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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:00:50 -0700 |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 4 + "Aram, Eugene" to "Arcueil" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 16, 2010 [EBook #34082] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2 SLICE 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME II SLICE IV<br /><br /> +Aram, Eugene to Arcueil</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">ARAM, EUGENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">ARCH, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">ARAMAIC LANGUAGES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">ARCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">ARANDA, PEDRO PABLO ABARCA DE BOLEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">ARCHAEOLOGY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">ARAN ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">ARCHAEOPTERYX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">ARANJUEZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">ARCHAISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">ARANY, JÁNOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">ARCHANGEL</a> (government of Russia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">ARAPAHO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">ARCHANGEL</a> (town of Russia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">ARARAT</a> (mountains)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">ARCHBALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">ARARAT</a> (town of Australia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">ARCHBISHOP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">ARAROBA POWDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">ARCHCHANCELLOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">ARAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">ARCHDEACON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">ARASON, JON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">ARCHDUKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">ARATOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">ARCHEAN SYSTEM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">ARATUS</a> (Greek statesman)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">ARATUS</a> (Greek didactic poet)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">ARCHELAUS</a> (king of Judaea)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">ARAUCANIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">ARCHELAUS</a> (king of Macedonia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">ARAUCANIANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">ARCHELAUS OF MILETUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">ARAUCARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELM VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">ARAUCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">ARCHER, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">ARAVALLI HILLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">ARCHERMUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">ARAWAK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">ARCHERY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">ARBACES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">ARCHES, COURT OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">ARBE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">ARCHESTRATUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">ARBELA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">ARCHIAC, ÉTIENNE JULES ADOLPHE DESMIER DE SAINT SIMON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">ARBER, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">ARCHIAS, AULUS LICINIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">ARBITRAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">ARCHIDAMUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">ARBITRATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">ARCHIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">ARCHILOCHUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">ARCHIMANDRITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">ARBOGAST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">ARCHIMEDES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">ARBOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">ARBOIS DE JUBAINVILLE, MARIE HENRI D’</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">ARCHIPELAGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">ARBOR DAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">ARCHIPPUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">ARBORETUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">ARCHITECTURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">ARBORICULTURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">ARCHITRAVE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">ARBOR VITAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">ARCHIVE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">ARBOS, FERNANDEZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">ARCHIVOLT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">ARBOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">ARCHIVOLT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">ARBROATH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">ARCHPRIEST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">ARBUTHNOT, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">ARCHYTAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">ARBUTHNOT, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">ARCIS-SUR-AUBE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">ARCACHON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">ARCOLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">ARCADE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">ARCOS DE LA FRONTERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">ARCADELT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">ARCOSOLIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">ARCADIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">ARCOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">ARCADIUS</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">ARCTIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">ARCADIUS</a> (Greek grammarian)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">ARCTINUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">ARCELLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">ARCTURUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">ARCESILAUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">ARCUEIL</a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span> </p> +<p><span class="bold">ARAM, EUGENE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1704-1759), English scholar, but more +famous as the murderer celebrated by Hood in his ballad, the +<i>Dream of Eugene Aram</i>, and by Bulwer Lytton in his romance +of <i>Eugene Aram</i>, was born of humble parents at Ramsgill, +Yorkshire, in 1704. He received little education at school, but +manifested an intense desire for learning. While still young, +he married and settled as a schoolmaster at Netherdale, and +during the years he spent there, he taught himself both Latin +and Greek. In 1734 he removed to Knaresborough, where he +remained as schoolmaster till 1745. In that year a man named +Daniel Clark, an intimate friend of Aram, after obtaining a considerable +quantity of goods from some of the tradesmen in the +town, suddenly disappeared. Suspicions of being concerned in +this swindling transaction fell upon Aram. His garden was +searched, and some of the goods found there. As, however, +there was not evidence sufficient to convict him of any crime, +he was discharged, and soon after set out for London, leaving +his wife behind. For several years he travelled through parts +of England, acting as usher in a number of schools, and settled +finally at Lynn, in Norfolk. During his travels he had amassed +considerable materials for a work he had projected on etymology, +to be entitled a <i>Comparative Lexicon of the English, Latin, Greek, +Hebrew and Celtic Languages</i>. He was undoubtedly an original +philologist, who realized, what was then not yet admitted by +scholars, the affinity of the Celtic language to the other languages +of Europe, and could dispute the then accepted belief that Latin +was derived from Greek. Aram’s writings show that he had +grasped the right idea on the subject of the Indo-European +character of the Celtic language, which was not established +till J.C. Prichard published his book, <i>Eastern Origin of the Celtic +Nations</i>, in 1831. But he was not destined to live in history as +the pioneer of a new philology. In February 1758 a skeleton +was dug up at Knaresborough, and some suspicion arose that +it might be Clark’s. Aram’s wife had more than once hinted +that her husband and a man named Houseman knew the secret +of Clark’s disappearance. Houseman was at once arrested and +confronted with the bones that had been found. He affirmed his +innocence, and, taking up one of the bones, said, “This is no +more Dan Clark’s bone than it is mine.” His manner in saying +this roused suspicion that he knew more of Clark’s disappearance +than he was willing to admit. He was again examined, and +confessed that he had been present at the murder of Clark by +Aram and another man, Terry, of whom nothing further is heard. +He also gave information as to the place where the body had been +buried in St Robert’s Cave, a well-known spot near Knaresborough. +A skeleton was dug up here, and Aram was immediately +arrested, and sent to York for trial. Houseman was +admitted as evidence against him. Aram conducted his own +defence, and did not attempt to overthrow Houseman’s evidence, +although there were some discrepancies in that; but made a +skilful attack on the fallibility of circumstantial evidence in +general, and particularly of evidence drawn from the discovery +of bones. He brought forward several instances where bones +had been found in caves, and tried to show that the bones found +in St Robert’s Cave were probably those of some hermit who +had taken up his abode there. He was found guilty, and condemned +to be executed on the 6th of August 1759, three days +after his trial. While in his cell he confessed his guilt, and threw +some light on the motives for his crime, by asserting that he had +discovered a criminal intimacy between Clark and his own wife. +On the night before his execution he made an unsuccessful +attempt at suicide by opening the veins in his arm.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAMAIC LANGUAGES,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a class of languages so called from +Aram, a geographical term, which in old Semitic usage designates +nearly the same districts as the Greek word Syria. Aram, +however, does not include Palestine, while it comprehends +Mesopotamia (Heb. Aram of two rivers), a region which the +Greeks frequently distinguish from Syria proper. Thus the +Aramaic languages may be geographically defined as the Semitic +dialects originally current in Mesopotamia and the regions +extending south-west from the Euphrates to Palestine. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Semitic Languages</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syriac</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Targum</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARANDA, PEDRO PABLO ABARCA DE BOLEA,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count of</span> +(1719-1798), Spanish minister and general, was born at the castle +of Siétamo, a lordship of his family near Huesca in Aragon, on the +1st of August 1719. The house of Abarca was very ancient, a +fact of which Don Pedro, who never forgot that he was a “rico +hombre” (noble) of Aragon, was deeply conscious. He was +educated partly at Bologna and partly at the military school +of Parma. In 1740 he entered the army as captain in the +regiment “Castilla,” of which his father was proprietary colonel. +On the death of his father he became colonel, and served in the +Italian campaigns of the War of the Austrian Succession. In +1749 he married Dońa Ana, daughter of the 9th duke of Hijar, +by whom he had one son, who died young, and a daughter. +During the following years he travelled and visited the camp +of Frederick the Great, whose system of drill he admired and +afterwards introduced into the Spanish army. After a short +period of diplomatic service in Portugal, where his exacting +temper made it impossible for him to agree with the premier, +Pombal, he returned to Madrid, was made a knight of the Golden +Fleece, and director-general of artillery—a post which he threw +up, together with his rank of lieutenant-general, because he +was not allowed to punish certain fraudulent contractors. The +king, Ferdinand VI., exiled him to his estates, but Charles III. +on his accession took him into favour. He was again employed +in diplomacy, and then appointed to command an army against +Portugal in 1763. In 1764 he was made governor of Valencia. +When in 1766 the king was driven from his capital in a riot, he +summoned Aranda to Madrid and made him president of the +council, and captain-general of New Castile. Until 1773 Aranda +was the most important minister in Spain. He restored order +and aided the king most materially in his work of administrative +reform. But his great achievements, which gave him a high +reputation throughout Europe with the philosophical and anti-clerical +parties, were his expulsion of the Jesuits, whom the +king considered responsible for the riot of 1766, and the active +part he took in the suppression of the order. Aranda had come +much under foreign influence by his education and his travels, +and had acquired the reputation of being a confirmed sceptic. +By Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists he was erected into a hero +from whom great things were expected. His ability, his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span> +remarkable capacity for work, and his popularity made him indispensable +to the king. But he was a trying servant, for his temper was captious +and his tongue sarcastic, while his aristocratic arrogance led him to +display an offensive contempt for the <i>golillas</i> (the stiff collars), as +he called the lawyers and public servants whom the king preferred to +choose as ministers, and +he permitted himself an amazing freedom of language with his +sovereign. At last Charles III. sent him as ambassador to Paris +in a disguised disgrace. Aranda held this position till 1787, but +in Paris he was chiefly known for his oddities of manner and +for perpetual wrangling with the French on small points of +etiquette. He resigned his post for private reasons. In the +reign of Charles IV., with whom he had been on familiar terms +during the life of the old king, he was for a very short time prime +minister in 1792. In reality he was merely used as a screen by +the queen Maria Louisa and her favourite Godoy. His open +sympathy with the French Revolution brought him into collision +with the violent reaction produced in Spain by the excesses of +the Jacobins, while his temper, which had become perfectly +uncontrollable with age, made him insufferable to the king. +After his removal from office he was imprisoned for a short time +at Granada, and was threatened with a trial by the Inquisition. +The proceedings did not go beyond the preliminary stage, and +Aranda died at Epila on the 9th of January 1798.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Don Jacobo de la Pezuela in the <i>Revista de Espańa</i>, vol. +xxv. (1872); Don Antonio M<span class="sp">a</span>. Fabié, in the <i>Diccionario general +de politica y administration</i> of Don E. Suarez Inclan (Madrid, +1868), vol. i.; M. Morel Fatio, <i>Études sur l’Espagne</i> (2nd +series, Paris, 1890).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAN ISLANDS,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> or <span class="sc">South Aran</span>, three islands lying across +Galway Bay, on the west coast of Ireland, in a south-easterly +direction, forming a kind of natural breakwater. They belong +to the county Galway, and their population in 1901 was 2863. +They are called respectively—beginning with the northernmost—Inishmore +(or Aranmore), the Great Island; Inishmaan, the +Middle Island; and Inisheer, the Eastern Island. The first +has an elevation of 354 ft., the second of 259, and the third of +202. Their formation is carboniferous limestone. These islands +are remarkable for a number of architectural remains of a very +early date. In Inishmore there stand, on a cliff 220 ft. high, large +remains of a circular cyclopean tower, called Dun-Aengus, +ascribed to the Fir-bolg or Belgae; or, individually, to the first +of three brothers, Aengus, Conchobar and Nil, who reached Aran +Islands from Scotland in the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> There are seven +other similar structures in the group. Inishmore also bears the +name of <i>Aran-na-naomh</i>, Aran-of-the-Saints, from the number +of religious recluses who took up their abode in it, and gave a +celebrity to the holy wells, altars and shrines, to which many +are still attracted. No less, indeed, than twenty buildings of +ecclesiastical or monastic character have been enumerated in +the three islands. On Inishmore are remains of the abbey of +Killenda. Christianity was introduced in the 5th century, and +Aran soon became one of the most famous island-resorts of +religious teachers and ascetics. The extraordinary fame of the +foundations here has been inferred from the inscription “VII. +Romani” on a stone in the church Teampull Brecain on Inishmore, +attributed to disciples from Rome. The total area of the +islands is 11,579 acres. The Congested Districts Board made +many efforts to improve the condition of the inhabitants, especially +by introducing better methods of fishing. A curing station +is established at Killeany, the harbour of Inishmore.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARANJUEZ<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (perhaps the ancient <i>Ara Jovis</i>), a town of central +Spain, in the province of Madrid, 30 m. S. of Madrid, on the left +bank of the river Tagus, at the junction of the main southern +railways to Madrid, and at the western terminus of the Aranjuez-Cuenca +railway. Pop. (1900) 12,670. Aranjuez occupies part +of a wide valley, about 1500 ft. above the sea. Its formal, +straight streets, crossing one another regularly at right angles, +and its uniform, two-storeyed houses were built in imitation of +the Dutch style, under the direction of Jerónimo, marquis de +Grimaldi (1716-1788), ambassador of Charles III. at the Hague. +A rapid in the Tagus, artificially converted into a weir, renders +irrigation easy, and has thus created an oasis in the midst of the +barren plateau of New Castile. On every side the town is surrounded +by royal parks and woods of sycamores, plane-trees +and elms, often of extraordinary size. The prevalence of the +dark English elms, first introduced into the country and planted +here by order of Philip II. (1527-1598), gives to the Aranjuez +district a character wholly distinct from that of other Spanish +landscapes; and at an early period, despite the unhealthy +climate, and especially the oppressive summer heat, which often +approaches 100° F., Aranjuez became a favourite residence of +the Spanish court. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the master +of the Order of Santiago had a country seat here, which passed, +along with the mastership, into the possession of the crown +of Spain in 1522. Its successive occupants, from the emperor +Charles V. (1500-1558) down to Ferdinand VII. (1784-1833), +modified it according to their respective tastes. The larger +palace was built by Pedro Caro for Philip V. (1683-1746), in the +French style of the period. It overlooks the Jardin de la Isla, a +beautiful garden laid out for Philip II. on an island in the +Tagus, which forms the scene of Schiller’s famous drama <i>Don +Carlos</i>. The Casa del Labrador, or Labourer’s Cottage, as it +is called, is a smaller palace built by Charles IV. in 1803, +and full of elaborate ornamentation. The chief local industry +is farming, and an annual fair is held in September for the sale +of live stock. Great attention is given to the rearing of horses +and mules, and the royal stud used to be remarkable for the +beauty of its cream-coloured breed. The treaty of 1772 between +France and Spain was concluded at Aranjuez, which afterwards +suffered severely from the French during the Peninsular War. +Here, also, in 1808, the insurrection broke out which ended in +the abdication of Charles IV.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a fuller description of Aranjuez see D.S. Vińas y Rey, <i>Aranjuez</i> +(Madrid, 1890); F. Nard, <i>Guia de Aranjuez, su historia y descripcion</i> +(Madrid, 1851), (illustrated); Alvarez de Quindos, <i>Descripcion +historica del real basque y casa de Aranjuez</i> (Madrid, 1804).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARANY, JÁNOS<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1817-1882), the greatest poet of Hungary +after Petöfi, was born at Nagy-Szalontá on the 2nd of March +1817, the son of György Arany and Sara Mégyeri; his people +were small Calvinist yeomen of noble origin, whose property +consisted of a rush-thatched cottage and a tiny plot of land. +An only son, late born, seeing no companions of his own age, +hearing nothing but the voices of his parents and the hymns +and prayers in the little Calvinist chapel, Arany grew up a grave +and gentle, but by no means an ignorant child. His precocity +was remarkable. At six years of age he went to school at +Szalontá, where he read everything he could lay his hands +upon in Hungarian and Latin. From 1832 to 1836 Arany was +a preceptor at Kis-Ujszállás and Debreczen, still a voracious +reader with a wider field before him, for he had by this time +taught himself French and German. Tiring of the monotony +of a scholastic life, he joined a troupe of travelling actors. The +hardships he suffered were as nothing compared with the pangs +of conscience which plagued him when he thought of the despair +of his father, who had meant to make a pastor of this prodigal +son, to whom both church and college now seemed for ever +closed. At last he borrowed sixpence from the stage-manager +and returned home, carrying all his property tied up in a handkerchief. +Shortly after his home-coming his mother died and his father became +stone-blind. Arany at once resolved that it +was his duty never to leave his father again, and a conrectorship +which he obtained at this time enabled them to live in modest +comfort. In 1840 he obtained a notaryship also, and the same +year married Juliana Ercsey, the penniless orphan daughter of +an advocate. The next few happy years were devoted to his +profession and a good deal of miscellaneous reading, especially +of Shakespeare (he learnt English in order to compare the +original with his well-thumbed German version) and Homer. +Meanwhile the reactionaries of Vienna were goading the Magyar +Liberals into revolt, and Arany found a safety-valve for his +growing indignation by composing a satirical poem in hexameters, +entitled “The Lost Constitution.” The Kisfaludy Society, the great +literary association of Hungary, about this time happened to +advertise a prize for the best satire on current +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span> +events. Arany sent in his work, and shortly afterwards was +awarded the 25-gulden prize (7th of February 1846) by the +society, which then advertised another prize for the best Magyar +epic poem. Arany won this also with his <i>Toldi</i> (the first part +of the present trilogy), and immediately found himself famous. +All eyes were instantly turned towards the poor country notary, +and Petöfi was the first to greet him as a brother. In February +of the following year Arany was elected a member of the Kisfaludy +Society. In the memorable year 1848 the people of +Szalontá elected him their deputy to the Hungarian parliament. +But neither now nor subsequently (1861, 1869) would he accept +a parliamentary mandate. He wrote many articles, however, +in the gazette <i>Népbarátja</i>, an organ of the Magyar government, +and served in the field as a national guard for eight or ten weeks. +In 1849 he was in the civil service of the revolutionary government, +and after the final catastrophe returned to his native +place, living as best he could on his small savings till 1850, when +Lajos Tisza, the father of Kálmán Tisza, the future prime +minister, invited him to his castle at Geszt to teach his son +Domokos the art of poetry. In the following year Arany was +elected professor of Hungarian literature and language at the +Nagy-Körös gymnasium. He also attempted to write another +epic poem, but the time was not favourable for such an undertaking. +The miserable condition of his country, and his own +very precarious situation, weighed heavily upon his sensitive +soul, and he suffered severely both in mind and body. On the +other hand reflection on past events made clear to him not only +the sufferings but the defects and follies of the national heroes, +and from henceforth, for the first time, we notice a bitterly +humorous vein in his writings. Thus <i>Bolond Istók</i>, the first +canto of which he completed in 1850, is full of sub-acrid merriment. +During his nine years’ residence at Nagy-Körös, Arany +first seriously turned his attention to the Magyar ballad, and +not only composed some of the most beautiful ballads in the +language, but wrote two priceless dissertations on the technique +of the ballad in general: “Something concerning assonance” +(1854), and “On Hungarian National Versification” (1856).</p> + +<p>When the Hungarian Academy opened its doors again after +a ten years’ cessation, Arany was elected a member (15th +of December 1858). On the 15th of July 1860 he was elected +director of the revived Kisfaludy Society, and went to Pest. +In November, the same year, he started <i>Szépirodalmi Figyelö</i>, +a monthly review better known by its later name, <i>Koszeru</i>, which +did much for Magyar criticism and literature. He also edited +the principal publications of the society, including its notable +translation of <i>Shakespeare’s Dramatic Works</i>, to which he contributed +the <i>Midsummer Night’s Dream</i> (1864), <i>Hamlet</i> and +<i>King John</i> (1867). The same year he won the Nádasdy prize +of the Academy with his poem “Death of Buda.” From 1865 +to 1879 he was the secretary of the Hungarian Academy.</p> + +<p>Domestic affliction, ill-health and his official duties made these +years comparatively unproductive, but he issued an edition of +his collected poems in 1867, and in 1880 won the Karácsonyi +prize with his translation of the <i>Comedies of Aristophanes</i> (1880). +In 1879 he completed his epic trilogy by publishing <i>The Love +of Toldi</i> and <i>Toldi’s Evening</i>, which were received with universal +enthusiasm. He died suddenly on the 24th of October 1882. +The first edition of his collected works, in 8 volumes, was published +in 1884-1885.</p> + +<p>Arany reformed Hungarian literature. Hitherto classical +and romantic successively, like other European literatures, he +first gave it a national direction. He compelled the poetry of +art to draw nearer to life and nature, extended its boundaries and +made it more generally intelligible and popular. He wrote not for +one class or school but for the whole nation. He introduced the +popular element into literature, but at the same time elevated +and ennobled it. What Petöfi had done for lyrical he did for +epic poetry. Yet there were great differences between them. +Petöfi was more subjective, more individual; Arany was more +objective and national. As a lyric poet Petöfi naturally gave +expression to present moods and feelings; as an epic poet Arany +plunged into the past. He took his standpoint on tradition. +His art was essentially rooted in the character of the whole +nation and its glorious history. His genius was unusually rich +and versatile; his artistic conscience always alert and sober. +His taste was extraordinarily developed and absolutely sure. +To say nothing of his other great qualities, he is certainly the +most artistic of all the Magyar poets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Posthumous Writings and Correspondence of Arany</i>, edited by +László Arany (Hung.), (Budapest, 1887-1889); article “Arany,” in +<i>A Pallas Nagy Lexikona</i>, Kot 2 (Budapest, 1893); Mór Gaal, <i>Life of +János Arany</i> (Hung.), (Budapest, 1898); L. Gyöngyösi, <i>János +Arany’s Life and Works</i> (Hung.), (Budapest, 1901). Translations +from Arany: <i>The Legend of the Wondrous Hunt</i> (canto 6 of <i>Buda’s +Death</i>), by D. Butler (London, 1881); <i>Toldi, počme en 12 chants</i> +(Paris, 1895); <i>Dichtungen</i> (Leipzig, 1880); <i>Konig Buda’s Tod</i> +(Leipzig, 1879); <i>Balladen</i> (Vienna, 1886).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAPAHO<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (possibly from the Pawnee for “trader”), a tribe +of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. They formerly +ranged over the central portion of the plains between the Platte +and Arkansas. They were a brave, warlike, predatory tribe. +With the Sioux and Cheyennes they waged unremitting warfare +upon the Utes. The southern divisions of the tribe were placed +(1867) on a reservation in the west of Indian Territory (now +Oklahoma), while the northern are in western Wyoming. The +southern section sold their reservations in 1892 and became +American citizens. The Arapahos number in all some 2000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indians, North American</a></span>; H.R. Schoolcraft, <i>History of the +Indian Tribes of the United States</i> (1851-1837, 6 vols.); <i>Handbook +of American Indians</i>, ed. F.W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARARAT<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Armen. <i>Massis</i>, Turk. <i>Egri Dagh</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “Painful +Mountain,” Pers. <i>Koh-i-Nuh</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “Mountain of Noah,”), the +name given to the culminating point of the Armenian plateau +which rises to a height of 17,000 ft. above the sea. The <i>massif</i> +of Ararat rises on the north and east out of the alluvial plain of +the Aras, here from 2500 ft. to 3000 ft. above the sea, and on the +south-west sinks into the plateau of Bayezid, about 4500 ft. It +is thus isolated on all sides but the north-west, where a <i>col</i> about +6900 ft. high connects it with a long ridge of volcanic mountains. +Out of the <i>massif</i> rise two peaks, “their bases confluent at a +height of 8800 ft., their summits about 7 m. apart.” The higher, +Great Ararat, is “a huge broad-shouldered mass, more of a dome +than a cone”; the lower, Little Ararat, 12,840 ft. on which the +territories of the tsar, the sultan, and the shah meet, is “an +elegant cone or pyramid, rising with steep, smooth, regular sides +into a comparatively sharp peak” (Bryce). On the north and +west the slopes of Great Ararat are covered with glittering fields +of unbroken <i>névé</i>. The only true glacier is on the north-east +side, at the bottom of a large chasm which runs into the +heart of the mountain. The great height of the snow-line, 14,000 +ft., is due to the small rainfall and the upward rush of dry +air from the plain of the Araxes. The middle zone of Ararat, +5000-11,500 ft., is covered with good pasture, the upper and +lower zones are for the most part sterile. Whether the tradition +which makes Ararat the resting-place of Noah’s Ark is of any +historical value or not, there is at least poetical fitness in the +hypothesis, inasmuch as this mountain is about equally distant +from the Black Sea and the Caspian, from the Mediterranean and +the Persian Gulf. Another tradition—accepted by the Kurds, +Syrians and Nestorians—fixes on Mount Judi, in the south of +Armenia, on the left bank of the Tigris, near Jezire, as the Ark’s +resting-place. There so-called genuine relics of the ark were +exhibited, and a monastery and mosque of commemoration +were built; but the monastery was destroyed by lightning +in 776 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and the tradition has declined in credit. Round +Mount Ararat, however, gather many traditions connected with +the Deluge. The garden of Eden is placed in the valley of the +Araxes; Marand is the burial-place of Noah’s wife; at Arghuri, +a village near the great chasm, was the spot where Noah planted +the first vineyard, and here were shown Noah’s vine and the +monastery of St James, until village and monastery were overwhelmed +by a fall of rock, ice and snow, shaken down by an +earthquake in 1840. According to the Babylonian account, the +resting-place of the Ark was “on the Mountain of Nizir,” which +some writers have identified with Mount Rowanduz, and others +with Mount Elburz, near Teheran.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span> </p> + +<p>From the Armenian plateau, Ararat rises in a graceful isolated +cone far into the region of perennial snow. It was long believed +by the Armenian monks that no one was permitted to reach the +“secret top” of Ararat with its sacred remains, but on the 27th +of September 1829, Dr. Johann Jacob Parrot (1792-1840) of +Dorpat, a German in the employment of Russia, set foot on the +“dome of eternal ice.” Ararat has since been ascended by +S. Aftonomov (1834 and 1843); M. Wagner and W.H. Abich +(1845); J. Chodzko, N.W. Chanykov, P.H. Moritz and a party +of Cossacks in the service of the Russian government (1850); +Stuart (1856); Monteith (1856); D.W. Freshfield (1868); +James Bryce (1876); A.V. Markov (1888); P. Pashtukhov and +H.B. Lynch (1893). Mr Freshfield thus described the mountain:—“It +stands perfectly isolated from all the other ranges, +with the still more perfect cone of Little Ararat (a typical +volcano) at its side. Seen thus early in the season (May), with +at least 9000 ft. of snow on its slopes, from a distance and height +well calculated to permit the eye to take in its true proportions, +we agreed that no single mountain we know presented such a +magnificent and impressive appearance as the Armenian Giant.” +There are a number of glaciers in the upper portion, and the +climate of the whole district is very severe. The greater part of the +mountain is destitute of trees, but the lower Ararat is clothed with +birches. The fauna and flora are both comparatively meagre.</p> + +<p>Both Great and Little Ararat consist entirely of volcanic rocks, +chiefly andesites and pyroxene andesites, with some obsidian. No +crater now exists at the summit of either, but well-formed parasitic +cones occur upon their flanks. There are no certain historic +records of any eruption. The earthquake and fall of rock which +destroyed the village of Arghuri in 1840 may have been caused +by a volcanic explosion, but the evidence is unsatisfactory.</p> + +<p>The name of Ararat also applies to the Assyrian <i>Urardhu</i>, the +country in which the Ark rested after the Deluge (Gen. viii. 4), +and to which the murderers of Sennacherib fled (2 Kings xix. 37; +Isaiah xxxvii. 38). The name Urardhu, originally that of a +principality which included Mount Ararat and the plain of the +Araxes, is given in Assyrian inscriptions from the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +downwards to a kingdom that at one time included the greater +part of the later Armenia. The native name of the kingdom was +<i>Biainas</i>, and its capital was <i>Dhuspas</i>, now Van. The first king, +Sarduris I. (<i>c.</i> 833 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), subdued the country of the Upper +Euphrates and Tigris. His inscriptions are written in cuneiform, +in Assyrian, whilst those of his successors are in cuneiform, +in their own language, which is neither Aryan nor Semitic. The +kings of Biainas extended their kingdom eastward and westward, +and defeated the Assyrians and Hittites. But Sarduris II. was +overthrown by Tiglath Pileser III. (743 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and driven north of +the Araxes, where he made Armavir, <i>Armauria</i>, his capital. +Interesting specimens of Biainian art have been found on the site +of the palace of Rusas II., near Van. Shortly after 645 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the +kingdom fell, possibly conquered by Cyaxares, and a way was +thus opened for the immigration of the Aryan Armenians. The +name Ararat is unknown to the Armenians of the present day. +The limits of the Biblical Ararat are not known, but they must +have included the lofty Armenian plateau which overlooks the +plain of the Araxes on the north, and that of Mesopotamia on +the south. It is only natural that the highest and most striking +mountain in the district should have been regarded as that upon +which the Ark rested, and that the old name of the country +should have been transferred to it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also H.B. Lynch, <i>Armenia</i> (1901); Sayce, “Cuneiform +Inscriptions of Lake Van,” in <i>Journal of Royal Asiatic Society</i>, vols. +xiv., xx. and xxvi.; Maspero, <i>Histoire ancienne des peuples de +l’Orient classique</i>, tome iii., <i>Les Empires</i> (Paris, 1899); J. Bryce, +<i>Transcaucasia and Ararat</i> (4th ed., 1896); D.W. Freshfield, <i>Travels +in the Central Caucasus and Bashan</i> (1869); Parrot, <i>Reise zum +Ararat</i> (1834); Wagner, <i>Reise nach dem Ararat</i> (1848); Abich, <i>Die +Besteigung des Ararat</i> (1849); articles “Ararat,” in Hastings’ +<i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>, and the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. W. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARARAT,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a municipal town of Ripon county, Victoria, +Australia, 130 m. by rail W.