiefly directed to the + beautifying and refining of the features already prescribed, and it + was the traditional respect for, and the conservative adherence to, + the older type, which led the architects to the production of such + masterpieces as the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, which would have + been impossible but for the careful and logical progression of + preceding centuries. + + The Parthenon (q.v.) at Athens represents the highest type of + perfection, not only in its conception but in its realization. It is + only necessary here to give a general description. It was designed by + Ictinus in collaboration with Callicrates, and built on the south side + of the Acropolis on a foundation carried down to the solid rock. The + temple, commenced in 454 B.C. and completed in 438 B.C., was of the + Doric order and raised on a stylobate of three steps; it had eight + columns in front and rear and was surrounded by a peristyle, there + being twenty columns on the flanks. It contained two divisions; the + eastern chamber was originally known as the Hekatompedos (temple of + 100 ft.), that being the dimension of the cella of the ancient temple + which it was built to replace. The chamber on the western side was + called the Parthenon (i.e. chamber of the virgin). All the principal + lines of the building had delicate curves. The entablature rose about + 3 in. in the middle to correct an optical illusion caused by the + sloping lines of the pediment, which gave to the horizontal cornice + the appearance of having sunk in the centre. The stylobate had + therefore to be similarly curved so that the columns should be all of + the same height. The columns are not all equidistant, those nearer the + angle being closer together than the others, which gave a greater + appearance of strength to the temple; this was increased by a slight + inclination inwards of all the columns. In order to correct another + optical illusion, which causes the shaft of a column, when it + diminishes as it rises, and is formed with absolute straight lines, to + appear hollow or concave, an increment known as the entasis was given + to the column, about one-third up the shaft. The columns were not + monoliths, like those of the earliest stone temples mentioned above; + they were built in several drums, so closely fitted together that the + joint would be imperceptible but for the slight discoloration of the + marble. The setting of the lowest drum of these columns on the curved + stylobate, with the slight inclination of the column, must have been a + work of an extraordinary nature, only possible with such a material as + Pentelic marble. The cella or naos was built to enshrine the + chryselephantine statue of Athena by Pheidias. In order to carry the + ceiling and roof there was a range of columns on each side of the + cella returning round the end. These columns probably carried an upper + range as in the temple of Poseidon at Paestum. The tympana of the two + pediments and all the metopes were enriched with the finest sculpture, + and were realized, designed, and executed by Pheidias and his pupils. + On the upper part of the cella wall and under the peristyle was the + Panathenaic frieze, of which, as also of the other sculptures, the + British Museum possesses the finest examples. + + The Propylaea (q.v.), designed by Mnesicles and built 437-432 B.C., + was the only entrance to the Acropolis. It was of the Doric order, and + consisted of a portico of six columns, the two centre ones being wider + apart, to allow of the road through, up which the chariots and beasts + for sacrifices ascended. The columns carrying the marble ceiling of + the vestibule were of the Ionic order; beyond them the wall was + pierced by three doorways, and on the other side and facing east was + another portico of six columns. The front entrance was flanked on the + left hand by a chamber known as the Pinacotheca, and on the right by a + chamber intended probably to be a replica but subsequently curtailed + in size in consequence of the proximity of another temple. + + The Erechtheum on the north side of the Acropolis occupied the site of + three older shrines, which may account for its irregular plan. The + eastern portion was the temple of Athena Polias, with a portico of six + columns of the Ionic order. At a lower level on the north side was a + portico of six columns (four in front and two at the sides) leading to + the shrine of Erechtheus; the west front of this shrine had originally + a frontispiece of four columns _in antis_raised on a podium; + subsequently during the Roman occupation these columns were taken down + and reproduced as semi-detached columns with windows between. On the + west side was a court in which was the olive tree and the shrine of + Pandrosus (Pandroseion). At the south-west angle was the well-known + portico or tribune of the Caryatides. There was a small entrance + through the podium at the side, and stairs leading down to the shrine + of Erechtheus. + + [Illustration: From a photo by Brogi. + + FIG. 16.--Temple of Poseidon at Paestum.] + + The only other building remaining on the Acropolis is the temple of + Nike Apteros, raised on a lofty substructure south-west of the + propylaea. It also was of the Ionic order, and belonged to the type + known as "amphiprostyle," with a portico of four columns in the front + and rear but no peristyle. The term "apteros" applied to the temple + and not to the goddess of victory. + + In 430 B.C., shortly after the completion of the Parthenon, Ictinus + was employed to design the temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassae, in + Arcadia. This temple externally was of the Doric order, but, being + built in local stone, no attempt was made to introduce those + refinements which are found in the Parthenon. In the rear of the cella + is a second sanctuary with a doorway facing east; it was probably the + site of an ancient temple which had to be preserved, and this may + account for the fact that the temple runs north and south. The cella + is flanked by five columns of the Ionic order which are conntected by + spur walls to the cella wall. These columns carry an architrave, + frieze richly sculptured with figure subjects, cornice and wall above + rising to the roof. There was no ceiling therefore, and the interior + was probably lighted through pierced Parian marble tiles, of which + three examples were found. The Corinthian capital found on the site is + supposed by Cockerell to have belonged to the shaft between the two + cellas. + + The same architect, Ictinus, was employed in 420 B.C. to rebuild the + hall of the mysteries at Eleusis on a larger scale. The hall was 185 + ft. square, and its ceiling and roof were carried by seven rows of + columns with six in each row. The propylaea, which gave access to the + sacred enclosure at Eleusis, was copied from the propylaea at Athens. + The so-called lesser propylaea had some connexion with the mysteries. + + The temple of Zeus at Olympia had much in common with the Parthenon, + being nearly contemporaneous, built to enshrine a second + chryselephantine statue by Pheidias, and in plan having a similar + arrangement of columns inside the cella; the lower range of columns + (according to Pausanias) supported a gallery round, so that privileged + visitors could approach nearer to the statue. The temple, however, was + built in the local conglomerate stone covered with a thin coat of + stucco and painted. + + Of circular temples there are two examples known, the Philippeion at + Olympia and the Tholos at Epidaurus. The latter had, inside the cella, + a peristyle of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which are of great + beauty and represent in their design the transition between those of + the monument of Lysicrates and the temple of Zeus Olympius at Athens. + + In the sacred enclosures of the Greek sanctuaries were other smaller + temples or shrines, altars, statues and treasuries, the latter being + built by the various cities, from which pilgrimages were made, to + contain their treasures. At Olympia there were ten or eleven, the + remains of some of which are of great interest. Of the treasury of the + Cnidians at Delphi, discovered by the French, so much has been found + that it has been possible to evolve a complete conjectural restoration + in plaster, now in the Louvre. Its sculpture and the rich carving of + its architectural features show that it was Ionian in character. In + front was a portico-in-antis, in which the caryatide figures standing + on pedestals took the place of columns. These are the earliest + examples known of caryatide figures, and they precede those of the + Erechtheum by about a century. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Lycian Tomb of Telmessus.] + + The most important temple in Asia Minor was the temple of Diana + (Artemis) at Ephesus (356-334 B.C.). The archaic temple was burnt in + 356, and was immediately rebuilt with greater splendour from the + designs of Paeonius. The site of the temple was discovered by Wood in + 1869, and the remains brought over to the British Museum in 1875. + There were 100 columns, 36 of which (according to Pliny) were + sculptured, and it was probably on account of the magnificence of the + sculpture that this temple was included among the seven wonders of the + world. The sculptured bases are of two kinds, square and circular, in + the latter case being the lower drums of the columns. Examples of both + are in the British Museum, and several conjectural restorations have + been made, among which that of Dr A.S. Murray has been generally + accepted, but recent researches (1905) suggest that it remains still + an unsolved problem. + + The temple of Apollo Didymaeus, near Miletus, was the largest temple + in Asia Minor, and its erection followed that of the temple at + Ephesus, Paeonius and Daphnis of Miletus being the architects. The + temple was decastyle, dipteral, with pronaos and vestibule, but no + opisthodomos. The cella was so wide (75 ft.) that it remained open to + the sky. The bases of the columns were elaborately carved with + ornament, as if in rivalry with the temple of Diana. Both these + temples were of the Ionic order, as also were those of Athena Polias + at Priene (340 B.C.), many of the capitals of which are in the British + Museum, and the temples of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias and Cybele at + Sardis. + + The mausoleum at Halicarnassus, also of the Ionic order, built by + Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband Mausolus, who died in 353 + B.C., was, according to Pliny, recorded as one of the seven wonders of + the world, probably on account of the eminence of the sculptors + employed, Bryaxis, Leochares, Timotheus, Scopas and Pythius. Pliny's + description is somewhat vague, so that its actual design is a problem + not yet solved. Professor Cockerell's restoration is in accord with + the description, but does not quite agree with the actual remains + brought over by Newton and deposited in the British Museum. If the + Nereid monument and the tombs at Cnidus and Mylasa be taken as + suggesting the design, the peristyle (pteron) of thirty-six columns of + the Ionic order with entablature stood on a lofty podium, richly + decorated with bands of sculpture, and was crowned by a pyramid which, + according to Pliny, "contracted itself by twenty-four steps into the + summit of a meta." The steps found are not high enough to constitute a + meta, and it is possible therefore that, according to Mr J.J. + Stevenson, these steps were over the peristyle only, and that the + lofty steps which constituted the meta were in the centre, carried by + the inner row of columns. The magnificent sculpture of the Macedonian + period has in recent times been demonstrated by the discovery of the + marble sarcophagi found at Sidon by Hamdi Bey and now in the museum at + Constantinople. + + The Lycian tombs, of which there are many hundreds carved in the rock + in the south of Asia Minor, are copies of timber structures, based on + the stone architecture of the neighbouring Greek cities (fig. 17). The + Paiafaor Payava tomb (375-362 B.C.), found at Xanthus and now in the + British Museum, is apparently a copy, cut in the solid rock, of a + portable shrine, in which the wood construction is clearly defined. + + Capitals of the Greek Corinthian order have been found at Bassae, + Epidaurus, Olympia and Miletus, but the earliest example of the + complete order is represented in the Choragic monument of Lysicrates + at Athens. + + The most important example of the Greek Corinthian order is that of + the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, begun in 174 B.C., but not + completed till the time of Hadrian, A.D. 117. The temple was 135 ft. + wide and 354 ft. long, built entirely in Pentelic marble, the columns + being 56 ft. high. There were eight columns in front and a double + peristyle round. + + The two porches of the Tower of the Winds at Athens (_c_. 75 B.C.) had + Corinthian capitals. The upper part of the tower, which was octagonal + in plan, was sculptured with figures representing the winds. + + The Greek houses discovered at Delosand Priene were very simple and + unpretentious, but the palace near Palatitza in Macedonia, discovered + by Messrs Heuzey and Daumet, would seem to have been of a very + sumptuous character. The front of the palace measured 250 ft. In the + centre was a vestibule flanked with Ionic columns on either side, + leading to a throne room at one time richly decorated with marble, and + with numerous other halls on either side. The date is ascribed to the + middle of the 4th century B.C. + + In selecting the sites for their theatres, the Greeks always utilized + the slope of a hill, in which they could cut out the cavea, and thus + save the expense of raising a structure to carry the seats, at the + same time obtaining a beautiful prospect for the background. The + theatre of Dionysus at Athens was discovered and excavated in 1864, + and has fortunately preserved all the seats round the orchestra, + sixty-seven in number, all in Pentelic marble, with the names + inscribed thereon of the priests and dignitaries who occupied them. + The largest theatre was at Megalopolis, with an auditorium 474 ft. in + diameter. The most perfect, so far as the seats are concerned, is the + theatre at Epidaurus, with a diameter of 415 ft. Other theatres are + known at Dodona in Greece, Pergamum and Tralles in Asia Minor, and + Syracuse and Segesta in Sicily. (R. P. S.) + + + PARTHIAN ARCHITECTURE + + The architecture of the Parthian dynasty, who from 250 B.C. to A.D. + 226 occupied the greater part of Mesopotamia, their empire in 160 B.C. + extending over 480,000 sq. m., was quite unknown until Sir A.H. + Layard, following in the steps of Ross and Ainsworth, visited and + measured the plan of the palace at Hatra (el Hadr) about 30 m. south + of Mosul; the architecture of this palace shows that, on the one hand, + the Parthians carried on the traditions of the barrel vault of the + Assyrian palace, and on the other, from their contact with Hellenistic + methods of building, had acquired considerable knowledge in the + working of ashlar masonry. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Plan of Palace of el Hadr. + + A, Throne or reception room. + B, Large hall, or + C, Entrance hall of temple. + D, Temple.] + + El Hadr is first mentioned in history as having been unsuccessfully + besieged by Trajan in A.D. 116, and it is recorded to have been a + walled town containing a temple of the sun, celebrated for the value + of its offerings. The temple referred to is probably the large square + building at the back of the palace, as above the doorway is a rich + frieze carved with griffins, similar to those found at Warka by + Loftus, together with large quantities of Parthian coins. The remains + (fig. 18) consist of a block of 380 ft. frontage, facing east, and 128 + ft. deep, subdivided by walls of great thickness, running at right + angles to the main front, and built in an immense court, divided down + the centre by a wall, separating that portion on the south side, where + the temple was situated, from that on the north side, which + constituted the king's palace. The seven subdivisions of the different + widths were all covered with semi-circular barrel vaults which, being + built side by side, mutually resisted the thrust, the outer walls + being of greater thickness, with the same object. In the centre of the + south block was an immense hall 49 ft. wide and 98 ft. deep, which + formed the vestibule to the temple in the rear; this vestibule was + flanked by a series of three smaller halls on either side, over which + there was probably a second floor. On the palace or north side were + two great aiwans or reception halls. The main front (fig. 19) was + built in finely jointed ashlar masonry with semicircular attached + shafts between the entrance doorways, which had semicircular heads, + every third voussoir of the three larger doors being decorated by + busts in strong relief with a headgear similar to that shown on + Parthian coins; other carvings, with the acanthus leaf, belonged to + that type of Syrio-Greek work, of which Loftus found so many examples + at Warka (Loftus, _Chaldaea, Susiana_, p. 225). In the great mosque of + Diarbekr are two wings at the north and south ends respectively, which + are said to have been Parthian palaces built by Tigranes, 74 B.C.; + they have evidently been rearranged or rebuilt at various times, the + columns with their capitals and the entablature having been utilized + again. The shafts of the columns of the upper storey are richly carved + with geometrical patterns similar to those found by Loftus at Warka. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Portion of front of Palace of el Hadr.] + + [Illustration: From Prof H V. Hilprecht's _Exploration in Bible + Lands_, by permission of A.J. Holman & Co. and T. & T. Clark. + + FIG. 20.--Plan of the Parthian Palace at Nippur.] + + The American researches at Nippur have resulted in the discovery on + the top of the mounds of the remains of a Parthian palace; and the + disposition of its plan (fig. 20), and the style of the columns of the + peristylar court, show so strong a resemblance to Greek work as to + suggest the same Hellenistic influence as in the palace of el Hadr. + Having no stone, however, they were obliged to build up these columns + at Nippur with sections in brick, covered afterwards with stucco. The + columns diminished at the top to about one-fifth of the lower + diameter, and would seem to have had an entasis, as the lower portion + up to one-third of the height is nearly vertical. A similar palace was + discovered at Tello by the French archaeologists, and the bases of + some of the brick columns are in the Louvre. (R. P. S.) + + + SASSANIAN ARCHITECTURE + + [Illustration: FIG. 21 and FIG. 22.--The Palace of Serbistan. + + Plan. + + Section in lines BC, DE, FG of plan.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Plan of the Palace at Firuzabad.] + + Although, on the overthrow of the Parthian dynasty in A.D. 226, the + monarchs of the Sassanian dynasty succeeded to the immense Parthian + empire, the earliest building found, according to Fergusson, is that + at Serbistan, to which he ascribes the date A.D. 380. The palace (fig. + 21), which measures 130 ft. frontage and 143 ft. deep, with an + internal court, shows so great an advance in the arrangements of its + plan as to suggest considerable acquaintance with Roman work. The fine + ashlar work of el-Hadr is no longer adhered to, and in its place we + find rubble masonry with thick mortar joints, the walls being covered + afterwards, both externally and internally, with stucco. While the + barrel vault is still retained for the chief entrance porches, it is + of elliptical section, and the central hall is covered with a dome, a + feature probably handed down from the Assyrians, such as is shown in + the bas-relief (fig. 10) from Kuyunjik, now in the British Museum. In + order to carry a dome, circular on plan, over a square hall, it was + necessary to arch across the angles, and here to a certain extent the + Sassanians were at fault, as they did not know how to build + pendentives, and the construction of these are of the most irregular + kind. As, however, their mortar had excellent tenacious properties, + these pendentives still remain _in situ_ (fig. 22), and their defects + were probably hidden under the stucco. In the halls which flank the + building on either side, however, they displayed considerable + knowledge of construction. Instead of having enormously thick walls to + resist the thrust of their vaults, to which we have already drawn + attention in the Assyrian work and at el Hadr, they built piers at + intervals, covering over the spaces between them, with semi-domes on + which the walls carrying the vaults are supported, so that they + lessened the span of the vault and brought the thrust well within the + wall. This, however, lessened the width of the hall, so they replaced + the lower portions of the piers by the columns, leaving a passage + round. It is possible that this idea was partly derived from the great + Roman halls of the thermae (baths), where the vault is brought forward + on columns; but it was an improvement to leave a passage behind. The + elliptical sections given to all the barrel vaults may have been the + traditional method derived from Assyria, of which, however, no remains + exist. In the article VAULT there will be found a reason why these + elliptical sections were adopted (see also below in the description of + the great hall at Ctesiphon). In the palace of Firuzabad, attributed + by Fergusson to Peroz (Firuz) (A.D. 459-485), the plan (fig. 23) + follows more closely the disposition of the Assyrian palaces, and we + return again to the thick walls, which might incline us to give a + later date to Serbistan, except that in the pendentives carrying the + three great domes in the centre of the palace at Firuzabad they show + greater knowledge in their construction. The angles of the square hall + are vaulted, with a series of concentric arches, each ring as it rises + being brought forward, the object being to save centreing, because + each ring rested on the ring beneath it. The plan is a rectangular + parallelogram with a frontage of 180 ft. and a depth of 333 ft., more + than double, therefore, of the size of Serbistan. An immense entrance + hall in the centre of the main front is flanked on each side by two + halls placed at right angles to it, so as to resist the thrust of the + elliptical barrel vaults of the entrance hall. This hall leads to a + series of three square halls, side by side, each surmounted by a dome + carried on pendentives. Beyond is an open court, the smaller rooms + round all covered with barrel vaults. Here, as in Serbistan, the + material employed is rubble masonry with thick joints of mortar, and + fortunately portions of the stucco with which this Sassanian masonry + was covered remain both externally and internally. As there are no + windows of any sort, the wall surface of the exterior has been + decorated with semi-circular attached shafts and panelling between, + which recall the primitive decorations found in the early Chaldaean + temples, except that arches are carried at the top across the sunk + panels. Internally an attempt has been made to copy the decoration of + the Persian doorway, which represents a kind of renaissance of the + ancient style. But instead of the lintel the arch has been introduced, + and the ornament in stucco representing the Persian cavetto cornice + shows imperfect knowledge of the original and is clumsily worked. The + niches also, in the main front, have been copied from the windows + which flank the doorway in the Persian palace. But they are decorative + only, and are too shallow to serve any purpose. + + [Illustration: From Dieulafoy's _L'Art Antique_ by permission of Morel + et Cie. + + FIG. 24.--The Great Hall at Ctesiphon.] + + If there has been some difficulty in determining the exact date of + Firuzabad, that of the third great palace, at Ctesiphon, on the + borders of the Tigris, is known to have been built by Chosroes I. in + A.D. 550. Owing probably to its proximity to Bagdad, from which it + lies about 25 m. distant, it is much better known than the other + examples we have quoted; but while they are constructed in rubble + masonry, Ctesiphon is built of brick, because we have now returned to + the alluvial plain where no stone could be procured. The only portion + of the palace which still exists is that which was built in burnt + brick, and this far exceeds in dimensions Serbistan and Firuzabad. Its + main front measured 312 ft.; its height was about 115 ft.; and its + depth 175 ft. The plan is very simple, and consisted of an _aiwan_ or + immense hall, 86 ft. in width and 163 ft. long, covered with an + elliptical barrel vault, the thrust of which is counteracted by five + long halls on each side, also covered with barrel vaults and probably + used as guard chambers or stores. The great hall was open in the + front, and constituted an immense portal, 83 ft. wide and 95 ft. to + the crown of the arch. The springing of the vault is 40 ft. from the + ground, but up to about 26 ft. above the springing the walls are built + in horizontal courses projecting inwards as they rise, so that the + actual width of the vaulted portion (fig. 24) has been diminished + one-sixth and measures only about 71 ft. The crown of the vault is 9 + ft. thick, the walls at the base being 23 ft. The bricks or tiles of + which the vault is built are, like those at Thebes, laid flat-wise, + and there is also a similar inclination of the rings of brick-work, + which are about 10 deg. out of the vertical. This leads to the + conclusion that this immense vault was built without centreing, as the + tenacious quality of the mortar would probably be sufficient to hold + each tile in its position until the ring was complete. In the building + of the arch of the great portal other precautions were taken; bond + timbers 23 ft. long and in five rows, one above the other, were + carried through the wall from front to back. The lower portion of the + arch (5 ft. in height) was built with bricks placed flat-wise; the + upper portion (4 ft. in height) in the usual way, viz. right angles to + the face. The reason for this change was probably that the upper + portions might be carved, as they have been, with a series of + semi-circular cusps. + + The decoration of the flanks of this great central portal is of the + most bewildering description. There has evidently been a desire to + give a monumental character to the main front. With this idea in view + they would seem to have attempted to reproduce Roman features, such as + are found decorating the fronts of the various amphitheatres of the + Empire. But the semi-circular shafts which form the decoration do not + come one over the other on the several storeys, and there is a + reckless employment of blank arcades distributed over the surface. + + There are remains of two other palaces at Imamzade and Tag Iran, and + in Moab a small example, the Hall of Rabboth Ammon, supposed to have + been erected for Chosroes II. during the subjugation of Palestine, + which is richly decorated with carving, probably by Syrio-Greek + artists, with a mixture of Greek, Jewish and Sassanian details. At + Takibostan and Behistun (Bisutun), some 200 m. north-east of + Ctesiphon, are some remarkable Sassanian capitals and panels + (published in Flandin and Coste's _Voyage en Perse_, 1851, Paris). + (R. P. S.) + + + ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE + + Although our acquaintance with Etruscan architecture is confined + chiefly to the entrance gateways and the walls of towns, and to tombs, + it forms a very important link between the East and the West. Though + little is known of the history of Etruria (q.v.), the influence which + her people exerted on Roman architecture, lasting down to the period + when Greece was overrun and plundered of her treasures, was so great + that it would be difficult to follow the origin of Roman architecture + without some inquiry into the work of its immediate predecessor. The + theory put forward by Fergusson, as to the migration of the Etruscans + from Asia Minor in the 12th or 11th century B.C., is substantiated by + the resemblance of the tumuli in the latter country, such as those at + Tantalais, on the northern shore of the gulf of Smyrna, and that of + Alyattes near Sardis, as compared with the Regulini Galeassi tomb at + Cervetri and the Cucumella tomb at Vulci, in all cases consisting of a + sepulchral chamber buried under an immense mound surrounded by a + podium in stone. The chamber was covered over with masonry, laid in + horizontal courses, each stone projecting slightly over the one below. + The same system of construction prevailed in the bee-hive tombs of + Greece, except that the latter were always circular on plan, whilst + these cited above were rectangular. Similar methods of construction + are found at Tusculum and in a gateway at Arpino. In all these cases + the projecting courses were worked off on the completion of the tomb, + in Greece and at Tusculum and Arpino following a curve, and in the + Regulini Galeassi tomb a raking line. + + The earliest example known of the arched vault, with regular voussoirs + in stone, is found in the canal of the Marta near Graviscae, ascribed + to the 7th century. The vault is 14 ft. in span, with voussoirs from 5 + to 6 ft. in depth. In the tomb of Pythagoras near Cortona, with a span + of about 10 ft., only four voussoirs were employed. In the Cloaca + Maxima at Rome the vault (now ascribed by Commendatore Boni to the 1st + century B.C.) is built with three concentric rings of voussoirs. In + all these cases the thrust of the arch was amply resisted as they were + constructed under ground, and in the entrance gateways at Volterra, + Perugia and Falerii a similar resistance was given by the immense + walls in which they were built. + + We have already referred to one class of tomb in which the sepulchral + chamber, built above the ground, was covered over with a mound of + earth; there is a second class, carved out of the solid rock, in which + we find the same treatment as that described in connexion with Egypt. + The tomb represents, in its internal arrangements and in its + decorations, the earthly dwelling of the defunct (compare the Egyptian + "soul-houses"). The ceilings are carved in imitation of the horizontal + beams and slanting rafters of the roof, the former carried by square + piers with capitals; one well-known tomb at Corneto (fig. 25) + represents the atrium of an Etruscan house, which corresponds with the + description given by Vitruvius of the _cavaedia displuviata_, in which + there was a small opening at the top, known as the compluvium, the + roof sloping down on all four sides. + + The paintings which decorate these tombs have very much the same + character as those which are found on what were thought to have been + Etruscan, but are now generally considered as Greek vases, the + principal difference being that instead of allegorical subjects, + domestic scenes recalling the life of the deceased are represented. In + a tomb at Cervetri the walls and piers were carved with + representations of the helmets, swords and other accoutrements of a + soldier, and also the mirrors and jewelry of his wife, even the + kitchen utensils being included, so as to give the complete fittings + of the house they occupied. In two examples at Castel D'Asso the rock + has been cut away on all sides, leaving a rectangular block, crowned + with reverse mouldings. + + Scarcely any remains _in situ_ of Etruscan temples have been found, + and the description given by Vitruvius is very scanty. Of late years, + however, in the British Museum and in the museums at Florence and + Rome, a large amount of material has been brought together, from which + it is possible to make some kind of conjectural restoration. This has + been facilitated by the discoveries made at Olympia, Delphi and + elsewhere in Greece, showing the important function which terra-cotta + served in the protection and decoration of the timber roofs of the + Greek temples and treasuries. The cornices, antefixae, pendant slabs + and other decorative features in terra-cotta, found on the sites of + the Etruscan temples, show that the timber construction of their roofs + was protected in the same way; and although Vitruvius (bk. iii. ch. 2) + considered the temple of Ceres at Rome to be clumsy and heavy, and its + roofs low and wide, in comparison with the purer examples of Greek + architecture, the remains of terra-cotta found at Civita Castellana + (the ancient Falerii), at Luna, Telamon and Lanuvium (the latter in + the British Museum), show that in their modelling and colour they must + have possessed considerable decorative effect, and when raised on an + eminence, as in the case of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, + formed striking features of importance, enriched as they were with + gilding. There is one feature in the Etruscan examples which seems to + have been peculiar to their temples, viz. the pendant slabs hung round + the eaves to protect the walls; these latter were probably covered + with stucco and decorated with paintings. The lower portions of many + of these slabs were decorated in relief and in colour at the back, + showing that they were exposed to view below the soffit of the + projecting eaves. + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--The Corneto Tomb.] + + Owing to the ephemeral nature of the materials employed in the + building of the walls of Etruscan temples, viz. unburned brick or + rubble masonry with clay mortar, the roofs being in timber, little is + known of their general design; the terra-cotta decorations are, + however, fortunately in good preservation, and suggest that although + the Etruscan temple, architecturally speaking, was not of a very + monumental character, its external decoration and colour added + considerably to its effect. (R. P. S.) + + + ROMAN ARCHITECTURE + + The rebuilding of Rome, which began in the reign of Augustus, and was + carried on by his successors to a much greater extent, has caused the + destruction of nearly all those examples of early work to which the + student, working out the history of a style, would turn. There are, + however, a few early buildings still existing, and these are of value + as showing the extremely simple nature of their design. The temple of + Fortuna Virilis (so-called) in the Forum Boarium, attributed to the + beginning of the 1st century B.C., shows the great difference between + Greek and Roman temples. Like the Etruscan temple, it is raised on a + podium, and approached by a flight of steps. The Etruscan cella is + dispensed with; and what may be looked upon as the semblance of a + Greek peristyle is retained in the semi-detached columns which are + carried round the walls of the cella. To the entrance portico, + however, the Roman architect attached great importance, and we find + here that one-third of the whole length of the temple is given up to + the portico. The Tabularium built by Lutatius Catulas (78 B.C.) is a + second example of early work. On a lofty substructure, built of + peperino stone, was raised an arcade, which formed a passage from one + side of the capitol to the other, and here we find the earliest + example of the use of the Classic order, as a decorative feature only, + applied to the face of a wall. The arcade consists of a series of + arches with intermediate semi-detached Doric columns carrying an + entablature. The architectural design of the substructure is of the + simplest kind, depending for its effect only on the size of the stones + employed and the finish given to the masonry. The same remark applies + to the few remains left of the Forum Julium (47 B.C.), where an + additional decorative effect was produced by the bevelled edge worked + round all the stones, producing the effect of rusticated masonry. + + If, however, the remains are few, the records of classical writers + show that already before the beginning of the 1st century B.C. the + influence of Greece had been shown in the transformation of the Forum, + the embanking of the river Tiber, the erection of numerous porticoes + throughout the Campus Martius, and of basilicas, one of which, rebuilt + by Paulus Aemilius in 50 B.C., was remarkable for its monolithic + columns of pavonazetto marble; and further that on the Palatine hill + were various mansions, the courts and peristyles of which were richly + decorated with marble. + + The boast of Augustus that he found Reme built of brick and left it in + marble is true in a sense, but not in the way it is usually + interpreted. He greatly encouraged the use of marble--the temple of + Venus in the forum of Julius Caesar is said to have been built + entirely of that material--but as a rule marble was only used as a + facing. This, however, led to the substitution of solid concrete for + the core of walls, in place of the unburnt brick which up to that time + had been employed. On this subject the writings of Vitruvius, the + Roman architect, are of the greatest value, as they describe clearly + not only the materials used at this time (about 30 B.C.), but the + different methods of building walls (see ROME). The material which + contributed more than any other to the magnificent conceptions of the + Roman Imperial style was that known as pozzolana, a volcanic earth + which, mixed with lime, formed an hydraulic cement of great cohesion + and strength. Not only the walls but the vaults were built in this + pozzolana concrete, and formed one solid mass. Bricks were employed in + arches, on the quoins of walls, occasionally in bond courses, and in + the constructional vaults as ribs, in order to relieve the centreing + of the weight until the pozzolana concrete had been poured in and had + consolidated. The bricks employed in these ribs, and for the voussoirs + of arches, were of the kind we should describe as tiles, being about 2 + ft. square and 2 in. thick. Bricks also of smaller size and triangular + in shape were used for the facing of walls, the triangular portions + being embedded into the concrete walls. + + The Romans themselves do not seem to have realized the tenacious + properties of this pozzolana cement which, when employed for the + foundation of temples, formed a solid mass capable of bearing as much + weight as the rock itself. They feared also the thrust of the immense + vaults over their halls, and always provided crosswalls to counteract + the same, as shown in the plan of all the thermae; when, however, they + had discovered the secret of covering over large spaces with a + permanent casing indestructible by fire, it not only gave an impetus + to the great works in Rome, but led to a new type of plan, which + spread all through the Empire, varied only by the difference in + materials and in labour. In this respect the Romans always availed + themselves of the resources of the country, which they turned to the + best account. As pozzolana was not to be found in North Africa or + Syria, they had to trust to the excellent qualities of the Roman + mortar, but even in Syria, where stone was plentiful and could be + obtained in great dimensions, when they attempted to erect vaults of + great span similar to those in Rome, these probably collapsed before + the building was finished, and were replaced by roofs in wood. + + In the styles hitherto described the gradual development has been + traced to their primitive, culminating and decadent periods. This is + not called for in a description of the Roman style of architecture, + which to a certain extent appeared phoenix-like in its highest + development under Augustus. Roman orders in the Augustan age had + reached their culminating development. The capitals of the portico of + the Pantheon (27 B.C.), or of the temple of Mars Ultor (2 B.C.), + constitute the finest examples of the Corinthian order, whilst those + of later temples show a falling off in style. It was only in the + application of the orders that new combinations presented themselves, + and this can be better understood when we refer to the monuments + themselves. The description of the Roman orders, with the subsequent + modifications, is given in the article ORDER. It is necessary, + however, here to draw attention to two very important developments + which the Roman architect introduced as regards the orders: firstly, + their employment as decorative features in combination with the + arcade, known as composite arcades, and secondly, their superposition + one above the other in storeys. The earliest example of the first + class is that found in the Tabularium as it now exists; of the second + class the Colosseum and the theatre of Marcellus are the best known + examples. In principle the practice must be condemned, for the + employment of the column and entablature, which was designed by the + Greek architect as an independent constructive feature, in a purely + decorative sense stuck on the face of a wall, is contrary to good + taste, but it is impossible not to recognize in its application to the + Colosseum the value of the scale which it has given to the whole + structure, a scale which would have been entirely lost if the building + had been treated as one storey. The superposition of the orders as + exemplified in the Roman theatres and amphitheatres throughout the + Empire constitutes the greatest development made in the style, and it + is one which, from the Italian revivalists down to our time, has had + more influence in the design of monumental work than any other Roman + innovation. + + In the preceding sections it has been necessary to confine our + descriptions, in the case of Egypt and Greece, more or less to temples + and tombs, and in that of Assyria to palaces, but in Roman + architecture the monuments are not only of the most extensive and + varied kinds, but in some parts of the Empire they become modified by + the requirements of the country, so that a tabulated list alone would + occupy a considerable space. The following are the principal + subdivisions: The Roman forum (see ROME); the colonnaded streets in + Syria and elsewhere, and temple enclosures; temples (q.v.), + rectangular and circular; basilicas (q.v.); theatres (q.v.) and + amphitheatres (q.v.); thermae or baths (q.v.); entrance gateways and + triumph arches (see TRIUMPHAL ARCH); memorial buildings and tombs, + aqueducts (q.v.) and bridges (q.v.), palatial architecture (see + PALACE); domestic architecture (see HOUSE). + + The _Forum Romanum_ under the Republic would seem to have served + several purposes. The principal temples and important public buildings + occupied sites round it, and up to the time of Julius Caesar there + were shops on both sides: it was also used as a hippodrome and served + for combats and other displays. Under the Empire, however, these were + relegated to the amphitheatre and the theatre, markets were provided + for elsewhere, and the forum became the chief centre for the temples, + basilicas, courts of law and exchanges. But already in the time of + Julius Caesar the Forum Romanum had become too small, and others were + built by succeeding emperors. In order to find room for these, not + only were numerous crowded sites cleared, but vast portions of the + Quirinal hill were cut away to make place for them. The Fora added + were those of Julius Caesar, Augustus, Trajan, Nerva and Vespasian. + Outside Rome, in provincial towns and in Africa and Syria, the Forum + was generally built on the intersection of the two main streets, and + was surrounded by porticoes, temples and civic monuments. + + _Colonnaded Streets._--We gather from some Roman authors that in early + days the Campus Martius was laid out with porticoes. All these + features have disappeared, but there are still some existing in Syria, + North Africa and Asia Minor, which are known as colonnaded streets. + The most important of these are found in Palmyra, where the street was + 70 ft. wide with a central avenue open to the sky and side avenues + roofed over with stone. The columns employed were of the Corinthian + order, 31 ft. high, and formed a peristyle on each side of the street, + which was nearly a mile in length. The triple archway in this street + is still one of the finest examples of Roman architecture. At Gerasa, + the colonnaded streets had columns of the Ionic order, the street + being 1800 ft. long, with other streets at right angles to it; similar + streets are found at Amman, Bosra, Kanawat, &c. At Pompeiopolis, in + Asia Minor, are still many streets of columns, and in North Africa the + French archaeologists have traced numerous others. + + _Temple Enclosures._--In Rome the great cost, and the difficulty of + obtaining large sites, restricted the size of the enclosures of the + temples; this was to a certain extent compensated for by the + magnificence of the porticoes surrounding them. The most important was + that built by Hadrian, measuring 480 ft. by 330 ft., to enclose the + double temples of Venus and Rome. The portico of Octavia measures 400 + ft. by 370 ft., enclosing two temples, and the portico of the + Argonauts, which enclosed the temple of Neptune, was about 300 ft. + square. These dimensions, however, are far exceeded by those of the + enclosures in Syria and Asia Minor. The court of the temple of the Sun + at Palmyra was raised on an artificial platform 16 ft. high, and + measured 735 ft. by 725 ft., with an enclosure wall of 74 ft. on the + west and 67 ft. high on the other three sides. + + At Baalbek the platform was raised 25 ft. above the ground, the + dimensions being 400 ft. wide and 900 ft. deep. At Damascus the + enclosure of the temple of the Sun has been traced, and it extended to + about 1000 ft. square. Similar enclosures are found at Gerasa, Amman + and other Syrian towns. In Asia Minor, at Aizani the platform was 520 + by 480 ft., raised about 20 ft., and in Africa the French have found + the remains of similar enclosures. + + _Roman Temples._--The Romans, following the Etruscan custom, + invariably raised their temples on a podium with a flight of steps on + the main front. Their temples were not orientated, and being regarded + more as monuments than religious structures occupied prominent sites + facing the Forum or some great avenue. Much importance was attached to + the entrance portico, which was deeper than those in Greek temples, + and the peristyle when it existed was rarely carried round the back. + On the other hand the cella exceeded in span those of the Greek + temples, as the Roman, being acquainted with the principle of trussing + timbers, could roof over wider spaces. The principal temples in Rome, + of which remains still exist, are those of Fortuna Virilis, Mars + Ultor, Castor, Neptune, Antoninus and Faustina, Concord, Vespasian, + Saturn and portions of the double temples of Venus and Rome. At + Pompeii are the temples of Jupiter and Apollo, at Cora the temple of + Mercury, and in France, the Maison Carree at Nimes and the temple at + Vienne. In Syria are the temples of Jupiter at Baalbek, of the Sun at + Palmyra and Gerasa, and in Spalato the temple of Aesculapius. + + Of circular temples the chief are the Pantheon at Rome, the temple of + Vesta on the Forum, of Mater Matuta, so-called, on the Forum Boarium, + the temple of Vesta at Tivoli, of Jupiter at Spalato and of Venus at + Baalbek. + + Of the rectangular temples the Maison Carree at Nimes is the most + perfect example existing (fig. 26). It was built by Antoninus Pius, + and dedicated to his adopted sons Lucius and Martius. This temple, 59 + ft. by 117 ft., is of the Corinthian order, hexastyle, + pseudoperipteral, with a portico three columns deep, and is raised on + a podium 12 ft. high. The next best preserved example is the temple of + Jupiter at Baalbek, also of the Corinthian order, octastyle, + peripteral, with a deep portico, and a cella richly decorated with + three-quarter detached shafts of the Corinthian order. + + Of the circular temples the Pantheon is the most remarkable. It was + built by Hadrian, and consists of an immense rotunda 142 ft. in + diameter, covered with a hemispherical dome 140 ft. high. Its walls + are 20 ft. thick, and have alternately semicircular and rectangular + recesses in them. In the centre of the dome is a circular opening 30 + ft. in diameter open to the sky, the only source from which the light + is obtained. The rotunda is preceded by a portico, originally built by + Agrippa as the front of the rectangular temple erected by him, taken + down and re-erected after the completion of the rotunda, with the + omission of the two outer columns. In other words Agrippa's portico + was decastyle; the actual portico is octastyle. + + _Basilicas._--The earliest example of which remains exist is that of + the Basilica Julia on the Forum, the complete plan of which is now + exposed to view. It consisted of a central hall measuring 255 ft. by + 60 ft., surrounded by a double aisle of arches carried on piers, which + were covered with groined vaults. The Basilica Ulpia built by Trajan + was similar in plan, but in the place of the piers were monolith + columns, with Corinthian capitals carrying an entablature, with an + upper storey forming a gallery round. + + [FIG. 26.--Elevation and plan of the Maison Carree, Nimes.] + + The third great basilica, commenced by Maxentius and completed by + Constantine, differs entirely from the two above mentioned. It + followed the design and construction of the Tepidarium of the Roman + thermae, and consisted of a hall 275 ft. long by 82 ft. wide and 114 + ft. high, covered with an intersecting barrel vault with deep recesses + on each side which communicated one with the other by arched openings + and constituted the aisles. + + _Theatres._--The only example in Rome is the theatre of Marcellus, + built by Augustus 13 B.C., and one of the purest examples of Roman + architecture. Amongst the best preserved examples is the theatre of + Orange in the south of France, the stage of which was 203 ft. long. In + the theatre at Taormina in Sicily are still preserved some of the + columns which decorated the rear wall of the stage. The theatre of + Herodes Atticus at Athens (A.D. 160) retains portions of its enclosure + walls and some of the marble seats. There are two theatres in Pompeii + where the seats and the stage are in fair preservation. Other examples + in Asia Minor are at Aizani, Side, Telmessus, Alinda, and in Syria at + Amman, Gerasa, Shuhba and Beisan. + + _Amphitheatres._--The largest amphitheatre is that known as the + Colosseum, commenced by Vespasian in A.D. 72, continued by Titus and + dedicated by the latter in A.D. 80. This refers to the three lower + storeys, for the topmost storey was not erected until the first part + of the 3rd century, when it was completed by Severus Alexander and + Gordianus. The building is elliptical in plan and measures 620 ft. for + the major axis and 513 ft. for the minor axis. There were eighty + entrances, two of which were reserved for the emperor and his suite. + The Cavea (q.v.) was divided into four ranges of seats; the whole of + the exterior and the principal corridors were built in travertine + stone, and all other corridors, staircases and substructures in + concrete. Externally the wall was divided into four storeys, the three + lower ones with arcades divided by semi-detached columns of the + Tuscan, the Ionic and the Corinthian orders respectively. The walls of + the topmost storey were decorated with pilasters of the Corinthian + order, the only openings there being small windows, to light the + corridors and the upper range of seats. Among other amphitheatres the + best preserved are those found at Capua, Verona, and Pompeii in Italy; + at El Jem in North Africa; at Pola in Istria, and at Aries and Nimes + in France. + + _The Thermae_ or _Imperial Baths._--The term thermae is given to the + immense bathing establishments which were built by the emperors to + ingratiate themselves with the people. Of the ordinary baths + (_Balneae_) there were numerous examples not only in Rome but at + Pompeii and throughout the Empire. The thermae were devoted not only + to baths but to gymnastic pursuits of every kind, and being the + resorts of the poets, philosophers and statesmen of the day, contained + numerous halls where discussions and orations could take place. The + plans of these thermae were measured by Palladio about 1560, at a time + when they were in far better preservation and more extensive than they + are to-day. They have, however, been measured since by some of the + French Grand Prix students; and Blouet's work on the _Thermae of + Caracalla_(1828) and Paulin's on the _Thermae of Diocletian_(1890) + give accurate drawings as well as conjectural restorations which are + of the greatest value. The earliest thermae were those built by + Agrippa (20 B.C.) in the Campus Martius, and of others those of Titus + and Trajan are the best preserved; plans can be found in Cameron's + _Baths_(1775). + + _Entrance Gateways_ and _Arches of Triumph._--As the entrance gateways + were sometimes erected to commemorate some important event, we have + grouped these together, the real difference being that the arch of + triumph was an isolated feature and served no utilitarian purpose, + whereas the entrance gateway constituted part of the external walls of + the city and could be opened and closed at will. Of the latter those + at Verona, Susa, Perugia and Aosta in Italy, Autun in France, and the + Porta Nigra at Treves (Trier) are the best known, but there are also + numerous examples throughout Syria and North Africa. The arches of + triumph offered a fine scope for decoration with bas-reliefs setting + forth the principal events of the campaign; the representation on + coins also suggests that they were looked upon as pedestals to carry + large groups of sculpture. The best known examples are those of Titus, + Septimius Severus and Constantine at Rome, of Trajan at Ancona, and, + in France, at Orange, St Remi and Reims. There were numerous examples + throughout North Africa and Syria, of which the arch of Caracalla at + Tebessa in the former and the great gateway of Palmyra in Syria are + the best preserved. + + _Memorial Buildings and Tombs._--Columns of victory constituted + another type of memorial, and the shafts of the columns of Trajan and + Marcus Aurelius in Rome lent themselves to a better representation of + the records of victory than those which could be obtained in the + panels of a triumphal arch. Other columns erected are those of + Antoninus Pius in Rome, a column at Alexandria, and others in France + and Italy. + + If the Romans derived from the Etruscans a custom of erecting tombs in + memory of the dead, they did not follow on the same lines, for whilst + the Etruscans always excavated the tomb in the solid rock, + constituting a more lasting memorial, the Romans regarded them as + monumental features and lined the routes of the _via sacra_ of their + towns with them. The earliest example remaining is that of Caecilia + Metella (58 B.C.), of which the upper portion, consisting of a + circular drum 93 ft. in diameter, remains. Of the tomb of Hadrian the + core only exists in the castle of Sant' Angelo. From the descriptions + given it must have been a work of great magnificence. The tombs known + as Columbaria (q.v.) were always below ground, but in some cases an + upper storey was built above them consisting of a small temple, and + these flanked the Via Appia in large numbers. At Pompeii outside the + Herculaneum Gate the Via Appia was lined on both sides with tombs of + varied design, and with exedrae or circular seats in marble, provided + for the use of those visiting the tombs. The tombs in Syria form a + very large and important series, the earliest perhaps being those in + Palmyra, where they took the form of lofty towers, from 70 to 90 ft. + high, externally simple as regards their design, but in the several + storeys inside profusely decorated with Corinthian pilasters and + coffered ceilings in stone. The tombs in Jerusalem built in the 1st + century of our era are partly excavated in the rock and partly + erected. The most important were those known as the tomb of Absalom, + the tomb of St James, and the tombs of the judges and the kings, all + cut in the solid rock. In central Syria some of the tombs are + excavated in the rock, and over them are built a group of two or more + columns held together by their entablatures. The most important series + are the tombs at Petra, all cut in the side of cliffs and of elaborate + design. The sculptor, being free from the restriction of construction, + realized his conception much in the same way as a scene-painter + produces a theatrical background. + + _Aqueducts_ and _Bridges._--Although at the present day aqueducts and + bridges would be classed under the head of engineering works, those + built by the Romans are so fine in their conception and design that + they take their place as monuments. The Pont-du-Gard near Nimes, and + the aqueducts of Segovia, Tarragona and Merida in Spain, and some of + those in or near Rome, are of the simplest design, depending for their + effect on their magnificent construction, their dimensions both in + length and height, and the scale given in the ranges of arches one + above the other. Few of the Roman bridges have lasted to our day; the + bridges of Augustus at Rimini and of Alcantara in Spain may be taken + as types of the design, in which we note that there are no + architectural superfluities; the quality of the design depends on the + graceful proportion of the arches and the fine masonry in which they + are built. + + _Palatial Architecture._--By far the most magnificent group of palaces + are those which were erected by the Caesars on the Palatine hill at + Rome. Commenced by Augustus and added to by his successors down to the + reign of Severus, they cover an area considerably over 1,000,000 sq. + ft., and comprise an immense series of great halls, throne room, + banqueting hall, basilicas, peristylar courts, temple, libraries, + schools, barracks, a stadium and separate suites for princes and + courtiers. The service of the palace would seem to have been carried + on in vaulted corridors in several storeys, some of which on the north + side, overlooking the Circus Maximus, must have been over 100 ft. in + height. Except under the Villa Mills, the greater part of the plan has + been traced; and large remains of mosaic pavements have been found _in + situ_, and in the approaches, vaulted halls, some still retaining + their stucco decoration. + + A similar variety of groups of every description of structure is found + at Tivoli, but spread over a very much larger area. The villa of + Hadrian extended over 7 m.; the works there were probably begun about + A.D. 123, the first portion being his own residential palace. In + addition to the numerous halls, courts, libraries, &c., Hadrian + attempted to reproduce some of the most remarkable monuments which he + had seen during his long travels; the Stadium, Palaestra, Odeum, the + two theatres, the artificial lake, Canopus and other features were, + however, constructed in the Roman style. Built on a ridge between two + valleys, the several buildings occupied various levels, so that + immense terraces and flights of stairs existed throughout the site + and, combined with the natural scenery, must have been of + extraordinary beauty. + + The palace of Diocletian at Spalato, to which he retired after his + abdication, constituted a fortress, three of its walls being protected + by towers, the fourth on the south by the sea. For an account of its + well-preserved remains see SPALATO. The emperor's own residence was on + the south side, and had a gallery 520 ft. long overlooking the sea. + The two main streets, with arcades on each side and crossing one + another, divided the whole palace into four sections. One of these + streets crossed from gate to gate, the other from the north gate led + to the entrance into the palace of the emperor. + + _Private Houses_.-The entire absence of the remains of the private + houses of Rome, with the single exception of the house of Livia on the + Palatine, would have left us with a very poor insight into their + design were it not for the discovery of Pompeii (q.v.) and Herculaneum + (q.v.). The descriptions given by Pliny of the lavish extravagance in + the Roman houses, and the employment of various Greek marbles in the + shape of monolith columns and panelling of walls, are substantiated by + those which are found in the Pantheon, in the palaces on the Palatine, + and in Hadrian's villa at Tivoli; and these compared with what is + found at Pompeii show that the latter was only a provincial town of + second or third-rate importance, where painted imitations took the + place of real marbles, and where the wall paintings were very inferior + to those which have been discovered in Rome. (R. P. S.) + + + BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE + + The term "Byzantine" is applied to the style of architecture which was + developed in Byzantium after Constantine had transferred the capital + of the Roman empire to that city in A.D. 324. + + It is not possible, in the early ages of any style which is based on + preceding or contemporaneous styles, to draw any hard and fast line of + demarcation; and already before the Peace of the Church, a gradual + transformation in the Roman style had been taking place, even in Rome + itself. Thus the arch had gradually been taking the place of the + lintel, either frankly as a relieving arch above it (portico of + Pantheon), or introduced in the frieze just above the architrave (San + Lorenzo), or by the conversion of the architrave into a flat arch by + dividing it into voussoirs, as in the Forum Julium at Rome or in the + temple of Jupiter at Baalbek. In the palace built by Diocletian at + Spalato, the architrave or lintel of the Golden Gate is built with + several voussoirs, and the pressure is further relieved by an arch + thrown across above it. Long before this, however, and already in the + 2nd century A.D. in Syria, this relieving arch had been moulded and + decorated, with the result of emphasizing it as a new architectural + feature. In this same palace at Spalato, in order to obtain a wider + opening in the centre of the portico, leading to the throne room, it + was spanned by an arch, round which were carried the mouldings of the + whole entablature, viz. architrave, frieze and cornice. At a still + earlier date in Syria the same had been done in the Propylaea of the + temple at Damascus (A.D. 151) and other examples are found in North + Africa. + + Now when Constantine transferred the capital to Byzantium, he is said + to have imported immense quantities of monolith columns from Rome, and + also workmen to carry out the embellishments of the new capital; for + his work there was not confined to churches, but included + amphitheatres, palaces, thermae and other public buildings. Owing to + the haste with which these were built, and in some cases probably to + the ephemeral materials employed, for the roofs of the churches were + only in timber, all these early works have been swept away; but there + remain two structures at least, which are said to date from + Constantine's time, viz. the Binbirderek or cistern of a thousand + columns, and the Yeri-Batan-Serai, both in Constantinople. As one of + the first tasks a Roman emperor set himself to perform was the + provision of an ample supply of water, of which Byzantium was much in + need, there is every reason to suppose that they are correctly + attributed to Constantine's time. If so, as the construction of their + vaults is quite different from that employed by the Romans, it + suggests that there already existed in the East a traditional method + of building vaults of which the emperor availed himself; and, although + it is not possible to trace all the earlier developments, the + traditional art of the East, found throughout Syria and Asia Minor, + must from the first have wrought great changes in the architectural + style, and in some measure this would account for the comparatively + short period of two centuries which elapsed between the foundation of + the new empire and the culminating period of the style under Justinian + in AD. 532-558. + + Constantine is said to have built three churches in Palestine, but + these have either disappeared or have been reconstructed since; an + early basilican church is that of St John Studius (the Baptist) in + Constantinople, dating from A.D. 463, and though it shows but little + deviation from classic examples, in the design and vigorous execution + of the carving in the capitals and the entablature we find the germ of + the new style. The next typical example is that found in the church of + St Demetrius at Salonica, a basilican church with atrium in front, a + narthex, nave and double aisles, with capacious galleries on the first + floor for women, and an apsidal termination to the nave. Instead of + the classic entablature, the monolithic columns of the nave carry + arches both on the ground and upper storeys; above the capitals, + however, we find a new feature known as the _dosseret_, already + employed in the two cisterns referred to, a cubical block projecting + beyond the capital on each side and enabling it to carry a thicker + wall above. In later examples, when the aisles were vaulted, the + dosseret served a still more important purpose, in carrying the + springing of the vaults. The nave and aisles of this church of St + Demetrius were covered with timber roofs, as the architects had + neither the knowledge, the skill, nor perhaps the materials to build + vaults, so as to render the whole church indestructible by fire. + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Plan of SS. Sergius and Bacchus.] + + One of the first attempts at this (though the early date given is + disputed) would seem to have been made at Hierapolis, on the borders + of Phrygia in Asia Minor, where there are two churches covered with + barrel vaults carried on transverse ribs across the nave, the thrust + of which was met by carrying up solid walls on each side, these walls + being pierced with openings so as to form aisles on the ground floor + and galleries above. The same system was carried out a century earlier + in central Syria, where, in consequence of the absence of timber, the + buildings had to be roofed with slabs of stone carried on arches + across the nave. It is probable that in course of time other examples + will be found in Asia Minor, giving a more definite clue to the next + development, which we find in the work of Justinian, who would seem to + have recognized that the employment of timber or combustible materials + was fatal to the long duration of such buildings. Accordingly in the + first church which he built (fig. 27), that of SS. Sergius and Bacchus + (A.D. 527), the whole building is vaulted; the church is about 100 ft. + square, with a narthex on one side. The central portion of the church + is octagonal (52 ft. wide), and is covered by a dome, carried on + arches across the eight sides, which are filled in with columns on two + storeys. These are recessed on the diagonal lines, forming apses. The + vault is divided into thirty-two zones, the zones being alternately + flat and concave. + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Plan of St Sophia.] + + We now pass to Justinian's greatest work, the church of St Sophia + (fig. 28), begun in 532 and dedicated in 537, which marks the highest + development of the Byzantine style and became the model on which all + Greek churches, and even the mosques built by the Mahommedans in + Constantinople, from the 15th century onwards, were based. The + architects employed were Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, + and the problem they had to solve was that of carrying a dome 107 ft. + in diameter on four arches. The four arches formed a square on plan, + and between them were built spherical pendentives, which, overhanging + the angles, reduced the centre to a circle on which the dome was + built. This dome fell down in 555, and when rebuilt was raised higher + and pierced round its lower part with forty circular-headed windows, + which give an extraordinary lightness to the structure. At the east + and west ends are immense apses, the full width of the dome, which are + again subdivided into three smaller apses. The north and south arches + are filled with lofty columns carrying arches opening into the aisle + on the ground storey and a gallery on the upper storey, the walls + above being pierced with windows of immense size. The church was built + in brick, and internally the walls were encased with thin slabs of + precious marble up to a great height (fig. 29). The walls and vault + above were covered with mosaics on a gold ground, which, as they + represented Christian subjects, were all covered over with stucco by + the Turks after the taking of Constantinople. During the restoration + in the middle of the 19th century, when it became necessary to strip + off the stucco, these mosaics were all drawn and published by + Salzenburg, and they were covered again with plaster to prevent their + destruction by the Turks. The columns of the whole church on the + ground floor are of porphyry, and on the upper storey of verd antique. + The length of the church from entrance door to eastern apse is 260 + ft.; in width, including the aisles, it measures 238 ft., and it + measures 175 ft. to the apex of the dome. The columns and arches give + scale to the small apses, the small apses to the larger ones, and the + latter to the dome, so that its immense size is grasped from the + first. The lighting is admirably distributed, and the rich decoration + of the marble slabs, the monolith columns, the elaborate carving of + the capitals, the beautiful marble inlays of the spandrils above the + arches, and the glimpse here and there of some of the mosaic, which + shows through the stucco, give to this church an effect which is + unparalleled by any other interior in the world. The narthex or + entrance vestibule forms a magnificent hall 240 ft. in length, equally + richly decorated. Externally the building has little pretensions to + architectural beauty, but its dimensions and varied outline, with the + groups of smaller and larger apses and domes, make it an impressive + structure, to which the Turkish minarets, though ungainly, add + picturesqueness. + + In A.D. 536 a second important church was begun by Theodora, the + church of the Holy Apostles, which was destroyed in 1454 by order of + Mahommed II. to build his mosque. The design of this church is known + only from the clear description given by Procopius, the historian who + has transmitted to us the record of Justinian's work, and its chief + interest to us now is that it forms the model on which the church of + St Mark at Venice was based, when it was restored, added to, and + almost rebuilt about 1063. + + The church of St Sophia was not only the finest of its kind at the + time of its erection, but no building approaching it has ever been + built since in the Byzantine style, nor does much seem to have been + done for two or three centuries afterwards. At the same time the + erection of new churches must have been going on, because there are + certain changes in design, the results probably of many trials. The + difficulty of obtaining sufficient light in domes of small diameter + led to the windows being placed in vertical drums, of which the + earliest example is that of the western dome of St Irene at + Constantinople, rebuilt A.D. 718-740. This simplified the construction + and externally added to the effect of the church. The greatest change, + however, which took place, arose in consequence of the comparatively + small dimensions given to the central dome, which rendered it + necessary to provide more space in another way, by increasing the area + on each side, so that the plan developed into what is known as the + Greek cross, in which the four arms are almost equal in dimensions to + the central dome, and were covered with barrel vaults which amply + resisted its thrust. In front of the church a narthex and sometimes an + exonarthex was added, which was of greater width than the church + itself, as in the churches (both in Constantinople) of the Theotokos + and of Chora (A.D. 1080). The latter, better known as the "mosaic + mosque," on account of its splendid decoration in that material, is of + special interest, because in the five arches of its facade we find the + same design as that which originally constituted the front of the + lower part of St Mark's at Venice, before it was encrusted with the + marble casing and the plethora of marble columns and capitals brought + over from Constantinople. + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Cross section of the interior of St Sophia.] + + Sometimes an additional church was built adjoining the first church + and dedicated to the immaculate Virgin, as in the church of St Mary + Panachrantos, Constantinople, the church of St Luke of Stiris, Phocis, + and the church in the island of Paros. In the last-named church the + apse still retains its marble seats, rising one above the other, with + the bishop's throne in the centre. In addition to the churches already + mentioned in Constantinople, there are still some which have been + appropriated by the Turks and utilized as mosques. At Mount Athos + there are a large number of Greek churches, ranging from the 10th to + the 16th centuries, which are attached to the monasteries. At Athens + one of the most beautiful examples is preserved in the Catholicon or + cathedral, the materials of which were taken from older classical + buildings. This cathedral measures only 40 ft. by 25 ft., and is now + overpowered by the new cathedral erected close by. + + The external design of the Byzantine churches, as a rule, is extremely + simple, but it owes its quality to the fact that its features are + those which arise out of the natural construction of the church. The + domes, the semi-domes over the apses, and the barrel vaults over other + parts of the church, appear externally as well as internally, and as + they are all covered with lead or with tiles, laid direct on the + vaults, they give character to the design and an extremely picturesque + effect. The same principle is observed in the doorways and windows, to + which importance is given by accentuating their constructive features. + The arches, always in brick, are of two orders or rings of arches set + one behind the other, and the voussoirs, alternately in brick and + stone, have the most pleasing effect. The same simple treatment is + given to the walls by the horizontal courses of bricks or tiles, + alternating with the stone courses. In the apse of the church of the + Apostles at Salonica, variety is given by the interlacing of brick + patterns. This elaboration of the surface decoration is carried still + further in the palace of Hebdomon at Blachernae, in Constantinople, + built by Constantine Porphyrogenitus (913-949), where the spandrils of + the arches are inlaid with a mosaic of bricks in various colours + arranged in various patterns. + + There would seem to have been a revival in the 11th century, possibly + a reflex of that which was taking place in Europe, and it is to this + period we owe the churches of St Luke in Phocis, the church at Daphne, + and the churches of St Nicodemus and St Theodore in Athens. The finest + example of brick patterns is that which is found in the church of St + Luke of Stiris, attached to the monastery in the province of Phocis, + north of the Gulf of Corinth, of which an admirable monograph was + published in 1901 by the committee of the British School at Athens, + illustrated by measured drawings of the plans, elevations, sections + and mosaics by Messrs Schultz and Barnsley, with a detailed + description. The church of St Luke of Stiris is one of those already + referred to, where a second church dedicated to the Holy Virgin has + been added, but in this case, according to Messrs Schultz and + Barnsley, on the site of a more ancient church of which the narthex + alone was retained. The plan of the great church differs from the + ordinary Greek cross in that the arms of the cross are of much less + width than the central domed square, and arches being thrown across + the angles carry eight pendentives instead of four. On the east side + the Diaconicon and Prothesis are included in the width of the domed + portion instead of forming the eastern termination of the aisles. The + churches at Daphne in Attica and of St Nicodemus at Athens have a + similar plan. + + The decoration of the smaller church of St Luke of Stiris is of the + most elaborate character, bright patterns of infinite variety + alternating with the brick courses, and as blocks of marble, removed + from the site of the old city near, were available, they have been + utilized in various parts of the structure and richly carved. The + church at Mistra in the Peloponnesus, 13th century, built in the side + of a hill, is one of the most picturesque examples, and is almost the + only example in which a tower is to be found. + + _Armenia._--One other phase of the Byzantine style has still to be + mentioned, the development of church architecture in Armenia, which + follows very much on the same lines as that of the Greek church, with + a central dome on the crossing, a narthex at the west end and a + triapsal east end. In two churches at Echmiadzin and Kutais there are + transeptal apses in addition to those at the east end. One of the + differences to be noted is that the domes and roofs are generally in + stone externally, and this has led to another change; the domes, + though hemispherical inside, have conical roofs over them. There is + also a greater admixture of styles, the Persian, Byzantine and + Romanesque phases entering into the design; the last was probably + derived from the churches of central Syria, as the Armenians were the + only race who seem to have penetrated there, and the finest example, + at Kalat Seman, was at one time in their possession. The church at + Dighur near Ani, of the 7th century, also probably owes its classical + details to the work in central Syria. The most important example of + the Armenian style is found in the cathedral at Ani, the capital of + Armenia, dating from A.D. 1010. In this church pointed arches and + coupled piers are found, with all the characteristics of a complete + pointed-arch style, which, as Fergusson remarks, "might be found in + Italy or Sicily in the 12th or 14th century." Externally the walls are + decorated with lofty blind arcades similar to those in the cathedral + at Pisa and other churches in the same town, which are probably fifty + years later. The elaborate fret carving of the window dressings and + hood moulds are probably borrowed from the tile decoration found in + Persia. + + _Russia._--The architecture of Russia is only a somewhat degraded + version of the style of the Byzantine empire. The earliest buildings + of importance are the cathedrals of Kiev and Novgorod, 1019-1054. The + original church of Kiev consisted of nave, with triple aisles each + side, the piers in which are of enormous size, a transept and square + bays of the choir beyond, each with deep apsidal chapels. Externally + the chief features are the bulbous domes adopted from the Tatars, + which sometimes assume great dimensions. Internally, the chief feature + is the Iconostasis, which corresponds to the English rood screen, + except that in Russia it forms a complete separation between the + church and the sanctuary with its altar. + + One of the most remarkable churches is that of St Basil at Moscow + (1534-1584), which in plan looks like a central hall, surrounded by + eight other halls of smaller dimensions, all separated one from the + other by vaulted corridors; this arrangement is not intelligible + until one sees the exterior view, which accounts for the plan; each + one of these halls is crowned by lofty towers with bulbous domes, the + centre one rising above all the others and terminated with an + octagonal roof, probably derived from the Armenian conical roof. The + oldest and most interesting church in Moscow is the church of the + Assumption (1479), where the tsars are always crowned; but as it + measures only 74 ft. by 50 ft., it is virtually little more than a + chapel; the plan is that of a Greek cross with central dome and four + others over the angles. One other church deserves mention--at Curtea + de Argesh, in Rumania. It was built in 1517-1526, and though small (90 + by 50 ft.), is built entirely of stone, instead of brick covered with + stucco, as is the case with the churches in Moscow. The interior has + been entirely sacrificed to the exterior, the domes being raised to an + extravagant height. The relative proportion of width of nave to height + of dome in St Sophia at Constantinople is about one to two; in the + church at Curtea de Argesh it is about one to five; and yet there can + be little doubt the design was made by one of those Armenian + architects who seem to have been always employed at Constantinople, + and who presumably based their designs there on St Sophia as regards + its principal features. Here, however, he was working for Tatar + employers who attached more importance to display than to good + proportion. In general design the church is based on Armenian work. + The elaborately carved panels and disks are copied from the inlays in + the mosques in Damascus and of Sultan Hassan at Cairo, and the + stalactite cornices and capitals of the columns are transcripts of the + Mahommedan style of Constantinople, which was derived from the style + developed by the Seljuks. + + We were only able to point to a single example of a tower in the + Byzantine style, but in Russia the towers not only constitute the + principal accessory to the church but were necessary adjuncts, in + order to provide accommodation for bells, the casting of which has at + all times formed one of the most important crafts in Russia. The chief + examples, all in Moscow, are the tower attached to the church of the + Assumption; the tower of Boris, inside the Kremlin; and that erected + over the sacred gate of the same. But they abound throughout Russia + and in some cases form important features in the principal elevations + on either side of the narthex. (R. P. S.) + + + EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE + + Of the earliest examples of the housing of the Christian church few + remains exist, owing partly to their destruction from time to time by + imperial edicts, and partly to the fact that in most cases they were + only oratories of a small and unpretending nature, which, immediately + after the Peace of the Church, were rebuilt of greater size and with + increased magnificence. In Rome itself, the principal religious centre + was that which was found in the catacombs (q.v.), almost the only + resort in times of persecution. In the houses of the wealthy Romans + who had been converted, rooms were set apart for the reception of the + faithful, and these may have been increased in size by the addition of + side aisles. At all events, either in Rome or in the East, where + greater freedom of worship was observed, the requirements of the + religious had already resulted in a traditional type of plan, which + may account for the similarity of all the great churches built by + Constantine. It has often been assumed that the great Roman basilicas, + if not actually utilized by the Christians, were copied so far as + their design is concerned. This, however, is not borne out by the + facts, there being very little similarity between the first churches + built and the two great Roman basilicas, the Ulpian basilica and that + built by Constantine; the latter was roofed with an immense vault, an + imperishable covering, not attempted till two centuries later in + Byzantium, and the former had its entrance in the centre of the longer + side, and the tribunes at either end were divided off from the + basilica by a double aisle of columns. The basilica plan was adopted + because it was the simplest and most economical building of large size + which could be erected, having an immense central area or nave well + lighted by clerestory windows, and single or double aisles to divide + the two sexes, and further because the immense supply of columns which + could be taken from existing temples or porticoes enabled the + architect to provide at small cost the colonnades or arcades between + the nave and the aisles. On the other hand, there is no doubt that the + temples, for which there was no further use, were largely + appropriated, not only in Italy but in Greece, Sicily and elsewhere, + and it is to this appropriation that we owe the preservation of the + Parthenon, the Erechtheum and the temple of Theseus at Athens. There + are some cases in which it is interesting to note the changes which + were made to convert the temple into a church. In the temple of Athena + at Syracuse, walls were built in between the columns of the peristyle, + the cella was appropriated for the nave, and arcades were cut through + the cella walls to communicate with the peristyle, so as to constitute + the aisles. In the temple of Aphrodisias, in Asia Minor, a further + development occurred. The walls of the cella were taken down, a wall + was built outside the columns of the peristyle to form aisles, and the + columns of the east and west end were taken down and placed in line + with the others, in order to increase the length of the church. + + The earliest Christian basilica built in Rome was the Lateran, which + has, however, been so completely transformed in subsequent rebuildings + as to have lost its original character. The next in date was that of + the old St Peter's, which was taken down in 1506, in consequence of + its ruinous condition, in order to make way for the present cathedral, + begun by Pope Julius II. It was of considerable size, covering an area + of 73,000 ft. Its plan consisted of an atrium, or open court, having a + fountain in the centre, and arcades round; a nave, 275 ft. long and 77 + ft. wide, with double aisles on each side; a transept, 270 ft. long by + 54 ft. wide; and a semi-circular apse or tribune with a radius of 27 + ft.; the high altar being in the centre of its choir, and ranges of + marble seats and the papal throne in the middle, corresponding to the + benches and the judge's seat of the Roman tribune. The nave, + therefore, with its double aisles, was similar to that of the Ulpian + basilica, but the aisles were not returned across the east end, and at + the west end, in their place, was the great triumphal arch opening + into the transept. The monolith columns of the nave and their capitals + (together 40 ft. high) were all taken from ancient buildings, as also + were those of the aisle arcades and in the atrium. + + The basilica of St Paul, outside the walls, was originally of + comparatively small dimensions, with its apse at the west end; in A.D. + 386 the church was rebuilt on a plan similar to St Peter's, with nave + and double aisles, divided by columns carrying arches, transept and + apse. In the Lateran basilica, St Peter's, Santa Maria Maggiore, and + St Lawrence (outside the walls), the columns of the nave were + close-set (i.e. with narrow intercolumniations) and supported + architraves, but in St Paul (outside the walls) the columns of the + second church (A.D. 386) were wider apart and carried arches. The same + feature is found in the church of St Agnes, founded A.D. 324, but + rebuilt 620-640; here the arcade is carried across the west end and + there are galleries above, the arches being carried on dosseret blocks + above the capitals; these are also found in the galleries over the + western end of St Lawrence, added by Honorius (A.D. 620-640); the + dosseret, a Byzantine feature, being derived either from Ravenna or + from the East. In the church of Santa Maria-in-Cosmedin (A.D. 772-795) + another Byzantine feature appears in the triple apse at the east end, + the earliest example in Europe. In this church, as also in those of + San Clemente and San Prassede, piers are built at intervals to carry + the arcades separating the nave and aisles. Those in the latter, + however, were probably added when the great arches were thrown across + the nave. The church of San Clemente was built in 1108, above a much + older church dating from 385 and restored later; it is almost the only + church in Rome which has preserved its atrium intact; the internal + arrangement of the church also is different from that found elsewhere, + the choir, enclosed with marble piers and screens removed from the + lower church and erected in front of the tribune, dating from A.D. + 514-523. The mosaics executed in 1112 are in fine preservation. + + Other early churches in Rome are those of Santa Pudenziana (335); San + Pietro-in-Vincoli (442), with Doric columns in the nave; SS. Quattro + Coronati (450); Santa Sabina (450), an interesting church on account + of the marble inlaid decoration in the arch spandrils of the nave, + which date from 824; San Prassede (817), with arches thrown across the + nave later; San Vincenzo ed Anastasio alle Tre Fontane (626); and + Santa Maria in Domnica, where there are galleries over the aisles and + across the east end as in St Agnes. + + Hitherto we have said little about the architectural design, the fact + being that externally these churches had the appearance of barns; it + is only in a few cases, notably in St Peter's, that the principal + fronts were decorated with mosaics. The magnificent materials employed + internally, the monolith marble columns, the enrichment of the apse + and the triumphal arch with mosaics, and probably the painting and + gilding of the ceiling or roof, gave to the early basilican churches + in Rome that splendour which characterizes those in Byzantium and in + Ravenna. + + With the exception of the baptistery attached to St John Lateran, and + the so-called tomb of Santa Constantia, both erected by Constantine, + the circular form of church was not adopted in Rome; there is one + remarkable circular building of great size, San Stefano Rotondo, at + one time thought to have been a Roman market, but now known to have + been erected by Pope Simplicius (468-482). It consisted of a central + circular nave, 44 ft. in diameter, and double aisles round. In the + arcade dividing the aisles the arches are carried on dosserets, the + earliest known example of this feature in Rome. + + Although inferior in size, the two churches of S. Appollinare Nuovo, + built by Theodoric (493-525) and Sant' Apollinare-in-Classe (538-549), + both in Ravenna, have the special advantage that they were constructed + in new materials, there being no ancient Roman temples there to pull + down. The ordinary basilican plan was adhered to, but as the + architects and workmen came from Constantinople, they incorporated in + the building various details of the Byzantine style, with which they + were best acquainted. Thus the contour of the mouldings, the carrying + of the capitals and imposts, the dosseret above the capital, and the + scheme of decoration of the interior with marble casing on the lower + portion of the walls and mosaic above, are all Byzantine. Externally + the churches are extremely plain, the wall surfaces of the nave and + aisle walls being varied by blind arcades. + + The earliest building in Ravenna is the tomb of Galla Placidia, built + 450, a small cruciform structure with a dome on pendentives over the + centre, perhaps the earliest example known. The baptistery of St John, + which was attached to the cathedral built by Archbishop Ursus (380), + now destroyed, is a plain octagonal building, 40 ft. in diameter, + originally with a timber roof; when in 451 it was determined to + replace this by a vault, in order to resist the thrust, the upper part + of the walls was brought forward on arches and corbels, and the + interior richly decorated with paintings, stucco reliefs and mosaics + in the dome. The most interesting building in Ravenna, however, from + many points of view, is the church of San Vitale (fig. 30), built + 539-547, its plan and design being based on the church of SS. Sergius + and Bacchus at Constantinople. The proportions of the interior of St + Sergius are much finer than those in San Vitale, where the dome is + raised too high; the timber roofs also of San Vitale have deprived the + church externally of that fine architectural effect found in Byzantine + churches. In order to lighten the dome, its shell was built with + hollow pots, the end of one fitted into the mouth of the other. The + interior of the church is of great beauty, owing to the alternating of + the piers carrying the eight arches with the columns set back in + apsidal recesses. Unfortunately the church has been much restored, but + the magnificent mosaics in the choir and the variety of design shown + in the capitals and dosserets render this church, though small, one of + the most attractive in Italy. One other Ravenna building must be + mentioned, though it would be difficult to know under what style to + class it. The tomb of Theodoric, having a decagonal plan in two + storeys, the lower one vaulted at the upper storey, set back to allow + of a "terrace" round, once sheltered by a small arcade, and covered by + a single stone 35 ft. in diameter, belongs to no definite style; the + mouldings of the upper portion have some resemblance to the mouldings + of some of the Etruscan tombs at Castel d'Asso, which was probably + known to Theodoric. + + [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Plan of S. Vitale, Ravenna.] + + As Dalmatia and Istria both formed part of Theodoric's kingdom, we + find there the same Byzantine influence as that which was asserted in + Ravenna, in both cases the work being done by artists and masons from + Constantinople. There is not much left in Dalmatia, but in Istria are + two important examples,--the churches at Parenzo (535-543) and Grado + (571-586). Like the two churches in Ravenna, they are basilican in + plan, with apses, semi-circular internally and polygonal externally, + the latter being a characteristic found in all the churches in Europe + which were influenced directly by Byzantine custom. Although the + monolith columns were derived from ancient Roman buildings, all the + capitals were specially carved for the two churches, and they have the + same variety of design and in many cases are identical with those in + San Vitale, Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, Sant' Apollinare-in-Classe, and + those brought over from Constantinople, which now decorate St Mark's + at Venice internally as well as externally. The decoration of the + lower part of the walls internally with marble slabs, and the upper + portion and apsidal vaults with mosaic, follows on the same lines as + those at Ravenna and Constantinople. The church at Parenzo still + retains its baptistery and atrium, from which fragments of the mosaics + which originally decorated the west front can be seen. The church at + Aquileia was rebuilt in the 11th century, and the Duomo of Trieste has + been so altered as to lose its original Byzantine character. + (R. P. S.) + + + EARLY CHRISTIAN WORK IN CENTRAL SYRIA + + Contemporaneously with the early developments of the Christian + churches just described, another line of treatment was being evolved + in central Syria, which would seem to have been quite independent of + the others, though at first sight it bears considerable resemblance to + the Byzantine style, and for that reason was probably classed and + described under that head by Fergusson. But the leading characteristic + of the Byzantine style is the dome over the centre of the church round + which all other features are grouped, whereas in central Syria, with + the exception of two examples--one a circular, the other a polygonal + church--there are no domes. There is considerable Greek feeling in the + mouldings and carvings of the capitals, but that is probably due to + the fact that the masons were originally of Greek extraction. A + comparison, for instance, of the design and carving of the largest + church in central Syria, the famous building erected round the column + of St Simeon Stylites at Kalat-Seman, dating from the 6th century, + with any Byzantine church of the same date, shows very little + resemblance, because the former was inspired more or less directly by + the Roman remains in the country. A similar inspiration is found in + the churches of St Trophime at Arles and St Gilles in the south of + France, and at Autun and Langres in Burgundy. Both were founded on + Roman work, and the mouldings of the pediments and archivolts and the + fluting of the pilasters at Kalat-Seman, of the 6th century, are + identical with what is found, quite independently, in Provence and + Burgundy in the 11th and 12th centuries. There is, however, another + special characteristic found in the masonry of the churches in central + Syria, which is peculiar to the whole of Palestine, and is found in + the earliest remains there, as also in Roman work, and to a certain + extent in much of the Mahommedan construction and in that of the + Crusaders, viz. its megalithic qualities. Instead of building an arch + in several voussoirs, they preferred to do it in three or five only, + and sometimes would cut the whole arch out of a single vertical slab. + If they employed voussoirs, they were not content with ordinary depth, + shown by the archivolt mouldings, but made them three or four times as + deep. + + The masons, in fact, would seem to have retained the traditional + Phoenician custom of the country to employ the largest stones they + were able to quarry, transport and raise on the building. + Subsequently, in working down the masonry, they reproduced the + architectural features they found in Roman buildings; this was done, + however, without any knowledge as to their constructional origin or + meaning; thus, in copying a Roman pilaster, the capital and part of + the shaft would be worked out of one stone, and the lower part of the + shaft and the base out of another. It is only from this point of view + that we can account for the peculiar development given to the + decoration of their later work, where archivolts, wood mouldings and + window dressings are looked upon as simply surface decoration to be + applied round doorways and windows, without any reference to the + jointing of the masonry. + + The immense series of monuments, civil as well as religious existing + throughout central Syria, were almost entirely unknown before the + publication of the marquis of Vogue's work, _La Syrie centrale_, in + 1865-1867. This work, illustrated with measured plans, sections and + elevations, with perspective views, and accompanied by detailed + descriptions of the various buildings, forms an invaluable record of + an architectural style, more or less completely developed, which + flourished from the 3rd to the beginning of the 7th century. An + American archaeological expedition made further investigations in + 1899-1900, and its report, written by Mr H.C. Butler, contains + additional plans and a large number of photogravures, which bear + testimony to the truth and accuracy of the engraved plates of the + marquis de Vogue. The preservation of these central Syrian remains, + more or less intact, is considered to have been due either to the + desertion of all the towns in which they were situated by the + inhabitants at the time of the Mahommedan invasion, or, according to + Mr H.C. Butler, to the deforesting of the whole country about the + commencement of the 7th century. + + The monuments and buildings illustrated may be divided into three + classes,--ecclesiastical, including monasteries; civil and domestic; + and tombs. It is in the two first that the principal interest is + centred. + + _Churches._--The earliest of these date from the end of the 4th + century, and the latest inscription on a church is 609, so that a + little over 200 years includes the whole series. With one or two small + exceptions all the churches follow the basilican plan, with nave and + aisles separated by arcades, the arches of which are carried by + columns, four arches on each side in the smaller churches, ten in the + largest. The churches are all orientated, and have generally a + semi-circular apse, and occasionally a square or rectangular sanctuary + at the east end, on either side of which are square chambers,--the + _diaconicon_, reserved for the priests, on the south side, and the + _prothesis_, on the north side, in which the offerings of the faithful + were deposited. Except in the earliest churches, the entrance was + generally at the west end, and was sometimes preceded by a porch. In + addition to the west entrance, there were sometimes doorways leading + direct into the north and south aisles, with projecting porticoes. + About the middle of the 6th century a change was made in the design of + the arcades in the nave, and rectangular piers with arches of wide + span were substituted for the ordinary arcade with columns. The effect + as shown in the engravings and photogravures is so fine that it is + strange that the scheme was never adopted in the earlier Romanesque + churches of Europe. The two more important examples are at Kalb-Lauzeh + (fig. 31) and Ruweiha, but three or four others are known, and this + plan was adopted in the basilica erected in the great court of the + temple at Baalbek. All the churches are built in fine ashlar masonry, + with moulded archivolts and architraves to doorways and windows, and + moulded string courses and cornices of simple design. The principal + decoration externally is found in the hood-mould or label round the + windows, continued as a string-course and carried round other windows, + and sometimes terminating in a disk with cross in centre. These + hood-moulds are occasionally richly carved. All the churches in + central Syria had open timber roofs which have now disappeared; this + is proved by the sinkings in the end walls to receive the purlins, and + the corbels provided to carry the tie beams. The apses were always + covered with semi-domes. The three most important churches were those + of Turmanin, Kalb-Lauzeh and Kalat-Seman. The plans of the two first + are similar, except that in Turmanin the nave arcade is of the + ordinary type, with seven arches carried on columns, while in + Kalb-Lauzeh (fig. 32) there are three wide arches on each side carried + on two rectangular piers and responds. Both have entrance porches + (fig. 33), which are flanked by angle buildings carried up as towers + in three storeys; these probably contained wooden staircases to ascend + to an open gallery, which consisted of four columns in-antis between + the angle towers above the porch. The north and south walls were quite + plain, except for window and door dressings and string courses; the + apse was richly decorated, with wall shafts superimposed between the + windows, and carrying a projecting cornice with alternate corbels. The + church at Ruweiha has a similar plan to that at Kalb-Lauzeh, but two + transverse arches in stone are thrown across the nave, resting on + abutments attached to the nave piers. + + [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Plan of Church of Kalb-Lauzeh.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Interior of the Church of Kalb-Lauzeh.] + + The most remarkable example and by far the largest is the great + basilica at Kalat-Seman (fig. 34), which was erected round the pillar + on which St. Simeon Stylites spent thirty years of his life. The base + of the pillar stands in the centre of an immense octagonal court open + to the sky. The plan consists of nave, transept and choir, all with + side aisles, separated in the centre by the octagonal court which + constitutes the crossing. The nave built on the side of a hill is + raised on a crypt, and the principal entrance would seem to have been + through the porch of the north transept, which occupies the full width + of transept and aisles. There were, however, in addition two doorways + with porches to each aisle, as well as portico and doors to the north + transept. At the eastern end were three apses, the two outer ones, + facing the aisles, being additions in the second half of the 6th + centurv. St. Simeon died in 459, and the church was probably begun + shortly afterwards, but not completed till the 6th century. The + archivolts of the great arches on each side of the octagonal court + consist of architrave, frieze and cornice, copied from the arch of the + propylaca at Baalbek or other Roman work. Here, as in the great + southern porch, the classic nature of the details is remarkable, the + pilasters are all fluted, and the modillion and dentil, derived from + Roman models, exist throughout. On the other hand, the carving of the + foliage was certainly executed by Greek artists, and the well-known + Byzantine capital, with the leaves bending under the influence of the + wind, is here reproduced. The great apse externally retains its + decoration with superimposed shafts and cornice, as in Turmanin and + Kalb-Lauzeh. + + [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Church of Turmanin.] + + The monastery of Kalat-Seman was built on the south side of the great + church, and many of the rooms had roofs of slabs of stone carried on + arches across the room, a method of construction universally found in + the Hauran, where the absence of timber necessitated this more + permanent method of construction. The monasteries differ from the + domestic work in being much plainer, and, instead of columns in the + porticoes, having invariably square piers of stone. + + [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Plan of Church of Kalat-Seman.] + + Among circular churches, the walls of the cathedral at Bozra are gone, + so that the conjectural restoration shown in de Vogue's work is purely + speculative, but in the church at Ezra (510) the central octagon is + covered by a high dome of elliptical section. An aisle is carried + round the octagon with similar recesses on the diagonal lines, the + whole being enclosed in a square; in the apse at the east end the + seats of the tribune are still preserved. + + _Domestic Work._--The domestic work in central Syria is, in a way, + even more remarkable than the ecclesiastical. Broadly speaking, there + are two types of plan--those found in the towns and grouped together, + and those which, with increased area, constituted a villa. At El Barah + the average house occupied a site of about 80 ft. by 60 ft., of which + about 30 ft. in width was occupied by an open court; facing this + court, which was enclosed with high walls, is an open colonnade on two + floors, which always faces south, occupies the whole front (80 ft.) of + the house, and is the only means of approach to the rooms in the rear, + three on each floor, side by side. In the centre of these rooms, 14 + ft. wide each, an arch is thrown across on each floor, which carries + slabs of stone covering the first floor and the roof; the upper storey + was reached probably by a timber staircase, now gone, but in poorer + dwellings an external flight of steps in stone led to an upper floor. + All the houses face the same way. The colonnade of the house consisted + of about fifteen columns on each storey. Each column, including its + capital and base, was cut out of a single stone; on the upper storey, + between the columns, are stone vertical slabs forming a balustrade; + the houses are all built in fine ashlar masonry with architraves and + cornices to doors and windows, a luxury which in England could rarely + be indulged in for ordinary houses. At El Barah, in an area of about + 250 ft. by 150 ft. as shown by de Vogue, there are about 100 monolith + columns, 12 ft. high, on the ground storey alone. In a villa at El + Barah the open court is surrounded on three sides by buildings, those + at the east end of considerable extent and in three storeys. A smaller + example at Mujeleia has two courts, one of them being for stables and + other services; otherwise the residence of the proprietor is similar + to the one above described. Here and there the fantasy of the artist + has been allowed to revel in the carving of the balustrades, door + lintels, &c. The capitals are of endless design, and show + interpretations of Ionic and Corinthian capitals, in some cases not + dissimilar to the Byzantine versions in St Mark's at Venice. + + Hostelries and public baths are amongst other civil buildings which + are recognizable, the hostelries in some cases being attached to the + monasteries. + + _Tombs._--The principal tombs are either excavated in the rock, with + an open court in front and an entrance portico, like the tombs of the + kings at Jerusalem, and sometimes a superstructure of columns or a + podium raised above them; or again they are built in masonry, and take + the form of sepulchral chapels; in the latter case, if many sarcophagi + have to be deposited, and the chapel is of great length, arches are + thrown across, about 6 ft. centre to centre, to support the slabs of + stone with which they are covered. This carries on the traditional + custom of the Roman temples in Syria, the roofs of which, in stone, + were similarly supported. Sometimes there will be two storeys, the + upper one covered with a dome. Those which are peculiar to the country + are square tombs, with a pyramidal stone roof all built in horizontal + courses, and either enclosed with a peristyle all round, on one or two + storeys, or having a portico in front with flat stone roof. The + cornices, string courses and lintels of the doors of these tombs of + the 4th and 5th centuries, are enriched with carving, showing strong + Byzantine influence, though probably due to the employment of Greek + artists. (R. P. S.) + + + THE COPTIC CHURCH IN EGYPT + + The earliest places of Christian worship in Egypt were probably only + chapels or oratories of small dimensions attached to the monasteries, + which were spread throughout the country; a wholesale destruction of + these took place at various times, more especially by the order of + Severus, about 200 B.C., so that no remains have come down to us. The + most ancient examples known are those which are attributed to the + empress Helena, of which there are important portions preserved in the + churches of the White and Red monasteries at the foot of the Libyan + hills near Suhag. + + Although the plan of the Coptic church is generally basilican, i.e. + consists of nave and aisles, it is probable that they were not copied + from Roman examples, but were based on expansions of the first + oratories built, to which aisles had afterwards been added. There are + no long transepts, as in the early Christian basilicas of St Peter's + at Rome, and of St Paul outside the walls, and there is only one + example of a cruciform church with a dome in the centre following the + Byzantine plan. Even at an early period the nave and aisles were + covered sometimes with barrel vaults, either semicircular or + elliptical. The Coptic church was always orientated with the + sanctuaries at the east end. The aisles were returned round the west + end and had galleries above for women. Sometimes the western aisle has + been walled up to form a narthex; in many cases a narthex was built, + but, in consequence of the persecution to which the Copts were subject + at the hands of the Moslems, its three doors have been blocked up and + a separate small entrance provided. The narthex was the place for + penitents, but was sometimes used for baptism by total immersion, + there being epiphany tanks sunk in the floor of the churches at Old + Cairo, known as Abu Serga, Abu-s-Sifain (Abu Sefen) and El Adra; these + are now boarded over, as total immersion is no longer practised. + + There are a few exceptions to the basilican plan; and in four examples + (two in Cairo and two at Deir-Mar-Antonios in the eastern desert by + the Gulf of Suez) there are three aisles of equal widths, divided one + from the other by two rows of columns with three in each row, thus + dividing the roof into twelve square compartments, each of which is + covered with a dome. + + The sanctuaries at the east end, as developed in the Coptic church, + differ in some particulars from those of any other religious + structures. There are always three chapels or sanctuaries, with an + altar in each, the central chapel being known as the Haikal. The + chapels are more often square than apsidal, and are always surmounted + by a complete dome, a peculiarity not found out of Egypt. The seats of + the tribune are still preserved in a large number of the sanctuaries, + and there are probably more examples in Egypt than in all Europe, if + Russia and Mount Athos be excepted. Those of Abu-Serga, El Adra and + Abu-s-Sifain, with three concentric rows of seats and a throne in the + centre, are the most important; but even in the square sanctuaries the + tradition is retained, and seats are ranged against the east wall, and + in one case (at Anba-Bishoi) three steps are carried across, and + behind them is a segmental tribune of three steps, with throne in the + centre. + + The most remarkable Coptic churches in Egypt are those of the + Deir-el-Abiad (the White monastery) and the Deir-el-Akhmar (the Red + monastery) at Suhag. These were of great size, measuring about 240 ft. + by 130 ft. with vaulted narthex, nave and aisles separated by two rows + of monolith columns taken from ancient buildings, twelve in each row + and probably roofed over in timber, and three apses, directed + respectively towards the east, north and south. These apses are + unusually deep and have five niches in each, in two storeys separated + by superimposed columns. In the church of St John at Antinoe there are + seven niches. A similar arrangement is found in the three apses, + placed side by side, in the more ancient portion of St Mark's, Venice, + built A.D. 820, and said to have been copied from St Mark's at + Alexandria. There is no external architecture in the Coptic churches; + they are all masked with immense enclosure walls, so as to escape + attention. The walls of the interior still preserve a great portion of + the paintings of scriptural subjects; the screens dividing off the + Haikal and other chapels from the choir are of great beauty, and + evidently formed the models from which the panelled woodwork, doors + and pulpits of the Mahommedan mosques have been copied and reproduced + by Copts. + + Illustrations are given in A.J. Butler's _Ancient Coptic Churches of + Egypt_(1884); Wladimir de Bock's _Materiaux archeologiques de l'Egypte + chretienne_(1901); and A. Gayet's _L'art coptique_. (R. P. S.) + + +ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY + +"Romanesque" is the broad generic term adopted about the beginning of +the 19th century by French archaeologists in order to bring under one +head all the various phases of the round-arched Christian style, +hitherto known as Lombard and Byzantine Romanesque in Italy, Rhenish in +Germany, "Romane" and Norman in France, Saxon and Norman in England, &c. +In character, as well as in time, the Romanesque lies between the Roman +and the Gothic or Pointed style, but its first manifestation in Italy +has already been described in the section on "Early Christian +Architecture," and it only remains to deal with the subsequent +development from the age of Charlemagne, which marks an epoch in the +history of architecture, and from which period examples are to be found +in every country. + +In consequence of the lack of homogeneousness in the Romanesque style as +developed in Italy, owing to the mixture of styles, and the difficulty +of tracing the precise influence of any one race in buildings frequently +added to, restored or rebuilt, their description will be more easily +followed if a geographical subdivision be made, the simplest being +Northern or Lombard Romanesque, Central Romanesque and Southern +Romanesque; after the latter would follow the Sicilian Romanesque, +which, owing to the Saracenic craftsman, constitutes a type by itself. +This leaves still one other phase to be noted, the influence recognized +in northern Italy of the architectural style of the Eastern Empire at +Byzantium, either direct or through Istria and Dalmatia. In the churches +at Ravenna, this influence has already been referred to in the section +on "Early Christian Architecture," but it appears again in the church of +St. Mark at Venice, and in much of its domestic architecture, so that it +is necessary to recognize another term,, that of "Byzantine Romanesque." + + _Northern or Lombard Romanesque._--Although the materials for forming + an adequate notion of the earlier work of the Lombards are very + scanty, after their conversion to the Catholic faith the Church + probably exercised a powerful influence in their architectural work. + Under Liutprand, towards the close of the 8th century, an order known + as the Magistri Commacini was established, to whom were given the + privileges of freemen in the Lombard State. These Commacini, so named + from the island in the lake of Como whence they sprang, were trained + masons and builders, who in the 9th and 10th century would seem to + have carried the Lombard style through north and south Italy, Germany + and portions of France. It was at one time assumed that they had + influenced the church architecture throughout Europe, but this is not + borne out by the evidence of the buildings themselves, except in the + Rhenish provinces and in the districts on the slope of the Harz + Mountains, where in sculpture a strange mixture is found of monstrous + animals with Scandinavian interlaced patterns and Byzantine foliage, + bearing a close resemblance to the early sculpture in Sant Ambrogio at + Milan and San Michele at Pavia (Plate V, fig. 72). Although the + earliest Lombard buildings in Italy (such as those of San Salvatore in + Brescia, San Vincenzo in Prato at Milan the church of Agliate and + Santa Maria delle Caccie at Pavia) were basilican in plan with nave + and aisles, there are some instances in which the adoption of a + transept has produced the Latin cross plan (e.g. San Michele at Pavia, + Sant' Antonino at Piacenza, San Nazaro-Grande at Milan, and the + cathedrals of Parma and Modena), though to what extent this is due to + subsequent rebuilding is not known. In the early basilicas above + mentioned the columns, carrying the arcades between nave and aisles, + were taken from earlier buildings, while the capitals, where not + Roman, were either rude imitations of Roman, or Byzantine in style. + The roofs were always in wood, and the exteriors of the simplest + description. In the external decoration, however, of the apses of the + churches of San Vincenzo in Prato, Santa Maria delle Caccie, the + church at Agliate and the ancient portion of S. Ambrogio at Milan, we + find the germ of that decorative feature which (afterwards developed + into the eaves gallery) became throughout Italy and on the Rhine the + most beautiful and characteristic element of the Lombard style. In + order to lighten the wall above the hemispherical vault of the apse, a + series of niches was sunk within the arches of the corbel table, which + gave to the cornice that deep shadow where it was most wanted for + effect. In addition to the churches above named, similar niches are + found in the baptisteries of Novara and Arsago, the Duomo Vecchio at + Brescia and the church of San Nazaro Grande at Milan. Towards the + close of the 11th century, the imposts of these niches take the form + of isolated piers, with a narrow gallery behind, and eventually small + shafts with capitals are substituted for the piers, producing the + eaves-galleries of the apses, which in Santa Maria Maggiore at Bergamo + (1137) and the cathedral of Piacenza are the forerunners of numerous + others in Italy, and in the churches of Cologne, Bonn, Bacharach and + other examples on the Rhine, constitute their most important external + decoration. + + [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Plan of S. Ambrogio.] + + In the apses of San Vincenzo in Prato and of the church at Agliate + (both of the 9th century) there is another decorative feature, + destined afterwards to become one of the most important methods of + breaking up or subdividing the wall surface, i.e. the thin pilaster + strips, which, at regular intervals, rise from the lower part of the + wall to the corbel table of the cornice. + + The two most important churches of the Lombard Romanesque style are + those of Sant' Ambrogio at Milan and S. Michele at Pavia, their + importance being increased by the fact that they probably represent + the earliest examples of the solution of the great problem which was + exercising the minds of the church builders towards the end of the + 11th century, the vaulting of the nave. In the original church, of the + 9th century, the nave and aisles of Sant' Ambrogio were divided in the + usual way with arcades, and were covered with open timber roofs. In + the rebuilding of the church (fig 35) the nave (38 ft. wide) was + divided into four square bays, and compound piers of large dimensions + were built, to carry the transverse and diagonal ribs of the new + vault. To resist the thrust, the walls across the aisles were built up + to the roof, and had external buttresses, the diagonal ribs instead of + following the elliptical curve which the intersection of the Roman + semicircular barrel vault gave to the groin, were made semicircular, + so that the web or vaulting surface which rested on these ribs rose + upwards towards the centre of the bay, giving a distinct domical form + to the vault. The aisles, being half the width of the nave, were + divided into eight compartments, two to each bay of the nave, and were + covered both in the ground storey and the triforium with intersecting + groin vaults. When this rebuilding took place, the front of the church + was brought forward, bearing a narthex, and the arcades of the atrium + were rebuilt in the first years of the 12th century. The triple apse, + to the external decoration of which we have called attention, the + crypt underneath, and the south campanile, are the only remains of the + 9th century church. The campanile on the north side was built + 1125-1149, and the decoration with pilaster strips, semi-detached + shafts, and arched corbel table, is repeated on the facade of the + church and on the arcade round the atrium. In the rebuilding, portions + of the sculptural decoration of the 9th century church were utilized, + this would appear to have been a Lombard custom, as in the church of + San Michele the lower part of the main front is encrusted with + sculptured decoration taken from the earlier churches built on the + site. These ancient sculptures are of special interest, as they + constitute the best records of the rude Lombard work of the 8th and + 9th centuries, and are intermingled with Byzantine scroll work and + interlaced patterns. If the plan of Sant' Ambrogio, with its + comparatively thin enclosure walls suggests its original construction + as an ordinary basilica, this is not the case with San Michele (fig + 36), where all the external walls are of great thickness, showing that + from the first it was intended to vault the whole structure The church + is much smaller than Sant Ambrogio, there being originally only two + square bays to the nave (in the 15th century the vaults were rebuilt + with four bays), the transept, however projects widely beyond the + aisles, and as there is another bay given to the choir in front of the + apse, the area of the two churches is about the same. The existing + church was probably begun shortly after the destructive earthquake of + 1117, and was consecrated in 1132. In Sant' Ambrogio the transverse + and diagonal arches spring from just above the triforium floor, so + that there was no room for clerestory windows, and consequently the + interior is dark. In San Michele the ribs rise from the level of the + top of the triforium arcades and two clerestory windows are provided + to each bay. The crossing of the nave and transept is covered with a + dome carried on squinches, which dates from the first building. The + dome over the fourth bay of Sant' Ambrogio replaced the original vault + about the beginning of the 13th century. + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Plan of San Michele Pavia.] + + The cathedral of Novara, originally of the ordinary basilica type of + the 10th century with timber roofs, was reconstructed in the 11th + century, compound piers being built to carry the transverse and + diagonal ribs and walls built across the outer aisles to resist the + thrust, on the other hand SS. Pietro and Paolo at Bologna is a 12th + century church which was designed from the first to be vaulted. To + these, and still belonging to the basilican plan, must be added San + Pietro in Cielo d'oro (1136) and San Teodoro, both in Pavia; S. Evasio + at Casale Monferrato, having a comparatively narrow nave with double + aisles on either side and a very remarkable narthex or porch. S. + Lorenzo at Verona (lately restored), which in the 12th century was + rebuilt with compound piers to carry a vault (the apse and the two + remarkable circular towers in the west front belong to the ancient + church), and Sant' Abbondio at Como often restored and partly rebuilt, + retaining however, some of the original sculpture of the early Lombard + period. + + Of churches built on the plan of the Latin cross, examples are Sant' + Antonino at Piacenza, with an octagonal lantern tower over the + crossing, Parma cathedral (_c._ 1175), with an octagonal pointed dome + over the crossing, Modena cathedral, rebuilt and consecrated in + 1184; San Nazaro-Grande at Milan; and San Lanfranco at Pavia, the two + latter without aisles. + + [Illustration: PLATE I. + + BAPTISTRY. CAMPO SANTO. CATHEDERAL CAMPANILE + + Photo, Brogi. + + FIG. 62.--PISA + + FIG. 63--ST MARK'S, VENICE. + + Photo, Anderson.] + + [Illustration: PLATE II. + + FIG. 64.--AMIENS CATHEDRAL. + + Photo, Neurdean. + + FIG. 65.--BURGOS CATHEDRAL. + + Photo, F. Frith & Co. + + FIG. 66.--ST PAUL'S, LONDON. + + Photo, F. Frith & Co. + + FIG. 67.--ELY CATHEDRAL. + + Photo, F. Frith & Co.] + + Reference has already been made to the eaves-galleries of the apses of + the Lombard churches. A similar gallery was carried across the main + front, rising with the slope of the roof, as in San Michele, Pavia; + also on the west fronts of San Pietro in Cielo d'oro and San + Lanfranco, at Pavia; and in the cathedrals of Parma and Piacenza. In + all these cases the galleries are not quite continuous, vertical + buttresses or groups of shafts or single shafts being carried up + through them to the corbel tables. In S. Ambrogio at Milan the central + original lantern is surrounded with two tiers of galleries. The finest + example of their employment, however, is in the magnificent central + tower of the Cistercian church at Chiaravalle, near Milan, where the + two lower storeys form the drum of the internal dome, the two storeys + above are set back, and the upper storey consists of a lofty octagonal + tower with conical spire. + + One of the serious defects in the front of the church of San Michele + at Pavia is that it forms a mask, and takes no cognizance of the aisle + roofs, which are at a lower level, and the same is found in San + Pietro-in-Cielo d'oro at Pavia. This mask is carried to an absurd + extent in the church of Santa Maria della Pieve at Arezzo, in which, + above the ground storey of the arcades, are three galleries forming + strong horizontal lines, which suggest the numerous floors of a civic + building instead of the vertical subdivisions of a church. This defect + is not found in the church of San Zeno at Verona, which is one of the + finest of the Lombard churches; the church is basilican in plan, the + nave being divided into five bays with compound piers, as in Sant' + Ambrogio, as if it were intended to vault it; this, however, was never + done, but stone arches arc thrown across the two westernmost bays of + the nave as if to carry the roof (now concealed by a wooden ceiling). + The facade is of marble and sandstone, with pilaster-strips rising + from the base to the arched corbel table, and the outline of the nave + and aisles is preserved in the front, in which all the mouldings and + carving arc of the utmost delicacy. Both here and in the cathedral are + fine examples of those projecting porches, the columns of which are + carried on the backs of lions or other beasts. At Piacenza, Parma, + Mantua, Bergamo and Modena are porches of a similar kind, and in the + cathedral of Modena the columns which support the balcony on the + entrance to the crypt are all carried on the backs of lions. The + cathedral of Verona has suffered so much from rebuilding and + restoration that little remains of the earlier structure, but the apse + of the choir, decorated with a close set range of pilaster-strips, + with bases and Corinthian capitals and crowned with a highly enriched + entablature, is quite unique in its design. + + Among circular buildings, the Rotonda at Brescia was at one time + considered to date from the 8th century, owing to its massive + construction and the simplicity and plainness of its external design. + Later discoveries, however, have shown that the early date can only be + given to the crypt of San Filasterio situated to the eastward of the + Rotonda. The church of Santo Sepolcro at Bologna, as its name implies, + is one of those reproductions of the church of the Holy Sepulchre at + Jerusalem which were built by the Templars during the crusades. Of + much earlier date is the circular church of San Tommaso-in-Limine, an + early Lombard work of the 9th century, to which period belong also the + baptisteries of Albenga, Arsago, Biella, Galliano and Asti. One of the + most beautiful examples is the baptistery of Santa Maria at Gravedona, + at the northern end of the lake of Como, built in black and white + marble. The plan is unusual, and consists of a square with circular + apses on three sides. + + _Byzantine Romanesque._--Although in the first basilican church of St + Mark at Venice, erected in 929 to receive the relics of the saint + recovered from St Mark's in Alexandria, the capitals of the columns + and other decorative accessories showed Greek influence, its + transformation into a five-domed Byzantine structure was not begun + till about the middle of the 11th century. The date given by Cattanco + is 1063, the same year in which the cathedral of Pisa was begun; it is + probable, however, that the scheme had already been in contemplation + for some years, as the problem was not an easy one to solve, owing to + the restrictions of the site, and to the desire to reproduce in some + way the leading features of the church of the Holy Apostles at + Constantinople. This church was destroyed in 1464, but its description + by Procopius is so clear, and corresponds so closely with St Mark's, + completed towards the end of the 11th century, as to leave little + doubt about the source of its inspiration. From what has already been + said with reference to the great changes made when it was proposed to + vault the early Lombard basilican churches, those of equal importance + which were carried out in St Mark's will be better understood. The + nave was divided into three square bays (fig. 37), with additional + bays on the north and south to form transepts; the five square bays + thus obtained were covered with domes carried on pendentives, as in St + Sophia at Constantinople, and on wide transverse barrel vaults; the + domes over the north and south transepts and the choir were of + slightly less dimensions than those over the nave and crossing, in + consequence of the limitations in area caused by the chapel of St + Theodore on the north, the ducal palace on the south, and the ancient + apse of the original basilica which it was desired to retain. In the + reconstruction, many of the old columns, capitals and parapets were + utilized again in the arcades carrying the galleries and in the + balustrades over them. Externally the brick walls were decorated with + blind arcades and niches of Lombard style, and all the roof vaults + were covered with lead as in Constantinople. The subsequent decoration + of the exterior took two centuries to carry out, not including the + florid work of later date. There is no precedent in the East for the + superimposed columns and capitals exported from Constantinople and + Syria which now decorate the north, south and west fronts (Plate I., + fig. 63), though the materials were all of the finest Byzantine type. + Internally, the mosaic decoration of the domes, vaults and the upper + part of the walls, was carried out by Greek artists from + Constantinople, who probably also were employed for the marble + panelling of the lower part of the walls. The marble casing of the + front was certainly executed by Constantinopolitan artists, since the + moulded string known as the "Venetian dentil" is a direct reproduction + of that in St Sophia. At a later date the domes were all surmounted by + lanterns in wood, covered with lead, and the roofs were all raised. So + far, therefore, the building departs from its prototype, the church of + the Apostles. A similar transformation took place in the church of + Santa Fosca at Torcello, where a single large dome was contemplated + over the centre of the original basilican church, but was never built. + The cathedral of Torcello and the church at Murano are richly + decorated with carved panels, capitals, choir screens and other + features, either imported from the East or reproduced by Greek artists + or Italians trained in the style. The influence of St Mark's in this + respect extended far and wide on the east coast of Italy; and at + Pomposa, Ancona, and as far south as Brindisi, Byzantine details can + be traced everywhere. The designs of the churches of San Ciriaco at + Ancona and of Sant' Antonio at Padua were both based on St Mark's. + Sant' Antonio's had six domes, there being two over the nave; and in + all cases the domes were surmounted by domes in timber like those of + St Mark's. + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Plan of St Mark's, Venice. + + From R.P. Spiers's _Architecture, East and West_.] + + In domestic work, Venice is richer in Byzantine architecture than + Constantinople, for with the exception of the Hebdomon palace the + continual fires there have destroyed all the earlier palaces and + houses. The Fondaco-dei-Turchi, built probably in the 11th century, is + one of the most remarkable; the front on the great canal is 160 ft. + long, having a lofty arcade with ten stilted arches on the ground + storey and an arcade of eighteen arches above; the pavilion wings at + the east end are in three storeys, with blind arcades and windows + pierced in the central arcade. The whole was built in brick encased + with marble, with panels or disks enriched with bas-reliefs or + coloured marbles. A second example is found in the Palazzo Loredan, + having similar arcades, stilted arches and marble panelling; and + there are two others, one on the Grand Canal and the other on the + Rio-Ca-Foscari. Throughout Venice the decoration of these Byzantine + palaces would seem to have influenced those of later date; for the + Venetian dentil, interlaced scroll-work and string courses, with the + Byzantine pendant leaf, are found intermingled with Gothic work, even + down to the 15th century, and the same to a certain extent is found at + Padua, Verona and Vicenza. + + _Central Romanesque._--The builders in the centre of Italy would seem + to have followed more closely the Roman basilican plan, for in two of + the earliest churches, Santa Maria Fuorcivitas at Lucca and San Paolo + a Ripa d'Arno at Pisa, the T-shaped plan of St Peter's and St Paul's, + with widely projecting transepts, was adopted; the difference also + between the north and central developments is very marked, as in the + place of the massive stone walls, compound piers, and internal and + external buttresses deemed necessary to resist the thrusts of the + great vaults, and the low clerestory of the northern churches, those + in the south retain the light arcades with classic columns, the wooden + roofs, and the high clerestory of the Roman basilicas. Instead of the + vigorous sculpture of the Lombards in the Tuscan churches, marbles of + various colours take its place, the carving being more refined in + character and much quieter in effect. + + The earliest church now existing is that of San Frediano at Lucca, + dating from the end of the 7th century. Originally it was a + five-aisled basilica, with an eastern apse, but when it was included + within the walls in the 11th century the apse and the entrance doorway + changed places, and a fine eaves-gallery was carried round the new + apse; the outer aisles were also transformed into chapels. So many of + the churches in Pisa and Lucca had new fronts given to them in the + 11th or 12th century, that it is interesting to find, in the church of + San Pietro-in-Grado at Pisa, an example in which the external + decoration with pilaster strips and arched corbel tables is retained, + showing that in the 9th century, when that church was built, the + Lombard style prevailed there. Other early churches are those of San + Casciano (9th century), San Nicola and San Frediano (1007), all in + Pisa. + + Of early foundation, but probably rebuilt in the 11th century, are two + interesting churches in Toscanella, Santa Maria and San Pietro; they + are both basilican on plan, but the easternmost bay is twice the width + of the other arches of the arcade, and is divided from the nave by a + triumphal arch. In both churches the floor of the transept is raised + some feet above the nave, and a crypt occupies the whole space below + it. + + One of the earliest and most perfect examples of this subdivision is + the church of San Miniato, on a hill overlooking Florence. The church + was rebuilt in 1013, and some of the Roman capitals of the earlier + building are incorporated in the new one. It is divided into nave and + aisles by an arcade of nine arches, and every third support consists + of a compound pier with four semi-detached shafts, one of which, on + each side of the nave, rises to the level of the summit of the arcade + and carries a massive transverse arch to support the roof. The east + end of the church, occupying the last three bays of the arcade, is + raised 11 ft. above the floor of the nave, over a vaulted crypt + extending the whole width of the church and carried under the eastern + apse. The interior of the church, which is covered over with an open + timber roof, painted in colour and gilded, is decorated with inlaid + patterns of black and white marble of conventional design, and the + same scheme is adopted in the main facade, enriching the panels of the + blind arcade on the lower storey, and above an extremely classic + design of Corinthian pilasters, entablature and pediment. + + As none of the facades of the Pisan churches was built before the + middle of the 11th century, it is possible that Buschetto, the + architect of the cathedral of Pisa, may have profited by the scheme + suggested in the lower storey of San Miniato; if so he departed from + its classic proportions. There are seven blind arcades in the lower + storey of the Pisan cathedral, the arcades are loftier, and the + position of the side doors which open into the inner aisle on each + side is of much better effect. The cathedral was begun in 1063, the + year following the brilliant capture of Palermo by the Pisans, when + they returned in triumph with immense spoils. In plan it consists of a + Latin cross, with double aisles on either side of the nave extending + to the east end, a central apse, transepts with single aisles on each + side, and north and south transepted apses (fig. 38). The nave arcade, + with its Corinthian capitals and monolith stone columns, is of + exceptional boldness, and as it is carried across the transept up to + the east end (a length of 320 ft.) it forms a continuous line greater + than that in any other cathedral. The crossing is covered by a dome, + elliptical on plan, being from east to west the length of the transept + and aisles. The result is unfortunate, and detracts both externally + and internally from its beauty, otherwise the exterior decoration, + which must have been schemed out in its entirety from the beginning + (with the exception of the dome, which is of later design), has the + most satisfactory and pleasing effect. The lofty blind arcade of the + lower storey and the open gallery above on the facade (the latter + represented by a blind arcade), are carried round the whole building, + and the horizontal lines of the galleries of the upper storeys accord + with the roofs of the aisles and nave respectively and the blind + arcade of the clerestory. The walls are faced within and without with + white and grey marble, and the combination of sculpture and inlay + which enriches the arcades of the facades gives an additional + attraction to the building. The cathedral is sometimes quoted as + Byzantine in style, but its plan and design are of widely different + character from those of any building found in the East, and the + mosaics, which constitute the finest decorative element in that style, + were not added till the 14th century, and formed no part of the + architect Buschetto's scheme. + + The Baptistery, begun in 1153, was not completed till towards the + close of the 13th century, when important alterations were made in the + design to bring it into accordance with the new Gothic style. The + crocketed gables, and the upper gallery, substituted for the arcades, + which followed on the lines of those in the cathedral, have taken away + the quiet repose found in the latter; the lower storey, however, with + its lofty blind arcades, similar to those of the cathedral, and the + principal doorway, are of great beauty. The central area of the + baptistery, which is surrounded by aisles and triforium gallery, is + covered by a conical dome; internally as well as externally this can + never have been a beautiful feature, and the additions of the 13th + century have made it one of the ugliest roofs in existence. + + [Illustration: FIG. 38. PISA + + Companile, or Leaning Tower, 1174-1350 + Cathedral, 1067-1250, restored after fire 1596. + Bapistery St Jean, 1153-c 1300. + Cemetery (Campo Santo), 1278-1465.] + + The Campanile or leaning tower was begun in 1174. Owing, however, to + the treacherous nature of the ground, the piles driven in to support + the tower gave way on the south side, so that, when only 35 ft. above + the ground, a settlement was noticed, and slight additions in height + were made from time to time in order to obtain a horizontal level for + the stone courses; but this was without avail, and on the completion + of the third gallery above the ground storey the work was suspended + for many years. In 1350 it was recommenced, three more gallery storeys + were added, and the upper or belfry stage was set back in the inner + wall. The tower is now 178 ft. high, and overhangs nearly 14 ft. on + the south side; its design is made to harmonize with the cathedral, + but shows much less refinement and grace. + + The Campo Santo, an immense rectangular court 350 ft. long by 70 ft. + wide, surrounded by a cloister 35 ft. wide, was begun in 1280; the + details are refined, but the poverty in the design of the tracery with + which the arcades were fitted in at a much later date detracts from + its interest, which is now mainly concerned with the beautiful + frescoes which decorate its walls. + + As might have been expected, the cathedral of Pisa set the model not + only for the restoration of existing churches but also for new ones, + in Pisa itself and also at Lucca, Pistoia and Prato. In Pisa, the + church of San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno was rebuilt about 1060, possibly by + the architect of the cathedral; San Pietro-in-Vincoli and San Nicola + date from the early years of the 12th century. At Lucca the churches + of Santa Giuha, San Giusto, San Martino, San Michele, and the restored + front of Santa Maria Fuorcivitas, are the principal examples in which + the Pisan cathedral has suggested the design, and at Pistoia we can + point to the cathedral, Sant' Andrea, San Pietro and San Giovanni + Fuorcivitas, the latter with a south wall decorated with three stages + of blind arcades of great richness. The cathedral of Lucca was either + restored or rebuilt at the beginning of the 14th century, and has a + distinctly Gothic effect. The lower storey of the facade presents the + unusual feature of an open porch across the whole front with three + great archways. This porch with the three galleries above was added to + the cathedral at the beginning of the 13th century. + + _Southern Romanesque._--The influences exerted in the early + development of the Romanesque style in the south of Italy are much + more complicated than in the north, since two new elements come into + the field, the Norman and Saracenic. Of early work very little + remains, owing to the general rebuilding in the 11th century; what is + more remarkable, there is scarcely any trace of the result of the + Byzantine occupation for so many centuries; the only exception being + the church of San Gregorio at Bari, a small basilican structure in + which the arches of the arcades separating the nave from the aisles + are stilted like those of the Fondaco-dei-Turchi at Venice. + + [Illustation: FIG. 39.