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) +3580. It lies at an elevation of 1028 ft. towards the western +extremity of the Great Dividing range. It is the commercial +centre of the north-western grain and wool-producing district +and is also noted for its quartz and alluvial gold-mines. Excellent +wine is made, and flour-milling, leather-working, brick and candle +making and soap-boiling are the chief industries. The district +also yields the best timber in great quantity. Granite, bluestone, +limestone and slate abound in the neighbourhood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAROBA POWDER,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a drug occurring in the form of a +yellowish-brown powder, varying considerably in tint, which +derives an alternative name—Goa powder—from the Portuguese +colony of Goa, where it appears to have been introduced about +the year 1852. The tree which yields it is the <i>Andira Araroba</i> +of the natural order Leguminosae. It is met with in great abundance +in certain forests in the province of Bahia, preferring as a +rule low and humid spots. The tree is from 80 to 100 ft. high +and has large imparipinnate leaves, the leaflets of which are +oblong, about 1˝ in. long and ž in. broad, and somewhat truncate +at the apex. The flowers are papilionaceous, of a purple colour +and arranged in panicles. The Goa powder or araroba is contained +in the trunk, filling crevices in the heartwood. It is a +morbid product in the tree, and yields to hot chloroform 50% +of a substance known officially as chrysarobin, which has a +definite therapeutic value and is contained in most modern +pharmacopoeias. It occurs as a micro-crystalline, odourless, +tasteless powder, very slightly soluble in either water or alcohol; +it also occurs in rhubarb root. This complex mixture contains +pure chrysarobin (C<span class="su">15</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">3</span>), di-chrysarobin methylether +(C<span class="su">30</span>H<span class="su">23</span>O<span class="su">7</span>ˇOCH<span class="su">3</span>), di-chrysarobin (C<span class="su">30</span>H<span class="su">24</span>O<span class="su">7</span>). Chrysarobin is a +methyl trioxyanthracene and exists as a glucoside in the plant, +but is gradually oxidized to chrysophanic acid (a dioxy-methyl +anthraquinone) and glucose. This strikes a blood-red colour in +alkaline solutions, and may therefore cause much alarm if +administered to a patient whose urine is alkaline. The British +pharmacopoeia has an ointment containing one part of chrysarobin +and 24 of benzoated lard.</p> + +<p>Both internally and externally the drug is a powerful irritant. +The general practice amongst modern dermatologists is to use +only chrysophanic acid, which may be applied externally and +given by the mouth in doses of about one grain in cases of +psoriasis and chronic eczema. The drug is a feeble parasiticide, +and has been used locally in the treatment of ringworm. It +stains the skin—and linen—a deep yellow or brown, a coloration +which may be removed by caustic alkali in weak solution.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAS,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> the anc. <i>Araxes</i>, and the <i>Phasis</i> of Xenophon (Turk. +and Arab. <i>Ras</i>, Armen. <i>Yerash</i>, Georg. <i>Rashki</i>), a river which +rises south of Erzerum, in the Bingeul-dagh, and flows east +through the province of Erzerum, across the Pasin plateau, +and then through Russian Armenia, passing between Mount +Ararat and Erivan, and forming the Russo-Persian frontier. +Its course is about 600 m. long; its principal tributary is the +Zanga, which flows by Erivan and drains Lake Gokcha or +Sevanga. It is a rapid and muddy stream, dangerous to cross +when swollen by the melting of the snows in Armenia, but +fordable in its ordinary state. It formerly joined the Kura; +but in 1897 it changed its lower course, and now runs direct +to the Kizil-agach Bay of the Caspian. On an island in its bed +stood Artaxata, the capital of Armenia from 180 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 50.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARASON, JON<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1484-1551), Icelandic bishop and poet, +became a priest about 1504, and having attracted the notice +of Gottskalk, bishop of Holar, was sent by that prelate on two +missions to Norway. In 1522 he succeeded Gottskalk in the +see of Holar, but he was soon driven out by the other Icelandic +bishop, Ogmund of Skalholt. His exile, however, was brief, and +some years after his return he became involved in a dispute +with his sovereign, Christian III., king of Denmark, because +he refused to further the progress of Lutheranism in the island. +Then in 1548, when a large number of the islanders had accepted +the reformed doctrines, Arason and Ogmund joined their forces +and attacked the Lutherans. Civil war broke out, and in 1551 +the bishop of Holar and two of his sons were captured and +executed. Arason, who was the last Roman Catholic bishop in +Iceland, is celebrated as a poet, and as the man who introduced +printing into the island.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span> </p> +<p><span class="bold">ARATOR,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> of Liguria, a Christian poet, who lived during the +6th century. He was an orphan, and owed his early education +to Laurentius, archbishop of Milan, and Ennodius, bishop of Pavia, +who took great interest in him. After completing his studies, he +practised with success as an advocate, and was appointed to an +influential post at the court of Athalaric, king of the Ostrogoths. +About 540, he quitted the service of the state, took orders and +was elected sub-deacon of the Roman Church. He gained the +favour of Pope Vigilius, to whom he dedicated his <i>De Actibus +Aposlolorum</i> (written about 544), which was much admired +in the middle ages. The poem, consisting of some 2500 hexameters, +is of little merit, being full of mystical and allegorical +interpretations and long-winded digressions; the versification, +except for certain eccentricities in prosody, is generally correct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Text by Hübner, 1850. See Leimbach, “Der Dichter Arator,” in +<i>Theologische Studien und Kritik</i> (1873); Manitius, <i>Geschichte der +christlich-lateinischen Poesie</i> (1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARATUS,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> Greek statesman, was born at Sicyon in 271 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and educated at Argos after the death of his father, at the hands +of Abantidas, tyrant of Sicyon. When twenty years old Aratus +delivered Sicyon from its tyrant by a bold <i>coup de main</i>. By +enrolling it in the Achaean League (<i>q.v.</i>) he secured it against +Macedonia, and with funds received from Ptolemy Philadelphus +he pacified the returned exiles. Ever anxious to extend the +league, in which after 245 he was general almost every second +year, Aratus took Corinth by surprise (243), and with mingled +threats and persuasion won over other cities, notably Megalopolis +(233) and Argos (229), whose tyrants abdicated voluntarily. +He fought successfully against the Aetolians (241), and in 228 +induced the Macedonian commander to evacuate Attica. But +when Cleomenes III. (<i>q.v.</i>) opened hostilities, Aratus sustained +several reverses, and was badly defeated near Dyme (226 or 225). +Rather than admit Cleomenes as chief of the league, where he +might have upset the existing timocracy, Aratus opposed all +attempts at mediation. As plenipotentiary in 224 he called +in Antigonus Doson of Macedonia, and helped to recover Corinth +and Argos and to crush Cleomenes at Sellasia, but at the same +time sacrificed the independence of the league. In 220-219 the +Aetolians defeated him in Arcadia and harried the Peloponnese +unchecked. When Philip V. of Macedon came to expel these +marauders, Aratus became the king’s adviser, and averted a +treacherous attack on Messene (215); before long, however, he +lost favour and in 213 was poisoned. The Sicyonians accorded +him hero-worship as a “son of Asclepius.” To Aratus is due the +credit of having made the Achaean League an effective instrument +against tyrants and foreign enemies. But his military +incapacity and his blind hatred of democratic reform went far +to undo his work.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Polybius (ii.-viii.) follows the <i>Memoirs</i> which Aratus wrote to +justify his statesmanship,—Plutarch (<i>Aratus</i> and <i>Cleomenes</i>) used +this same source and the hostile account of Phylarchus; Paus. ii. +10; see Neumeyer, <i>Aralos von Sikyon</i> (Leipzig, 1886).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARATUS,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> of Soli in Cilicia, Greek didactic poet, a contemporary +of Callimachus and Theocritus, was born about 315 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +He was invited (about 276) to the court of Antigonus Gonatas +of Macedonia, where he wrote his most famous poem, <span class="grk" title="Phainomena">Φαινόμενα</span> +(Appearances, or Phenomena). He then spent some time with +Antiochus I. of Syria; but subsequently returned to Macedonia, +where he died about 245. Aratus’s only extant works are two +short poems, or two fragments of his one poem, written in +hexameters; an imitation of a prose work on astronomy by +Eudoxus of Cnidus, and <span class="grk" title="Diosaemeia">Διοσημεῖα</span> (on weather signs), chiefly +from Theophrastus. The work has all the characteristics of the +Alexandrian school of poetry. Although Aratus was ignorant +of astronomy, his poem attracted the favourable notice of +distinguished specialists, such as Hipparchus, who wrote commentaries +upon it. Amongst the Romans it enjoyed a high +reputation (Ovid, <i>Amores</i>, i. 15, 16). Cicero, Caesar Germanicus +and Avienus translated it; the two last versions and fragments of +Cicero’s are still extant. Quintilian (<i>Instit.</i> x. i, 55) is less +enthusiastic. Virgil has imitated the <i>Prognostica</i> to some extent +in the <i>Georgics</i>. One verse from the opening invocation to Zeus +has become famous from being quoted by St Paul (Acts xvii. 28). +Several accounts of his life are extant, by anonymous Greek +writers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editio princeps, 1499; Buhle, 1793; Maass, 1893; <i>Aratea</i> (1892), +<i>Commentariorum in Aratum Reliquiae</i> (1898), by the same. English +translations: Lamb, 1848; Poste, 1880; R. Brown, 1885; Prince, +1895. On recently discovered fragments, see H.I. Bell, in <i>Classical +Quarterly</i>, April 1907; also <i>Berliner Klassikertexte</i>, Heft v. 1, +pp. 47-54.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAUCANIA,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> the name of a large territory of Chile, South +America, S. of the Bio-bio river, belonging to the Araucanian +Indians (see below) at the time of their independence of Spanish +and Chilean authority. The loss of their political independence +has been followed by that of the greater part of their territory, +which has been divided up into the Chilean provinces of Arauco, +Bio-bio, Malleco and Cautin, and the Indians, much reduced in +number, now live in the wooded recesses of the three provinces +last named.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAUCANIANS<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Auca</span>), a tribal group of South American +Indians in southern Chile (see above). Physically a fine race, +their hardiness and bravery enabled them successfully to +resist the Incas in the 15th century. Their government was +by four <i>toquis</i> or princes, independent of one another, but +confederates against foreign enemies. Each tetrarchy was +divided into five provinces, ruled by five chiefs called <i>apo-ulmen</i>; +and each province into nine districts, governed by as many <i>ulmen</i>, +who were subject to the apo-ulmen, as the latter were to the +toquis. These various chiefs (who all bore the title of ulmen) +composed the aristocracy of the country. They held their +dignities by hereditary descent in the male line, and in the order +of primogeniture. The supreme power of each tetrarchy resided +in a council of the ulmen, who assembled annually in a large plain. +The resolutions of this council were subject to popular assent. +The chiefs, indeed, were little more than leaders in war; for the +right of private revenge limited their authority in judicial matters; +and they received no taxes. Their laws were merely traditional +customs. War was declared by the council, messengers bearing +arrows dipped in blood being sent to all parts of the country +to summon the men to arms. From the time of the first Spanish +invasion (1535) the Araucanians made a vigorous resistance, and +after worsting the best soldiers and the best generals of Spain for +two centuries obtained an acknowledgment of their independence. +Their success was due as much to their readiness in adopting +their enemy’s methods of warfare as to their bravery. Realizing +the inefficiency of their old missiles when opposed to musket +balls, they laid aside their bows, and armed themselves with +spears, swords or other weapons fitted for close combat. Their +practice was to advance rapidly within such a distance of the +Spaniards as would not leave the latter time to reload after +firing. Here they received without shrinking a volley, which was +certain to destroy a number of them, and then rushing forward +in close order, fought their enemies hand to hand.</p> + +<p>The Araucanians believe in a supreme being, and in many +subordinate spirits, good and bad. They believe also in omens +and divination, but they have neither temples nor idols, nor +religious rites. Very few have become Roman Catholics. They +believe in a future state, and have a confused tradition respecting +a deluge, from which some persons were saved on a high mountain. +They divide the year into twelve months of thirty days, and add +five days by intercalation. They esteem poetry and eloquence, +but can scarcely be induced to learn reading or writing.</p> + +<p>The tribal divisions have little or no organization. Some +50,000 in number, they spend a nomad existence wandering from +pasture to pasture, living in low skin tents, their herds providing +their food. They still preserve their warlike nature, though in +1870 they formally recognized Chilean rule. In 1861 Antoine de +Tounens (1820-1878), a French adventurer in Chile, proclaimed +himself king of Araucania under the title of Orélie Antoine I., +and tried to obtain subscriptions from France to support his +enterprise. But his pretensions were ludicrous; he was quickly +captured by the Chileans and sent back to France (1862) as a +madman; and though he made one more abortive effort in 1874 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span> +to recover his “kingdom,” and occupied his pen in magnifying +his achievements, nobody took him seriously except a few of the +deluded Indians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Domeyko, <i>Araucania y sus habitantes</i> (Santiago, 1846); de +Ginoux, “Le Chili et les Araucans,” in <i>Bull, de la soc, de géogr.</i> +(1852); E.R. Smith, <i>Araucamans</i> (New York, 1855); J.T. Medina, +<i>Los aborjenes de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1882); A. Polakowsky, <i>Die heutigen +Araukanen</i>, Globus No. 74 (Brunswick, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAUCARIA,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a genus of coniferous trees included in the tribe +<i>Araucarineae</i>. They are magnificent evergreen trees, with +apparently whorled branches, and stiff, flattened, pointed leaves, +found in Brazil and Chile, Polynesia and Australia. The name +of the genus is derived from Arauco, the name of the district in +southern Chile where the trees were first discovered. <i>Araucaria +imbricata</i>, the Chile pine, or “monkey puzzle,” was introduced +into Britain in 1796. It is largely cultivated, and usually stands +the winter of Britain; but in some years, when the temperature +fell very low, the trees have suffered much. Care should be +taken in planting to select a spot somewhat elevated and well +drained. The tree grows to the height of 150 ft. in the Cordilleras +of Chile. The cones are from 8 to 8˝ in. broad, and 7 to 7˝ in. long. +The wood of the tree is hard and durable. This is the only +species which can be cultivated in the open air in Britain. +<i>Araucaria brasiliana</i>, the Brazil pine, is a native of the mountains +of southern Brazil, and was introduced into Britain in 1819. +It is not so hardy as <i>A. imbricata</i>, and requires protection +during winter. It is grown in conservatories for half-hardy +plants. <i>Araucaria excelsa</i>, the Norfolk Island pine, a native of +Norfolk Island and New Caledonia, was discovered during +Captain Cook’s second voyage, and introduced into Britain by +Sir Joseph Banks in 1793. It cannot be grown in the open air +in Britain, as it requires protection from frost, and is more +tender than the Brazilian pine. It is a majestic tree, sometimes +attaining a height of more than 220 ft. The scales of its cones +are winged, and have a hook at the apex. <i>Araucaria Cunninghami</i>, +the Moreton Bay pine, is a tall tree abundant on the shores +of Moreton Bay, Australia, and found through the littoral region +of Queensland to Cape York Peninsula, also in New Guinea. +It requires protection in England during the winter. <i>Araucaria +Bidwilli</i>, the Bunya-Bunya pine, found on the mountains of +southern Queensland, between the rivers Brisbane and Burnett, +at 27° S. lat., is a noble tree, attaining a height of 100 to 150 ft., +with a straight trunk and white wood. It bears cones as large +as a man’s head. Its seeds are very large, and are used as food by +the natives. <i>Araucaria Rulei</i>, which is a tree of New Caledonia, +attains a height of 50 or 60 ft. <i>Araucaria Cookii</i>, also a native +of New Caledonia, attains a height of 150 ft. It is found also in +the Isle of Pines, and in the New Hebrides. The tree has a +remarkable appearance, due to shedding its primary branches +for about five-sixths of its height and replacing them by a small +bushy growth, the whole resembling a tall column crowned with +foliage, suggesting to its discoverer, Captain Cook, a tall column +of basalt.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAUCO,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a coast province of southern Chile, bounded N., E. +and S. by the provinces of Concepción, Bio-bio, Malleco and +Cautin. Area, 2458 sq. m.; pop. (est. 1902) 70,635. The +province originally covered the once independent Indian territory +of Araucania (<i>q.v.</i>), but this was afterwards divided into four +provinces. It is devoted largely to agricultural pursuits. The +capital Lebú (pop. in 1902, 3178) is situated on the coast about +55 m. south of Conceptión, with which it is connected by rail.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAVALLI HILLS,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a range of mountains in India, running +for 300 m. in a north-easterly direction, through the Rajputana +states and the British district of Ajmere-Merwara, situated +between 24° and 27° 10′ N. lat., and between 72° and 75° E. long. +They consist of a series of ridges and peaks, with a breadth +varying from 6 to 60 m. and an elevation of 1000 to 3000 ft., +the highest point being Mount Abu, rising to 5653 ft., near the +south-western extremity of the range. Geologically they belong +to the primitive formation—granite, compact dark blue slate, +gneiss and syenite. The dazzling white effect of their peaks is +produced, not by snow, as among the Himalayas, but by enormous +masses of vitreous rose-coloured quartz. On the north their +drainage forms the Luni and Sakhi rivers, which fall into the +Gulf of Cutch. To the south, their drainage supplies two distinct +river systems, one of which debouches in comparatively small +streams on the Gulf of Cambay, while the other unites to form +the Chambal river, a great southern tributary of the Jumna, +flowing thence via the Ganges, into the Bay of Bengal on the +other side of India. The Aravalli hills are for the most part bare +of cultivation, and even of jungle. Many of them are mere heaps +of sand and stone; others consist of huge masses of quartz. The +valleys between the ridges are generally sandy deserts, with an +occasional oasis of cultivation. At long intervals, however, a +fertile tract marks some great natural line of drainage, and +among such valleys Ajmere city, with its lake, stands conspicuous. +The hills are inhabited by a very sparse population of Mhairs, +an aboriginal race. For long these people formed a difficult +problem to the British government. Previously to the British +occupation of India they had been accustomed to live, almost +destitute of clothing, by the produce of their herds, by the chase +and by plunder. But Ajmere having been ceded to the East +India Company in 1818, the Mhair country was soon afterwards +brought under British influence, and the predatory instincts of +the people were at the same time controlled and utilized by +forming them into a Merwara battalion. As the peaceful results +of British rule developed, and the old feuds between the Mhairs +and their Rajput neighbours died out, the Mhair battalion was +transformed into a police force. The Aravalli mountaineers +strongly objected to this change, and pleaded a long period of +loyal usefulness to the state. They were accordingly again +erected into a military battalion and brought upon the roll of the +British army. Under Lord Kitchener’s scheme of 1903 they +were entitled the 50th Merwara Infantry. The Aravalli hills send +off rocky ridges in a north-easterly direction through the states +of Alwar and Jaipur, which from time to time reappear in the +form of isolated hills and broken rocky elevations to near Delhi.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAWAK<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (“meal-eaters,” in reference to cassava, their +staple food), a tribe of South American Indians of Dutch +and British Guiana. The Arawaks have given their name to a +linguistic stock of South America, the Arawakan, which includes +many once powerful tribes. The Arawakans were once numerous, +their tribes stretching from southern Brazil and Bolivia to Central +America, occupying the whole of the West Indies and having +settlements on the Florida seaboard. They were found by the +Spaniards in Haiti and possibly in the Bahamas, but the Caribs +had expelled them from most of the islands. The Arawaks +proper were physically an undersized, weakly people, peaceable +agriculturists, by far the most civilized of all Guiana peoples, +being skilful weavers and workers in stone and gold. The chief +tribes which may be called Arawakan are the Anti, Arawak, +Barre, Goajiro, Guana, Manaos, Maneteneri, Maipuri, Maranho, +Moxo, Passé, Piro and Taruma.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Everard F. im Thurn, <i>Among the Indians of Guiana</i> (London, +1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBACES,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> according to Ctesias (Diodor. ii. 24 ff. 32), one +of the generals of Sardanapalus, king of Assyria and founder of +the Median empire about 830 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But Ctesias’s whole history +of the Assyrian and Median empires is absolutely fabulous; +his Arbaces and his successors are not historical personages. +From the inscriptions of Sargon of Assyria we know one “Arbaku +Dynast of Arnashia” as one of forty-five chiefs of Median districts +who paid tribute to Sargon in 713 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Media</a></span>. (Ed. M.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBE<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (Serbo-Croatian <i>Rab</i>), an island in the Adriatic +Sea, forming the northernmost point of Dalmatia, Austria. +Pop. (1900) 4441. Arbe is 13 m. long; its greatest breadth +is 5 m. The capital, which bears the same name, is a walled +town, remarkable, even among the Dalmatian cities, for its +beauty. It occupies a steep ridge jutting out from the west +coast. At the seaward end of this promontory is the 13th-century +cathedral; behind which the belfries of four churches, +at least as ancient, rise in a row along the crest of the ridge; +while behind these, again, are the castle and a background of +desolate hills. Many of the houses are roofless and untenanted; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span> +for, after five centuries of prosperity under Venetian or Hungarian +rule, an outbreak of plague in 1456 swept away the majority +of the townsfolk, and ruined the survivors. Some of the old +palaces are, nevertheless, of considerable interest; one especially +as the birthplace of the celebrated philosopher, Marc Antonio +de Dominis. Fishing and agriculture constitute the chief resources +of the islanders, whose ancient silk industry is still +maintained. In 1018 the yearly tribute due to Venice was +fixed at ten pounds of silk or five pounds of gold.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBELA<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Arba‘il</span>, <i>i.e.</i> “Four-god-city”), an ancient town +in Adiabene, the capital in Assyrian and pre-Assyrian times +of the country between the greater and lesser Zab, and seat +of an important cult of Ishtar. The battle in which Alexander +overthrew Darius in 331 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, though named in the old books +after Arbela, was probably fought at Gaugamela, some 60 m. +away (Yorck von Wartenburg, <i>Kurze Übersicht der Feldzüge +A. des Gr.</i>). The modern town of Erbil or Arbil, in the vilayet +of Mosul, is about 40 m. from Mosul on the road to Bagdad. +The greater part of the town, which seems at one time to have +been very large, is situated on an artificial mound about 150 ft. +high. It became the seat of the Ayyubite sultan Saladin in 1184; +was bequeathed in 1233 to the caliphs of Bagdad; was plundered +by the Mongols in 1236 and in 1393 by Timur, and was taken +in 1732 by the Persians under Nadir Shah. In the 14th century +the Christians were almost exterminated. The population, which +varies from 2000 to 6000, is chiefly composed of Kurds.</p> + +<p>The ruins of another <span class="sc">Arbela</span> (Irbid, Beth-Arbel) in Palestine, +situated near the west shore of the Sea of Galilee, a little north +of its centre, are not in themselves of high interest, but the site +is noteworthy through its connexion with the neighbouring +caves in the lofty flank of the Wadi Hamam, above which Arbela +stood. These caves (called by the Arabs Kulat ibn Ma‘an) +are apparently natural, but were enlarged and fortified. They +were used by the inhabitants of Arbela as a place of refuge +from the army of Bacchides, general of Demetrius III., king of +Syria, and were the resort of bandits in the reign of Herod the +Great. He laid siege to them, and his men could only gain access +to the caves by being let down from above. The caves were +also fortified against the Romans by Josephus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBER, EDWARD<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1836-  ), English man of letters, +was born in London on the 4th of December 1836. From 1854 +to 1878 he was a clerk in the admiralty; from 1878 to 1881 +lecturer on English, under Prof. H. Morley, at University College; +and from 1881 to 1894 professor of English at Mason College, +Birmingham. From 1894 he lived in London as emeritus professor, +being also a fellow of King’s College. In 1905 he received +the honorary degree of D. Litt. at Oxford. He married in 1869, +and had two sons, one of them, E.A.N. Arber, becoming +demonstrator in palaeobotany at Cambridge. As a scholarly +editor Professor Arber’s services to English literature are memorable. +His name is associated particularly with the series of +“English Reprints” (1868-1880), by which an accurate text of +the works of many English authors, formerly only accessible in +rare or expensive editions, was placed within reach of the +general public. Among the thirty volumes of the series were +Gosson’s <i>School of Abuse</i>, Ascham’s <i>Toxophilus</i>, <i>Tottel’s Miscellany</i>, +Naunton’s <i>Fragmenta Regalia</i>, &c. It was followed by +the “English Scholar’s Library” (16 vols.) which included the +<i>Works</i> (1884) of Captain John Smith, governor of Virginia, and +the <i>Poems</i> (1882) of Richard Barnfield. In his <i>English Garner</i> +(8 vols. 1877-1896) he made an admirable collection of rare old +tracts and poems; in 1899-1901 he issued <i>British Anthologies</i> +(10 vols.), and in 1907 began a series called <i>A Christian Library</i>. +He also accomplished single-handed the editing of two vast, and +invaluable, English bibliographies: <i>A Transcript of the Registers +of the Stationers’ Company, 1553-1640</i> (1875-1894), and <i>The +Term Catalogues, 1668-1709; with a number for Easter Term +1711</i> (1904-1906), edited from the quarterly lists of the booksellers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBITRAGE,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> the term applied to the system of equalizing +prices in different commercial centres by buying in the cheaper +market and selling in the dearer. These transactions, or their +converse, are mainly confined to stocks and shares, foreign +exchanges and bullion; and are for the most part carried on +between London and other European capitals and largely with +New York. When prices in London are affected by financial or +political causes, all other markets are sooner or later influenced, +as London is the banking and financial centre for the commerce +of the world. It may, however, also occur that some local event +of importance initiates a rise or fall in a particular market which +must ultimately affect other countries. For instance, a crisis +in France would immediately depress all French securities, and +by exciting the fears of capitalists would stimulate transfers +of funds and raise all the exchanges against France.</p> + +<p>In ordinary times those engaged in arbitrage operate with a +very small margin of profit. The great improvement in postal, +telegraphic and telephonic communication enables operators +to close transactions with amazing rapidity, while competition +reduces the margin of profit to a minimum. Operations in +American stocks and shares are carried on between London and +New York on a vast scale, while transactions in African mining +shares are undertaken to a considerable extent between London +and Paris. The frequent fluctuations in the prices of the latter +securities offer a large and fruitful field to bold operators possessed +of large resources, while those who have small means often +succumb in a commercial crisis. As regards foreign exchange +and bullion, arbitrage operators stand on a fairly safe foundation, +the fluctuations being slight and involving little or no risk, +although they yield a very small margin of profit. Arbitrage +operations are for these reasons resorted to frequently by one +country in supplying the requirements of another. The slightest +advantage in any market is put to profit, and as the margin in +ordinary exchange transactions is minute, the ability to operate +in this cross fashion renders business possible, which would +otherwise be impracticable. To give concrete instances of the +working of arbitrage the following may be cited:—</p> + +<p>On the 21st of May 1906 the exchange on London in Vienna +was telegraphed from that city 24 kronen 4ž cents; London, +requiring to purchase remittances, found that Antwerp had +some Vienna to sell, and arranged to buy there. The transactions +worked out as follows:—The direct exchange in Antwerp +on London being 25.25˝, and Antwerp’s selling price of Vienna +being 105 francs for 100 kronen, on dividing 25.25˝ by 105 an +exchange of 24.05ź was obtained or ˝ cent cheaper than the +direct exchange between Vienna and London.</p> + +<p>Again a portion of the proceeds of the Russian loan of 1906 +had to be remitted to Berlin from Paris. Having exhausted +local balances in Berlin, Paris on one side, and Berlin on the +other, sought to prevent gold shipments from Berlin, and thus +cause stringency in that money market. On the 21st of May 1906 +Berlin was therefore seeking to sell Paris in London at 81.35 +marks for 100 francs, and draw on London for the proceeds at +20.50. This transaction produced a parity between the exchanges +of 25.20, which left a small margin in London.</p> + +<p>Two instances of arbitrage of stocks are the following:—On +the 24th of March 1906, Japanese exchequer bonds, series +2 and 3, were bought in Tokio at 93ź and were paid for by +telegraphic transfer at 24<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> pence per yen, and were sold in +London the same day at 94 for payment on arrival of bonds. +It took five weeks for the transmission of the bonds to London, +where they were dealt in on the fixed basis of exchange, namely +24˝ pence per yen. The London price works out thus:</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>93.25 × 24.375</td> <td rowspan="2"> = 92.77,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">24.50</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">to which must be added the loss of interest, as the firm in London +paid cash on the 24th of March for the telegraphic transfer, +and did not recover payment until the arrival of the bonds from +Tokio five weeks later. The following is a computation of the +transaction:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 45%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">London price</td> <td class="tcr">92.77</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Five weeks at 5%</td> <td class="tcr">.45</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">English stamp ˝% on nominal amount</td> <td class="tcr">.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Insurance <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>%</td> <td class="tcr">.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">93.84</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span> </p> + +<p class="noind">This sum represents the net cost to the arbitrage house in London, +and the money paid on the 28th of April left a profit of about +<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>%. The bonds being “to bearer” insurance was necessary +for the safety in this, as in all similar transactions.</p> + +<p>In the next example, however, this expense was unnecessary, +the bonds being “inscribed.” On the 21st of May 1906 American +Steel common shares were sold for cash in New York at 41<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> +dollars per share, and were bought in London at 42<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span> for the +account day, May 31st. These figures are explained by the +fact that transactions in the United States stocks and shares are +on the fixed basis of five dollars per pound sterling, while as +regards payments in New York the exchange varies daily. Railway +shares are generally 100 dollars each. In the London market, +however, five shares of 100 dollars would be Ł100 nominal. +These shares, therefore, cost in London, at the purchase price +of 42<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span>, Ł42 : 4 : 5. The money realized in New York for five +shares at 41<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> was 205ˇ93 dollars. A cheque on London was +bought at 4 dollars 85ź cents, realizing Ł42 : 8 : 9. It should be +noted that the shares in these cases are generally lent by the +New York correspondent, thus saving loss of interest. The +resulting profit in this particular instance was 4s. 4d. for each +five shares, divided between the London and New York arbitrage +firms. Arbitrage operations with distant countries such as India +are large and mainly profitable. Arbitrage with India consists +chiefly in buying bills of exchange in London, such as India +Council rupee bills amounting to about 16 millions sterling +annually, and commercial bills drawn against goods exported +to India. The counter-operation consists in purchasing in India, +for short or long delivery, sterling bills drawn against exports +to Great Britain of Indian produce, such as cotton, tea, indigo, +jute and wheat. These operations greatly facilitate trade and the +moving of produce from the interior of India to the seaports. +Without this assistance Great Britain’s enormous trade could +not be carried on, and she would have to revert to the primitive +system of barter. The same advantages are afforded to her vast +trade with China and Japan, with the material difference that +the supply of government council bills is confined to the Indian +trade. The balance of trade with all countries is generally +settled by specie shipments; hence, with the Far East, silver +and gold play an important part in arbitrage.</p> + +<p>It will thus be seen that arbitrage fills a useful place in commerce; +the profits are small because the competition is great; +nevertheless huge transactions employing thousands of clerks +result from this system.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The literature of the subject is extremely meagre. Lord Goschen’s +<i>Theory of Foreign Exchanges</i> (London, 1866) is general and theoretical, +but throws great light upon particular aspects of the philosophy of +arbitrage, without touching specially on the details of the subject +itself. The principal other works are: Kelly’s <i>Cambist</i> (1811, +1835); Otto Swoboda, <i>Die kaufmannische Arbitrage</i> (Berlin, 1873), +and <i>Borse und Actien</i> (Cologne, 1869); Coquelin et Guillaumin, +<i>Dictionnaire de l’économie politique</i> (Paris, 1851-1853); Ottomar +Haupt, <i>London Arbitrageur</i> (London, 1870); Charles le Touzé, +<i>Traité théorique et pratique du change</i> (Paris, 1868); Tate, <i>Modern +Cambist</i> (London, 1868); Simon Spitzer, <i>Ueber Munz- und Arbiragenrechnung</i> +(Vienna, 1872); J.W. Gilbart, <i>Principles and Practice +of Banking</i> (London, 1871); G. Clare, <i>The A B C of Foreign +Exchanges</i> (2nd ed., 1895); <i>Money Market Primer and Key to the +Exchanges</i> (2nd ed., 1900); J. Pallain, <i>Les Changes étrangers et les +prix</i> (Paris, 1905). (Sw.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBITRATION<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (Lat. <i>arbitrari</i>, to examine or judge), a term +derived from the nomenclature of Roman law, and applied to an +arrangement for taking, and abiding by, the judgment of a +selected person in some disputed matter, instead of carrying +it to the established courts of justice. In disputes between +states, arbitration has long played an important part (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arbitration, International</a></span>). The present article is restricted +to arbitration under municipal law; but a separate article +is also devoted to the use of arbitration in labour disputes (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arbitration and Conciliation</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Roman Law</i>.—Arrangements for avoiding the delay and +expense of litigation, and referring a dispute to friends or neutral +persons, are a natural practice, of which traces may be found +in any state of society; but it is from Roman Law that we +derive arbitration as a system which has found its way into the +practice of European nations in general, and has even evaded +the dislike of the English common lawyers to the civil law. +The praetor, who had the arrangement of all trials or private +suits and the formal appointment of judges for them, referred +the great majority of such cases for decision to a judge who +was styled usually <i>judex</i> but sometimes <i>arbiter</i>. The phrase +<i>judex arbiterve</i> frequently occurs. The <i>judex</i> and the <i>arbiter</i> +had the same functions, and apparently the only express basis +for the distinction between the two words is that there might +be several <i>arbitri</i> but never more than one <i>judex</i> in a cause. +The term <i>arbiter</i> seems, however, to have been sometimes used +when the referee had a certain degree of latitude, and was entitled +to give weight to equitable considerations (Roby, <i>Inst. +Rom. Law</i>, i. 318; Hunter, <i>Roman Law</i> (1897), p. 48; and +see Cicero <i>pro Rosc. Com.</i> 4, ss. 10-13; Gaius, <i>Inst.</i> iv. s. 163). +Apart from this system of compulsory reference by the praetor, +Roman law recognized a voluntary reference (<i>compromissum</i>) +to an <i>arbiter</i> or arbitrator by the parties themselves. The +arbitrator <i>ex compromisso sumptus</i> had no coercive jurisdiction, +and in order to make his award effective, the agreement of +reference was confirmed by a stipulation and usually provided +a penalty (<i>poena, pecunia compromissa</i>) in case of disobedience. +The sum agreed on by way of penalty might be either specific +or unliquidated, <i>e.g.</i> “whatever the matter may be worth” +(<i>Dig.</i> iv., tit. 8, s. 28). The arbitrator <i>ex compromisso sumptus</i>, +like the judicial <i>arbiter</i>, was expected to take account of equitable +considerations in coming to a decision. If three arbitrators +were appointed, a majority could decide; in case of two being +appointed and not agreeing, the praetor would compel them to +choose a third (Roby, <i>ubi sup.</i>, i. 320, 321; <i>Dig.</i> iv., tit. 8, s. 17). +As in English law, it was necessary that the award should cover +all the points submitted (<i>Dig.</i> iv., tit. 8, s. 21).</p> + +<p><i>Law of England</i>.—The law of England as to arbitration is now +practically summed up in the Arbitration Act of 1889. This +statute is an express code as to proceedings in all arbitration, +but “criminal proceedings by the crown” cannot be referred +under it (ss. 13, 14). The statute subdivides its subject-matter +into two headings. I. References by consent out of court; +II. References under order of court.</p> + +<p>(1) Here the first matter to be dealt with is the submission. A +submission is defined as a written agreement (it need not be signed +by both parties) to submit present or future differences +to arbitration, whether a particular arbitrator is +<span class="sidenote">References by consent of the court.</span> +named in it or not. The capacity of a person to agree +to arbitration, or to act as arbitrator, depends on the +general law of contract. A submission by an infant is not void, +but is voidable at his option (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infant</a></span>). A counsel has a +general authority to deal with the conduct of an action, which +includes authority to refer it to arbitration, but he has no +authority to refer an action against the wishes of his client, or +on terms different from those which his client has sanctioned; +and if he does so, the reference may be set aside, although the +limit put by the client on his counsel’s authority is not made +known to the other side when the reference is agreed upon +(<i>Neale v. Gordon Lennox</i>, 1902, A.C. 465). The committee of +a lunatic, with the sanction of the judge in lunacy, may refer +disputes to arbitration. As an arbitrator is chosen by the parties +themselves the question of his eligibility is of comparatively +minor importance; and where an arbitrator has been chosen +by both parties, the courts are reluctant to set the appointment +aside. This question has arisen chiefly in contracts, for works, +which frequently contain a provision that the engineer shall be +the arbitrator, in any dispute between the contractor and his +own employer. The practical result is to make the engineer +judge in his own cause. But the courts will not in such cases +prevent the engineer from acting, where the contractor was +aware of the facts when he signed the contract, and there is no +reason to believe that the engineer will be unfair (<i>Ives and +Barker v. Willans</i>, 1894, 2 Ch. 478). Even the fact that he has +expressed an opinion on matters in dispute will not of itself +disqualify him (<i>Halliday</i> v. <i>Hamilton’s Trustees</i>, 1903, 5 Fraser, +800). So, too, where a barrister was appointed arbitrator, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span> +court refused to stop the arbitration on the mere ground that +he was the client of a firm of solicitors, the conduct of one of +whom was in question (<i>Bright</i> v. <i>River Plate Construction Co.</i>, +1900, 2 Ch. 835).</p> + +<p>Under the law prior to the act of 1889 (<i>a</i>) an agreement to +refer disputes generally, without naming the arbitrators, was +always irrevocable, and an action lay for the breach of it, +although the court could not compel either of the parties to +proceed under it; (<i>b</i>) an agreement to refer to a particular +arbitrator was revocable, and if one of the parties revoked that +particular arbitrator’s authority he could not be compelled +to submit to it; (<i>c</i>) when, however, the parties had got their +tribunal fixed, and were proceeding to carry out the agreement +to refer, the act 9 and 10 Will. III. c. 15 provided that the +submission might be made a rule of court, a provision which +gave the court power to assist the parties in the trial of the case, +and to enforce the award of the arbitrators; (<i>d</i>) the statute +3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (s. 39) put an end to the power to revoke +the authority of a particular arbitrator after the reference to him +had been made a rule of court; and—a liability which existed +also under the act of 9 and 10 Will. III. c. 15—any person +revoking the appointment of an arbitrator after the submission +had been made a rule of court might be attached. The Arbitration +Act 1889 provides that a submission, unless a contrary +intention is expressed in it, is irrevocable except by leave of the +court or a judge, and is to have the same effect in all respects +as if it had been made an order of court. The object of this enactment +was to save the expense of making a submission a rule of +court by treating it as having been so made, and it leaves the +law in this position, that while the authority of an arbitrator, +once appointed, is irrevocable, there is no power—any more than +there was under the old law—to compel an unwilling party to +proceed to a reference, except in cases specially provided for by +sections 5 and 6 of the act of 1889. The former of these sections +deals with the power of the court, the latter with the power of +the parties to a reference, to appoint an arbitrator in certain +circumstances. Section 5 provides that where a reference is to +be to a single arbitrator, and all the parties do not concur in +appointing one, or an appointed arbitrator refuses to act or +becomes incapable of acting, or where the parties or two arbitrators +fail, when necessary, to appoint an umpire or third +arbitrator, or such umpire or arbitrator when appointed refuses +to act, or becomes incapable of acting, and the default is not +rectified after seven clear days’ notice, the court may supply the +vacancy. Under section 6, where a reference is to two arbitrators, +one to be appointed by each party, and either the +appointed arbitrator refuses to act, or becomes incapable of +acting, and the party appointing him fails, after seven clear +days’ notice, to supply the vacancy, or such party fails, after +similar notice, to make an original appointment, a binding +appointment (subject to the power of the court to set it aside) +may be made by the other party to the reference. The court +may compel parties to carry out an arbitration, not only in the +above cases by directly appointing an arbitrator, &c., or by +allowing one appointed by a party to proceed alone with the +reference, but also indirectly by staying any proceedings before +the legal tribunals to determine matters which come within the +scope of the arbitration. Where the agreement to refer stipulates +that the submission of a dispute to arbitration shall be a condition +precedent to the right to bring an action in regard to it, +an action does not lie until the arbitration has been held and an +award made, and it is usual in such cases not to apply for a +stay of proceedings, but to plead the agreement as a bar to the +action (<i>Viney</i> v. <i>Bignold</i>, 1887, 20 Q.B.D. 172). The court will +refuse to stay proceedings where the subject-matter of the litigation +falls outside the scope of the reference, or there is some +serious objection to the fitness of the arbitrator, or some other +good reason of the kind exists.</p> + +<p>An arbitrator is not liable to be sued for want of skill or for +negligence in conducting the arbitration (<i>Pappa</i> v. <i>Rose</i>, 1872, +L.R. 7 C.P. 525). When a building contract provides that a +certificate of the architect, showing the final balance due to the +contractor, shall be conclusive evidence of the works having +been duly completed, the architect occupies the position of an +arbitrator, and enjoys the same immunity from liability for +negligence in the discharge of his functions (<i>Chambers</i> v. <i>Goldthorpe</i>, +1901, 1 Q.B. 624). An arbitrator cannot be compelled +to act unless he is a party to the submission.</p> + +<p>An arbitrator (and the following observations apply <i>mutatis +mutandis</i> to an umpire after he has entered on his duties) has +power to administer oaths to, or take the affirmations of, the +parties and their witnesses; and any person who wilfully and +corruptly gives false evidence before him may be prosecuted +and punished for perjury (Arbitration Act 1889, sched. i. and +s. 22). At any stage in the reference he may, and shall if he be +required by the court, state in the form of a special case for the +opinion of the court any question of law arising in the arbitration. +The arbitrator may also state his award in whole or in part as +a special case (<i>ib.</i> s. 19), and may correct in an award any clerical +mistake or error arising from an accidental slip or omission. +The costs of the reference and the award—which, under sched. i. +of the act, must be in writing, unless the submission otherwise +provides—are in the arbitrator’s discretion, and he has a lien +on the award and the submission for his fees, for which—if there +is an express or implied promise to pay them—he can also sue +(<i>Crampton</i> v. <i>Ridley</i>, 1887, 20 Q.B.D. 48). An arbitrator or +umpire ought not, however, to state his award in such a way +as to deprive the parties of their right to challenge the amount +charged by him for his services; and accordingly where an +umpire fixed for his award a lump sum as costs, including +therein his own and the arbitrators’ fees, the award was remitted +back to him to state how much he allotted to himself +and how much to the arbitrators (in <i>Re Gilbert</i> v. <i>Wright</i>, 1904, +20 <i>Times</i> L.R. 164). But in the absence of evidence to show +that the fees charged by arbitrators or umpire are extortionate, +or unfair and unreasonable, the courts will not interfere with +them (<i>Llandrindod Wells Water Co.</i> v. <i>Hawksley</i>, 1904, 20 <i>Times</i> +L.R. 241).</p> + +<p>If there is no express provision on the point in the submission, +an award under the Arbitration Act 1889 must be made within +three months after the arbitrator has entered on the reference, +or been called upon to act by notice in writing from any party +to the submission. The time may, however, be extended by +the arbitrator or by the court. An umpire is required to make +his award within one month after the original or extended +time appointed for making the award of the arbitrators has +expired, or any later day to which he may enlarge it. The +court may by order remit an award to the arbitrators or +umpire for reconsideration, in which case the reconsidered +award must be made within three months after the date of the +order.</p> + +<p>An award must be <i>intra vires</i>: it must dispose of all the points +referred; and it must be final, except as regards certain matters +of valuation, &c. (see in <i>Re Stringer and Riley Brothers</i>, 1901, +1 K.B. 105). An award may, however, be set aside where the +arbitrator has misconducted himself (an arbitrator may also be +removed by the court on the ground of misconduct), or where +it is <i>ultra vires</i>, or lacks any of the other requisites—above +mentioned—of a valid award, or where the arbitrator has been +wilfully deceived by one of the parties, or some such state of +things exists. An award may, by leave of the court, be enforced +in the same manner as a judgment or decree to the same effect. +Under the Revenue Act 1906, s. 9, a uniform duty of ten +shillings is payable on awards in England or Ireland, and on +decreets arbitral in Scotland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Provisions for the arbitration of special classes of disputes are +contained in many acts of parliament, <i>e.g.</i> the Local Government +Acts 1888, 1894, the Agricultural Holdings (England) Acts 1883 to +1906, the Small Holdings and Allotments Act 1907, the Light Railways +Act 1896, the Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890, the +Workmen’s Compensation Act 1906, &c.</p> + +<p>The Conciliation Act 1896 provides machinery for the prevention +and settlement of trade disputes, and in 1892 a chamber of arbitration +for business disputes was established by the joint action of the +corporation of the city of London and the London chamber of +commerce. At the time when the London chamber of arbitration +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span> +was established, there was considerable dissatisfaction among the +mercantile community with the delays that occurred in the disposal +of commercial cases before the ordinary tribunals. But the special +provision made by the judges in 1895 for the prompt trial of commercial +causes to a large extent destroyed the <i>raison d’ętre</i> of the +chamber of arbitration, and it did not attain any great measure of +success.</p> +</div> + +<p>(2) The court or a judge may refer any question arising +in any cause or matter to an official or special referee, whose +report may be enforced like a judgment or order to +the same effect. This power may be exercised whether +<span class="sidenote">References under order of court.</span> +the parties desire it or not. The official referees are +salaried officers of court. The remuneration of special +referees is determined by the court or judge. An entire action +may be referred, if all parties consent, or if it involves any prolonged +examination of documents, or scientific or local examination, +or consists wholly or partly of matters of account.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Scots Law.</i>—The Arbitration (Scotland) Act 1894, unlike the +English Arbitration Act 1889, did not codify the previously existing +law, and it becomes necessary, therefore, to deal with that law in +some detail. It differs in important particulars from the law of +England. Although (as in England apart from the Arbitration Act +1889) there is nothing to prevent a verbal reference, submissions +are generally not merely written but are effected by deed. The +deed of submission first defines the terms of the reference, the name +or names of the arbiters or arbitrators, and the “oversman” or +umpire, whose decision in the event of the arbiters differing in opinion +is to be final. Formerly, where no oversman was named in the submission, +and no power given to the arbiters to name one, the proceedings +were abortive if the arbiters disagreed, unless the parties +consented to a nomination. But under the Arbitration (Scotland) +Act 1894, s. 4, here arbiters differ in opinion, they, or, if they fail +to agree on the point, the court, on the application of either party, +may nominate an oversman whose decision is to be final. The deed +of submission next gives to the arbiters the necessary powers for +disposing of the matters referred (<i>e.g.</i> powers to summon witnesses, +to administer oaths and to award expenses), and specifies the time +within which the “decreet arbitral” is to be pronounced. If this +date is left blank, practice has limited the arbiter’s power of deciding +to a year and a day, unless, having express or clearly implied power +in the submission, he exercises this power, or the parties expressly +or tacitly agree to its prorogation. The deed of submission then goes +on to provide that the parties bind themselves, under a stipulated +penalty to abide by the decreet arbitral, that, in the event of the +death of either of them, the submission shall continue in force against +their heirs and representatives, and that they consent to the registration, +for preservation and execution, both of the deed itself and +of the decreet arbitral. The power to enforce the award depends on +this last provision. Under the common law of Scotland, a submission +of future disputes or differences to an arbiter, or arbiters, +unnamed, was ineffectual except where the agreement to refer did +not contemplate the decision of proper disputes between the parties +but the adjustment of some condition, or the liquidation of some +obligation, contained in the contract of which the agreement to +submit formed a part. And by the Arbitration (Scotland) Act 1894, +s. 1, an agreement to refer to arbitration is not invalid by reason of +the reference being to a person not named, or to be named by another, +or to a person merely described as the holder for the time being of +any office or appointment. An arbiter who has accepted office may +be compelled by an action in court of session to proceed with his +duty unless he has sufficient cause, such as ill-health or supervening +interest, for renouncing. The court may name a sole arbiter, where +provision is made for one only and the parties cannot agree (Arbitration +[Scotland] Act 1894, s. 2); and may name an arbiter where a +party having the right or duty to nominate one of two arbiters +will not exercise it (<i>ib.</i> s. 3). Scots law as to the requisites of a valid +award is practically identical with the law of England. The grounds +of reduction of a decreet arbitral are “corruption,” “bribery,” +“false hold” (Scots Act of Regulations 1695, s. 25). An attempt +was made to include, under the expression “constructive corruption,” +among these statutory grounds of reduction, irregular conduct on the +part of an arbitrator, with no suggestion of any corrupt motive. +But it was definitely overruled by the House of Lords (<i>Adams</i> v. +<i>Great North of Scotland Railway Co.</i>, 1891, A.C. 31). The statutory +definition of the grounds of reduction was intended, however, +merely to put an end to the practice which had previously obtained +of reviewing awards on their merits, and it does not prevent the +courts from setting aside an award where the arbitrator has exceeded +his jurisdiction, or disregarded any one of the expressed conditions +of the submission, or been guilty of misconduct. A private arbiter +cannot demand remuneration except in virtue of contract, or by +implication from the nature of the work done, or if the reference is +in pursuance of some statutory enactment (<i>e.g.</i> the Lands Clauses +[Scotland] Act 1845, s. 32).</p> + +<p><i>Judicial References</i> have been long known to the law of Scotland. +When an action is in court the parties may at any stage withdraw +it from judicial determination, and refer it to arbitration. This +is done by minute of reference to which the court interpones its +authority. When the award is issued it becomes the judgment of +the court. The court has no power to compel parties to enter into a +reference of this kind, and it is doubtful whether counsel can bind +their clients in such a matter. A judicial reference falls like the +other by the elapse of a year; and the court cannot review the +award on the ground of miscarriage. By the Court of Session Act +1850, s. 50, a provision is introduced whereby parties to an action in +the supreme court may refer judicially any issue for trial to one, +three, five or seven persons, who shall sit as a jury, and decide by a +majority.</p> + +<p><i>Law of Ireland.</i>—The Common Law Procedure Act (Ireland) +1856, which is incorporated by s. 60 of the Supreme Court of Judicature +Act (Ireland) 1877, and thereby made applicable to all +divisions of the High Court of Justice, provides, on the lines of the +English Common Law Procedure Act 1854, for the conduct of +arbitrations and the enforcement of awards. Irish statute law, like +that of England and Scotland, contains numerous provisions for +arbitration under special enactments.</p> + +<p><i>Indian and Colonial Law.</i>—The provisions of the English Arbitration +Act 1889 have in substance been adopted by the Indian Legislature +(see Act ix. of 1899), and by many of the colonies (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Act +No. 13 of 1895, Western Australia; No. 24 of 1898, Natal; c. 20 of +1899, Bahamas; No. 10 of 1895, Gibraltar; No. 29 of 1898, Cape +of Good Hope: s. 7 of this last statute excludes from submission to +arbitration criminal cases, so far as prosecution and punishment are +concerned, and, without the special leave of the court, matters +relating to status, matrimonial causes, and matters affecting minors +or other perons under legal disability; Trinidad and Tobago, No. 35 +of 1898).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—The common law and statute law of the +United States as to arbitration bear a general resemblance +to the law of England.</p> + +<p>All controversies of a civil nature, and any question of personal +injury on which a suit for damages will lie, although it may also +be indictable, may be referred to arbitration; but +crimes, and perhaps actions on penal statutes by +<span class="sidenote">Voluntary submissions.</span> +common informers may not. The submission may be +effected sometimes by parol, sometimes by written +instrument, sometimes by deed or deed poll. Capacity to refer +depends on the general law of contractual capacity. The law +of England as to the capacity to act as an arbitrator and as to +objections to an arbitrator on the ground of interest has been +closely followed by the American courts. The same observation +applies as to the requisites of an award, the mode of its enforcement +and the grounds on which it will be set aside. The +arbitrator has a lien on the award for his fees; and—a point of +difference from the English law—he may sue for them without +an express promise to pay (cf. <i>Goodall</i> v. <i>Cooley</i>, 1854, 29 New +Hamp. 48). At common law, a submission is generally revocable +at any time before award; and it is also, in the absence of +stipulation to the contrary, revoked by the death of one of the +parties. Provision has been made in Pennsylvania for compulsory +arbitration by an act of the 16th of June 1836 (see +Pepper and Lewis, <i>Pennsylvania Digest, tit.</i> “arbitration”).</p> + +<p>The rules of court also of many of the states of the United +States provide for reference through the intervention of +<span class="sidenote">References by rule of court.</span> +the court at any stage in the progress of a litigation. +Such submissions are usually declared irrevocable by +the rules providing for them.</p> + +<p>In addition to voluntary submissions and references by rules +of court there are in America, as in the United Kingdom, various +statutes which provide for arbitration in particular +cases. Most of these statutes are founded on the 9 and +<span class="sidenote">Statutory arbitrations.</span> +10 Will. III., c. 15, and 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 42, s. 49, +“by which it is allowed to refer a matter in dispute +(not then in court) to arbitrators, and agree that the submission +be made a rule of court. This agreement, being proved on the +oath of one of the witnesses thereto, is enforced as if it had been +made at first a rule of court” (Bouvier, <i>Law Dict</i>. <i>s.v.</i> “Arbitration”).</p> + +<p>Ample provision is made in America for the arbitration of +labour disputes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Law of France.</i>—Voluntary arbitration has always been recognized +in France. In cases of mercantile partnerships, arbitration was +formerly compulsory; but in 1856 (law of the 17th of July 1856) +jurisdiction in disputes between parties was conferred on the +Tribunals of Commerce (as to which see <i>Code de Commerce</i>, arts. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span> +615 et seq.), and arbitration at the present time is purely voluntary. +The subject is very fully dealt with in the <i>Code de Procédure Civile</i> +(arts. 1003-1028). The submission to arbitration (<i>compromis</i>) must, +on pain of nullity, be acted upon within three months from its date +(art. 1007). The submission terminates (i.) by the death, refusal, +resignation or inability to act of one of the arbitrators; (ii.) by the +expiration of the period agreed upon, or of three months if no time +had been fixed; (iii.) by the disagreement of two arbitrators, unless +power be reserved to them to appoint an umpire (art. 1012). An +arbitrator cannot resign if he has once commenced to act, and can +only be relieved on some ground arising subsequently to the submission +(art. 1014). Each party to the arbitration is required to +produce his evidence at least fifteen days before the expiration of +the period fixed by the submission (art. 1016). If the arbitrators, +differing in opinion, cannot agree upon an umpire (<i>tiers arbitre</i>), the +president of the Tribunal of Commerce will appoint one, on the +application of either party (art. 1017). The umpire is required to +give his decision within one month of his acceptance of the appointment; +before making his award, he must confer with the previous +arbitrators who disagreed (art. 1018). Arbitrators and umpire must +proceed according to the ordinary rules of law, unless they are +specially empowered by the submission to proceed as <i>amiables +compositeurs</i> (art. 1019). The award is rendered executory by an +order of the president of the Civil Tribunal of First Instance (art. +1020). Awards cannot be set up against third parties (art. 1022), +or attacked by way of opposition. An appeal against an award lies +to the Civil Tribunal of First Instance, or to the court of appeal, +according as the subject-matter, in the absence of arbitration, +would have been within the jurisdiction of the justice of the peace, +or of the Civil Tribunal of First Instance (art. 1023). In the manufacturing +towns of France, there are also boards of umpires (<i>Conseils +de Prud’hommes</i>) to deal with trade disputes between masters and +workmen belonging to certain specified trades.</p> + +<p><i>Other Foreign Laws</i>.—The provisions of French law as to arbitration +are in force in Belgium (<i>Code de Proc. Civ.</i>, arts. 1003 et seq.); +and a convention (8th of July 1899) between France and Belgium +regulates, <i>inter alia</i>, the mutual enforcement of awards. The law of +France has also been reproduced in substance in the Netherlands +(Code of Civil Procedure, arts. 620 et seq.). The German Imperial +Code of Procedure did not create any system of arbitration in civil +cases. But this omission was supplied in Prussia by a law of the +29th of March 1879, which provided for the appointment, in each +commune, of an arbitrator (<i>Schiedsmann</i>) before whom conciliation +proceedings in contentious matters might be conducted. The procedure +was gratuitous and voluntary; and the functions of the +arbitrator were not judicial; he merely recorded the arrangement +arrived at, or the refusal of conciliation. This law was followed in +Brunswick by a law of the 2nd of July 1896, and in Baden by a law +of the 16th of April 1886. In Luxemburg, compulsory arbitration +in matters affecting commercial partnerships was abolished in 1879 +(law of the 16th of April 1879). A system of conciliation, similar to +the Prussian, exists in Italy (laws of the 16th of June 1892, and the +26th of December 1892) and in some of the Swiss cantons (law of the +29th of April 1883). Spain (Code of Civil Proc., arts. 1003-1028; +Civil Code, arts. 1820-1821) and Sweden and Norway (law of the +28th of October 1887) have followed the French law. In Portugal, +provision has been made for the creation in important industrial +centres, on the application of the administrative corporations, of +boards of conciliation (decrees of the 14th of August 1889, and the +18th of May 1893).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Russell, <i>Arbitration</i> (London, 1906); <i>Annual +Practice</i> (London, yearly); Redman, <i>Arbitration</i> (London, 1897); +Crewe, <i>Arbitration Act of 1889</i> (London, 1898); Pollock, <i>On Arbitrators</i> +(London, 1906). As to Scots law: Bell, <i>On Arbitration</i> +(2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1877); Erskine, <i>Principles</i> (20th ed., Edinburgh, +1903). As to American law: Morse, <i>Law of Arbitration</i> +(Boston, 1872). As to foreign law generally: the texts of the laws +cited, and the <i>Annuaire de législation étrangčre</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>. International arbitration +is a proceeding in which two nations refer their differences +to one or more selected persons, who, after affording to each +party an opportunity of being heard, pronounce judgment on +the matters at issue. It is understood, unless otherwise expressed, +that the judgment shall be in accordance with the law by which +civilized nations have agreed to be bound, whenever such law is +applicable. Some authorities, notably the eminent Swiss jurist, +J.K. Bluntschli, consider that unless this tacit condition is +complied with, the award may be set aside. This would, however, +be highly inconvenient since international law has never been +codified. A fresh arbitration might have to be entered on to +decide (1) what the law was, (2) whether it applied to the +matter in hand. Arbitration differs from Mediation (<i>q.v.</i>) in so +far as it is a judicial act, whereas Mediation involves no +decision, but merely advice and suggestions to those who invoke +its aid.</p> + +<p><i>Arbitral Tribunals</i>.—An international arbitrator may be the +chief of a friendly power, or he may be a private individual. +When he is an emperor, a king, or a president of a republic, it is +not expected that he will act personally; he may appoint a +delegate or delegates to act on his behalf, and avail himself of +their labours and views, the ultimate decision being his only in +name. In this respect international arbitration differs from +civil arbitration, since a private arbitrator cannot delegate his +office without express authority. The analogy between the two +fails to hold good in another respect also. In civil arbitration, +the decision or award may be made a rule of court, after which it +becomes enforceable by writ of execution against person or +property. An international award cannot be enforced directly; +in other words it has no legal sanction behind it. Its obligation +rests on the good faith of the parties to the reference, and on the +fact that, with the help of a world-wide press, public opinion +can always be brought to bear on any state that seeks to evade +its moral duty. The obligation of an ordinary treaty rests on +precisely the same foundations. Where there are two or any +other even number of arbitrators, provision is usually made for +an umpire (French <i>sur-arbitre</i>). The umpire may be chosen by +the arbitrators themselves or nominated by a neutral power. +In the “Alabama” arbitration five arbitrators were nominated +by the president of the United States, the queen of England, the +king of Italy, the president of the Swiss Confederation, and the +emperor of Brazil respectively. In the Bering Sea arbitration +there were seven arbitrators, two nominated by Great Britain, +two by the United States, and the remaining three by the +president of the French Republic, the king of Italy, and the king +of Sweden and Norway respectively. In neither of these cases +was there an umpire; nor was any necessary, since the decision, +if not unanimous, lay with the majority. (See separate articles +on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bering Sea Arbitration</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">“Alabama” Arbitration</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Arbitral tribunals may have to deal with questions either +of law or fact, or of both combined. When they have to deal +with law only, that is to say, to lay down a principle or decide a +question of liability, their functions are judicial or quasi-judicial, +and the result is arbitration proper. Where they have to deal +with facts only, <i>e.g.</i> the evaluation of pecuniary claims, their +functions are administrative rather than judicial, and the term +commission is applied to them. “Mixed commissions,” so +called because they are composed of representatives of the +parties in difference, have been frequently resorted to for +delimitation of frontiers, and for settling the indemnities to be +paid to the subjects of neutral powers in respect of losses sustained +by non-combatants in times of war or civil insurrection. The +two earliest of these were nominated in 1794 under the treaty +negotiated by Lord Grenville with Mr John Jay, commonly +called the “Jay Treaty,” their tasks being (1) to define the +boundary between Canada and the United States which had been +agreed to by the treaty signed at Paris in 1783; (2) to estimate +the amount to be paid by Great Britain and the United States +to each other in respect of illegal captures or condemnation of +vessels during the war of the American Revolution.</p> + +<p>Although arbitrations proper may be thus distinguished from +“mixed commissions,” it must not be supposed that any hard +or fast theoretical line can be drawn between them. Arbitrators +strictly so called may (as in the “Alabama” case) proceed to +award damages after they have decided the question of liability; +whilst “mixed commissions,” before awarding damages, usually +have to decide whether the pecuniary claims made are or are not +well founded.</p> + +<p><i>Awards</i>.—International awards, as already pointed out, +differ from civil awards in having no legal sanction by which +they can be enforced. On the other hand, they resemble civil +awards in that they may be set aside, <i>i.e.</i> ignored, for sufficient +reason, as, for example, if the tribunal has not acted in good +faith, or has not given to each party an opportunity of being +heard, or has exceeded its jurisdiction. An instance under the +last head occurred in 1831, when it was referred to the king of +the Netherlands as sole arbitrator to fix the north-eastern +boundary of the state of Maine. The king’s representatives +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span> +were unable to draw the frontier line by reason of the imperfection +of the maps then in existence, and he therefore directed a +further survey. This direction was beyond the terms of the +reference, and the award, when made, was repudiated by the +United States as void for excess. The point in dispute was +only finally disposed of by the Webster-Ashburton treaty of +1842.</p> + +<p><i>Subject-matter</i>.—The history of international arbitration is +dealt with in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peace</a></span>, where treaties of general arbitration +are discussed, both those which embrace all future differences +thereafter to arise between the contracting parties, and also +those more limited conventions which aim at the settlement +of all future differences in regard to particular subjects, <i>e.g.</i> +commerce or navigation. The rapid growth of international +arbitration in recent times may be gathered from the following +figures. Between 1820 and 1840, there were eight such instances; +between 1840 and 1860, there were thirty; between 1860 and +1880, forty-four; between 1880 and 1900, ninety. Of the +governments which were parties in these several cases Great +Britain heads the list in point of numbers, the United States of +America being a good second. France, Portugal, Spain and the +Netherlands are the European states next in order. The present +article is concerned exclusively with arbitration in regard to +such existing differences as are capable of precise statement and +of prompt adjustment. These differences may be arranged in +two main groups:—</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Those which have arisen between state and state in +their sovereign capacities;</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Those in which one state has made a demand upon another +state, ostensibly in its sovereign capacity, but really on behalf of +some individual, or set of individuals, whose interests it was bound to protect.