--Plan of S. Nicola at Bari.] + + One of the chief characteristics noticeable in the plan is the almost + universal adoption of a transept projecting north and south slightly + beyond the aisle walls, and in some cases raised over a crypt, as in + the churches at Toscanella. Since, however, there is no choir bay, and + the central apse opens direct into the transept, the plan is not that + of the Latin cross. The most complete development of this arrangement + is found in the cathedral and in the church of San Nicola at Bari + (fig. 39); both being basilican churches with a triumphal arch opening + into the transept,--in this respect similar to the churches of St + Peter and St Paul at Rome, except that the transepts project only + slightly, beyond the aisles. There is one peculiarity in both these + churches, as also in that of the cathedral at Molfetta. East of the + transept, and at the north and south sides, are towers, between which + is carried a wall which hides the apse, the only indication of its + existence being the round arched window which lights it. A similar + arrangement exists in the cathedrals of Giovenazzo, Bitetto and + Bitonto. The central bay of the transept of the cathedral at Bari is + surmounted by an octagonal drum, the dome within which is carried on + squinches; a similar dome was projected in San Nicola, but never + built. In the cathedral at Bari, as also in San Nicola, the lofty nave + is covered with a timber roof, and has an arcade on the ground storey + and a fine triforium and clerestory windows above. + + Externally these churches depend for their effect more on their fine + masonry than on any decorative treatment; the blind arcades of the + lower storey have very little projection, and the pilaster strips + which in the Lombard churches break up the wall surface are not found + here; the arched corbel table is freely employed but rarely the open + gallery. There is one remarkable example in Bitonto cathedral; above + the aisle chapels, and approached from the triforium, is an open + gallery, the arches of which rest on widely projecting capitals + sculptured with animals and foliage, half Lombardic and half Byzantine + in style. The small shafto supporting these capitals are of infinite + variety of design, with spirals, chevrons, fluting and vertical + mouldings of many kinds. + + The cathedral at Molfetta is in plan quite different from those + already described, and consists of square bays with aisles, transept + and apse, having domes over the nave and crossing. The Byzantine + influence here comes in, but it is much more pronounced in La Cattohca + at Stilo, a small church square on plan with four columns carrying the + superstructure, which consists of a central and four domes on the + angles. Other domed churches are those of the Immaculata at Trani; San + Sabino, Canosa; and San Marco, Rossano. The lower part of the + cathedral at Troja shows the direct influence of the cathedral at + Pisa. The cathedral at Trani has the same plan as the churches at + Bari, except that the earlier apses are not enclosed. The cathedral of + Salerno retains still the fine atrium by Robert Guiscard in 1077. In + the cathedrals of Acerenza, Aversa and Venosa, the French chevet was + introduced towards the end of the 12th century. + + In the magnificent octagonal tower which encloses the dome on the + crossing in the cathedral of Caserta-Vecchia, we find the interlacing + blind arcades of the Norman architecture in Sicily, as also in the + cathedral at Amalfi. The porches, entrance doorways and windows being + the chief decorative feature of the south Italian churches, were + enriched with splendid sculptures. So were the pulpits of the + cathedrals of Sessa, Ravello, Salerno and Troja, the rich mosaic + inlays at Sessa, Ravello and Salerno according in design with the + Cosmati work in Rome, though they possibly had an earlier origin in + Sicily. + + _Sicilian Romanesque._--Although the earliest remains in Sicily date + from the Norman occupation of the island, they are so permeated with + Saracenic detail as to leave no doubt that the conqueror employed the + native workmen, who for two centuries at all events had been building + for the Mahommedans, and therefore, whether Arab or Greek, had been + reproducing the same style as that found in Egypt or North Africa. + + It is possible that, so far as the Norman palaces of the 12th century + are concerned, they were based on those built under the Saracenic + rule, but the requirements of a mosque and of a church are entirely + different, and therefore in the earliest church existing (San + Giovanni-dei-Leprosi, at Palermo, built by Robert Guiscard in A.D. + 1071) we find a completely developed Christian structure, having nave, + aisles and transepts, with a dome over the crossing and three apses. + The next church, at Troina (1078), was similar on plan, but had three + square wings at the east end instead of apses. The next two churches, + La Martorana and San Cataldo (1129), at Palermo, followed the plan of + the Greek church, with four columns carrying the superstructure and + three domes over the nave bays carried on Saracenic squinches, similar + to those in San Giovanni-dei-Leprosi. San Giovanni-degli-Eremiti + (T-shaped on plan) has no aisles, but carries domes over the nave and + three smaller domes on the transept. The most important feature found + in all these churches is the pointed arch, of Saracenic origin + imported from the East, which was employed for the nave, arcades, the + crossing, and in the squinches carrying the domes. The blind arcades + which decorate the walls of San Cataldo and of the Norman palaces--La + Favara, the Torre della Ninfa, La Ziza and La Cuba (all in or near + Palermo),--in two or three orders, and sometimes (as in the Favara + palace) of great height, have all pointed arches and no impost + mouldings or capitals. The distinguishing characteristic of these + blind arcades (and the same is found in the open arcades) is the very + slight projection of the outer order of arch. + + The finest early example of Norman architecture in Sicily is the + Cappella Palatina, at Palermo, consecrated in 1140, and attached to + the palace. The plan consists of nave, aisles, transept and triple + apse, the arches, all pointed and stilted, being carried on monolith + columns of granite and marble alternately. The nave is covered over + with a timber roof with stalactitic coves and coffered ceiling, richly + decorated in colour and gilded, the borders of the panels bearing + Arabic inscriptions in Cufic characters. Similar inscriptions exist on + the upper part of the walls of the Cuba and Ziza palaces, proving that + they were built by Saracenic workmen. The plans of the cathedrals of + Palermo, Messina (destroyed 1908), Cefalu and Monreale are all + similar, with nave and aisles separated by arcades, in which the + arches are all pointed and stilted, transepts projecting north and + south beyond the aisle walls, and square bays beyond, with apsidal + terminations. That of Palermo has much suffered from restorations, but + the cathedral of Monreale is in perfect condition. It was begun in + 1176 and consecrated in 1182. The proportions of the arcade are much + finer than in the Cappella Palatina, where the stilted arch was of the + same height as the shaft of the columns, whereas here it is only half + the height. The columns are all of granite with extremely fine + capitals, some of which were taken from ancient buildings. All the + roofs are in wood, with coffered ceilings richly decorated in gold and + colour. The walls to a height of 22 ft. are all lined with slabs of + marble with mosaic friezes, and all the surfaces of walls and arches + are covered above with mosaics representing scenes from the Old and + New Testaments, while in the apse at the east end a gigantic figure of + Christ dominates the whole church. The same is found at Cefalu, where + the mosaic decorations, however, are confined to the apses. Externally + the walls are comparatively plain, the decoration being confined to + the east end, where the three apses are covered with a series of blind + intersecting arcades of pointed arches. This class of enrichment + prevails throughout the great Sicilian churches, and extends sometimes + to the smaller churches, as that of the Chiesa-dei-Vespri. Of the + conventual buildings attached to the cathedral of Monreale, which + occupied an immense site, there remain only the cloisters, about 140 + ft. square, enclosed by an arcade with pointed arches carried on + coupled columns, the shafts of which are elaborately carved and inlaid + with mosaic; the capitals are of the most varied design and of + exquisite execution. + + _Italian Gothic._--Italy is poorer than any other country in examples + of the transition from round arched to pointed arched buildings. The + use of the pointed arch was accepted at last as a necessity, and + cannot be said ever to have been welcomed. The first buildings in + which it is seen worked out fully in detail are those of Niccola + Pisano, and but few examples exist of good Gothic work earlier than + his time. The elaborately arcaded and sculptured west front of Ferrara + cathedral is a screen to an early building. The cathedral and other + churches at Genoa are certainly exquisite works, but they appear to + owe their internal design rather to the influence of (perhaps) + Sicilian taste than north Italian, and the exquisite beauty of the + west front owes a good deal, at any rate, to French influence, + softened, refined and decorated by the extreme taste of an Italian + architect. The feature which most marks all Italian Gothic is the + indifference to the true use of the pointed arch. Everywhere arches + were constructed which could not have stood for a day had they not + been held together by iron rods. There was none of that sense of the + unities of art which made a northerner so jealous to maintain the + proper relations of all parts of his structure. In Niccola Pisano's + works the arch mould rarely fits the capital on which it rests. The + proportions of buttresses to the apparent work to be done by them are + bad and clumsy. The window traceries look like bad copies of some + northern tracery, only once seen in a hurry by an indifferent workman. + There is no life, or development, or progress in the work. If we look + at the ground-plans of Italian Gothic churches, we shall find nothing + whatever to delight us. The columns are widely spaced, so as to + diminish the number of vaulting bays, and to make the proportions of + the oblong aisle vaulting bay very ungainly. Clustered shafts are + almost unknown, the columns being plain cylinders with poorly + sculptured capitals. There are no triforium galleries, and the + clerestory is generally very insignificant. In short, a comparison of + the best Gothic works in Italy with the most moderate French or + English work would show at once how vast its inferiority must be + allowed to be. Still there were beauties which ought not to be + forgotten or passed over. Such were the beautiful cloisters, whose + arcades are carried on delicate coupled shafts,--e.g. in St John + Lateran and St Paul's at Rome. Such also were the porches and + monuments at Verona and elsewhere; and the campaniles,--both those in + Rome, divided by a number of string-courses into a number of storeys, + and those of the north, where there are hardly any horizontal + divisions, and the whole effort is to give an unbroken vertical + effect; or that unequalled campanile, the tower of the cathedral at + Florence by Giotto, where one sees in ordered proportion, accurately + adjusted, line upon line, and storey upon storey, perhaps the most + carefully wrought-out work in all Europe. + + The Italian architects were before all others devoted to the display + of colour in their works. St Mark's had led the way in this, but, + throughout the peninsula, the bountiful plenty of nature in the + provision of materials was seconded by the zeal of the artist. They + were also distinguished for their use of brick. Just as in parts of + Germany, France, Spain and England, there were large districts in + which no stone could be had without the greatest labour and trouble; + and here the reality and readiness which always marked the medieval + workman led to his at once availing himself of the natural material, + and making a feature of his brickwork. + + The Gothic of Italy has, it must be admitted, no such grand works to + show as more northern countries have. Allowance has to be made at + every turn for some incompleteness or awkwardness of plan, design or + construction. There is no attempt to emulate the beauties of the best + French plans. Milan cathedral, magnificent as its scale and material + make it, is clumsy and awkward both in plan and section, though its + vast size makes it impressive internally. San Francesco, Assisi, is + only a moderately good early German Gothic church, converted into + splendour by its painted decorations. At Orvieto a splendid west front + is put, without any proper adjustment, against a church whose merit is + mainly that it is large and in parts beautifully coloured. + + The finest Gothic interiors are of the class of which the Frari at + Venice and Sant' Anastasia at Verona are examples. They are simple + vaulted cruciform churches, with aisles and chapels on the east side + of the transepts. But even in these the designs of the various parts + in detail are poor and meagre, and only redeemed from failure by the + picturesque monuments built against their walls, by the work of the + painter, and by their furniture. In fine, Gothic art was never really + understood in Italy, and, consequently, never reached to perfection. + + Whilst the Pointed style was almost exclusively known and practised in + northern Europe, the Italians were but slowly improving in their + Gothic style; and the improvement was more evinced in their secular + than in their ecclesiastical structures. Florence, Bologna, Vicenza, + Udine, Genoa, and, above all, Venice, contain palaces and mansions of + the 12th, 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, which for simplicity, utility + and beauty far excel most of those in the same and other places of the + three following centuries. The contemporary churches do not exhibit + the same degree of improvement in style that is conspicuous in these + domestic works, for there are no works in Europe more worthy of study + and admiration than the Ducal Palace at Venice, and some of the older + works of the same class, and even of earlier date. The town halls of + Perugia, Piacenza and Siena, and many houses in these cities, and at + Corneto, Amalfi, Asti, Orvieto and Lucca, the fountains of Perugia and + Viterbo, and the monuments at Bologna, Verona and Arezzo, may be named + as evidence of the interest which the national art affords to the + architectural student even in Italy, as late as the end of the 14th + century; but after this it gradually gave way to the new style, though + in some instances its influence may be traced even when it had been + overborne by it. (R. P. S.) + + +ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE + +Most generally, Romanesque art is thought of as that period of art which +followed and partook of the nature of Roman art and yet was too far +removed from it to be classed as Roman. The difference, however, was not +merely one of decay; it is rather in positive factors that we shall find +the true characteristics of the style. Its formation was parallel to the +development of the Romance languages, and like them it acquired barbaric +elements. + +In Rome itself hardly any, if any, contributions were made to its +growth, and there as late as the 12th century the early Christian form +of basilican church continued to be built. It may, perhaps, best be +conceived as a Germano-Roman product, for even in Spain and north Italy, +which became such strong centres of the art, the Visigoths and Lombards +provided the Teutonic element. Besides this change of "blood" in the +style, there is another element of change in the influences obtained +from the more rapidly developed art of the East. This influence indeed +was so strong and constant that, having it in view, we might almost +describe the Romanesque style as Germano-Byzantine. + +In the 6th and 7th centuries we have, on the one hand, the almost pure +traditional early Christian art of Rome and indeed of western Europe, +and on the other the direct establishment of matured Byzantine art at +Ravenna, Parenzo, Naples and even in Rome. Then followed the mixture of +these and of barbaric elements in the formation of several +pre-Romanesque varieties, one of which has been named Italo-Byzantine. +It was not until the age of Charlemagne that a centre was established +strong enough for the formation of a new western school which should +persist. From this time a progressive style was developed which led +straight forward to the Gothic, and it is this movement which is best +called Romanesque. This art was a perfect ferment of striving and +experiment, of gathering and even of research; Roman, Byzantine and +Saxon elements entered into its composition. It is probable also, as a +result of Saracenic pressure on Syria, Asia Minor, North Africa and +Spain, that artists, "bringing their crafts with them," drew together +from still remoter parts to gain the protection of the great ruler of +the West and to help in the formation of Carolingian art. With the +disintegration of the empire of Charlemagne many local schools arose in +Germany, France and Lombardy, which--especially after the year 1000, +when there appears to have been a renewed burst of building +energy--resulted in considerable differentiation of styles. The centre +of energy seems to have been now here, now there, yet with all the +differences there was a general resemblance over the whole field. Until +the exact date of a very large number of monuments is more perfectly +established, it will be impossible to trace out exactly the intricate +windings of the line of advance. In fact there are two conflicting sides +to the question presented by Romanesque art. In the first place we have +to consider the several schools in regard to a standard of absolute +attainment, and in the second as relative to the line of persistence and +to the formation of Gothic, which was so largely the culmination, and +then the decay, of the forces present in Romanesque art. Some of the +most beautiful and complete of the Romanesque schools contributed least, +some of the most inchoate gave the most, to that which was to be. + + The most important existing monument of the age of Charlemagne is the + cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle (see fig. 44), which was being built in + the year 800. It has an octagonal central area, covered by a dome and + surrounded with two storeys of aisles both completely vaulted. The + interior surface of the dome was encrusted with mosaic. Another + important work of about the same time is the church of + Germigny-des-Pres near Orleans, which also is of the "central type," + having a square tower above four piers surrounded by an aisle with + semicircular apses in the centre of each external wall, the apse to + the east having a mosaic. + + [Illustration: PLATE III. + + FIG. 68.--ST PETERS, ROME. + + _Photo, Brogi._ + + FIG. 69.--INTERIOR OF ST PETER'S, ROME. + + _Photo, Alinari._] + + [Illustration: PLATE IV. + + FIG. 70.--TOWN HALL, BREMEN. + + _Photo, Koch._ + + FIG. 7l.--VENDRAMINI PALACE, VENICE. + + _Photo, Brogi._] + + From the 9th to the 11th century the great problem worked out was that + of perfecting the standard plans of large churches. In the MS. plan of + the monastic church of St Gall, drawn about 820, we find a great nave + with aisles, apsidal terminations both to the east and the west, + transepts and probably a central tower (cf. the abbey church of + Saint-Riquier near Abbeville, built _c_. 800, of which a slight + representation has been preserved). In St Martin at Tours was probably + evolved the most perfect type of plan, that with an ambulatory and + radiating chapels surrounding the eastern apse. A magnificent church + of this form was built here at the beginning of the 11th century, but + not for the first time. Excavations have shown that the plan was + probably suggested by a still earlier church in which five tomb-niches + surrounded the central apse and tomb of St Martin. At Jumieges (begun + 1040) it has recently been found that the plan terminated to the east + with parallel apses, as at St Albans in England; this is a second + important type. A third type is that in which the transepts as well as + the east end are finished with apses, like St Mary-in-the-Capitol at + Cologne. + + When we come to the developed Romanesque of the end of the 11th + century, we find not only several French varieties, but strong schools + in Lombardy and on the Rhine. Without distinguishing too minutely, + four broad types representing schools of the east and west, north and + south (or rather north-east, north-west, south-east and south-west) of + France, may be spoken of, and all of these were engaged in the task of + completely covering with vaults large churches of basilican plan--the + typical problem of this period. In the east of France we have a school + represented by the monastic church of Tournus, where the nave was + vaulted by a series of compartments placed transversely to the axis of + the church. This church, which has a plan of the type of St Martin's + at Tours, was begun in 1019, but the nave vaults were not reached + until after 1066. This style of vaulting persisted in Burgundy, and + from thence it spread to Fountains Abbey in England, where it is found + over the aisles. The most beautiful class of buildings in eastern + France is that of which the church at Issoire is the most perfect + example. The external walls are here ornamented with patterns + countercharged in light and dark stone. The wonderful church at Le Puy + also belongs to this group, but here strong Moorish influence is to be + traced. The inlays were probably derived from a late Gallo-Roman + source. Countercharging of stones of two colours was a favourite + method of building in Romanesque churches erected between 1100 and + 1150. We find it at Vezelay, a magnificent abbey church of Burgundy, + at Le Mans cathedral, and as far north-west as Exeter and Worcester. + In the west (south-west) the most prominent school was that of + Perigord, of which the church of St Front, Perigueux, may be taken as + the example. St Front was rebuilt after a fire in 1120, but there are + many earlier specimens, two of the most important being at Angouleme + (1105-1128) and Fontevrault. This school applied a series of domes of + eastern fashion not only at the centre but over the whole extent of + the church. St Front so closely resembles St Mark's, Venice, that it + must be derived from it or from some similar eastern church. The + method largely influenced the Angevin school of vaulting, but it does + not seem to have been effective as a protection from the weather. Some + examples were covered by external roofs, as was St Front itself at a + late time. St Ours at Loches, originally a small church covered by + domes, had spire-like pyramids substituted for them when the church + was enlarged about 1168. + + The third class of vaulting we may for symmetry's sake associate with + the south, though it is found widely distributed. The chapel in the + Tower of London is an example, and its true centre seems to be the + Auvergne. The vaults of this type run along with the axis of the space + to be covered. In the case of large churches the central span is + frequently supported by quadrant vaults leaning against it on either + side. One of the most noble churches in which the central span is + covered by such a barrel vault is that of St Savin near Poitiers, + where very much has been preserved of the complete series of paintings + which once adorned it and the walls beneath. + + The most characteristic buildings of the south are the churches of + Moissac, St Trophime at Aries, St Gilles near Nimes and St James of + Compostella, where there is much sculpture of a Lombardic type. There + was a great revival of sculpture, going together with a study of the + antique, in Lombardy at the end of the 11th century. Wiligelmus, who + later worked at San Zeno, Verona, signed some sculptures at Modena in + 1099. + + Of the schools of the north, Normandy took the lead. It was + adventurous, if somewhat barbaric. It derived much from Germany and + gave much to the Gothic style. About the middle of the 11th century + the Normans began to experiment with cross-groined vaults and their + application to the church problem. This from the first contained an + important possibility of future development, in that it allowed of + windows of considerable height being placed in the lunettes of these + vaults. Soon a very great step in advance was made by the invention or + application of diagonal ribs under the intersection of the plain + groined vault. This association of strengthening ribs in a cross form + to each bay of the structure forms the _ogive_, the characteristic + form from which the alternative name to Gothic, "ogival," has been + derived. The first instance we know of the use of this system is at + Durham cathedral, where the aisles of the east end were so covered + about 1093, and where the high vault erected about 1104 was almost + certainly of the same kind. Another outcome of the genius of Norman + builders seems to have been the donjon or keep type of castle. + +The word "Gothic" was applied by Italian writers of the Renaissance to +buildings later than Roman, which in some cases (e.g. Theodoric's works +at Ravenna) might be properly so named. What we now call Gothic the same +writers called Modern. Later the word came to mean the art which filled +the whole interval between the Roman period and the Renaissance, and +then last of all, when the Byzantine and Romanesque forms of art were +defined, Gothic became the art which intervened between the Romanesque +era and the Renaissance. + +As remarked above, Gothic architecture is to a large extent the crown of +Romanesque. It is agreed that its chief element of construction was the +ogival vaulting which was being widely used by Romanesque builders in +the first half of the 12th century; and pointed arches appeared as +early. + +The eminent architect, G.E. Street, writing[3] of what we have called +the standard plan of great 12th-century churches, says, "In whatever way +the early _chevets_ (as the French term them) grew up there is no doubt +that they contain the germ of the magnificent _chevets_ in the complete +Gothic churches of the north of France." Architecture of the middle ages +having been continuously developed, it is necessarily somewhat arbitrary +to mark off any given period; all are agreed, however, that about the +year 1150 there was a time of rapid change towards a slenderer and more +energetic type of building, and the forms which followed for about four +centuries we now call Gothic. The special character which the +architecture of this period took was partially conditioned by the fact +that the expanding power of the French kingdom, with its centre at +Paris, was situated in a particular artistic environment. The body of +ideas on which it for the most part worked was furnished by the +Romanesque art of north France, the German borderland and Burgundy. A +great contributory cause was the immense monastic activity of the time, +and the need of accomplishing large results with limited means resulted +in a casting aside of old ornamental commonplaces and in innovations of +planning and structure. This was especially the case with the Cistercian +order, which carried certain transitional Gothic forms of building into +England, Germany, Italy and Spain. If, however, we make the transition +to Gothic date from the first use of "ogival" vaults in north-west +Europe, then Durham cathedral is, so far as we now know, the earliest +example of the transitional style. The next step, the appearance of +Gothic itself, may best be held to date from the systematic but not +exclusive use of pointed arches in association with ogival vaults about +the middle of the 12th century. + +At this time was waged a war of domination amongst the styles, a war +which resulted not necessarily in the victory of the most beautiful nor +even of the strongest, but one in which political and geographical +considerations had much to do with the decision. When the French kingdom +took the lead in western civilization, it was settled that a northern +form of art, one which had perforce to make a chief element of the +window, should be followed out. The consequent development of the window +is, after all, as the first observers thought, the great mark of the +mature style. As to the position of France in the movement, Mr Street +may again be quoted:--"When once the Gothic style was well established, +the zeal with which the work of building was pursued in France was +almost incredibly great. A series of churches exists there within short +distances of each other, so superb in all their features that it is +impossible to contest their superiority to any corresponding group of +buildings. The old Domaine Royale is that in which French art is seen in +its perfection. Notre Dame, Paris, is a monument second to nothing in +the world; but for completeness in all its parts it would be better to +cite the cathedral of Chartres, a short description of which must +suffice as an explanation of what French art at its zenith was. The plan +has a nave with aisles, transepts with aisles on each side, a choir with +two aisles all round it, and chapels beyond them. There are two immense +steeples at the west end, two towers to each transept and two towers at +the junction of the choir with its apse. The doorways are triple at the +west end, whilst to each transept is a vast triple porch in front of the +three doorways. The whole of these doorways are covered with sculpture, +much of it refined, spirited and interesting in the highest degree. You +enter and find the interior surpassing even the exterior. The order of +the columns and arches, and of all the details, is so noble and simple +that no fault can be found with it. The whole is admirably executed; +and, finally, every window throughout its vast interior is full of the +richest glass coeval with the fabric. As compared with English churches +of the same class, there are striking differences. The French architects +aimed at greater height, greater size, but much less effect of length. +Their roofs were so lofty that it was almost impossible for them to +build steeples which should have the sort of effect that ours have. The +turret on Amiens cathedral is nearly as lofty as Salisbury spire, but is +only a turret; and so throughout. Few French churches afford the +exquisite complete views of the exterior which English churches do; but, +on the other hand, their interiors are more majestic, and man feels +himself smaller and more insignificant in them than in ours. The palm +must certainly be given to them above all others. There is no country +richer in examples of architecture than France. The student who wishes +to understand what it was possible for a country to do in the way of +creating monuments of its grandeur, would find in almost every part of +the country, at every turn and in great profusion, works of the rarest +interest and beauty. The 19th century may be the consummation of all, +but the evidences of its existence to posterity will not be one-tenth in +number of those which such a reign as that of Philip Augustus has left +us, whilst none of them will come up to the high standard which in his +time was invariably reached." + +The remarks which have been made as to the variation in style visible in +various parts of the same country, apply with more force, perhaps, in +what we now call France than to any other part of Europe. For the +purposes of complete study it would be necessary to keep distinct from +each other in the mind the following important divisions:--(1) Provence +and Auvergne; (2) Aquitaine; (3) Burgundy; (4) Anjou and Poitou, (5) +Brittany; (6) Normandy; (7) the Ile-de-France and Picardy; (8) +Champagne; and, finally, (9) the eastern border-land (neither quite +German nor quite French in its character), the meeting-point of the two +very different developments of French and German art. Speaking +generally, it is safe to say that Gothic architecture was never brought +to its highest perfection in any portion of the south of France. +Aquitaine, Auvergne and Provence were too wedded to classic traditions +to excel in an art which seems to have required for its perfection no +sort of looking back to such a past. Hence there is no Gothic work in +the south for which it is possible to feel the same admiration and +enthusiasm as must be felt by every artist in presence of the great +works of the north. In Anjou this is less the case; but even there the +art is extremely inferior to that which is seen in Normandy and the +Ile-de-France. Brittany may be dismissed from consideration, as being, +like Cornwall, so provincial and so cut off from neighbours, that its +art could not fail to be very local, and without much influence outside +its own borders. + +There are examples of true Gothic outside its proper habitat, almost +pure French works being found as far south as Laon and Burgos, as far +east as Strassburg and Lausanne and as far north as Canterbury and +Cologne. Westminister Abbey was profoundly influenced by direct study of +French work. Normandy, Burgundy, and the land as far north as Tournay +seem to have shared in the work of transition; but the Gothic area +proper is the Ile-de-France with Picardy and Champagne, then Burgundy, +Normandy and England. + + Four remarkable buildings best represent the early phase of the Gothic + style, the abbey church of St Denis, and the cathedrals of Noyon, + Senlis and Sens. The first was begun in 1137, and the choir was + consecrated in 1143. The few parts of this work which remain are + sufficient to show how stately and yet fresh the whole work must have + been. Noyon cathedral, begun after a fire which occurred in 1131, had + its choir consecrated in 1157. The cathedral of Senlis was begun in + 1155. Sens cathedral, begun about the same time, or even earlier, is + the first of the great cathedrals. Many other buildings belong to the + first years of the style; such are the abbey churches of St Remi at + Reims, Notre Dame at Chalons and St Germain-des-Pres, Paris. The choir + of this last was consecrated in 1163, and in the same year Notre Dame, + Paris, was begun. This mighty building, although very complete, was + altered as to its effect by the substitution, early in the 13th + century, of large two-light windows for the earlier lancets of the + clerestory. The sculptures of the west front are exquisite. Laon + cathedral, another of the great churches, is of about the same age as + Notre Dame. It also has beautiful sculpture in its western porches, + but its most marked characteristic is the group of six great and + romantic towers which flank the fronts to the west, the north and the + south. In the 13th century, the church was extended to the east and + the original _chevet_ was destroyed. From the evidence furnished by + fine double-staged chapels to the transepts, it is most probable that + three similar chapels were set about the ambulatory of the apse, the + upper chapels opening from the fine vaulted triforium. Such an + arrangement existed at the noble church of Valenciennes, now + destroyed, but well recorded. At the end of the 12th century Chartres + cathedral was begun, perhaps its most notable constructive feature + being the high development that the flying buttresses have here + attained. It was followed in the early years of the 13th century by + Rouen cathedral, which derived much from its prototype. St Omer, a + fine early church, in turn, followed Rouen. + + [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Plan of Cathedral at Amiens.] + + The second stage of Gothic, introducing the traceried window, was + opened by the building of the cathedral of Reims, begun in 1211. This + is in every way one of the most perfect of cathedrals, as well for its + sculpture and glass as for its structure. Reims was followed by the + still greater cathedral at Amiens (fig. 40), which was begun in 1220 + at the west front, so that the superb sculpture (Plate II., fig. 64) + of the porches is earlier than that of Reims. Beauvais cathedral was + begun in 1247 on a still vaster scale, and with an ambition that + o'erleaped itself. Auxerre cathedral, and the very beautiful + collegiate churches of St Quentin and Semur, also followed Reims. Two + other cathedrals of the first rank which must be mentioned are those + of Bourges and Le Mans, each of these having double aisles about the + apse, with a large clerestory to the inner one of the two, above which + rises the great clerestory. This scheme is one of the great feats of + Gothic construction. Le Mans again furnished the most highly developed + form of _chevet_ planning (fig. 41). On this point Mr Street may again + be cited. "It was in the planning of the apse, with its surrounding + aisles and chapels, that all their ingenuity and science were + displayed. A simple apse is easy enough of construction, but directly + it is surrounded by an aisle or aisles, with chapels again beyond + them, the difficulties are great. The bays of the circular aisle, + instead of being square, are very much wider on one side than the + other, and it is most difficult to fit the vaulting to the unequal + space. In order to get over this, various plans were tried. At Notre + Dame, Paris, the vaulting bays were all triangular on plan, so that + the points of support might be twice as many on the outside line of + the circle as on the inside. But this was rather an unsightly + contrivance, and was not often repeated, though at Bourges there is + something of the same sort. At Le Mans the aisle vaulting bays are + alternately triangular and square; and this is, perhaps, the best + arrangement of all, as the latter are true and square, and none of the + lines of the vault are twisted or distorted in the slightest degree. + The arrangement of the chapels round the apse was equally varied. + Usually they are too crowded in effect; and, perhaps, the most + beautiful plan is that of Rouen cathedral, where there are only three + chapels with unoccupied bays between, affording much greater relief + and variety of lighting than the commoner plan which provided a chapel + to every bay. The planning and design of the _chevet_ is the great + glory of the French medieval school. When the same thing was + attempted, as at Westminster, or by the Germans at Cologne, it was + evidently a copy, and usually an inferior copy, of French work. No + English works led up to Westminster Abbey, and no German works to the + cathedral at Cologne." + + The variety in the planning of the _chevets_ must be remarked. There + might be only one chapel opening from the semicircular ambulatory, as + at Langres, Sens, Auxerre, Bayeux and Lausanne. Canterbury cathedral, + designed by William of Sens, is perhaps the most perfect example. + There were three separated chapels, as at Rouen, St Omer, Semur, &c., + or there might be five filling the whole space, which became the + general later scheme. Chartres furnishes an intermediate plan, in + having the alternate chapels much shallower than the others. The + chapels might be circular or polygonal or alternately square and + round. Of the last the cathedral of Toledo is a wonderful example. The + plan with parallel apses also continued in use, as at the beautiful + abbey church at Dijon and St Urbain at Troyes. Apsidal transepts were + built at Noyon, Soissons and Valenciennes. + + Another stage of development was reached with the building of the + Sainte Chapelle in Paris, begun in 1244. With this work the Gothic + system reached complete maturity. Here for the first time large + traceried windows seem to have been perfected, and, moreover, the + structure was so organized into a series of wide window spaces, only + divided by strong far-projecting buttress piers, that the stained + glass ideal found full expression and the building became a lantern + for its display. + + [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Cathedral of Le Mans. East end and Chevet.] + + During the next half-century the influence of the Sainte Chapelle is + to be traced everywhere, and its system of construction was developed + to the furthest possible point in St Urbain at Troyes, begun in 1260. + Exploration of the Gothic theory of structure could be carried no + further. From this point the style turned in on itself, becoming more + unreasonably intricate, artificial and mannerized. One of the finest + examples of the style of the early 14th century is the eastern limb of + St Ouen, Rouen; Troyes cathedral is also an important example of later + work. As Mr Street says: "Later French architecture ran a very similar + course to that in England. The 13th century was that in which it was + seen at its best. In the 14th the same sort of change took place as + elsewhere; and art was beautiful, but it was too much an evidence of + skilfulness and adroitness. It was harder and colder also than English + work of the same age; and when it fell, it did so before the inroads + of a taste for what has been called Flamboyant architecture,--a gay + and meretricious style which trusted to ornament for all its effect, + and, in spite of many beauties, had none of the sturdy magnificence of + much of our English Perpendicular style." + + M. Enlart has recently accepted the view that the germs of flamboyancy + in the later French Gothic are to be found in the flowing curvilinear + forms of early 14th-century work in England. + + Up to the middle of the 16th century, magnificent works in the + national style were still being executed. St Vulfran at Abbeville, St + Maclou in Rouen, and the facade of the cathedral of Rouen, may be + mentioned; some of the last works were the immense transepts of + Beauvais cathedral and the facade of Tours. + + We have necessarily spoken most of churches, but the palaces, castles + and civic buildings form another great class hardly less interesting. + The castles of Coucy and Chateau Gaillard may rival any cathedral. + Among civic buildings may be mentioned the palais de justice at Rouen + and the hotel de ville at Compiegne, both late but beautiful and + impressive types. The royal palace of Paris is now represented by the + Sainte Chapelle, but accounts of its splendid hall and general + arrangements have been preserved. At Poitiers is still extant the hall + of the palace of the counts of Poitou; at Laon the episcopal palace is + almost entire; there are considerable remains of the bishops' palaces + of Beauvais, Evreux, Rouen, Reims: and the pope's palace at Avignon + must also be mentioned in this connexion. The most perfect existing + great houses of the middle ages are those of Jacques Coeur at Bourges + and of the abbot of Cluny in Paris. A large number of fine houses on a + small scale, dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, are still + preserved at Beauvais, Auxerre, Chartres, Cordes, &c. The house of the + musicians at Reims, c. 1280, is adorned by a series of seated + life-sized figures playing instruments, in sculpture of a very high + order. A good and concise account of the smaller houses in France is + given in Hudson Turner's _Some Account of Domestic Architecture_, and + in C. Enlart's _Manuel d'archeologie_, the best and most recent survey + of the whole field of medieval antiquities in France. (W. R. L.) + + +ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN + +What strikes the architectural student most forcibly in Spain is the +concurrent existence of two schools of art during the best part of the +middle ages. The Moors invaded Spain in 711, and were not finally +expelled from Granada until 1492. During the whole of this period they +were engaged, with more or less success, in contests for superiority +with the Christian natives. In those portions of the country which they +held longest, and with the firmest hand, they enforced their own customs +and taste in art almost to the exclusion of all other work. Where their +rule was not permanent their artistic influence was still felt, and even +beyond what were ever the boundaries of their dominion, there are still +to be seen in Gothic buildings some traces of acquaintance with Arabic +art not seen elsewhere in Europe, with the exception, perhaps, of the +southern part of the Italian peninsula, and there differing much in its +development. The mosque of Cordova in the 9th century, the Alcazar and +Giralda at Seville in the 13th, the Court of Lions in the Alhambra in +the 14th, several houses in Toledo in the 15th century, are examples of +what the Moors were building during the period of the middle ages in +which the best Gothic buildings were being erected. Some portions of +Spain were never conquered by the Moors. These were the greater part of +Aragon, Navarre, Asturias, Biscay and the northern portion of Galicia. +Toledo was retaken by the Christians in 1085, Tarragona in 1089, +Saragossa in 1118, Lerida in 1149, Valencia in 1238 and Seville in 1248. +In the districts occupied by the Moors Gothic architecture had no +natural growth, whilst even in those which were not held by them the +arts of war were of necessity so much more thought of than those of +peace, that the services of foreign architects were made use of to an +extent unequalled in any other part of Europe. + + Of early Christian buildings erected from the 9th to the 11th century + remains of some twenty to thirty are known, and there are probably + others which will be found when the communications in the country + become more extended. The most interesting of these is Santa Maria de + Naranco near Oviedo, originally built in 848 as part of a palace. It + consisted of a rectangular hall, 42 ft. long and 16 ft. wide, with + entrance doorways in the centre of each side, and at each end an + arcade of three arches, carried on piers and coupled columns, which + led to an open loggia from which the hall was lighted. Fifty to sixty + years later it was converted into a church by blocking up the end of + the east loggia. The church is remarkable for its barrel vault, built + in fine masonry, and for the knowledge that is displayed in meeting + its thrust. Internally, in order to lessen the span, the upper part of + the walls is brought forward and carried on a series of arches on each + side, which are supported on piers consisting of four coupled columns, + virtually constituting an interior abutment. Externally, the thrust is + met by buttresses, features not found in France until about a century + and a half later. All the columns are spiral-fluted, and a + twisted-cord torus-moulding decorates the capitals and other features + in the church. The transverse ribs of the hall, which are of slight + projection, are carried on broad bands with disks in the spandrils of + the arches, the disks having badges in the centre, and being bordered, + as well as the bands, with twisted cords. Underneath the church is a + spacious vaulted crypt, which was built as a cellar or basement + storey, to raise and give more importance to the palace. The twisted + cord seems to have been a favourite device in all the early churches, + and is extensively employed in the decoration of San Miguel de Lino, a + small church about a quarter of a mile from Santa Maria de Naranco and + coeval with that church. Externally the church of San Miguel has all + the character of a Byzantine church; the windows in the front are + pierced with Moorish tracery, probably brought there by those + Christians who were flying to the sanctuaries of Asturias from the + incursions of the Moors. In another church, about 15 m. south of + Oviedo, Santa Christina de Leon, all the attached staffs are decorated + with spiral fluting. The choir is raised, and approached by steps on + either side through a screen of three arches, of the type known as + Transennae in the earlier Christian of Rome. Here, as in Santa Maria + de Naranco, the church is covered with a barrel vault with similar + constructive and decorative features. Externally the buttresses are in + great profusion, there being two to each bay. The screen, the pierced + marble slabs between the columns carrying it, and the decoration of + the capitals, all show Byzantine influence. Other early churches are + those of San Pablo del Campo (930) and San Pedro de las Puellas, both + in Barcelona, the fine church at the village of Priesca near + Villaviciosa (915), the monastery of Valdedios (893) and that of San + Salvador (1218), in which, notwithstanding its late date, there is a + distinct Moorish influence. This influence is also to be noticed in + the north of Spain, although it was never occupied by the Moors. Thus + in the earliest church known, at Banos de Cerrato near Palencia + (founded in 662, but restored in 711), there is a horse-shoe barrel + vault over the square apse. Again in San Miguel de Escalada (913) near + Leon, there are horse-shoe arches in the nave, and the three apses are + horse-shoe on plan. San Pedro at Zamora is a vaulted church with + horse-shoe arches in the nave, but otherwise Byzantine in style. In + the church of Corpus Christi at Segovia the nave is Moorish in style, + and the octagonal columns of the nave have capitals with fir cones, as + in the well-known Santa Maria la Blanra at Toledo, originally a + synagogue. The most remarkable church of all, so far as Moorish style + is concerned, is the church of the monastery of Santiago de Penalva, + near Villafranca del Vierzo, built between 931 and 951, and therefore + coeval with Cordova. The church is 40 ft. long by 20 ft. wide, covered + by a barrel vault with transverse horse-shoe arch in the centre + carrying the same. At each end is an apse with horse-shoe arches + carried on marble shafts with Byzantine capitals. Though of later + date, there is another interesting Romanesque example in the Templars' + church of La Vera Cruz at Segovia (1204), which is twelve-sided with + three apses, and in the centre has a chapel built in imitation of the + Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. + + The buildings which come next in point of date are all evidently + derived from or erected by the architects of those which were at the + time being built in the south of France. These churches are uniform in + plan, with central lanterns and three eastern apses. The nave has + usually a waggon or barrel vault, supported by quadrant vaults in the + aisles, and the steeples are frequently polygonal in plan. If these + churches are compared with examples like that of the cathedral at + Carcassonne on the other side of the Pyrenees, their identity in style + will at once be seen. A still more remarkable evidence of similarity + has been pointed out between the church of St Sernin, Toulouse, and + the cathedral of Santiago. The plan, proportions and general design of + the two churches are identical. Here we see a noble ground-plan, + consisting of nave with aisles, transepts, central lantern and chevet, + consisting of an apsidal choir, with a surrounding aisle and chapels + opening into it at intervals. This example is the more remarkable, + inasmuch as the early Spanish architects very rarely built a regular + _chevel_, and almost always preferred the simpler plan of apsidal + chapels on either side of the choir. And its magnificent scale and + perfect preservation to the present day combine to make it one of the + most interesting architectural relics in the country. + + Among the more remarkable buildings of the 12th and the beginning in + the 13th century are San Isidore, Leon; San Vicente, Avila; several + churches in Segovia; and the old cathedral at Lerida. They are much + more uniform in character than are the churches of the same period in + the various provinces of France, and the developments in style, where + they are seen at all, seldom have much appearance of being natural + local developments. This, indeed, is the most marked feature of + Spanish architecture in all periods of its history. In such a country + it might have been expected that many interesting local developments + would have been seen; but of these there are but one or two that + deserve notice. One of them is illustrated admirably in the church of + San Millan, Segovia, where beyond the aisles of the nave are open + cloisters or aisles arcaded on the outside, and opening by doors into + the aisles of the nave. A similar external south portico exists in San + Miguel de Escalada, already referred to, Santo Domingo, Burgos, and + San Esteban at Segovia. It would be difficult to devise a more + charming arrangement for buildings in a hot country, whilst at the + same time the architectural effect is in the highest degree beautiful. + The universality of the central tower and lantern has been already + mentioned. This was often polygonal, and its use led to the erection + of some lanterns or domes of almost unique beauty and interest. The + old cathedral at Salamanca, the church at Toro and the cathedral of + Zamora, all deserve most careful study on this score. Their lanterns + are almost too lofty in proportion to be properly called domes, and + yet their treatment inside and outside suggests a very beautiful form + of raised dome. They are carried on pointed arches, and are circular + in plan internally and octagonal on the exterior, the angles of the + octagon being filled with large turrets, which add much to the beauty + of the design, and greatly also to its strength. Between the + supporting arches and the vault there are, at Salamanca, two tiers of + arcades continued all round the lantern, the lower one pierced with + four, and the upper with twelve lights, and the vault or dome is + decorated with ribs radiating from the centre. On the exterior the + effect is rather that of a low steeple covered with a stone roof with + spherical sides than of a dome, but the design is so novel and so + suggestive, that it is well worth detailed description. Nothing can be + more happy than the way in which the light is admitted, whilst it is + also to be noted that the whole work is of stone, and that there is + nothing in the design but what is essentially permanent and monumental + in construction. The only other Spanish development is the + introduction, to a very moderate extent, of features derived from the + practice of the Moorish architects. This is, however, much less seen + than might have been expected, and is usually confined to some small + feature of detail, such, e.g. as the carving of a boss, or the filling + in of small tracery in circular windows, where it would in no way + clash with the generally Christian character of the art. + + The debateable period of transition which is usually so interesting is + very sterile in Spain. A good model once adopted from the French was + adhered to with but little modification, and it was not till the + 13th-century style was well established in France and England that any + introduction of its features is seen here; and then, again, it is the + work of foreign architects imported for the work and occasion, + bringing with them a fully developed style to which nothing whatever + in Spain itself led up by a natural or evident development. The three + great Spanish churches of this period are the cathedrals of Toledo, + Leon and Burgos (Plate II., fig. 65). Those of Siguenza, Lerida and + Tarragona, fine as they are, illustrate the art of the 12th rather + than of the 13th century, but these three great churches are perfect + Early Pointed works, and most complete in all their parts. The + cathedral of Toledo is one of the most nobly designed churches in + Europe. In dimensions it is surpassed only by the cathedrals of Milan + and Seville, whilst in beauty of plan it leaves both those great + churches far behind. The _chevet_, in which two broad aisles are + carried round the apse with chapels alternately square and apsidal + opening out of them, is perhaps the most perfect of all the schemes we + know. It is as if the French _chevets_, all of which were more or less + tentative in their plan, had culminated in this grand work to which + they had led the way. The architectural detail of this great church is + generally on a par with the beauty and grandeur of its plan, but is + perhaps surpassed by the somewhat later church at Leon. Here we have a + church built by architects whose sole idea was the erection of a + building with as few and small points of support as possible, and with + the largest possible amount of window opening. It was the work of men + whose art had been formed in a country where as much sun and light as + possible were necessary, and is quite unsuited for such a country as + Spain. Nevertheless it is a building of rare beauty and delicacy of + design. Burgos, better known than either of the others, is inferior in + scale and interest, and its character has been much altered by added + works more or less Rococo in character, so that it is only by analysis + and investigation that the 13th-century church is still seen under and + behind the more modern excrescences. + + The next period is again marked by work which seems to be that of + foreigners. The fully developed Middle Pointed or Geometrical Gothic + is indeed very uniform all over Europe. Here, however, its efforts + were neither grand in scale nor interesting. Some of the church + furniture, as, e.g. the choir screens at Toledo, and some of the + cloisters, are among the best features. The work is all correct, tame + and academical, and has none of the dignity, power and interest which + marked the earlier Spanish buildings. Towards the end of the 14th + century the work of Spanish architects becomes infinitely more + interesting. The country was free from trouble with the Moors; it was + rich and prosperous, and certainly its buildings at this period were + so numerous, so grand and so original, that they cannot be too much + praised. Moreover, they were carefully designed to suit the + requirements of the climate, and also with a sole view to the + accommodation conveniently of enormous congregations, all within sight + of the preacher or the altar. This last development seems to have been + very much the work of a great architect of Majorca, Jayme Fabre by + name. The grandest works of his school are still to be seen in + Catalonia. Their churches are so vast in their dimensions that the + largest French and English buildings seem to be small by comparison, + and being invariably covered with stone vaults, they cannot be + compared to the great wooden-roofed churches of the preaching orders + in Italy and elsewhere, in which the only approach is made to their + magnificent dimensions. The cathedral of Gerona is the most remarkable + example. Here the choir is planned like the French _chevet_ with an + aisle and chapels round it, and opens with three lofty arches into the + east wall of a nave which measures no less than 73 ft. in the clear, + and is covered with a stone vaulted ceiling. In Barcelona there are + several churches of very similar description; at Manresa another, but + with aisles to its nave; and at Palma in Majorca one of the same plan + as the last, but of even much larger dimensions. Perhaps there is no + effort of any local school of architects more worthy of study and + respect than this Catalonian work of the 14th and 15th centuries. Such + a happy combination of noble design and proportions with entirely + practical objects places its author among the very greatest architects + of any time. It is one thing to develop patiently step by step from + the work of one's fathers in art, quite another to strike out an + entirely new form by a new combination of the old elements. In + comparison with the works just mentioned the other great Spanish + churches of the 15th century are uninteresting. But still their scale + is grand and though their detail is over-elaborated and not beautiful, + it is impossible to deny the superb effect of the interior of such + churches as those of Seville, Segovia and Salamanca (new cathedral). + They are very similar in their character, their columns are formed + by the prolongation of the reedy mouldings of the arches, their window + traceries are poorly designed, and their roofs are covered with a + complex multitude of lierne ribs. Yet the scale is fine, the admission + of light, generally high up and in sparing quantity, is artistic, and + much of the furniture is either picturesque or interesting. The _tout + ensemble_ is generally very striking, even where the architectural + purist is apt to grumble at the shortcomings of most of the detail. + + [Illustration: PLATE V. + + FIG. 72.--DOOR OF SAN MICHELE, PAVIA. + + _Photo, Alinari._ + + FIG. 73.--UNIVERSITY, SALAMANCA. + + _Photo, Lacoste._ + + FIG. 74.--TOWN HALL, SEVILLE. + + _Photo, Lacoste._] + + [Illustration: PLATE VI. + + FIG. 75.--BANQUETING HOUSE, WHITEHALL. + + _Photo, F. Frith & Co._ + + FIG. 76.--WOLLATON HALL. + + _Photo, F. Frith & Co._ + + FIG. 77.--HAMPTON COURT. + + _Photo, Stuart._] + + The remarks which have been made so far have been confined to the + fabrics of the churches of Spain. It would be easy to add largely to + them by reference to the furniture which still so often adorns them, + unaltered even if uncared for; to the monuments of the mighty dead; to + the sculpture which frequently adorns the doorways and screens; and to + the cloisters, chapter-houses and other dependent buildings, which add + so much charm in every way to them. Besides this, there are very + numerous castles, often planned on the grandest scale, and some, if + not very many, interesting remains of domestic houses and palaces; and + most of these, being to some extent flavoured by the neighbourhood of + Moorish architects, have more character of their own than has been + accorded to the churches. Finally, there are considerable tracts of + country in which brick was the only material used; and it is curious + that this is almost always more or less Moorish in the character of + its detail. The Moors were great brickmakers. Their elaborate + reticulated enrichments were easily executed in it, and the example + set by them was, of course, more likely to be followed by Spaniards + than that of the nearest French brick building district in the region + of Toulouse. The brick towers are often very picturesque; several are + to be seen at Toledo, others at Saragossa, and, perhaps the most + graceful of all, in the old city of Tarazona in Aragon, where the + proportions are extremely lofty, the face of the walls everywhere + adorned with sunk panels, arcading, or ornamental brickwork, and at + the base there is a bold battered slope which gives a great air of + strength and stability to the whole. On the whole, it must be + concluded that the medieval architecture of Spain from the 12th + century is of less interest than that of most other countries, because + its development was hardly ever a national one. The architects were + imported at one time from France, at another from the Low Countries, + and they brought with them all their own local fashions, and carried + them into execution in the strictest manner; and it was not till the + end of the 14th century, and even then only in Catalonia, that any + buildings which could be called really Spanish in their character were + erected. (R. P. S.) + + +ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND + +_Pre-Conquest._--The history of English architecture before the Norman +Conquest is still only imperfectly known. Its parentage is triple: +Roman, Celtic and Teutonic. To the first belongs the general building +tradition of the Romanized West, and the influence of the mission of +Augustine at the end of the 6th century, and of such men as Wilfrid in +the 7th. The Celtic element is due to the Scottish (Irish) church, which +never gained much hold on the south of England, while the Teutonic +influence shows itself in the later developments, which are allied to +the early buildings of kindred peoples in Germany. Fragments of existing +early churches have been attributed to the time of the Roman occupation, +but all are doubtful, with the exception of the remains of what is +believed to have been a Christian church excavated at Silchester in +1892. This was a basilica of ordinary form, comprising an apse with +western orientation, nave and aisles, transepts of slight projection, +and narthex. Augustine's cathedral church of Canterbury, which he had +learned was originally constructed by the labours of Roman believers +(Bede), was also a basilica with western apse; its eastern apse and +_confessio_ beneath were probably a later addition. Remains of early +churches are found on several sites where churches are recorded to have +been built during the missionary period. Of these, Reculver (c. 670) and +Brixworth (c. 680) have aisled naves and eastern apses. At Brixworth a +square bay intervenes between the apse and the nave. St Pancras, +Canterbury, of the time of Augustine, Rochester (604), and Lyminge +(founded 633), show unaisled naves of relatively wide proportion, with +eastern apses of stilted curve. In some of these churches there was a +triple arcade in front of the sanctuary, in place of the usual +"triumphal arch." The technique shows Roman influence, and Roman +materials are largely used. The existing crypts of Hexham and Ripon were +built by Wilfrid, c. 675. The description of Wilfrid's church at Hexham +gives the impression of an elaborate structure (_columnis variis et +porticibus multis suffultam_). Wilfrid also built at Hexham a church of +central plan, with projections (_porticus_) on the four sides, a type of +which no example has survived in England. Escomb (Durham) and parts of +Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, which are attributed to the same period, have +plans of an entirely different type--a relatively long and narrow nave, +with small square-ended chancel--a plan, usually attributed to Celtic +influence, which is most extensively represented in churches recognized +as Saxon. + + The evolution of the characteristic features of pre-Conquest + architecture was slow, and was doubtless greatly hindered by the + invasions of the Northmen from the end of the 8th century onward, but + germs of the fully developed style are to be found in the earliest + buildings. The western tower, usually of tall and slender proportion, + was developed from the western porch found at St Pancras, Canterbury, + and Monkwearmouth; sometimes, as in the latter church, actually raised + over the older porch. The lateral chapels of St Pancras, which existed + also in the Saxon cathedral of Canterbury, were developed into a + transept, culminating in the cruciform plan with central tower. The + characteristic "long-and-short" work, which consists of tall upright + stones alternating with stones bedded flat bonding into the rubble + work of the wall, has its prototype in the western arch of the porch + of Monkwearmouth, and in the jambs of the chancel arch at Escomb. + Sometimes the flat stones are cut back on the face, so that the + plaster which covered the rubble extended up to the line of the + upright stones, thus giving the quoin the appearance of a narrow + pilaster. The repetition of these pilasters on the face of the walling + constitutes rib-work, and these ribs are frequently connected by + semicircular or so-called "triangular" arches, forming a land of rude + arcading (Earls Barton, Barton-on-Humber.) Windows in the earliest + Saxon work are generally wide in proportion, and splayed on the inside + only; in the later work they commonly have splays both on the inside + and outside. Doorways have square jambs, without splay or rebate; + sometimes the jambs of doorways and windows are inclined, as in early + buildings in Ireland. Imposts to doorways, tower arches or chancel + arches are often square projecting blocks, sometimes chamfered on the + lower edge. The mid-wall shaft is a characteristic feature in the + belfry openings of Saxon towers; it supports an impost or + through-stone, of the full thickness of the wall, which receives the + semicircular arches over the openings. The method is analogous to that + commonly found in northern Italy and the Rhineland. Sometimes the + mid-wall shaft is a baluster, turned in a lathe. In some of the later + belfry openings, a capital intervenes between the mid-wall shaft and + the impost. The dating of buildings of this style is at present a + matter of considerable difficulty, but certain points, such as the + development of the cruciform plan, are useful for comparison. A fully + developed cross church was built at Romsey in 969, having also a + single axial western tower, and this seems to have been the normal + type of a large church in the later years of the style. Cruciform + plans, not yet fully developed, are found at Deerhurst, Breamore and + St Mary in the castle at Dover, and fully developed at Norton (Durham) + and Stow (Lincolnshire). The most advanced detail which occurs in + pre-Conquest buildings is the recessing of arches in orders. But for + the Conquest, English architecture might have developed somewhat on + the lines of contemporary work in Germany. It must be remembered, + however, that, although the Norman Conquest marks the beginning of a + new epoch in English architecture, the Norman manner had already been + introduced into England under Edward the Confessor, as is proved by + the considerable remains of that king's work at Westminster Abbey. + +The succeeding periods of English architecture have been divided into +so-called "styles" or "periods," though it should be recognized that all +such hard and fast divisions are purely artificial, and that, apart from +the objection that they exaggerate the importance of mere details, they +tend to obscure the fact that the history of Gothic architecture is a +history of continuous development. The following classifications, those +of Thomas Rickman and Edmund Sharpe, are in most general use for the +present by such students as are not content with a nomenclature based on +simple chronology:-- + + Rickman. Sharpe. + 1066-1189 Norman. 1066-1145 Norman. + 1145-1190 Transitional. + 1189-1307 Early English. 1190-1245 Lancet. + 1245-1315 Geometrical. + 1307-1377 Decorated. 1315-1360 Curvilinear. + 1377-1546 Perpendicular. 