</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">To group (<i>a</i>) belong territorial differences in regard to ownership +of land and rights of fishing at sea; to group (<i>b</i>) belong pecuniary +claims in respect of acts wrongfully done to one or more subjects +of one state by, or with the authority of, another state. To +enumerate even a tenth part of the successful arbitrations in +recent times would occupy too much space. Some prominent +examples (dealt with elsewhere under their appropriate titles) +are the dispute between the United States and Great Britain +respecting the “Alabama” and other vessels employed by the +Confederate government during the American Civil War (award +in 1872); that between the same powers respecting the fur-seal +fishery in Bering Sea (award in 1893); that between Great +Britain and Venezuela respecting the boundary of British Guiana +(award in 1899); that between Great Britain, the United States +and Portugal respecting the Delagoa railway (award in 1900); +that between Great Britain and the United States respecting the +boundary of Alaska (award in 1903). The long-standing Newfoundland +fishery dispute with France (finally settled in 1904) is +dealt with under Newfoundland. Other examples are shortly +noticed in the tables on p. 329, which although by no means +exhaustive, sufficiently indicate the scope and trend of arbitration +during the years covered. The cases decided by the permanent +tribunal at the Hague established in 1900 are not included +in these tables. They are separately discussed later.</p> + +<p><i>The Hague Tribunal</i>.—The establishment of a permanent +tribunal at the Hague, pursuant to the Peace convention of 1899, +marks a momentous epoch in the history of international arbitration. +This tribunal realized an idea put forward by Jeremy +Bentham towards the close of the 18th century, advocated by +James Mill in the middle of the 19th century, and worked out +later by Mr Dudley Field in America, by Dr Goldschmidt in +Germany, and by Sir Edmund Hornby and Mr Leone Levi in +England. The credit of the realization is due, in the first place, +to the tsar of Russia, who initiated the Hague Conference of +1899, and, in the second place to Lord Pauncefote (then Sir +Julian Pauncefote, British ambassador at Washington), who +urged before a committee of the conference the importance of +organizing a permanent international court, the service of which +should be called into requisition at will, and who also submitted +an outline of the mode in which such a court might be formed. +The result was embodied in the following articles of the Convention, +signed on behalf of sixteen of the assembled powers on +the 29th of July 1899.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(Art. 23). Each of the signatory powers is to designate within +three months from the ratification of the convention four persons at +the most, of recognized competence in international law, enjoying +the highest moral consideration, and willing to accept the duties of +arbitrators. Two or more powers may agree to nominate one or +more members in common, or the same person may be nominated +by different powers. Members of the court are to be appointed for +six years and may be re-nominated. (Art. 25). The signatory +powers desiring to apply to the tribunal for the settlement of a +difference between them are to notify the same to the arbitrators. +The arbitrators who are to determine this difference are, unless +otherwise specially agreed, to be chosen from the general list of +members in the following manner:—each party is to name two +arbitrators, and these are to choose a chief arbitrator or umpire +(<i>sur-arbitre</i>). If the votes are equally divided the selection of the +chief arbitrator is to be entrusted to a third power to be named by +the parties. (Art. 26). The tribunal is to sit at the Hague when +practicable, unless the parties otherwise agree. (Art. 27). “The +signatory powers consider it a duty in the event of an acute conflict +threatening to break out between two or more of them to remind +these latter that the permanent court is open to them. This action +is only to be considered as an exercise of good offices.” Several of +the powers nominated members of the permanent court pursuant +to Art. 25, quoted above, those nominated on behalf of Great Britain +being Lord Pauncefote, Sir Edward Malet, Sir Edward Fry and +Professor Westlake. On the death of Lord Pauncefote, Major-General +Sir John C. Ardagh was appointed in his place.</p> + +<p><i>Hague Cases</i>.—(1) The first case decided by the Hague court was +concerned with the “Pious Fund of the Californias.” A fund bearing +this name was formed in the 18th century for the purpose +of converting to the Catholic faith the native Indians of +<span class="sidenote">The pious fund of the Californias.</span> +Upper and Lower California, both of which then belonged +to Mexico, and of maintaining a Catholic priesthood there. +By a decree of 1842 this fund was transferred to the +public treasury of Mexico, the Mexican government undertaking to +pay interest thereon in perpetuity in furtherance of the design of the +original donors. After the sale of Upper California to the United +States, effected by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), the +Mexican government refused to pay the proportion of the interest +to which Upper California was entitled. The question of liability +was then referred to commissioners appointed by each state, and, on +their failing to agree, to Sir Edward Thornton, British minister at +Washington, who by his award, in 1875, found there was due from +Mexico to Upper California, or rather to the bishops there as administrators +of the fund, an arrear of interest amounting to nearly +$100,000, which was directed to be paid in gold. This award was +carried out, but payment of the current interest was again withheld +as from the 24th of October 1868. Claim was thereupon made on +Mexico by the United States on behalf of the bishops, but without +success. Ultimately, in May 1902, an agreement was come to between +the two governments which provided for the settlement of the +dispute by the Hague tribunal. The points to be determined were +(1) whether the matter was <i>res judicata</i> by reason of Sir E. Thornton’s +award; (2) whether, if not, the claim for the interest was just. The +arbitrators selected by the United States were Sir E. Fry and +Professor F. de Martens, and by Mexico, Professor Asser and Professor +de Savornin Lohman, both of Amsterdam. These four (none of +whom, it will be observed, was of the nationality of either party in +difference) chose for their umpire Professor Matzen, of Copenhagen, +president of the Landsthing there. In October 1902, the court +decided both questions in the affirmative, awarding the payment by +Mexico of the annual sum claimed, not in gold, but <i>en monnaie ayant +cours légal au Mexique</i>. The direction to pay in gold made by Sir +E. Thornton was held to be referable only to the mode of the execution +of the award, and therefore not to be <i>chose jugée</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) The second arbitration before the Hague court was more +important than the first, not only because so many of the great +powers were concerned in it, but also because it brought +about the discontinuance of acts of war. The facts may +<span class="sidenote">Great Britain, Germany and Italy versus Venezuela.</span> +be stated shortly thus. By three several protocols signed +at Washington in February 1903, it was agreed that +certain claims by Great Britain, Germany and Italy, on +behalf of their respective subjects against the Venezuelan +government should be referred to three mixed commissions, +and that for the purpose of securing the payment of these claims +30 percent of the customs revenues at the ports of La Guayra and Puerto +Caballo should be remitted in monthly instalments to the representative +of the Bank of England at Caracas. Prior to the date +of these protocols, an attempt had been made by Great Britain, +Germany and Italy to enforce their claims by blockade, and a +further question arose as between these three powers on the one +hand, and the United States of America, France, Spain, Belgium, +the Netherlands, Sweden and Norway, and Mexico (all of whom had +claims against Venezuela, but had abstained from hostile action) +on the other hand, as to whether the blockading powers were entitled +to preferential treatment. By three several protocols signed in May +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span> +1903 this question was agreed to be submitted to the Hague court, +three members of which were to be named as arbitrators by the tsar of +Russia, but no arbitrator was to be a subject or citizen of any of +the signatory or creditor powers. The arbitrators named +by the tsar were M. Muraviev, minister of justice and +attorney-general of the Russian empire; Professor Lammasch, member of +the Upper House of the Austrian parliament; and M. de Martens, then +member of the council of the ministry of foreign affairs at St +Petersburg. The arbitrators by their award in February 1904 decided +unanimously in favour of the blockading powers and ordered payment of +their claims out of the 30% of the receipts at the two Venezuelan +ports which had been set apart to meet them.</p> + +<p> </p> +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Dates of<br />agreements<br />to refer.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Parties.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Arbitrating Authority.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Subject-Matter.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Date of award.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ptb1" colspan="5"><span class="sc">Table I.</span><br /> + <i>Territorial Disputes</i> (<i>Ownership</i>)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1857</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Holland and Venezuela</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Queen of Spain</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Island of Aves in Venezuela</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1865</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1869</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britain and Portugal</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>President of United States</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Island of Bulama on West Coast of Africa</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1870</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1872</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britain and Portugal</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>President of French Republic</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Delagoa Bay (part of), Inyack and Elephant Is., S.E. Africa</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1875</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1876</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Argentine Republic and Paraguay</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>President of United States</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Territory between the Verde and Pilcomayo river of Paraguay</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1878</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britain and Germany</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Mixed Commission</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Islets and guano deposits on S.W. Coast of Africa</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1886</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Bulgaria and Servia</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Mixed Commission</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Territory near the village of Bergovo</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1887</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Austria and Hungary</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Mixed Commission (with President of Swiss Federal tribunal as umpire)</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Territory in the district of Upper Tatra</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1902</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ptb1" colspan="5"><span class="sc">Table II.</span><br /> + <i>Delimitation of Frontiers.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1869</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britainand the Transvaal</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Lieutenant Governor of Natal</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The southern boundary of the S. African Republic</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1870</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1871</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britain and the United States</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The German Emperor</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The San Juan water boundary</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1872</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1873</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Italy and Switzerland</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Mixed Commission (with U.S. Minister at Rome as umpire)</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The Canton of Ticino</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1874</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britain and Russia</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Mixed Commission</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>North-western Afganistan</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1887</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>France and Holland</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Tsar of Russia</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>French Guiana and Dutch Guiana</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1891</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britain and Portugal</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>President of the Italian Court of Appeal</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Manicaland</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1897</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>France and Brazil</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>President of the Swiss Confederation</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>River Yapoe named in the Treaty of Utrecht 1813</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1900</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britain and Brazil</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>King of Italy</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>British Guiana</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1904</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britain and Portugal</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>King of Italy</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Barotseland</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1905</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ptb1" colspan="5"><span class="sc">Table III.</span><br /> + <i>Pecuniary Claims in respect of Seizures and Arrests.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1851</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>United States and Portugal</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>President of French Republic</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Seizure of the American privateer “General Armstrong”</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1852</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1863</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britain and Brazil</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>King of the Belgians</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Arrest of three British officers of the ship “La Forte”</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1863</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1863</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Great Britain and Peru</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Sentate of Hamburg</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Arrest at Callao of Capt. Melville White, a British subject</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1864</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>United States and Spain</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Mixed Commission</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The American S.S. “Col. Lloyd Aspinwall”</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1870</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1873</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Japan and Peru</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Tsar of Russia</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The Peruvian barque “Maria Luz”</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1875</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1874</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>United States and Colombia</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Mixed Commission</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The American S.S. “Montijo”</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1875</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1879</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>France and Nicaragua</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>French Court of Cassation</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The French ship “La Phare”</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1880</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>United States an Spain</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>Italian Minister at Madrid</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The American S.S. “The Masonic”</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1885</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The United States and Denmark</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>British Minister at Athens</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb"><p>The S.S. “Benjamin Franklin” and the barque “Catherine Augusta”</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb">1890</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1895</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"><p>Great Britain and Netherlands</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"><p>Tsar of Russia, who delegated his duties to Professor F. de Martens</p></td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"><p>Arrest of the master of the “Costa Rica” packet (a British subject)</p></td> + <td class="tcc rb bb">1897</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2">(3) The third case before the Hague court was heard in 1904-1905. A +controversy not amenable to ordinary diplomatic methods arose between +Great Britain, France and Germany on the one hand and Japan on the +other hand as to the legality of a house-tax imposed by Japan on +<span class="sidenote">Great Britain, France and Germany versus Japan.</span> +certain subjects of those powers who held leases in perpetuity. The +question upon the true construction of certain treaties between the +European powers and Japan which had been made a few years previously. +By three protocols signed at Tokyo in August 1902 this question was +agreed to be submitted to arbitrators, members of the court at the +Hague, one to be chosen by each party with power to name an umpire. +The arbitrators chosen were M. Renault, professor of the law faculty +in Paris, and M. Montono, the Japanese envoy to the French capital. +They named as their umpire and president M. Gram, ex-minister of the state of Norway. +In May 1905, an award was pronounced by the majority (M. Gram and M. +Renault) in favour of the European contention, M. Montono dissenting +both from the conclusion of his colleagues and from the reasons on +which it was based.</p> + +<p>(4) Barely two months had elapsed since the date of the last award +when the Hague court was again called into requisition. The scene of +dispute this time was on the S.E. coast of Arabia. Muscat, the +capital of the kingdom of Oman on that coast, is ruled by a sultan, +<span class="sidenote">Great Britain and the French flag at Muscat.</span> +whose independence both Great Britain and France had, in March 1862, +“reciprocally engaged to respect.” Notwithstanding this, the French +republic had issued to certain native dhows, owned by subjects of the +sultan, papers authorizing them to fly the French flag, not only on +the Oman littoral but in the Red Sea. A question thereupon arose as +to the manner in which the privileges thereby purported to be +conferred affected the jurisdiction of the sultan over such dhows, +the masters of which, as was alleged, used their immunity from search +for the purpose of carrying on contraband trade in slaves, arms and +ammunition. In October 1904 the two governments agreed to refer this +question to the Hague court. Chief Justice Melville W. Fuller, of the +Supreme Court of the United States, was named as arbitrator on the +part of Great Britain, M. de Savornin Lohrnan, who had acted in the +case of the Californias (No. 1), as arbitrator on the part of France. +The choice of an umpire was entrusted to the king of Italy. He named +Professor Lammasch, who, as we have seen, had acted in the +arbitration with Venezuela in 1903.</p> + +<p>A unanimous award was made in August 1905. It was held that although +generally speaking every sovereign may decide to whom he will accord +the right to fly his flag, yet in this case such right was limited by +the general act of the Brussels conference of July 1890 relative to +the African slave trade, an act which was ratified by France on the +2nd of June 1892; that accordingly the owners and master of dhows who +had been authorized by France to fly the French flag before the +last-named date retained this authorization +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span> +so long as France chose to renew it, but that after that date such +authorization was improper unless the guarantees could establish +that they had been treated by France as her protégés within the +meaning of that term as explained in a treaty of 1863 between France +and Morocco. A further point decided was that the owners or +master of dhows duly authorized to fly the French flag within the +ruling of the first point, did not enjoy, in consequence of that fact, +any such right of extra-territoriality as would exempt them from +the sovereignty and jurisdiction of the sultan. Such exemption +would be contrary to the engagement to respect the independence +of the sultan solemnly made in 1862.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Arbitral Procedure</i>.—Not the least of the benefits of the Hague +convention of 1899 (strengthened by that of 1907) is that it contains +rules of procedure which furnish a guide for all arbitrations +whether conducted before the Hague court or not. These may be +summarized as follows:—The initial step is the making by the +parties of a special agreement clearly defining the subject of the +dispute. The next is the choice of the arbitrators and of an +umpire if the number of arbitrators is even. Each party then by +its agents prepares and presents its case in a narrative or argumentative +form, annexing thereto all relevant documents. The +cases so presented are interchanged by transmission to the opposite +party. The hearing consists in the discussion of the matters +contained in the several cases, and is conducted under the direction +of the president who is either the umpire, or, if there is no umpire, +one of the arbitrators. The members of the tribunal have the +right of putting questions to the counsel and agents of the parties +and to demand from them explanation of doubtful points. The +arbitral judgment is read out at a public sitting of the tribunal, +the counsel and agents having been duly summoned to hear it. +Any application for a revision of the award must be based on the +discovery of new evidence of such a nature as to exercise a +decisive influence on the judgment and unknown up to the +time when the hearing was closed, both to the tribunal itself +and to the party asking for the revision. These general rules +are universally applicable, but each case may require that +special rules should be added to them. These each tribunal +must make for itself.</p> + +<p>One special and necessary rule is in regard to the language to +be employed. This rule must vary according to convenience and +is therefore made <i>ad hoc</i>. In case No. 1 noted above, the court +allowed English or French to be spoken according to the nationality +of the counsel engaged. The judgment was delivered in +French only. In case No. 2 it was agreed that the written and +printed memoranda should be in English but might be accompanied +by a translation into the language of the power on whose +behalf they were put in. The oral discussion was either in +English or French as happened to be convenient. The judgment +was drawn up in both languages. In case No. 3 French was the +official language throughout, but the parties were allowed to +make any communication to the tribunal, in French, English, +German or Japanese. In case No. 4 French was again the +official language, but the counsel and agents of both parties were +allowed to address the tribunal in English. The protocols and +the judgment were drawn up in French accompanied by an +official English translation.</p> + +<p><i>Limits of International Arbitration</i>.—Of the numerous treaties +for general arbitration which have been made during the 20th +century that between Great Britain and France (1903) is a type. +This treaty contains reservations of all questions involving the +vital interests, the independence or the honour of the contracting +parties. The language of the reservation is open to more interpretations +than one. What, for instance, is meant by the phrase +“national independence” in this connexion? If it be taken +in its strict acceptation of autonomous state sovereignty, the +exception is somewhat of a truism. No self-respecting power +would, of course, consent to submit to arbitration a question of +life or death. This would be as if two men were to agree to draw +lots as to which should commit suicide in order to avoid fighting a +duel. On the other hand, if the exception be taken to exclude all +questions which, when decided adversely to a state, impose a +restraint on its freedom of action, then the exception would seem +to exclude such a question as the true interpretation of an +ambiguous treaty, a subject with which experience shows +international arbitration is well fitted to deal. Again, we may +ask, what is meant by the phrase “national honour”? It was +thought at one time that the honour of a nation could only be +vindicated by war, though all that had happened was the +slighting of its flag, or of its accredited representative, during +some sudden ebullition of local feeling. France once nearly +broke off peaceful relations with Spain because her ambassador at +London was assigned a place below the Spanish ambassador, and +on another occasion she despatched troops into Italy because her +ambassador at Rome had been insulted by the friends and +partisans of the pope. The truth is that the extent to which +national honour is involved depends on factors which have +nothing to do with the immediate subject of complaint. So long +as general good feeling subsists between two nations, neither will +easily take offence at any discourteous act of the other. But +when a deep-seated antagonism is concealed beneath an unruffled +surface, the most trivial incident will bring it to the light of day. +“Outraged national honour” is a highly elastic phrase. It may +serve as a pretext for a serious quarrel whether the alleged +“outrage” be great or small.</p> + +<p>The prospects of the expansion of international arbitration +will be more clearly perceived if we classify afresh all state +differences under two heads:—(1) those which have a legal +character, (2) those which have a political character. Under +“legal differences” may be ranged such as are capable of being +decided, when once the facts are ascertained, by settled, recognized +rules, or by rules not settled nor recognized, but (as in the +“Alabama” case) taken so to be for the purpose in hand. Boundary +cases and cases of indemnity for losses sustained by non-combatants +in time of war, of which several instances have already +been mentioned, belong to this class. To the same class belong +those cases in which the arbitrators have to adapt the provisions +of an old treaty to new and altered circumstances, somewhat in +the way in which English courts of justice apply the doctrine of +“cy-prčs.” “Political differences” on the other hand, are such +as affect states in their external relations, or in relation to their +subjects or dependants who may be in revolt against them. +Some of these differences may be slight, while others may be +vital, or (which amounts to the same thing) may seem to the +parties to be so. All differences falling under the first of these +two general heads appear to be suitable for international arbitration. +Differences falling under the second general head are, for +the most part, unsuitable, and may only be adjusted (if at all) +through the mediation of a friendly power.</p> + +<p>The interesting problem of the future is—are we to regard this +classification as fixed or as merely transitory? The answer +depends on several considerations which can only be glanced at +here. It may be that, just as the usages of civilized nations have +slowly crystallized into international law, so there may come a +time when the political principles that govern states in relation to +each other will be so clearly defined and so generally accepted as +to acquire something of a legal or quasi-legal character. If they +do, they will pass the line which at present separates arbitrable +from non-arbitrable matter. This is the juridical aspect of the +problem. But there is also an economic side to it by reason +of the conditions of modern warfare. Already the nations are +groaning under the burdens of militarism, and are for ever +diverting energies that might be employed in the furtherance of +useful productive work to purposes of an opposite character. +The interruption of maritime intercourse, the stagnation of +industry and trade, the rise in the price of the necessaries of life, +the impossibility of adequately providing for the families of +those—call them reservists, “landwehr,” or what you will—who +are torn away from their daily toil to serve in the tented field,—these +are considerations that may well make us pause before we +abandon a peaceful solution and appeal to brute force. Lastly, +there is the moral aspect of the problem. In order that international +arbitration may do its perfect work, it is not enough to +set up a standing tribunal, whether at the Hague or elsewhere, +and to equip it with elaborate rules of procedure. Tribunals and +rules are, after all, only machinery. If this machinery is to act +smoothly we must improve our motive power, the source of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span> +which is human passion and sentiment. Although religious +animosities between Christian nations have died out, although +dynasties may now rise and fall without raising half Europe to +arms, the springs of warlike enterprise are still to be found in +commercial jealousies, in imperialistic ambitions and in the +doctrine of the survival of the fittest which lends scientific support +to both. These must one and all be cleared away before we can +enter on that era of universal peace towards the attainment of +which the tsar of Russia declared, in his famous circular of 1898, +the efforts of all governments should be directed. Meanwhile it +is legitimate to share the hope expressed by President Roosevelt +in his message to Congress of December 1905 that some future +Hague conference may succeed in making arbitration the customary +method of settling international disputes in all save the few +classes of cases indicated above, and that—to quote Mr +Roosevelt’s words—“these classes may themselves be as sharply +defined and rigidly limited as the governmental and social +development of the world will for the time being permit.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Among special treatises are: Kamarowsky, <i>Le +Tribunal international</i> (traduit par Serge de Westman) (Paris, 1887); +Rouard de Card, <i>Les Destinées de l’arbitrage international, depuis la +sentence rendue par le tribunal de Genčve</i> (Paris, 1892); Michel Revon, +<i>L’Arbitrage international</i> (Paris, 1892); Ferdinand Dreyfus, <i>L’Arbitrage +international</i> (Paris, 1894) (where the earlier authorities are +collected); A. Merignhac, <i>Traité de l’arbitrage international</i> (Paris, +1895); Le Chevalier Descamps, <i>Essai sur l’organisation de l’arbitrage +international</i> (Bruxelles, 1896); Feraud-Giraud, <i>Des Traités d’arbitrage +international général et permanent, Revue de droit international</i> +(Bruxelles. 1897); <i>Pasicrisie International</i>, by Senator H. Lafontaine +(Berne, 1902); <i>Recueils d’actes et protocols de la cour permanente +d’Arbitrage</i>, Langenhuysen Frčres, the Hague.</p> + +<p>Of works in English there is a singular dearth. The most important +is by an American, J.B. Moore, <i>History of the International Arbitrations +to which the United States has been a Party</i> (Washington, 1898). +The appendices to this work (which is in six volumes) contain, with +much other matter of great value, full historical notes of arbitrations +between other powers. Arbitration and mediation will be found +briefly noticed in Phillimore’s <i>International Law</i>; in Sir Henry +Maine’s <i>Lectures</i>, delivered in Cambridge in 1887; in W.E. Hall’s +<i>International Law</i>, and more at length in an interesting paper +contributed by John Westlake to the <i>International Journal of Ethics</i>, +October 1896, which its author has reprinted privately. A London +journal, <i>The Herald of Peace and International Arbitration</i>, issued +some years ago a list of instances in which arbitration or mediation +had been successfully resorted to during the 19th century. David +Dudley Field, of New York, subsequently enlarged this list, which +has been continued under the title <i>International Tribunals</i>, by Dr +W. Evans Darby, and is published, along with the texts of several +projects for general arbitration, at the offices of the Peace Society, +47 New Broad Street, London.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. H. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span>. The terms “arbitration +and conciliation” as employed in this article, are used to +describe a group of methods of settling disputes between employers +and work-people or among two or more sets of work-people, +of which the common feature is the intervention of some outside +party not directly affected by the dispute. If the parties agree +beforehand to abide by the award of the third party, the mode of +settlement is described as “arbitration.” If there be no such +agreement, but the offices of the mediator are used to promote +an amicable arrangement between the parties themselves, the +process is described as “conciliation.” The third party may be +one or more disinterested individuals, or a joint-board representative +of the parties or of other bodies or persons.</p> + +<p>The process here termed “arbitration” is rarely an arbitration +in the strict legal sense of the term (at least in the United +Kingdom), because of the defective legal personality of the +associations or groups of individuals who are usually parties +to labour disputes, and the consequent absence in the great +majority of cases of a valid legal “submission” of the difference +to arbitration. Whether or not trade unions of employers or +workmen in the United Kingdom are capable of entering through +their agents into contracts which are legally binding on their +members it is fairly certain that the great majority of the agreements +actually made by the representatives of employers and +workmen to submit a dispute to the decision of a third party +are of no legal force except as regards the actual signatories. +Broadly speaking, therefore, the provisions of the Arbitration +Act 1889, which consolidated the law relating to arbitration +in general, would as a rule have no application to the settlement +of collective disputes between employers and workmen, even if +the act had not been expressly excluded by section 3 of the +Conciliation Act of 1896 in the case of disputes to which that act +applies. Besides the absence of a legal “submission,” labour +arbitrations differ from ordinary arbitrations in the fact that +the questions referred often (though by no means always) +relate to the terms on which future contracts shall be made, +whereas the vast majority of ordinary arbitrations relate to +questions arising out of existing contracts. The defective “personality” +of the parties to labour disputes also prevents the +enforcement of an award by legal penalties. Since, however, +difficulties of enforcement affect not only settlements arrived at +by arbitration, but all agreements between bodies of employers +and work-people with regard to the terms of employment, +they are most appropriately considered at a later stage of this +article.</p> + +<p>The term “conciliation” is ordinarily used to cover a large +number of methods of settlement, shading off in the one direction +into “arbitration” and in the other into ordinary direct negotiation +between the parties. In some cases conciliation only differs +from arbitration in the absence of a previous agreement to accept +the award. The German “<i>Gewerbegerichten</i>,” when dealing +with labour disputes, communicate a decision to both parties, +who must notify their acceptance or otherwise (see below). +Some of the state boards in America take similar action. The +conciliation boards established under the New Zealand Arbitration +Act of 1894 (see below) make recommendations, though either +side may decline to accept them and may appeal to the court +of arbitration, which in that colony has compulsory powers. +Most frequently, however, in Great Britain, the mediating +party abstains from pronouncing a definite judgment of his +own, but confines himself to friendly suggestions with a view +of removing obstacles to an agreement between the parties. +On the other hand, it is not easy to define how far the “outside +party” must be independent of the parties to the dispute, +in order that the method of settlement may be properly described +as “conciliation.” There is a sense in which a friendly conversation +between an employer or his manager and a deputation of +aggrieved workmen is rightly described as “conciliation,” +but such an interview would certainly not be covered by the +term as ordinarily used at the present day. Again, when the +parties are represented by agents (<i>e.g.</i> the officials of an employers’ +association and of a trade union) the actual negotiators or some +of them may not personally be affected by the particular +dispute, and may often exercise some of the functions of the +mediator or conciliator in a manner not clearly to be distinguished +from the action of an outside party. It seems best, however, to +exclude such negotiations from our purview so long as those +between whom they are carried on merely act as the authorized +agents for the parties affected. In the same way, a meeting +arranged <i>ad hoc</i> between delegates of an employers’ association +and a trade union, for the purpose of arranging differences +as to the terms on which the members of the association shall +employ members of the union is not usually classed as “conciliation,” +unless the meeting is held in the presence of an +independent chairman or conciliator, or in pursuance of a +permanent agreement between the associations laying down the +procedure for the settlement of disputes. If, however, the +dispute is considered and arranged not by a casual meeting +between two committees and deputations appointed <i>ad hoc</i>, +but by a permanently organized “joint committee” or board +with a constitution, rules of procedure and officers of its own, +the process of settlement is by ordinary usage described as +“conciliation,” even though the board be entirely representative +of the persons engaged in the industry. Such joint boards, as will +be seen, play a most important part in conciliation at the present +day, and they almost always have attached to them some +machinery for the ultimate decision by arbitration of questions +on which they fail to agree. Another form of conciliation is that +in which the mediating board represents a wider group of +industries than those affected by the dispute (<i>e.g.</i> the London +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span> +and other “district” boards referred to below). Moreover, +in some of the most important cases of settlement of disputes +by conciliation, the mediating party has not been a permanent +board but a disinterested individual, <i>e.g.</i> the mayor, county +court judge, government official or member of parliament. As +will be seen below, the Conciliation Act now provides for the +appointment of “conciliators” by the Board of Trade.</p> + +<p>Voluntary trade boards, however (<i>i.e.</i> permanent joint boards +representing employers and work-people in particular trades), +are at once the most firmly established and the most important +agencies in Great Britain for the prevention and settlement of +labour disputes. Among the earliest of such bodies was the +board of arbitration in the Macclesfield silk trade, formed in +1849, in imitation of the French “<i>Conseils de Prud’hommes</i>,” +but which only lasted four years. The first board, however, +which attained any degree of permanent success was that established +for the hosiery and glove trade in Nottingham in 1860, +through the efforts of A.J. Mundella. In 1864 a board was +established in the Wolverhampton building trades, with Rupert +Kettle as chairman, and in 1868 boards were formed for the +pottery trade, the Leicester hosiery trade and the Nottingham +lace trade. In 1869 there was formed one of the most important +of the still existing boards, viz. the board of arbitration and +conciliation in the manufactured iron and steel trades of the +north of England, with which the names of Rupert Kettle, +David Dale and others are associated. In 1872 and 1873 joint +committees were formed in the Durham and Northumberland +coal trades to deal with local questions. The Leicester boot and +shoe trade board, the first of an elaborate system of local boards +in this trade, was founded in 1875. From about 1870 onwards +there was a great movement for the establishment of “sliding +scales” in the coal and iron and steel trades, which by regulating +wages automatically rendered unnecessary the settlement of +general wages by conciliation or arbitration. These sliding +scales, however, usually had attached to them joint committees +for dealing with disputed questions. A sliding scale arranged by +David Dale was attached to the manufactured iron trade board +in 1871. A sliding scale for the Cleveland blast furnacemen +came into force in 1879. Sliding scales were also adopted in the +coal trade in many districts, <i>e.g.</i> South Wales (1875), Durham +(1877) and Northumberland (1879). The movement was, +however, followed by a reaction, and several of the sliding +scales in the coal trade were terminated between 1887 and 1889. +In 1902 the last surviving sliding scale in the coal trade, viz. in +South Wales, ceased to exist and was replaced by a conciliation +board.</p> + +<p>The formation on a large scale of conciliation boards in the +coal trade to fix the rate of wages dates from the great miners’ +dispute of 1893, one of the terms of settlement agreed to at the +conference held at the foreign office under Lord Rosebery being +the formation of a conciliation board covering the districts +affected. Northumberland followed in 1894, Durham in 1895, +Scotland in 1900 and South Wales in 1903.</p> + +<p>In 1907 an important scheme for the formation of conciliation +boards for railway companies and their employees was adopted +as the result of the action taken by the president of the Board of +Trade to prevent a general strike of railway servants in that year. +Under this scheme separate boards (sectional and general) were +to be formed for the employees of each railway company which +adhered to the scheme, with provision for reference in case of a +deadlock to an umpire.</p> + +<p>The first general district board to be formed was that established +in London in 1890, through the London chamber of +commerce, as a sequel to the Mansion House committee which +mediated in the great London dock strike of 1889. The example +was followed by several large towns, but the action taken by +the boards in most of these provincial districts has been very +limited.</p> + +<p>In addition there are two boards composed of representatives +of co-operators and trade-unionists for the settlement of disputes +arising between co-operative societies and their employees.</p> + +<p>The most typical form of machinery for the settlement of +disputes by voluntary conciliation is a joint board consisting of +equal numbers of representatives of employers and +employed. The members of the board are usually +<span class="sidenote">Constitution and functions of voluntary conciliation boards.</span> +elected by the associations of employers and workmen, +though in some cases (<i>e.g.</i> in the manufactured iron +trade board) the workmen’s representatives are elected +not by their trade union but by meetings of workmen +employed at the various works. The chairman may be +an independent person, or, more usually, a representative of the +employers, the vice-chairman being a representative of the workmen. +In the arbitration and conciliation boards in the boot and +shoe trade, provision is made by which the chair may be occupied +by representatives of the employers and workmen in alternate +years. An independent chairman usually has a casting vote, +which practically makes him an umpire in case of equal voting, +but where there is no outside chairman there is often provision for +reference of cases on which the board cannot agree to an umpire, +who may either be a permanent officer of the board elected for a +period of time (as in the case of several of the boards in the boot +and shoe trade), or selected <i>ad hoc</i> by the board or appointed by +some outside person or body. Thus the choice of the permanent +chairman or umpire of the miners’ conciliation board, formed in +pursuance of the settlement of the coal dispute of 1893 by Lord +Rosebery, was left to the speaker of the House of Commons. +The nomination of umpires under the Railway Agreement of +1907 was left to the speaker and the master of the rolls. Since the +passing of the Conciliation Act, several conciliation boards have +provided in their rules for the appointment of umpires by the +Board of Trade.</p> + +<p>Conciliation boards constituted as described above usually +have rules providing that there shall always be equality of voting +as between employer and workmen, in spite of the casual absence +of individuals on one side or the other. In order to expedite +business it is sometimes provided that all questions shall be first +considered by a sub-committee, with power to settle them by +agreement before coming before the full board. Boards of conciliation +and arbitration conforming more or less to the above +type exist in the coal, iron and steel, boot and shoe and other +industries in the United Kingdom. A somewhat different form of +organization has prevailed in the cotton-spinning trade (since the +dispute of 1892-1893) and in the engineering trade (since the +engineering dispute of 1897-1898). In these important industries +there are no permanent boards for the settlement of general +questions, but elaborate agreements are in force between the +employers’ and workmen’s organizations which among other +things prescribe the mode in which questions at issue shall be +dealt with and if possible settled. In the first place, if the +question cannot be settled between the employer and his workmen, +it is dealt with by the local associations or committees or +their officials, and failing a settlement in this manner, is referred +to a joint meeting of the executive committees of the two +associations. In neither agreement is there any provision for the +ultimate decision of unsettled questions by arbitration. The +agreement in the cotton trade is known as the “Brooklands +Agreement,” and a large number of questions have been amicably +settled under its provisions. In the building trade, it is very +customary for the local “working rules,” agreed to mutually by +employers and employed in particular districts, to contain +“conciliation rules” providing for the reference of disputed +questions to a joint committee with or without an ultimate +reference to arbitration. Yet another form of voluntary board is +the “district board,” consisting in most cases of representatives +elected in equal numbers by the local chamber of commerce and +trades council respectively. In the case, however, of the London +Conciliation Board the workmen’s representatives are elected, +twelve by specially summoned meetings of trade union delegates +and two by co-optation. The functions of district boards are to +deal with disputes in any trade which may occur within their +districts, and of course they can only take action with the +consent of both parties to the dispute, in this respect differing +from the majority of “trade” boards, which, as a rule, are +empowered by the agreement under which they are constituted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span> +to deal with questions on the application of either party. +Another interesting type of board is that representing two or +more groups of workmen and sometimes their employers, with +the object of settling “demarcation” disputes between the +groups of workmen (<i>i.e.</i> questions as to the limits of the work +which each group may claim to perform). Examples of such +boards are those representing shipwrights and joiners on the +Clyde, Tyne and elsewhere. While the arrangements for voluntary +conciliation and arbitration differ in this way in various +industries, there is an equally wide variation in the character and +range of questions which the boards are empowered to determine. +For example, some boards in the coal trade (<i>e.g.</i> the conciliation +boards in Northumberland and the so-called “Federated +Districts”) deal solely with the general rate of wages. Others, +<i>e.g.</i> the “joint committee” in Northumberland and Durham, +confine their attention solely to local questions not affecting the +counties as a whole. The Durham conciliation board deals with +any general or county questions. This distinction between +“general” and “local” questions corresponds nearly, though not +entirely, to the distinction often drawn between questions of the +terms of future employment and of the interpretation of existing +agreements. Some conciliation boards are unlimited as regards +the scope of the questions which they may consider. This was +formerly the case with the boards in the boot and shoe trade, but +under the “terms of settlement” of the dispute in 1895 drawn up +at the Board of Trade, certain classes of questions (<i>e.g.</i> the +employment of particular individuals, the adoption of piece-work +or time-work, &c.) were wholly or partially withdrawn from +their consideration, and any decision of a board contravening the +“terms of settlement” is null and void. A special feature in the +procedure for conciliation and arbitration in the boot and shoe +trade, is the deposit by each party of Ł1000 with trustees, as a +financial guarantee for the performance of agreements and +awards. A certain class of conciliation boards, mostly in the +Midland metal trades, were attached to “alliances” of employers +and employed, having for their object the regulation of production +and of prices (<i>e.g.</i> the Bedstead Trade Wages Board). +None of these alliances, however, have survived.</p> + +<p>At all events up to the year 1896, the development of arbitration +and conciliation as methods of settling labour disputes +in the United Kingdom was entirely independent of +any legislation. Previously to the Conciliation Act of +<span class="sidenote">Legislation in the United Kingdom.</span> +1896 several attempts had been made by parliament to +promote arbitration and conciliation, but with little or +no practical result, and the act of 1896 repealed all previous +legislation on the subject, at the same time excluding the operation +of the Arbitration Act of 1889 from the settlement of “any +difference or dispute to which this act applies.” The laws repealed +by the Conciliation Act need only a few words of mention. During +the 18th century the fixing of wages by magistrates under the +Elizabethan legislation gradually decayed, and acts of 1745 and +1757 gave summary jurisdiction to justices of the peace to +determine disputes between masters and servants in certain +circumstances, although no rate of wages had been fixed that +year by the justices of the peace of the shire. These and other +laws, relating specially to disputes in the cotton-weaving trade, +were consolidated and amended by the Arbitration Act of 1824. +This act seems chiefly to have been aimed at disputes relating to +piece-work in the textile trades, though applicable to other +disputes arising out of a wages contract. It expressly excluded, +however, the fixing of a rate of wages or price of labour or workmanship +at which the workmen should in future be paid unless +with the mutual consent of both master and workmen. The act +gave compulsory powers of settling the disputes to which it relates +on application of either party to a court of arbitrators representing +employers and workmen nominated by a magistrate. The +award could be enforced by distress or imprisonment. The act +was subsequently amended in detail, and by the “Councils of +Conciliation” Act of 1867 power was given to the home secretary +to license “equitable councils of conciliation and arbitration” +equally representative of masters and workmen, who should +thereupon have the powers conferred by the act of 1824. The +act contains provisions for the appointment of conciliation +committees, and other details which are of little interest seeing +that the act was never put into operation. Another amendment +of the act of 1824 was made by the Arbitration (Masters and +Workmen) Act of 1872, which contemplated the conclusion of +agreements between employers and employed, designating some +board of arbitration by which disputes included within the scope +of the former acts should be determined. A master or workman +should be deemed to be bound by an agreement under the act, if +he accepted a printed copy of the agreement and did not repudiate +it within forty-eight hours. Like the previous legislation, +however, the act of 1872 was inoperative. The evidence given +before the Royal Commission on Labour (1891-1894) disclosed +the existence of a considerable body of opinion in favour of some +further action by the state for the prevention or settlement of +labour disputes, and some impetus was given to the movement by +the settlement through official mediation of several important +disputes, <i>e.g.</i> the great coal-miners’ dispute of 1893 by a conference +presided over by Lord Rosebery, the cab-drivers’ dispute +of 1894 by the mediation of the home secretary (H.H. Asquith), +and the boot and shoe trade dispute of 1895 by a Board of Trade +conference under the chairmanship of Sir Courtenay Boyle. In +these, and a few other less important cases, the intervention of +the Board of Trade or other department took place without any +special statutory sanction. The Conciliation Act passed in 1896 +was framed with a view to giving express authorization to such +action in the future.</p> + +<p>This act is of a purely voluntary character. Its most important +provisions are those of section 2, empowering the Board of +Trade in cases “where a difference exists or is apprehended +between any employer, or any class of employers, and workmen, +or between different classes of workmen,” to take certain steps +to promote a settlement of the difference. They may of their +own initiative hold an inquiry or endeavour to arrange a meeting +between the parties under a chairman mutually agreed on or +appointed from the outside, and on the application of either +party they may appoint a conciliator or a board of conciliation +who shall communicate with the parties and endeavour to bring +about a settlement and report their proceedings to the Board +of Trade. On the application of both parties the Board of Trade +may appoint an arbitrator. In all cases the Board of Trade +has discretion as to the action to be taken, and there is no provision +either for compelling the parties to accept their mediation +or to abide by any agreement effected through their intervention. +There are other provisions in the act providing for the registration +of voluntary conciliation boards, and for the promotion by the +Board of Trade of the formation of such boards in districts and +trades in which they are deficient. During the first eleven years +after the passage of the act the number of cases arising under +section 2 (providing for action by the Board of Trade for the +settlement of actual or apprehended disputes) averaged twenty-one +per annum, and the number of settlements effected fifteen. In +the remaining cases the Board of Trade either refused to entertain +the application or failed to effect a settlement, or the disputes +were settled between the parties during the negotiations. About +three-quarters of the settlements were effected by arbitration +and one-quarter by conciliation. A number of voluntary conciliation +boards formed or reorganized since the passing of the +act provide in their rules for an appeal to the Board of Trade +to appoint an umpire in case of a deadlock. At least thirty-six +trade boards are known to have already adopted this course. +The figures given above show that the Conciliation Act of 1896 +has not, like previous legislation, been a dead letter, though +the number of actual disputes settled is small compared with +the total number annually recorded.</p> + +<p>Arbitration and conciliation in labour disputes as practised +in the United Kingdom are entirely voluntary, both as regards +the initiation and conduct of the negotiations and the +carrying out of the agreement resulting therefrom, +<span class="sidenote">Proposals for compulsion.</span> +In all these respects arbitration, though terminating +in what is called a binding award, is on precisely the +same legal footing as conciliation, which results in a mutual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span> +agreement. Various proposals have been made (and in some +cases carried into effect in certain countries) for introducing +an element of compulsion into this class of proceeding. There +are three stages at which compulsion may conceivably be introduced, +(1) The parties may be compelled by law to submit +their dispute to some tribunal or board of conciliation; (2) the +board of conciliation or arbitration may have power to compel +the attendance of witnesses and the production of documents; +(3) the parties may be compelled to observe the award of the +board of arbitration. The most far-reaching schemes of compulsory +arbitration in force in any country are those in force in +New Zealand and certain states in Australia. Bills have been +introduced into the British House of Commons for clothing +voluntary boards of conciliation and arbitration, under certain +conditions, with powers to require attendance of witnesses +and production of documents, without, however, compelling +the parties to submit their disputes to these boards or to abide +by their decisions. In the United Kingdom, however, more +attention has recently been given to the question of strengthening +the sanction for the carrying out of awards and agreements +than of compelling the parties to enter into such arrangements. +An interesting step towards the solution of the difficulty of enforcement +in certain cases is perhaps afforded by the provisions +of the terms of settlement of the dispute in the boot and shoe +trade drawn up at the Board of Trade in 1895. Under this agreement +Ł1000 was deposited by each party with trustees, who +were directed by the trust-deed to pay over to either party, out +of the money deposited by the other, any sum which might be +awarded as damages by the umpire named in the deed, for the +breach of the agreement or of any award made by an arbitration +board in consonance with it. Very few claims for damages have +been sustained under this agreement. Nevertheless it cannot +be doubted that the pecuniary liability of the parties has given +stability to the work of the local arbitration boards, and the +satisfaction of both sides with the arrangement is shown by the +fact that the trust-deed which lapsed in 1900 has been several +times renewed by common agreement for successive periods of +two years, and is now in force for an indefinite period subject +to six months’ notice from either side. Theoretically a trust-deed +of this kind can only offer a guarantee up to the point +at which the original deposit on one side or the other is exhausted, +as it is impossible to compel either party to renew the deposit. +A proposal was made by the duke of Devonshire and certain of +his colleagues on the Royal Commission on Labour for empowering +associations of employers and employed to acquire, if they +desired it, sufficient legal personality and corporate character to +enable them to sue each other or their own members for breach +of agreement. This would give the association aggrieved by a +breach of award the power of suing the defaulting organization +to recover damages out of their corporate funds, while each +association could exact penalties from its members for such a +breach. For this reason the suggestion has met with a good deal +of support by many interested in arbitration and conciliation, but +has been steadily opposed by representatives of the trade unions.</p> + +<p>The question is not free from difficulties. The object of the +change would be to convert what are at present only morally +binding understandings into legally enforceable contracts. But +apart from the possibility that some of such contracts would be +held by the courts to be void as being “in restraint of trade,” +the tendency might be to give a strict legal interpretation to +working agreements which might deprive them of some of their +effectiveness for the settlement of the conditions of future contracts +between employers and workmen, while possibly deterring +associations from entering into such agreements for fear +of litigation. Individuals, moreover, could avoid liability by +leaving their associations. In practice the cases of repudiation +or breach of an award or agreement are not common. In +countries like New Zealand, where the parties are compelled +to submit their differences to arbitration, some of the above +objections do not apply.</p> + +<p>The following statistics are based on the reports of the Labour +department of the Board of Trade. The number of boards of +conciliation and arbitration known to be in existence in the +United Kingdom is nearly 200, but a good many of +<span class="sidenote">Statistics of existing agencies.</span> +these do little or no active work. Only about one-third +of these boards deal with actual cases in any one +year, the active boards being mainly connected with +mining, iron and steel, engineering and shipbuilding, boot and +shoe and building trades. During the ten years 1897-1906 +the total number of cases considered by these boards averaged +about 1500 annually, of which they have settled about half, +the remainder having been withdrawn, referred back or otherwise +settled. About three-quarters of the cases settled were +determined by the boards themselves and only one-quarter by +umpires. The great majority of the cases settled were purely +local questions. Thus more than half the total were dealt with +by the “joint committees” in the Northumberland and Durham +coal trades, which confine their action to local questions, +such as fixing the “hewing prices” for new seams. The great +majority of the cases settled did not actually involve stoppage +of work, the most useful work of these permanent boards being +the prevention rather than the settlement of strikes and lockouts. +A certain number of disputes are settled every year by +the mediation or arbitration of disinterested individuals, <i>e.g.</i> +the local mayor or county court judge.</p> + +<p>The extent to which the methods of arbitration and conciliation +can be expected to afford a substitute for strikes and lockouts +is one on which opinions differ very widely. The +difficulties arising from the impossibility of enforcing +<span class="sidenote">Future scope and limits.</span> +agreements or awards by legal process have already +been discussed. Apart from these, however, it is evident +that both methods imply that the parties, especially the work-people, +are organized at least to the extent of being capable of +negotiating through agents. In some industries (<i>e.g.</i> agriculture +or domestic service) this preliminary condition is not satisfied; +in others the men’s leaders possess little more than consultative +powers, and employers may hesitate to deal either directly or +through a third party with individuals or committees who have +so little authority over those whom they claim to represent. +And even where the trade organizations are strong, some employers +refuse in any way to recognize the representative character +of the men’s officials. The question of the “recognition” +of trade unions by employers is a frequent cause of disputes +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strikes and Lock-outs</a></span>.) It may be observed, however, +that it often occurs that in cases in which both employers and +employed are organized into associations which are accustomed +to deal with each other, one or both parties entertain a strong +objection to the intervention of any outside mediator, or to the +submission of differences to an arbitrator. Thus the engineering +employers in 1897 were opposed to any outside intervention, +though ready to negotiate with the delegates chosen by the men. +On the other hand, the cotton operatives have more than once +opposed the proposal of the employers to refer the rate of wages +to arbitration, and throughout the great miners’ dispute of 1893 +the opposition to arbitration came from the men. Naturally, +the party whose organization is the stronger is usually the less +inclined to admit outside intervention. But there have also been +cases in which employers, who refused to deal directly with trade +union officials, have been willing to negotiate with a mediator +who was well known to be in communication with these officials, +<i>e.g.</i> in the case of the Railway Settlement of 1907.</p> + +<p>Apart, however, from the disinclination of one or both parties +to allow of any outside intervention, we have to consider how +far the nature of the questions in dispute may in any particular +case put limits to the applicability of conciliation or arbitration +as a method of settlement. Since conciliation is only a general +term for the action of a third party in overcoming the obstacles +to the conclusion of an agreement by the parties themselves, +there is no class of questions which admit of settlement +by direct negotiation which may not equally be settled by this +method, provided of course that there is an adequate supply of +sufficiently skilful mediators. As regards arbitration the case +is somewhat different, seeing that in this case the parties agree +to be bound by the award of a third party. For the success +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span> +of arbitration, therefore, it is important that the general principles +which should govern the settlement of the particular question +at issue should be admitted by both sides. Thus in the manufactured +iron trade in the north of England, it has throughout +been understood that wages should depend on the prices realized, +and the only question which an arbitrator has usually had to +decide has been how far the state of prices at the time warranted +a particular change of wage. On the other hand, there are many +questions on which disputes arise (<i>e.g.</i> the employment of non-union +labour, the restriction of piece-work, &c.) on which there +is frequently no common agreement as to principles, and an +arbitrator may be at a loss to know what considerations he is +to take into account in determining his award. Generally speaking, +employers are averse from submitting to a third party questions +involving discipline and the management of their business, +while in some trades workmen have shown themselves opposed to +allowing an arbitrator to reduce wages beyond a certain point +which they wish to regard as a guaranteed “minimum.”</p> + +<p>Another objection on the part of some employers and workmen +to unrestricted arbitration is its alleged tendency to multiply +disputes by providing an easy way of solving them without +recourse to strikes or lock-outs, and so diminishing the sense +of responsibility in the party advancing the claims. It is also +sometimes contended that arbitrators, not being governed in +their decisions by a definite code of principles, may tend to +“split the difference,” so as to satisfy both sides even when the +demands on one side or the other are wholly unwarranted. +This, it is said, encourages the formulation of demands purposely +put high in order to admit of being cut down by an arbitrator. +One of the chief practical difficulties in the way of the successful +working of permanent boards of conciliation, consisting of +equal numbers of employers and employed, with an umpire +in case of deadlock, is the difficulty of inducing business men +whose time is fully occupied to devote the necessary time to the +work of the boards, especially when either side has it in its power +to compel recourse to the umpire, and so render the work of the +conciliation board fruitless. In spite of all these difficulties +the practice of arranging differences by conciliation and arbitration +is undoubtedly spreading, and it is to be remembered that +even in cases in which theoretically a basis for arbitration can +scarcely be said to exist, recourse to that method may often +serve a useful purpose in putting an end to a deadlock of +which both parties are tired, though neither cares to own itself +beaten.</p> + +<p class="pt1"><i>New Zealand</i>.—The New Zealand Industrial Conciliation +and Arbitration Act 1894 is important as the first practical +attempt of any importance to enforce compulsory arbitration +in trade disputes. The original act was amended by several +subsequent measures, and the law has been more than once +consolidated. The law provides for the incorporation of associations +of employers or workmen under the title of industrial +unions, and for the creation in each district of a joint conciliation +board, elected by these industrial unions, with an impartial +chairman elected by the board, to which a dispute may be referred +by any party, a strike or lock-out being thenceforth illegal. +If the recommendation of the conciliation board is not accepted +by either party, the matter goes to a court of arbitration consisting +of two persons representing employers and workmen +respectively, and a judge of the supreme court. Up to 1901 +disputes were ordinarily required to go first to a board of conciliation +except by agreement of the parties, but now either +party may carry a dispute direct to the arbitration court. +The amendment was adopted because it was found in practice +that the great majority of cases went ultimately to the arbitration +court, and conciliation board proceedings were often mere +waste of time. The award of the court is enforceable by legal +process, financial penalties up to Ł500 being recoverable from +defaulting associations or individuals. If the property of an +association is insufficient to pay the penalty, its members are +individually liable up to Ł10 each. It is the duty of factory +inspectors to see that awards are obeyed. The law provides for +the extension of awards to related trades, to employers entering +the industry hereafter, and in some cases to a whole industry.</p> + +<p>The above is only an outline of the principal provisions of this +law, under which questions of wages, hours and the relations of +employers and workmen generally in New Zealand (<i>q.v.</i>) industries +became practically the subject of state regulation. +The act must more properly be judged as a measure for the state +regulation of industry, but as a method of putting an end to +labour disputes its success has only been partial.</p> + +<p><i>Australia</i>.—The laws which are practically operative in Australia +with respect to arbitration and conciliation are all based +with modifications on the New Zealand system. The first compulsory +arbitration act passed in Australia was the New South +Wales Act of 1901. The principal points of difference between +this and the New Zealand act are that the conciliation procedure +is entirely omitted, the New South Wales measure being +purely an arbitration act. The arbitration court has greater +power over unorganized trades than in New Zealand, and the +scope of its awards is greatly enlarged by its power to declare +any condition of labour to be common rule of an industry, +and thus binding on all existing and future employers and +work-people in that industry. In Western Australia laws +were passed in 1900 and 1902 which practically adopted the +New Zealand legislation with certain modifications in detail.</p> + +<p>In 1904 the commonwealth of Australia passed a compulsory +arbitration law based mainly on those in force in New Zealand +and New South Wales, and applicable to disputes affecting more +than one Australian state. The arbitration court is empowered +to require any dispute within its cognizance to be referred to it +by the state authority proposing to deal with it. There are other +Australian laws which, though unrepealed (<i>e.g.</i> the South Australian +Act of 1894), are a dead-letter. Generally speaking, +the Australasian laws on arbitration and conciliation are more +stringent and far-reaching than any others in the world.</p> + +<p><i>Canada</i>.—In 1900 a conciliation act was passed by the Dominion +parliament resembling the United Kingdom act in most of its +features, and in 1903 the Canadian Railway Labour Disputes Act +made special provision for the reference of railway disputes to a +conciliation board and (failing settlement) to a court of arbitration.</p> + +<p>This act was consolidated with the Conciliation Act 1900 +during 1906 in an act respecting conciliation and labour, and +in March 1907 the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act became +law by which machinery is set up for the constitution of a board, +on the application of either side to a dispute in mines and +industries connected with public utilities, whenever a strike +involving more than ten employees is threatened. The provisions +of the act may be extended to other industries and railway +companies, and their employees may take action under +either the Conciliation and Labour Act or the Industrial Disputes +Investigation Act. Under the Investigation Act it is +unlawful for any employer to cause a lock-out, or for an employee +to go on strike on account of any dispute prior to or during +a reference of such dispute to a board constituted under the +act, or prior to or during a reference under the provisions concerning +railway disputes under the Conciliation and Labour Act. +There is nothing, however, in the act to prevent a strike or +lock-out taking place after the dispute has been investigated.</p> + +<p><i>France</i>.—The French Conciliation and Arbitration Law of +December 1892 provides that either party to a labour dispute +may apply to the <i>juge de paix</i> of the canton, who informs the +other party of the application. If they concur within three days, +a joint committee of conciliation is formed of not more than +five representatives of each party, which meets in the presence +of the <i>juge de paix</i>, who, however, has no vote. If no agreement +results the parties are invited to appoint arbitrators. If such +arbitrators are appointed and cannot agree on an umpire, the +president of the civil tribunal appoints an umpire. In the case +of an actual strike, in the absence of an application from either +party it is the duty of the <i>juge de paix</i> to invite the parties to +proceed to conciliation or arbitration. The results of the action +of the <i>juge de paix</i> and of the conciliation committee are placarded +by the mayors of the communes affected. The law leaves the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span> +parties entirely free to accept or reject the services of the <i>juge +de paix</i>.</p> + +<p>During the ten years 1897-1906 the act was put in force +in 1809 cases—viz. 916 on application of workmen; 49 of +employers; 40 of both sides; and 804 without application. +Altogether 616 disputes were settled—549 by conciliation and +67 by arbitration.