1360-1550 Rectilinear. + +_Norman Conquest to c. 1150._--At the time of the Conquest of England, +the Norman school was already one of the most advanced Romanesque +schools of western Europe. Its marked individuality and logical +character are clearly expressed in the abbey churches of Jumieges and St +Etienne and Sainte-Trinite at Caen, and it quickly supplanted the less +advanced Romanesque manner of the conquered English. As soon as the +conqueror had made himself master in his new kingdom, cathedral and +abbey churches were rebuilt on a scale hitherto unknown either in +Normandy or England. As the effect of the Norman Conquest was to +incorporate the church in England more closely with western Christendom, +so its effect on architecture was to bring it into line with the best +continental achievement of its time. The immense energy of the Norman +bishops and abbots gave such a stimulus to architecture that by the +close of the 11th century, England, rather than Normandy, had become the +real _foyer_ of the Norman school. + + The plans of the larger churches show greater development in the + length of choir, transept and nave than was usual in Normandy. Many + follow the type of choir plan generally represented in the + contemporary churches of Normandy which have survived--a central apse, + flanked by an apse terminating each aisle, but the two bays usual in + the Norman churches frequently became four in England. The Confessor's + church of Westminster seems to have had an ambulatory with radiating + chapels, a plan which, although rare in the surviving churches of + Normandy, was adopted in several of the more important English + churches (St Augustine's, Canterbury; Winchester; Worcester; + Gloucester; Bury St Edmunds; Norwich; Tewkesbury). Some of these have + great vaulted crypts extending under the choir and its aisles. The + transept, generally of considerable length, has one or more apsidal + chapels on the east side of each arm, or an eastern aisle, or even (as + at Winchester and Ely) both eastern and western aisles. The + lantern-tower over the crossing was a characteristic feature in + England, as in Normandy. Frequently the nave was of great length, + extending to twelve bays at Winchester, thirteen at Ely, and fourteen + at Norwich. Some churches, as Ely, Bury St Edmunds, and later + Peterborough (Plate VIII., fig. 81), show a western transept, with + corresponding development of the west front. Two western towers are + most usual, but Ely (Plate II., fig. 67), and originally Winchester, + had the single western tower, a survival from pre-Conquest times, + which is found also in numberless parish churches. In their general + design, the Norman churches show great skill in composition, and in + the logical expression of structure, and sure grasp of the problems to + be solved. The subordination of arches (arches built in rings, or + orders, recessed one within the other) was carried further than in + other Romanesque schools, and with this went the subordination of the + pier, planned with a shaft to receive each order of the semicircular + arch. Sometimes the shafted piers of the great arcades alternate with + cylindrical (or later with octagonal) pillars; sometimes, as at + Gloucester and Tewkesbury, all the pillars are cylindrical. The + triforium usually has a single wide semicircular arched opening, + enclosing two or more minor semicircular arches springing from + detached shafts. Usually the aisle wall is carried up to form a + complete triforium storey, unvaulted, and lighted by windows in the + outer wall. The clerestory has a single window in each bay, with a + wall passage between the window and an internal arcade, usually of + three semicircular arches on shafts, the central arch being wider than + the side arches. Most frequently naves and transepts were unvaulted, + and finished with wood ceilings, while the aisles were covered with + groined vaults of rubble, on transverse arches. The general design of + the greater churches indicates, however, that the Norman builders were + aiming at a completely vaulted structure. The half-barrel vault over + the triforium of Gloucester, and the transverse arches over the + triforium of Chichester, seem to be constructed to afford the + necessary abutment to vaults over the choir, such indeed as still + exist over some choirs in Normandy built before the end of the 11th + century. The problem was only successfully solved by the introduction + of the diagonal rib, which completed the structural membering of the + vault. Durham, begun in 1093 (fig. 42), is the earliest example in + England of this important innovation, and it precedes by some quarter + of a century the earliest ribbed vaults of the Ile-de-France. The + abutting arches under the roof of its triforium are actually + rudimentary flying-buttresses, and we have here all the essential + elements of Gothic architecture, except the pointed arch, which is + only systematically used in English vaulted construction from about + the middle of the 12th century. The decorative forms of the earlier + buildings of the Norman school are severely simple. Arches, which at + first were usually unmoulded, soon received effective mouldings of + rolls and hollows, continuing a tradition of the latest pre-Conquest + architecture. Two types of capitals are found in the earlier buildings + after the Conquest; the volute capital, descended from the Corinthian, + which was the normal type in Normandy; and the cubic or cushion + capital, formed by the penetration of a segment of a sphere, or + segments of cones, with a cube, a type which, appearing earlier in + England than in Normandy, was doubtless derived from pre-Conquest + models, and in the 12th century developed into the scalloped capital. + The decoration of wall-surfaces by arcades, frequently of intersecting + semicircular arches, is characteristic of the Norman school. Windows + are splayed in the interior, and in the more important buildings are + enriched with shafts and moulded arches. Ornamentation is frequently + concentrated on the doorways, which are often of many orders, with a + shaft under each order. Based chiefly on geometric forms, such as the + chevron or zigzag, star, fret and cable, the decoration becomes richer + and more refined as the 12th century advances, though in sculpture the + Norman was less advanced than some other Romanesque schools. + + [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Plan of Durham Cathedral. + + From Rickman's _Styles of Architecture_, by permission of Parker & + Co.] + + The foregoing generalization applies more particularly to the greater + churches, but numberless parish churches present similar + characteristics. Chancels are sometimes apsidal, but by far the most + prevalent type of plan is the aisleless oblong nave and square-ended + chancel, with or without a western tower. Other types of aisleless + plans are the cruciform church with central tower, or simply nave and + chancel with central tower. Even where subsequent alterations and + rebuildings have destroyed almost everything, the influence of these + plans on the later work is the key to a right understanding of the + history of the greater number of English medieval churches. + +_12th Century (second half)._--The second half of the 12th century is +the period of transition _par excellence_--of transition from Romanesque +to Gothic. The school of the Ile-de-France, which up to c. 1120 was one +of the most backward of the Romanesque schools, had made enormous +progress when the ambulatory of Suger's church of Saint-Denis was built +(1140-1144), and thenceforth it continued to lead the way. There is no +doubt that, from the middle of the 12th century, English architecture +was continuously influenced by the Ile-de-France, for the most part +through Normandy, but it must be considered to be a development on +parallel lines, with strongly marked characteristics of its own, and not +merely as an importation of forms already developed elsewhere. At the +same time, the influence of the Cistercian revival was considerable, not +so much in the introduction of foreign forms as in the direction of +simplicity and severity, which acted as a valuable check to the +prevalent tendency to exaggerate the importance of surface decoration. + + The substitution of the square east-end for the apse in the plans of + the greater churches, already effected at Romsey, was furthered by the + simple plans of the Cistercian churches. The altar spaces provided by + the radiating chapels of the French chevet were in England obtained by + returning the aisles across the square east-end of the choir, or by an + eastern transept. The latter occurs first here in "the glorious choir + of Conrad" of the beginning of the 12th century at Canterbury which + affords also the first example of the eastward extension of the choir + which became so characteristic a feature of English planning. The + reconstruction of Conrad's choir after the fire of 1174 led to a + further extension eastward with the eastern chapel which was adopted + in many of the greater churches, either in the form of a lower + building, sometimes of three spans eastward of the east gable or of an + extension of the choir itself to its full height. The work of William + of Sens at Canterbury (1175-1178) was naturally more French in + character than other contemporary works in England, but the work of + his successor, William the Englishman (1179-1184) shows the beginnings + of what became the characteristically English manner of the 13th + century. + + The second half of the 12th century was a period of rapid development + of architectural forms in the direction of increased elegance and + refinement. The pointed arch employed at first for the arches of + construction entirely superseded the semicircular arch in doorways, + windows and arcades by the end of the century and its adoption finally + solved the problem of vaulted construction. The abutting arches under + the triforium roofs of the earlier churches were developed into flying + buttresses above the roofs springing from buttresses of increased + projection and weighted by pinnacles. Mouldings became more graceful + and subtle in their profiles. Capitals reverted to the volute type, + transformed and refined. The massive Romanesque pier was gradually + developed into the lighter Gothic pier in which detached shafts were + extensively adopted. The use of Purbeck marble for these shafts must + be considered in relation to the painted decoration of the wall + surfaces which although now almost entirely lost was an important + factor in the internal effect. + +_13th Century_ (_first half_).--The last decade of the 12th century +marks the achievement of a fully developed Gothic style, with strongly +marked national individuality. During the 13th century, English Gothic +follows the same general course of evolution as that of northern France, +but the parallelism is less close than in the preceding century. + +St Hugh's choir at Lincoln (begun 1192) had indeed an apse, with +ambulatory and radiating chapels though its plan does not appear to have +been controlled by the vaulting as in the French chevets and what there +is of French influence seems to have come rather through Canterbury than +by a more direct route. This choir has the eastern transept which +characterizes several of the greater churches of the first half of the +13th century--Salisbury (fig 43), Beverley, Worcester, Rochester, +Southwell. The square eastern termination, the less ambitious height, +and the comparatively simple buttress-system combine to give the English +Gothic cathedral an air of greater repose than is found in the +magnificent triumphs of French Gothic art. In its structural system, +too, English Gothic retained something of the Romanesque treatment of +wall surface, the suppression of the wall and the concentration of the +masonry in the pier was never carried so far as in the complete Gothic +of France. The general tendency during the 13th century, as in the 12th, +was in the direction of increased lightness and elegance. The employment +of detached shafts and the extensive use of marble (generally Purbeck) +for these shafts is a distinguishing feature of the first half of the +century. The vaulting system is fully developed, the most usual form is +the simple quadripartite but the tendency to introduce additional ribs +(tiercerons) and ridge ribs already makes its appearance in the nave of +Lincoln and the presbytery of Ely (Plate VIII., fig. 82) to be yet +further developed in the second half of the century. Capitals are either +simply moulded an elaboration of the plain bell capitals of the latter +part of the 12th century, or finely sculptured, with conventional or +stiff leaved, foliage of the crocket type. The use of the circular +abacus begun in the preceding century entirely supersedes the square +abacus which was retained in France. Mouldings are profiled with great +refinement, the alternation of rounds and hollows producing effective +contrasts of light and shade, and the far more complicated profiles of +arch mouldings provide another feature which distinguishes English work +of this period from French. Windows of single pointed lights the so +called "lancet," though frequently by no means sharply pointed are the +prevalent type, grouped in pairs triplets &c. and arranged in tiers in +the large gables or sometimes with only a single group of tall lights, +like the "five sisters" of the north transept of York. Few works are +more admirably designed than some of the towers of this period. Probably +the greatest excellence ever attained in English art of the 13th century +was reached in the great Yorkshire abbeys, for purity of general design +excellence of construction, and beauty of detail, they are unsurpassed +by the work of any other period. + +_13th Century_ (_second half_).--The grouping together of "lancet" +windows, the piercing of the wall above them with foiled circles, and +the combination of the whole under an enclosing arch, soon led to the +introduction of tracery, for which the design of earlier triforium +arcades had also afforded a suggestion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43--Plan of Salisbury Cathedral.] + + Bar-tracery appears just before the middle of the 13th century, and + the great tracery window filling the whole width of a bay, or the + entire gable end, soon becomes a most characteristic feature. The + earlier tracery windows show only simple geometrical forms, foiled + arches to the heads of the lights and foiled circles above, of which + the abbey church and the chapter houses of Westminster and Salisbury + afford most beautiful examples. In some particulars, such as its + chevet plan and its comparatively great height, Westminster approaches + more nearly to the French type than other English churches of the 13th + century, but its details are characteristically English and of great + beauty. In the last quarter of the century, pointed trefoils or + quatrefoils are largely used in tracery, and the foliations frequently + form the lines of the tracery, without enclosing circles. Contemporary + with this change is the gradual absorption of the triforium into the + clerestory, of which Southwell and Pershore are precocious examples. + Contemporary also was the adoption of an excessively naturalistic type + of foliage. The art of masonry and stone cutting was rapidly + developed. The detached shaft, always structurally weak, was abandoned + for the pier with engaged shafts separated by mouldings. The mouldings + of arches become less deeply undercut, and the greater use of the + fillet tends to give a more liney effect. The whole practice of art + was growing more scholarly, perhaps but at the same time it was more + conscious, and the cleverness of the mason was almost as often + suggested as the noble character of his work. + +_14th Century_ (_first half_).--The juxtaposition of the foliations +without enclosing circles in tracery windows produced curves of +contraflexure, which led insensibly to the complete substitution of +flowing lines for geometrical forms in tracery. + + Flowing tracery makes its appearance in England about 1310, and lasts + some fifty years. Up to the end of the 13th century, window tracery + had developed in France and England on parallel lines though the + English work was always slightly behind France in point of date. All + this is changed with the adoption of flowing tracery in England its + development was purely national, and owed nothing to France. Indeed, + the French flamboyant only makes its appearance at the time when + flowing tracery was being abandoned in England. Not only window + traceries, but mouldings, carvings and other details are changed in + character. The ogee form is used in arches in wall arcades of great + beauty and elaboration, as in the Lady chapel at Ely, and in the + canopies of tombs, such as the magnificent Percy tomb at Beverley. + Niches and arcades are richly ornamented, and small decorative + buttresses are used in the jambs of doorways, windows and niches. The + moulded capital is still used, along with the capital with a + continuous convex band of wavy foliage. Many of the most beautiful + English towers and spires date from this period, the work of which is + perhaps seen at its best in the parish churches of south Lincolnshire. + +_From Middle of 14th Century._--The over-elaboration of flowing tracery +inevitably led to a reaction. The beauty of the lines of the tracery had +controlled everything, and the resulting forms of the openings, which +presented serious difficulties for the glass painter, had been a +secondary consideration. Hence an endeavour to return to a simpler and +more dignified, if more mechanical, style of building. The splendid +exuberance of the earlier 14th century style gave way to the +introduction of vigorous, straight, vertical and horizontal lines. + + The beginnings of the new manner are to be seen in the south transept + of Gloucester before 1337. After the great interruption of building + works caused by the Black Death of 1349 and its recurrence in + following years, the so-called "Perpendicular" style became general + all over the country. The preference for straight in place of flowing + lines became more and more developed. Doorways and arches were + enclosed within well-defined square outlines; walls were decorated by + panelling in rectangular divisions; vertical lines were emphasized by + the addition of pinnacles, and buttresses were used as mere + decorations, while horizontal lines were multiplied in string-courses, + parapets and window transoms. Capitals were frequently omitted, and + the mouldings of arches were continued down the piers. The use of the + depressed "four-centred" arch became common. Vaulting, which had + already been enriched by the multiplication of ribs, was further + complicated by cross-ribs (liernes), subdividing the simple spaces + naturally produced by the intersection of necessary ribs into panels; + these, again, were filled with tracery. The fan-vault was developed by + giving to all the ribs the same curvature; the outline of the fan is + bounded by a horizontal circular rib, and its effect is that of a + solid of revolution upon whose surface panels are sunk. The cloister + of Gloucester presents the earliest and perhaps the most beautiful + example. Finally, the builders displayed their mechanical skill by + introducing pendants, as in Henry VII.'s chapel at Westminster. This + latest period of English Gothic was a purely national development of + which it has been too much the fashion to speak disparagingly; for it + is futile to call such works as the nave of Winchester or the choir + and Lady-chapel of Gloucester "debased." Perhaps the worst that can be + said of this period is that there was too great a love of display, and + too much mechanical repetition, but it is none the less true that it + is to the 15th century that a very large number of English parish + churches owe their fine effect. East Anglia and Somersetshire possess + some of the choicest examples, and few things can be more beautiful + than the central towers of Gloucester and Canterbury, and the towers + of the Somersetshire churches. The open timber roofs, as, for + instance, those of the East Anglian churches, are superb, while many + of the churches of this period are still full of interesting furniture + and decoration. Finally, a word must be said of the wealth of + interesting examples of domestic architecture, which yet count among + the ornaments of the country. + + After the middle of the 16th century the practice of Gothic + architecture virtually died out, though traces of its influence, + especially in rural districts, were hardly lost until the end of the + 17th century. Good, sound, solid and simple forms, well constructed by + men who respected themselves and their work, and did not build only + for the passing hour, were still popular and general, so that the + vernacular architecture to a late period was often good and never + absolutely uninteresting. + + _Scotland._--A few words will suffice for Scottish and Irish + architecture, since the development in these countries followed much + the same course of change as in England. + + The earliest ecclesiastical structures which still survive in Scotland + follow the same general type as those of Ireland. The monastic + foundations of Queen Margaret and her sons introduced into Scotland + the Norman manner then universal in England. The best examples, such + as the nave of Dunfermline, which is an obvious inspiration from + Durham, Kelso of the later 12th century, and the parish churches of + Dalmeny and Leuchars, present the same characteristics as are found in + English churches of somewhat earlier dates than the buildings in + question, and some Romanesque forms survive to a later period than in + England. In the 13th century, too, the style of the Scottish churches + corresponds very closely with that of England, though the details are + generally simpler, and the structures are smaller. It is naturally + allied most closely with the north of England, where Cistercian + influence in the direction of simplicity and severity had been + exercised with the best results. The transept of Dryburgh, the choir + and crypt of Glasgow cathedral, the nave of Dunblane, the choir of + Brechin, and later Elgin cathedral, exhibit the style at its purest + and best. The disturbed condition of the country during the 14th + century was unfavourable to architecture, and when building revived at + the beginning of the 15th century its style became more national. + During the first half of the 15th century, it shows a certain + borrowing from English architecture of the flowing-tracery period. + Later, many features are borrowed both from England and France, and + architecture develops in picturesque and interesting fashion. Melrose + is one of the most characteristic, as it certainly is one of the most + charming of Scottish buildings; its earlier parts bear a close + resemblance to the earlier 14th-century work at York, while its later + parts show more similarity to English "Perpendicular" than is common + in Scotland. One of the most characteristic features of Scottish + architecture in the 15th century is the pointed barrel vault, which + directly supports the stone flagged roof. French influence is seen in + the employment of the polygonal apse for the termination of choirs, + and in some approaches to Flamboyant tracery. The details of the later + Gothic churches have but slight connexion either with France or + England, and show a curious revival of earlier motives. The + semicircular arch is in frequent use, and the "nail-head" and + "dog-tooth" ornament, as well as the use of detached shafts, are + revived. One of the most remarkable buildings of the 15th century in + Scotland is the collegiate church of Roslin, which has a pointed + barrel vault over its choir, with transverse barrel vaults over the + aisles, and is distinguished by the extreme richness of its + decoration. + + The domestic remains in Scotland are full of picturesque beauty and + magnificence. They are a distinctly national class of buildings of + great solidity, and much was sacrificed by their builders to the + genius of the picturesque. They can only be classed with the latest + Gothic buildings of other countries, but the mode of design shown in + them lasted much later than the late Gothic style did in England. The + vast height to which their walls were carried, the picturesque use + made of circular towers, the freedom with which buildings were planned + at various angles of contact to each other, and the general simplicity + of the ordinary wall, are their most distinct characteristics. + + _Ireland._--The chief interest of the medieval architecture of Ireland + belongs to the buildings which were erected before the English + conquest of the 12th century. The early monastic settlements seem to + have resembled the primitive Celtic fortresses, and consisted of a + series of huts or cells, surrounded by an enclosing wall. The + so-called "bee-hive" cell, which goes back to pre-Christian times, was + built of rough stone rubble without mortar, and roofed in the same + manner by corbelling over the courses of masonry. Some of these were + certainly dwellings, but others were oratories. The largest of those + in Skellig Michael is four-sided, and from this type the stone-roofed + church of oblong plan was developed. The later type, with oblong nave + and small square-ended chancel, retained much of the character of + these primitive structures, and their barrel vaults were sometimes + independent of the stone roof-covering, a system which lasted into the + 12th and 13th centuries. A certain megalithic character, and the + inclined jambs of doorway openings, are marked features of these early + churches. The round towers so frequently associated with them are + believed to be not earlier than the 9th century. Before the + introduction of Norman forms, Ireland possessed a Romanesque style of + her own, characterized by the survival of horizontal forms and their + incorporation into the round-arched style, the retention of the + inclined jambs of doorways, rich surface decoration, and the use of + certain ornamental motives of earlier Celtic origin. King Cormac's + chapel at Cashel is one of the best examples of the imported Norman + manner of the 12th century, and here we find much of the influence of + the earlier native style. The English conquest may be said to have + been the introduction to Ireland of Gothic art, and it was the local + variety of western England and south Wales which the conquerors + introduced. Among the buildings erected by the English in Ireland, + Kilkenny cathedral and the two 13th-century cathedrals of + Dublin--Christ Church and St Patrick's--are the most remarkable, but + there are many others. Their style is most plainly that of the English + conqueror, with no concession to, or consideration of, earlier Irish + forms of art. The result of the conquest was that the native style of + construction was never applied to large buildings, though it did not + at once disappear, as is witnessed by the church St Doulough near + Malahide, which appears to be a 14th-century building. The + characteristic features of later medieval Irish buildings, such as the + stepped battlements, the retention of flowing lines in the tracery, + and the peculiar treatment of crockets, are matters of no great + importance in the history of architecture, and indeed it is hardly to + be expected that a country with so stormy a history could have given + rise to any systematic developments. Of the monastic remains those of + the friaries are the most numerous, Ireland having many more friars' + churches to show than England, but such peculiarities as they possess + belong rather to the order than to any local influences. (J. Bn.) + + + ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY + + With the exception of the church built at Treves (Trier) by the + empress Helena, of which small portions can still be traced in the + cathedral, there are no remains of earlier date than the tomb-house + built by Charlemagne at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), which, though much + restored in the 19th century, is still in good preservation. It + consists (fig. 44) of an octagonal domed hall surrounded by aisles in + two storeys, both vaulted; externally the structure is a polygon of + sixteen sides, about 105 ft. in diameter, and it was preceded by a + porch flanked by turrets. It is thought to have been copied from S. + Vitale at Ravenna, but there are many essential differences. The same + design was repeated at Ottmarsheim and Essen, and a simpler version + exists at Nijmwegen in the Netherlands, also built by Charlemagne. + Although no remains exist of the monastery of St Gall in Switzerland + (see ABBEY), built in the beginning of the 9th century, a valuable + manuscript plan was found in the 17th century, in its library, which + would seem to have been a design for a complete monastery. It + contains features which are peculiar to the early German churches and + are rarely found elsewhere, and is therefore of considerable interest, + suggesting that some of the accessories of a monastery, supposed to + have been the result of subsequent development, were all clearly set + forth at this early period. The plan shows an eastern apse with a + crypt, and a choir in front; a western apse, nave and aisles, with a + series of altars down the latter; and on the west side, but detached + from the apse, two circular towers with staircases in them. + Unfortunately there are no churches remaining of the same date from + which we might judge how far these arrangements were followed; but + there are three early churches in the island of Reichenau on the Lake + of Constance, in one of which, Mittelzell, is a western apse with + staircases (here built up into a central tower), nave, and aisles with + altars at the side between every window. The eastern portion has been + rebuilt. At Oberzell, at the south end of the island, is a vaulted + crypt, which dates from the end of the 10th century. In the third and + much smaller church, Unterzell, there was no crypt, but three eastern + apses and a western apse, which was destroyed when the present nave + was built. At Gernrode in the Harz is a church with western and + eastern apses with vaulted crypts underneath (one of which dates from + 960 when the church was founded), and circular towers with staircases + in them on either side of the western apse. The church was completed + about a century later. In the arcade between the nave and aisles piers + alternate with the columns. Alternating piers are found also in + Quedlinburg (the crypt of which dates from 936 and the church above + about 1030) and many other early churches. Western apses exist at + Drubeck, Ilbenstadt, Treves, Huyseberg, St Michael and St Godehard at + Hildesheim, Mainz, the Obermunster at Regensburg, Laach, Worms, and at + a later date at Naumbergand Bamberg, showing that it was a feature + generally accepted in early and late periods. It has, however, one + great defect, that of depriving the west end of the church of those + magnificent porches which are the glory of the churches of France, the + cathedral of Spires (Speyer), the church at Limburg near Durkheim, the + cathedrals of Erfurt and Regensburg, being the few examples where a + dignified entrance is given; and further, that on entering the church + from the side, one is distracted by the rivalry of the two apses, and + it is only when turning the back on one or the other that one is able + to judge of the monumental effect of the interior. + + [Illustration: FIG. 44.--Plan of Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Plan of Cathedral at Mainz.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Plan of Cathedral at Worms.] + + The greater number of the churches above mentioned were covered over + with open timber roofs or flat ceilings; but the problem to be solved + in Germany, as well as in Italy, was that of vaulting over the nave, + and the cathedrals of Spires, Worms and Mainz (fig. 45) are the three + most important churches in which this was accomplished. The dates of + their vaults have never been quite settled; that of Spires would seem + to have been the earliest built, probably after 1162, when the church + was seriously damaged by a conflagration, and the vault is groined + only. In Worms (fig. 46) and Mainz there are diagonal moulded ribs, + which suggest a later date. Although of great height and width, the + absence of a triforium gallery in these cathedrals is a serious + defect, as it deprives the interior of that scale which the smaller + arcades in such a gallery give to the nave arcade below and the + clerestory above, and of those horizontal lines given by string + courses which are entirely wanting in these churches. Seeing that in + some of the earlier churches, as at Gernrode, St Ursula (Cologne), and + Nieder-Lahnstem, the triforium had already been introduced, and that + it was repeated in the later examples at Limburg on the Lahn, + Bacharach, Andernach, Bonn, Sinzig, and St Gereon (Cologne), it is + difficult to understand why, in the three great typical German + Romanesque churches, they should have been omitted. Externally the + design is extremely fine, owing to the grouping of the many towers at + the west and on either side of the transept or choir. In this respect + the cathedral of Mainz is the most superb structure in Germany, and to + the cathedral of Spires with its fine entrance porch (fig. 47) must be + given the second place. + + [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Plan of Cathedral in Spires.] + + One of the most perfect examples of the Rhenish-Romanesque styles is + the church of the abbey of Laach, completed shortly after the middle + of the 12th century. The eastern part of the church resembles the + ordinary type, but at the west end there is a narrow transept flanked + by circular towers, and a western apse enclosed in an atrium with + cloisters round, which forms the entrance to the church. The + sculptures in the capitals of the atrium are of the finest description + and represent the perfected type of the German Romanesque style. In + addition to the two circular towers flanking the west transept, a + square tower rises in the centre of the west front, two square towers + flank the choir and a crystal lantern crowns the crossing of the main + transept, and the grouping of all these features is very fine and + picturesque in effect. A small church at Rosheim in Alsace is quite + Lombardic in its exterior design, the pilaster strips and arched + corbel tables being almost identical. The same applies to the church + at Marmoutier, but the towers flanking the main front and the square + tower on the crossing of the western transept produce a composition + which one looks for in vain in the greater number of the churches in + Italy. + + In describing the Lombardic churches of North Italy, reference has + been made to the probable origin of the eaves-gallery, best + represented in the eastern apse of Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo. This + feature was largely adopted throughout the Rhine churches, and in the + Apostles' church and St Martin's at Cologne receives its fullest + development, being in addition to the eastern apse carried round the + apses of the north and south transepts, which in these two churches + and in St-Mary-in-the-Capitol, also in Cologne, constitute a special + treatment. In the Apostles' church, where round towers are built at + the junction of the three apses, the effect is extremely pleasing. In + the church at Bonn, the single apse is flanked by two lofty towers + which give great importance to the east front. + + The steeples of the same period have a character of their own. They + are either square or octangular in plan, arcaded or pierced with + windows, and roofed with gables or with spires rising out of the + gables. + + One peculiarity found in some of the German churches, and specially + those in the north-east, is that the nave and aisles are of the same + height. To these the term _Hallenkirchen_ is given. This type of + design is very grand internally, owing to the vast height of the piers + and arches. It also dispenses with the necessity for flying + buttresses, as the aisles, which are only half the width of the nave, + carry the thrust of the vault direct to the external buttresses. The + nave, however, is not so well lighted, though the aisle windows are + sometimes of stupendous height. The principal examples are those of + the church of St Stephen, Vienna, where both nave and aisles are + carried over with one vast root; at Munster, the _Wiesenkirche_ at + Soest; St Lawrence, Nuremberg; St Martin's, Landshut; Munich + cathedral, and others. + + St Gereon (1200-1227) and St Cunibert (1205-1248), in Cologne, besides + churches at Naumburg, Limburg and Gelnhausen, in which the pointed + arch is employed, are almost the only transitional examples in + Germany, and respond to work of a century earlier in France. Toward + the end of the 13th century the Romanesque style was supplanted by a + style which in no way grew out of it, but was rather an imitation of + a foreign style, the earliest examples being in the _Liebfrauenkirche_ + at Treves (1227-1243), and the churches at Marburg (1235-1283) and + Altenberg (1255-1301). In the latter church is a French chevet with + seven apsidal chapels. This brings us to the great typical cathedral + of Germany at Cologne (fig. 48), which had the advantages of having + been designed at the best age and completed on the original design, so + that with small exceptions a uniformity of style reigns throughout it. + It was begun in 1270 and apparently based on the plan of Amiens, the + transepts however having an additional bay each, and the two first + bays of the nave having thicker piers so as to carry the enormous + towers and spires which flank the chief facade. The principal defect + of the building is its relative shortness, owing to its + disproportionate height. This has always been felt in the interior, + and now that the lofty buildings all round have been taken down, + isolating the cathedral on all sides, it has the appearance of an + overgrown monster. The length of the cathedral is 468 ft., 17 ft. less + than the cathedral at Ulm, the longest in Germany. The height of the + nave vault is 155 ft., and as the width is only 41.6 (about one in + four) the proportion is very unpleasing. There is also a certain + mechanical finish throughout the design, which renders it far less + poetical than the great French cathedrals. Where, however, it excels + is in the extraordinary vigour of its execution, the depth of the + mouldings, and the projection given to the leading architectural + features; and in this respect, when compared with St Ouen at Rouen, + about fifty years later, the latter (which is even more mechanical in + its setting out) looks wire-drawn and poor. The twin spires of the + facade rise to the height of 510 ft.; they were completed only in the + latter part of the 19th century, and would have gained in breadth of + effect if there had been some plain surfaces left. In this respect the + spire of Freiburg cathedral, which is simple in outline and detail, is + finer, and gains in contrast on account of the simpler masonry of the + lower part of the tower. The spire at Ulm cathedral, only recently + terminated, rises to the height of 530 ft. In both these cases the + single tower is preferable to the double towers of Cologne, when + elaborated to the same extent, as they are in all these examples; and + perhaps that is one of the reasons why the spires of Strassburg and + Antwerp cathedrals are more satisfactory, as the twin towers were + never built. The front of Strassburg cathedral (1277-1318), by Erwin + von Steinbach, is too much cut up by vertical lines of masonry, owing + to the _tours-de-force_ in tracery of which the German mason was so + fond. On the whole the most beautiful of German spires is that of St + Stephen's at Vienna, and one of its advantages would seem to be that + its transition from the square base to the octagon is so well marked + in the design that it is difficult to say where the tower ends and the + spire begins. The strong horizontal courses under the spires of + Strassburg or Freiburg are defects from this point of view. + + [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Plan of Cathedral at Cologne.] + + In domestic architecture nothing remains of the palace at + Aix-la-Chapelle, but at Lorsch near Mannheim is the entrance gateway + of the convent which was dedicated by Charlemagne in 774. It is in two + storeys, in the lower one three semicircular arches flanked by columns + with extremely classic capitals. The upper storey is decorated with + what might have been described as a blind arcade, except that instead + of arches are triangular spaces similar to some windows found in Saxon + architecture; the whole gateway being crowned with a classic cornice. + The palaces at Goslar (1050) and Dankwarderode in Brunswick + (1150-1170) still preserve their great halls, and in the palace built + (1130-1150) by the emperor Frederick I. at Gelnhausen there remain + portions extremely fine and vigorous in style, and showing a strong + Byzantine influence. The largest and most important castle is that of + the Wartburg at Eisenach, which is in complete preservation. + + To sum up, the German Complete Gothic is essentially national in its + complete character. It has many and obvious defects. From the first + there is conspicuous in it that love of lines, and that desire to play + with geometrical figures, which in time degenerated into work more + full of conceit and triviality than that of any school of medieval + artists. These conceits are worked out most elaborately in the + traceries of windows and panelling. The finest early examples are in + the cathedral at Minden; a little later, perhaps, the best series is + in the cloister of Constance cathedral; and of the latest description + the examples are innumerable. But it is worth observing that they + rarely at any time have any ogee lines. They are severely geometrical + and regular in their form, and quite unlike our own late Middle + Pointed, or the French Flamboyant. In sculpture the Germans did not + shine. They, like the English, did not introduce it with profusion, + though they were very prone to the representations of effigies of the + deceased as monuments. + + In one or two respects, however, Germany is still possessed of a + wealth of medieval examples, such as is hardly to be paralleled in + Europe. The vast collection of brick buildings, for instance, is + unequalled. If a line be drawn due east and west, and passing through + Berlin, the whole of the plain lying to the north, and extending from + Russia to Holland, is destitute of stone, and the medieval architects, + who always availed themselves of the material which was most natural + in the district, built all over this vast extent of country almost + entirely in brick. The examples of their works in this humble material + are not at all confined to ecclesiastical works; houses, castles, + town-halls, town walls and gateways, are so plentiful and so + invariably picturesque and striking in their character, that it is + impossible to pass a harsh verdict on the architects who left behind + them such extraordinary examples of their skill and fertility of + resource. + + This development is largely due to the fact that all these countries + in north-east Germany were connected and very much influenced by the + confederation of the Hanse towns, and hence the similarity in the + design of all their buildings. Although some of the earliest buildings + date from the 12th century, the chief development took place in the + 14th and 15th centuries, and in the 16th century formed the basis of + the transitional works of the Renaissance. The principal Hanse towns + are Hamburg, Lubeck and Danzig. The chief buildings in Hamburg were + destroyed by the fire in 1842, and it is in Lubeck that the most + important churches are to be found. The church of St Mary + (Marienkirche), 1304, is the most striking on account of its + dimensions, 346 ft. in length, the nave being 123 ft. high, with two + western towers 407 ft. high. Great scale is given to the building in + consequence of the small material (brick) used, and some of the + windows in this or other churches are nearly 100 ft. in height, with + lofty mullions, all in moulded brick. The _Dom_ or cathedral of + Lubeck, though slightly larger, is not so good in design, but has a + remarkable north porch in richly moulded brick, with marble shafts and + carved capitals. In the church of St Catherine the choir is raised + above a lofty vaulted crypt, similar to examples in some of the + Italian churches. The _Marienkirche_ at Danzig (1345-1503), built by a + grand master of the Teutonic knights, to whom the chief development of + the architecture of north-east Germany is largely due, is one of those + examples already mentioned as _Hallenkircken_. The nave, aisles, side + chapels, transept and aisles, and choir with square east end, are all + of the same height; as the church is 280 ft. long and 125 ft. wide, + with a transept 200 ft. long, the effect is that of one stupendous + hall, but as the light is only obtained through the windows of the + side chapels, the interior, though impressive, is somewhat gloomy. The + same is found in the choir of the Franciscan church at Salzburg, where + five slender piers, 70 ft. in height and 4 ft. in diameter, carry the + vault over an area 160 ft. long by 66 ft. wide. Right up in the north + of Germany, in Pomerania, are many fine examples in brick and + sometimes of great size, such as those at Stralsund, Stettin, + Stargard, Pasewalk, and in the island of Rugen. The _Marienkirche_ at + Stralsund, owing to its massive construction and picturesque grouping, + is an interesting example. Its western transept or narthex with tower + in centre is a common type of the churches in Pomerania, and though + very inferior in design is a version of those which in England are + seen in Ely and Peterborough cathedrals. + + In the entrance gateways to the towns and in domestic architecture + north Germany is very rich; the palace of the grand master of the + Teutonic Order at Marienburg is a vast and imposing structure in brick + (1276-1335), in which the chapter house of the grand master, with its + fan-vaulted roof, resting on a single pillar of granite in the centre, + and the entrance porch of the church richly carved in brick, are among + the finest examples executed in that material. (R. P. S.) + + + ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC IN BELGIUM AND HOLLAND + + [Illustration: FIG. 49.--Plan of Cathedral at Tournai.] + + Of early Romanesque work neither Belgium nor Holland retains any + examples; for with the exception of the small building at Nijmwegen + built by Charlemagne, there are no churches prior to the 11th century, + and at first the influence in Belgium would seem to have come from + Lombardy, through the Rhine Provinces. As all her large churches are + built in the centres of her most important towns, it is probable that + the older examples were pulled down to make way for others more in + accordance with the increasing wealth and population. In the 13th + century they came under the influence of the great Gothic movement in + France, and two or three of their cathedrals compare favourably with + the French cathedrals. The finest example of earlier date is that of + the cathedral of Tournai (fig. 49), the nave of which was built in the + second half of the 11th century, to which a transept with north and + south apses and aisles round them was added about the middle of the + 12th century. These latter features are contemporaneous with similar + examples at Cologne, and the idea of the plan may have been taken from + them; externally, however, they differ so widely that the design may + be looked upon as an original conception, though the nave arcades, + triforium storey, and clerestory resemble the contemporaneous work in + Normandy. The original choir was pulled down in the 14th century, and + a magnificent _chevet_ of the French type erected in its place. The + grouping of the towers which flank the transept, with the central + lantern, the apses, and lofty choir, is extremely fine (fig. 50). The + sculptures on the west front, dating from the 12th to the 16th + century, protected by a portico of the late 15th century, are of + remarkable interest and in good preservation. They are in three tiers, + the two lowest consisting of bas-reliefs, the upper tier with + life-size figures in niches, resting on corbels. The Romanesque tower + of the church of St Jacques in the same town, with angle turrets, is a + picturesque and well-designed structure. + + Other early examples are those of St Bartholomew at Liege (A.D. 1015) + and the churches at Roermonde and St Servais at Maastricht, both + belonging to Holland. The latter is an extremely fine example, which + recalls the work at Cologne, and in its great western narthex follows + on the lines of the German churches at Gernrode, Corvey and Brunswick. + + Among other churches of later date are St Gudule at Brussels, with + Gothic 13th century choir and a 14th century nave with great circular + pillars, the west front of later date, approached by a lofty flight of + steps, having a very fine effect; Ste Croix at Liege, with a western + apse; St Martin at Ypres and St Bavon at Ghent, both with 13th-century + choir and 14th-century nave; Tongres, 13th century with great circular + pillars and an early Romanesque cloister; Notre Dame de Pamele at + Oudenarde; and Notre Dame at Bruges, 14th century. Of 15th and 16th + century work (for the Gothic style lasted without any trace of the + Renaissance till the middle of the 16th century) are St Gommaire at + Lierre (1425-1557); St Martin, Alost (1498), St Jacques, Antwerp; and + St Martin and St Jacques, both at Liege. The largest in area, and in + that sense the most important church in Belgium, is Notre Dame at + Antwerp (misnamed the cathedral). It was begun in 1352, but not + completed till the 16th century, so that it possesses many + transitional features. It is one of the few churches with three aisles + on each side of the nave, the outer aisle being nearly as wide as the + nave, which is too narrow to have a fine effect. Only one of the two + spires of the west front is built, perhaps to its advantage; the upper + portion presents in its pierced stone spires one of those remarkable + _tours-de-force_ of which masons are so proud, and having a simple + substructure it gains by contrast with and is much superior to the + spires of Cologne, Vienna and Ulm. + + [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Tournai Cathedral.] + + Among the most remarkable features in these Belgian churches are the + rood screens, the earliest of which is in the church of St Peter at + Louvain, dating from 1400, in rich Flamboyant Gothic, retaining all + its statues. In the church at Dixmuiden, St Gommaire at Lierre (1534), + and in Notre Dame, Walcourt (1531), are other examples all in perfect + preservation; the last is said to have been given by the emperor + Charles V., and in the same church is a lofty tabernacle in Flamboyant + Gothic. + + Owing to the comparatively late date of many of the Belgian churches, + they are all more or less unfinished, as the religious fervour of the + citizens who built them would seem to have changed in favour of their + town halls and civic buildings immediately connected with trade. The + Cloth Hall at Ypres (1200-1334) with a frontage of 460 ft., three + storeys high with a lofty central tower and a hall on the upper storey + 435 ft. long, one of the finest buildings of the period in Europe; Les + Halles at Bruges, originally built as a cloth hall, also with a lofty + central tower; and a simple example at Malines, are the earliest + buildings of this type. + + There follow a series of magnificent town halls, of which that at + Brussels is the largest, but the tower not being quite in the centre + of its facade gives it a lopsided appearance. There is no tower to the + town hall at Louvain (1448-1469), but this is compensated for by the + angle turrets, and the design is far bolder. In both these examples + the vertical lines are too strongly accentuated, and seeing that they + are in two or three storeys, the latter should have been maintained in + the design of the facades. In this respect the town hall of Oudenarde + (1527-1535) is more truthful, and as a result is far superior to them; + the tower also is in the centre of the principal front, which at all + events is better than at Brussels, though as a matter of composition + it would have been more effective and picturesque if it had been + placed at one end of the facade. In the town hall at Mons there is no + tower, but a fine upper storey with ten windows filled with good + tracery. Of the town hall at Ghent only one half is Gothic + (1480-1482), as it was not completed till a century later, and though + overladen with Flamboyant ornament it has fine qualities in its + design. Although but few examples still exist of the Gothic structures + belonging to the various gilds, owing to their having been rebuilt in + the Renaissance style, those of the Bateliers at Ghent (1531), and of + the Fishmongers at Malines (1519), bear witness in the rich decoration + to the wealth of these corporations. + + Holland is extremely poor in church architecture, but there are two + examples which should be noted, at Utrecht and Bois-le-Duc ('s + Hertogenbosch). Of the former only the choir exists. It is of great + height (115 ft.), and belongs to the finest period of Gothic + architecture (1251-1267). The nave was destroyed by a hurricane in + 1674, and so seriously damaged that it was all taken down (a wall + being built to enclose the choir) and an open square left between it + and the lofty west tower. The cathedral of St John at Bois-le-Duc, + though founded in 1300, was rebuilt in the Flamboyant period + (1419-1497). It is of great length (400 ft.) with a fine _chevet_, and + possessed originally a magnificent rood screen in the early + Renaissance style (1625); this seemed to the burghers to be out of + keeping with the Gothic church, so it was taken down and sold to the + South Kensington Museum, being replaced by a very poor example in + Modern Gothic. + + There is only one Gothic town hall of importance in Holland, that at + Middleburg (1468), a fine example, and quite equal to those in + Belgium. The ground and upper floors are kept distinct, and as the + wall surface of these lower storeys is in plain masonry, the traceried + windows and the canopied niches (all of which retain their statues) + gain by the contrast. There is a small picturesque specimen at Gouda, + and at Leeuwarden in the house of correction (Kanselary) a rich + example in brick and stone, with a remarkable stepped gable in the + centre having statues on its steps. + + Both in Belgium and Holland there are numerous examples of domestic + architecture in brick with quoins and tracery in stone, in both cases + alternating with brick courses and arch voussoirs and with infinite + variety of design. (R. P. S.) + + +THE RENAISSANCE STYLE: INTRODUCTION + +The causes which led to the evolution of the Renaissance style in Italy +in the 15th century were many and diverse. The principal impulse was +that derived from the revival of classical literature. Already in the +14th century the coming movement was showing itself in the works of the +painters and sculptors, especially the latter, owing to the influence of +the classic sculpture which abounded throughout Italy. Thus in the tomb +of St Dominic (1221) at Bologna, the pulpits of Pisa (1260) and Siena +(1268), and in the fountain of Perugia (1277-1280) by Niccola Pisano and +his son Giovanni, all the figures would seem to have been inspired in +their character by those found in Roman sarcophagi. A classic treatment +is noticeable in the doorway of the Baptistery of Florence by Andrea +Pisano (1330), probably influenced by Giotto, in whose paintings are +found the representation of imaginary buildings in which Gothic and +Classic details are mixed up together. The time for its full +development, however, did not come till the following century, when, +with the papal throne again firmly established under Martin V., the +amelioration of the city of Rome was commenced, and discoveries were +made which awakened an archaeological interest fostered by the Medici at +Florence, who not only became enthusiastic collectors of ancient works +of art, but promoted the study of the antique figure. In addition to the +acquisition of marbles and bronzes, ancient manuscripts of classic +writers were sought for and supplied by Greek exiles who seemed to have +foreseen the breaking up of the eastern empire; everything, therefore, +at the beginning of the 15th century fostered the spread of the new +movement. Accordingly, when a great architect like Brunelleschi, who for +fifteen years had been making a special study of the ancient monuments +in Rome and who possessed in addition great scientific knowledge, +brought forward his proposals for the completion of the cathedral built +by Arnolfo di Lapo, and showed how the existing substructure could be +covered over with a dome like the Pantheon at Rome, his designs were +accepted by the town council of Florence, and in 1420 he was entrusted +with the work. Subsequently he carried out other works, in which pure +classic architectural forms are the chief characteristics. There were, +however, other causes which not only promoted the encouragement of the +revival, but extended it to other countries, though at a later period; +the most important of these was the invention of printing (1453), which +in a sense revolutionized art, not so much in its enabling classical +literature to be more extensively studied and known, as in its taking +away to a certain extent from the painter and sculptor and indirectly +the architect one of their principal missions, so far as ecclesiastical +architecture is concerned. Henceforth these who had hitherto taught +their lessons in sculpture, painting, stained glass and fresco, could, +through the printed book, bring them more immediately before and +directly to mankind. Victor Hugo's pithy saying, "_ceci tuera cela; le +livre tuera l'eglise_," expressed not only the fall of architecture from +the position it occupied as the principal teacher, but to a certain +extent the change in the channel by which religious teachers and the +writers of the day, the poets and philosophers, could best make their +works known. + +With the invention of printing came the partial cessation of fresco +painting, stained glass and sculpture, which subsequently came to be +regarded more as decorative adjuncts than as having educational +functions. But this transfer from the Church to the Book, the extinction +of the one by the other, led to another important change. Henceforth the +architect or master-mason, as he was then known, could no longer count +on the co-operation of the various craftsmen, men often of greater +culture than himself; and the individuality of the man, which has +sometimes been put forward as a gain to humanity, was a loss so far as +architecture is concerned, since it was scarcely possible that the +imagination and conceptions of a single individual, however brilliant +they might be, could ever reach to the high level of the joint product +of many minds, or that there could be the same natural expression in +what had hitherto been the traditional work of centuries. + +In France the introduction of the Revival resulted at first in a +transitional period during which classic details gradually crept in, +displacing the Gothic. In Italy this does not seem to have been the case +to the same extent. It is true that in Florence and Venice, where an +independent style existed, the new buildings in their general principles +of design were, copied from the old, but with no mixture of details as +in France; in Brunelleschi's church, Santo Spirito at Florence, the +capitals and details are all pure Italian, as pure as if they had been +carried out in the 3rd or 4th century, the fact being that already +before the 15th century the craftsman's work was approaching the new +movement, and this was facilitated by the numerous remains still +existing of Roman architecture. In the four or five years Brunelleschi +spent in Rome, he had the opportunity of studying a far larger number of +Roman buildings than are preserved at the present day, so that the +purity of style in the work which he carried out in Florence was due to +his previous training; the same is found in Alberti's work, and with +these two great men leading the way it is not surprising that throughout +the earlier Renaissance period in Italy we find a classic perfection of +detail which it took half a century to develop in other countries. + +It is difficult to say what might have been its ultimate development if +another discovery had not been made about 1452, that of the manuscript +of Vitruvius, a Roman architect who lived in the time of the emperor +Augustus; his work on architecture gives an admirable description of the +building materials employed in his day (_c_. 25 B.C.), and among other +subjects, a series of rules regulating the employment of the various +orders and their correct proportions. These rules were based on the +descriptions which Vitruvius had studied of Greek temples, but as he was +not acquainted with the examples quoted, never having been in Greece or +even in south Italy at Paestum, his knowledge was confined to the +architectural monuments then existing in Rome. Vitruvius's manuscript, +entitled _De re aedificatoria_, was illustrated by drawings, none of +which have however been preserved; when therefore in subsequent years +translations of the architectural portion of the manuscript were printed +and published by various Italian architects, among whom Vignola and +Palladio were the more important, they were accompanied by woodcuts +representing their interpretation of the lost illustrations, and thus +copybooks of the orders were published, with more or less fidelity to +those of existing Roman monuments, in which attempts were made to adhere +to the rules laid down by Vitruvius. In Rome and other parts of Italy, +where ancient monuments or portions of them still remained _in situ_, +architects could study their details and base their designs on them, but +in other countries they were bound to follow the copybook, and thus they +lost that originality and freedom of design which characterizes the +earlier work of the Renaissance. + +On the other hand, there is no doubt that the publications of Vignola +and Palladio, based as they were on the remains of ancient Rome, then +much better preserved than at the present day, tended to maintain a high +standard in the employment of the Classic orders, with correct +proportions and details; so much so, that in referring to the influence +which those works exerted from the middle of the 16th century in France +and Spain, and during the 17th and 18th centuries in England and to a +certain extent in Spain, Germany and the Netherlands, it is generally +spoken of as the introduction of the pure Italian style. The tendency, +however, of such hard and fast rules leads eventually to an excess in +the opposite direction, and the works of Borromini in Italy and +Churriguera in Spain in the middle of the 17th century resulted in the +production of what is generally referred to as the Rococo style. This +style was fostered in France by the attempts to reproduce, externally +and in stone, ornamental decoration of a type which is only fitted for +internal work in stucco, and in Germany and the Netherlands by +reproductions of fantastic designs published in copybooks, which led to +the bastard style of the Zwinger palace in Dresden and the Dutch +architecture of the 18th century. Vignola's work on the five orders was +published in 1563, and Palladio's in 1570; they were preceded by a +publication of Serlio's in 1540, giving examples of various +architectural compositions, and to him is probably due the introduction +of the pure Italian style in the Louvre in 1546. They were followed by +other authors, as Scamozzi in Italy, Philibert de l'Orme in France, and, +at a later date, Sir William Chambers in England. + +The term given to the earlier Renaissance or transition work in Italy is +the Cinque cento style, though sometimes that title is given to +buildings erected in the 16th century; in France it is known as the +Francois I. style, in Spain as the Plateresque or Silversmiths' style, +and in England as the Elizabethan and Jacobean styles. + +There is still another and very important difference to be noted between +the styles of the middle ages and those of the Renaissance. Although the +names of the designers in the former are occasionally known and have +been handed down to us, they were only partially responsible, as the +works were carried out by other craftsmen working on traditional lines, +whereas in the latter they are of much more importance because of the +independent thought and study of the individual; and though to a certain +extent the development of each man's work may have been influenced by +others working in the same direction, his special object was to acquire +personal fame and by his own fancy or predilection to produce what he +conceived to be an original work peculiar to himself. Consequently in +our description the name of the architect who designed a particular +building, as well as the date of its erection, are necessarily given to +show the progress made In his studies or otherwise. (R. P. S.) + + +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY + +In the styles hitherto described a chronological order has been +followed, as far as possible, in order to show the gradual development +of the style; that course is adopted here to a certain extent, when +dealing with the Renaissance, though the introduction of the personal +element, to which reference has been made, brings in a change of some +importance. Henceforth the career of the individual has to be taken into +consideration, and at times it may be an advantage when describing a +building by an architect of eminence to mention other works by him, and +so depart from the chronological sequence. + + _Ecclesiastical._--The classic revival in Italy, though foreshadowed + in other branches of art, as in painting and sculpture, and also to a + marked degree in literature, was virtually introduced by one great + man, Filippo Brunelleschi of Florence, who, trained as a sculptor, and + disappointed with his want of success in the competition held in 1403 + for the bronze gates of the baptistery at Florence, determined to + devote himself to architecture, possibly in the hope that he might + some day be able to solve the great problem of erecting over the + crossing of Arnolfo di Lapo's great cathedral the dome projected by + the latter but never executed. Having spent some years in Rome, + Brunelleschi returned to his native town about 1410, with a profound + knowledge of classic architecture and of Roman construction, as shown + in the Pantheon, the thermae, Colosseum and other remains, then in + much better preservation than at the present day. Some years passed in + the production of various schemes and in deliberations with the + council of Florence, but eventually in 1420 the completion of the + cathedral was entrusted to him, and he undertook to construct the dome + without centreing, and to raise it on a drum so as to give it greater + importance than Arnolfo had contemplated, as shown in the fresco of + the Spanish chapel of Santa Maria Novella, Florence. The dome as + projected by Brunelleschi was of considerable size, being 130 ft. in + diameter and 135 ft. from the cornice to the eye of the dome, + including the drum on which it was raised; it was octagonal in plan, + and built with an inner and outer casing partly in brick, with angle + and two intermediate ribs on each face, which were in stone. The + construction of the dome was completed in 1434; but the lantern, built + on the basis of the model he had made, was not carried out till 1462, + some years after his death. Brunelleschi's other works in Florence + consisted of the church of San Lorenzo, which he rebuilt in 1425 after + a fire, and the church of Santo Spirito (1433), a very remarkable + building, the design of which was based on the medieval basilicas of + Rome, with such modifications in plan and section as his knowledge of + ancient Roman work suggested. This church consists of nave, transept + and choir, with aisles all round, the centre or crossing being covered + with a dome on pendentives, which henceforth became the chief + characteristic in all the Renaissance churches. Brunelleschi's + earliest work was the Pazzi chapel, an original conception which is + more remarkable for the pure classic feeling and refinement in all its + details than for the design. The weakness of the archivolt round the + central archway, and the mass of panelled wall carried on columns (far + too slight in their dimensions), detract seriously from the effect of + the facade; internally the structural function of the pilasters is not + sufficiently maintained, and instead of a simple hemispherical dome, + as in the cathedral, a quasi-Gothic type was built, with twelve ribs + and scalloped cells, which destroys its dignity. + + Brunelleschi was followed by another great Florentine architect, Leon + Battista Alberti, who was also a great mathematician and a scholar, + and further promoted the study of classic architecture by writing a + treatise in Latin, _Opus praestantissimum de re aedificatoria_, which + was based partly on that of Vitruvius and was published in 1485, after + his death, accompanied by illustrations. The first building with which + he was connected was the church of San Francesco at Rimini, to which + in 1440 he added the front. In this he was evidently inspired by the + Roman triumphal arch in that city, and his interpretation of it, to + meet the requirements in its facade which were imposed upon him by the + existing nave, was admirable. Unfortunately the principal front was + never completed, but on the south side he designed a series of + recesses to hold the sarcophagi containing the remains of the friends + of his client, Sigismondo Malatesta, the effect of which is simple and + grand. Alberti's largest work, the church of Sant' Andrea at Mantua + (1472), in which the nave, transept and choir are all covered with + barrel vaults, recalls the vaulted corridors of the Colosseum. There + are no aisles, but a series of rectangular chapels on each side, the + division walls of which act as buttresses to resist the thrust of the + great vault. The lofty arched openings to the chapels, separated by + Corinthian pilasters with entablature supporting the coffered vault + and a central dome (since rebuilt), complete the structure, which has + served since as the model for all the Renaissance churches of the same + type. The principal front is not satisfactory, as it takes no + cognizance of the width of the nave, and the side doors have no use or + meaning; here Alberti seems to have been led astray in his triumphal + arch treatment, which is inferior to his scheme for the church at + Rimini. + + In 1462 Michelozzo, another Florentine architect, built the chapel of + St Peter at the east end of the church of Sant' Eustorgio, Milan. + Externally it has little attraction, but internally the dome, with its + magnificent frieze of winged angels in relief with a painted + background of arcades and other accessories, is the most beautiful + composition of the Renaissance. Michelozzo's first work was the + Dominican monastery and church of San Marco at Florence (1439-1452), + but he is better known for his secular work, to which we shall return. + + The next great architect chronologically is Bramante d' Urbino, to + whom was entrusted the commencement of the church of St Peter at Rome. + His first important work was the church of Santa Maria della + Consolazione at Todi (1472), which consists of a square nave with + immense semicircular apses, one on each side. The nave is covered with + a dome raised on a drum, and carried on pendentives, and the apses + with hemispherical vaults butt against the nave walls and form + externally a very fine group. Bramante was the architect of the chapel + in the cloisters of San Pietro-in-Montorio, Rome (1472), a small + circular building covered with a dome and surrounded with a peristyle + of columns of the Doric order; and of the dome of the church of Santa + Maria delle Grazie in Milan, as also of the three apses, which are + decorated with pilasters and baluster shafts with circular medallions + enclosing busts, all in terra cotta. Before passing to his work at St + Peter's there are some other early churches we must notice. The + Certosa, near Pavia, was begun in 1396, and in one sense suggests the + revival of classic architecture, in that all its arches have + semicircular heads. The magnificent facade of the church was commenced + in 1473 from the designs of Borgognone, a Milanese architect: it is + one of the few examples in Italy of large size in which the transition + is noticeable, for although there are no Gothic details the design + follows that of the middle ages, and instead of great pilasters of the + Corinthian order, buttresses with niches containing statues divide the + facade and accentuate the internal divisions of the church; the open + galleries above the entrance doorway crossing the upper storey of the + central portion are all derived from well-known Lombardic features. + The upper part of the facade is inferior to the lower, Borgognone's + design having been departed from. The enrichment of the whole front, + from the lower plinth to the string course under the first gallery, + with bas-reliefs, panelled pilasters, niches, medallions and other + decorative accessories, all in white marble, so completely covers the + whole surface that scarcely any portion is left plain, which to a + certain extent detracts from its effect as a whole; but there is an + endless variety of design, and the baluster or candelabrum shafts + dividing the windows and the friezes and cresting above their + cornices, are of great beauty. The circular rose window above, with + its enclosing frontispiece of later date, shows the coming influence + of the later Italian style. The cloisters adjoining are surrounded + with a light arcade, with enrichments in the spandrils and frieze, all + in terra cotta. + + The cathedral of Como is also a transitional example, where buttresses + are employed all round the church, and it is only in the finials which + surmount them, the great projecting cornice which crowns the + structure, and the doorways and windows, that we find classical + details; the doorways recall the porches of the Lombard churches, and + are of great beauty in design, the south doorway being said to be by + Bramante. Another example, remarkable for its elaborately carved front + and porch, is the church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli at Brescia + (1487-1490) by Ludovici Beretta, which both externally and internally + is one of the richest specimens of the early Italian Renaissance. The + church dedicated to Santa Maria dei Miracoli in Venice (1481-1489), by + Pietro Lombardo, is another transitional example in which the + Byzantine influence of St Mark's is recognizable in the semicircular + pediments of its facade and of the exterior of the chancel, and + Lombardic influence in its external decorations with pilaster strips + and blind arcades. The interior is one of the gems of the Renaissance, + on account of its splendid decoration with marble linings and fine + cinque-cento carving. Similar semicircular pediments are found in the + facade of the church of San Zaccharia at Venice (1515), but are purely + decorative because the roof behind is not semicircular like that of + the Miracoli. The decoration of the main front, here all in marble, is + of an entirely different design, and is subdivided into a series of + storeys, the lower panelled, the first storey with arcades and the + upper ones with pilasters. An earlier example (1461) in San Bernardino + at Perugia is of a far higher standard, and its enrichment with + bas-reliefs by the Florentine sculptor Agostino di Duccio (c. 1418-c. + 1490) gives it the first place for its conception and execution. Among + others, the church of Spirito Santo, Bologna, in terra cotta; the + church of Santa Giustina, Padua (1532); the sacristy of San Satiro, + Milan (1479), by Bramante; and the sacristy of the church of Santo + Spirito, Florence (1489-1496), by Sangallo, are all interesting + examples of the early Renaissance in Italy. + + [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Plan of St Peter's at Rome.] + + In 1505, on the advice of Michelangelo, Bramante was instructed to + prepare designs for a new church in Rome dedicated to St Peter, to + take the place of the early basilica, which, built in haste, began to + show serious signs of failure. Already, fifty years earlier, Pope + Nicholas V. had commenced a new building, the erection of which was + stopped by his death in 1454. The scheme was revived by Julius II., + and the foundation stone of the new structure was laid in 1506. On + Bramante's death in 1514, Raphael, Peruzzi and Sangallo were + successively appointed, and the last named prepared a new design, + which, however, was not carried out, as he found it necessary first to + strengthen the piers of the dome provided by Bramante and to remedy + the defects of his successors. In 1546 Michelangelo, then seventy-two + years of age, was entrusted with the continuance of the work, and he + made radical changes, chiefly in the design of the dome. Comparison of + the plans of Bramante and Sangallo with that actually carried out by + Michelangelo shows that he not only increased the size of the piers to + carry his dome, but the outer walls of the north, south and west + apses, and omitted the aisles which surrounded the latter (fig. 51). + He would seem to have availed himself of the foundation walls already + built and of Bramante's piers to carry the dome, which had been raised + up to the cornice, but otherwise the architectural features of the + whole building externally and internally were carried out from + Michelangelo's own designs. Sangallo had suggested for the exterior a + series of superimposed orders with three storeys; Michelangelo elected + to have one order only with an attic storey. The building gained + thereby in dignity, but it lost in scale, for the huge pilasters of + the Corinthian order (87 ft. high) look considerably smaller, in spite + of the two storeys of windows between them. These windows also, which + from their design are apparently about 10 to 12 ft. high, actually + measure 20 ft. in height. The same defect exists in the interior, + where the Corinthian order, over 100 ft. in height to the top of the + cornice (Plate III., fig. 69), calls for a similar increase in the + dimensions of all the sculptured decorations; the figures in the + spandrils being 20 ft. high, and the cherubs supporting the holy water + spouts 10 ft. Otherwise the scheme realizes the conception which + Bramante proposed from the first, viz. to raise the dome of the + Pantheon on the top of the basilica of Constantine; the latter being + represented by the magnificent barrel vault (75 ft. in span) of the + nave, transepts and choir; the former by the great hemispherical dome, + 140 ft. in diameter, which, including the drum, is 162 ft. from the + top of the cornice above the pendentives to the soffit of the dome. + The dome is built in two shells with connecting ribs on the same + principle as Brunelleschi's dome in Florence, and was nearly completed + before Michelangelo's death in 1563, and the lantern in 1590 from the + model which he had made. In 1605 the east end of the old basilica was + taken down, and three more bays were added, thus converting the Greek + cross of Michelangelo's design into the Latin cross originally + conceived by Bramante. The nave and the eastern vestibule were + completed in 1620, and the great semicircular portico was added by + Bernini in 1667. The immense height of the east facade, and its + prolongation in front of Michelangelo's chief feature, the dome, hides + the design of a great portion of the latter, so that it can only be + seen either from a great distance (Plate III., fig. 68), or from + behind the western apse, where the relative grouping with the great + apses can be properly appreciated. A second well-known work by + Michelangelo is the new sacristy of the church of San Lorenzo, + Florence (1523-1529), designed to contain the monuments of Giuliano + and Lorenzo de' Medici, the architectural design of which is poor. + + Antonio di Sangallo was the architect of the church of San Biagio at + Montepulciano (1518), with a cruciform plan, and dome in the centre, + and a campanile at the south-west angle somewhat similar to those of + Wren in London. + + The church of Santa Maria-di-Carignano (1552) at Genoa, by Galeazzo + Alessi, is finely situated but unsatisfactory in its design, the lower + part being stunted in its proportions and its order to a different + scale from that in the campanile towers and the dome. The most + beautiful interior is that of the Annunziata in the same town, by + Giacomo della Porta (1587); the arches of its nave arcade are carried + on Corinthian columns of marble, of fine proportion, and the nave is + covered with a barrel vault with penetrations admitting the light from + clerestory windows. The churches of San Giorgio Maggiore (1556-1579), + San Francesco della Vigna (1562), and II Redentore (1577), all in + Venice, were designed by Palladio, the interior of the latter being + the finest; the facade of the first named is the best-proportioned, + but whether its design is due to Palladio, or to Scamozzi, who built + it in 1610, is not known. A far finer church in its picturesque + grouping and the originality of its design is that of Santa Maria + della Salute on the Grand Canal (1631), by Baldassare Longhena; the + church is octagonal on plan, with aisles round, giving access to six + recesses with altars and to an important eastern chapel with central + dome. The central octagon is covered with a lofty dome with immense + corbel buttresses of vigorous and fine design. The entrance portal of + the west front is perhaps the best example of the period in Italy. + Longhena also designed the Santa Maria degli Scalzi (1680), completed + by Sardi in 1689, the latter being responsible for the heavy front of + San Salvatore (1663), as also of the rich but somewhat debased church, + in the Jesuit style, Santa Maria Zobenigo (1680-1683). + + _Secular Architecture._--In the application of the leading features of + classical architectural design to palaces and mansions, the Italians + had a much easier field on which to exercise their originality, as the + requirements were very different from those which obtained in the + middle ages. Moreover, the classic style lent itself more readily to + the horizontal lines given by string courses, cornices and ranges of + windows, which naturally exist in dwelling-houses on account of the + various storeys. As in ecclesiastical, so in secular architecture, the + first introduction of the Revival takes place in Florence, which was + then the principal art centre of Italy, and the earliest examples are + in a sense transitional, in that they are based on the earlier + medieval work. As in the Palazzo Vecchio (1298) in Florence, and the + Ricciarelli palace at Volterra (c. 1320), the rusticated masonry which + gives them so fine a character forms the chief characteristic of the + Riccardi and Strozzi palaces, the only changes being the substitution + of a classic cornice of considerable projection in the place of the + machicolations of the Palazzo Vecchio, and the employment of circular + arches in the windows in the place of the pointed and curved arches. + + The earliest example, the Riccardi palace (1430), by Michelozzo (fig. + 52), built for Cosimo de' Medici, is certainly the finest, owing + partly to its size but more especially to the magnificent bossed and + rusticated masonry of the ground storey and the bold projecting + cornice, which crowns so admirably the whole structure. The lower two + storeys of the main front of the Pitti palace were built by + Brunelleschi in 1435, the return wings and court not being carried out + till after 1550 from the designs of Ammanati; compared with the other + Tuscan palaces the cornice is extremely poor and the whole front too + monotonous. The beautiful court of the Palazzo Vecchio was + reconstructed and decorated by Michelozzo in 1434. The Strozzi palace + (1489), by Benedetto da Maiano and S. Pollajuolo, (Cronaca), comes + next to the Riccardi as regards general design, but in comparison with + it the windows are too small, and the want of a much bolder + rustication, as provided in the latter, is much felt. Other examples + of the same type are the Gondi (1481) and the Antinori palaces, by G. + di Sangallo, and the Casa Larderel, all in Florence; the Spanochi + (1470) and the Piccolomini (1460) palaces in Siena, and the + Piccolomini palace (1490) in Pienza. In the Guadagni palace at + Florence, by S. Pollajuolo, there is a third storey, consisting of an + open gallery, which gives the depth of shadow otherwise afforded by + the projecting cornice. In the Ruccellai palace (1460), by Alberti, + the design is spoilt by the introduction of the classic pilasters at + regular intervals on each storey, which suggest no structural object + and have too little projection to give any effect of light and shade, + so that it is only on account of the purity of their details that they + are worth notice. The Pandolphini palace, the design of which is + attributed to Raphael, carried out after his death by Sangallo, is a + simple and unpretentious building of fine proportions: the Pall Mall + facade of Sir Charles Barry's Travellers' Club in London is a + reproduction of this palace. The Bartolini palace (1520), by Baccio d' + Agnolo, is said to have been the first astylar example in which the + Classic orders were employed only to decorate the entrance door and + windows, but this had already been done in 1488 in the Scuola di San + Marco in Venice. + + Throughout the greater part of the 15th century, the Venetian Gothic + style still held its own in the palaces of Venice, so that it is only + towards the close of the century we find the first actual results of + the Classic Revival. The earlier palaces may be looked upon as + transitional work, in which Gothic principles rule the design while + the details are borrowed from classic sources. The intimate + acquaintance with the proportions of the Classic orders and their + ornamental detail shows that the designers of the earliest Renaissance + palaces must have acquired their knowledge outside Venice. Among these + designers we find the names of members of the Lombardi family (which, + as the name suggests, come from Lombardy), who for three or four + generations, either as architects or sculptors, would seem to have + been the chief founders of the Renaissance style in Venice. One of + these, Pietro Lombardo, has already been referred to as the designer + of the church of the Miracoli, and to him is due the + Vendramini-Calerghi palace on the Grand Canal (Plate IV., fig. 71), + built in 1481, which in some respects is the finest example in Venice. + It should be observed that all these palaces on the Grand Canal have + an architectural frontage only, the flanks being built in plain + masonry or brick stuccoed over, and with very poor, if any, dressings + to the windows. This is well exemplified in the Vendramini palace, + where there are gardens on each side, showing the total want of + correlation between the rich architectural front and the poverty of + the flanks. + + [Illustration: FIG. 52.--Riccardi Palace, Florence. + + From a photo by Almari.] + + In a still earlier example, the Dario palace, one of the flanks + borders on a side canal, so that its brick construction, partly + covered with stucco, contrasts strangely with the rich marbles + encrusting the main front. In the Dario palace the transition from + Gothic to Renaissance is more clearly seen, as the only changes made + are the substitution of circular window-heads for the Ogee Venetian + arch, the projecting cornice with modillions, and more or less pure + classic details. In the Vendramini palace the employment of the + orders, to break up or subdivide the wall surface, has become a + recognized treatment, based on the theatre of Marcellus and the + Colosseum at Rome. On the ground storey there are panelled pilasters + only, but on the first and second storeys three-quarter detached + columns of the Corinthian order are employed, and the entablature is + doubled in height with a bold projecting cornice, so as to crown + properly the whole building. + + The semicircular-headed windows of the palace are filled with moulded + tracery carried on columns in the centre of each, which must be looked + upon as the classic version of the arcade of the Ducal palace. This + feature is found in other early Renaissance work in Venice, as in the + Scuola de San Rocco (1517), and the Cornaro Spinelli palace (1480). In + the latter, probably also by Pietro Lombardo, there are pilasters only + on the groins of the main front, and the window-heads are enclosed in + square-headed frames. In the Scuola de San Marco (1488), by Lombardo, + we find another type of window, single and lofty, with pilaster strips + each side carrying an entablature with pediment. The same window + decoration is found on the south and west fronts of the court of the + Ducal palace and the external south front, and also in the Camerlenghi + palace (1525), by Bergamasco and in other examples of early + 16th-century work. In the Scuola de San Rocco the columnar decoration + assumes much greater importance, and, in imitation of the triumphal + arches of Septimus Severus and Constantine in Rome, the column is + completely detached, with a wall-respond behind. Among other examples + to be noted are the Cornaro-della-Grande palace (1532), by Sansovino, + which is very inferior to his other work in Venice; the Grimani palace + (1554), by San Michele (who also designed the fortifications of the + Lido); the Zecca or mint (1537), the small loggetta (1540) at the foot + of the campanile of St Mark's and now destroyed, and the Procuratie + Nuove (completed by Scamozzi in 1584), all by Sansovino; the Balbi + palace (1582), by Vittoria; and the Ponte Rialto (1588), by Antonio da + Ponte. Sansovino's greatest work in Venice was the library of St + Mark's, which was commenced in 1531; in this he has shown not only + remarkable powers of design but great boldness in the projection of + his columns, cornices and other architectural features. The upper + frieze has been increased in height, so as to admit of the + introduction of small windows to light an upper storey, and this gives + much greater importance and dignity to the entablature crowning the + whole structure. Two of the most imposing palaces on the Grand Canal, + but of later date, are the Pesaro (1679) and the Rezzonico (1680), + both by Longhena, the architect of the Salute church. The former is + too much overcharged with ornament, but it has one advantage, the + classic superimposed orders of the main front being repeated on the + flank overlooking the side canal, with pilasters substituted for the + detached columns of the main front. The Rezzonico palace is much + quieter in design, and finer in its proportions, but even there the + cherubs in the spandrils are too pronounced in their relief. + + In Rome there are no important examples of the 15th century, with the + exception of the so-called "Venetian palace," which still retains + externally the features of the feudal castle, such as machicolations, + small windows and rusticated masonry. This was owing probably to the + comparative poverty of the city, which had to recover from the + disasters of the 14th century. The earliest example of the Renaissance + is that of the Cancellaria palace (1495-1505), by Bramante, the + architect of the church at Todi; this was followed by a second and + less important example, the Giraud or Torlonia palace (1506). The + former is an immense block, 300 ft. long and 76 ft. high, in three + storeys, with coursed masonry and slightly bevelled joints, the upper + two storeys decorated with Corinthian pilasters of slight projection + and crowned with a poor cornice, so that its general effect is very + monotonous, and the design is only relieved by the purity of its + details, such as those of the window and balcony on the return flank. + In 1506 Bramante was instructed to carry out the court of the Vatican, + of which the great hemicycle at one end, designed in imitation of + similar features in the Roman thermae, is an extremely fine example; + to what extent he was responsible for the court of the Loggie, + decorated by Raphael, is not known. The Villa Farnesina (1506), best + known for its fresco decorations by Raphael and his pupils; the Ossoli + palace (1525); and the Massimi palace (1532-1536), with magnificent + interiors, were all built by Baldassare Peruzzi. The finest example in + Rome is the Farnese palace, commenced in 1530 from the designs of + Antonio di Sangallo; the design is astylar, as the employment of the + orders is confined to the window dressings, the angles of the front + having rusticated quoins; the upper storey, with the magnificent + cornice which crowns the whole building, was designed by Michelangelo, + and in the upper storey he introduced a feature borrowed from the + Roman thermae, brackets supporting the three-quarter detached columns + flanking the windows. The brilliance of the design is not confined to + the exterior, and the entrance vestibule and the great central court + are the finest examples in Rome. Here the upper storey added by + Michelangelo is inferior to the two lower storeys by Sangallo. + + The museum in the Capitol at Rome, by Michelangelo (1546), is one of + those examples in which the principles of design are violated by the + suppression of the horizontal divisions of the storeys which it should + have been an object to emphasize. By carrying immense Corinthian + pilasters, through the ground and first storeys, Michelangelo, it is + true, obtained the entablature of the order as the chief crowning + feature, and so far the result is a success, but in other hands it led + to the decadence of the style. Among other examples in Rome which + should be mentioned are the Villa Madama by Giulio Romano (1524); the + Nicolini palace (1526) by Giacomo Sansovino; the Villa Medici (1540) + by Annibale Lippi; the Chigi palace (1562) by G. de la Porta; the + Spada palace (1564) by Mazzoni; the Quirinal palace (1574) by Fontana + (the architect who raised the obelisk in the Piazza di San Pietro); + and the Borghese palace (1590) by Martino Lunghi. + + We now return to about the middle of the 16th century, to the period + when the great architects Barozzi da Vignola and Andrea Palladio of + Vicenza commenced their career, and by their works and publications + exercised a great and important influence on European architecture. + + The villa of Pope Julius (1550), and the Costa palace, Rome, are good + examples of Vignola's style, always very pure and of good proportions, + but his principal work was that of the Caprarola palace (1555-1559), + about 30 m. from Rome, which he built for the cardinal Alessandro + Farnese. The plan is pentagonal with a central circular court, and it + is raised on a lofty terrace; the palace is in two storeys with + rusticated quoins to the angle wings, and the Doric and Ionic orders, + superimposed, separating arcades on the lower storeys and windows on + the upper. The arcade of the central court is of admirable proportions + and detail, second only to that of the Farnese palace. + + Palladio in his earlier career measured and drew many of the remains + of ancient Rome, and more particularly the thermae (the drawings of + which are in the Burlington-Devonshire Collection), but he does not + seem to have carried out any buildings there. His most important work, + and the one which established his reputation, is that known as the + basilica at Vicenza (1545-1549), which he enclosed with an arcaded + loggia in two storeys of fine design and proportion, and extremely + vigorous in its details. He built a large number of palaces in his + native town, among which the Tiene (1550) and the Colleone Porto are + the simplest and best, the latter being the model on which the front + of Old Burlington House (London) was rebuilt in 1716. In the + Valmarana, the Consiglio and the Casa del Diavolo he departed from his + principles, in carrying the Corinthian pilasters through two floors, + and by returning the cornice round the order he destroyed its value as + a crowning feature. Among other works of his are the Chiericate + (1560), Trissino (1582) and Barbarano (1570) palaces; the Olympic + theatre (1580), which was completed after his death; and the Rotonda + Capra near Vicenza, reproduced by Lord Burlington at Chiswick. + + Though he laid down no rules for the guidance of others, the works of + San Michele are superior to those of Palladio, with the exception, + perhaps, of the basilica at Vicenza and the library at Venice. In the + Bevilacqua palace (1527), at Verona, there is far greater variety of + design than in Palladio's work, and the Pompei palace (1530) and the + two gateways at Verona (1533 and 1552) are all bold and simple + designs. In the same town is an extremely beautiful example of the + early Renaissance, the Loggia del Consiglio (1476) by Fra Giocondo; a + similar example with open gallery on the ground storey exists at + Padua, where there is also the Giustiniani palace (1524) by + Falconetto, an interesting example of a master not much known. The + town hall of Brescia (1492) was built from the designs of Tommaso + Formentone, who employed for the carving of the medallions on the + lower storey, and the pilasters with their capitals and the friezes, + various artists of high merit, so that the building takes its rank as + one of the finest in north Italy, but independently of their + collaboration the design of the first floor is in design and execution + equal to Greek work. The upper storey and its circular windows are + said to have been added by Palladio, and they are so commonplace and + out of scale that by contrast they increase the artistic value of + Formentone's work. + + The so-called Palazzo de' Diamanti at Ferrara, built in 1493 for + Sigismondo d'Este, is decorated externally with a peculiar kind of + rustication, in which the square face of the stones is bevelled + towards the centre in imitation of diamond facets: the quoins of the + palace have panelled pilasters richly carved, and similar pilasters + flank the entrance door; the windows, with simple architrave mouldings + and cornices on ground storey and pediments on the first storey, + constitute the only architectural features of a novel treatment. + + At Bologna there are two or three palaces of interest,--the Bevilacqua + by Nardi (1484), chiefly remarkable for its central court surrounded + with arcades, there being two arches on the upper storey to one on the + lower, which presents a pleasant contrast and gives scale to the + latter; the Fava palace (1484), in which on one side of the court are + elaborately carved corbels carrying arches supporting an upper wall; + and the Albergati palace (1521), by Peruzzi, in which the + architectural decoration is confined to the entrance doorway windows + flanked with pilasters and cornices in pediments and the entablatures + of the ground and upper storeys, all the features being in stone on a + background of simple brick construction. The Casa Tacconi is similarly + treated. Many of the streets in Bologna have arcades on which the + upper part of the house is built, and there is an endless variety in + the capitals of these arcades. + + If the palaces of Genoa are disappointing as regards their external + design, this is in some measure compensated for by the magnificence of + their entrance vestibules, which (with the staircases and the arcades + in the courts beyond) are built in white marble, and have probably + suggested the title of the "marble palaces of Genoa." Many of these + palaces are situated in narrow streets, so that no general view can be + obtained of them, which may account for their exterior being erected + in inferior materials with stucco facing. The ground storey of the + palaces is almost always raised about 6 to 8 ft. above the street + level, so that the first flight of steps leading up to the court + forms a prominent feature in every palace; the ceilings of the + entrance vestibule are also mostly decorated with arabesque work in + stucco, or with painted devices, &c. The palaces in the town are + lofty, and as a rule crowned with fine cornices, and there are no + examples of pilasters being carried through the floors; the palaces + and villas in the vicinity of Genoa are of less height, and owe much + of their magnificence to the terraces on which they are erected. They + have no special qualities except in slight variations of the external + wall surface decoration, consisting of the applied orders on the + several storeys. Among the best examples are the Palazzo Cataldi, + formerly Palazzo Carega (1560), in which there are no pilasters, but + rusticated quoins at the angles and windows with moulded dressings and + pediments. The entrance vestibules of the Durazzo-Pallavicini, Rosso + (1558) and Balbi (1610) palaces are in each case their finest + features. The Pallavicini palace, and the Pallavicini, Spinola, + Giustiniani and Durazzo villas, are all fairly well designed and in + good proportions, but with no original treatment. Two of the palaces + are flanked by open loggias with arcades, from which fine views are + obtained, giving them a special character; that of the Durazzo palace + being on the first floor, and of the Doria Tursi on the ground storey. + The University (1623) and the Ducal palaces have very magnificent + entrance vestibules, the former with lions on the lower ramp of the + staircase. + + Many of the finest palaces at Genoa are by Galeazzo Alessi, but in + none of them has he approached the design of the Marino or municipal + palace at Milan, in which he produced a remarkable work; the internal + courtyard surrounded with arcades carried on coupled columns is an + original combination which is not excelled in any other court in + Italy, and the exterior facades are very fine. + + The internal courtyard of the hospital at Milan (243 ft. by 220 ft.), + with an arcade in two storeys, was designed by Bramante and begun in + 1457; only one side was completed by him, but in 1621, in consequence + of a large benefaction, the remainder was completed by Ricchini + according to the original design; the proportions of the arcade are + extremely pleasing, and it forms now one of the chief monuments of the + town. Ricchini was the architect of the Litta palace, one of the + largest in Milan. + + There still remains to be mentioned one of the early examples of the + Renaissance, the triumphal arch which was erected in 1470 at Naples to + commemorate the entry of Alphonso of Aragon into the town. It is built + against the walls of the old castle in four storeys, and connected + with bas-reliefs and statues. The largest palace in Italy, that of the + Caserta at Naples, with a frontage of 766 ft., built in 1752 by + Vanvitelli, is one of the most monotonous designs, rivalled in that + respect only by the Escurial in Spain. (R. P. S.) + + +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE + +The classical revival of the 15th century in Italy was too important a +movement to have remained long without its influence extending to other +countries. In France this was accelerated by the campaigns of Charles +VIII., Louis XII. and Francis I., which led to the revelation of the +artistic treasures in Italy; the result being the importation of great +numbers of Italian craftsmen, who would seem to have been employed in +the carving of decorative architectural accessories, such as the panels +and capitals of pilasters, niches and canopies, corbels, friezes, &c., +either in tombs, as for instance in those of Charles of Anjou at Le Mans +(1472) and at Solesmes (1498), of Francis, duke of Brittany (1501), and +of the children of Charles VIII. (1506) at Tours, and of Cardinal +d'Amboise in Rouen cathedral, the figures in all these cases being +carved by French sculptors. They were also employed in architectural +buildings, where the design and execution were by French master-masons, +and the Italians were called in to carve the details, as in the choir +screens of Chartres, Albi and Limoges cathedrals, the portal of St. +Michel at Dijon, the eastern chapels of St Pierre at Caen, and numerous +other churches throughout France; or for mansions like the Hotel +d'Alluye at Blois, the Hotel d'Allemand at Bourges, and the chateaux of +Meillant (1503), Chateaudun and Nantouillet (1519). The great centre of +the artistic regeneration was at first at Tours, so that in Touraine, +and generally on the borders of the Loire and the Cher at Amboise, +Blois, Gaillon, Chenonceaux, Azay-le-Rideau and Chambord, are found the +principal examples; later, Francis I. transferred the court to Paris, +and the chateau of Madrid, and the palaces of Fontainebleau, St +Germain-en-Laye, and the Louvre, follow the change. In all these +chateaux the Italian craftsman would seem to have been under the +direction of the master-mason or architect, because the whole scheme of +the design and its execution is French, and only the decoration Italian. +In cases where the Italian was not called in, the Gothic flamboyant +style flourishes in full vigour with no suggestion of foreign influence, +as in the palais de justice at Rouen, the church of Brou (Ain), +1505-1532, the Hotel de Cluny, Paris, and the rood-screen of the church +of the Madeleine at Troyes (1531). + +Between the last phase of Flamboyant Gothic and the introduction of the +pure Italian Revival there existed a transitional period, known +generally as the "Francis I. style," which may be subdivided under three +heads:--the Valois period, comprising the reigns of Charles VIII. and +Louis XII. (1483-1515); the Francis I. period (1515-1547); and the Henry +II. and Catherine de' Medici period (1547-1589). The first two are +characterized by the lofty roofs, dormers and chimneys, by circular or +square towers at the angles of the main building with decorative +machicolations and hourds, by buttresses set anglewise, which run up +into the cornice, and square-headed windows with mullions and transoms. +In the second period the machicolations are converted into corbels +carrying semicircular arcaded niches in which shells are carved; the +buttresses become pilasters with Renaissance capitals; and the Gothic +detail, which in the first period is mixed up with the Renaissance, +disappears altogether. In the third period Italian design begins to +exert its influence in the regular interspacing of the pilasters or +columns with due proportion of height to diameter, in the completion of +the order with the regular entablature, and its employment generally in +a more structural manner than in the earlier work. + + The two first periods are well represented in the chateau of Blois, + where, in the east wing built by Louis XII., square-headed windows + alternate with three central arches, the buttresses are set anglewise + running into the cornice, and pillars and angle shafts are carved with + chevrons, spiral flirtings, or cinque-cento arabesque; the cornices of + the towers containing staircases project and are carried on arched + niches supported on corbels (the new interpretation of the + machicolations of the feudal castle); above the cornice is a + balustrade with pierced flamboyant tracery, and the dormer windows + retain their Gothic detail. In the north wing of Francis I. all these + Gothic ornamental details disappear, and are replaced by the + Renaissance. Panels and pilasters take the place of the + buttresses--the panels sometimes enriched with cinque-cento arabesque; + shells are carved in the arched niches of the cornice, and modillions + and dentil courses are introduced; the balustrade is pierced with + flowing Renaissance foliage interspersed with the salamanders and + coronets; the same high roofs are maintained, but the dormer windows + and chimneys, still Gothic in design, are entirely clothed with + Renaissance detail. + + The finest feature of the facade of this north wing, facing the court, + is the magnificent polygonal staircase tower in its centre (Plate + VIII., fig. 84); four great piers rise from ground to cornice, between + which the rising balustrade is fitted; the whole feature Gothic in + design, but Renaissance in all its details. The splendid carving of + the panels of the piers and the niches with their canopies was + probably done by Italian artists. The figures in these niches are said + to be by Jean Goujon. The great dormers and chimneys have not the + refinement in their design which characterizes the lower portion, and + may be of later date. The north front of the chateau is raised on the + foundation walls of the old castle, part of which is encased in it, + and this may account for the slight irregularities in the widths of + the bays. The design differs from that of the south front, the windows + all being recessed behind three-centre arched openings; the open + loggia at the top, which is admirable in effect, is a subsequent + alteration. + + Before passing to the Louvre and Tuileries, representing the third + period, we must refer to some other important early chateaux and + buildings. Some of these, such as the chateaux of Madrid and Gaillon, + are known chiefly from du Cerceau's work, as they were destroyed at + the Revolution. Of the latter building, the entrance gateway is still + _in situ_; there are some portions in the court of the Ecole des + Beaux-Arts at Paris, consisting of a second entrance gateway, a + portico and some large panels. The gateway shows a singular mixture of + Gothic and Renaissance; the centre portion, with the gateway and great + niche over, is debased classic, the side portions retaining the + buttresses, mouldings, panels and other features belonging to the + latest phase of Flamboyant Gothic. + + Of buildings still existing, the hotel de ville of Orleans (1497) is a + good example of early transition work, in which Gothic and Renaissance + work is intermingled, and it is interesting to compare it with the + hotel de ville at Beaugency, built by the same architect, Viart, some + twenty-five years later. There is the same principle in design, much + improved in the later example, but all the Gothic details have + disappeared. + + In the chateau of Chenonceaux (1515-1524) we find a compromise between + the two styles; Gothic corbels, piers and three-centre arches are + employed, varied with debased classic mouldings, shells and capitals; + here, as at Azay-le-Rideau (1520), the chateau was not transformed + like those at Langeais and Rochefoucauld, where what was externally a + 14th-century castle developed internally into a 16th-century mansion; + both Chenonceaux and Azay-le-Rideau were built as residences, and yet + in both are displayed those features which belong to the fortified + castle; at the angles of the main structure in both cases are circular + towers, in the latter case crowned with machicolations and hourds, + which, however, are purely decorative, pierced with windows, and + broken at intervals with dormer windows, a feature which gives it the + aspect of an attic storey. The lofty roofs and conical terminations to + these angle towers, with dormer and chimney, give the same picturesque + aspect to the grouping as that which was afforded in the fortified + castle, where, however, they originated in the necessity for defence. + The entrance portals of both chateaux are beautiful features, + absolutely Gothic in design, and only transformed by cinque-cento + detail. + + In the chateau of Chambord (1526) we find the same defensive features + introduced, in the shape of great circular towers at the angles, but + here with more reason, as the chateau was intended more for display + than habitation. The chateau itself, about 200 ft. square, has + circular towers at the angles, and in the centre a spiral staircase + with double flight, leading to great halls on each side, which give + access to the comparatively small rooms in the angles of the square + and the towers beyond, and to the roof, which would seem to have been + the chief attraction, as there is a fine view therefrom; and the + elaborate octagonal lantern over the staircase, the dormer windows, + chimneys and lanterns on the conical roofs of the towers, are all + elaborately carved. There are three storeys to the building, + subdivided horizontally by string courses, and terminated with a fine + cornice carrying a balustrade, and vertically by a series of pilasters + of the Corinthian order. The varied outline of this building, with the + alternation of blank panels and windows between the pilasters, + relieves what might otherwise have been its monotony. The chateau is + situated on the east side of a great court measuring about 500 ft. by + 370 ft., with a moat all round. To the right and left of the central + block the walls are carved up three storeys, and an attic, with open + arcades inside, leading to the angle towers of the enclosure. At a + later period Louis XIV. continued the unfinished structure by a + one-storey building round. The carving of the capitals, corbels and + other decorative work was all done by Italian artists, under the + direction of some architect whose name is not known. + + One of the gems of Francis I.'s work is the small hunting lodge + originally built at Moret near Fontainebleau, to which at one time the + king thought of adding, before he began his great palace there. This + was taken down in 1826, and re-erected in the Cours-la-Reine at Paris. + Though small, it is the purest example of the first Renaissance. Other + examples are the hotel de ville of Paray-le-Monial (1526); the Hotel + d'Anjou at Angers (1530), built by Pierre de Pince; the Hotel Bernuy + at Toulouse (1530); the Hotel d'Ecoville at Caen (1532); the Manoir of + Francis I. at Orleans; the Hotel Bourgtheroulde at Rouen (1520-1532) + and other buildings opposite Rouen cathedral, and what remains of the + chateau known as the Manoir d'Ango (1525) at Varengeville, near + Dieppe. The chateau of St Germain-en-Laye (1539-1544), the upper half + of which is built in brick, belongs also to the early period, as also + the hotel de ville at Paris, built in 1533 by Domenico da Cortona, an + Italian, who after spending some thirty years in France would seem to + have caught the spirit of the French Renaissance so well as to be able + to produce one of the most remarkable examples of the Francis I. + style. In the existing building the original design has been copied + from the building burnt down by the Communists in 1871. + + From this we pass to the palace at Fontainebleau, begun by Francis I. + in 1526, to which there have been so many subsequent additions and + alterations that it is difficult to differentiate between them. The + building owes its picturesque effect more to its irregular plan (as + portions of an earlier structure were enclosed in it) than to any + brilliant conceptions on the part of its architect. There is an + endless variety of charming detail in the capitals, corbels and other + decorative features, but the employment of pilaster strips purely as + decorative features (without any such structural property as that in + the Porte Doree at the Cour Ovale) suggests that the Italian architect + Serlio, to whom sometimes the work is ascribed, certainly had nothing + to do with it. + + On the other hand, there is every reason to believe that the designs + made by Pierre Lescot for the Louvre, begun in 1546, were, as regards + their style, largely based on the principles set forth in Serlio's + work on architecture, published in 1540. The south-west angle of the + court of the Louvre is the earliest example of the third period of the + Renaissance, in which the orders are employed in correct proportions + with columns or pedestals carrying entablatures with mouldings based + on classic precedent. The portion built from Lescot's designs (Plate + VIII., fig. 83) consists of the nine bays on the east and north sides, + the latter not being completed till 1574, as the workmen would seem to + have been transferred to the building of the Tuileries, begun in 1564. + + The Corinthian order is employed for the ground and first storeys and + an attic storey above, in which the pilaster capitals run into the + bedmold of the upper cornice. Of the nine bays, the central and side + bays are twice the width of the others, and project slightly with the + cornices breaking round them; this feature, and the crowning of the + western bays with a segmental pediment, give a variety to the design, + which otherwise might have become monotonous by its repetition of + similar features. The balustrade also is replaced by the _cheneau_, a + cresting in stone, which hereafter is found in nearly all French + buildings. The sculptor, Jean Goujon, would seem to have worked in + complete harmony with the architect, thus producing what will always + be considered as one of the _chef-d'oeuvres_ of French architecture. + + The architect employed by Catherine de' Medici for the Tuileries was + Philibert de l'Orme, who combined the taste of the architect with the + scientific knowledge of the engineer. Only a portion of his design was + carried out, and of that much disappeared in the 17th century, when + his dormer windows were taken down and replaced by a second storey and + an attic. Bullant and du Cerceau also added buildings on each side. + + The Tuileries were built about 500 yds. from the Louvre, and Catherine + de' Medici conceived the idea of connecting the two. The work, which + began with the "Petite Galerie," with the south wing, as far as the + Pavilion Lesdiguieres, was started in 1566, being of one storey only. + The mezzanine and upper storey were not completed till the beginning + of the 17th century. In 1603 the remainder of the south front and the + Pavillon-de-Flore were completed by Jacques Androuet du Cerceau. + + Of Philibert de l'Orme's work at Anet (1549), only the entrance + gateway, the left-hand side of court, and the chapel remain, + sufficient, however, to show that he had already at that early date + mastered the principles of the Italian Revivalists. The chapel is in + its way a remarkable design, but the hemispherical dome, pierced by + elliptical winding arches inside, is not happy in its effect. The + frontispiece which he created opposite the entrance, now in the court + of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, shows great refinement in its + details, but proportionally errs in many points. De l'Orme built also + the bridge and gallery on the river Cher, forming an addition to the + chateau of Chenonceaux. + + Amongst other work of this period are the additions made by Bullant to + the chateau de Chantilly, where he traversed the principles of classic + design by running Corinthian pilasters through two storeys and cutting + through the cornice of his dormer windows. At Ecouen (1550) he + destroyed the scale of the earlier buildings of 1532 by raising in + front of the left wing of the court four lofty Corinthian columns with + entablature complete, which he copied from the temple of Castor in + Rome. + + Among the early Renaissance work are the chateau of Ancy le Franc + (Yonne), Italian in character, which may be by Serlio (1546); the + Hotel d'Assezat at Toulouse (1555), in which there is a strong + resemblance to the court of the Louvre; the houses at Orleans, known + as those of Agnes Sorel, Jeanne d'Arc and Diane de Poitiers (1552); + and there is other work at Caen, Rouen, Toulouse, Dijon, Chinon, + Perigueux, Cahors, Rodez, Beauvais and Amiens, dating up to the close + of the 16th century. In this list might also be included the fine town + hall of La Rochelle, the Hotel Lamoignon in the rue des + Francs-Bourgeois, Paris (1580), and the Hotel de Vogue at Dijon, which + retained the Renaissance character, though built in the first year of + the 17th century. + + In the reigns of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. the first work of + importance in Paris is that of the Place Royale, now the Place des + Vosges; in this brick was largely employed, and the conjunction of + brick and stone gave a decorative effect which dispensed with the + necessity of employing the Classic orders. At Fontainebleau, where + Henry IV. made large additions, the same mixture of brick and stone is + found in the Galerie des Cerfs, and in the great service court (_cour + des cuisines_). The example set was followed largely through the + country, and numerous mansions and private houses in brick and stone + still exist. Henry IV.'s most important work at Fontainebleau is the + Porte Dauphine, of which the lower part, with rusticated columns and + courses of masonry, does not quite accord in scale or character with + the superstructure, in which is put some of the best work of the + century. + + Except perhaps for the monotony of the rusticated masonry which is + spread all over the building, the palace of the Luxembourg, by Salomon + de Brosse (1615), is an important work, in which he was probably + instructed by Marie de'Medici to reproduce the general effect of the + Pitti palace at Florence. The three storeys of the main block are well + proportioned, but the absence of a boldly projecting cornice, such as + is found in the Riccardi and Strozzi palaces, is a defect; the same + architect reconstructed the great hall of the palace of justice at + Paris, burnt in 1871 but now rebuilt to the same design. + + In 1629 the building subsequently known as the Palais Royal was begun + from the designs of Lemercier; but it has been so materially altered + since that scarcely anything remains of his design, though the works + carried out from his designs at the Louvre were of the greatest + possible importance. The court of the latter, as begun by Pierre + Lescot, was of small dimensions, corresponding with that of the palace + of Philip Augustus, but Lemercier proposed to quadruple its + dimensions. It is not certain whether he built the lower portion of + the Pavilion d'Horloge, but he designed the upper part, with the + caryatid figures sculptured by Jacques Sarrazin. On the north side of + this pavilion he built a wing similar in length and design to that of + Pierre Lescot, and continued the wing along the north side to the + centre pavilion; this was continued by Levau, the architect of Louis + XIV., round the other sides of the court. His design for the east + front, however, did not recommend itself to the king or to his + minister Colbert, and a competition was held, the first place being + given to the design by a physician, Dr Perrault. Prior to its being + begun, however, Bernini was sent for, and he submitted other designs, + fortunately not carried out, as they would have destroyed the court of + the Louvre. In 1665 the works were begun on the design of Perrault, a + grandiose frontispiece which appealed to Louis XIV., but in which no + cognizance had been taken of the various rooms against which it was + built; consequently no windows could be opened, and it forms now a + useless peristyle. Moreover it was so much wider than the original + building that on the north side it became necessary to add a new + front. Fortunately the example set by Perrault of coupling columns + together has rarely been followed since in France, so that in the + Garde-Meuble on the south side of the Place de la Concorde, by + Gabriel, we return again to the original classic peristyle. The works + undertaken at the Louvre progressed but slowly, in consequence of the + greater interest taken by Louis XIV. in the palace he was building at + Versailles, an extension of the hunting-box built by his father Louis + XIII., which he insisted should be maintained and incorporated as the + central feature in the new building. But as it was comparatively small + in dimensions, of simple design, and in brick and stone, it was quite + unfit to become the central feature of the main front of the largest + palace in Europe. To make it worse, the new wings built on either side + were lofty and of more importance architecturally, and as they + projected some 300 ft. in advance of the earlier building, they + reduced it to still greater insignificance. But even then the + architect, Jules Hardouin Mansart, might have redeemed his reputation + by buildings of greater interest than those which now exist. The back + elevation of the central block is 330 ft. wide, the returns 280 ft., + and the length of the wings on each side 500 ft.; in other words he + had nearly 1900 ft. run of facade, and it is simply a repetition of + the same bays from one end to the other, in three storeys all of the + same height, the lower one with semicircular arched openings, the + first floor decorated with pilasters on columns of the Ionic order, + and an attic storey above with balustrade. The slight projection given + to the central and side bays of each block, just sufficient to allow + of columns in the first floor as decorative features instead of + pilasters, is of no value in fronts of such great dimensions. The + great galleries inside have the same monotonous design as in the + facades, relieved only by the rich decoration in the first case and + the splendid masonry in the latter. There is one saving clause in the + main front, the chapel by R. de Cotte on the right-hand side being + externally and internally a fine structure, and the best + ecclesiastical example of the period. + + Among other buildings of the 17th century are those begun by Cardinal + Mazarin in the rue de Richelieu, which now constitute the National + library; the Hotel de Toulouse (1626), now the Bank of France; the + Hotel de Sully (1630), by du Cerceau; the Hotel de Beauvais (1654), by + le Pautre; the Hotel Lambert (also by le Pautre), in the Ile St Louis; + the chateau at Maisons, near St Germain-en-Laye, by Francois Mansart + (1656); the Institute of France (1662), by Levau; two triumphal + arches, of St Denis (1672), by Blondel, and St Martin (1674) by + Bullet; the Hotel des Invalides (1670), by Bruant; the Place des + Victoires and the Place Vendome (1695-1699), by Jules Hardouin + Mansart, in which a series of large houses are grouped together in one + design; the Trianon at Versailles (1676), and the chateau of Marly + (1682), both by J.H. Mansart; and important monumental buildings in + the principal provincial cities, such as Lyons, Bordeaux, Nantes and + Tours. + + In the 18th century those which are worthy of note are the Hotel + Soubise (1706), now the "Archives Nationales"; the fountain in the rue + de Crenelle, a fine composition; the Ecole Militaire (1752), by + Gabriel; the Ecole de Medecine (1769), by Gondouin; the mint (1772), + by Antoine; the Place de la Concorde, with the Garde-Meuble, by + Gabriel (1765); the Hotel de Salm, now the Legion of Honour; the Place + Stanislas at Nancy (1738-1766), in which are grouped the town hall, + archbishop's palace, theatre and other public buildings, with + triumphal arch and avenues leading to the palace of the duke + Stanislaus (with magnificent wrought-iron enclosures and gates by Jean + Lamour, the greatest craftsman of the century); the theatre at + Bordeaux by Louis; and the Odeon, Paris (1789). + + The ecclesiastical architecture of the French Renaissance comes at the + end of our description owing to the far greater importance of the + palaces, mansions and public monuments, and also because in the + beginning of the 16th century France found herself in possession of a + much larger number of cathedrals and large churches than she could + maintain. Some of these are still unfinished, so that her first + efforts would seem to have been directed to the completion of those + already begun rather than to the erection of new ones, St Eustache in + Paris being nearly the only exception of importance prior to the 17th + century. + + We have from time to time dwelt upon the important consideration which + must not be lost sight of, viz. that nearly all the buildings erected + in France up to the accession of Henry IV. were conceived and carried + out in the spirit of the Flamboyant Gothic style, cinque-cento details + mixed up with Gothic at first, then superseding them, and even when + the influence of the Italian revivalists began to exert itself, still + retaining much of her traditional methods of design. If this was the + case in civil architecture, it was naturally more pronounced in the + additions made to ecclesiastical structures, and the gradual + development of the style may be more easily followed in the latter. + These are, however, so numerous, and they are so universally spread + throughout France, that only a few of the most interesting examples + can be here given; for instance, the porch of St Michel at Dijon; the + upper part of the western towers of the cathedrals of Orleans and + Tours; the three eastern chapels of St Jacques, Dieppe, built at the + cost of Jean Ango, a celebrated merchant-prince of Dieppe, to whose + chateau at Varengeville we have already referred; the eastern chapels + of St Peter's, Caen, from the designs of Hector Sohier (1521), both + internally and externally of great interest; the west end of the + church at Vetheuil (Seine-et-Oise); the magnificent work of the west + front and tower of the church at Gisors; the upper part of the west + front of the cathedral at Angers; the portals of the church at Auxonne + (Fichot); the choir at Tillieres; the lantern of the church of St + Peter, Coutances (1541); the porch of the Dalbade at Toulouse; and the + north front of the church of Ste Clotilde at Les Andelys, which dates + from the age of Henry II. + + The church of St Eustache at Paris, begun in 1533, but not completed + till the end of the century, is a large cruciform Gothic structure + with lofty double aisles on each side and carried round the choir, and + rectangular chapels round the whole building, excepting the west end. + Structurally also it possesses all the most characteristic features of + the Gothic church, with nave arcades carried on compound piers, + triforium and clerestory, vaulted throughout, and flying buttresses + outside. Close examination shows that all the details are of the early + cinque-cento work, panelled pilasters of varying proportions, but with + Renaissance capitals, corbels, niches and canopies all grouped + together in a Gothic manner, and quite opposed to the principles of + the Italian revivalists; what is more remarkable is that though long + before its completion these principles had already borne fruit in the + Louvre and Tuileries, the original conception was adhered to, and the + portals of the north and south transepts (the last features added, + with the exception of the ugly west front of the 18th century) still + retain the character of the early French Renaissance. + + In St Etienne-du-Mont, sometimes claimed as a second example, the + church is Flamboyant Gothic throughout, the chief additions being the + magnificent rood-screen of 1600, and the west portal, in which the + banded columns of the Bourbon period form the chief features. + + Coming to churches of later date, Salomon de Brosse (_c_. 1565-1627), + the architect of the Luxembourg palace, added in 1616 a fresh front to + the church of St Gervais, finely proportioned and of pure Italian + design, which contrasts favourably with the Jesuits' church of St Paul + and St Louis (1627-1641), overladen with rococo ornament; then came + the churches of the Sorbonne (1629), by Jacques Lemercier, and of the + Val-de-Grace (1645), by Francois Mansart, the dome of the latter, + though small, being a fine design; the church of the Invalides, also + by Mansart, the dome of which is the most graceful in France; the + cathedral of Nancy (1703-1742), by Jules Hardouin Mansart and Germain + Boffrand (1667-1754), the principal front of which is flanked by two + towers with octagonal lanterns which group so well with the central + portion (of the usual design, in two stages with pilasters and coupled + columns, carrying a third stage with circular pediment) that it is + unfortunate it should be almost the only example of its kind; and + lastly the church of Ste Genevieve, better known as the Pantheon + (1755), by Jacques Germain Soufflot (1713-1780), the dome of which is + based largely on that of St Peter's in Rome. The main building with + its great portico is a simple and fine piece of design, and unlike St + Peter's the dome is well seen from every point of view; the decoration + of its walls with paintings by Puvis de Chavannes and other French + artists has now rendered the interior one of the most interesting in + France. (R. P. S.) + + +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN + +In Spain, as in France, the revival of classic architecture was +engrafted on the Flamboyant style of the country, influenced here and +there by Moorish work, so that the earlier examples of Spanish +Renaissance constitute a transitional style which lasted till the +accession of Philip II. (1558), who introduced what was then considered +to be the purer Italian style of Palladio and Vignola. This, however, +did not seem to have had much attraction for the Spaniards, owing to its +coldness and formality, so that in the latter half of the 17th century a +reaction took place in favour of the most depraved and decadent +architecture in existence. + +The magnificence of the earlier Renaissance work, which was introduced +into Spain when she was at the zenith of her power, and (owing to the +discovery of a new world) the possessor of enormous wealth, has scarcely +yet been recognized, in consequence of the greater attraction of the +Moorish architecture; there is no doubt that its exuberant richness in +the 16th century derives its inspiration from the latter, and especially +so in patios or courts found in every class of building, ecclesiastical +as well as civil. There is still, however, another characteristic in the +early Renaissance of Spain, which is not found in Italy or France, and +which again owes its source to Moorish work, where the external walls +and towers consist of simple plain masonry, and the rich decoration, +generally in stucco brilliantly coloured and gilded, is confined to the +courts and to the interiors of their magnificent halls. The Italian +method of decorating the external front of the palaces with flat +pilasters of the various orders placed at regular intervals, the windows +and doors forming features of second-rate importance, was not followed +by the architects of the Spanish Renaissance, who retained the simple +plain masonry and reserved their decorations for the entrance doorways +and windows, emphasizing therefore these features, and by contrast +increasing their value and interest. + +Instead also of the huge _cornicione_ which the Italians employed to +give the shadows required to emphasize the crowning features of their +palaces, the Spanish architects preferred to obtain a similar effect by +an open arcaded upper storey, which, as Fergusson remarks, "forms one of +the most pleasing architectural features that can be applied to palatial +architecture, giving lightness combined with shadow exactly where wanted +for effect and where they can be applied without any apparent +interference with solidity." These galleries would seem to have been +provided to serve as promenades to the occupants of the palace, and more +especially for the ladies when it would have been unwise or imprudent +for them to venture into the streets. There is one well-known example in +France, in the chateau of Blois, which is so attractive a feature that +it is singular it has not been more often adopted. + +Instead also of the monotonous balustrade, which is invariably found in +Italy, the Spanish architects introduced richly carved crestings, with +finials at regular intervals, a feature probably borrowed from +Flamboyant Gothic and Moorish. + +The three periods into which the architectural phases of the Renaissance +style in Spain are divided are:--(1) The Plateresque or Silversmiths' +work, from the conquest of Granada to the reign of Philip II. (2) The +purer Italian style, called by the Spanish the Greco-Roman, though it +has no Greek elements in its design, being based on the work of Palladio +and Vignola. This style prevailed until the end of the 17th century. (3) +The Rococo or Churrigueresque style, so called from the name of the +architect, Jose Churriguera (d. 1725), the chief leader of the movement, +which lasted for about 100 years. + + _Ecclesiastical Architecture._--The cathedral of Granada, built from + the designs of Diego de Siloe, is the earliest example of the + Renaissance in Spain, and in some respects the most remarkable, not + only for its plan, in which there is an entirely new feature, but for + the scheme adopted in the vaulting, which covers the whole church, and + shows that its architect had studied the earlier Gothic churches, and + was well acquainted with the principles of thrust and counter-thrust + developed in them. The cathedral is 400 ft. long by 230 ft. wide, and + therefore of the first class as far as size is concerned. The western + portion consists of nave and double aisles on each side, the outer + aisle being carried round the whole church and giving access to the + chapels which enclose the building. The principal feature of the + cathedral is at the east end, where the place of the ordinary apse is + occupied by a great circular area, 70 ft. in diameter, crowned by a + lofty dome, in the centre of which in a flood of light stands the high + altar. The vista from the nave through the great arch (37 ft. 6 in. + wide and 97 ft. high) is extremely fine, and it is strange that it + should be the only example of its kind. The west front was completed + at a later date; the only feature of it belonging to the original + church being the north-west tower, which, in its design, resembles the + south-west tower of the church at Gisors in France. There are two + other important Renaissance cathedrals at Jaen and Valladolid. The + latter was built from a design of Juan de Badajoz in 1585 but never + completed. On the south side of the cathedral is the chapel in which + the Catholic kings lie buried, where there are two fine marble tombs + enclosed by the _reja_ or wrought-iron screen partly gilt, forged in + 1522 by Maestre Bartholome. The _sagrario_ or parish church, also on + the south side, is a small version of the scheme of design employed in + the cathedral. + + In Spain, as in France, magnificent portals have been added to + cathedrals and churches, and these are amongst the finest works of the + Renaissance period. The more remarkable of these are the portals of + the cathedral of Malaga, a deeply recessed porch, enriched with + slender shafts and niches between; of Santa Engracia at Saragossa; and + of Santo Domingo and the cathedral at Salamanca. Externally the + Renaissance domes over the crossings of Spanish cathedrals are poor, + but this is compensated for by the lofty steeples which form striking + features. The western towers of the cathedral at Valladolid; the tower + of the Seo in Saragossa, which bears some resemblance to Wren's + steeples in the setting back of the several storeys and the crowning + with octagonal lanterns; the tower of the cathedral Del Pilar at + Saragossa, and that at Santiago, are all interesting examples of the + Spanish Renaissance. + + One of the most beautiful features of the Spanish Renaissance is found + in the magnificent _rejas_ or wrought-iron grilles, richly gilt, which + form the enclosures of the chapels. Besides the example at Granada, + others are found at Seville, where is the masterpiece of Sancho Munoz + (1528); at Palencia (1582); Cuenca (1557), where there are three fine + examples; Toledo; Salamanca; and other cathedrals. The iron pulpit at + Avila, the eagle lectern at Cuenca and the staircase railing at Burgos + are all remarkable works in metal. + + _Secular Architecture._--With the exception of the magnificent + portals, the finest works of the Renaissance in Spain as in France are + to be found in the secular buildings, but with this difference, that + the best examples in France are those built in the country or in + comparatively small provincial towns, whereas in Spain they are all in + the midst of the larger towns, and further they are not confined to + palaces and chateaux; monasteries and universities coming in for an + equal share in the great architectural development. + + The characteristic style of the Spanish architecture of the + Renaissance period is due probably to the influence of the earlier + Moorish work, where the value of the rich Alhambresque decorations in + the entrance doorways and windows, and the patios or courts, is + enhanced by contrast with the plain masonry of their walls and towers. + This influence had already been felt in the Spanish flamboyant Gothic + panelling and tracery; when translated into Renaissance, and probably, + at first, executed by Italian artists, it displayed a variety and + beauty in its design scarcely inferior to some of the best work in + Italy. And this development, taking place at a time when Spain was + overflowing with wealth, resulted in that exuberant richness we find + in the entrance doorways and windows, the external galleries of the + upper storey, and the rich cresting surmounting the cornice. + + Comparison with the contemporary and even earlier work in Italy, where + the principal thought of the architect would seem to have been to + break the wall surface by an unmeaning series of flat pilasters, and + then fill in the windows as features of secondary importance, will + show that the Spanish architect recognized more fully the true + principle of design, and although, in the profiles of their mouldings, + and the execution of the sculpture decorating their pilasters and + friezes, Spanish work in contrast with Italian looks somewhat coarse, + in general picturesqueness it is far in advance of the palaces of + Rome, Florence, and even Venice, and has not yet received the + recognition which it deserves. + + The earliest palace built in the Renaissance style is that which + adjoins the Alhambra at Granada, and was begun by the emperor Charles + V. for his own residence in 1527, but never completed. The building is + nearly an exact square of 205 ft., with a great circular court in the + centre, nearly 100 ft. in diameter. This central court was enclosed by + a colonnade with Doric columns, and an upper storey with columns of + the Ionic order. From the unfinished condition of the palace and the + absence of roofs, it is difficult to decide what the form of the + latter might have been. But the design, begun by Pedro Machuca and + continued by Alonso Berruguete (1480-1561), is so remarkable that it + ought to be better known. Its proximity to the Alhambra, however, + deprives it of the attention which otherwise it deserves for the + purity of its details and for its good proportion. + + A second palace, the Alcazar at Toledo, was begun in 1540 by Charles + II., but little else than the bare walls remain, as it was destroyed + by fire in 1886, after having been twice rebuilt. In its design it + belongs to the true Spanish type of the Renaissance, with the simple + ashlar masonry of its walls and the accentuation of the principal + entrance doorway and the windows. In this palace also the plan is + square, about 110 ft., with a square courtyard (240 ft.). + + The third palace built, the Escorial, some 20 m. to the north-east of + Madrid, is the most renowned--more, however, on account of its immense + size than for its design. It was built for Philip II. and begun in + 1563 from the designs of Juan Bautista de Toledo, being completed by + his pupil, Juan de Herrera, in 1584. The principal front is 680 ft. in + width, the depth of the palace 540 ft., with the king's residence in + the rear. The plan is a fine conception, and consists of a large + entrance court in the centre, with the church in the rear, having on + the right the Colegio and on the left the monastery, with numerous + courts in each case. The church is 320 ft. long by 220 ft. wide, the + principal portion being the intersection of the nave and transept, + which is covered by a dome. The coro is placed above the entrance + vestibule, which is 100 ft. long and 27 ft. high, imperfectly lighted, + but by contrast emphasizing the dimensions and the splendour of the + church beyond. Externally the grouping is fine; the lofty towers at + the angles, the central composition of the main front, and at the rear + of the court the front of the church with its corner towers and the + great dome, all form an exceedingly picturesque group, and it is only + when one begins to examine the work in detail that its poverty in + design reveals itself. Instead of accentuating the windows of the + principal storeys and giving them appropriate dressings, the fronts + are pierced with innumerable windows, which give the appearance of a + factory, and the angle towers, nine storeys high, look like ordinary + "sky-scrapers," without any of the dignity and importance which the + architectural design of a palace requires. The same applies to the + great entrance courts five storeys high with an attic, all of the most + commonplace design. Internally the church is fine, but it is dwarfed + by the immense size of the Doric pilasters, 62 ft. high, all in plain + stone masonry, the coldness of which is emphasized by the rich + colouring of the vaulted ceilings and the elaboration of the pavement, + all in coloured marbles. The palace is regarded by the Spaniards as + the Versailles of Spain, and if it had been possible to have + interchanged some of the features, to transfer to Versailles some of + the towers, and to break up the wall surface of the Escorial with the + superimposed order of pilasters, which became monotonous by their + repetition at Versailles, both palaces would have gained. + + The palace at Madrid is the last of the series, and although it was + begun at a much later period, by Philip V. in 1737, from the designs + of the Italian architect Sachetti, it is a fine and simple + composition, consisting of a lofty ground storey with coursed masonry, + carrying semi-detached columns of the Ionic order, rising through + three storeys, the whole crowned by an entablature and a bold + balustrade. The slightly projecting wings at each end of the main + front and the central frontispiece give that variety and play of light + and shade of which one regrets the absence in the Cancellaria palace + at Rome. + + We must, however, retrace our steps to the beginning of the 16th + century, to take up the early buildings of the style; the palace of + the Conde de Monterey at Salamanca, built in 1530 from the designs of + Alonso de Covarrubias, is a fine example. The masonry of the ground + and first floors is of the simplest character, the decoration being + confined to the entrance doorways and to the windows of the important + rooms. It is on the second floor that the design becomes enriched with + an open arcade and entablature above, crowned with a rich cresting. In + the wings at the angles, and in the central block, the buildings are + carried up an additional storey, the plain masonry of which gives + value to the open galleries between. On these wings and the central + block are other galleries crowned with entablature and cresting. These + features therefore form towers, which break the sky-line. There is + still another treatment peculiar to the Spanish Renaissance, in which + the example of the Moorish palaces would seem to have been followed, + viz. the elaborate carving of the pilasters and their capitals, of the + panelling and the horizontal friezes, which is extremely minute and + finished in the lower storeys, but increases in scale and projection + towards the upper storeys. This is very notable in the entrance + gateway of the university of Salamanca (Plate V., fig. 73), where the + carved arabesque in the panelling above the doors is of the finest + description, equal to what might be found in cabinet work, whilst that + of the upper portion immediately under the cornice is at least twice + the scale of that below and is in bold relief. + + The principal buildings characteristic of the Spanish Renaissance, in + chronological order, are:--the hospital of Santa Cruz at Toledo, built + in 1504-1514, and the Hospicio de los Reyes at Santiago (1504), both + from the designs of Enrique de Egas, the former with a magnificent + portal rising through two storeys and a gallery with an open arcade + above; the Irish college at Salamanca, built (1521) from the designs + of Pedro de Ibarra, Alonso de Covarrubias, and Berruguete; the convent + of San Marcos, Leon, by Juan de Badajoz (1514-1545)--here, however, + the whole facade is panelled out in imitation of late Gothic work, + Renaissance pilasters and devices taking the place of the buttresses + set angle-wise and flamboyant panelling; the Colegio de San Ildefonso + at Alcala de Henares (formerly the seat of the university), built in + 1557-1584 by Rodrigo Gil de Ontanon. + + Of municipal buildings the Lonja or exchange at Toledo (1551), built + in brick-work, is somewhat Florentine in style. + + The town hall of Seville (1527-1532), by Diego de Riano and Martin + Garuza, may be taken as the most gorgeous example in Spain (Plate V., + fig. 74). The front facing the square is very simple, compared with + the facade in the street at the rear, and here again we find, in the + ornamental carving of the windows and door mouldings on the ground + floor, a different scale from that adopted on the first floor, where + the shafts are enriched with a superabundance of carved