</p> + +<p><i>Germany</i>.—In several continental European countries, courts +or boards are established by law to settle cases arising out of +existing labour contracts; <i>e.g.</i> the French “<i>Conseils de Prud’hommes</i>,” +the Italian “<i>Probi-Viri</i>,” and the German +“<i>Gewerbegerichten</i>,”—and some of the questions which come before +these bodies are such as might be dealt with in England by +voluntary boards or joint committees. The majority, however, +are disputes between individuals as to wages due, &c., which +would be determined in the United Kingdom by a court of +summary jurisdiction. It is noteworthy, however, that the +German industrial courts (<i>Gewerbegerichten</i>) are empowered +under certain conditions to offer their services to mediate +between the parties to an ordinary labour dispute. The main +law is that of 1890 which was amended in 1901. In the case +of a strike or lock-out the court must intervene on application +of both parties, and may do so of its own initiative or on the +invitation of one side. The conciliation board for this purpose +consists under the amending law of 1901 of the president of the +court and four or more representatives named by the parties +in equal numbers but not concerned in the dispute. Failing +appointment by the parties the president appoints them. Failing +a settlement at a conference between the parties in the +presence of the president and assessors of the court, the court +arrives at a decision on the merits of the dispute which is communicated +to the parties, who are allowed a certain time within +which to notify their acceptance or rejection. The court has +no power to compel the observance of its decision, but in certain +cases it may fine a witness for non-attendance. In the first +five years after the passage of the amending law of 1901 (viz. +1902-1906) there were 1139 applications for the intervention +of the industrial courts: 492 agreements were brought about +and 107 decisions were pronounced by the courts, of which 64 +were accepted by both parties.</p> + +<p><i>Switzerland</i>.—The canton of Geneva enacted a law in 1900 +providing for the settlement by negotiation, conciliation or +arbitration of the general terms of employment in a trade, +subject, however, to special arrangements between employers +and workmen in particular cases. The negotiations take place +between delegates chosen by the associations of employers and +employed, or failing them, by meetings summoned by the +council of state on sufficient applications. Failing settlement, +the council of state, on application from either party, is to +appoint one or more conciliators from its members, and if this +fail the central committee of the <i>Prud’hommes</i>, together with +the delegates of employers and workmen, is to form a board of +arbitration, whose decision is binding. Any collective suspension +of work is illegal during the period covered by the award +or agreement. Up to the end of 1904 only seven cases occurred +of application of the law to industrial differences. In Basel +(town) a law providing for voluntary conciliation by means of +boards of employers and workmen with an independent chairman +appointed <i>ad hoc</i> by the council of state of the canton, has been +in force since 1897, but it remained practically unused until 1902. +In the period from January 1902 to May 1905, 18 disputes were +dealt with and 10 settled under this law. A similar law was +adopted in St Gall in 1902. In the three years 1902-1904, +10 disputes were dealt with and 3 settled.</p> + +<p><i>Sweden</i>.—By a law which came into force on the 1st of January +1907, Sweden was divided into seven districts and in each district +a conciliator was appointed by the crown. The conciliator +must reside within his district and his principal duty is to promote +the settlement of disputes between employers and work-people or +between members of either class among themselves. He is also +on request to advise and otherwise assist employers and work-people +in framing agreements affecting the conditions of labour +if and so far as agreements are designed to promote good relations +between the two classes and to obviate stoppages of work.</p> + +<p><i>United States</i>.—In the United States several states have +legislated on the subject of conciliation and arbitration, among +the first of such acts being the “Wallace” Act of 1883, in +Pennsylvania, which, however, was almost inoperative. Altogether, +24 states have made constitutional or statutory provision +for mediation in trade disputes, of which 17 contemplate +the formation of permanent state boards. The only state laws +which require notice are those of Massachusetts and New York +providing for the formation of state boards of arbitration. The +Massachusetts board, founded in 1886, consists of one employer, +one employed and one independent person chosen by both. The +New York board (1886) consists of two representatives of different +political parties, and one member of a <i>bona fide</i> trade organization +within the state. In both states it is the duty of the board, +with or without application from the parties, to proceed to the +spot where a labour dispute has occurred, and to endeavour +to promote a settlement. The parties may decline its services, +but the board is empowered to issue a report, and on application +from either side to hold an inquiry and publish its decision, +which (in Massachusetts) is binding for six months, unless +sixty days’ notice to the contrary is given by one side to the +other. Several states, including Massachusetts and New York, +provide not only for state boards, but also for local boards.</p> + +<p>In Massachusetts, during 1906, the state board dealt with +158 disputes. Of these the board was appealed to as arbitrator +in 95 cases. Awards were rendered in 80 cases, 12 cases were +withdrawn and 3 cases were still pending at the end of the year. +In New York the number of cases dealt with is much smaller.</p> + +<p>Federal legislation can only touch the question of arbitration +and conciliation so far as regards disputes affecting commerce +between different states. Thus an act of June 1898 provides +that in a dispute involving serious interruption of business on +railways engaged in inter-state commerce, the chairman of the +Inter-State Commerce Commission and the commissioner of +labour shall, on application of either party, endeavour to effect +a settlement, or to induce the parties to submit the dispute +to arbitration. While an arbitration under the act is pending +a strike or lock-out is unlawful.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—For the recent development of arbitration and +conciliation in the United Kingdom, see the <i>Annual Reports of the +Labour Department of the Board of Trade on Strikes and Lock-outs</i> +from 1888 onwards. Since 1890 these reports have contained special +appendices on the work of arbitration boards. See also the <i>Labour +Gazette</i> (the monthly journal of the Labour Department) from 1893 +onward, and the <i>Report on Rules of Voluntary Conciliation and +Arbitration Boards and Joint Committees</i>. The <i>Reports of the Royal +Commission on Labour</i> (1891-1894) contain much valuable information +on the subject. For the working of the Conciliation Act see the +<i>Reports</i> of the Board of Trade on their proceedings under the +Conciliation Act 1896. For the earlier history in the United Kingdom: +Crompton, <i>Industrial Conciliation</i> (1876); Price, <i>Industrial +Peace</i> (1887). For foreign and colonial developments: the third +<i>Abstract of Foreign Labour Statistics</i> (1906), issued by the Board of +Trade; <i>Report on Government Industrial Arbitration</i>, by L.W. Hatch +(Bulletin of Bureau of Labour of United States Department of +Commerce and Labour, September 1905); the report of the French +<i>Office du Travail</i>, <i>De la conciliation et de l’arbitrage dans les conflits +collectifs entre patrons et ouvriers en France et ŕ l’étranger</i> (1893); +the Annual Reports of the same Department on <i>Strikes, Lockouts +and Arbitration</i>; the <i>Reports of the Massachusetts and New +York State Arbitration Boards</i>, and of the <i>New Zealand Department +of Labour</i>; and the <i>Labour Gazette</i>. See also the following +general works: N.P. Gilman, <i>Methods of Industrial Peace</i> (Boston, +1904); A.C. Pigou, <i>Principles and Methods of Industrial Peace</i> +(1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBOGAST<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (d. 394), a barbarian officer in the Roman army, +at the end of the 4th century. His nationality is uncertain, +but Zosimus, Eunapius and Sulpicius Alexander (a Gallo-Roman +historian quoted by Gregory of Tours) all refer to him +as a Frank. Having served with distinction against the Goths in +Thrace, he was sent by Theodosius in 388 against Maximus, who +had usurped the empire of the west and had murdered Gratian. +His complete success, which resulted in the destruction of Maximus +and his sons and the pacification of Gaul, led Theodosius +to appoint him chief minister for his young brother-in-law +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span> +Valentinian II. His rule was most energetic; but while he +favoured the barbarians in the imperial service, and appointed +them to high office, Valentinian, openly jealous of his minister, +sought to surround himself with Romans. As an offset to this, +Arbogast allied himself with the pagan element in Rome, while +Valentinian was strictly orthodox. In 392 Valentinian was +secretly put to death at Vienne (in Gaul), and Arbogast, naming +as his successor Eugenius, a rhetorician, descended into Italy +to meet the expedition which Theodosius was heading against +him. He proclaimed himself the champion of the old Roman +gods, and as a response to the appeal of Ambrose, is said to have +threatened to stable his horses in the cathedral of Milan, and +to force the monks to fight in his army. His defeat in the hard-fought +battle of the Frigidus saved Italy from these dangers. +Theodosius, after a two days’ fight, gained the victory by the +treachery of one of Arbogast’s generals, sent to cut off his +retreat. Eugenius was captured and executed, but Arbogast +escaped to the mountains, where however he slew himself three +days afterwards (8th of September 394). Although we have only +most distorted narratives upon which to rely—pagan eulogy and +Christian denunciation—Arbogast appears to have been one of +the greatest soldiers of the later empire, and a statesman of +no mean rank. His energy, and his apparent disdain for the +effete civilization which he protected, but which did not affect +his character, make his personality one of the most interesting +of the 4th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i> (1880), vol. i. chap. ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBOIS,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a town of eastern France, in the department of Jura, +on the Cuisance, 29 m. N.N.E. of Lons-le-Saunier by rail. Pop. +(1906) 3454. The town is the seat of the tribunal of first +instance of the arrondissement of Poligny, and has a communal +college. The church of St Just, founded in the 10th century, +has good wood-carving. An Ursuline convent, built in 1764, +serves as hôtel de ville and law court, and a church of the 14th +century is used as a market. There is an old château of the +dukes of Burgundy. Arbois is well known for its red and white +wines, and has saw-mills, tanneries and market gardens, and +manufactures paper, oil and casks.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBOIS DE JUBAINVILLE, MARIE HENRI D’<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1827-1910), +French historian and philologist, was born at Nancy on the 5th of +December 1827. In 1851 he left the École des Chartes with the +degree of palaeographic archivist. He was placed in control +of the departmental archives of Aube, and remained in that +position until 1880, when he retired on a pension. He published +several volumes of inventorial abstracts, a <i>Répertoire +archéologique du département</i> in 1861; a valuable <i>Histoire des +ducs et comtes de Champagne depuis le VI<span class="sp">e</span> sičcle jusqu’ŕ la +fin du XI<span class="sp">e</span></i>, which was published between 1859 and 1869 (8 vols.), +and in 1880 an instructive monograph upon <i>Les Intendants de +Champagne</i>. But already he had become attracted towards +the study of the most ancient inhabitants of Gaul; in 1870 +he brought out an <i>Étude sur la déclinaison des noms +propres dans la langue franque ŕ l’époque mérovingienne</i>; +and in 1877 a learned work upon <i>Les Premiers Habitants de +l’Europe</i> (2nd edition in 2 vols. 1889 and 1894). Next he concentrated +his efforts upon the field of Celtic languages, literature +and law, in which he soon became an authority. Appointed in +1882 to the newly founded professorial chair of Celtic at the +Collčge de France, he began the <i>Cours de littérature celtique</i> +which in 1908 extended to twelve volumes. For this he himself +edited the following works: <i>Introduction a l’étude de la littérature +celtique</i> (1883); <i>L’Épopée celtique en Irlande</i> (1892); <i>Études +sur le droit celtique</i> (1895); and <i>Les Principaux Auteurs de +l’antiquité ŕ consulter sur l’histoire des Celtes</i> (1902). He was +among the first in France to enter upon the study of the most +ancient monuments of Irish literature with a solid philological +preparation and without empty prejudices. We owe to him +also <i>Les Celtes depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu’ŕ l’an 100 +avant noire čre</i> (1904), and a study of comparative law in <i>La +Famille celtique</i> (1905). Numerous detailed studies upon the +Gaulish names of persons and places took synthetic form in the +<i>Recherches sur l’origine de la propriété foncičre</i> (1890), which +illumined one of the most interesting aspects of the Roman +occupation of Gaul. <i>The Recueil de mémoires concernant +la littérature et l’histoire celtiques</i>, made by the most notable +among his disciples on the occasion of his seventy-eighth birthday +(1906), was a well-deserved tribute to his persevering and +fruitful industry. He died in February 1910.</p> +<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBOR DAY,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> the name applied in the United States of +America to a day appointed for the public planting of trees +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arbour</a></span>). Originating, or at least being first successfully +put into operation, in Nebraska in 1872 through the instrumentality +of J. Sterling Morton, then president of the state Board of +Agriculture, it received the official sanction of the state by the +proclamation of Governor R.W. Furnas in 1874 and by the +enactment in 1885 of a law establishing it as a legal holiday in +Nebraska. The movement spread rapidly throughout the +United States until with hardly an exception every state and +territory celebrates such a day either as a legal or a school holiday. +The time of celebration varies in different states—sometimes +even in different localities in the same state—but April or early +May is the rule in the northern states, and February, January +and December are the months in various southern states. A +like practice has been introduced in New Zealand.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See N.H. Egleston, <i>Arbor Day: Its History and Observance</i> +(Washington, 1896), Robert W. Furnas, <i>Arbor Day</i> (Lincoln, Neb., +1888), and R.H. Schauffler (ed.), <i>Arbor Day</i> (New York, 1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBORETUM,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> the name given to that part of a garden or park +which is reserved for the growth and display of trees. The term, +in this restricted sense, was seemingly first so employed in 1838 +by J.C. Loudon, in his book upon arboreta and fruit trees. +Professor Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., the Regius Keeper of the +Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh, has described an arboretum +as a living collection of species and varieties of trees and shrubs +arranged after some definite method—it may be properties, or +uses, or some other principle—but usually after that of natural +likeness. The plants are intended to be specimens showing the +habit of the tree or shrub, and the collection is essentially an +educational one. According to another point of view, an +arboretum should be constructed with regard to picturesque +beauty rather than systematically, although it is admitted that +for scientific purposes a systematic arrangement is a <i>sine qua non</i>. +In this more general respect, an arboretum or woodland affords +shelter, improves local climate, renovates bad soils, conceals +objects unpleasing to the eye, heightens the effect of what is +agreeable and graceful, and adds value, artistic and other, to the +landscape. What Loudon called the “gardenesque” school of +landscape naturally makes particular use of trees. By common +consent the arboretum in the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew +is one of the finest in the world. Its beginnings may be traced +back to 1762, when, at the suggestion of Lord Bute, the duke of +Argyll’s trees and shrubs were removed from Whitton Place, +near Hounslow, to adorn the princess of Wales’s garden at Kew. +The duke’s collection was famous for its cedars, pines and firs. +Most of the trees of that date have perished, but the survivors +embrace some of the finest of their kind in the gardens. The +botanical gardens at Kew were thrown open to the public in 1841 +under the directorate of Sir William Hooker. Including the +arboretum, their total area did not then exceed 11 acres. Four +years later the pleasure grounds and gardens at Kew occupied by +the king of Hanover were given to the nation and placed under +the care of Sir William for the express purpose of being converted +into an arboretum. Hooker rose to the occasion and, zealously +reinforced by his son and successor, Sir Joseph, established a +collection which rapidly grew in richness and importance. It is +perhaps the largest collection of hardy trees and shrubs known, +comprising some 4500 species and botanical varieties. A large +proportion of the total acreage (288) of the Gardens is monopolized +by the arboretum. Of the more specialized public arboreta in +the United Kingdom the next to Kew are those in the Royal +Botanic Garden in Edinburgh and the Glasnevin Garden in +Dublin. The collection of trees in the Botanic Garden at Cambridge +is also one of respectable proportions. There is a small +but very select collection of trees at Oxford, the oldest botanical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span> +garden in Great Britain, which was founded in 1632. In the +United States the Arnold Arboretum at Boston ranks with Kew +for size and completeness. It takes its name from its donor, the +friend of Emerson. It was originally a well-timbered park, +which, by later additions, now covers 222 acres. Practically, +it forms part of the park system so characteristic of the city, +being situated only 4 m. from the centre of population. There is +a fine arboretum in the botanical gardens at Ottawa, in Canada +(65 acres). On the continent of Europe the classic example is +still the <i>Jardin des Plantes</i> in Paris, where, however, system lends +more of formality than of beauty to the general effect. The +collection of trees and shrubs at Schönbrunn, near Vienna, is an +extensive one. At Dahlem near Berlin the new <i>Kgl. Neuer +Botanischer Garten</i> has been laid out with a view to the accommodation +of a very large collection of hardy trees and shrubs. +There are now many large collections of hardy trees and shrubs +in private parks and gardens throughout the British Islands, +the interest taken in them by their proprietors having largely +increased in recent years. Rich men collect trees, as they do +paintings or books. They spare neither pains nor money in +acquiring specimens, even from distant lands, to which they +often send out expert collectors at their own expense. This, too, +the Royal Horticultural Society was once wont to do, with +valuable results, as in the case of David Douglas’s remarkable +expedition to North America in 1823-1824. It will be remembered +that when the laird of Dumbiedikes lay dying (Scott’s <i>Heart of +Midlothian</i>, chap, viii.) he gave his son one bit of advice which +Bacon himself could not have bettered. “Jock,” said the old +reprobate, “when ye hae naething else to do; ye may be aye +sticking in a tree; it will be growing, Jock, when ye’re sleeping.” +Sir Walter assures us that a Scots earl took this maxim so +seriously to heart that he planted a large tract of country with +trees, a practice which in these days is promoted by the English +and Royal Scottish Arboricultural Societies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBORICULTURE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (Lat. <i>arbor</i>, a tree), the science and art +of tree-cultivation. The culture of those plants which supply +the food of man or nourish the domestic animals must have +exclusively occupied his attention for many ages; whilst the +timber employed in houses, ships and machines, or for fuel, was +found in the native woods. Hence, though the culture of fruit-trees, +and occasionally of ornamental trees and shrubs, was +practised by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, the cultivation +of timber-trees on a large scale only took place in modern times. +In the days of Charlemagne, the greater part of France and +Germany was covered with immense forests; and one of the +benefits conferred on France by that prince was the rooting up of +portions of these forests throughout the country, and substituting +orchards or vineyards. Artificial plantations appear to have been +formed in Germany sooner than in any other country, apparently +as early as the 15th century. In Britain planting was begun, +though sparingly, a century later. After the extensive transfers +of property on the seizure of the church lands by Henry VIII., +much timber was sold by the new owners, and the quantity thus +thrown into the market so lowered its price, as Hollingshed +informs us, that the builders of cottages, who had formerly +employed willow and other cheap and common woods, now +built them of the best oak. The demand for timber constantly +increased, and the need of an extended surface of arable land +arising at the same time, the natural forests became greatly +circumscribed, till at last timber began to be imported, and the +proprietors of land to think, first of protecting their native woods, +afterwards of enclosing waste ground and allowing it to become +covered with self-sown seedlings, and ultimately of sowing acorns +and mast in such enclosures, or of filling them with young plants +collected in the woods—a practice which exists in Sussex and +other parts of England even now. Planting, however, was not +general in England till the beginning of the 17th century, when +the introduction of trees was facilitated by the interchange of +plants by means of botanic gardens, which, in that century, were +first established in different countries. Evelyn’s <i>Sylva</i>, the first +edition of which appeared in 1664, rendered an extremely important +service to arboriculture; and there is no doubt that the +ornamental plantations in which England surpasses all other +countries are in some measure the result of his enthusiasm. In +consequence of a scarcity of timber for naval purposes, and the +increased expense during the Napoleonic war of obtaining foreign +supplies, planting received a great stimulus in Britain in the +early part of the 19th century. After the peace of 1815 the rage +for planting with a view to profit subsided; but there was a growing +taste for the introduction of trees and shrubs from foreign +countries, and for their cultivation for ornament and use. The +profusion of trees and shrubs planted around suburban villas and +country mansions, as well as in town squares and public parks, +shows how much arboriculture is an object of pleasure to the +people. While isolated trees and old hedgerows are disappearing +before steam cultivation, the advantages of shelter from well-arranged +plantations are more fully appreciated; and more +attention is paid to the principles of forest conservancy both at +home and abroad. In all thickly peopled countries the forests +have long ceased to supply the necessities of the inhabitants by +natural reproduction; and it has become needful to form +plantations either by government or by private enterprise, for +the growth of timber, and in some cases for climatic amelioration. +This subject is, however, dealt with more fully under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Forests +and Forestry</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>); and the separate articles on the various +sorts of tree may be consulted for details as to each.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBOR VITAE<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (Tree of Life), a name given by Clusius to +species of <i>Thuja</i>. The name <i>Thuja</i>, which was adopted by +Linnaeus from the <i>Thuya</i> of Tournefort, seems to be derived from +the Greek word <span class="grk" title="thuos">θύος</span>, signifying sacrifice, probably because the +resin procured from the plant was used as incense. The plants +belong to the natural order Coniferae, tribe Cupressineae +(Cypresses). <i>Thuja occidentalis</i> is the Western or American +arbor vitae, the <i>Cupressus Arbor Vitae</i> of old authors. It is a +native of North America, and ranges from Canada to the mountains +of Virginia and Carolina. It is a moderate-sized tree, and +was introduced into Britain before 1597, when it was mentioned +in Gerard’s <i>Herbal</i>. In its native country it attains a height of +about 50 ft. The leaves are small and imbricate, and are borne on +flattened branches, which are apt to be mistaken for the leaves. +When bruised the leaves give out an aromatic odour. The +flowers appear early in spring, and the fruit is ripened about the +end of September. In Britain the plant is a hardy evergreen, +and can only be looked upon as a large shrub or low tree. It is +often cut so as to form hedges in gardens. The wood is very +durable and useful for outdoor work, such as fencing, posts, etc. +Another species of arbor vitae is <i>Thuja orientalis</i>, known also as +<i>Biota orientalis</i>. The latter generic name is derived from the +Greek adjective <span class="grk" title="biotos">βιωτός</span>, formed from <span class="grk" title="bios">βίος</span>, life, probably in +connexion with the name “tree of life.” This is the Eastern or +Chinese arbor vitae. It is a native of China. It was cultivated +in the Chelsea Physick Garden in 1752, and was believed to have +been sent to Europe by French missionaries. It has roundish +cones, with numerous scales and wingless seeds. The leaves, +which have a pungent aromatic odour, are said to yield a yellow +dye. There are numerous varieties of this plant in cultivation, +one of the most remarkable of which is the variety <i>pendula</i>, with +long, flexible, hanging, cord-like branches; it was discovered in +Japan about 1776 by Carl Peter Thunberg, a pupil of Linnaeus, +who made valuable collections at the Cape of Good Hope, in the +Dutch East Indies and in Japan. The variety <i>pygmaea</i> forms a +small bush a few inches high.</p> + +<p><i>Thuja gigantea</i>, the red or canoe cedar, a native of north-western +America from southern Alaska to north California, is the finest +species, the trunk rising from a massive base to the height of 150 to +200 ft. It was not introduced to Britain till 1853. It is one of the +handsomest of conifers, forming an elongated cone of foliage, +which in some gardens has already reached 70 or 80 ft. in height. +It thrives in most kinds of soils. The timber is easily worked and +used for construction, especially where exposed to the weather.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBOS, FERNANDEZ<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1863-  ), Spanish violinist and +composer, was born in Madrid, and trained at the conservatoire +there, and later at Brussels and at Berlin under Joachim. He +became a professor at Hamburg and then at Madrid, becoming +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span> +famous meanwhile as one of the finest violinists of the day; and +after visiting England in 1890 and establishing his reputation +there, he became professor at the Royal College of Music in +London. As a composer he is best known by his violin pieces, +and by a comic opera, <i>El Centro de la Tierra</i> (1895).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBOUR,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Arbor</span> (originally “herber” or “erber,” O. +Fr. <i>herbier</i>, from Lat. <i>herbarium</i>, a collection of herbs, <i>herba</i>, +grass; the word came to be spelt “arber” through its pronunciation, +as in the case of Derby, and by the 16th century was +written “arbour,” helped by a confusion of derivation from Lat. +<i>arbor</i>, a tree, and by change of meaning), a grass-plot or lawn, a +herb-garden, or orchard, and a shady bower of interlaced trees, +or climbing plants trained on lattice-work. The application of +the word has shifted from the grass-covered ground, the proper +meaning, to the covering of trees overhead. “Arbor” (from the +Latin for “tree”) is a term applied to the spindle of a wheel, +particularly in clock-making.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBROATH,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aberbrothock</span>, a royal, municipal and +police burgh, and seaport of Forfarshire, Scotland. It is situated +at the mouth of Brothock water, 17 m. N.E. of Dundee by the +North British railway, which has a branch to Forfar, via Guthrie, +on the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1891) 22,821; (1901) 22,398. +The town is under the jurisdiction of a provost, bailies and +council, and, with Brechin, Forfar, Inverbervie and Montrose, +returns one member to parliament. The leading industries +include the manufacture of sailcloth, canvas and coarse linens, +tanning, boot and shoe making, and bleaching, besides engineering +works, iron foundries, chemical works, shipbuilding and +fisheries. The harbour, originally constructed and maintained by +the abbots, by an agreement between the burgesses and John +Gedy, the abbot in 1394, was replaced by one more commodious +in 1725, which in turn was enlarged and improved in +1844. The older portion was converted into a wet dock in 1877, +and the entrance and bar of the new harbour were deepened. A +signal tower, 50 ft. high, communicates with the Bell Rock (<i>q.v.</i>) +lighthouse on the Inchcape Rock, 12 m. south-east of Arbroath, +celebrated in Southey’s ballad. The principal public buildings +are the town-hall, a somewhat ornate market house, the gildhall, +the public hall, the infirmary, the antiquarian museum (including +some valuable fossil remains) and the public and mechanics’ +libraries. The parish church dates from 1570, but has been much +altered, and the spire was added in 1831. The ruins of a magnificent +abbey, once one of the richest foundations in Scotland, +stand in High Street. It was founded by William the Lion in +1178 for Tironesian Benedictines from Kelso, and consecrated in +1197, being dedicated to St Thomas Becket, whom the king had +met at the English court. It was William’s only personal +foundation, and he was buried within its precincts in 1214. Its +style was mainly Early English, the western gable Norman. +The cruciform church measured 276 ft. long by 160 ft. wide, and +was a structure of singular beauty and splendour. The remains +include the vestry, the southern transept (the famous rose +window of which is still entire), part of the chancel, the southern +wall of the nave, part of the entrance towers and the western +doorway. It was here that the parliament met which on the +6th of April 1320 addressed to the pope the notable letter, +asserting the independence of their country and reciting in +eloquent terms the services which their “lord and sovereign” +Robert Bruce had rendered to Scotland. The last of the abbots +was Cardinal Beaton, who succeeded his uncle James when the +latter became archbishop of St Andrews. At the Reformation +the abbey was dismantled and afterwards allowed to go to ruin. +Part of the secular buildings still stand, and the abbot’s house, or +Abbey House as it is now called, is inhabited. Arbroath was +created a royal burgh in 1186, and its charter of 1599 is preserved. +King John exempted it from “toll and custom” in every part of +England excepting London. Arbroath is “Fairport” of Scott’s +<i>Antiquary</i>, and Auchmithie, 3 m. north-east (“Musselcrag” of the +same romance), is a quaint old-fashioned place, where the men +earn a precarious living by fishing. On each side of the village +the coast scenery is remarkably picturesque, the rugged cliffs—reaching +in the promontory of Red Head, the scene of a thrilling +incident in the <i>Antiquary</i>, a height of 267 ft.—containing many +curiously shaped caves and archways which attract large numbers +of visitors. At the 14th-century church of St Vigeans, 1 m. north +of Arbroath, stands one of the most interesting of the sculptured +stones of Scotland, with what is thought to be the only legible +inscription in the Pictish tongue. The parish—originally called +Aberbrothock and now incorporated with Arbroath for administrative +purposes—takes its name from a saint or hermit +whose chapel was situated at Grange of Conon, 3˝ m. north-west. +Two miles west by south are the quarries of Carmyllie, the terminus +of a branch line from Arbroath, which was the first light +railway in Scotland and was opened in 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBUTHNOT, ALEXANDER<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1538-1583), Scottish ecclesiastic +and poet, educated at St Andrews and Bourges, was in 1569 +elected principal of King’s College, Aberdeen, which office he +retained until his death. He played an active part in the stirring +church politics of the period, and was twice moderator of the kirk, +and a member of the commission of inquiry into the condition +of the university of St Andrews (1583). The “correctness” +of his attitude on all public questions won for him the commendation +of Catholic writers; he is not included in Nicol +Burne’s list of “periurit apostatis”; but his policy and influence +were misliked by James VI., who, when the Assembly had elected +Arbuthnot to the charge of the church of St Andrews, ordered +him to return to his duties at King’s College. He had been for +some time minister of Arbuthnott in Kincardineshire. His +extant works are (<i>a</i>) three poems, “The Praises of Wemen” +(224 lines), “On Luve” (10 lines), and “The Miseries of a Pure +Scholar” (189 lines), and (<i>b</i>) a Latin account of the Arbuthnot +family, <i>Originis et Incrementi Arbuthnoticae Familiae Descriptio +Historica</i> (still in MS.), of which an English continuation, by the +father of Dr John Arbuthnot, is preserved in the Advocates’ +Library, Edinburgh. The praise of the fair sex in the first +poem is exceptional in the literature of his age; and its geniality +may help us to understand the author’s popularity with his +contemporaries. Arbuthnot must not be confused with his contemporary +and namesake, the Edinburgh printer, who produced +the first edition of Buchanan’s <i>History of Scotland</i> in 1582. +Some have discovered in the publication of this work a false clue +to James’s resentment against the principal of King’s College.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The particulars of Arbuthnot’s life are found in Calderwood, +Spottiswood, and other Church historians, and in Scott’s <i>Fasti +Ecclesiae Scoticanae</i>. The poems are printed in Pinkerton’s <i>Ancient +Scottish Poems</i> (1786), i. pp. 138-155.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARBUTHNOT, JOHN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1667-1735), British physician and +author, was born at Arbuthnott, Kincardineshire, and baptized +on the 29th of April 1667. His father, Alexander Arbuthnot, +was an episcopalian minister who was deprived of his living in +1689 by his patron, Viscount Arbuthnott, for refusing to conform +to the Presbyterian system. After his death, in 1691, +John went to London, where he lived in the house of a learned +linen-draper, William Pate, and supported himself by teaching +mathematics. In 1692 he published <i>Of the Laws of Chance ...</i>, +based on the Latin version, <i>De Ratociniis in ludo aleae</i>, of a Dutch +treatise by Christiaan Huygens. In 1692 he entered University +College, Oxford, as a fellow-commoner, acting as private tutor +to Edward Jefferys; and in 1696 he graduated M.D. at St +Andrews university. In <i>An Examination of Dr Woodward’s +Account of the Deluge</i> (1697) he confuted an extraordinary +theory advanced by Dr William Woodward. An <i>Essay on the +Usefulness of Mathematical Learning</i> followed in 1701, and in 1704 +he became a fellow of the Royal Society. He had the good fortune +to be called in at Epsom to prescribe for Prince George of Denmark, +and in 1705 he was made physician extraordinary to Queen Anne. +Four years later he became royal physician in ordinary, and in +1710 he was elected fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. +Arbuthnot’s ready wit and varied learning made him very +valuable to the Tory party. He was a close friend of Jonathan +Swift and of Alexander Pope, and Lord Chesterfield says that +even the generous acknowledgment they made of his assistance +fell short of their real indebtedness. He had no jealousy of +his fame as an author, and his abundant imagination was always +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span> +at the service of his friends. In 1712 appeared “Law is a +Bottomless Pit, Exemplify’d in the case of the Lord Strutt, +John Bull, Nicholas Frog and Lewis Baboon, who spent all they +had in a law-suit. Printed from a Manuscript found in the +Cabinet of the famous Sir Humphrey Polesworth.” This was +the first of a series of five pamphlets advocating the conclusion +of peace. Arbuthnot describes the confusion after the death +of the Lord Strutt (Charles II. of Spain), and the quarrels between +the greedy tradespeople (the allies). These put their cause into +the hands of the attorney, Humphrey Hocus (the duke of Marlborough), +who does all he can to prolong the struggle. The +five tracts are printed in two parts as the “History of John Bull” +in the <i>Miscellanies in Prose and Verse</i> (1727, preface signed by +Pope and Swift). Arbuthnot fixed the popular conception of +John Bull, though it is not certain that he originated the character, +and the lively satire is still amusing reading. It was often +asserted at the time that Swift wrote these pamphlets, but +both he and Pope refer to Arbuthnot as the sole author. In +the autumn of the same year he published a second satire, +“Proposals for printing a very Curious Discourse in Two +Volumes in Quarto, entitled, <span class="grk" title="Psendologia Politikae">Ψευδολογία Πολιτική</span>; or, +A Treatise of the Art of Political Lying,” best known by its +sub-title. This ironical piece of work was not so popular as +“John Bull.” “’Tis very pretty,” says Swift, “but not so +obvious to be understood.” Arbuthnot advises that a lie should +not be contradicted by the truth, but by another judicious lie. +“So there was not long ago a gentleman, who affirmed that the +treaty with France for bringing popery and slavery into England +was signed the 15th of September, to which another answered +very judiciously, not by opposing truth to his lie, that there +was no such treaty; but that, to his certain knowledge, there +were many things in that treaty not yet adjusted.”</p> + +<p>Arbuthnot was one of the leading spirits in the Scriblerus Club, +the members of which were to collaborate in a universal satire +on the abuses of learning. <i>The Memoirs of the extraordinary +Life, Works, and Discoveries of Martinus Scriblerus</i>, of which only +the first book was finished, first printed in Pope’s <i>Works</i> (1741), +was chiefly the work of Arbuthnot, who is at his best in the +whimsical account of the birth and education of Martin. Swift, +writing on the 3rd of July 1714 to Arbuthnot, says:—“To +talk of Martin in any hands but yours, is a folly. You every +day give better hints than all of us together could do in a twelvemonth: and to say the truth, Pope who first thought of the +hint has no genius at all to it, to my mind; Gay is too young: +Parnell has some ideas of it, but is idle; I could put together, +and lard, and strike out well enough, but all that relates to the +sciences must be from you.”</p> + +<p>The death of Queen Anne put an end to Arbuthnot’s position +at court, but he still had an extensive practice, and in 1727 he +delivered the Harveian oration before the Royal College of +Physicians. Lord Chesterfield and William Pulteney were his +patients and friends; also Mrs Howard (Lady Suffolk) and +William Congreve. His friendship with Swift was constant and +intimate; he was friend and adviser to Gay; and Pope wrote (2nd +of August 1734) that in a friendship of twenty years he had found +no one reason of complaint from him. Arbuthnot’s youngest +son, who had just completed his education, died in December +1731. He never quite recovered his former spirits and health +after this shock. On the 17th of July 1734 he wrote to Pope: +“A recovery in my case, and at my age, is impossible; the +kindest wish of my friends is Euthanasia.” In January 1735 +was published the “Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot,” which forms the +prologue to Pope’s satires. He died on the 27th of February +1735 at his house in Cork Street, London.</p> + +<p>Among Arbuthnot’s other works are:—<i>An Argument for +Divine Providence, taken from the constant regularity observed +in the Births of both sexes</i> (Phil. Trans. of the Royal Soc., 1710); +“Virgilius Restauratus,” printed in the second edition of Pope’s +<i>Dunciad</i> (1729); <i>An Essay concerning the Effects of Air on Human Bodies</i> (1733); <i>An Essay concerning the Nature of Ailments ...</i> +(1731); and a valuable <i>Table of Ancient Coins, Weights and +Measures</i> (1727), which is an enlargement of an earlier treatise +(1705). He had a share in the unsuccessful farce of <i>Three Hours +after Marriage</i>, printed with Gay’s name on the title-page +(1717). Some pieces printed in <i>A Supplement to Dr Swift’s +and Mr Pope’s Works ...</i> (1739) are there asserted to be Arbuthnot’s. +<i>The Miscellaneous Works of the late Dr Arbuthnot</i> were +published at Glasgow in an unauthorized edition in 1751. This +includes many spurious pieces.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Life and Works of John Arbuthnot</i> (1892), by George +A. Aitken.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCACHON,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a coast town of south-western France, in the +department of Gironde, 37 m. W.S.W. of Bordeaux on the +Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 9006. Arcachon is situated on +the southern border of the lagoon of Arcachon at the foot of +dunes covered with splendid pine-woods. It comprises two +distinct parts, the summer town, extending for 2˝ m. along the +shore, and bordered by a firm sandy beach, frequented by bathers, +and the winter town, farther inland, consisting of numerous +villas scattered amongst the pines.</p> + +<p>Owing to the mildness of its climate the winter town is a +resort for consumptive patients. The principal industries are +oyster-breeding, which is conducted on a very large scale, and +fishing. The port has trade with Spain and England.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCADE,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> in architecture, a range of arches, supported either +by columns or piers; isolated in the case of those separating the +nave of a church from the aisles, or forming the front of a covered +ambulatory, as in the cloisters in Italy and Sicily, round the +Ducal Palace or the Square of St Mark’s, Venice, round the +courts of the palaces in Italy, or in Paris round the Palais-Royal +and the Place des Vosges. The earliest examples known are +those of the Tabularium, the theatre of Marcellus, and the +Colosseum, in Rome. In the palace of Diocletian at Spalato +the principal street had an arcade on either side, the arches of +which rested direct on the capital without any intervening +entablature or impost block. The term is also applied to the +galleries, employed decoratively, on the façades of the Italian +churches, and carried round the apses where they are known as +eaves-galleries. Sometimes these arcades project from the wall +sufficiently to allow of a passage behind, and sometimes they are +built into and form part of the wall; in the latter case, they are +known as blind or wall arcades; and they were constantly +employed to decorate the lower part of the walls of the aisles and +the choir-aisles in English churches. Externally, blind arcades +are more often found in Italy and Sicily, but there are examples in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span> +England at Canterbury, Ely, Peterborough, Norwich, St John’s +(Chester), Colchester and elsewhere. Internally, the oldest +example is that of the old refectory in Westminster Abbey (fig. 1). +Sometimes the design is varied with interlacing arches as in +St John’s Devizes (fig. 2), and Beverley Minster (fig. 3). In +Sicily and the south of Italy these interlacing arcades are the +special characteristic of the Saracenic work there found, and +their origin may be found in the interlaced arches of the Mosque of +Cordova in Spain. In the cathedral of Palermo and at Monreale +they are carried round the apses at the east end. At Caserta-Vecchia, +in South Italy, they decorate the lantern over the +crossing, and at Amain the turrets on the north-west campanile.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:446px; height:196px" src="images/img340a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Arcade,<br />Westminster Abbey.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Arcade,<br />St John’s, Devizes.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:197px" src="images/img340b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Rickman’s <i>Styles of Architecture</i>, by permission of Parker & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Triforium at Beverley.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The term is also applied to the covered passages which form +thoroughfares from one street to another, as in the Burlington +Arcade, London; in Paris such an arcade is usually called +<i>passage</i>, and in Italy <i>galleria</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCADELT,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Archadelt, Jacob</span> (<i>c.</i> 1514-<i>c.</i> 1556), a +Netherlands composer, of the early part of the Golden Age. In +1539 he left a position at Florence to teach the choristers of +St Peter’s, Rome, and became one of the papal singers in 1540. +He was a prolific church composer, but the works published in +his Italian time consist entirely of madrigals, five books of which, +published at Venice, probably gave a great stimulus to the +beginnings of the Venetian school of composition. In 1555 he +left Italy and entered the service of Cardinal Charles of Lorraine, +duke of Guise, and after this published three volumes of masses, +besides contributing motets to various collections. The <i>Ave +Maria</i>, ascribed to him and transcribed as a pianoforte piece by +Liszt, does not seem to be traced to an earlier source than its +edition by Sir Henry Bishop, which has possibly the same kind of +origin in Arcadelt as the hymn tune “Palestrina” has in the +delicate and subtle <i>Gloria</i> of Palestrina’s <i>Magnificat Quinti Toni</i>, +the fifth in his first <i>Book of Magnificats</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCADIA,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a district of Greece, forming the central plateau +of Peloponnesus. Shut off from the coast lands on all sides by +mountain barriers, which rise in the northernpeaks of Erymanthus +(mod. <i>Olonos</i>) to 7400, of Cyllene (Ziria) to 7900, in the southern +corner buttresses of Parthenium and Lycaeum to more than +5000 ft., this inland plateau is again divided by numerous +subsidiary ranges. In eastern or “locked” Arcadia these +heights run in parallel courses intersected by cross-ridges, +enclosing a series of upland plains whose waters have no egress +save by underground channels or <i>zerethra</i>. The western country +is more open, with isolated mountain-groups and winding +valleys, where the Alpheus with its tributaries the Ladon and +Erymanthus drains off in a complex river-system the overflow +from all Arcadia. The ancient inhabitants were a nation of +shepherds and huntsmen, worshipping Pan, Hermes and Artemis, +primitive nature-deities. The difficulties of communication and +especially the lack of a seaboard seriously hindered intercourse +with the rest of Greece. Consequently the same population, +whose origins Greek tradition removed back into the world’s +earliest days, held the land throughout historic times, without +even an admixture of Dorian immigrants. Their customs and +dialect persisted, the latter maintaining a peculiar resemblance +to that of the equally conservative Cypriotes. Thus Arcadia +lagged behind the general development of Greece, and its +political importance was small owing to chronic feuds between +the townships (notably between Mantineia and Tegea) and the +readiness of its youth for mercenary service abroad.</p> + +<p>The importance of Arcadia in Greek history was due to its +position between Sparta and the Isthmus. Unable to force +their way through Argolis, the Lacedaemonians early set themselves +to secure the passage through the central plateau. The +resistance of single cities, and the temporary union of the +Arcadians during the second Messenian war, did not defer the +complete subjugation of the land beyond the 6th century. In +later times revolts were easily stirred up among individual cities, +but a united national movement was rarely concerted. Most +of these rebellions were easily quelled by Sparta, though in 469 +and again in 420 the disaffected cities, backed by Argos, formed +a dangerous coalition and came near to establishing their independence. +A more whole-hearted attempt at union in 371 after +the battle of Leuctra resulted in the formation of a political +league out of an old religious synod, and the foundation of a +federal capital in a commanding strategic position (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Megalopolis</a></span>). +But a severe defeat at the hands of Sparta in 368 (the +“tearless battle”) and the recrudescence of internal discord +soon paralysed this movement. The new fortress of Megalopolis, +instead of supplying a centre of national life, merely accentuated +the mutual jealousy of the cities. During the Hellenistic age +Megalopolis stood staunchly by Macedonia; the rest of Arcadia +rebelled against Antipater (330, 323) and Antigonus Gonatas +(266). Similarly the various cities were divided in their allegiance +between the Achaean and the Aetolian leagues, with the result +that Arcadia became the battleground of these confederacies, +or fell a prey to Sparta and Macedonia. These conflicts seem to +have worn out the land, which already in Roman times had +fallen into decay. An influx of Slavonic settlers in the 8th +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> checked the depopulation for a while, but Arcadia +suffered severely from the constant quarrels of its Frankish +barons (1205-1460). The succeeding centuries of Turkish rule, +combined with an Albanian immigration, raised the prosperity +of the land, but in the Wars of Independence the strategic +importance of Arcadia once more made it a centre of conflict. +In modern times the population remains sparse, and pending +the complete restoration of the water conduits the soil is unproductive. +The modern department of Arcadia extends to the +Gulf of Nauplia with a sea-coast of about 40 m.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Strabo pp. 388 sq.; Pausanias viii.; W.M. +Leake, <i>Travels in the Morea</i> (London, 1830), chs. iii., iv., xi.-xviii., +xxiii.-xxvi.; E. Curtius, <i>Peloponnesos</i> (Gotha, 1851), i. 153-178; +H.F. Tozer, <i>Geography of Greece</i> (London, 1873), pp. 287-292; E.A. +Freeman, <i>Federal Government</i> (ed. 1893, London), ch. iv. § 3; B.V. +Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i> (Oxford, 1887), pp. 372-373; B. Niese in +<i>Hermes</i> (1899), pp. 520 f.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCADIUS<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (378-408), Roman emperor, the elder son of +Theodosius the Great, was created Augustus in 383, and succeeded +his father in 395 along with his brother Honorius. The +empire was divided between them, Honorius governing the two +western prefectures (Gaul and Italy), Arcadius the two eastern +(the Orient and Illyricum). Both were feeble, and, in Gibbon’s +phrase, slumbered on their thrones, leaving the government to +others. Arcadius submitted at first to the guidance of the +praetorian prefect Rufinus, and, after his murder (end of 395) +by the troops, to the counsels of the eunuch Eutropius (executed +end of 399). His consort Eudoxia (daughter of a Frank general, +Bauto), a woman of strong will, exercised great influence over +him; she died in 404. In the last year of his reign, Anthemius +(praetorian prefect) was the chief adviser and support of the +throne. The first years of the reign were marked by the ravaging +of the Greek peninsula by the West Goths under Alaric +(<i>q.v.</i>) in 395-396. The movement of the Goth Gainas (who held +the post of master of soldiers) in 399-400 is less famous but was +more dangerous. At that time there were two rival political +parties at Constantinople, the “Roman” party led by Aurelian +(son of Taurus), praetorian prefect, and supported by the empress +and a Germanizing and Arianizing party led by Aurelian’s +brother (possibly Caesarius, praetorian prefect in 400). Gainas +entered into a close league with the latter; fomented a Gothic +rebellion in Phrygia; and forced the emperor to put Eutropius +to death. For some months he and the party which he supported +were supreme in Constantinople. He was, however, finally +forced to leave, and having plundered for some time in Thrace +was captured and killed by the loyal Goth Fravitta. The Roman +party recovered its power; Aurelian was again praetorian +prefect in 402; and the Germanization which was to befall +the western world was averted from the east. Another important +question was decided in this reign, the relation of the patriarch +of Constantinople to the emperor. The struggle between the +court and the patriarch John Chrysostom (<i>q.v.</i>), who assumed +an independent attitude and gravely offended the empress by +his sermons against the worldliness and frivolity of the court, +with open allusions to herself, resulted in his fall and exile (404). +This virtually determined the subordination of the patriarch +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span> +of Constantinople to the emperor. The rivalry of the see of +Alexandria with Constantinople was also displayed in the contest, +Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, assisting the court +in bringing about the fall of Chrysostom. Throughout the reign +of Arcadius there was estrangement and jealousy between the +two brothers or their governments. The principal ground of +this hostility was probably dissatisfaction on both sides with +the territorial partition. The line had been drawn east of +Dalmatia. The ministers of Arcadius desired to annex Dalmatia +to his portion, while the general Stilicho, who was supreme in +the west, wished to wrest from the eastern realm the prefecture +of Illyricum or a considerable part of it. His designs were unsuccessful, +and during the reign of Theodosius II., son of Arcadius +(who died in 408), Dalmatia was transferred to the dominion of +the eastern ruler.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Ancient: Fragments of Eunapius and Olympiodorus +(in Müller’s <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, vol. iv.); +fragments of Philostorgius, Socrates, Sozomen, Zosimus, Synesius +of Cyrene (“The Egyptian”), Claudian. Modern: Gibbon’s <i>Decline +and Fall</i>, vol. iii., ed. Bury; J.B. Bury, <i>Later Roman Empire</i>, vol. i. +(1889); T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i>, vol. i. (ed. 2, 1892); +Güldenpenning, <i>Geschichte des ostromischen Reiches unter den Kaisern +Arcadius und Theodosius II.</i> (1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCADIUS,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> of Antioch, Greek grammarian, flourished in +the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> According to Suidas, he wrote treatises +on orthography and syntax, and an onomaticon (vocabulary), +described as a wonderful production. An epitome of the great +work of Herodian on general prosody in twenty books, wrongly +attributed to Arcadius, is probably the work of Theodosius of +Alexandria or a grammarian named Aristodemus. This epitome +(<span class="grk" title="Peri Tonon">Περὶ Τόνων</span>) only includes nineteen books of the original +work; the twentieth is the work of a forger of the 16th century. +Although meagre and carelessly put together, it is valuable, +since it preserves the order of the original and thus affords +a trustworthy foundation for its reconstruction.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Text by Barker, 1823; Schmidt, 1860; see also Galland, <i>De +Arcadii qui fertur libra de accentibus</i> (1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCELLA<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (C.G. Ehrenberg), a genus of lobose Rhizopoda, +characterized by a chitinous plano-convex shell, the circular +aperture central on the flat ventral face, and more than one +nucleus and contractile vacuole. It can develop vacuoles, or +rather fine bubbles of carbonic acid gas in its cytoplasm, to float +up to the surface of the water.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCESILAUS<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (316-241 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a Greek philosopher and founder +of the New, or Middle, Academy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Academy, Greek</a></span>). Born +at Pitane in Aeolis, he was trained by Autolycus, the mathematician, +and later at Athens by Theophrastus and Crantor, +by whom he was led to join the Academy. He subsequently +became intimate with Polemon and Crates, whom he succeeded +as head of the school. Diogenes Laërtius says that he died of +excessive drinking, but the testimony of others (<i>e.g.</i> Cleanthes) +and his own precepts discredit the story, and he is known to +have been much respected by the Athenians. His doctrines, +which must be gathered from the writings of others (Cicero, +<i>Acad.</i> i. 12, iv. 24; <i>De Orat.</i> iii. 18; Diogenes Laërtius iv. 28; +Sextus Empiricus, <i>Adv. Math.</i> vii. 150, <i>Pyrrh. Hyp.</i> i. 233), +represent an attack on the Stoic <span class="grk" title="phantasia katalaeptikae">φαντασία καταληπτική</span> (<i>Criterion</i>) +and are based on the sceptical element (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scepticism</a></span>) +which was latent in the later writings of Plato. He held that +strength of intellectual conviction cannot be regarded as valid, +inasmuch as it is characteristic equally of contradictory convictions. +The uncertainty of sensible <i>data</i> applies equally to the +conclusions of reason, and therefore man must be content with +<i>probability</i> which is sufficient as a practical guide. “We know +nothing, not even our ignorance”; therefore the wise man will +be content with an agnostic attitude. He made use of the +Socratic method of instruction and left no writings. His arguments +were marked by incisive humour and fertility of ideas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Brodeisen, <i>De Arcesila philosopho</i> (1821); Aug. Geffers, +<i>De Arcesila</i> (1842); Ritter and Preller, <i>Hist, philos. graec.</i> (1898); +Ed. Zeller, <i>Phil. d. Griech.</i> (iii. 1448); and general works under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scepticism</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCH, JOSEPH<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1826-  ), English politician, founder of +the National Agricultural Labourers’ Union, was born at Barford, +a village in Warwickshire, on the 10th of November 1826. His +parents belonged to the labouring class. He inherited a strong +sentiment of independence from his mother; and his objections +to the social homage expected by those whom the catechism +boldly styled his “betters” made him an “agitator.” Having +educated himself by unremitting exertions, and acquired fluency +of speech as a Methodist local preacher, he founded in 1872 the +National Agricultural Labourers’ Union, of which he was president. +A rise then came in the wages of agricultural labourers, +but this had the unforeseen effect of destroying the union; for +the labourers, deeming their object gained, ceased to “agitate.” +Mr Arch nevertheless retained sufficient popularity to be returned +to parliament for north-west Norfolk in 1885; and +although defeated next year owing to his advocacy of Irish +Home Rule, he regained his seat in 1892, and held it in 1895, +retiring in 1900. He was deservedly respected in the House of +Commons; seldom has an agitator been so little of a demagogue.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A biography written by himself or under his direction, and edited +by Lady Warwick (1898), tells the story of his career.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCH,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in building, a constructional arrangement of blocks +of any hard material, so disposed on the lines of some curve that +they give mutual support one to the other.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:247px" src="images/img342.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The blocks, which are technically known as voussoirs, should be +of a wedge shape, the centre or top block (see fig. 1, A) being +the keystone A; the lower blocks B B which rest on the supporting +pier are the springers, the upper surface of which is called the +skewback, C C; the side blocks, as D, are termed the haunches. +The lower surface or soffit of the arch is the intrados, E, and the +upper surface the extrados, F. The rise of the arch is the distance +from the springing to the soffit, G, the width between the +springers is called the span, H, and the radius I. The triangular +spaces between the arches are termed spandrils, K.</p> + +<p>The arch is employed for two purposes:—(1) to span an +opening in a wall and support the superstructure; (2) when +continuous to form a vault known as a barrel or waggon vault.</p> + +<p>The arch has been used from time immemorial by every +nation, but owing to the tendency of the upper portion to sink, +especially when bearing any superincumbent weight, it requires +strong lateral support, and it is for this reason that in the earliest +examples in unburnt brick at Nippur in Chaldaea, <i>c.</i> 4000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and at Rakakna (Requaqna) and Dendera in Egypt, 3500-3000 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it was employed only below the level of the ground which +served as an abutment on either side.</p> + +<p>In the building of an arch, the voussoirs have to be temporarily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span> +supported, until the keystone is inserted. This at the present +day is effected by means of centreing an assemblage of timbers +framed together, with its upper surface of the same form as the +arch required; the voussoirs are laid on the centreing till the +ring of the arch is completed. In the case of arches of small +span, such as the early examples referred to, limited to about +6 ft., such centreing might be dispensed with in various ways, +but it is difficult to see how the arches of the great entrance +gateways, shown in the Assyrian bas-reliefs, could have been +built without temporary support of some kind. In those days, +when any amount of labour could be obtained, even the erection +of a temporary wall might have been less costly than the employment +of timber, of which there was great scarcity.</p> + +<p>The Assyrian tradition would seem to have descended first to +the Parthian builders, who in the palace of El Hadr built semicircular +arches with regular voussoirs decoratively treated. The +Sassanians who followed them employed the elliptical or egg-shaped +arch, of which the lower part was built in horizontal +courses up to about one-third of the height, which lessened the +span of the arched portion.</p> + +<p>In Europe the earliest arches were those built by the Etruscans, +either over canals (see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>: <i>Etruscan</i>), or in +the entrance gateways of their towns. The skew-arch in the +gateway at Perugia shows great knowledge in its execution. +From the Etruscans the adoption of the arch passed to the +Romans, who certainly employed centreing of some kind, but +always economized its use, as is clearly shown by Choisy. Although +their walls from the Augustan age were built in concrete, +arches of brick were always turned over their entrance doorways, +sometimes in two or three rings. The Romans utilized the arch +in other ways, sometimes burying it in their concrete construction, +as in their vaults, and sometimes introducing it as a veneer +only, as in the Pantheon. In their monumental structures in +stone, the arch was sometimes built with regular voussoirs, <i>i.e.</i> +with a semicircular extrados, and sometimes with the joint +carried far beyond. The latter was not done in the early examples +of the Tabularium and the Theatre of Marcellus, but in +the Colosseum and all the arches of triumph the joints run +through the spandrils, notwithstanding the recognition of the +arch proper by its moulded archivolt.</p> + +<p>Although the value of the pointed arch as a stronger constructional +feature than the semicircular (owing to the tendency +to sink in the keystone of the latter) had been recognized by the +Assyrian builders, who employed it in their drains, it was not used +systematically as an architectural feature till the 9th century, in +the mosque of Tulun at Cairo; it seems to have been regarded +by the Mahommedans as an emblem of their faith, and its use +spread through Syria to Persia, was brought to Sicily from Egypt, +and was taken back by the Sicilian masons to Palestine and employed +throughout the Crusaders’ churches during the 12th century. +As the pointed arch had already, for constructional reasons, been +employed in Périgord from the commencement of the 11th +century, it does not follow that the Crusaders brought it from +Palestine, but there is no doubt that its universal employment in +France early in the 12th century may have been partly due to its +adoption in the Crusaders’ churches. At first in Gothic work +both the semicircular and pointed arches were used simultaneously +in the same building, the larger arches being pointed, the +smaller ones and windows being semicircular. The great value +of the pointed arch in vaulting is described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vault</a></span>.</p> + +<p>We have suggested that the pointed arch became an emblem +of Mahommedan faith, and it was introduced in India but not as +a constructive feature, for the Hindus objected to the arch, +which they say <i>never sleeps</i>, meaning that it is always exerting a +thrust which tends to its destruction. In India therefore it was +built in horizontal courses with vertical slabs leaning against one +another to form the apex. The Moors of north Africa, however, +never employed it, preferring the horseshoe arch which they +brought into Spain and developed in the mosque of Cordova. +In the additions made to this mosque the prayer chamber was +enriched by the caliph Mansur, who, to eke out the height, raised +arch upon arch. In the Alhambra it appears in the decorative +plaster work, and travels northwards into the south of France, +where at Le Puy and elsewhere it is found decorating doorways +and windows; in England it was employed towards the end of +the 12th century.</p> + +<p>About the middle of the 14th century at Gloucester the four-centred +pointed arch was introduced, which became afterwards +the leading characteristic feature of the Tudor style. In France +they adopted the three-centred arch in the 15th century.</p> + +<p>The ogee arch was the natural result of the development of +tracery in the commencement of the 14th century, and in +Gloucester (about 1310) the foliations were run one into the +other without the enclosing circles. About the middle of the +14th century, in the arcade of the first storey of the ducal palace +in Venice, flowing tracery is found, from which the ogee arch +there was probably derived, as throughout Venice it becomes the +favourite feature in domestic architecture of that and the +succeeding century.</p> + +<p>The arches are of various forms as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:156px; height:1057px" src="images/img343a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:162px; height:325px" src="images/img344a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:156px; height:1054px" src="images/img343b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:165px; height:384px" src="images/img344b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>2. Semicircular arch, +the centre of which is +in the same line with +its springers.</p> + +<p>3. Segmental arch, +where the centre is below +the springing.</p> + +<p>4. Horseshoe arch, +with the centre above +the springing; employed +in Moorish +architecture.</p> + +<p>5. Stilted arches, +where the centre is +below the springing, +but the sides are carried +down vertically.</p> + +<p>6. Equilateral pointed +arches, described +from two centres, the +radius being the whole +width of the arch.</p> + +<p>7. Drop arches, with +centres within the arch.</p> + +<p>8. Lancet arches, +with centres outside +the arch.</p> + +<p>9. Three centre +arches, employed in +French Flamboyant.</p> + +<p>10. Four centre +arches, employed in +the Perpendicular and +Tudor periods.</p> + +<p>11. Ogee arches, with +curves of counter flexure, +found in English +Decorated and French +Flamboyant.</p> + +<p>12. Pointed horseshoe +arches, found in +the mosque of Tulun, +Cairo, 9th century.</p> + +<p>13. Pointed foiled +arches, in the arcades +of Beverley Minster +(<i>c</i>. 1230) and Netley +Abbey.</p> + +<p>14. Cusped arch; +Christchurch Priory, +Hants.</p> + +<p>15. Multifoil cusped +arch, invented by the +Moors at Cordova in +the 10th century.</p> + +<p>16. Flat arch, where +the soffit is horizontal +and sometimes slightly +cambered (dotted line).</p> + +<p>17. Upright elliptical +arch, sometimes called +the egg-shaped arch, +employed in Egyptian +and Sassanian architecture.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span> </p> + +<p>18. The Tuscan arch, +where the extrados +takes the form of a +pointed arch.</p> + +<p>19. The joggled arch +used in medieval +chimneypieces and in +Mahommedan architecture.</p> + +<p>20. The discharging +or relieving arch, built +above the architrave or +lintel to take off the +weight of the superstructure.</p> + +<p>21. The relieving +arch as used in Egypt, +in the pyramid of +Cheops; and in Saxon +architecture, where it +was built with Roman +bricks or tiles, or consisted +of two sloping +slabs of stone.</p> + +<div class="author" style="clear: both;">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The ultimate derivation of “arch” is the Latin <i>arcus</i>, a bow, or +arch, in origin meaning something bent, from which through the +French is also derived “arc,” a curve. In French there are two +words <i>arche</i>, one meaning a chest or coffer, from Latin <i>arca</i> (<i>arcere</i>, +to keep close), hence the English “ark”; the other meaning a +vaulted arch, such as that of a bridge, and derived from a Low Latin +corruption of <i>arcus</i>, into arca (du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, <i>s.v.</i>). The +word “arch,” prefixed to names of offices, seen in “archbishop,” +“archdeacon,” “archduke,” &c., means “principal” or “chief,” +and comes from the Greek prefix <span class="grk" title="arx-">ἀρχ-</span> or <span class="grk" title="arxi-">ἀρχι-</span> from <span class="grk" title="arxein">ἄρχειν</span>, to +begin, lead, or rule; it is also prefixed to other words, and usually +with words implying hatred or detestation, such as “arch-fiend”, +“arch-scoundrel”; it is from an adaptation of this use, as seen in +such expressions as “arch-rogue,” extended to “arch-look,” “arch-face,” +that the word comes to mean a mischievous, roguish expression +of face or demeanour.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHAEOLOGY<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="archaia">ἀρχαῖα</span>, ancient things, and <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>, +theory or science), a general term for the study of antiquities. +The precise application of the term has varied from time to time +with the progress of knowledge, according to the character of +the subjects investigated and the purpose for which they were +studied. At one time it was thought improper to use it in +relation to any but the artistic remains of Greece and Rome, +<i>i.e.</i> the so-called <i>classical archaeology</i> (now dealt with in this +encyclopaedia under the headings of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman +Art</a></span>); but of late years it has commonly been accepted as +including the whole range of ancient human activity, from the +first traceable appearance of man on the earth to the middle ages. +It may thus be conceived how vast a field archaeology embraces, +and how intimately it is connected with the sciences of geology +(<i>q.v.</i>) and anthropology (<i>q.v.</i>), while it naturally includes within its +borders the consideration of all the civilizations of ancient times.</p> + +<p>In dealing with so vast a subject, it becomes necessary to +distinguish. The archaeology of zoological species constitutes +the sphere of palaeontology (<i>q.v.</i>), while that of botanical species +is dealt with as palaeobotany (<i>q.v.</i>); and every different science +thus has its archaeological side. For practical purposes it is +now convenient to separate the sphere of archaeology in its +relation to the study of the purely <i>artistic</i> character of ancient +remains, from that of the investigation of these remains as an +instrument for arriving at conclusions as to the political and +social <i>history</i> of the nations of antiquity; and in this work the +former is regarded primarily as “art” and dealt with in the +articles devoted to the history of art or the separate arts, while +“archaeology” is particularly regarded as the study of the +evidences for the history of mankind, whether or not the remains +are themselves artistically and aesthetically valuable. In this +sense a knowledge of the archaeology is part of the materials +from which every historical article in this encyclopaedia is +constructed, and in recent years no subject has been more fertile +in yielding information than “archaeology,” as representing the +work of trained excavators and students of antiquity in all parts +of the world, but notably in the countries round the Mediterranean. +It is for its services in illuminating the days before those of +documentary history and for checking and reinforcing the +evidence of the raw material (the “unwritten history” of +architecture, tombs, art-products, &c.), that recent archaeological +work has been so notable. The work of the literary critic and +historian has been amplified by the spade-work of the expert +excavator and explorer to an extent undreamt of by former +generations; and ancient remains, instead of being treated +merely as interesting objects of art, have been forced to give up +their secret to the historian, as evidence for the period, character +and affiliations of the peoples who produced and used them. +The increase of precise knowledge of the past, due to greater +opportunities of topographical research, more care and observation +in dealing with ancient remains and improved methods of +studying them in museums (<i>q.v.