ornament in + strong relief. There is still one other feature of great importance in + Spain, the magnificent galleries of the patios or courts found in all + the important buildings. It is from these galleries that access is + obtained to the rooms on the first floor. They have sometimes arcades + on the first floor, and columns with bracket-capitals on the upper + storey. There is an infinite variety of design in these capitals, the + brackets on each side of which lessen the bearing of the architrave. + + The earliest Renaissance example of these patios (1525) is in the + Irish college at Salamanca; it was carved by Berruguete, Alonso de + Covarrubias being the architect. In the same town is the Casa de la + Salinas, another example with fine sculpture. In the Casa Polentina + (1550) at Avila, and the Casa de Miranda at Burgos, columns with + bracket-capitals are employed on both storeys. Rich examples are found + in the Casa de la Infanta and Casa Zaporta (1580), both at Saragossa. + Of late examples the patio of the Lonja at Seville by Juan de Herrera + resembles in its style the courtyard of the Farnese palace at Rome; + and the same style obtains in the court of the Escorial, built at a + time when the purer Italian style was introduced into Spain. These + courts, though cold in design, compared with the earlier Renaissance + type, are of fine proportion. Two other examples are found in the + bishop's palace at Alcala de Henares, one of which has a magnificent + staircase. (R. P. S.) + + +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND + +In England, as in France, the influence of the Classic Revival was first +seen in connexion with tombs and church work, though not nearly to the +same extent as in France, where throughout the country the work of the +Italian sculptor is to be found not only in churches but in country +mansions. On the other hand, two if not three of the Italian artists who +came over to England were men of some reputation, such as Pietro +Torrigiano, a Florentine sculptor who was invited over by Henry VIII. +and entrusted with the tomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey +(1512-1518), and executed the tomb of John Young (in terra-cotta) in the +Rolls chapel (1516). Another Italian was Giovanni da Maiano, who was +also a Florentine, who modelled the busts of the emperors in the +terra-cotta medallions over the entrance gates at Hampton Court, and +probably the panel flanked by Corinthian pilasters, in which are +modelled the arms of Cardinal Wolsey, also in terra-cotta. Benedetto da +Rovezzano (1478-_c._ 1552), and Toto del Nunziata, Italian artists of +note, were also employed in England, the first on the tomb of Cardinal +Wolsey (now destroyed), and the second on the palace of Nonsuch, built +by Henry VIII., which was pulled down in 1670. Other early Renaissance +work is found at Christchurch Priory, in the Salisbury Chantry (1529), +the design of which is Gothic and some of the details Italian, and in +the tombs of the countess of Richmond in Westminster Abbey (1519), of +the earl of Arundel in Arundel church, Sussex, of Henry, Lord Marney, at +Layer Marney (1525), of the duke of Richmond (1537) and the duchess of +Norfolk (1572) in Framlingham church; and of Queen Anne of Cleves (1557) +in Westminster Abbey, attributed to Haveus of Cleves. The sedilia (in +terra-cotta) of Wymondham church, Norfolk, the choir screen at St Cross, +and Bishop Gardiner's chantry, Winchester, and the vaulted roof of +Bishop West's chapel at Ely, all show the direct influence of the +Italian cinque-cento style. The most beautiful example in England of +Italian woodwork is the organ screen in King's College chapel, Cambridge +(1534-1539), which, except for the coats of arms, the roses, portcullis +and other English emblems, might be in some Italian church, so perfect +is its design and execution. Of early domestic work, Sutton Place +(1523-1525), near Guildford, Surrey, is a good example of transition +work. The design is Tudor, but the window mullions and panels inserted +throughout the structure, which is built in brick, are all enriched with +cinque-cento details in terra-cotta, and probably executed by Italian +craftsmen. Similar enrichments in the same material are found decorating +the entrance tower (1522-1525) at Layer Marney, Essex. + +Nearly all the examples above mentioned come within the first half of +the 16th century. Passing into the second half and dealing with domestic +architecture, we find the history of the introduction of classic work +into England more complicated than in other countries, because in +addition to the Italian, we have French, Flemish and German influences +to reckon with, and it is sometimes difficult to decide from which +source the features are borrowed. There were, however, two still more +important considerations to be taken into account--firstly, the +extremely conservative character of the English people, who were +satisfied with the traditional work of the country, and the methods by +which it was carried out, and secondly, the great progress in design +which was made during the Elizabethan period, resulting in a phase which +was peculiarly English and did not lend itself easily to classic +embellishment. + +Already in the last phase of Gothic work, to which the title of Tudor is +generally given, important changes were being made in the planning of +the larger country mansions, and features were introduced which seemed +to give an impetus towards their further development. + + The most important of these features were the following:--the bow + window, rectangular or polygonal, of which the earliest examples date + from the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483), such as Eltham Palace in + Kent, Cowdray Castle in Sussex, and Thornbury Castle in + Gloucestershire, and at a later period at Hampton Court; octagonal + towers or turrets flanking the entrance gateway at each end of the + main front; the projecting forward of the side wings so as to get + better light to the rooms in them by having windows on both sides, + such projections varying the otherwise monotonous effect of a uniform + facade without breaks; the long gallery (generally on an upper floor), + which was an important characteristic of the Elizabethan house; and + last but not least, the adherence to the type of old Tudor window, + with its moulded mullions and transoms but with square head. + + One of the first modifications was the introduction of semicircular + bow windows, as in Kirby Hall, Northamptonshire, followed by a second + example at Burton Agnes in Yorkshire (1602-1610), and a third at + Lilford Hall in Northamptonshire (1635). They were carried up through + three storeys at Kirby Hall, the upper storey in the roof; three + storeys at Burton Agnes with balcony and balustrade; and two storeys + at Lilford Hall--these features being extremely simple but fine in + effect, and the windows with moulded mullions and transoms lending + themselves naturally to the curve. + + The projecting bays and bow windows seemed to have such an attraction + for the builders of these country mansions that at Burton Agnes (with + a rectangular plan of 120 ft. by 80 ft.) there are no fewer than + thirteen of them, which break up the wall surface and give a + picturesque group externally, whilst internally they add to the fine + effect of the rooms. At Barlborough Hall, Derbyshire, with a frontage + of 80 ft., there is a central rectangular bay forming the entrance + porch and carried up above the roof, and two large octagonal bow + windows which rise as towers with an extra storey. In all these + mansions the only influence which the Revival seems to have exerted + was in the introduction of an entablature, which sometimes takes the + place of the Gothic string course, balustrades which crown the + building, but with no projecting cornice, and gables with curved + outlines and Renaissance panels or scrolls. The fact is that, with + prominent features so widely differing from those which were + represented on the perspective drawings attached to the earlier + publications of the five orders, such as those of Serlio (1537) and + Vredeman de Vries of Antwerp (1577), the only course left open to the + master-mason was to decorate the principal entrance with columns and + pilasters of the Classic orders, sometimes superposed one upon the + other. + + To the further development of this singular introduction of the + Classic orders we shall return; for the moment it will be better to + follow a chronological sequence and take up the principal examples of + the country mansion, some of which were from the first intended to be + Classic buildings. Of the house built at Gorhambury in Hertfordshire + (1563) for Sir Nicholas Bacon, the father of Lord Bacon, too little + remains to render its design intelligible, except that it still + retains in its lofty window the Tudor pointed arch; but in Longleat in + Wiltshire, built by Sir John Thynne (1567-1580), we have a typical + example, the design of which departs from the English type, though it + would seem to have been carried out according to the traditional + custom of entrusting the whole work to a master-mason, and furnishing + him with sketch designs of some kind suggesting the required + arrangements of the plan, the principal features of the exterior + elevation and the internal disposition. This custom was adhered to far + into the 18th century at Oxford and Cambridge, where the alterations + and additions to some of the colleges, such as the chapel of Clare + College, Cambridge (1763), were carried out by master-masons or + builders who were supplied with sketch designs and sometimes even the + materials for the buildings they had to carry out, notwithstanding the + existence of properly trained architects, who from the first half of + the 17th century were usually entrusted with the preparation of the + necessary designs for new structures of any considerable importance. + + The name of the designer of Longleat is not known; the master-mason + was Robert Smithson, who in 1580 went to Wollaton in Nottinghamshire + and constructed the mansion there. Longleat is so Italian in style + that it must have been conceived by some one who had been in Italy, + because it departs from the usual English type. The plan is + rectangular, with a frontage of 220 ft. by 180 ft. deep, an entrance + porch in the centre, with two projecting bays on each side carried up + through the three storeys, and three similar bays on the flanks. The + whole block is crowned with a parapet, the centre portion of which is + pierced with a balustrade, but the main cornice bears no resemblance + to the Italian feature, being only that of the entablature of the + upper order. The projecting bays are decorated with pilasters of the + Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, each with its proper entablature. + These classic features would seem to have been copied from a work by + John Shute, painter and architect, who had been sent to Italy by the + duke of Northumberland in 1551, and in 1563 brought out his _Chief + Groundes of Architecture_, the first practical work published in + English on architecture. Shute died in the same year, but two other + editions appeared in 1579 and 1584, which shows that it must have had + an extensive circulation and probably exercised the greatest influence + on English architecture. A second book on the orders, already referred + to as published in 1577 by Jan Vredeman de Vries of Antwerp, was not + of the same type, for instead of confining his work, like Shute and + Serlio, to a simple representation of the Classic orders, he + introduced, on the shafts of his columns and on the pedestals, designs + of the most debased rococo type, with additional plates suggesting + their application to various buildings. Robert Smithson, or his client + Sir Fr. Willoughby, apparently obtained a copy of this book, and the + result is seen (Plate VI., fig. 76) in the mansion built at Wollaton + (1580-1588), in which we find the first examples of elaborately + decorated pedestals; crestings on the angle towers, the design of + which is known as strap-work; and medallions with busts in them, + enclosed with twisted curves similar to those which flowers and leaves + take when thrown into the fire. The plan and the scheme of the design + of Wollaton is, however, so far superior to the usual type, that it + may fairly be ascribed to John Thorpe, an architect or surveyor, of + whose drawings there is a large collection in the Soane Museum, + representing many of the more important mansions of the Elizabethan + era; some of his own design, others either plans measured from + existing buildings upon which he was called in to report or copies + from other sources, and some reproduced from published works such as + Vredeman de Vries's pattern book and Androuet du Cerceau's _Des plus + excellents bastiments de France_ (1576). + + To John Thorpe is also attributed the design of Kirby Hall (1570-1572) + in Northamptonshire, in which the plan of the feudal castle with great + central court is still retained. This court is symmetrically designed, + and was evidently considered to be the principal feature, the + decoration being far richer than that of the exterior of the building. + + Amongst other important mansions are Moreton Old Hall (1550-1559, + partly rebuilt in 1602; see HOUSE, Plate III., fig. 11) in Cheshire, a + fine house in half-timber; Knole House, Kent (1570), possibly also + designed by John Thorpe; Charlecote Hall (1572) near + Stratford-on-Avon; Burleigh House, Northamptonshire (1575), the most + remarkable feature in which is the great tower in the courtyard, + decorated with the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders superposed, the + design apparently suggested by a similar feature in the chateau of + Anet, France (published in du Cerceau); Apethorpe Hall, + Northamptonshire (1580); Montacute House, Somersetshire (1580-1600); + Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire (1583-1589); Brereton Hall, Cheshire + (1575-1586), in brick and stone; Westwood Park, Worcestershire (1590); + Wakehurst Place, Sussex (1590); Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire (1590-1597); + Longford Castle, Wiltshire (1591-1612); Cobham Hall, Kent (1594); + Dorton House, Buckinghamshire (1596); Speke Hall, Lancashire (1598), + partly in half-timber work; Holland House, Kensington (1606; wings and + arcades, 1624); Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire (1607-1613); Charlton + House, Kent (1607); Bramshill, Hampshire (1607-1612), an interesting + example of Jacobean architecture; Hatfield, Hertfordshire (1608-1611), + with an extremely fine courtyard (north side in brick and stone, + 1621); Audley End, Essex (1610-1616), a great portion of which was + afterwards pulled down; Ham House, Surrey (1610), chiefly in brick; + Pinkie House, at Musselburgh in Midlothian (1613); Aston Hall near + Birmingham (1618-1635); Blickling Hall, Norfolk (1619); Heriot's + hospital, Edinburgh (1628-1659); and Lanhydroc, Cornwall (1636-1641), + which brings us down to the period of the pure Italian Revival + introduced by Inigo Jones. + + We have already referred to the reproduction of the Classic orders, + superposed as an enrichment of the principal entrance doorways. In + addition to Burton Agnes and Burleigh House, there are endless + examples in mansions and country houses, but the most remarkable are + those at Oxford: in the old Schools, where coupled columns flank the + entrance gateway with the five orders superposed, and in Merton and + Wadham Colleges, with four orders (the Tuscan being omitted), in + neither case taking any cognizance of the levels of windows or string + courses of the earlier building to which they were applied, or serving + any structural purpose. The orders were all taken from one of the + pattern books, and in the Schools and in Merton College the rococo + ornament and strap-work found in Vredeman de Vries's work were copied + with more or less fidelity to the original. There are, however, two or + three buildings in Northamptonshire which are free from rococo work, + and in their design form a pleasant contrast, as much to the + elaboration of the buildings just described as to the cold formality + of the works of the later Italian style. Lyveden new buildings (1577), + the Triangular Lodge at Rushton, and the Market House at Rothwell, are + all examples in which the orders from Serlio or John Shute are + faithfully represented, and are of a refined character; in the first + named the entablatures only of the orders are introduced. In Rushton + Hall (1595) the cresting of the bow windows shows the evil influence + of Vredeman de Vries's pattern-book and of numerous designs by him and + other Belgian artists, which were printed at the Plantin press. Two + other publications of a similar rococo type were brought out in + Germany, one by Cammermayer (1564) and the other by Dietterlin (1594), + both at Nuremberg; neither of them would seem to have been much known + in England, but indirectly through German craftsmen they may have + influenced some of the work of the Jacobean period, and more + particularly the chimney pieces and the ceilings of the gallery and + other important rooms in which strap-work is found. Among the finer + examples of ceilings of early date are those of Knole, Kent; Haddon + Hall, Derbyshire; Sizergh Hall, Westmorland; South Wraxall Manor + House, Wiltshire; the Red Lodge, Bristol; Chastleton House; and Canons + Ashby--in the last three with pendants. Two of the best-designed + ceilings of modest dimensions are those of the Reindeer Inn at Banbury + and the Star Inn at Great Yarmouth. The principal decorative feature + of the reception rooms was the chimney-piece, rising from floor to + ceiling, in early examples being very simple--as those at Broughton + House and Lacock Abbey--but at a later date overlaid with rococo + strap-work ornament and misshapen figures, as at South Wraxall and + Castle Ashby. One of the most beautiful chimney-pieces is in the + ballroom at Knole, probably of Flemish design, but at Cobham Hall, + Hardwick, Hatfield and Bolsover Castle are fine examples in which + different-coloured marbles are employed, there being a remarkable + series at the last-named place. + + The long gallery has already been incidentally mentioned. Its origin + has never been clearly explained; it was generally situated in an + upper storey, and may have been for exercise, like the eaves galleries + in Spain. The dimensions were sometimes remarkable; one at Ampthill + (no longer existing) was 245 ft. long; and a second at Audley End, 220 + ft. long and 34 ft. wide. Of moderate length, the best known are those + of Haddon Hall, with rich wainscotting carried up to the ceiling, + Hardwick, Knole, Longleat, Blickling Hall and Sutton Place, Surrey. + + In early work the staircases were occasionally in stone with circular + or rectangular newels, but the more general type was that known as the + open well staircase, with balustrade and newels in timber. Of these + the more remarkable examples are those at Hatfield; Benthall Hall, + Shropshire; Sydenham House, Devonshire; Charterhouse, London; Ockwells + Manor House, Berkshire; Blickling, Norfolk; and the Old Star Inn at + Lewes, Sussex. + + One of the important features in the old halls was the screen + separating the hall from the passage, over the latter being a gallery; + the front of the screen facing the hall was considered to be its chief + decoration, and was accordingly enriched with columns of the Classic + orders, and balustrade or cresting over. The screens of Charterhouse + (London), Trinity College (Cambridge), Wadham College (Oxford), and + the Middle Temple Hall (London), are remarkable for their design and + execution. The great hammer-beam roof (1562-1572) in the last named is + the finest example of the Renaissance in existence (see ROOFS, Plate + I., fig. 25). + + With the exception of chantry or other chapels added to existing + buildings, there was only one church built in the period we are now + describing, St John's at Leeds. This church is divided down the centre + by an arcade of pointed arches, virtually constituting a double nave, + and the rood-screen is carried through both. The window tracery and + the arcade show how the master-mason adhered to the traditional Gothic + style, but the rood-screen, notwithstanding its rococo decoration, is + a fine Jacobean work, eclipsed only by the magnificent example at + Croscombe, which, with the pulpit and other church accessories, dating + from 1616, constitutes the most complete example of that period. + + + Inigo Jones. + +The pure Italian style, as it is sometimes called, was introduced into +France probably by Serlio, and the result of its first influence is +shown in the Louvre, begun in 1546. It entered Spain about 20 years +later, under the rule of Philip II., and Germany about the same time, +creating about 100 years later a reaction in Spain in favour of a less +cold and formal style, and scarcely taking any root in Germany. In +England its first appearance does not take place till 1619, when Inigo +Jones, after his second visit to Rome, designed an immense palace, +measuring 1150 ft. by 900 ft., of which the only portion built was the +Banqueting House in Whitehall (Plate VI., fig. 75); a fine design, in +which the emphasizing of the central portion by columns in place of +pilasters is an original treatment not found in Italy, but of excellent +effect. Unfortunately many subsequent designs of Inigo Jones were either +not carried out or have since been destroyed; but nothing approached +this admirable work in Whitehall. + + Among his buildings still remaining are St Paul's, Covent Garden + (1631), a simple and massive structure which requires perhaps an + Italian sun to make it cheerful; York Stairs Water-gate (1626); the + front of Wilton House, near Salisbury (1633); the Queen's House, + Greenwich (1617), a very poor design; Coleshill, Berkshire; Raynham + Park, Norfolk, with weakly-designed gables and an entrance doorway + with curved broken pediment, which can scarcely be regarded as pure + Italian; and Ashburnham House, Westminster (the staircase of which is + extremely fine), carried out after his death by his pupil John Webb, + who, at Thorpe Hall, near Peterborough (1656), shows that he possessed + some of his master's qualities in his employment of simple and bold + details. + + + Wren. + +Sir Christopher Wren, who follows, was by far the greatest architect of +the Italian school, though curiously enough he had never been in Italy. +His first work was the library of Pembroke College, Cambridge +(1663-1664), followed by the Sheldonian theatre at Oxford, in the +construction of the roof of which, with a span of 68 ft., he showed his +great scientific knowledge. In 1665 he went to Paris, where he stopped +six months studying the architectural buildings there and in its +vicinity, and where he came across Bernini, whose designs for destroying +the old Louvre (fortunately not carried out) were being started. On his +return Wren occupied himself with designs for the rebuilding of the old +St Paul's, but these were rendered useless by the great fire of the 22nd +of September 1666, which opened out his future career. His plan for the +reconstruction of the city was not followed, owing to the opposition of +the owners of the sites, but he began plans for the rebuilding of the +churches and of St Paul's cathedral. In his treatment of the former, +where he was obliged to limit himself to the old sites, often very +irregular, and in most cases to the old foundations, he adopted, perhaps +quite unconsciously, one of the principles of ancient Roman +architecture, and made the central feature the key of his plan, fitting +the aisles, vestries, porches, &c., into what remained of the site; this +central feature varied according to its extent and proportions, and +sometimes from a desire to work out a new problem. The central dome was +a favourite conception, the finest example of which is that of St +Stephen's, Walbrook (1676); other domed churches are St Mary-at-Hill, St +Mildred's, Bread Street, St Mary Abchurch (1681), where the dome +virtually covers the whole area of the church, and St Swithin's, Cannon +Street, an octagonal example. In St Anne and St Agnes, Aldersgate, the +crossing is covered with an intersecting barrel vault; and in this small +church, about 52 ft. square with four supporting columns, he manages to +get nave, transept and choir with aisles in the angles. In those +churches where there was sufficient length, the ordinary arrangement of +nave and aisle is adopted, with an elliptical barrel vault over the +nave, sometimes intersected and lighted from clerestory windows, the +finest example of these being St Bride's, Fleet Street; other examples +are St Mary-le-Bow (Cheapside), Christchurch (Newgate) and St Andrew's +(Holborn). In St James's, Piccadilly, of which the site was a new one, +the plan of nave and aisles with galleries over, and a fine internal +design with barrel-vaulted ceiling, was adopted; the exterior is very +simple, which suggests that Wren attached much more importance to the +interior. It should be pointed out that in all these cases, the vaults, +to which we have referred, were in lath and plaster, and consequently +covered over with slate roofs, and as a rule the exteriors (which are +rarely visible) were deemed to be of less importance. This is, however, +made up for by the position selected for the towers, and in their varied +design those of St Mary-le-Bow, St Bride's (Fleet Street) and St Magnus +(London Bridge) are perhaps the finest of a most remarkable series. + + The foundation stone of St Paul's cathedral was laid in 1675, and the + lantern was finished in 1710. The silhouette of the dome (Plate II., + fig. 66), which is, of course, its principal feature, is far superior + to those of St Peter's at Rome, or the Invalides or Pantheon at Paris, + and the problem of its construction with the central lantern was + solved much more satisfactorily than in any other example. Wren + realized that the attempt to render a dome beautiful internally as + well as externally could only be obtained by having three shells in + its construction; the inner one for inside effect, the outer one to + give greater prominence externally, and the third, of conical form, to + support the lantern. + + In plan, Wren's design (fig. 53) was in accordance with the + traditional arrangement of an English cathedral, with nave, north and + south transepts and choir, in all cases with side aisles, and a small + apse to the choir. The great dome over the crossing is, like the + octagon at Ely, of the same width as nave and aisles together. It + resembles the plan of that cathedral also in the four great arches + opening into nave, transepts and choir, with smaller arches between. + Instead of the great barrel vault of St Peter's, Rome, Wren introduced + a series of cupolas over the main arms of the cathedral, which enabled + him to light the same with clerestory windows; these are not visible + on the exterior, as they are masked by the upper storey which Wren + carried round the whole structure, in order, probably, to give it + greater height and importance; by its weight, however, it serves to + resist the thrust of the vaults transmitted by buttresses across the + aisles. The grouping of the two lanterns on the west front with the + central dome is extremely fine; the west portico is not satisfactory, + but the semicircular porticoes of the north and south transepts are + very beautiful features. Greater importance is given to the cathedral + by raising it on a podium about 12 ft. above the level of the pavement + outside, which enables the crypt under the whole cathedral to be + lighted by side windows. + + The principal examples of the churches which followed are those of St + George's, Bloomsbury; St Mary Woolnoth; Christ Church, Spitalfields, + by Nicholas Hawksmoor; and St Mary-le-Strand (1714), and St + Martin's-in-the-Fields (1721), by James Gibbs. Gibbs's interiors are + second only to those of Wren, while Hawksmoor's are very weak; in both + cases, however, the exteriors are finely designed. Amongst subsequent + works are St John's, Westminster, and St Philips, Birmingham (1710), + by Thomas Archer; St George's, Hanover Square (1713-1714), by John + James; All Saints' church, Oxford, by Dean Aldrich; St + Giles-in-the-Fields (1731), by Henry Flitcroft; and St Leonard's, + Shoreditch (1736), by George Dance. + + [Illustration: FIG. 53.--Plan of St Paul's Cathedral, London.] + + Sir Christopher Wren's chief monumental work was Greenwich hospital, + in the arrangement of which he had to include the Queen's House, and a + block already begun on the west side. His solution was of the most + brilliant kind, and seen from the river the grouping of the several + blocks with the colonnade and cupolas of the two central ones is + admirable. + + Wren's next great work was the alterations and additions to Hampton + Court palace, begun in 1689, the east front facing the park (Plate + VI., fig. 77), the south front facing the river, the fountain court + and the colonnade opposite the great hall. Chelsea hospital + (1682-1692), the south front (now destroyed) to Christ's hospital + (1692), and Winchester school (1684-1687), are all examples in brick + with stone quoins, cornices, door and window dressings, which show how + Wren managed with simple materials to give a monumental effect. The + library which he built in Trinity College, Cambridge (1678), with + arcades on two storeys divided by three-quarter detached columns of + the Doric and Ionic orders, is based on the same principle of design + as those in the court of the Farnese palace at Rome by Sangallo, a + part of the palace which is not likely to have been known by him. + + The results of the Italian Revival in domestic architecture were not + altogether satisfactory, for although it is sometimes claimed that the + style was adapted by its architects to the traditional requirements + and customs of the English people, the contrary will be found if they + are compared with the work of the 16th century. The chief aim seems to + have been generally to produce a great display of Classic features, + which, even supposing they followed more closely the ancient models, + were quite superfluous and generally interfered with the lighting of + the chief rooms, which were sacrificed to them. In fact there are many + cases in which one cannot help feeling how much better the effect + would be if the great porticoes rising through two storeys were + removed. This is specially the case in Sir John Vanbrugh's mansion, + Seaton Delaval, in Northumberland (1720); his other works, Blenheim + (1714) and Castle Howard (1702), are vulgarized also by the employment + of the large orders. The same defect exists in Stoneleigh Abbey, + Leamington, where the orders carried up through two and three storeys + respectively destroy the scale of the whole structure. + + Among other mansions, the principal examples are Houghton in Norfolk + (1723), a fine work, the villa at Mereworth in imitation of the Villa + Capra near Vicenza, and the front of old Burlington House (1718), + copied from the Porto palace at Vicenza, by Colin Campbell; Holkham in + Norfolk and Devonshire House, London, by William Kent; Ditchley in + Oxfordshire, and Milton House near Peterborough, by Gibbs; + Chesterfield House, London, by Isaac Ware; Wentworth House in + Yorkshire (1740), and Woburn Abbey in Bedfordshire (1747), by Henry + Flitcroft; Spencer House, London (1762), by John Vardy; Prior Park and + various works in Bath by John Wood; the Mansion House, London, by + George Dance; Wardour in Wiltshire, Kedleston Hall in Derbyshire, and + Worksop in Nottinghamshire (1763), by James Paine; Gopsall Hall, Ely + House, Dover Street, London (1772), and Heveringham Hall in Suffolk, + by Sir Robert Taylor, to whose munificence we owe the Taylor Buildings + at Oxford; Harewood House in Yorkshire (1760), Lytham Hall in + Lancashire, and (part of) Wentworth House in Yorkshire, by John Carr; + and Luton Hoo (1767), now largely reconstructed, and Sion House + (1761), the best-known mansions by Robert Adam, who with his brothers + built the Adelphi and many houses in London. Adam designed a type of + decoration in stucco for ceilings and mantelpieces, the dies of which + are still in existence and are utilized extensively in modern houses. + His labours were not confined to buildings, but extended to their + decoration, furniture and fittings. + + The works of Sir William Chambers were of a most varied nature, but + his fame is chiefly based on Somerset House in the Strand, London + (1776), with its facade facing the river, a magnificent work second + only to Inigo Jones's Whitehall, but infinitely more extensive and + difficult to design. He was also the author of a work on _The + Decorative Part of Civil Architecture_, which is still the standard + work on the subject in England. His pupil, James Gandon, won the first + gold medal given by the Royal Academy in 1769, and his principal work + was the Custom House in Dublin (1781). Newgate prison (1770), a + remarkable building now destroyed, was the chief work carried out by + George Dance, jun. + + Other buildings not yet mentioned are the Alcove and Banqueting Hall + (Orangery) of Kensington Palace, by Wren; the Radcliffe library, + Oxford, by Gibbs, an extremely fine work both externally and + internally; Queen's College, Oxford, by Hawksmoor; the county hall, + Northampton, by Sir Roger Norwich; the town hall, Abingdon (1677), + designer unknown; the Ashmolean museum, Oxford (1677), by T. Wood; + Clare College, Cambridge, and St Catherine's Hall, Cambridge + (1640-1679), by Thomas and Robert Grumboll, master-masons; the custom + house, King's Lynn (1681), by Henry Bell; Nottingham Castle, designed + by the duke of Newcastle in 1674 and carried out by March, his clerk + of works--the central portion is finely proportioned, and it is only + in the pilasters at the quoins that one recognizes the amateur; two + houses in Cavendish Square, London (1717), on the north side, by John + James; Lord Burlington's villa (1740) at Chiswick, by William Kent, + which with its internal decorations is still perfect; the celebrated + Palladian Bridge at Wilton, by R. Morris; and last but not least, in + consequence of its great influence on modern architecture, Sparrowe's + house at Ipswich (1567-1662), the timber oriel windows of which are + now so often reproduced. (R. P. S.) + + +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY + +The classical revival does not seem to have taken root in Germany much +before the middle of the 16th century, some forty to fifty years later +than in France, from which country it is said to have been introduced, +and in some of the early work there is a great similarity to French +examples, but without the refinement and variety of detail which one +finds in the chateaux of the Loire and in many of the French towns. In +the rood-screen of the cathedral at Hildesheim (1546), the court of the +town hall at Gorlitz (1534), the portal of the Petershof at Halberstadt +(1552), and the entrance gateway of the castle at Brieg (1553), one is +able to recognize certain ornamental details and a similar superposition +of pilasters in several storeys to that which is found in various towns +in Normandy and on the Loire. In both countries the new style was +engrafted on the last phase of the Gothic period, so forming at first a +transitional style, which lasted about fifty years. Thus the lofty roofs +which prevailed in the 15th century are developed further, but with this +great divergence in the two countries. In France there are rarely gable +ends, in Germany they are not only the chief characteristic feature of +the main front, but are introduced in the side elevations in the shape +of immense dormers with two or three storeys and rising the full height +of the roof, as in the castle at Hamelschenburg near Hameln. Throughout +Germany, therefore, the gable end and the dormer gable became the chief +features on which they lavished all their ornamental designs, the main +walls of the building being as a rule either in plain masonry, rubble +masonry with stucco facing, or brick and stone. Other prominent features +are the octagonal and circular oriel windows rising through two or three +storeys at the corners of their buildings--rectangular bow windows in +two or three storeys, which were allowed apparently to encroach on the +pavement, and octagonal turrets or towers instead of circular as in +France. In the vicinity of the Harz mountains, where timber was +plentiful, a large proportion of the factories, houses and even public +buildings, are erected in half-timber work with elaborate carving of the +door and window jambs, projecting corbels, &c. At Hildesheim, +Wernigerode, Goslar, &c., these structures are sometimes of immense size +and richly decorated. Among early examples in stone, the porch added to +the town hall of Cologne (1571), the projecting wings of the town halls +at Halberstadt and Lemgo (1565), and the town halls at Posen (1550), +Altenburg (1562-1567) and Rothenburg (1572-1590), are all picturesque +examples more or less refined in design. In the last-named example the +purer Italian style has exercised its influence in the principal doorway +and in the arcaded gallery on the east front. This same influence shows +itself in the courtyard of the town hall at Nuremberg, where the arcades +of the two upper storeys might be taken for those of the courts of the +palaces at Rome. + + Amongst other 16th-century work there are two entrance gates at + Danzig, the Hohe Tor (1588), a fine massive structure, and the + Langgasse Tor (1600), more or less pure Italian in style. At Augsburg, + the arsenal (1603-1607), by the architect Elias Holl (1573-1646), is + of a bold and original design, and the town hall has magnificent + ceilings and wainscotting round the walls of the principal halls. This + brings us to the castle of Heidelberg (Plate VII., figs. 78, 79 and + 80), which is looked upon by the Germans as the chef d'oeuvre of the + Renaissance in Germany. As seen from the great court it forms an + interesting study, there being the work of three periods: in the + centre the picturesque group of the older building (c. 1525), on the + right the Otto-Heinrichs-Bau (1556-1559), and on the left the + Friedrichs-Bau (1602-1607). Of the two the latter is the finer. The + architect of the Otto-Heinrichs-Bau would seem to have been undecided + whether to give greater prominence and projection to his pilasters and + cornices or to his windows with their dressings and pediments, so he + has compromised the matter by making them both about the same, and the + effect is most monotonous. In the Friedrichs-Bau, which is a + remarkable work, the pilasters are of great projection, with bold + cornices and simple windows well set back, while the tracery of the + ground-floor windows is a pleasant relief from the constant repetition + of pilaster window dressings. The gables also of the Friedrichs-Bau + break the horizontal sky-line agreeably. A more minute examination of + the decorative details, however, betrays the advent of a peculiar + rococo style of a most debased type, which throughout the 17th century + spread through Germany, and the repetition of the same details + suggests that it was copied from some of the pattern books which were + published towards the end of the 16th century, comprising + heterogeneous designs for title pages, door heads, frontispieces, and + even extending to new versions of the orders, which apparently + appealed to the German mason and saved him the trouble of invention. + These books, compiled by de Vries and Dietterlin, emanated from the + Low Countries, and their influence extended to England during the + Elizabethan period. At all events in Germany it would seem to have + arrested the purer Italian work, which we have already noticed, and + henceforth in the gable ends one finds the most extraordinary + accumulation of distorted forms which, though sometimes picturesque, + disfigure the German work of the 17th century. An exception might + perhaps be made in favour of the Peller'sche Haus in Nuremberg (1625), + one of the best houses of modest dimensions in Germany. The facade in + the Aegidien-Platz is a fine composition; inside is a very picturesque + court and staircase, and the painted ceiling and the wainscotting of + one of the rooms in woods of different colours, though not very pure + in style, are of excellent design and execution. + + Some of the most characteristic work of this type exists at Hameln, + where the facades of the Rattenfangerhaus (1602), the Hochzeitshaus + (1610), and many other buildings, are covered with the most + extraordinary devices, leaving scarcely a foot of plain masonry as a + relief. The south front of the town hall of Bremen (1612) is in the + same style (Plate IV., fig. 70), relieved, however, by the fine large + windows of the great hall and the arcade in front, in which there is + some picturesque detail. Later in the century the degradation + increases until it reaches its climax in the Zwinger palace at Dresden + (1711), the most terrible rococo work ever conceived, if we except + some of the Churrigueresque work in Spain. + + Among the most pleasing features in Germany are the fountains which + abound in every town; of these there are good examples at Tubingen, + Prague, Hildesheim, Ulm, Nuremberg, already famed for its Gothic + fountains, Mainz and Rothenburg. In the latter town, built on an + eminence, they are of great importance for the supply of the town, and + some of them are extremely picturesque and of good design. + + Up to the present we have said nothing about the ecclesiastical + buildings in Germany, for the reason that the period between the + Reformation and the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War was not + favourable to church building. The only example worth mentioning is + the church of St Michael at Munich (1583-1597), and that more for its + plan than for its architecture. It has a wide nave covered with a + barrel vault, and a series of chapels forming semicircular recesses on + each side, the walls between acting as buttresses to the great vault. + The transept is not deep enough to have any architectural value, but + if at the east end there had been only an apse it would have been a + better termination than the long choir. The Liebfrauenkirche at + Dresden (1726-1745) has a good plan, but internally is arranged like a + theatre with pit, tiers of boxes, and a gallery, all in the worst + possible taste, and externally the dome is far too high and destroys + the scale of the lower part of the church. An elliptical dome is never + a pleasing object, and in the church of St Charles Borromeo, at + Vienna, there are no other features to redeem its ugliness. The + Marienkirche at Wolfenbuttel (1608-1622) has a fine Italian portal; + its side elevation is spoilt by the series of gable dormers, which are + of no possible use, as the church (of the _Hallenkirchen_ type) is + well lighted through the aisle windows. The portal of the + Schlosskapelle (1555) at Dresden is a fine work in the Italian style; + and lastly the church at Buckeburg, in a late debased style, is + redeemed only by the fact that it is built in fine masonry and that + the joints run through all the rococo details. (R. P. S.) + + +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN BELGIUM AND HOLLAND + +The Gothic development in the 15th century in Belgium, as evidenced in +her magnificent town halls and other public buildings, not only supplied +her requirements in the century following, but hindered the introduction +of the Classic Revival, so that it is not till the second half of the +16th century that we find in the town hall of Antwerp a building which +is perhaps more Italian in design than any work in Germany. There are, +however, a few instances of earlier Renaissance, such as the Salm Inn +(1534) at Malines; the magnificent chimneypiece, by Conrad van +Noremberger of Namur, in the council chamber of the palais de justice at +Bruges (1529); and the palais de justice of Liege (1533), formerly the +bishop's palace, in the court of which are features suggesting a Spanish +influence. The influence of the cinque-cento style of Italy may be +noticed in the tomb of the count de Borgnival (1533) in the cathedral of +Breda, and in the choir stalls of the church at Enkhuisen on the borders +of the Zuyder Zee, both in Holland, and in the choir stalls of the +cathedral of Ypres in Belgium; the carving of these bears so close a +resemblance to cinque-cento work in design and execution that one might +conclude they were the work of Italian artists, but their authors are +known to have been Flemish, who must, however, have studied in Italy. +Again, in the stained-glass windows of the church of St Jacques at +Liege, the details are all cinque-cento, with circular arches on +columns, festoons of leaves and other ornament, all apparently derived +from Italian sources, but necessarily executed by Flemish painters, as +stained-glass windows of that type are not often found in Italian +churches. + + Of public buildings in Belgium, the most noted example is that of the + town hall at Antwerp, designed by Cornelius de Vriendt (1564). It has + a frontage of over 300 ft. facing the Grande Place, and is an imposing + structure in four storeys, arcaded on the lower storey and the classic + orders above, with mullioned windows between on the three other + storeys, the uppermost storey being an open loggia, which gives that + depth of shadow obtained in Italy by a projecting cornice. It is + almost the only building in Belgium without the usual gable, the + centre block being carried up above the eaves and terminated with an + entablature supporting at each end a huge obelisk, and in the centre + what looks like the miniature representation of a church. The only + other classic building is the Renaissance portion of the town hall at + Ghent, which is very inferior to the older Gothic portion. + + What is wanting in the town halls, however, is amply replaced by the + magnificence of the houses built for the various gilds, as for + instance those of the Fishmongers at Malines (1580), of the Brewers, + the Archers, the Tanners and the Cordeliers (rope-makers) at Antwerp, + and, in the Grande Place at Brussels, the gilds of the Butchers, the + Archers, the Skippers (the gable end of which represents the stern of + a vessel with four cannons protruding), the Carpenters and others. + Besides these, and especially in Antwerp, are to be found a very large + series of warehouses, which in the richness of their decoration and + their monumental appearance vie with the gilds in the evolution of a + distinct style of Renaissance architecture--a type from which the + architect of the present day might derive more inspiration than from + the modest brick houses of Queen Anne's time. + + In domestic architecture, the best-preserved example of the 16th and + 17th centuries is the Musee Plantin at Antwerp, the earliest portion + of which dates from 1535. This was bought by Ch. Plantin, who was + employed by Philip of Spain to print all the breviaries and missals + for Spain and the Netherlands; the fortune thus acquired enabled him + and his successors to purchase from time to time adjoining properties + which they rebuilt in the style of the earlier buildings. After 1637 + the buildings followed the style of the period, but up to that date + they were all erected in brick with stone courses and window dressings + round a central court. Internally the whole of the ancient fittings + are retained, including those of the old shop, the show-rooms, + reception rooms and the residential portion of the house, with the + wainscotting and Spanish leather on the walls above, panelled + ceilings, chimney-pieces, stained glass, &c., the most complete + representation of the domestic style of Belgium. + + Of ecclesiastical architecture in the Renaissance style there are + scarcely any examples worth noting. The tower of the church of St + Charles Borromeo at Antwerp (1595-1610) is a fine composition similar + in many respects to Wren's steeples, and the nave of St Anne's church + at Bruges is of simple design and good proportion. The Belgian + churches are noted for their immense pulpits, sometimes in marble and + of a somewhat degraded style. The finest features in them are the + magnificent rood-screens, in which the tradition of the Gothic + examples already quoted seems to have been handed down. In the + cathedral at Tournai is a fine specimen by Cornelius de Vriendt of + Antwerp (1572), and there is a second at Nieuport, both similar in + design to the example from Bois-le-Duc now in the Victoria and Albert + Museum; and in the church of St Leonard at Leau is a tabernacle in + stone, over 50 ft. high, in seven stages, with numerous figures by + Cornelius de Vriendt (1550). + + In Holland, nearly all the principal buildings of the Renaissance date + from the time of her greatest prosperity when the Dutch threw off + their allegiance to the Spanish throne (1565). With the exception of + the palace at Amsterdam (1648-1655), an immense structure in stone + with no architectural pretensions, there are no buildings in Holland + in which the influence of the purer style of the Italian revival can + be traced. Internally the great hall of the palace and the staircase + in the Louis XIV. style are fine examples of that period. + + The earliest Renaissance town hall is that of the Hague (1564), + situated at the angle of two streets, which is an extremely + picturesque building, in fact one of the few in which the architect + has known how to group the principal features of his design. The + Renaissance addition made to the old town hall of Haarlem is a + characteristic example of the Dutch style. The walls are in red brick, + the decorative portions, consisting of superimposed pilasters with + mullioned and transomed windows, cornices and gable end, all being in + stone. Inside this portion of the town hall, which is now a gallery + and museum, is an ancient hall (not often shown to visitors) in which + all the decorations and fittings date from the 17th century. There is + a second example of an ancient hall in the Stadthuis at Kampen, one of + the dead cities of the Zuyder Zee, which served originally as a court + of justice, and retains all its fittings of the 16th century, + including a magnificent chimneypiece in stone, some 25 ft. high and + dated 1543. + + The town hall at Bolsward in Friesland is another typical specimen of + Dutch architecture, in which the red brick, alternating with stone + courses running through the semi-detached columns which decorate the + main front, has given variety to the usual treatment of such features. + The external double flight of steps with elaborate balustrade, and the + twisted columns which flank the principal doorway, are extremely + picturesque, if not quite in accordance with the principles of + Palladio or Vignola. + + A similar flight of steps with balustrade forms the approach to the + entrance doorway (on the first floor) of the town hall at Leiden, + where the rich decoration of the centre block and its lofty gable is + emphasized by contrast with the plain design of the chief front. + + In the three chief cities in Holland, the Hague, Amsterdam and + Rotterdam, there are few buildings remaining of 17th-century work, so + that they must be sought in the south at Dordrecht and Delft, or in + the north at Leiden, Haarlem, Alkmaar, Hoorn, Enkhuisen, or, crossing + the Zuyder Zee into Friesland, in Leeuwarden, Bolsward, Kampen and + Zwolle, the dead cities. In all these towns ancient buildings have + been preserved, there being no reason to pull them down. Of the + entrance gateways at Hoorn there is an example left, of which the + lower portion might be taken for a Roman triumphal arch, so closely + does it adhere to the design of those monuments, extending even to a + long Latin inscription in the frieze. The tower (1531-1652), built to + protect the entrance to the harbour, has no gateway. There are some + old buildings in Kampen, in one of which the entrance gateway is a + simple and fine composition in brick and stone, the chief + characteristics of the gateways here being the enormously high roofs + of the circular towers flanking them. A finer and more picturesque + grouping of roofs exists in the entrance gateway (Amsterdam Gate) at + Haarlem, which is perhaps, however, eclipsed by those of the Waaghuis + at Amsterdam with its seven conical roofs. + + The Waaghuisen, or weighing-houses for cheeses, are, next to the town + halls, the most important buildings in Holland, and in fact vie with + them in richness of design. The example at Alkmaar possesses not only + an imposing front with gable in three storeys, but a lofty tower with + belfry. At Deventer the main building is late Gothic (1528), in brick + and stone, with an external double flight of steps and balustrades + added in 1643. + + The Fleesch Halle (meat-market) at Haarlem, also in brick and stone, + is of a very rococo style, but notwithstanding all its vagaries + presents a most picturesque appearance. + + The domestic architecture of Holland and the shop fronts retain more + of their original dispositions than will be found in any other + country. At Hoorn, Enkhuisen and other towns, there has virtually been + no change during the last 200 years. In the more flourishing towns as + Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the increasing prosperity of the inhabitants + led them in the latter portion of the 17th and in the 18th centuries + to adapt features borrowed from the French work of Louis XIV. and + Louis XV., without, however, their refinement, luxuriance or variety, + so that although substantial structures they are extremely monotonous + in general effect. (R. P. S.) + + +MAHOMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE + +Before proceeding with "modern architecture," to which the styles now +discussed have gradually led us, we have still another important +architectural style to describe, in Mahommedan architecture. The term +"Mahommedan" has been selected in preference to "Saracenic," because it +includes a much wider field, and enables us to bring in many +developments which could not well come under the latter title. It was +the Mahommedan religion which prescribed the plan and the features of +the mosques, and it was the restriction of that faith which led to the +principal characteristics of the style. The term "Saracenic" could +hardly be applied to the architecture of Spain, Persia or Turkey. + + The earliest mosques at Mecca and Medina, which have long since passed + away, were probably of the simplest kind; there were no directions on + the subject in the Koran, and, as Fergusson remarks, had the religion + been confined to its native land, it is probable that no mosques + worthy of the name would have ever been erected. In the first + half-century of their conquest in Egypt and Syria the Mahommedans + contented themselves with desecrated churches and other buildings, and + it was only when they came among the temple-building nations that they + seemed to have felt the necessity of providing some visible monument + of their religion. The first requirement was a structure of some kind, + which should indicate to the faithful the direction of Mecca, towards + which, at stated times, they were to turn and pray. The earliest + mosque, built by Omar at Jerusalem, no longer exists, but in the + mosque of 'Amr at Cairo (fig. 54), founded in 643 and probably + restored or added to at various times, we find the characteristic + features which form the base of the plans of all subsequent mosques. + These features consist of (a) a wall built at right angles to a line + drawn towards Mecca, in which, sunk in the wall, was a niche + indicating the direction towards which the faithful should turn; (b) + a covered space for shelter from the sun or inclement weather, which + was known as the prayer chamber; (c) in front of the prayer chamber, + a large open court, in which there was a fountain for ablution; and + (d) a covered approach on either side of these courts and from the + entrance. The materials employed in the earlier mosque were all taken + from ancient structures, Egyptian, Roman and Byzantine, but so + arranged as to constitute the elements of a new style. The columns + employed were not always of sufficient size, and therefore in order to + obtain a greater height, above the capitals were square dies, carrying + ranges of arches, all running in the direction of Mecca; to resist the + thrust, wood ties were built in under the arches, so that the + structure was of the lightest appearance. The same principle was + observed in the mosque of Kairawan, in Tunisia (675), and in the + mosque of Cordova (786-985), copied from it. Similar wooden ties are + found in the mosque of El Aksa and the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem + (built 691), so that they became one of the characteristics of the + style. For constructional reasons, however, this method of building + was not always adhered to, and in the mosque of Tulun (fig 55) in + Cairo (879), the first mosque in Egypt, built of original materials, + we find an important departure. The arcades, instead of running at + right angles to the Mecca wall, are built parallel with it, on account + of the great thrust of the arches, all built in brick (fig. 56). The + wood ties would have been quite insufficient to resist the thrust, and + in the case of this mosque were probably used to carry lanterns. + + [Illustration: FIG. 54.--Plan of Mosque of 'Amr. Old Cairo. + + 1. Kibla. 5. Fountain for Ablution + 2. Mimbar. 6. Rooms built later. + 3. Tomb of 'Amr. 7. Minaret + 4. Dakka. 8. Latrines.] + + The mosque of Tulun is the earliest example in which the pointed arch + appears throughout, and it forms the leading and most characteristic + constructional feature of the style in its subsequent developments in + every country, except in Barbary and Spain, where the circular-headed + horse-shoe arch seems to be preferred. As it is also the earliest + mosque in which the decoration applied is that which was by inference + laid down in the Koran, some allusion to the restrictions therein + contained, and the consequent result, may not be out of place. The + representation of nature in any form was absolutely forbidden, and + this applied generally to foliage of all kinds, and plants, the + representation of birds or animals, and above all of the human figure. + The only exceptions to the rule would seem to be those found in the + very conventional representations of lions carved over the gateways of + Cairo and Jerusalem and in the courts of the Alhambra. It was this + restriction which produced the extremely beautiful conventional + patterns which are carried round the arches of the mosque of Tulun, + and are found in the friezes, string-courses and the capitals of the + shafts, and when these patterns form the background of the text of the + Koran in high relief, in the splendid Arabic characters, it would be + difficult to find a more beautiful decorative scheme in the absence of + natural forms. As the mosque of Tulun was built by a Coptic architect, + and its decoration is evidently the result of many years of previous + developments, it is probably to the Copts that its evolution was due. + The second type of decoration is that which is given by geometrical + forms, and either in pavements or wall decorations in marble, or in + the framing of woodwork in ceilings, or in doorways, the most + elaborate and beautiful combinations were produced. The third type of + decoration is one which in a sense is found in the origin of most + styles, but which, restricted as the Mahommedans were to conventional + representations, received a development of far greater importance, and + in one of its forms--that known as stalactite vaulting--constitutes + the one feature in the style which is not found in any other, and + which, from the western coast of Spain to the east of India, at once + differentiates it from any other style. + + A complete account, with illustrations of the origin of the stalactite + will be found in the _Journal of the Royal Institute of British + Architects_ (1898) The earliest example is found in the tomb of + Zobeide, the favourite wife of Harun al-Rashid, at Bagdad, built at + the end of the 8th century. This tomb, octagonal in plan, and of + modest dimensions, was vaulted over by a series of niches in nine + stages or levels rising one above the other, and brought forward on + the inside, so that the ninth course completed the covering of the + tomb. It was built in this way to save centreing, each niche when + completed being self-supporting. There is a second tomb at Bagdad, of + later date--the tomb of Ezekiel,--constructed in the same way, except + that in each stage the niches are built not one over the other but + astride between the two, and this is the way in which in subsequent + developments it always appears to have been built. Its application to + the pendentives of the portals of the mosque at Tabriz and Sultaniya + was the next development; and when some two centuries later it is + found in Europe, in the palaces of the Ziza at Palermo, dating from + about the beginning of the 11th century, it has lost its brick + constructive origin, and, being cut in slabs of stone, has become + simply a decorative feature. Its earliest example in Egypt is in the + tomb of ash-Shafi'i at Cairo, built by Saladin about 1240. Here and in + all subsequent examples throughout Egypt and Syria it is always carved + in stone. In the Alhambra another material was employed, the elaborate + vaults being built with a series of small moulds in stucco. In the + ceilings of the mosques at Cairo it was frequently carved in wood, and + consequently lost all trace of its origin. + + [Illustration: FIG. 55.--Plan of Mosque of Tulun, Cairo. + + From Coste's _Architecture Arabe en Caire_] + + Two other decorative features, but having a constructive origin, are + (1) the alternating of courses of stone of different colour, probably + derived from Byzantine work, where bands of brick were employed; and + (2) the elaborate forms given to the voussoirs of the arches of the + Mecca niche. + + Having now described the principles which ruled the plans of the + mosques and formed the _motifs_ of their architectural design, it + remains to take the principal examples in the various countries where + the style was developed. + + Although the tendency of modern research points to Persia as the + country in which the first development of the art took place, and we + have already referred to two tombs at Bagdad, in which the earliest + examples of a stalactite vault are found, so far as remains are + concerned nothing can be traced earlier than the work of Ghazan Khan + (1294), whose mosque at Tabriz, half in ruins, is the earliest + example. + + It is to Egypt therefore we turn first. There still exist--and + sometimes in good preservation--mosques and other buildings in Cairo + of every period showing the development of the Mahommedan style, from + the 9th to the 17th century. Owing to the magnificent material at + their command--for unfortunately more of it was taken from the ancient + Egyptian monuments than from the quarries--a much purer style was + evolved than in Persia; and owing to the absence of rain those + ephemeral structures built in brick and covered with stucco, which in + other countries would long have passed away, retained the crispness of + their flowing ornament, which is still as sharp and well defined as + when executed. We have already referred to two of the earlier + mosques, those of 'Amr in Old Cairo and of Tulun. The next in date, + and built also in brick, is the mosque El Hakim (c. 1003). The mosque + of El Azhar ("the Splendid") was founded about 970, but entirely + rebuilt in 1270 and enlarged in 1470. It is the university, and its + Liwan or prayer chamber is the largest in Cairo, there being 380 + columns carrying its roof. + + The mosque of al-Zahir (founded 1264) is now occupied as barracks. In + one of its entrance porches the arches are decorated with the + well-known zigzag or chevron ornament, and a second porch with cushion + voussoirs, features found elsewhere only in Sicily, so that the mosque + was probably built by masons brought from thence. Then follows a + series of mosques: Kalaun (1287); al-Nasir (1299-1303); Merdani + (1338); all based on the same plan as those described with a large + courtyard surrounded by porticoes. The mosque of al-Nasir has a portal + with clustered piers and pointed and moulded orders. This is said to + have been brought over as a trophy from Acre, but it is more probable + that Syrian masons were imported to carry on the style introduced by + the Crusaders. + + [Illustration: FIG. 56.--Court of the Mosque of Tulun, Cairo. (From + Coste.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 57.--Plan of the Mosque of the Sultan Hasan.] + + The mosque of Sultan Hasan (1357-1360) marks an important change in + the scheme of its plan, which served afterwards as a future model + (fig. 57). It consists of a central court, 117 ft. by 105 ft. open to + the sky, and instead of the covered porticoes on each side there are + immense recesses covered over with pointed vaults. The prayer chamber + is 90 ft. deep, 90 ft. high to the apex of the vault and 69 ft. wide, + a greater span than any Gothic cathedral, and only exceeded in + dimensions by the great hall of the palace at Ctesiphon built by the + Sassanian dynasty. The mosque covers a large area, and would seem to + have been occupied by four religious sects, whose rooms, situated on + the outer side, are lighted by windows in eight or ten storeys, giving + the appearance of a factory. Its entrance portal, 60 ft. to 70 ft. + high, is the finest in Egypt, and is only exceeded in dimensions by + those of the Persian and Indian mosques. The vestibule is covered by a + dome with stalactite pendentives, and is perhaps the most complete and + perfect example in Cairo. Beyond the prayer chamber is the tomb of the + founder, which is covered by a dome. This, according to Poole, was not + originally a feature in Saracenic mosques. A dome, he says, has + nothing to do with prayer and therefore nothing with a mosque. It is + simply the roof of a tomb, and only exists when there is at least a + tomb to be covered. The greater number of the mosques in and outside + Cairo are mausoleums, which accounts for the large number of domes + found there. + + Of the tombs of the caliphs, outside Cairo, the most important is the + tomb of ash-Shafi'i, reputed to have been built by Saladin but now + quite changed by restoration. The tomb of Barkuk, in which the + courtyard plan of Sultan Hasan is retained, has porticoes round it, + which are of much more solid construction than those in earlier + examples, and carry small domes. The two great domes on the east side + and the minarets on the west are among the finest in Cairo. The + tomb-mosque of Kait Bey (c. 1470), though comparatively small, is the + finest in design and most elegant of its type in Egypt. Here the + central court is covered by a cupola lantern (fig. 58), and the + ceiling over the prayer chamber and other recesses is framed in timber + and elaborately painted and gilded. The tomb is at the south-east + corner, and is covered with a dome in stone, beautifully carved with + conventional designs. In some of the mosques by the side of the portal + is a fountain enclosed with bronze grilles, and above it a small room + sometimes used as a school with open arcades on two sides. This + feature in the mosque of Kait Bey, with the portal on its right, the + lofty minaret beyond, and the great dome at the farther end, makes it + the most picturesque in aspect of any Cairene mosque. (For plan see + MOSQUE, fig. 3.) + + [Illustration: PLATE VII. + + FIG 78.--HEIDELBERG CASTLE, FRIEDRICHSBAU. + + _Photo L.L. Paris._ + + FIG 79.--HEIDELBERG CASTLE, OTTO HEINRICHSBAU. + + _Photo L.L. Paris._ + + FIG. 80.--HEIDELBERG CASTLE, OTTO-HEINRICHSBAU. + + _Photo L.L. Paris._] + + [Illustration: PLATE VII. + + FIG. 81.--PORCH, PETERBORO' CATHEDRAL. + + _Photo, J. Valentine, Ltd._ + + FIG. 82.--ELY CATHEDRAL. + + _Photo, G.W. Wilson & Co._ + + FIG. 83.--THE LOUVRE--PAVILLON HENRI II. + + (_Portion of Lescot's work on left._) + + _Photo, Neurdein._ + + FIG. 84.--GRAND STAIRWAY, CHATEAU OF BLOIS. + + _Photo, Neurdein._] + + It was in Egypt that the minaret received its highest development. The + earliest example is that of the mosque of Tulun, which is of unusual + shape, and has winding round it an inclined plane or staircase of easy + ascent which can be made on horseback. The original design of this + scheme was probably derived from the mosque of Samara, a town 60 m. + north of Bagdad, where the minaret built c. 850 has a spiral ascent + round it, recalling that of the Assyrian ziggurat as at Khorsabad. The + general design of the Cairo minarets would seem to have been + universally adhered to from the 12th century onwards, but the upper + storeys are all varied in detail, there being virtually no two alike. + As a rule the lower portion of the minaret forms part of the main wall + of the mosque, and was carried up square a few feet above the + cresting. It then became octagonal on plan, the sides decorated with + niches or geometrical ornaments in bold relief. This, the first + independent storey, was crowned by a stalactite cornice carrying the + balcony (fig. 59), from which the _muezzin_ (call-to-prayer) was + chanted. In the early and fine examples the balustrade round it + consisted of vertical posts with panels between, pierced with + geometric ornaments, and all in stone. The second storey, also + octagonal, was set back sufficiently to allow a passage round, and + this was crowned by a similar stalactite cornice and balustrade. A + third storey, sometimes circular on plan, completed the tower, which + was crowned with a bulbous terminal. In one of the mosques, that of El + Azhar, the first storey is square on plan, and the second storey has + twin towers with lofty bulbous finials. The elaboration of the carved + ornament on the various storeys of the minarets is of considerable + beauty. Among the most remarkable, other than those already referred + to, are the minarets of the mosque of al-Bordeni, of Kalaun, al-Nazir, + Mu'ayyad (built on the semicircular bastion wall of the Zuwela Gate), + Sultan Barkuk (1348), and numerous other mosques or tombs outside + Cairo. + + [Illustration: FIG. 58.--Interior of Kait Bey Mosque. (From Coste.)] + + The earlier domes were quite plain, hemispherical, with buttresses + round the base, similar to those of St Sophia at Constantinople. In + the later domes it was found that by raising the upper portion so as + to take the form in section of a pointed arch, they could be built in + horizontal courses of masonry up to about two-thirds of their height, + the upper portion forming a lid without any thrust. It is probably + owing to this method of construction that they still exist in such + large numbers. The outer surfaces are decorated in various ways with + geometrical designs, star patterns, chevrons, diapers, &c. Domes built + in brick were covered with stucco and divided up into godroons. + + We have already referred to the lofty portal of the mosque of Sultan + Hasan; portals of smaller dimensions form the principal entrance to + all the mosques and private houses. The recessed portion rises to + twice or three times the height of the door, and its pointed or cusped + head is always filled by a rich stalactite vault. + + The descriptions of the disposition of plan, and the principles which + have governed the plans of the Cairene mosques, apply equally to those + in Syria, so that it now only remains necessary to quote the chief + examples. Of these the earliest is the Dome of the Rock, incorrectly + called the mosque of Omar, which was built by Abdalmalik in 691, + partly with materials taken from the buildings destroyed by Chosroes. + At first it consisted of a central area enclosing the sacred rock, + covered with a dome and with aisles round carried on columns and + piers, and like the smaller Dome of the Chain open all round, but the + climate of Syria is very different from that in Egypt, and + consequently at a later period (813-833) the sultan Mamun built the + walls which now enclose the whole structure. Many restorations have + taken place since, and the dome with its rich internal decoration is + attributed to Saladin (1189). The magnificent Persian tiles which + encase the walls, the marble casing of some of the piers, and the + stained glass, form part of the works of Suleiman (1520-1560). + + The great mosque of Damascus occupied the site of an ancient church + dedicated to St John the Baptist, which for a time was divided between + the Christians and the Mahommedans. But in 705 the caliph al-Walid + took possession of the whole church, which he rebuilt, retaining, + however, the whole of the south wall, portions of which belonged to a + Roman temple. This, which by chance happened to face south, became the + Mecca wall, the niche being sunk in one of the doorways of the + original temple. Its plan, therefore, is a variation of those we have + already described. It consists of a transept with dome over the + centre, three aisles of equal width, running both east and west, and a + great court on the north side surrounded by arcades. The great + transept is virtually the prayer chamber. The new building was erected + by Byzantine masons sent from Constantinople, and decorated with + marbles and mosaic by Greek artists. The mosque was almost entirely + destroyed by fire in 1893, but has since been rebuilt. + + [Illustration: FIG. 59.--Exterior of Kait Bey Mosque, Cairo. (From + Coste.)] + + The mosque of El Aksa in the sacred enclosure in Jerusalem, and south + of the Dome of the Rock, was commenced by Abdalmalik (691), who used + up materials taken from the church of St Mary, built by Justinian on + Mount Sion, which had been destroyed by Chosroes. There have been so + many restorations and rebuildings since, owing to destructive + earthquakes and other causes, that it is difficult to give the precise + dates of the various portions. The columns of the nave and aisles are + extremely stunted in proportion, and their capitals are of a very + debased type, copied by inferior artists from Byzantine models. They + carry immense wood beams cased, and above them a range of pointed + arches, among the earliest examples used throughout a mosque, and + probably dating from the rebuilding (774-785). The Crusaders made + various additions in the rear, but the great entrance porch is said to + have been added by Saladin, after 1187, and was built probably by + Christian masons who were allowed to remain in the country. + + The numerous minarets at Jerusalem and Damascus in general design + follow those of Egypt, but instead of the incised work are generally + encased with marble in geometric patterns. + + The great mosque at Mecca, from which it was thought at one time the + plan of the Egyptian and other mosques was taken, is necessarily + different from all others, because the Ka'ba or Holy Stone, towards + which all the niches in all other mosques turn, stood in its centre. + The arcades which surround the court were nearly all rebuilt in the + 17th century, as the whole mosque was washed away by a torrent in + 1626. + + The mosque of Kairawan in Tunisia was built in 675. It occupies an + area of 427 ft. deep and 225 ft. wide, with a prayer chamber at the + Mecca end of 17 aisles and 11 bays deep, more than twice, therefore, + that of 'Amr in Old Cairo. The columns to the prayer chamber, all + taken from ancient buildings, are 22 ft. high in the central aisle and + 15 ft. in all the others. They carry horse-shoe arches, which, as in + the mosque of 'Amr, are all tied together by wood beams inserted at + the springing of the arches. + + The mosque of Cordova was built by Abdarrahman (Abd-ar-Rahman) in + 786-789 in imitation of the mosque of Kairawan. There were eleven + aisles of twenty-one bays, the centre one slightly wider than the + other. The materials were taken from earlier buildings, and, as the + columns and caps were not considered high enough, above the horse-shoe + arches are built a second row of arches which carry the barrel vaults. + To this mosque Hakim added twelve more bays in depth at the Mecca end + (962), and in 985 Mansur added eight more aisles of thirty-three bays + on the east side. Part of the open court on the north side dates from + Abdarrahman's foundation (690) and part from Mansur. + + [Illustration: FIG. 60.--Capital and Springing of Arch, from the Hall + of Abencarrages, Alhambra.] + + In the mosque of Cordova we find the earliest example of the cusped + arch, in the additions made by Hakim in 961; in order to obtain a + greater height above the columns, it became necessary to employ the + expedient of raising arch above arch in order to obtain the height + they required for the ceilings; and as these arches formed purely + decorative features, which might otherwise have become monotonous, + variety was given by introducing the cusped form of arch and + interlacing them one within the other. It is probably this elaborate + design which suggested the plaster decorations of the screens above + the arches in the court of the Alhambra. Though commenced in 1245, the + existing palace of the Alhambra was built in the first half of the + 14th century, at a time when the style was fully developed. There are + two great courts at right angles to one another, the most important of + which was the Court of the Lions, so called from the fountain in the + centre, with twelve conventional representations of that animal + carrying the basins. This court is surrounded by an arcade with + stilted arches carried on slender marble columns with extremely rich + decoration above, partly in stucco painted and gilt. The hall of the + Abencerrages (35 ft. square) has a polygonal dome covered with + arabesque (fig. 60). Two other halls are roofed with lofty stalactite + vaults of great intricacy, richly gilded and of remarkable effect + (fig. 61), but the employment of stucco instead of stone, as in Egypt, + has led to an abuse in the wealth of enrichment, which is only partly + redeemed by the plain masonry of the towers and walls enclosing the + palace. The Giralda at Seville is the only example of a tower, but it + does not seem to have served the purpose of a minaret. + + With the exception of the tombs of Zobeide and Ezekiel near Bagdad, + and a hospital at Erzerum of the 12th century, built by the Seljukian + dynasty, the Mahommedan style in Persia dates from the 13th century, i + e. if Ghazan Khan built the mosque at Tabriz in 1294. The plan is that + of a Byzantine church with a central dome, aisles and sanctuary. The + portal consists of a lofty niche vaulted with semi-domes and + stalactite pendentives, similar in many respects to the well-known + example of Sultan Hasan in Cairo, built sixty years later. It is built + in brick and covered internally and externally with glazed bricks of + various colours, wrought into most intricate patterns with interlacing + ornament and with Cufic inscriptions. The dazzling and perfect beauty + in point of colour is not to be surpassed, but from the architectural + point of view it possesses the fatal sin of not showing its + construction. The bricks and tiles are only a veneer, and though in + certain features (such as the portal and the dome) the construction is + at least suggested, the tendency is to trust to decoration alone to + produce architectural effects. (But see TABRIZ.) + + The great mosque at Isfahan (1585) is a good illustration of the + danger attending a too free use of surface decoration. Strip the walls + of their tiles, and nothing is left except square box-like forms with + pointed arched openings of different form. The interior, however, + owing to the variety of its features, and the varied play of light and + shade given in the hemispherical vaults of its transepts and niches + and the vaulted aisles, constitutes one of the most beautiful + monuments of Mahommedan art. + + Apart from the great development of Mahommedan architecture in India + (see INDIAN ARCHITECTURE), there remains now to be described only one + other phase of the style, that found in Constantinople. + + Prior to the conquest of Constantinople in 1445, two mosques were + built by the Turks at Brusa in Asia Minor. The plan of Ulu Jami, the + great mosque, follows the original courtyard type. Yeshil Jami, the + Green mosque (1430), built on the site of a Byzantine church, is + cruciform on plan. In both of them the Persian influence is shown, in + the magnificent towers with which they are covered, the marble casing + and the stalactite vaults. + + [Illustration: FIG. 61.--Pendentive, from the Court of the Lions, + Alhambra.] + + After the conquest of Constantinople, the supreme beauty of St Sophia, + and the adaptability of its plan to the requirements of the Mahommedan + faith, caused it to be accepted as the model on which all the new + mosques were based. The first two erected were the Bayezid (1497-1515) + and the Selim mosques (1520-1526). In the former the dome and its + pendentives are carried on octagonal piers, and the dome, 108 ft. in + diameter, is greater than in any subsequent example. The finest + mosque, and the example in which we find the complete development of + the Turkish style, is that erected by Suleiman the Magnificent in + 1550-1555. This mosque, designed by Sinan, an Armenian architect, is + still quite perfect. The plan follows very closely its model, St + Sophia, and consists of a central dome, 86 ft. in diameter and 156 ft. + high, carried on pendentives, resting on great arches which are + slightly pointed, with great apses on the east and west sides, and + three smaller apses in each, the arches of which ate all circular. The + principal change in design is that found in the north and south walls, + under the arches carrying the dome; in St Sophia they were subdivided + into two storeys with galleries overlooking the church, but in the + Suleimanic mosque the galleries are set back in the outer aisles, and + the screen walls consist of a wide central and two side pointed + arches, and voussoirs alternately of black and white marble. The + tympana above this is pierced with eighteen windows filled with + geometric tracery. Stalactite work is employed in the pendentive of + the smaller apses and in the capitals of the columns carrying the + pointed arches. The columns are of porphyry, the shafts, 28 ft. high, + being taken from the Hippodrome and probably brought originally from + Egypt. The walls are cased with marble up to the springing of the + dome, but the magnificent mosaics of St Sophia are here replaced by + vulgar colouring and plaster decoration of a rococo style, due + probably to recent restorations. The mosque is preceded by a + forecourt, surrounded by an arcade on all sides and containing a + fountain, and in the garden in the rear is the tomb of the founder and + his wife. + + The Shah-Zadeh mosque, known as the prince's mosque, was also built by + Sultan Suleiman, from the designs of Sinan, the same Armenian + architect who built the Suleimanic mosque. Here, instead of confining + the great apses to the east and west sides, they are introduced on the + north and south sides in place of the screen, and produce a monotonous + and poor effect. The same design is found in the Ahmedin mosque, built + 1608, and with the same result. Externally, however, they are both + fine, owing to the variety of domes, semi-domes and other curved forms + of roof. + + The minarets of the Turkish mosques are very inferior to those of + Cairo. They are of great height, generally semicircular, with narrow + balconies round the upper part, and crowned with extinguisher roofs. + To a certain extent, however, they contrast very well with the domes + and semi-domes of St Sophia and those of the mosques built by the + Turks. + + In the mosque of Osman, built 1748-1757, we find the first trace of + Western influence in its rococo design, but here, as in the mosque of + Mehemet Ali in Cairo, built in 1837, the scheme is so good that, + notwithstanding the great falling off in design, and, in the latter + mosque, the construction, the effect of the interior is very fine. + + Amongst other architectural features, the fountains in the courtyards + of the mosques and those which decorate the public squares are + extremely pleasing in design. The latter are square on plan with + polygonal angles elaborate niches with stalactite heads, with + overhanging eaves on each side; the ornament is very varied and the + colour sometimes very attractive. The roofs have sometimes most + picturesque outlines. (R. P. S.) + + +MODERN ARCHITECTURE + +The beginning of the 19th century may be considered to mark the +beginning of the modern era in architecture. The 19th century is the +period _par excellence_ of architectural "revivals." The great +Renaissance movement in Italy already described was something more than +a mere revival. It was a new spirit affecting the whole of art and +literature and life, not an architectural movement only; and as far as +architecture is concerned it was not a mere imitative revival. The great +Italian architects of the Renaissance, as well as Wren, Vanbrugh and +Hawksmoor in England, however they drew their inspiration from antique +models, were for the most part original architects; they put the ancient +materials to new uses of their own. The tendency of the 19th-century +revivals, on the other hand, except in France, was distinctly imitative +in a sense in which the architecture of the great Renaissance period was +not. Correctness of imitation, in the English Gothic revival especially, +was an avowed object; and conformity to precedent became, in fact, +except with one or two individual architects, almost the admitted test +of excellence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 85--Bank of Ireland, Dublin.] + + + Classical revival in British architecture. + +The earliest classical London building of note in the 19th century is +Soane's Bank of England, which as a matter of date belongs in fact to +the end of the 18th century; but its architect lived well into the 19th +century, and the bank may be classed with this section of the subject. +Soane had to make something architectural out of the walls of a very +extended building of only one storey, in which external windows were not +admissible; and he did so by applying a classical columnar order to the +walls and introducing sham window architraves. The latter are +indefensible, and weaken the expression of the building; the columnar +order was the received method at the time of making a building (as was +supposed) "architectural," and the building has grace and dignity, and +could hardly be taken for anything except a bank, although a more robust +and massive treatment would have been more expressive of the function of +the building, as a kind of fortress for the storage of money. It was +only some years later that the Greek revival took some hold of English +architects (the Bank of England is rather Roman than Greek); the impetus +to it was probably given by the "Elgin marbles"; Stuart and Revett's +great work on the _Antiquities of Athens_ had been issued a good while +previously, the three first volumes being dated respectively 1762, 1787 +and 1794; but the appearance of the fourth volume in 1816 was no doubt +influenced by the transportation to London of the Elgin marbles, and the +sensation created by them. One of the first architectural results was +the erection, at an immense cost in comparison with its size, of the +church of St Pancras in London (1819-1822), designed by Inwood, who +published a fine and still valuable monograph on the Erechtheum, and +showed his enthusiasm for Greek architecture by copying the Erechtheum +order and doorways for his facade, and erecting over it a tower composed +of the Temple of the Winds with an octagonal imitation of the monument +of Lysicrates imposed above it. This use of Greek monuments was +architecturally absurd, though at the time it was no doubt the offspring +of a genuine enthusiasm. + +A better use was made of the study of Greek architecture by William +Wilkins (1778-1839), who was in his way a great architect, and whose +University College (1827-1828), as designed by him, was a noble and +dignified building, of which he only carried out the central block with +the cupola and portico. The wings were somewhat altered from his design +but not materially spoiled, but the university authorities permitted the +vandalism of erecting a low building as a partial return of the +quadrangle on the fourth side, for the purposes of a mechanical +laboratory, which ruined the appearance of the building.[4] Wilkins's +other well-known work is the National Gallery (1832-1838), which he was +not allowed to carry out exactly as he wished, and in which the cupola +and the "pepperpots" are exceedingly poor and weak. But his details, +especially the profiles of his mouldings, are admirably refined, and +show the influence of a close study of Greek work. Among other prominent +English architects of the classic revival in England are Sir Robert +Smirke and Decimus Burton (1800-1881). To Burton we owe the Constitution +Hill arch and the Hyde Park screen. The latter is a very graceful +erection of its kind; the arch has never been completed by the quadriga +group which the architect intended as its crowning feature, though for +many years it was allowed to be disfigured by the colossal equestrian +statue of Wellington, completely out of scale and crushing the +structure. Smirke is kept in memory by his fine facade of the British +Museum, which has been much criticized for its "useless" colonnades and +the wasted space under them. The criticism is hardly just; for classic +colonnades have at least some affinity with the purposes of a museum of +antique art, and it conveys the impression of being a frontispiece to a +building containing something of permanent value and importance. The +early classic revival set its mark also, in a very fine and unmistakable +manner, on the capital of the sister island. Dublin is almost a museum +of fine classic buildings of the period, among which the most remarkable +is the present Bank of Ireland (fig. 85), originally begun as the +Parliament House. The beginning of the building belongs to the 18th +century, but it was not completed in its present form till 1805, and +was the work of five successive architects, only one of them, James +Gandon (1743-1823), a man of the first importance; but it was Gandon who +in 1790 did most to give the building its effective outline on plan, by +introducing one of the curved quadrant walls, the building being +subsequently finished in accordance with this suggestion. It is a +remarkable combination of symmetry and picturesqueness, and as a +one-storey classic building is far superior to Soane's Bank of England, +with which a comparison is naturally suggested. Gandon's custom house, +with its fine central cupola, is another notable example. Edinburgh too +can show examples of the classic revival, and bears the title of "modern +Athens" as much from her architectural experiments as from her +intellectual claims; she illustrates the application of Greek +architecture to modern buildings in two really fine examples, the Royal +Institution by W.H. Playfair (1780-1857), and the high school by Thomas +Hamilton (1784-1858). It was a pity that she added to these the +collection of curiosities on the Calton Hill. + +[Illustration: FIG. 86.--Liverpool Branch of the Bank of England. +(Cockerell.)] + +But before we quit the classic revival in England, there are two +architects to be named who came a little later in the day, living in +fact into the time of the Gothic revival, who were superior to any of +the earlier classic practitioners: Harvey Lonsdale Elmes and C.R. +Cockerell. Elmes, who died very young, seems to have been as completely +a born architectural genius as Wren, and his great work, St. George's +Hall at Liverpool, has done more than any other building in the world to +glorify the memory of the classic revival. Granting all that may be said +as to the unsuitability of Greek architecture to the English climate, +one can hardly complain of any movement in architecture which gave the +opportunity for the production of so grand an architectural monument. It +is true that it is badly planned and lighted, and the exterior and +interior do not agree with each other (the exterior is Greek, and the +great hall is Roman); but if from our present point of view it is a +mistake, it is certainly one of the finest mistakes ever made in +architecture. Cockerell, who completed the interior of the building +after Elmes's death, was an architect permeated with the principles and +feeling of Greek architecture, who brought to his work a refinement of +taste and perception in regard to detail which has rarely been equalled +and never surpassed. Perhaps the very best example of his scholarly +taste in the application of classic architecture to modern uses is to be +found in his facade to the branch Bank of England at Liverpool (fig. +86). + +[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Royal Theatre, Berlin. (Schinkel.) + +From a photo by W A Manseli & Co.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Nikolai Kirche, Potsdam. (Schinkel.) + +From a photograph by W.A. Manseli & Co.] + +[Illustration: PLATE IX. + + FIG. 115.--PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, BUDAPEST. (STEINDL.) + + _Photo, Seer._ + + FIG. 116.--PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, VIENNA. (HANSEN.) + + _Photo, Lowy._ + + FIG. 117.--PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, BERLIN. (WALLOT.) + + _Photo, Linde._] + +[Illustration: PLATE X. + + FIG. 118.--HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, LONDON. (BARRY.) + + _Photo, F.G.O. Stuart._ + + FIG. 119.--SCOTLAND YARD, LONDON. (SHAW.) + + _Photo, Emery Walker._] + + + Classical revival in Germany. + +In Germany, and especially at Berlin and Munich, the Greek revival took +hold of architecture in the early part of the century in a more decisive +but also in a more academical spirit than in England. The movement is +connected more especially with the name of one eminent architect, Karl +Friedrich Schinkel, who must have been a man of genius to have so +impressed his taste on his generation as he did in Berlin, where he was +regarded as the great and central power in the architecture of his day; +yet his buildings are marked by learning and academical correctness +rather than original genius. Elmes's St George's Hall, already referred +to as one great English work of the classic revival, is by no means a +mere piece of academical architecture; it exhibits in some of its +details a great deal of originality, and in its general design a +remarkably fine feeling for architectural grouping. In particular, the +solid masses and the heavy square columns at the ends of his +building, which seem like Greek architecture treated with Egyptian +feeling, give support to, while they form a most effective contrast +with, the richer and more delicate Corinthian order of the central +portion. The only work of Schinkel's which shows something of the same +feeling for contrast in architectural composition is one of his smaller +buildings, the Konigswache or Royal Guard-house, in which a Doric +colonnaded portico is effectively flanked and supported by two great +masses of plain wall. But in general Schinkel does not seem to have +known what to do with the angles of his buildings, or to have realized +the value of mass as a support to his colonnades. This is strikingly +exemplified in his museum at Berlin, where the tall narrow piers at the +angles have a very weak effect, and are quite inadequate as a support to +the long open colonnade. His Royal theatre also (fig. 87), though the +central portico is fine, is monotonous and weak in its two-storeyed +repetition of the small order in the wings, and it has also the fault +(which it shares, no doubt, with a great many theatres, large and small) +that its exterior design gives no hint of the theatre form; it might +just as well be a museum. His. Nikolai Kirche (1830-1837) at Potsdam +(fig. 88), which has considerable celebrity, though not so merely +academical in character, and in fact possessed of a certain originality, +has a fault of another kind, in its entire lack of architectural unity; +the dome does not seem to belong to or to have any connexion with the +substructure, while the portico is quite out of scale with the great +block of building in its rear, and looks like a subsequent addition. The +fault of the Schinkel school of architecture is an almost total want of +what may be called architectural life; it is an artificial production of +the studio. The same kind of cold classicism prevailed at Munich, where +Leo von Klenze (1784-1864), though a lesser man than Schinkel, played +somewhat the same part as the latter played at Berlin. His Propylaea +(fig. 89), in which Greek and Egyptian influences are combined, is a +characteristic example of his cold and scholastic style. His well known +_Ruhmeshalle_, with its boldly projecting colonnaded wings and the +colossal statue of Bavaria in front of it, is in its way a fine +architectural conception--perhaps finer and more consistent in its kind +than any one work of Schinkel, though he evidently did not exercise so +wide an influence on the German art of his day. A third eminent name in +the German classic revival is that of Gottfried Semper (1803-1879), +somewhat later in date (Schinkel was born in 1781), but more or less of +the same school. Semper practised successively at Dresden and at Zurich, +but finally settled in Vienna, where, however, he did not live to see +the execution of his two most important designs, the museum and the +Hofburg theatre, which were carried out by Baron Karl von Hasenauer +(1833-1894) from his designs, or approximately so. Semper's theatre at +Dresden, however, shows that he could recognize the practical basis of +architecture, as the expression of plan, in a way that Schinkel could +not; for in that building he frankly adopted the curve of the auditorium +as the _motif_ for his exterior design, thus producing a building which +is obviously a theatre, and could not be taken for anything else, and +putting some of that life into it which is so much wanting in Schinkel's +rigid classicalities. + +[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Propylaea at Munich. (Von Klenze.) + +From a photograph by Ferd. Finsterlin.] + + + French Classicism. + +In spite of the Romanizing influence of the First Empire, the classic +revival did not leave by any means so academical a stamp on French as on +German architecture of the early period of the century. French +architects in the main have always had too much original genius to be +entirely taken captive by a general movement of this kind. There is the +weak classicism of Bernard Poyet's facade to the chamber of deputies, a +very poor affair; and there are two important buildings in the guise of +Roman peripteral temples, devoted respectively to business and to +religion--the Bourse, by Alexandre Theodore Brongniart (1739-1813), and +the Madeleine, begun under Napoleon, as a "Temple de la Gloire," by +Pierre Vignon (1763-1828), and completed as a church in 1841 by Jean +Jacques Huve (1783-1852). Both of these are very well carried out +externally, and enable us to judge of what would be the effect of a +Roman temple of the kind. It must be admitted that the plain oblong mass +of the Bourse has really been very much improved by the recent addition +of the two wings, carried out by Cavel, though there was a great deal of +opposition at first to meddling with so celebrated a building. +Unfortunately, the exterior of the Bourse is a mere piece of +architectural scenery, quite unconnected with the internal object and +arrangement of the building. The Madeleine is a really fine exterior in +its way; if a modern church was to put on the guise of a pagan temple, +the task could hardly have been better carried out; and the interior +might have been as fine if properly treated, but it has little artistic +relation with the noble exterior, and is spoiled by poor architectural +treatment and bad ornament. The church of St Vincent de Paul, by Jacques +Ignace Hittorff (1792-1867), an architect who was one of the most +learned students of Greek architecture of his day, is another important +example of the French classical church of the period (Plate XII., fig. +125). In this the interior is more consistent with the exterior than is +the case in the Madeleine; and by adding a tower at each angle of the +facade, above the colonnaded portico, the architect gave it more the +expression of a church, which the Madeleine wants. In the Arc de +l'Etoile, by Jean Francois T. Chalgrin (1739-1811), we have a really +great, even sublime work, which, though suggested by the Roman triumphal +arches, is no mere copy, but bears the impress of the French genius in +its details as well as in Francois Rude's grand sculptures on the east +face, while its great scale places it above everything else of the kind +in the world. It is only after ascending the interior and seeing the +vaults carrying the roof that one fully realizes what a stupendous piece +of work this is. Under Napoleon there was at least no jerry-building.[5] + +[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Halifax Town Hall. (Barry.)] + + + Barry's "common-sense" style, in England. + +Returning to the consideration of architecture in England, we come, at +about the close of the classic revival, to the name of the man who was +undoubtedly the most remarkable English architect since Wren, Sir +Charles Barry. To class him, as some would do, with the classic revival, +would be a misapprehension. Barry was no revivalist; he never attempted +to recreate Greek architecture on English soil. He adopted for most of +his works what has been called, for want of a better name, the Italian +style, which may really rather be called the common-sense style of a +civilized society. The two first works which brought him into notice, +the Travellers' and Reform clubs in London, were no doubt based on +special Italian models, the Pandolfini and Farnese palaces; but a +consideration of his whole career shows that he was in fact anything but +a copyist. The comparison of him with Wren is justified by the fact that +he was, like Wren, a born architect, in the sense that he grasped every +problem presented to him from the true architect's point of view; with +both of them architecture was not the dressing up of an exterior, but +the fashioning of a building as a conception based on plan and section +as well as on the desire to secure a certain external appearance; and, +like Wren, he never failed to grasp the true requirements of a site and +to adapt his architectural conception to it; a power perfectly different +from that of merely producing agreeable elevations in this or that +adopted style. Though very careful of his detail, he did not rely on +detail, but on the general conception of an architectural scheme. This +power was never so remarkably shown as in his grand scheme, unhappily +never carried out, for the concentration of all the British government +offices in one great architectural _ensemble_, which was to extend, on +the west of Parliament Street and Whitehall, from Great George Street +nearly to Charing Cross, the whole of the buildings to be carried out as +one design, distributed into quadrangles, each of which was to be +connected with one department of the administration, while all would +have internal communication. Had this great idea been carried out we +might at the present day have found some of the detail of the building +unsatisfying to our taste, as we often find the detail in some of Wren's +buildings, but we should have had a grand architectural achievement +which would have made London pre-eminent among the capitals of the +world. Nothing so great had been proposed in England since Inigo Jones's +plan for Whitehall Palace, which also survives only in drawings, except +the one noble bit of classic architecture known as the Banqueting House +(Plate VI., fig. 75). It was one of the greatest misfortunes to London +as a capital city that the government of the day could not rise to the +height of Barry's ambitious scheme, in which there was nothing +financially insuperable, since it was all designed to be carried out by +portions at a time, as funds could be spared; but each government office +built would in that way have been one step towards the completion of a +great central idea; whereas the nation now spends the same money in +erecting detached government buildings which have no architectural +connexion with each other. + +Barry's two clubs before mentioned are almost ideals of club +architecture--the architecture of a civilized society; his Bridge-water +House is a building on a larger scale of the same type. That he had +architectural ideas less staid and sober than these is shown, however, +by the remarkable tower and spire of the Halifax Town Hall (fig. 90), +his last work, which he did not live to see carried out, in which he +contrived with remarkable success to give the Gothic spirit and +multiplicity of effect to a tower which is nevertheless classic in +detail. This tower is one of the most original and striking things in +modern English architecture and shows how Barry's architectural ideas +were developing up to the close of his life. + + Barry's great building, the Houses of Parliament (Plate X., fig. 118), + with which his name will always be more especially associated, comes + accidentally, though not by natural development nor by his own choice, + under the head of the Gothic revival. The style of Tudor Gothic was + dictated to the competitors, apparently from a mistaken idea that the + building ought to "harmonize" with the architecture of Henry VII.'s + chapel adjacent to the site. Had Barry been left to himself, there is + no doubt that the Houses of Parliament, with the same main + characteristics of plan and grouping, would have been of a classic + type of detail, and would possibly have been a still finer building + than it is; and since the choice of the Gothic style in this case was + not a direct consequence of the Gothic revival movement, it may be + considered separately from that. The architectural greatness of the + building consists, in the first place, in the grand yet simple scheme + of Barry's plan, with the octagon hall in the centre, as the + meeting-point for the public, the two chambers to north and south, and + the access to the committee-rooms and other departments subordinate to + the chambers. The plan (fig. 91) in itself is a stroke of genius, and + has been more or less imitated in buildings for similar purposes all + over the world; the most important example, the Parliament House of + Budapest (Plate IX., fig. 115 and fig. 92), being almost a literal + copy of Barry's plan. Thus, as in all great architecture, the plan is + the basis of the whole scheme, and upon it is built up a most + picturesque and expressive grouping, arising directly out of the plan. + The two towers are most happily contrasted as expressive of their + differing purposes; the Victoria Tower is the symbol of the State + entrance, a piece of architectural display solely for the sake of a + grand effect; the Clock Tower is a utilitarian structure, a lofty + stalk to carry a great clock high in the air; the two are + differentiated accordingly, and the placing of them at opposite ends + of the structure has the fortunate effect of indicating, from a + distance, the extent of the plan. The graceful spire in the centre + offers an effective contrast to the masses of the two towers, while + forming the outward architectural expression of the octagon hall, + which is, as it were, the keystone of the plan. + + The detail is another consideration. Barry, having had a style forced + upon him (most unwisely), which he had not studied much and with which + he was not much in sympathy, associated Pugin with him to design a + good deal of the detail; exactly how much is not certainly known; + probably Pugin was responsible for all the interior detail and + fittings; the exterior detail may have been only suggested or sketched + by him. On this ground absurd attempts have been made, by people who + do not seem to understand what architecture in the true sense means, + to claim for Pugin what they call the "artistic merit" of the Houses + of Parliament. The artistic merit consists in the whole plan, + conception and grouping, which are entirely Barry's, and which + represent something beyond Pugin's grasp; the detail is in fact the + weak element in the building. That Pugin's Gothic detail is better + than Barry's would have been is very likely the case; but had Barry + been left unfettered to work out the detail in his own school, the + result would probably have been still better. Even as it is, however, + the Houses of Parliament is one of the finest buildings in the world, + ancient or modern, and it is to be regretted that Englishmen generally + seem to be so little aware of this. + +[Illustration: FIG. 91. HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, WESTMINSTER + +Plan of Principal Floor. + + 1. Reading Clerk. + 2. Dressing Room. + 3. Clerk of the Parliament. + 4. Clerk Assistant's Dressing Room. + 5. Clerk Assistant. + 6. Clerk, House of Lords. + 7. Messengers. + 8. Waiting Room. + 9. Lord Chancellor's Secretaries. + 10. Lord Chancellor. + 11. Lord Chancellor's Dressing Room. + 12 Permanent Secretary. + 13. Sergeant-at-Arms. + 14. Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod. + 15. Private Bill Office. + 16. Chairman's Dressing + 17. Chairman of Committees. + 18. Clerk to Private Bill and Taxing Office. + 19. Chairman of Committees Counsel. + 20. Royal Staircase. + 21. Clerk to Public Bills. + 22. Minutes. + 23. Peers' Staircase. + 24. Inner Office. + 25. Printed Papers Office. + 26. Private Bills and Taxing Office. + 27. Earl Marshal. + 28. Strangers' and Reporters' Stairs. + 29. Peers' Standing Order Committee Room. + 30. The Thrones. + 31. Bar of the House. + 32. Leader of the Opposition in the House of Lords. + 33. Premier. + 34. Telegraph. + 35. Solicitor-General. + 36. Attorney-General. + 37. Lord Advocate. + 38. Resident Superintendent. + 39. Archbishops. + 40. Principal Stairs. + 41. Residence of the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod. + 42. Sitting Room. + 43. Residence of the Clerk of Parliament. + 44. Members' Entrance. + 45. Dining Room of the Deputy Sergeant-at-Arms. + 46. Turret Room. + 47. Private Stairs of the Deputy Sergeant-at-Arms. + 48. Journal Office Stores. + 49. Police. + 50. Ministers. + 51. Opposition Ministers. + 52. Members' Entrance Stairs. + 53. Members' Conference Room. + 54. Members' Private Secretaries + 55. Members' Small Conference Room. + 56. Votes and Proceedings. + 57. Accountant and Chief Public Bill Office. + 58. Old Treasury Stairs. + 59. Post Master. + 60. Strangers' Stairs. + 61. Cistern Tower. + 62. Irish Whips. + 63 Government Whips. + 64. Opposition Whips. + 65. Deputy Sergeant-at-Arms. + 66. Clerk to Deputy Sergeant-at-Arms. + 67. Speaker's Counsel. + 68. Speaker's Counsel's Clerk. + 69. Vote Office. + 70. Bar Lobby. + 71. Speaker's Lobby. + 72. Ministers. + 73. Clerk Assistant. + 74. Train Bearers. + 75. Speaker's Retiring Room. + 76. Old Prison Rooms Lobby. + 77. Sergeant-at-Arms' Smoking Room. + 78. Clock Weight Shaft. + 79. Air Shaft. + 80. Smoking Room Lobby. + 81. Butler. + 82. Speaker's Secretary. + 83. Audience Room. + 84. _Times_ Reporters. + 85. Strangers' Gallery. + 86. Waste Paper. + 87. Mess.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Plan of the Parliament House, Budapest. +(Steindl.)] + + + The Gothic Revival, England. + +We may now turn to consider the Gothic Revival movement itself, of which +Pugin was one of the most important pioneers. New ideas, however, as to +the importance of Gothic architecture had been in the air before he came +on the scene, and quite early in the century John Britten's +_Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain_ and _Cathedral +Antiquities_, with their beautiful steel engravings by Le Keux, had done +much to call attention to the neglected beauty of English medieval +churches; and Thomas Rickman's remarkable and (for its day) masterly +analysis of the variations of style in Gothic architecture, which first +appeared in 1817, and went through edition after edition in succeeding +years, gave the first intelligent direction to the study of the subject. +Pugin supplied to the movement not analysis, but passion. He had the +merit of having perceived, when quite a youth, that one thing wanted was +better craftsmanship, and that craftsmanship in the medieval period was +something very different from what it was in the early Victorian period; +he set up an atelier of craftsmen, and was the real pioneer of what may +be called the Arts and Crafts movement in England. An enthusiast by +nature, he flung his whole soul into the task of reviving, as he +believed, the glory of English medieval architecture; nothing else in +architecture was worth thinking of; Classic and Renaissance were only +worth sarcasm. The result in his works was a curious inconsistency. +Pugin was not in the true sense a great architect; his mind was not +practical enough to grasp an architectural problem as a whole, plan and +building combined; in fact, he was no master of plan, and does not seem +to have troubled himself much about it. But he had a remarkable +perception of interior effect; whenever you go into one of his churches +you recognize the desire to realize the greatest effect of height, the +most soaring effect of lines, possible within the actual vertical +measurements. But in his passion for this soaring expression he seems to +have entirely lost sight of the essential quality of solidity and +genuineness of material in the medieval architecture which he was trying +to emulate or to outvie. So long as he could get his effect of height, +his poetic interior, he was content to have thin walls and plaster +vaults and ornaments; or, in other words, he spent upon height what +should first have been spent upon solid and monumental building. The +result has been gently but effectively satirized by Browning in "Bishop +Blougram's Apology":-- + + "It's different preaching in Basilicas + To doing duty in some masterpiece + Like this of brother Pugin's, bless his heart. + I doubt if they're half-baked, those chalk rosettes, + Ciphers and stucco-twiddlings everywhere; + It's just like breathing in a limekiln, eh?" + +It is too true; and there is something pathetic in Pugin's career, in +this passionate and sincere pursuit after a revival of the medieval +spirit in life and in architecture--a pursuit which towards the close of +his life he himself evidently more than half suspected to have been a +fallacy. + +The full tide of the Gothic revival is connected more especially with +the name of Sir Gilbert Scott. He was hardly a pure enthusiast like +Pugin; he was a shrewd man of the world, the commencement of whose +professional career coincided with the rising tide of ecclesiological +reform, and he had the ability to make the best of the opportunity. He +appears to have had, even as a child, an inborn interest in church +architecture and in Gothic detail (witness the description, in his +_Memoirs_, of his astonishment and interest, at the age of eleven, at +the first sight of capitals of the Early English type), and he acquired +by unremitting study a knowledge of English Gothic architecture in its +every detail which few architects have ever equalled. His numerous +churches were, intentionally and confessedly, as close reproductions as +possible of medieval architecture, generally that of the Early Decorated +period; and if it were desirable that modern church architecture should +consist in the reproduction of medieval churches, the task could not +have been carried out with more learning and exactitude than it was by +him. It was this minute and accurate knowledge of medieval church +architecture which made him such a power when the idea of restoring +English cathedrals became popular. He had an acquired instinct in +tracing out the existence of details which had been overlaid by modern +repairs or plasterwork; in going over a cathedral to decide on a scheme +of restoration he seemed to know it as an anatomist knows the +suggestions of a fossil skeleton; and in the course of his restorations +he unearthed many points in the architectural history of the buildings +which but for him would never have been elucidated. We now recognize +that much of this "restoration" was a mistake, which destroyed the real +interest of the cathedrals; and it is unhappily a mistake which cannot +be undone. But the violent reproaches which have been heaped upon +Scott's memory on this account are rather unjust. It is forgotten that +he was doing what at the time every one considered to be the right +thing; cathedral bodies vied with each other in restoration, and were +enthusiastic in the cause; there were few if any dissenting voices; and +in regard to the interiors of the cathedrals which were in modern use as +places of worship, much that he did really required to be done to put +them into decent condition. His churches have ceased to be interesting +now, as is usually the case with copied architecture; but when they were +built they were exactly what every one wanted and was asking for. And he +produced at all events one original work which is a great deal better +than it is now the fashion to think--the Albert Memorial. It is injured +by the statue, for which the commission went to the wrong sculptor; but +Scott's idea of producing, as he phrased it, "a shrine on a great +scale," was really a fine one, and finely carried out. The most +important objection to it is one which popular criticism does not +recognize, viz. that the vault is tied by concealed iron ties, and would +hardly be safe without them. But apart from that it is a fine +conception, and Scott was right in regarding it as his best work. + +G.E. Street, who was a pupil of Scott, was a greater enthusiast for +medieval architecture (which, with him, as with Pugin, included medieval +religion) than even Scott, and an architect of greater force and +individuality. He was especially devoted to the early Transitional type +of Gothic, and in all his buildings there is apparent the feeling for +the solidity and monumental character, and the reticence in the use of +ornament, which is characteristic of the Transitional period. His +churches are noteworthy for their monumental character; and he had a +remarkable faculty for giving an appearance of scale and dignity to the +interiors of comparatively small churches. Hence his modern-medieval +churches retain their interest more than Scott's, but in respect of +secular architecture his taste was hopelessly medievalized, and his +great building, the law courts in London, can only be regarded as a +costly failure; it is not even beautiful except in regard to some good +detail; it is badly planned; and the one fine interior feature, the +great vaulted hall, is rendered useless by not being on the same floor +with the courts, so that instead of being a _salle des pas perdus_ it is +a desert. Street's career is a warning how real architectural talent and +vigour may be stultified by a sentimental adherence to a past phase of +architecture. No modern architect had more fully penetrated the spirit +of Gothic architecture, and his nave of Bristol cathedral is as good as +genuine medieval work, and might pass for such when time-worn; but that +is rather archaeology than architecture. + +The competition for the law courts was one of the great architectural +events of the middle of the century, and made or raised the reputation +even of some of the unsuccessful competitors. Edward Barry (the son of +Sir Charles) gained the first place for "plan," which the advisers of +the government had foolishly separated from "design" (as if the plan of +a building could be considered apart from the architectural +conception!), giving first marks for plan, and second for design. E. +Barry therefore had really gained the competition, "design," which was +awarded to Street, counting second; but Street managed to push him out, +and it is a nemesis on him for this by no means loyal proceeding that +the building he contrived to get entirely into his own hands has served +to injure rather than benefit his reputation. William Burges +(1827-1881), an ardent devotee of French early Gothic, produced a design +in that style, which, though quite unsuitable practically, is a greater +evidence of architectural power than is furnished by any of his executed +buildings. J.P. Seddon (1828-1906), an old adherent of Rossetti and the +pre-Raphaelite brotherhood, an architect of genius who never got his +opportunity, produced a design which was wildly picturesque in +appearance but in reality more practical than might be thought at first +sight, and his proposal for a great Record tower for housing official +records was a really fine and original idea. + +Among the ecclesiastical buildings of the Gothic revival those of +William Butterfield (1814-1900), much less numerous than those of Scott +and Street, have a special interest as the work of a revival architect +who was something more than a mere archaeologist. All Saints, Margaret +Street (1859), is the production of an architectural artist using +medieval materials to carry out a conception of his own, and hence, like +Babbacombe church and others by the same hand, it has an interest for +the present day which Scott's churches have not. His Keble College +chapel rather failed from an exaggeration of the use of polychromatic +materials, which in some of his other churches he had used with +moderation and with good effect. J.L. Pearson was another distinguished +architect of the later period of the Gothic revival who was able to put +something of his own into modern Gothic churches. No one was more +learned in medieval architecture than he was; and as of Street's nave of +Bristol, so we may say of Pearson's nave of Truro, that it is as good as +medieval Gothic; indeed Truro nave is finer in character than some of +the ancient cathedral naves, and represents pure Gothic at its best. But +in the exteriors of his churches, as at Truro and in the churches of +Kilburn and Red Lion Square, Pearson evolved a Gothic of his own which +is Pearsonesque and not merely archaeological. James Brooks (1825-1901) +also deserves an honoured place in the chronicle of the Gothic revival +for being the first to show how large town churches might be erected in +brick (fig. 93), in which largeness of scale and a certain grandeur of +effect could be obtained without extravagant cost, and in which it was +practically demonstrated that architecture in the true Gothic spirit +could be produced without depending on ornament. + +[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Exterior of modern English Church. (James +Brooks.)] + +Alfred Waterhouse began his remarkable career as an adherent of the +Gothic revival, and merits separate mention inasmuch as he was the only +one of the Gothic revivalists who from the first set himself to adapt +Gothic to secular uses and to make out of it a modern Gothic manner of +his own. His first success was made with the Manchester law courts, a +design more purely Gothic than his later works, and an admirably planned +building (the only good point in the national law courts plan, the +access to the public galleries, is taken from it); his special style was +more developed in the Manchester town hall, a building typical both of +the defects and merits of his secular Gothic style. This style of his +received the compliment, for a good many years, of an immense amount of +imitation; in fact, during that earlier period of his work it may be +said to have influenced every secular building that was erected in the +medieval style all over England. His Gothic detail was, however, not +very refined, and he has been subject to the same kind of retrospective +injustice which has fallen on Scott, critics in both instances +forgetting that what they do not like _now_ was what every one liked +_then_, and could not have enough of. Waterhouse was a master of plan, +and a man of immense business and administrative ability, without which +he could not have carried out the number of great building schemes +which fell into his hands, and he had much more of the qualities of a +great architect than are to be found in the works of some of his +latter-day critics. His later works, one or two of which will be +referred to, do not come under the head of the Gothic revival. + + + France. + +In France, the Gothic revival, which so strongly affected the whole +school of English architecture for thirty or forty years, took little +hold. Its most remarkable monument is the church of Ste Clotilde at +Paris, built about the middle of the century from the designs of Ballu. +In size it equals a second-class cathedral, and is a fine monument, +though it does not show that complete knowledge of medieval Gothic which +we find in the churches of Scott, Street, Pearson and G.F. Bodley. But +as with the Classic, so with the Gothic revival--the leading French +architects of the period had too much personal architectural feeling to +be carried along in the wake of a "movement." Two very important Paris +churches, built just after the middle of the century, illustrate well +this independence of spirit. The one is the domed church of St Augustin +in the Boulevard Malesherbes (Plate XII., fig. 122), designed by Victor +Baltard (1805-1874). It may be called a Classic church treated in a +quasi-Byzantine manner. A remarkable point about it is that, standing +between the divergence of two streets at an acute angle, the outer walls +of the nave follow the line of the two streets, the church thus +expanding towards the centre; internally the colonnades are parallel, +the chapels outside of them increasing in depth from the entrance of the +nave towards the centre--a very clever device for reconciling exterior +and interior effect. The other church referred to, built about the same +time, is La Trinite (Plate XII., fig. 123) by Theodore Ballu +(1817-1885)--a church which is Renaissance in detail and yet distinctly +Gothic in its general effect and in the multiplicity of its detail, +somewhat recalling in this sense Barry's Halifax tower before referred +to. The sense in which there has really been a general movement in +church architecture in France has been in the direction of a kind of +modernized Byzantine, of which one of the earliest and best examples is +the church of St Pierre de Montrouge, by Joseph Auguste E. Vaudremer +(Plate XII., fig. 124). A later and more important example is the +cathedral of Marseilles, by Leon Vaudoyer (1803-1872) and Henry +Esperandieu (1829-1874), a mingling of Romanesque and Byzantine, and in +many respects a fine building (Plate XIII., fig. 126). This modern +feeling in favour of a Byzantine type of church architecture culminated +in the great church of the Sacre Coeur on Montmartre, at Paris, begun in +the early 'eighties from the designs of Paul Abadie (1812-1884). This +grand building stands on a most effective site, and is of a monumental +solidity seldom met with in modern architecture; it is more pure and +consistent in style than many of the smaller churches of the same school +of architecture. These latter are not for the most part very attractive; +they represent in general a kind of Frenchified Byzantine detail which +exhibits neither Byzantine spirit nor French grace and finish; and on +the whole it may be said that church architecture is the field in which +the French architects of the 19th century were least successful. + +As regards secular buildings, on the other hand, the Paris of the middle +portion of the 19th century can show some of the most unquestionable +architectural successes of the period. The modern portions of the Palais +de Justice by Louis Joseph Duc (1802-1879)--not Viollet-le-Duc, as is +often mistakenly asserted in guide-books--and of the Ecole des +Beaux-Arts, by Jacques Felix Duban (1797-1870), are among the best +examples of the application of classic forms of architecture to modern +buildings; and the Bibliotheque Ste Genevieve (Plate XIII., fig. 128), +by Henri Labrouste (1801-1875), was in its day (about 1850) a new +creation in applied classic architecture; a building in which the +exterior design was entirely subservient to and expressive of the +requirements of a library, a large portion of the wall being left +unpierced for the storage of books, windows being only inserted where +they did not interfere with this object; and the manner in which these +walls are treated so as to produce a decorative architectural effect +without having recourse to sham colonnades and sham window openings, was +entirely new at the time in modern work. It is instructive to compare +this design with that of the Bank of England, as examples of the right +and the wrong way of treating buildings in which much blank wall space +was required. The new buildings of the Louvre (Plate XIV., fig. 129), +built under Napoleon III. from the designs of Louis Tullius Joachim +Visconti (1791-1853), are not to be passed over, though they have too +much of the showy and flaunting character which belonged to both the +society and the art of the Second Empire; a fault which also destroys +some of the value of the Grand Opera house, a remarkable work by a +remarkable architect (Jean Louis Charles Garnier), and typical, more +than any other structure, of the epoch in which it was built. Some of +its effect it owes to the admirable painting and sculpture with which it +is decorated, but the grand staircase is a fine architectural conception +(see GARNIER). + + + Recent English architecture. + + "Queen Anne." + +In England and in the United States, the last quarter of the 19th +century was a period of unusual interest and activity in architectural +development. While other nations have been content to carry on their +architecture, for the most part, on the old scholastic lines which had +been prevalent since the Renaissance, in the two countries named there +has been manifest a spirit of unrest, of critical inquiry into the basis +and objects of architecture; an aspiration to make new and original +creations in or applications of the art, without example in any other +period in the modern history of architecture. In England, the +"note"--heard with increasing shrillness of _crescendo_ towards the very +last year of the century--was the cry for originality, for throwing off +the trammels of the past, for rendering architecture more truly a direct +expression of the conditions of practical requirement and of structure. +This was no doubt to some extent the effect of a reaction. During the +greater part of the century architectural strength, as has been already +shown, had been spent in revivals of past styles. Churches indeed, up to +the close of the century, continued to be built, for the most part, in +revived Gothic; but this was owing to special clerical influence, which +saw in Gothic a style specially consecrated to church architecture, and +would be satisfied, as a rule, with nothing else. Efforts have been made +by architects to modify the medieval church plan into something more +practically suited to modern congregational worship, by a system of +reducing the side aisles to mere narrow passages for access to the +seats, thus retaining the architectural effect of the arcade, while +keeping it out of the way of the seated congregation; and there have +been occasional reversions to the ancient Christian basilica type of +plan, or sometimes, as in the church in Davies Street, London, attempts +to treat a church in a manner entirely independent of architectural +precedent; but in the main, Gothic has continued to rule for churches. +Apart from this special class of building, however, revived Gothic began +to droop during the 'seventies. All had been copied that could be +copied, and the result, to the architectural mind, was not satisfaction +but satiety. Gothic began to be regarded as "played out." The immediate +result, however, was not an organized attempt to think for ourselves, +and make our own style, but a recourse to another class of precedent, +represented in the type of early 18th-century building which became +known as "Queen Anne," and which, like Gothic before it, was now to be +recommended as "essentially English," as in fact it is. It can hardly, +however, be called an architectural style; it would have no right to +figure in any work illustrating the great architectural styles of the +world. It was, in fact, the last dying phase of the English Renaissance; +the architecture of the classic order reduced to a threadbare condition, +treated very simply and in plain materials, in many cases shorn of its +columnar features, and reflecting faithfully enough the prim +rationalistic taste in literature and art of the England of the 18th +century. Though not to be dignified as a _style_, it was, however, a +recognizable and consistent _manner_ in building; it made extensive use +of brick, a material inexpensive and at the same time very well suited +to the English climate and atmosphere; and it was generally carried out +in very solid proportions, and with very good workmanship. To a +generation tired of imitating a great style at second hand, this +unpretending and simple model was a welcome relief, and led to the +erection of a considerable number of modern buildings, dwelling-houses +especially, the obvious aim of which was to look as like 18th-century +buildings as possible. A typical example is the large London house by +Norman Shaw, at the corner of Queen's Gate and Imperial Institute Road +The Chelsea town hall (fig. 94), by J.M. Brydon (1840-1901), is a good +example of a public building in the revived Queen Anne style. + +[Illustration: PLATE XI. + + FIG. 120.--NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON. (WATERHOUSE.) + + _Photo, Valentine & Sons, Dundee._ + + FIG. 121.--LAW COURTS, BRUSSELS. (POELAERT.) + + _Photo, M. Gerbeault._] + +[Illustration: PLATE XII. + + FIG. 122.--CHURCH OF ST AUGUSTIN, PARIS.(BALTARD.) + + _Photo, Neurdein._ + + FIG. 123.--CHURCH OF LA TRINITE, PARIS. (BALLU.) + + _Photo, Neurdein._ + + FIG. 124.--CHURCH OF ST PIERRE DE MONTROUGE, PARIS. (VAUDREMER.) + + _Photo, A. Levy._ + + FIG. 125.--CHURCH OF ST VINCENT DE PAUL, PARIS. (HITTORFF.) + + _Photo, Neurdein._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Chelsea Town Hall. (J.M. Brydon.) ] + + + "Free classic." + +A change of front from copying a great style like the medieval to +copying what is at best a bastard one, if a style at all, might not seem +to promise very much for the emancipation of modern architecture; yet +there turned out to be one element of progress in it, resting on the +fact that the comparatively simple detail of the 18th-century buildings +formed a kind of vernacular of building workmanship, which could be +comprehended and carried out by good artisans as a recognized tradition. +Now to reduce architecture to good sound building and good workmanship +seemed to promise at any rate a better basis to work upon than the mere +imitation of classic or medieval detail; it might conceivably furnish a +new starting-point. This was the element of life in the Queen Anne +revival, and it had, as we shall see, an influence beyond the circle of +the special revivers of the style. But almost concurrently with, or +following hard upon, the "Queen Anne" movement arose the idea of a +modern architecture, founded on a free and unfettered treatment of the +materials of our earlier Renaissance architecture, as illustrated in +buildings of the Stuart period. This new ideal was styled "free +classic," and it gave the prevailing tone to English architecture for +the last fifteen years of the century, though it had its commencement in +certain characteristic buildings a good many years earlier than that. In +1873, for instance, there arose a comparatively small front in +Leadenhall Street, under the name of "New Zealand Chambers" (fig. 95), +designed by Norman Shaw, which excited more attention, and had more +influence on contemporary architecture than many a building of far +greater size and importance. This represented the playful and +picturesque possibilities of "free classic." Its more restrained and +refined achievements were early exemplified in G.F. Bodley's design for +the front of the London School Board offices on the Thames +Embankment,[6] a comparatively small building which also exercised a +considerable influence. There were no details here, however, but what +could be found in Stuart (or, as it is more often called, Jacobean) +architecture, but the building, and the prominence of its architect's +name, helped to draw attention to the possibilities of the style, and it +has been discovered that free classic is susceptible of a great deal of +original treatment based on Renaissance elements. As an example we may +cite a street front built some twenty years later by another +academician-architect, viz. the offices of the Chartered Accountants in +the City, by J. Belcher. More dignified and more monumental than New +Zealand Chambers, more original than the School Board offices, this +front contains some details and a general treatment which may be said to +be absolutely new; it affords another example of a piece of street +architecture which attracted a great deal of attention, and has had an +effect quite disproportionate to its size and importance as a building; +and it gives a general measure of the progress of the "free classic" +idea. During the last decade of the century "free classic" was almost +the recognized style in English architecture, and has been illustrated +in many town halls and other large and important buildings, among which +the Imperial Institute is a prominent example (fig. 96). + +[Illustration: FIG 95.--New Zealand Chambers. (R. Norman Shaw, R.A.)] + + + The allied arts. + +Concurrently with this tendency towards a free classic style there has +arisen another movement which has had a considerable influence on +English architecture, viz. an increased perception of the importance of +decorative arts--sculpture, painting, mosaic, etc.--in alliance with +architecture, and of the architect and the decorative artist working +together and in harmony. This is no more than what has long been +understood and acted on in France, but it has been a new light to modern +English architecture, in which, until a comparatively recent period, +decorative painting was hardly thought of, and decorative sculpture, +where it was introduced, was too often, or indeed generally, the mere +work of some trading firm of masons But of late years sculpture has +taken a far more prominent place in connexion with architecture; it has +become a habit with the best architects to rely largely on the +introduction of appropriate and symbolic sculpture to add to the +interest of their buildings, and to associate with them eminent +sculptors, who, instead of regarding their work only in the light of +isolated statues or groups for the exhibition room and the art gallery, +are willing to give their best efforts to produce high-class sculpture +for the decoration of an architectural design which forms the framework +to it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Staircase, Imperial Institute. (Collcutt.)] + + + The craftmanship ideal. + +Notice should be taken, however, of another movement in English +architecture during the closing years of the 19th century. Reference has +already been made to one idea which prompted the culture of the "Queen +Anne" type of architecture: that it presented a simple vernacular of +construction and detail, in which solid workmanship a more prominent +element than elaboration of what is known as architectural style. To a +small group of clever and enthusiastic architects of the younger +generation it appeared that this idea of reducing architecture to the +common-sense of construction might be carried still further; that as all +the revivals of styles since the Renaissance had failed to give +permanent satisfaction and had tended to reduce architecture to a +learned imitation of the work of former epochs, the real chance for +giving life to architecture as a modern art was to throw aside all the +conventionally accepted insignia of architectural style--columns, +pilasters, cornices, buttresses, etc.--and to begin over again with mere +workmanship--wall-building and carpentry--and trust that in process of +time a new decorative detail would be evolved, indebted to no precedent. +The building artisans, in fact, were collectively to take the place of +the architect and the form of the building to be evolved by a natural +process of growth. This was a favourite idea also with William Morris, +who insisted that medieval art--the only art which he recognized as of +any value (Greek, Roman and Renaissance being alike contemptible in his +eyes)--was essentially an art of the people, and that in fact it was the +modern architects who stood in the way of our having a genuine +architecture of the 19th century. Considering how much of merely formal, +conventional and soulless architecture has been produced in our time +under the guidance of the professional architect, it is impossible to +deny that there is an element of truth in this reasoning; at all events, +that there have been a good many modern architects who have done more +harm than good to architecture. But when we come to follow out this +reasoning to its logical results, it is obvious that there are serious +flaws in it. Morris's idea that medieval architecture alone was worthy +the name, we may, of course, dismiss at once; it was the prejudice of a +man of genius whose sympathies, both in matters social and artistic, +were narrow. Nor can we regard the medieval cathedrals as artisan's +architecture. The name of "architect" may have been unknown, but that +the personage was present in some guise, the very individuality and +variety of our English cathedrals attest. Peterborough front was no mere +mason's conception. And when we come to consider modern conditions of +building, it is perfectly obvious that with the complicated practical +requirements of modern building, in regard to planning, heating, +ventilation, etc., the planning of the whole in a complete set of +drawings, before the building is begun, is an absolute necessity. We are +no longer in medieval times; modern conditions require the modern +architect. The real cause of failure, as far as modern architecture is a +failure, lies partly in the fact that it is practised too much as a +profession or business, too little as an art; partly in the deadening +effect of public indifference to art in Britain. If the public really +desired great and impressive works of architecture they would have them; +but neither the British public nor its mouthpiece the government, care +anything about it. Their highest ambition is to get convenient and +economical buildings. And as to the theory of the new school, that we +should throw overboard all precedent in architectural detail, that is +intellectually impossible. We are not made so that we can invent +everything _de novo_, or escape the effect on our minds of what has +preceded us; the attempt can only lead to baldness or eccentricity. +Every great style of architecture of the past has, in fact, been evolved +from the detail of preceding styles; and some of the ablest and most +earnest architects of the present day are, indeed, urging the +desirability of clinging to traditional forms in regard to detail, as a +means of maintaining the continuity of the art. This does not by any +means imply the absence of original architecture; there is scope for +endless origination in the plan and the general design of a building. +The Houses of Parliament is a prominent example. The detail is a +reproduction of Tudor detail, but the plan and the general conception +are absolutely original, and resemble those of no other pre-existing +building in the world. + + + United States. + +It is necessary to take account of all these movements of opinion and +principle in English architecture to appreciate properly its position +and prospects at the time with which we are here dealing. Turning now +from England to the United States, which, as already observed, is the +only other important country in which there has been a general new +movement in architecture, we find, singular to say, that the course of +development has in America been almost the reverse of what has taken +place in England. The rapidity of architectural development in America, +it may be observed, since about 1875, has been something astonishing; +there is no parallel to it anywhere else. Before then the currently +accepted architecture of the American Republic was little more than a +bad repetition of the English Gothic and Classic types of revived +architecture. At the present day no nation, except perhaps France, takes +so keen an interest in architecture and produces so many noteworthy +buildings; and it may be observed that in the United States the public +and the official authorities seem really to have some enthusiasm on the +subject, and to desire fine buildings. But the stirring of the dry bones +began in America where it ended in England. The first symptoms of an +original spirit operating in American architecture showed themselves in +domestic architecture, in town and country houses, the latter +especially; and the form which the movement took was a desire to escape +conventional architectural detail and to return to the simplest form of +mere _building_; rock-faced masonry, sometimes of materials picked up on +the site; chimneys which were plain shafts of masonry or brickwork; +woodwork simply hewn and squared, but the whole arranged with a view to +picturesque effect (figs. 97 and 98). This form of American house became +an incident in the course of modern architecture; it even had a +recognizable influence on English architects. About the same time an +impetus of a more special nature was given to American architecture by a +man of genius, H.H. Richardson, who, falling back on Romanesque and +Byzantine types of architecture as a somewhat unworked field, evolved +from them a type of architectural treatment so distinctly his own +(though its _origines_ were of course quite traceable) that he came very +near the credit of having personally invented a style; at all events he +invented a manner, which was so largely admired and imitated that for +some ten or fifteen years American architecture showed a distinct +tendency to become "Richardsonesque" (see also Plate XVI., fig. 137). As +with all architectural fashions, however, people got tired of this, and +the influence of another very able American architect, Richard M. Hunt, +coupled perhaps with the proverbial philo-Gallic tendencies of the +modern American, led to the American architects, during the last decade +of the 19th century, throwing themselves almost entirely into the arms, +as it were, of France; seeking their education as far as possible in +Paris, and adopting the theory and practice of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts +so completely that it is often impossible to distinguish their designs, +and even their methods of drawing, from those of French architects +brought up in the strictest regime of the "Ecole." By this French +movement the Americans have, on the one hand, shared the advantages and +the influence of what is undoubtedly the most complete school of +architectural training in the world; but, on the other hand, they have +foregone the opportunity which might have been afforded them of +developing a school or style of their own, influenced by the +circumstances of their own requirements, climate and materials. Figs. +133 and 134, Plate XV., show examples of recent American architecture of +the European classic type. Thus, in the two countries which in this +period have shown the most activity and restlessness in their +architectural aspirations, and given the most original thought to the +subject, England has constantly tended towards throwing off the yoke of +precedent and escaping from the limits of a scholastic style; while +America, commencing her era of architectural emancipation with an +attempt at first principles and simple but picturesque building, has +ended by a pretty general adoption of the highly-developed scholastic +system of another country. The contrast is certainly a curious one. Only +one original contribution to the art has been made by America in recent +days --one arising directly out of practical conditions, viz. the "high +buildings" in cities; a form of architecture which may be said to have +originated in the fact that New York is built on a peninsula, and +extension of the city is only possible vertically and not horizontally. +The tower-like buildings (see Plate XV., fig. 131, and STEEL +CONSTRUCTION, Plate II., figs. 3 and 4), served internally by lifts, to +which this condition of things has given rise, form a really new +contribution to architecture, and have been handled by some of the +American architects in a very effective manner; though, unfortunately, +the rage for rapid building in the cities of the United States has led +to the adoption of the false architectural system of running up such +structures in the form of a steel framing, cased with a mere skin of +masonry or terra-cotta, for appearance' sake, which in reality depends +for its stability on the steel framing. It must be admitted, however, to +be a new contribution to architecture, and renders New York, as seen +from the harbour, a "towered city" in a sense not realized by the poet. + +[Illustration: FIG. 97.--American Type of Country-House Architecture.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 98.--American Seaside Villa. (Bruce Price.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Crane Public Library, Quincy, Mass. (H.H. +Richardson.)] + + + English progress. + +Some sketch of the state of recent architectural thought or endeavour in +England seemed essential to the subject, since it is there that what may +be called the philosophy of architecture has been most debated, and that +thought has had the most obvious and most direct effect on architectural +style and movement. That this has been the case has no doubt been +largely due to the influence of Ruskin, who, though his architectural +judgment was on many points faulty and absurd in the extreme, had at any +rate the effect of setting people thinking--not without result. In other +countries architecture continued to pursue, up to the close of the +century, the scholastic ideal impressed upon it by the Renaissance, +without exciting doubt or controversy unless in a very occasional and +partial manner, and without any changes save those minor ones arising +from changing habits of execution and use of material. In Germany there +appears to be a certain tendency to a greater freedom in the use of the +materials of classic architecture, a certain relaxation of the bonds of +scholasticism; but it has hardly assumed such proportions as to be +ranked as a new movement in architecture. + + + English churches. + +The last years of the 19th century witnessed the progress to an advanced +stage of the most remarkable piece of English church architecture of the +period, the Roman Catholic cathedral at Westminster, by J.H. Bentley +(1839-1902), a building which is not a Gothic revival, but goes back to +earlier (Byzantine) precedents; not, however, without a considerable +element of novelty and originality in the design, especially in some of +the exterior detail. The interior was intended for decoration in applied +marble and mosaic, yet even as a shell of brickwork, with its solid +domes and the immense masses of the piers, it is one of the most +impressive and monumental interiors of modern date. + +[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Interior, St Clare's, Liverpool. (Leonard +Stokes.)] + +In ordinary church architecture, though there is still a good deal of +mere imitation medieval work carried out, England has not been without +examples of a new and original application of Gothic materials. The +interior of the church of St Clare, Liverpool, by Mr Leonard Stokes +(fig. 100), is a good example of the modified treatment of the +three-aisled medieval plan already referred to, the side aisles being +reduced to passages; and also of the tendency in recent years to +simplify the treatment of Gothic, in contrast to the florid and +over-carved churches of the Gothic revival. The churches of James +Brooks, as already noted, have shown many examples of a solid plain +treatment of Gothic, yet with a great deal of character; and J.D. +Sedding (1838-1891) built some showing great originality, among which +the interior of his church of the Holy Redeemer, Clerkenwell, affords +also an interesting example of the modern free treatment of forms +derived from classic architecture. + +The event of most importance in English church architecture at the +beginning of the 20th century was the commencement of a modern cathedral +at Liverpool. In the early 'eighties the proposal for a cathedral had +led to an important competition between three sets of invited +architects, Sir William Emerson, Messrs Bodley and Garner and James +Brooks. Nothing, however, resulted, except the production of three very +fine sets of drawings. Subsequently the subject was taken up again with +more energy, and a sketch competition invited for a cathedral on a new +site (the one originally intended being no longer available); from among +the sketch competitors five were invited to join in a final competition, +viz. Messrs Austin and Paley, C.A. Nicholson, Gilbert Scott (grandson of +Sir Gilbert Scott), Malcolm Stark and W.J. Tapper. Mr Scott's design was +selected (May 1903) and the building of it commenced not long after. It +is a design in revived Gothic, of the orthodox type as to detail, though +containing some points of decided originality in the general treatment. +The condition proposed in the first instance by the committee, that the +designs sent in must be in the Gothic style, gave rise to a strong +protest, in the architectural journals and elsewhere, on the ground that +the revival of ancient styles was a mistaken and exploded fallacy; and +in deference to this expression of opinion the committee officially +withdrew the limitation as to style. That, in view of their obvious +bias, they would confine their selection to designs in the Gothic style, +was, however, a foregone conclusion. It is much to be regretted that the +opportunity was not taken to evolve a modern and Protestant type of +cathedral, with a central area and a dome as its principal feature. + + + English public buildings. + +In the architecture of public buildings one of the earliest incidents in +this latest period was the completion of the Albert Hall, which, though +the work of an engineer, and commonplace in detail, is in the main a +fine and novel architectural conception, and a practical success +(considering its abnormal size) as a building for musical performances. +Had its constructor been bold enough to roof it with a solid masonry +dome, with an "eye" in the centre (as in the Pantheon) instead of a huge +dish-cover of glass and iron, there would have been little to find fault +with in its general conception. It was also the first modern English +building of importance to be decorated externally with symbolical figure +composition, in the shape of the large frieze in coarse mosaic of +terra-cotta, which is carried round the upper portion of the exterior, +and which, if not very interesting in detail, at all events fulfils very +well its purpose as a piece of decorative effect. The subject of the +government offices in London forms in itself an important chapter in +recent architectural history. The home and foreign office block was +finished in 1874; a sumptuous, but weak and ill-planned building +designed by Scott, _invita Minerva_, in a style alien to his own +predilections. In 1884 took place the great competition for the war and +admiralty offices conjointly, won by a commonplace but admirably drawn +design, presenting some good points in planning. The building was to +stand between Whitehall and St James's Park, with a front both ways. The +competition came to nothing, and the successful architects were +eventually employed to build the new admiralty as it now stands, a mean +and commonplace building with no street frontage, in which economy was +the main consideration, and totally discreditable to the greatest naval +power in the world. In 1898-1899 it was at last resolved to a war office +and other government offices much needed, and an irregular site opposite +the Horse Guards was selected for the war office and one in Great George +Street for the others. In this case there was no competition, but the +government selected two architects after inquiry as to their works +("classic" architecture being a _sine qua non_); W. Young (d. 1900) for +the war office, and J.M. Brydon for the Great George Street block. The +war office site is inadequate and totally unsymmetrical, the boundary of +the building being settled by the boundary of the street curb, and the +inner courtyards are of very mean proportions compared with the great +courtyard of the home and foreign office. Both architects produced +grandiose designs, but in regard to the war office at least the +government threw away a great opportunity. + +[Illustration: PLATE XIII. + + FIG. 126.--CATHEDRAL, MARSEILLES. (VAUDOYER AND ESPERANDIEU.) + + _Photo, Neurdein._ + + FIG. 127.--MAIRIE, Xth ARRONDISSEMENT, PARIS. (ROUYER.) + + _Photo, Neurdein._ + + FIG. 128.--BIBLIOTHEQUE STE GENEVIEVE, PARIS. (LABROUSTE.) + + _Photo, A. Levy._] + +[Illustration: PLATE XIV. + + FIG. 129.--PAVILLON RICHELIEU, THE LOUVRE, PARIS. (VISCONTI.) + + _Photo, L.L. Paris._ + + FIG. 130.--PETIT PALAIS, PARIS. (GIRAULT.) + + _Photo, Neurdin._] + +There can only be further enumerated a few of the more important +buildings erected in England during the later years of the 19th +century, and mention made of the general course which architecture has +taken in regard to special classes of buildings. The Natural History +Museum (Plate XI., fig. 120), completed in 1881 by Alfred Waterhouse, +may stand as a type of the taste for the employment of terra-cotta, with +all its dangerous facilities in ornamental detail, of which that +architect specially set the example. Detail is certainly overdone here, +but the building is strikingly original; a point not to be overlooked in +these days of architectural copying. The Imperial Institute, the result +of a competition among six selected architects, represents also a type +of architecture which its architect, T.E. Collcutt, maybe said to have +matured for himself, and which has been extensively imitated; a refined +variety of free classic, always quiet and delicate in detail, though +perhaps rather wanting in architectonic force. The next great +architectural competition was that for the completion of the South +Kensington Museum, the bare brick exterior of which, waiting for +architectural completion, had long been a national disgrace. The +competition produced some fine and striking designs, some of them +perhaps more so than the selected one by Sir Aston Webb, whose fine +plan, however, justified the selection. Another competition which +excited general interest was that in 1894, for the rebuilding on a +country site of Christ's Hospital schools, also gained by Aston Webb (in +collaboration with Ingress Bell), by a design which, in its arrangement +of schoolhouses in detached blocks (fig. 101), but in a symmetrical +grouping, opened up a new idea in public-school planning, and struck a +blow at the picturesque but insanitary quadrangle system. Among notable +public buildings of the period ought to be mentioned Norman Shaw's New +Scotland Yard, built in a style neither classic nor Gothic, but +partaking of the elements of both (Plate X., fig. 119). A competition in +1908 for the design of the new county hall for the London County +Council, to be "English Renaissance" in style, was won by a young +architect, till then unknown, Mr Ralph Knott. + +[Illustration: FIG. 101.--Plan of a Master's House, New Christ's +Hospital. (Webb and Bell.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Sheffield Town Hall. (Mountford.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Oxford Town Hall. (Hare.)] + +In recent years there has been a great movement for building town halls; +towns rather vying with each other in this way. Of late nearly all of +these have been carried out in some variety of free classic. Among the +more important in point of scale is that of Sheffield, by E.W. Mountford +(1856-1908) (fig. 102); among smaller ones, those of Oxford, by H.T. +Hare (fig. 103); and Colchester, by John Belcher, are particularly good +examples of recent architecture of this class, the former distinguished +also by an exceptionally good plan. The merit of excellent planning also +belongs to Aston Webb and Ingress Bell's Birmingham law courts, one of +the modern terra-cotta buildings of somewhat too florid detail, though +picturesque as a whole. Among public halls the M'Ewan Hall at Edinburgh, +completed in 1898 from the designs of Sir Rowand Anderson, deserves +mention as one of the most original and most carefully designed of +recent buildings in Great Britain. + +The various new buildings erected in connexion with the university of +Oxford, those by T.G. Jackson (b. 1835) especially, form an important +incident in modern English architecture. Mr Jackson succeeded to a +remarkable degree in designing new buildings which are in harmony with +the old architecture of the university city; sometimes perhaps a little +too imitative of it, but at any rate he has the credit of having added +rather extensively to Oxford without spoiling it; while his school +buildings in different parts of the country have a refinement and +domesticity of feeling which is the true note of school architecture. +Among buildings of an educational class, the move in technical education +has led to the erection of a good many large polytechnic and similar +institutions, which in many cases have been well treated +architecturally; the Northampton Institute at Clerkenwell (fig. 104), by +Mountford, being perhaps one of the boldest and most effective of recent +public buildings. In the building of hospitals and asylums much has been +done, and great progress made in the direction of hygienic and practical +planning and construction, but the tendency has been (perhaps rightly) +towards making this practical efficiency the main consideration and +reducing architectural treatment to the simplest character. St Thomas's +hospital at Lambeth exemplifies the treatment of hospital architecture +at the commencement of the last quarter of the 19th century; the +separate pavilion system had been already adopted on practical grounds, +but the building is treated in a sumptuous architectural style, as if +representing so many detached mansions--a treatment which would now be +deprecated as an expenditure foreign to the main purpose of the +building. One recent hospital, however, that at Birmingham, by W. +Henman, combining architectural effect with the latest hygienic +improvements, was the first large hospital in Great Britain in which the +system of mechanical ventilation was completely and consistently carried +out. + +[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell. +(Mountford.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Cragside. (R. Norman Shaw.)] + +In theatre building there has been an immense improvement in regard to +planning, ventilation and fireproof construction, but little to note in +an architectural sense, since theatres in England are never designed by +eminent architects, the financial and practical aspects being alone +considered. + +[Illustration: FIG. 106.--London City & Midland Bank, Ludgate Hill +Branch. (Collcutt.)] + + + English domestic and street architecture. + +In domestic architecture the tendency has been to quit picturesque +irregularity for a more formal and more dignified treatment. Such a +house as Norman Shaw's "Cragside," built in the earlier part of our +period (fig. 105), however its picturesque treatment may still be +admired, would hardly be built now on a large scale; its architect +himself has of late years shown a preference for a symmetrical and +regular treatment of house architecture sometimes to the extent of +making the mansion look too like a barrack. In street architecture, +however, the tendency has been towards a more characteristic and more +picturesque treatment; nor is there any class of building in which the +improvement in English architecture has been more marked and more +unquestionable. Many of the new residential streets in the west end of +London present a really picturesque _ensemble_, and many shops and other +commercial street buildings have been erected with admirable fronts from +the designs of some of the best architects of the day. Norman Shaw's +building at the corner of St James's Street and Pall Mall was one of the +first, and is still one of the best examples of modern street +architecture, though surpassed by the same architect's more recent +building opposite, at the south-west angle of St James's Street--one of +the finest and most monumental examples of street architecture in +London. Among other examples may be cited T.E. Collcutt's London City & +Midland Bank in Ludgate Hill (fig. 106) and R. Blomfield's narrow +house-front in Buckingham Gate (fig. 107). The introduction of sculpture +in street fronts is also beginning to receive attention; and a simple +house-front recently erected in Margaret Street, London, from the design +of Beresford Pite (fig. 108), is an excellent example of the use of +sculpture in connexion with ordinary street architecture. It is +significant of the increased attention accorded to street architecture, +that the most important architectural event in England at the very close +of the 19th century, was the outlay of L2000 by the London County +Council, in fees to eight architects for designs for the front of the +proposed new streets of Kingsway and Aldwych. The idea was to treat +these streets as comprehensive architectural designs with a certain +unity of effect. Unfortunately this idea was abandoned for merely +commercial reasons, it being feared that there would be a difficulty in +letting the sites if tenants were required to conform their frontages to +a general design. In the case of Aldwych, which is a crescent street, +this decision was fatal. A crescent loses all its effect unless treated +as a complete and symmetrical architectural design. + +[Illustration: FIG. 107.--House in Buckingham Gate, London. (R. +Blomfield.)] + +The competition for the Queen Victoria Memorial, consisting of a +processional road from Whitehall to Buckingham Palace, culminating in a +sculptural trophy in front of the palace, attracted a great deal of +attention in 1901. Of the five invited competitors--Sir Aston Webb (b. +1849), T.G. Jackson, Ernest George (b. 1839), Sir Thomas Drew (b. 1838), +and Sir Rowand Anderson (b. 1834) the two latter representing Ireland +and Scotland respectively,--Sir Aston Webb's design was selected, and +unquestionably showed the best and most effective manner of laying out +the road, as well as a very pleasing architectural treatment of the +semicircular forecourt in front of the palace, with pavilions and +fountain-basins symmetrically spaced; but some of this was subsequently +sacrificed on grounds of economy. The building, a triumphal arch flanked +by pavilions, forming the entry to the processional road from Whitehall, +is a dignified design. + +[Illustration: FIG. 108.--House in Margaret Street, London. (Beresford +Pite.)] + + + Recent French architecture. + +In France, still the leading artistic nation of the world, the art of +architecture has been in a most flourishing and most active state in the +most recent period. It is true that there is not the same variety as in +modern English architecture, nor have there been the same discussions +and experiments in regard to the true aim and course of architecture +which have excited so much interest in England; because the French +architects, unlike the English, know exactly what they want. They have a +"school" of architecture; they adhere to the scholastic or academic +theory of architecture as an art founded on the study of classic models; +and on this basis their architects receive the most thorough training of +any in the world. This predominance of the academic theory deprives +their architecture, no doubt, of a good deal of the element of variety +and picturesqueness; a French architect _pur sang_, in fact, never +attempts the picturesque, unless in a country residence, and then the +results are such that one wishes the attempt had not been made. But, on +the other hand, modern French architecture at its best has a dignity and +style about it which no other nation at present reaches, and which goes +far to atone for a certain degree of sameness and repetition in its +motives; and living under a government which recognizes the importance +of national architecture, and is willing to spend public money liberally +on it (with the full approbation of its public), the French architects +have opportunities which English ones but seldom enjoy--the predominant +aim with a British government being to see how little they can spend on +a public building. The two great Paris exhibitions of 1889 and 1900 may +be regarded as important events in connexion with architecture, for even +the temporary buildings erected for them showed an amount of +architectural interest and originality which could be met with nowhere +else, and which in each case left its mark behind it, though with a +difference; for while in the 1889 exhibition the main object was to +treat temporary structures--iron and concrete and terra-cotta--in an +undisguised but artistic manner, in those of the 1900 exhibition the +effort was to create an architectural _coup d'oeil_ of apparently +monumental structures of which the actual construction was disguised. In +spite of some eccentricities the amount of invention and originality +shown in these temporary buildings was most remarkable; but fortunately +the exhibition left something more permanent behind it in the shape of +the two art-palaces and the new bridge over the Seine. The two palaces +are triumphs of modern classic architecture; the larger one (by MM. +Thomas, Louvet and Deglane) is to some extent spoiled by the apparently +unavoidable glass roof, the smaller one, by M. Girault, escapes this +drawback, and, still more refined than its greater opposite, is one of +the most beautiful buildings of modern times; the central portion is +shown in Plate XIV., fig. 130. The architectural pylons, with their +accompanying sculpture, which flank the entries to the bridge, are +worthy of the best period of French Renaissance. Thus much, at least, +has the 1900 exhibition done for architecture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Plan of Hotel de Ville, Paris.] + + A, Salle des Fetes. + B, Salle a manger. + C, Salons de Reception. + D, Council Chamber. + E, Grand Staircase. + F, Salle des Cariatides. + G, General Secretary. + H, Prefect. + K, Committee Rooms. + L, Public Works. + M, Corridor. + N, President of Council. + O, Library. + P, Refreshment Room.] + +At the beginning of the last quarter of the 19th century stands one of +the most important of modern French buildings, the Paris hotel de ville, +commenced shortly after the war, from the designs of MM. Ballu and +Deperthes, planned on an immense scale, and on the stateliest and most +monumental lines: the plan is given in fig. 109. The central block is, +externally, a restoration of the old hotel de ville, the remainder +carried out in an analogous but somewhat more modern style. The interior +has been the scene of sumptuous pictorial decoration, in which all the +first artists of the day were employed--unfortunately in too scattered a +manner and on no predominant or consistent scheme. One of the most +characteristic architectural efforts of the French has consisted in the +erection of the various smaller hotels-de-ville or mairies, in the city +and suburban districts of the capital; as at Pantin, Lilas, Suresnes and +in various arrondissements within the city proper (Plate XIII., fig. +127). Nothing shows the quality of modern French architecture better, or +perhaps more favourably, than this series of district town halls; all +have a distinctly municipal character and a certain family resemblance +of style amid their diversity of details; all are refined specimens of +pre-eminently civilized architecture. Among the greater architectural +efforts of France is the immense block of the new Sorbonne, by M. Nenot, +a building sufficient in itself for an architectural reputation. Among +smaller French buildings of peculiar merit may be mentioned the Musee +Galliera, in the Trocadero quarter of Paris, designed by M. Ginain--a +work of pure art in architecture such as we should nowadays look for in +vain out of France; the Ecole de Medecine, by the same refined architect +(fig. 110); and the chapel in rue Jean Goujon (Guilbert), erected as a +memorial to the victims of the bazaar fire, again a notable instance of +a work of pure thought in architecture--a new conception out of old +materials. The new Opera Comique (Bernier) should also be mentioned, the +rather disappointing result of a competition which excited great +interest at the time. Street architecture has been carried out of late +in Paris in a sumptuous style, with great stone fronts and a profusion +of carved ornament, such as we know nothing of in England; and though +there is a rather monotonous repetition of the same style and character +throughout the new or newly built streets, it is impossible to deny the +effect of palatial dignity they impart to the city. In the matter of +country houses the French architect is less fortunate; when he attempts +what he regards as the rural picturesque, his good taste seems entirely +to desert him, and the _maison de campagne_ is generally a mere riot of +gimcrack bargeboards and finials. In Paris, the taste for the +contortions of what is called _art nouveau_ has led to the erection, +here and there, of ugly and eccentric fronts with preposterous +ornamental details; but the invasion of this element is only partial and +will probably not prove other than a passing phase. + +[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Ecole de Medecine, Paris. (Ginain.)] + + + Germany. + +The great military success of Germany in 1870, and the founding of the +German empire, gave, as is usual in such crises, a decided impetus to +public architecture, of which the central and most important visible +sign is the German Houses of Parliament (Plate IX., fig. 117), by Paul +Wallot (b. 1841), whose design was selected in a competition. There is +something essentially German in the quality of this national building; +classic architecture minus its refinement. The detail is coarse; the +finish of the end pavilions of the principal front absolutely +unmeaning--mere architectural rodomontade; the central cupola of glass +and iron, on a square plan, probably the ugliest central feature on any +great building in Europe; and yet there is undeniable power about the +whole thing; it is the characteristic product of a conquering nation not +reticent in its triumph. The new cathedral at Berlin, by Julius +Raschdorff (b. 1823), is the other most important German work of the +period (fig. 111); a building very striking and unusual in plan, but +absolutely commonplace in its architectural detail; school classic of +the most ordinary type, without even any of those elements of +originality which are to be found in the Houses of Parliament. A curious +feature in the plan (fig. 112) is that the building, alone of any +cathedral we can recall, has its principal general entrance at the side, +the end entrance being reserved for a special imperial cortege on +special occasions, the cathedral also serving the second purpose of an +imperial mausoleum. Theatre building has been carried on very largely in +Germany, and among its productions the Lessing theatre at Berlin (fig. +113) (Hermann von der Hude and Julius Hennicke, d. 1892) is a favourable +example of German classic at its best, besides being, like most modern +German theatres, very well planned (fig. 114). Hamburg has had its new +municipal buildings (Grotjan), a florid Renaissance building with a +central tower, showing in its general effect and grouping a good deal of +Gothic feeling Mention may also be made of the Imperial law courts +(Reichsgerichtsgebaude) at Leipzig, designed by Ludwig Hoffmann (b. +1852) and finished in 1895, a building with no more charm about it, +externally, than the Berlin Parliament Houses, but with some good +interior effects. The new post offices in Germany have been an important +undertaking, and are, at all events, buildings of more mark than those +in England. There has also been a great deal of new development in +street architecture, which shows an immense variety, and a constantly +evident determination to do something striking, but we find in it +neither the dignity of Parisian street architecture nor the refinement +of modern London work; there is an element of the bombastic about it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 111.--Cathedral at Berlin. (Raschdorff.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Plan of Cathedral at Berlin.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 113.--Lessing Theatre, Berlin. (Von der Hude and +Hennicke.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Plan of Lessing Theatre, Berlin.] + + + Other countries. + +No modern building on the European continent is more remarkable than the +Brussels law courts (Plate XI., fig. 121) from the designs of Joseph +Poelaert (1816-1879), an original genius in architecture, who had the +good fortune to be appreciated and given a free hand by his government. +The design is based on classic architecture, but with a treatment so +completely individual as to remove it almost entirely from the category +of imitative or revival architecture; somewhat fantastic it may be, but +as an original architectural creation it stands almost alone among +modern public buildings. In Vienna the scholastic classic style has been +retained with much more purity and refinement than in the German +capital, and the Parliament Houses (Plate IX., fig. 116), by Theophil +Hansen (1813-1891), if they show no originality of detail, have the +merit of original and very effective grouping. Budapest, on the other +hand, which has almost sprung into existence since 1875 as the rival of +the Austrian capital, has erected a great Parliament building of florid +character (Plate IX., fig. 115), in a style in which the Gothic element +is prevalent, though the central feature is a dome. The plan (see fig. +92) is obviously based on that of the Westminster building, the exterior +design, however, has the merit of clearly indicating the position of the +two Chambers as part of the architectural design, the want of which is +the one serious defect of Barry's noble structure. In Italy modern +architecture is at a very low ebb; the one great work of this period was +the building of the facade to the Duomo at Florence, from the design of +de Fabris, who did not live to see its completion. As the completion in +modern times of a building of world-wide fame, it is a work of +considerable interest, and, on the whole, not unworthy of its position; +that it should harmonize quite satisfactorily with the ancient structure +was hardly to be expected. It was probably the completion of this facade +which led the city of Milan to start a great architectural competition, +in the early 'eighties, for the erection of a new facade to its +celebrated cathedral, not because the facade had never been completed, +but because it had been spoiled and patched with bad 18th-century work. +The ambition was a legitimate one, and the competition, open to all the +world, excited the greatest interest; but the young Italian architect, +Brentano, to whom the first premium was awarded, died shortly +afterwards, and other causes, partly financial, led to the postponement +of the scheme, though it is understood that there is still an intention +of carrying out Brentano's design under the direction of the official +architectural department of the city. + + + Conclusion. + +In summing up the present position of modern architecture, it may be +said that architecture is now a more cosmopolitan art than it has been +at any previous period. The separate development of a national style has +become in the present day almost an impossibility. Increased means of +communication have brought all civilized nations into close touch with +each other's tastes and ideas, with the natural consequence that the +treatment of a special class of building in any one country will not +differ very materially from its treatment in another; though there are +nuances of local taste in detail, in manner of execution, in the +materials used. And the civilized countries have almost with one consent +returned, in the main, to the adoption of a school of architecture based +on classic types. The taste for medievalism is dying out even in Great +Britain, which has been its chief stronghold. + +What course the future of modern architecture will take it is not easy +to prophesy. What is quite certain is that it is now an individual art, +each important building being the production, not of an unconsciously +pursued national style, but of a personal designer. As far as there is a +ruling consensus in architectural taste, this will tend to become, like +dress and manners, more and more cosmopolitan; and it seems probable +that it will be based more or less on the types left us by Classic and +Renaissance architecture. There are, however, two influences which may +have a definite effect on the architecture of the near future. One of +these is the possible greater _rapprochement_ between architecture and +engineering, of which there are already some signs to be seen; +architects will learn more of the kind of structural problems which are +now almost the exclusive province of the engineer, and there will be a +demand that engineering works shall be treated, as they well may be, +with some of the refinement and expression of architecture. The other +influence lies in the closer connexion, which is already taking place, +between architecture and the allied arts, so that an important building +will be regarded and treated as a field for the application of +decorative sculpture and painting of the highest class, and as being +incomplete without these. It is in this closer union of architecture +with the other arts that there lies the best hope for the architecture +of the future. + +[Illustration: PLATE XV. + + FIG. 131.--"FLAT-IRON" BUILDING, NEW YORK. + + (For method of construction, see STEEL CONSTRUCTION, and Plate II., + Fig. 4, of that article.) + + _Copyright 1903 by Detroit Photographic Co._ + + FIG. 132.--A NEWPORT, R.I., "COTTAGE": "THE BREAKERS." + + _Copyright 1899 by Detroit Photographic Co._ + + FIG. 133.--THE METROPOLITAN CLUB, NEW YORK. + + FIG. 134.--THE UNIVERSITY CLUB, NEW YORK. + + _Copyright 1905 by Detroit Publishing Co._] + +[Illustration: PLATE XVI. + + FIG. 135.--PUBLIC LIBRARY, BOSTON. (McKIM, MEAD & WHITE.) + + _Photo, Detroit Publishing Co._] + + FIG. 136.--PUBLIC LIBRARY, NEW YORK. (CARRERE & HASTINGS.) + + _Photo, Geo. P. Hall & Son._] + + FIG. 137.--TRINITY CHURCH, BOSTON. (H.H. RICHARDSON.) + + _Photo, Elmer Chickering._ + + FIG. 138.--STATE CAPITOL, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT. + + _Copyright 1906 by Detroit Publishing Co._] + + AUTHORITIES.--The literature of architecture as a modern art is + limited, the most important publications of recent times being mainly + devoted to the study and illustration of ancient architecture. The + following, however, may be named:--James Fergusson, _History of Modern + Architecture_ (2nd ed., London, 1873); T.G. Jackson, _Modern Gothic + Architecture_ (London, 1873); J.T. Micklethwaite, _Modern Parish + Churches_ (London, 1874); E.R. Robson, _School Architecture_ (London, + 1874); J.J. Stevenson, _House Architecture_ (London, 1880); E.E. + Viollet-le-Duc, _How to Build a House_ (London, 1874); _Lectures on + Architecture_ (London, 1881); H.C. Burdett, _Hospitals and Asylums of + the World_ (London, 1892-1893); Professor Oswald Kuhn, _Krankenhauser_ + (Stuttgart, 1897); E.O. Sachs, _Modern Opera-Houses and Theatres_ + (London, 1897-1899); E. Wyndham Tarn, _The Mechanics of Architecture_ + (London, 1893); R. Norman Shaw, R.A., T.G. Jackson, R.A., and others, + _Architecture, a Profession or an Art_ (London, 1892); W.H. White, + _The Architect and his Artists_ (London, 1892); _Architecture and + Public Buildings in Paris and London_ (London, 1884); H.H. Statham, + _Architecture for General Readers_ (London, 1895); _Modern + Architecture_ (London, 1898); Herrmann Muthesius, _Die englische + Baukunst der Gegenwart_ (Berlin and Leipzig, 1900); Der Architekten + Verein zu Berlin, _Berlin und Seine Bauten_ (Berlin, 1896). The real + literature of modern architecture, however, is to be found mainly in + the articles and illustrations in the best periodical architectural + publications of various countries. Among these Italy has none worth + mention, and France, with all her architectural enthusiasm, has had no + first-class architectural periodical since the extinction, about 1890, + of the _Revue generale de l'architecture_, conducted for more than + fifty years by the late Cesar Daly, and in its day the first + periodical of its class in the world. Among the best periodical + publications are: _The Architectural Record_ (quarterly), (New York); + _The Architectural Review_ (monthly), (Boston); the _Allgemeine + Bauzeitung_ (quarterly), (Vienna); the _Berlin Architekturwelt_ + (monthly), (Berlin); _The Builder_ (weekly), (London); _La + Construction moderne_ (weekly), (Paris). (H. H. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the various chronological systems proposed see EGYPT: + _Chronology_. + + [2] Except, possibly, the earliest of those at Sparta (q.v.).--ED. + + [3] Article "Architecture," _Ency. Brit._, 9th ed. + + [4] Wilkins made two designs for the whole building; one leaving the + quadrangle entirely open on the fourth side, towards the street the + other showing a low open colonnaded screen connecting the ends of the + two wings. He never for a moment contemplated closing in the + quadrangle by buildings on the fourth side. + + [5] A remarkable instance of this is shown by the railway viaduct at + Passy, a large and monumental piece of work in itself, which is built + along the centre of the roadway of Napoleon's bridge. It was' at + first proposed to have a steel railway viaduct parallel with the old + bridge, but it was found that the latter, both in respect of solidity + and spacious dimensions, would fully bear the erection of the railway + viaduct along its centre. + + [6] The western half of the present front; the design was duplicated + afterwards, on the extension of the building, but Bodley originated + it. + + + + +ARCHITRAVE (from Lat. _arcus_, an arch, and _trabs, trabem_, a beam), an +architectural term for the chief beam which carries the superstructure +and rests immediately on the columns. In the ordinary entablature it is +the lowest of the three divisions, the other two being the frieze and +the cornice (see ORDER). The term is also applied to the moulded frame +of a doorway. + + + + +ARCHIVE (Lat. _archivum_, a transliteration of Gr. [Greek: archeion], an +official building), a term (generally used in the plural "archives"), +properly denoting the building in which are kept the records, charters +and other papers belonging to any state, community or family, but now +generally applied to the documents themselves (see RECORD). + + + + +ARCHIVOLT (from Lat. _arcus_, an arch, and _volta_, a vault), an +architectural term applied to the mouldings of an architrave, when +carried round an arched opening. + + + + +ARCHON ([Greek: archon], ruler), the title of the highest magistrate in +many ancient Greek states. It is only in Athens that we have any +detailed knowledge of the office, and even in this one case the evidence +presents problems of the first importance which are incapable of +decisive solution. There is no doubt that the archons represented the +ancient kings, whose absolutism, under conditions which we can only +infer, yielded in process of time to the power of the noble families, +supported no doubt by the fighting force of the state. As to the process +by which this change was effected there are two accounts. Traditionally, +the monarchy after the death of Codrus (?1068 B.C.) gave place to the +life archon whose tenure of office was limited afterwards to ten years +and then to one year. Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ (q.v.) speaks +of five stages: (1) the institution of the polemarch who took over the +military duties of the king; (2) the institution of _the_ archon to +relieve the king of his civil duties; (3) the tenure of office was +reduced to ten years (?752 B.C.); (4) the office was taken from the +"royal" clan and thrown open to all Eupatridae (?712 B.C.); (5) office +was made annual, and to the existing three offices were added the six +thesmothetae whose duty it was to record judicial decisions. The value +of this latter account is, of course, debatable, but it is at least +compatible with the general trend of development from hereditary +absolutism, civil, military and religious, in the person of the "king," +to a constitutional oligarchy. The change was clearly effected by the +devolution of the military and civil powers of the king to the polemarch +and the archon, while the archon basileus (or king) retained control of +state religion. It is equally clear that owing to the predominating +importance of civil affairs, _the_ archon became the chief state +official and gave his name to the year (hence archon eponymus). It +should be noticed that the analogy which has often been suggested +between the early history of the archonship at Athens, and such cases as +the mayors of the palace in French history, or the tycoon (shogun) and +mikado in Japanese history, is misleading. In these cases it is the old +royal house that retains the royal title and the semblance of power, +while the real authority passes into new hands. In Athens, the new civil +office is vested in the old royal family, while the old title along with +its religious functions is transferred. The early history of the +thesmothetae is not clear, but this much is certain that there is no +adequate reason for supposing, as many historians do, that in early +times, they, with the three chief archons, constituted a collective or +collegiate magistracy. It is true Thucydides (i. 126) states that, in +the time of the Cylonian conspiracy (?632 B.C.), "the nine archons were +(i.e. collectively) the principal officials," but at the same time the +responsibility for the action then taken attached to the Alcmaeonidae +alone, because one of their number, Megacles, was at that time _the_ +archon (i.e. responsibility was personal, not collective). Again, the +_Constitution of Athens_ says that down to Solon's time the archons had +no official residence, but that afterwards they used the Thesmotheteion. +It is a reasonable inference from this statement that the thesmothetae +had previously sat together apart from the superior archons and that it +was only after Solon that collegiate responsibility began. + +_Evolution of the Office._--The history of the democratization of the +archonship is beset with equal difficulty. In the early days, the +importance of the office (confined as it was to the highest class) must +have been immense; there was no audit, no written law, no executive +council. The popular assembly was ill-organized and probably summoned by +the archons themselves. The only control came from the Areopagus which +elected them and would generally be favourably disposed, and from the +fact that the military and civil powers were not vested in the same +hands. Although the institution of the popular courts by Solon had +within it the germ of democratic supremacy, it is clear that the +immediate result was small; thus, in the next decade _anarchia_ was +continuous and Damasias held the archonship for more than two years in +defiance of the new constitution; the prolonged dissension in this +matter shows that the office of archon still retained its supreme +importance. Gradually, however, the archonship lost its power, +especially in judicial matters, until it retained merely the right of +holding the preliminary investigation and the formal direction of the +popular courts. Its administrative powers, save those wielded by the +polemarch (see below and cf. STRATEGUS), dwindled away into matters of +routine. We know that Peisistratus ruled by controlling the archonship, +which was always held by members of his family, and the archonship of +Isagoras was clearly an important party victory; we know further the +names of three important men who held the office between Cleisthenes' +reform and the Persian War (Hipparchus, Themistocles (q.v.), Aristides) +from which we infer that the office was still the prize of party +competition. On the other hand, after 487 B.C. the list of archons +contains no name of importance. Presumably this is due to the growing +importance of the Strategus and to the institution of sortition (see +below), which, whether as cause or effect, is presumably by the 5th +century indicative of diminished importance. There can, on these +assumptions, be no doubt that, from the early years of the 5th century +B.C., the archonship was of practically no importance. Furthermore we +find that (probably after the Persian War) the office is thrown open to +the second class, and finally in 457 B.C. we meet an archon, +Mnesitheides, of the third, or Zeugite, class. Plutarch (_Aristides_, +22) says that after the great struggle of the Persian War Aristides +threw open the office to all the citizens. But in fact the members of +the fourth class were not formally admitted even in the 4th century +(though by a fiction they were allowed to pose for the time as +Zeugites). Furthermore it is not till 457 that even a Zeugite archon is +known, according to the _Constitution of Athens_ (_c_. 26), which dates +the change as five years after the death of Ephialtes and does not +connect it with Aristides. + +_Sortition._--The next question constitutes perhaps the most important +problem in Greek political development. At what date was election by +lot, or sortition, introduced for the archonship? From the _Constitution +of Athens_ (_c_. 22) we gather that from the fall of the Tyranny to 487 +B.C. the archons were [Greek: airetoi], not [Greek: klaerotoi] (i.e. +chosen by vote, not by lot), and that in 487, limited sortition was +introduced, whereby fifty candidates were elected by each tribe, and +from these the archons and their "secretary" were chosen by lot. But +against this must be set the statement by the same authority that this +double method was part of the Solonian reform. The solution of the +dilemma is a matter of inference. Three indications favour the former +view: (1) the "anarchia" which occurred so often between Solon and +Peisistratus shows that the office was at that time a question of party +(i.e. elective); (2) the statement that Solon invented sortition for the +office is put as the basis of a comparison ([Greek: othen, saemeion]) +and, therefore, may fairly be regarded as a hypothesis; (3) there is no +indication that the change made in 487 B.C. was a return to an obsolete +method, and on the same argument it is odd that Solon's alleged system +should not have been revived at the end of the Tyranny. On the other +hand Herodotus (vi. 109) states that, in 490, before the battle of +Marathon, the polemarch was chosen by lot. If this be true, it follows +that the office of polemarch must have lost its military importance, +which was not the case, inasmuch as the polemarch at Marathon gave the +casting vote in favour of immediate battle. Whether, therefore, Solon or +Aristides was the first to introduce sortition, it is perfectly clear +that the lot was not used between the Tyranny and 487 B.C. and that +after 487 the lot was always used (see J.E. Sandys, _Constitution of +Athens_ c. 8 note 1, c. 22 S 5, note); in fact, at a date not known the +mixed system of Aristides gave place to double sortition, in which the +first nomination also was by lot. To enter here into the theory of the +lot is impossible. It should, however, be observed that in the somewhat +material atmosphere of constitutional Athens the religious significance +of the lot had vanished; no important office in the 5th and 4th +centuries was entrusted to its decision. The real effect of sortition +was to equalize the chances of rich and poor without civil strife. Now +it is perfectly clear that it could not have been this object which +impelled Solon to introduce sortition; for in his time the archonship +was not open to the lower classes, and, therefore, election was more +democratic than sortition, whereas later the case was reversed. It +should further be mentioned that, before the discovery of the +Aristotelian _Constitution_ in 1891, Grote, C.F. Hermann, Busolt and +others had maintained that the lot was not used in Athens before the +time of Cleisthenes; and in spite of the treatise, it must be admitted +that there is no satisfactory evidence, historical or inferential, that +their theory was unsound. + +_Qualifications and Functions._--It remains to give a brief analysis of +the qualifications and functions of the archons after the year 487 B.C. +After election (in the time of Aristotle in the month Anthesterion; in +the 3rd century in Munychion) a short time had to elapse before entering +on office to allow of the _dokimasia_ (examination of fitness). In this +the whole life of the nominee was investigated, and each had to prove +that he was physically without flaw. Failure to pass the scrutiny +involved a certain loss of civic rights (e.g. that of addressing the +people). The successful candidate had to take an oath to the people +(that he would not take bribes, &c.) and to go through certain +preliminary rites. Any citizen could bring an impeachment (_eisangelia_) +against the archons. Any delinquency involved a trial before the +Heliaea. Finally an examination took place at the end of the year of +office, when each archon had to answer for his actions with person and +possessions; till then he could not leave the country, be adopted into +another family, dispose of his property, nor receive any "crown of +honour." A similar investigation took place with regard to the assessors +(_paredri_) whom the three senior archons chose to assist them. The +archons at the end of their year of office (some say on entering upon +office) became members of the Areopagus, which was, therefore, a body +composed of ex-archons of tried probity and wisdom. The archons as a +body retained some duties such as the appointment of jurymen, the +sortition of the _athlothetae_, &c. (but see Gilbert's _Antiquities_, +Eng. trans., p. 251, n. 1). On entering upon office the archon (_archon +eponymus_) made proclamation by his herald that he would not interfere +with private property. His official residence was the Prytaneum where he +presided over all questions of family, e.g. the protection of parents +against children and _vice versa_, protection of widows, wardship of +heiresses and orphans, divorce; in religious matters he superintended +the Dionysia, the Thargelia, the processions in honour of Zeus the +Saviour and Asclepius. The archon basileus superintended the holy +places, the mysteries, the Lampadephoria (Torch race), &c., questions of +national religion and certain cases of bloodguiltiness. His official +residence was the Stoa Basileios, and his wife, as officially +representing the wife of Dionysus, was called Basilinna. The polemarch, +who was at any rate titular commander down to about 487 B.C. (see above; +and Herod, vi. 109, [Greek: hendekatos psaephidophoros]), became in the +5th century a sort of consul who watched over the rights of resident +aliens (_metoeci_) in their family and legal affairs. He offered +sacrifices to Artemis Agrotera and Enyalios, superintended _epitaphia_ +and arranged for the annual honours paid to the tyrannicides. His +official residence was the Epilyceum (formerly called the +Polemarcheion). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.-G. Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities_ (Eng. trans., + 1895); Eduard Meyer's _Geschichte des Alterthums_, ii. sect. 228; + A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional Hist._ (1895); + J.W. Headlam, _Election by Lot in Athens_ (Camb., 1891); and + authorities quoted under GREECE: _History, ancient_, and ATHENS: + _History_. (J. M. M.) + + + + +ARCHPRIEST (Lat. _archipresbyter_, Gr. [Greek: archipresbyteros]), in +the Christian Church, originally the title of the chief of the priests +in a diocese. The office appears as early as the 4th century as that of +the priest who presided over the presbyters of the diocese and assisted +the bishop in matters of public worship, much as the archdeacon helped +him in administrative affairs. Where, as in Germany, the dioceses were +of vast extent, these were divided into several archpresbyterates. Out +of these developed the rural deaneries, the office of archpriest being +ultimately merged in that of rural dean, with which it became +synonymous. It thus became strictly subordinate to the jurisdiction of +the archdeacon. In Rome itself, as the office of archdeacon grew into +that of cardinal-camerlengo, so that of archpriest of St Peter's +developed into that of the cardinal-vicar. In England from 1598 until +the appointment of a vicar-apostolic in 1623 the Roman Catholic clergy +were placed by the pope under an "archpriest" as superior of the English +mission. In the Lutheran Church in Germany the title archpriest +(_Erzpriester_) was in some cases long retained as the equivalent of +that of superintendent, sometimes also still called dean (_Dechant_), +his functions being much the same as those of the rural dean. + + + + +ARCHYTAS (c. 428-347 B.C.), of Tarentum, Greek philosopher and scientist +of the Pythagorean school, famous as the intimate friend of Plato, was +the son of Mnesagoras or Histiaeus. Equally distinguished in natural +science, philosophy and the administration of civic affairs, he takes a +high place among the versatile savants of the ancient Greek world. He +was a man of high character and benevolent disposition, a fine +flute-player, and a generous master to his slaves, for whose children he +invented the rattle. He took a prominent part in state affairs, and, +contrary to precedent, was seven times elected commander of the army. +Under his leadership, Tarentum fought with unvarying success against the +Messapii, Lucania and even Syracuse. After a life of high intellectual +achievement and uninterrupted public service, he was drowned (according +to a tradition suggested by Horace, _Odes_, i. 28) on a voyage across +the Adriatic, and was buried, as we are told, at Matinum in Apulia. He +is described as the eighth leader of the Pythagorean school, and was a +pupil (not the teacher, as some have maintained) of Philolaus. In +mathematics, he was the first to draw up a methodical treatment of +mechanics with the aid of geometry; he first distinguished harmonic +progression from arithmetical and geometrical progressions. As a +geometer he is classed by Eudemus, the greatest ancient authority, among +those who "have enriched the science with original theorems, and given +it a really sound arrangement." He evolved an ingenious solution of the +duplication of the cube, which shows considerable knowledge of the +generation of cylinders and cones. The theory of proportion, and the +study of acoustics and music were considerably advanced by his +investigations. He was said to be the inventor of a kind of +flying-machine, a wooden pigeon balanced by a weight suspended from a +pulley, and set in motion by compressed air escaping from a valve.[1] +Fragments of his ethical and metaphysical writings are quoted by +Stobaeus, Simplicius and others. To portions of these Aristotle has been +supposed to have been indebted for his doctrine of the categories and +some of his chief ethical theories. It is, however, certain that these +fragments are mainly forgeries, attributable to the eclecticism of the +1st or 2nd century A.D., of which the chief characteristic was a desire +to father later doctrines on the old masters. Such fragments as seem to +be authentic are of small philosophical value. It is important to notice +that Archytas must have been famous as a philosopher, inasmuch as +Aristotle wrote a special treatise (not extant) _On the Philosophy of +Archytas_. Some positive idea of his speculations may be derived from +two of his observations: the one in which he notices that the parts of +animals and plants are in general rounded in form, and the other dealing +with the sense of hearing, which, in virtue of its limited receptivity, +he compares with vessels, which when filled can hold no more. Two +important principles are illustrated by these thoughts, (1) that there +is no absolute distinction between the organic and the inorganic, and +(2) that the argument from final causes is no explanation of phenomena. +Archytas may be quoted as an example of Plato's perfect ruler, the +philosopher-king, who combines practical sagacity with high character +and philosophic insight. + + See G. Hartenstein, _De Arch. Tar. frag._ (Leipzig, 1833); O.F. + Gruppe, _Uber d. Frag. d. Arch._ (1840); F. Beckmann, _De Pythag. + reliq._ (Berlin, 1844, 1850); Egger, _De Arch. Tar. vit., op. phil._; + Ed. Zeller, _Phil. d. Griech._; Theodor Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_, ii. + 259 (Eng. trans. G.G. Berry, Lond., 1905); G.J. Allman, _Greek + Geometry from Thales to Euclid_ (1889); Florian Cajori, _History of + Mathematics_ (New York, 1894); M. Cantor, _Gesch. d. gr. Math._ (1894 + foll.). The mathematical fragments are collected by Fr. Blass, + _Melanges Graux_ (Paris, 1884). For Pythagorean mathematics see + further PYTHAGORAS. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] If this be the proper translation of Aulus Gellius, _Noctes + Atticae_, x. 12., 9, " ... simulacrum columbae e ligno ... factum; ita + erat scilicet libramentis suspensum et aura spiritus inclusa atque + occulta concitum." (See AERONAUTICS.) + + + + +ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Aube, on the left bank of the Aube, 23 m. N. of +Troyes on the Eastern railway to Chalons-sur-Marne. Pop. (1906) 2803. +Fires in 1719, 1727 and 1814 destroyed the ancient buildings, and it is +now a town built in modern style with wide and regular streets. A +chateau of the 18th century occupies the site of an older one in which +Diana of Poitiers, mistress of Henry II., resided. The only other +building of interest is the church, which dates from the 15th century. +In front of it there is a statue of Danton, a native of the town. +Arcis-sur-Aube has a tribunal of first instance. Its industries include +important hosiery manufactures, and it carries on trade in grain and +coal. The town communicates with Paris by means of the Aube, which +becomes navigable at this point. + +A battle was fought here on the 20th and 21st of March 1814 between +Napoleon and the Austro-Russian army under Schwarzenberg (see NAPOLEONIC +CAMPAIGNS). + + + + +ARCOLA, a village of northern Italy, 16 m. E.S.E. of Verona, on the +Alpone stream, near its confluence with the Adige below Verona. The +village gives its name to the three days' battle of Arcola (15th, 16th +and 17th of November 1796), in which the French, under General Napoleon +Bonaparte, defeated the Austrians commanded by Allvintzy (see FRENCH +REVOLUTIONARY WARS). + + + + +ARCOS DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of +Cadiz; on the right bank of the river Guadalete, which flows past Santa +Maria into the Bay of Cadiz. Pop. (1900) 13,926. The town occupies a +ridge of sandstone, washed on three sides by the river, and commanding +fine views of the lofty peak of San Cristobal, on the east, and the +fertile Guadalete valley, celebrated in ancient Spanish ballads for its +horses. At the highest point of the ridge is a Gothic church with a fine +gateway, and a modern tower overlooking the town. The fame of its ten +bells dates from the wars between Spaniards and Moors in which "Arcos of +the Frontier" received its name. After its capture by Alphonso the Wise +of Castile (1252-1284), the town was a Christian stronghold on the +borders of Moorish territory. Another church contains several Moorish +banners, taken in 1483 at the battle of Zahara, a neighbouring village. +The ruined citadel, the theatre, and the palace of the dukes of Arcos +are the only other noteworthy buildings. Roman remains have been found +in the vicinity, and the ridge of Arcos is honeycombed with rock-hewn +chambers, said to be ancient cave-dwellings. + + See _Galeria de Arcobricenses illustres_ (Arcos, 1892), and _Riqueza y + cultura de Arcos de la Frontera_ (Arcos, 1898); both by M. Mancheno y + Olivares. + + + + +ARCOSOLIUM (from Lat. _arcus_, arch, and _solium_, a sarcophagus), an +architectural term applied to an arched recess used as a burial place in +a catacomb (q.v.). + + + + +ARCOT, the name of a city and two districts of British India in the +presidency of Madras. Arcot city is the principal town in the district +of North Arcot. It occupies a very prominent place in the history of the +British conquest of India, but it has now lost its manufactures and +trade and preserves only a few mosques and tombs as traces of its former +grandeur. It is a station on the line of railway from Madras to Beypur, +but has ceased to be a military cantonment. The most famous episode in +its history is the capture and defence of Arcot by Clive. In the middle +of the 18th century, during the war between the rival claimants to the +throne of the Carnatic, Mahommed Ali and Chanda Sahib, the English +supported the claims of the former and the French those of the latter. +In order to divert the attention of Chanda Sahib and his French +auxiliaries from the siege of Trichinopoly, Clive suggested an attack +upon Arcot and offered to command the expedition. His offer was +accepted; but the only force which could be spared to him was 200 +Europeans and 300 native troops to attack a fort garrisoned by 1100 men. +The place, however, was abandoned without a struggle and Clive took +possession of the fortress. The expedition produced the desired effect; +Chanda Sahib was obliged to detach a large force of 10,000 men to +recapture the city, and the pressure on the English garrison at +Trichinopoly was removed. Arcot was afterwards captured by the French; +but in 1760 was retaken by Colonel Coote after the battle of Wandiwash. +It was also taken by Hyder Ali when that invader ravaged the Carnatic in +1780, and held by him for some time. The town of Arcot, together with +the whole of the territory of the Carnatic, passed into the hands of the +British in 1801, upon the formal resignation of the government by the +nawab, Azim-ud-daula, who received a liberal pension. + +The district of North Arcot is bounded on the N. by the districts of +Cuddapah and Nellore; on the E. by the district of Chingleput; on the S. +by the districts of South Arcot and Salem; and on the W. by the Mysore +territory. The area of North Arcot is 7386 sq. m., and the population in +1901 was 2,207,712, showing an increase of 4% in the decade. The aspect +of the country, in the eastern and southern parts, is flat and +uninteresting; but the western parts, where it runs along the foot of +the Eastern Ghats, as well as all the country northwards from Trivellam +to Tripali and the Karkambadi Pass, are mountainous, with an agreeable +diversity of scenery. The elevated platform in the west of the district +is comparatively cool, being 2000 ft. above the level of the sea, with a +mean maximum of the thermometer in the hottest weather of 88 deg. The +hills are composed principally of granite and syenite, and have little +vegetation. Patches of stunted jungle here and there diversify their +rugged and barren aspect; but they abound in minerals, especially copper +and iron ores. The narrow valleys between the hills are very fertile, +having a rich soil and an abundant water-supply even in the driest +seasons. The principal river in the district is the Palar, which rises +in Mysore, and flows through North Arcot from west to east past the +towns of Vellore and Arcot, into the neighbouring district of +Chingleput, eventually falling into the sea at Sadras. Although a +considerable stream in the rainy season, and often impassable, the bed +is dry or nearly so during the rest of the year. Other smaller rivers of +the district are the Paini, which passes near Chittore and falls into +the Palar, the Sonamukhi and the Chayaur. These streams are all dry +during the hot season, but in the rains they flow freely and replenish +the numerous tanks and irrigation channels. The administrative +headquarters are at Chittore, but the largest towns are Vellore (the +military station), Tirupati (a great religious centre), and Wallajapet +and Kalahasti (the two chief places of trade). + +The district of South Arcot is bounded on the N. by the districts of +North Arcot and Chingleput; on the E. by the French territory of +Pondicherry and the Bay of Bengal; on the S. by the British districts of +Tanjore and Trichinopoly; and on the W. by the British district of +Salem. It contains an area of 5217 sq. m.; and its population in 1901 +was 2,349,894, showing an increase of 9% in the decade. The aspect of +the district resembles that of other parts of the Coromandel coast. It +is low and sandy near the sea, and for the most part level till near the +western border, where ranges of hills form the boundary between this and +the neighbouring district of Salem. These ranges are in some parts about +5000 ft. high, with solitary hills scattered about the district. In the +western tracts, dense patches of jungle furnish covert to tigers, +leopards, bears and monkeys. The principal river is the Coleroon which +forms the southern boundary of the district, separating it from +Trichinopoly. This river is abundantly supplied with water during the +greater part of the year, and two irrigating channels distribute its +waters through the district. The other rivers are the Vellar, Pennar, +and Gadalum, all of which are used for irrigation purposes. Numerous +small irrigation channels lead off from them, by means of which a +considerable area of waste land has been brought under cultivation. +Under the East India Company, a commercial resident was stationed at +Cuddalore, and the Company's weavers were encouraged by many privileges. +The manufacture and export of native cloth have now been almost entirely +superseded by the introduction of European piece goods. The chief +seaport of the district of South Arcot is Cuddalore, close to the site +of Fort St David. The principal crops in both districts are rice, +millet, other food grains, oil-seeds and indigo. + + + + +ARCTIC (Gr. [Greek: harktos], the Bear, the northern constellation of +Ursa Major), the epithet applied to the region round the North Pole, +covering the area (both ocean and lands) where the characteristic polar +conditions of climate, &c., obtain. The Arctic Circle is drawn at 66 +deg. 30' N. (see POLAR REGIONS). + + + + +ARCTINUS, of Miletus, one of the earliest poets of Greece and +contributors to the epic cycle. He flourished probably about 744 B.C. +(Ol. 7). His poems are lost, but an idea of them can be gained from the +_Chrestomathy_ written by Proclus the Neo-Platonist of the 5th century +or by a grammarian of the same name in the time of the Antonines. The +_Aethiopis_ [Greek: Aithiopis], in five books, was so called from the +Aethiopian Memnon, who became the ally of the Trojans after the death of +Hector. As the opening shows, it took up the narrative from the close of +the _Iliad_. It begins with the famous deeds and death of the Amazon +Penthesileia, and concludes with the death and burial of Achilles and +the dispute between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms. The title thus only +applied to part of the poem. The _Sack of Troy_ ([Greek: Iliou Perois]) +gives the stories of the wooden horse, Sinon, and Laocoon, the capture +of the city, and the departure of the Greeks under the wrath of Athene +at the outrage of Ajax on Cassandra. The _Little Iliad_ ([Greek: Igias +mikra]) of Lesches formed the transition between the _Aethiopis_ and the +_Sack of Troy_. + + Kinkel, _Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_ (1877); Welcker, _Der epische + Cyclus_; Muller, _History of the Literature of Ancient Greece_; Lang, + _Homer and the Epic_ (1893); Monro, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_ + (1883); T.W. Allen in _Classical Quarterly_, April 1908, pp. 82 foll. + + + + +ARCTURUS, the brightest star in the northern hemisphere, situated in the +constellation Bootes (q.v.) in an almost direct line with the tail +([zeta] and [eta]) of the constellation Ursa Major (Great Bear); hence +its derivation from the Gr. [Greek: arktos], bear, and [Greek: ouros], +guard. Arcturus has been supposed to be referred to in various passages +of the Hebrew Bible; the Vulgate reads Arcturus for stars mentioned in +Job ix. 9, xxxvii. 9, xxxviii. 31, as well as Amos v. 8. Other versions, +as also modern authorities, have preferred, e.g., Orion, the Pleiades, +the Scorpion, the Great Bear (of. _Amos_ in the "International Critical +Comment" series, and G. Schiaparelli, _Astronomy in the O.T._, Eng. +trans., Oxford, 1905, ch. iv.). According to one of the Greek legends +about Arcas, son of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, he was killed by his father +and his flesh was served up in a banquet to Zeus, who was indignant at +the crime and restored him to life. Subsequently Arcas, when hunting, +chanced to pursue his mother Callisto, who had been transformed into a +bear, as far as the temple of Lycaean Zeus; to prevent the crime of +matricide Zeus transported them both to the heavens (Ovid, _Metam_. ii. +410), where Callisto became the constellation Ursa Major, and Areas the +star Arcturus (see LYCAON and CALLISTO). + + + + +ARCUEIL, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine, on the +Bievre, 2-1/2 m. N.E. of Sceaux on the railway from Paris to Limours. +Pop. (1906) 8660. The town has an interesting church dating from the +13th to the 15th century. It takes its name from a Roman aqueduct, the +_Arcus Juliani_ (Arculi), some traces of which still remain. In +1613-1624 a bridge-aqueduct over 1300 ft. long was constructed to convey +water from the spring of Rungis some 4 m. south of Arcueil, across the +Bievre to the Luxembourg palace in Paris. In 1868-1872 another +aqueduct, still longer, was superimposed above that of the 17th century, +forming part of the system conveying water from the river Vanne to +Paris. The two together reach a height of about 135 ft. Bleaching, and +the manufacture of bottle capsules, patent leather and other articles +are carried on at Arcueil; and there are important stone quarries. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 2, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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