</i>) and collections, has led to +more accurate reading of results by a comparison of views, under +the auspices of learned societies and institutions, thus raising +archaeology from among the more empirical branches of learning +into the region of the more exact sciences. This change has +improved not only the status of archaeology but also its material, +for the higher standard of work now demanded necessarily acts +as a deterrent on the poorly equipped worker, and the tendency +is for the general result to be of a higher quality.</p> + +<p>The archaeological details concerning all subjects which have +their “unwritten history” are dealt with in the separate articles +in this work, including the ancient civilizations of Assyria, +Egypt and other countries and peoples, while the articles on +separate sites where excavations have been particularly noteworthy +may be referred to for their special interest; see also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anthropology</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethnology</a></span>, &c. It remains here to deal +generally with the early conditions of the prehistoric ancient +world in their broader aspects, which constitute the starting-place +for the archaeologist in various parts of the world at +different times, and the foundations of our present understanding +of the primitive epochs in the history of man.</p> + +<p>The beginning of archaeology, as the study of pre-documentary +history, may be broadly held to follow on the last of the geological +periods, viz., the Quaternary, though it is claimed, and +with some reason, that traces of man have been found in +<span class="sidenote">Quaternary period.</span> +deposits of the preceding or Tertiary period. +Although there is no valid reason against the existence +of Tertiary man, it must be confessed that the evidence in +favour of the belief is of a very inconclusive and unconvincing +kind. The discussion has been mainly confined to the two +questions (1) whether the deposit containing the relics was +without doubt of Tertiary times, and (2) whether the objects +found showed undoubted signs of human workmanship. Vast +quantities of material have been brought forward, and endless +discussions have taken place, but hitherto without carrying +entire conviction to the minds of the more serious and cautious +students of prehistoric archaeology. A chronic difficulty, and +one which can never be entirely removed, is our ignorance of the +precise methods of nature’s working. It is an obvious fact, +that natural forces, such as glacial action, earthquakes, landslips +and the like, must crush and chip flints and break up animal +remains, grinding and scratching them in masses of gravel or +sand. If it were possible to determine with precision what’ were +the peculiarities of the flint or bone, thus altered by natural +agencies, it would be easy to separate them from others purposely +made by man to serve some useful end. Our present knowledge, +however, does not allow us to go so far in dealing with the ruder +early attempts of man to fabricate weapons or implements. Even +the one feature that is commonly held to determine human agency, +the “bulb of percussion,” cannot be considered satisfactory, without +collateral evidence of some kind. Flint breaks with what is +called a conchoidal fracture, as do many other substances, such +as glass. Thus on the face of a flint flake, at the end where the +blow was delivered to detach it from the nodule, is seen a lump +or bulb, which is usually regarded as evidence of human workmanship. +To produce such a bulb it is necessary to deliver a +somewhat heavy blow of a peculiar kind at a particular point of a +flattened surface; and the operation requires a certain amount +of practice. The fulfilment of all the necessary conditions +might well be a rare occurrence in nature, and the bulb of +percussion has come to be regarded as the hall-mark of human +manufacture; but recent investigations have shown that the +intervention of man is not necessary and that natural forces +frequently produce a similar result. When, therefore, it is a +question whether or no a group of rude flints are of human +workmanship, evidence of design or purpose in their forms must +be established. If this be found, and in addition if a number of +flints, all having this character of design, be found together, then +and then only is it safe to admit them into the domain of archaeology. +There can be no doubt that much time and energy have +been wasted, and a number of intelligent workers have been +fruitlessly occupied in following up archaeological will-o’-the-wisps, +through neglecting this elementary precaution.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span> </p> + +<p>Whether or no man produced flint implements before Quaternary +times, it would seem to be a necessity that he should have +passed through an earlier stage, before arriving at +the precision of workmanship and the fixed types +<span class="sidenote">Eolithic.</span> +found in the old Stone Age deposits known as palaeolithic. +It is now claimed that this earlier and ruder stage has actually +been discovered in what are known as the Plateau-gravels of +Kent, in Belgium, and even in Egypt, and the name of eolithic +(<span class="grk" title="eos">ἠὠς</span>, dawn, <span class="grk" title="lithos">λίθος</span>, stone) has been bestowed upon them. The +controversy as to the human character has been very keen, some +alleging that the fractured edges and even the definite and fairly +constant types are entirely produced by natural forces. Sir +Joseph Prestwich in England, and Alfred Rutot in Belgium, +the latter arguing from his own discoveries in that country, +have strongly supported the artificial character of the relics. +On the other hand it is pointed out that the existence of these +implements on the high levels of Kent furnished confirmation of +Sir Joseph Prestwich’s theory of the submergence of the district, +and that his support was thus somewhat biassed, while the +geological conditions in Belgium are not quite comparable with +those of the Kent plateau; and the Belgian evidence, whatever +it may be worth in itself, is of no avail as corroboration of the +Kentish case. It is to be regretted that the conditions are not +more convincing, for, as stated above, they agree fairly well +with the evolution theory of man’s handiwork, and if they +could be accepted, would carry back the evidences to a more +remote time when the physical features of Kent were of a very +different character. The critics of eoliths have brought forward +some facts that at first sight would seem to be of a very damaging +nature. It was observed that in the process of cement +manufacture the flints that had passed through a rotary machine +in which they were violently struck by its teeth or knocked +against each other, possessed just those features that were +claimed as indisputable proof of man’s handiwork, and that +even the forms were the same. These statements have, of course, +been met by counter-statements equally forcible, and the +matter may still be considered to be in suspense. The great +struggle, therefore, is now more closely restricted to the nature +of the chipping than as to the quasi-geological question, and +if the solution is ever to be found, it will be by means of a +closer examination and a better understanding of the difference +between intentional and accidental flaking.</p> + +<p>On reaching the Palaeolithic period we come to firmer ground +and to evidence that is more certain and generally accepted. +This evidence is fundamentally geological, inasmuch +as the age of the archaeological remains is dependent +<span class="sidenote">Palaeolithic.</span> +upon that of the beds in which they are found. That +they were deposited at the same time is now no longer questioned. +The flints are found to have the same colour and +surface characteristics as the unworked nodules among which +they lie, and are generally rolled and abraded in the same way. +This in itself suffices to show that the worked and unworked +flints were deposited in their present stratigraphical position +at the same time. The remote age of the beds themselves is +demonstrated by the presence of bones of animals either now +extinct or found only in far distant latitudes, such as the +mammoth, reindeer, rhinoceros, &c., and in some cases these +bones are found in such relative positions as to prove they were +deposited with the flesh still adhering to them, and also that +the animal was contemporary with the makers of the flint +implements. Evidence of a somewhat different kind is provided +for the palaeolithic period by certain caverns that have +been discovered in England and on the continent. In these +limestone caves palaeolithic man has lived, slept, eaten his +food and made his tools and weapons. Much of his handiwork +has been left, with the bones of animals on which he lived, +scattered upon the floor of the cave, and has been sealed up by +the infiltration of lime-charged water, so that the deposit remains, +untouched to our own day, below an impermeable bed +of stalagmite. In such circumstances there can be no doubt +of the contemporaneous character of the remains, natural or +artificial, if found on the same level. Moreover, so far as type +is a criterion of age, the flint tools found in the cave deposits +tend to confirm the date assigned to those of the river-gravels.</p> + +<p>It is fairly certain that about the middle of the Tertiary period +the northern hemisphere possessed a temperate climate, such that +even the polar regions were habitable. But the physical aspect +of northern Europe was very different from that of Quaternary +times. North of a line drawn roughly from southern England +to St Petersburg all was sea. It was during the latter half of +the Tertiary period that the continent assumed its present +general form, though even in Pleistocene (Quaternary) times +England and Ireland formed part of it. The great change of +climate from temperate to arctic conditions during the latter +half of the Tertiary period has been interpreted in various ways, +no one of which is yet universally accepted. There can be little +doubt, however, that no single cause was responsible for so complete +a change. There may have been some alteration in the +relative positions of the earth and the sun, which would conceivably +have produced it; but what is practically certain is +that the physical geography of northern Europe was affected +by considerable difference in level, and it is clear that the raising +of mountain ranges and the general elevation of the continent +must necessarily have reacted on the climatic conditions. If +in the later Tertiary time we find that the Alps, the Carpathians +and the Caucasus have come into existence, it is not surprising to +find that these huge condensers have brought about a humid condition +of the continent to such an extent that this phase has +been called the Pluvial Age. The humidity, however, was in some +ways only a secondary result of the protrusion of high mountain +ranges. The primary cause of the physical conditions that we +now find in the valleys and plains was the formation of glaciers. +These rivers of ice descending far into the lower levels during +the winter months, melted during the summer, causing enormous +volumes of water to rush through the valleys and over +the plains, carrying with it masses of mud and boulders which +were left stranded sometimes at immense distances. The intensity +and force of the rivers thus formed would depend upon +two factors, first the extent of the watershed, and secondly, +the height of the mountains from which the water was derived. +The result of increasing cold was that in course of time the +northern hemisphere was surmounted by a cap of ice, of immense +thickness (about 6000 ft.) in the Scandinavian area and gradually +becoming thinner towards the south, but at no time does it seem +to have extended quite to the south of England. This is proved +by the absence of boulder-clay (glacial mud) in the districts +south of London. These arctic conditions were not, however, +continuous, but alternated with periods of a much less rigorous +temperature during what has been called the Ice Age. Remains +both of mammals and plants have been found, under conditions +that are held to prove this alternation.</p> + +<p>Such being the natural forces at work remodelling the surface +of the earth; forces of such gigantic power as to be almost +inconceivable in these more placid times, it can easily be understood +how, in the course of the many thousands of years before +the Quaternary period, when the surface of the globe attained +its present aspect, the powerful river-systems of Europe wore +their beds deep into the solid rocks. In some cases in Europe +the erosive power of the river has worn through its bed to +such an extent that the present stream is some hundreds of +feet lower than its forerunner in palaeolithic times. From +various causes, however, the rivers did not always wear for +themselves a deep channel, but spread themselves over a wide +area. This seems to have been the case with the Thames near +London: the river-bed is not of any great depth, but at various +periods it has occupied the space between Clapton on the north-east +and Clapham on the south-west. It must not be assumed +that the whole of this area of 7 m. or more was filled by the +river at any one time, but rather that during the course of the +palaeolithic period the river had its bed somewhere between +these two limits. For instance, it is probable that at one period +the bank of the Thames was at a point nearly midway between +the northern and southern limits, where Gray’s Inn Road now +stands. It was here that the earliest recorded palaeolithic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span> +implement (now in the British Museum) was found towards the +close of the 17th century in association with mammoth bones. +But it is safe to say that the Thames was a very much wider +and more imposing river in palaeolithic times than it is now, +when its average width at London is under 300 yds. As, in the +course of ages, it changed its bed and by degrees lessened in size +and volume, it would leave, on the terraces formed on its banks, +the deposits of brick-earth and gravel brought down by the +stream, and it is on these terraces that the relics of palaeolithic +man are found, sometimes in great quantities. It will be obvious +from the nature of the case that the highest terraces, and those +farthest apart, should contain the earliest implements; but it +is by no means easy in the present state of the land surface and +with our present knowledge, to place the remains in their relative +sequence. More accurate observation, and a better understanding +of the conditions under which these deposits were made, +should solve many such problems. Much light has been thrown +upon many points by Worthington Smith, who has excavated +with great care two palaeolithic floors at Clapton and at Caddington +near Dunstable. The latter discovery was of quite +exceptional interest as confirming the geological evidence by +that of archaeology. In this case the original level at which +palaeolithic man had worked was clearly defined, and was +prolific of dark-grey implements, which had evidently been +made on the spot, as Smith found that many of the flakes could +be replaced on the blocks or cores from which they had been +struck by palaeolithic man; there were also the flint hammers +that had been used in the operation. Above the floor was a +layer of brick-earth, again covered by contorted drift, in which +also implements occurred, but of a very different kind from those +found below. In place of being sharp and unabraded, and with +the refuse flakes accompanying them, they were rolled and +disfigured, of an ochreous tint, and evidently had been transported +in the drift from a much higher level now no longer +existing, as the site where they occurred is the highest in the +vicinity, about 500-600 ft. above sea-level. Here then we have +a clear case of palaeolithic man being compelled to abandon +his working place on the lower level by the descent of the waters +containing the products of his own forerunners, probably then +very remote. In this case the sequence of the various strata +may be considered certain, and the remains thus accurately +determined and correlated are naturally of extreme value and +importance. But even this does not enable us to diagnose +another discovery unless the internal evidence is equally clear +and conclusive. One point of importance that may be noted is +that the older abraded implements were mostly of the usual +drift type, while the more recent ones from the “floor” contained +forms more highly developed and elaborated, such as +occur in the French caves. Explorations of this kind, carefully +conducted in a strictly scientific spirit by men of training and +intelligence, are the only means by which real progress will be +made in this puzzling branch of archaeology.</p> + +<p>Although many problems yet remain to be solved in England, +its small area, and the relatively large number of workers, have +together sufficed to put the main facts of the earlier stages of +man’s existence on a fairly satisfactory basis. In France, owing +to the richness of the results, a great number of trained and +ardent workers have made equal, if not better, progress. +But unfortunately the real scientific spirit is not invariably +found. Not so long ago an apparently serious writer in a +well-known scientific magazine gave a detailed account of his +studies in primitive methods and explained at great length +his attempts at the manufacture of flint and stone implements. +He found by the processes he adopted that it was much more +easy for him to produce a polished implement than one merely +flaked. From this fact he seriously argued that a great mistake +had been made in the relative ages of the neolithic and palaeolithic +periods, and that the former must necessarily be the older +of the two. The evidence of geological position and of the +mammalian remains accompanying the obviously older flints +was entirely disregarded, just as on the other hand it was forgotten +that in regard to neolithic remains the proofs were in every +way in favour of a relatively modern origin. Such attempts not +only bring the serious study of early man into disrepute, but +tend to retard the progress of real knowledge and are therefore +to be deplored and when possible discouraged.</p> + +<p>Caves (<i>q.v.</i>) have been at all periods regarded as something +uncanny and mysterious, with perhaps a tinge of the supernatural. +In classical times they were associated with +semi-divine beings, with oracles, and even with the +<span class="sidenote">Cave Period.</span> +gods themselves, while half the legends of dwarfs and +gnomes that run through the folk-lore of medieval and modern +Europe are associated with caves. They have been used as +shelters or habitations at all times, and in examining them it is +fully as necessary to sift the evidence of age as it would be in +dealing with the river-gravels. Their exploration in the first +instance may well have been due to chance, but it is fairly +certain that during the 16th century the search for the horn of +the unicorn as an antidote to disease, was responsible for the +opening up of a certain number. Among the finds were no +doubt the fossil bones of Quaternary animals to which mythical +names and imaginary properties were attached, and the popular +belief in such amulets naturally gave a great impetus to the +search. It is, however, only a little more than a century ago +that these investigations took anything like a scientific turn, +and even then they had only a palaeontological end in view. +The idea that archaeology entered into the matter was not at +all realized for some years. The remains of many extinct or +migrated animals, such as the hyena, grizzly bear, reindeer +and bison, were found in quantities in the now famous cave +at Gailenreuth in Franconia; and later, William Buckland +explored the equally well-known hyena-cave at Kirkdale in +Yorkshire, where he demonstrated that these animals had lived +on the spot, feeding on the mammoth, rhinoceros and other +creatures that had been their prey. The remains of man, +however, had not been found, nor were they even looked for. +It was not until Kent’s cavern, near Torquay, was examined +by the Rev. J. McEnery, that man was clearly proved to have +been contemporary with these extinct beasts. So contrary +was this contention to the ideas prevalent in the second quarter +of the 19th century, that the pioneer in this work had died +(in 1841) before the immense importance of his discovery was +admitted. To Godwin Austen in the first place and to W. +Pengelley in the second, with the aid of the British Association, +was due the vindication of McEnery’s veracity and accuracy.</p> + +<p>Several circumstances conspire to give a special interest to +Kent’s cavern, and not the least is the fact that the age and +appearance of the various strata indicate that it has been the +home or the refuge of human beings at all ages even up to +medieval times, and perhaps from a period even more remote +than is the case elsewhere. In the black mould that formed the +uppermost layer were found fragments of medieval pottery, +and relatively in close proximity were ancient British and Roman +remains as well as relics of the earliest days of metallurgy, in +the shape of bronze fragments. The two thousand years or +more that may have separated the oldest from the most modern +of these later products, is as nothing in comparison with the +immense intervals that lie between the earliest of them and the +infinitely more remote period when gigantic mammals first +inhabited the cave. Attempts have been made from time to +time to express in years what the interval must have been: +but as the computations have differed by hundreds of thousands +of years, according to the method adopted, it is scarcely wise +to do more than speculate. Beneath the black mould, containing +what may be called the recent remains, was a layer of stalagmite, +some feet in thickness; and under this at one place was +a great quantity of charcoal, which has been with good reason +assumed to show the site of fireplaces. A quantity of implements +of palaeolithic type was found, but the main layer at this level +consisted of a reddish clay known as cave-earth, and in this +deposit were implements both of flint and horn, as well as bones +of extinct animals. The flint implements were mostly of the +usual river-drift type, but some were of types generally confined +to cave-deposits of this period; while the barbed harpoon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span> +heads, and more especially a bone needle, were definitely of the +cave class, so well represented in the caves of Dordogne. Again, +below the cave-earth was a <i>breccia</i> formed of limestone and +sandstone pebbles cemented together by a calcareous paste. In +this also were found implements and bones of bears.</p> + +<p>The succession of strata indicated above may be taken +as typical of the caverns used by palaeolithic man, the +breccia and stalagmite flooring being in themselves proof of +a very considerable age, while the association in the former, or +under the latter, of remains of human handiwork, with bones of +extinct animals, may be safely taken to show contemporaneous +existence.</p> + +<p>Once the mind has fairly grasped the fact that man was living +at so remote a time, it is a simple and natural conclusion that he +should have provided himself with weapons and tools more or +less rudely fashioned from the stones he found ready to his hand. +The analogy of the recently extinct Tasmanian is sufficient to +show that even the meanest savage is not without such aids. +But the caves of France, of the same palaeolithic period, and used +by men theoretically in the same stage of culture, bring before +us a race of artists of first-rate capacity, who for accuracy of +observation, and for skill in indicating the character and +peculiarities of the animals around them, have never been surpassed. +Such a statement sounds like a contradiction in terms. We are +dealing with human beings whose intellect, to judge by their +physical characters, should be on a level with that of the Fuegian +or the Australian black, and far below that of the Maori or the +Sandwich Islander. Yet none of these gentle and relatively +cultured brown races produced anything in the nature of art +that can in any sense be compared with the masterly drawings +or sculptures of the cave-men of France. The best-known of the +engravings, that of the mammoth on a piece of ivory, is in the +Jardin des Plantes in Paris. It is evidently intended to be nothing +more than a sketch, the lines of the finely curved tusks being +repeated several times in the desire for accuracy. But the heavy +lumbering walk of the ponderous beast, his attitude, and even the +character of the hairy hide, are all shown or suggested with a +skill and freedom that not only denotes daily familiarity with the +thing represented, but a most complete mastery of the art of +translating the idea into simple line. This mammoth-drawing +is probably the most important and monumental of its class, +but there are many others that possess artistic qualities not less +remarkable, while they have in addition a grace and beauty of +line not less astonishing. One of these, in the British Museum, +the head of an ibex-like creature, is outlined with a decision and +refinement that can scarcely be surpassed, and many other +sketches in horn or stone in the same collection show a keen +appreciation of the characteristic features of the different +animals as well as a masterly deftness in the handling of the +graving-tool. If we are forced to marvel at the graphic skill +of the cave-men, their sculptures in the round are on a still +higher plane, as may be seen in the figures of reindeer in ivory +in the British Museum. While they are not highly finished, +they show a complete understanding of the animal’s peculiar +forms and contours, which are rendered in a direct, unhesitating +way that should betoken a long period of artistic training and +an executive power uncommon at any time. These drawings +and sculptures have always been appreciated and even regarded +as being of a much more advanced style than was to be expected +among men who are always classed in the lower grades of culture. +But enough stress has not hitherto been laid on the artistic +quality of the work, which would be considered fine at any time +in the world’s history. This high artistic level was attained by +a race of men whom we cannot credit with any great intellectual +equipment; men, moreover, who were engaged in a daily struggle +for the barest necessaries of life, in a trying climate and +surrounded by a fauna whose means of attack and defence were +infinitely superior to their own. There are many astonishing +problems in archaeology, but none so badly in need of solution. +Had the discovery been confined to a single drawing or even +to a single site, fraud or a misreading of the conditions might +have been alleged, but the case is very different. The drawings +and sculptures have been found generally enough in France to +demonstrate that such artistic power was fairly common, while +the question of the authenticity and period of the discoveries +has long since been satisfactorily settled. It is true that the +climatic conditions in pleistocene France were more favourable +to man than was the case farther north, but even an agreeable +climate does not necessarily produce an artistic race; if it +were so, the Polynesians would probably be the greatest artists +the world has ever seen. The physical remains of palaeolithic +man, even when found under unquestionable conditions, are, +however, so scanty, that it is unlikely that the important +question of the race or races inhabiting central and northern +Europe will ever be settled by their means. The evidence at +present is in favour of two very different types, one dwarfish +and brutal (Canstadt), the other more advanced and noble in +physical character (Cro-Magnon). To the latter were due the +artistic productions, and until further physical evidence is +forthcoming recourse must be had to the most minute examination +of the objects themselves and to accurate observation of the +conditions under which they are found. So far as our present +materials go, these are the only means by which more light may +be thrown on the many problems of early man.</p> + +<p>In spite of the unquestioned and unquestionable character of +palaeolithic discoveries in general, it must not be assumed that +there has been an absence of falsification, forgery, and what +the French call “mystification”; on the contrary, such attempts +to meet the demand have been common enough. Apart from +Edward Simpson, who was notorious as “Flint Jack” in the +middle of the 19th century, many others, both in England and on +the continent of Europe, have devoted themselves to this peculiar +industry. Boucher de Perthes tried to conquer the scepticism +of some of his friends who doubted the human origin of the +Abbeville flints, by unwisely offering his workmen a reward for +the discovery of human bones in the same beds. The Moulin +Quignon jaw was accordingly produced, and became the subject +of much controversy; but the evidence finally showed that it had +originally come from elsewhere. The cave drawings also have +found their imitators in modern times. One Meillet, a man of +education, took a special pleasure in the production of spurious +examples, and even published an account of his pretended +discoveries. But here, as in all the attempts at imitation of +the cave drawings, the modern efforts were betrayed by their +poor artistic quality, and a comparison of the new discoveries +with the old was generally enough to disclose the forgery. Two +drawings on bone of a wolf and a bear, declared to have been +found in a cave at Thayingen in Switzerland, were afterwards +shown to have been copied from a child’s picture-book. In +Switzerland also a brisk trade was carried on some years ago in +false antiquities said to come from the Lake-dwellings; and +fantastic types of tools and implements were placed on the +market. In Italy, too, a lively discussion has taken place +of late years over the authenticity of curiously shaped flint +implements from the neighbourhood of Verona; while America +has provided similar food for discussion in the well-known +Lenapé stone and the Calaveras skull. The former bears +drawings of the French cave type, while the latter if genuine +would carry back the story of man in the American continent +before Pliocene times.</p> + +<p>An apparent break in the continuity of man’s history in +Europe occurs at the end of the palaeolithic period. Attempts +have been made to bridge the gap by means of a +“mesolithic” period (<span class="grk" title="mesos">μέσος</span>, middle); but it would +<span class="sidenote">Mesolithic.</span> +not seem probable that the missing links will occur at +all events so far north as Britain. We leave palaeolithic man in +a cold climate, surrounded by a somewhat mixed fauna that +formed his prey. We know him as a hunter and artist, but the +remains show that he had no knowledge of pottery till towards +the close of the period. Among the humbler arts he practised at +least sewing, and lived in caves or took shelter at the base of +overhanging rocks; but like the Australian, he frequently camped +in the open. His successor of the later Stone Age (neolithic) +we find to be a very different character and with very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span> +different surroundings. The configuration of the land in which +he lived is practically the same as we now see it. The severe +arctic conditions with the appropriate fauna had entirely +disappeared, and the introduction of new arts must have radically +changed his daily life. The most important of these are the +training of domestic animals, agriculture, and the development +of pottery. What were the burial rites of palaeolithic man we +have at present no means of knowing, but for his neolithic +successor we know that these were matters of great moment. +The abundance of arrowheads of flint indicate the common use +of the bow and arrow as a weapon, while the art of weaving marks +an immense stride in the direction of comfort and civilization. +Of the form and construction of his dwelling we have only a +limited knowledge, derived with some uncertainty from the +analogy of the dwellings for the dead (barrows) and more +certainly from the remains of the villages found erected on +piles on the shores of lakes.</p> + +<p>A much-debated question arises here that cannot be passed +over. The changes just mentioned are not such as would be +produced by internal causes alone. Much of the evidence is in +favour of neolithic man being an immigrant, coming into northern +and central Europe long after palaeolithic man and his +characteristic fauna had disappeared. Where did the earlier race +go and who are its modern representatives, if any? The answers to +this question are many. W. Boyd Dawkins is of opinion that +the reindeer was followed by man in its journey to the north +after the retreating glaciers, and that the modern representative +of palaeolithic man is the Eskimo. His arguments are ingenious +but unconvincing; they mainly consist in the similarity of the +habits of both races in using harpoons and implements of similar +form and make, their power of carving and drawing on bone, the +absence of pottery, disregard of the dead, &c. As to the positive +evidence, it is almost enough to say that the Eskimo, like the +cave-men, used the material nearest to hand that served their +purpose, and that nothing is more remarkable than the similarity +of primitive weapons used by widely separated peoples; while +the negative evidence as to the absence of pottery is of little +value; their conditions of life would allow them neither to make +it nor keep it. Till recently we had no evidence at all of the +treatment of the dead by palaeolithic man, but this is no longer +the case; the discoveries in the Grottes de Grimaldi, Monaco, +show several methods of burial, near a hearth, or in rude stone +cists (see Dr Verneau in <i>L’Anthropologie</i>, xvii. 291). A +stronger argument would be furnished if it could be shown that by +his physical character the Eskimo is an intruder in his present +home, and is unrelated to his neighbours. But this has not yet +been done, and the skulls of the Eskimo do not resemble any of +those hitherto found in the caves. In fact, what evidence there +is on the subject is rather against than in favour of the +wanderings northward of the inhabitants of the caves. There are +indications, on the other hand, that in the south of France, in +the Pyrenees, the reindeer was in existence, with man, at a later +period than that of the caves, while the type of skull is that of +Cro-Magnon. Here, therefore, it may be that something like a +bridging of the gap between palaeolithic and neolithic times may +be forthcoming. But it still remains to be found, and for the +present we must be content with uncertainty.</p> + +<p>The neolithic period has often been loosely called the age of +polished stone, from the fact that in no case has a polished or +ground stone implement been found in a palaeolithic +deposit. The term is not only loose but inaccurate. +<span class="sidenote">Neolithic.</span> +In the first place, there is no reason why the cave-men should +not be found to have polished a stone implement on occasion, +for they habitually polished their weapons of bone. Secondly, +neolithic man was by no means uniform in his methods; he +polished or ground the surfaces of such tools or weapons as would +be improved by the process; but to take a common instance, he +found that the efficacy of his arrow-point was sufficient when +chipped only, and polishing is only occasionally found, as in +Ireland. Many other implements also are found in neolithic +times with no trace of grinding and yet with every appearance of +being complete.</p> + +<p>The most trustworthy evidence with regard to this and the +succeeding archaeological periods is to be found in the +grave-mounds. For the earlier part of the neolithic age, however, +these are by no means fruitful of relics. From their shape they +are called in England “long barrows” to distinguish them from +the round barrows which belong to a succeeding time, though +evidence is being accumulated to show that this division is not of +universal application. Long barrows are by no means of such +frequent occurrence in Britain as the round variety; they are +most common in Wiltshire, Gloucestershire and Dorset, and +occur as far north as Caithness. Some of them contain within +the mound a stone chamber, at times with a gallery leading to it, +and in the chamber the interment or interments took place. +Similar barrows have been found on the continent of Europe, and +both in Britain and abroad have one feature in common, viz. +that no metal, with possibly the exception of gold, has ever been +found in them. This similarity of burial custom, though it may +conceivably indicate intercourse, certainly does not prove +identity of race, as has been sometimes claimed. The type of +skulls found in the interment is clear evidence against such an +assumption.</p> + +<p>In Britain, the burials were at times by inhumation only, and +occasionally a great number of bodies were interred in the same +barrow: at others, cremation had preceded burial. Another +remarkable feature is that in many instances it is certain from +the relative position of the bones of the unburnt burials that the +corpse had been allowed to decay before the burial took place. +This curious practice is known among many savage tribes of the +present day. Its occurrence in Britain has been adduced in +favour of the prevalence of cannibalism at this time, and not +altogether without reason. While metal is entirely absent in the +long barrows (and in fact relics of any kind are very rarely found), +it is significant that in the succeeding round barrows also metal +occurs but seldom, and then always of the types attributed to the +earliest part of the Bronze Age. When, therefore, the mound pottery +is of a class that may well be anterior to metal, and no metal is +found with the burial, it is not unreasonable to assign such +barrows to the Stone Age. A similar argument may be applied to +the stone implements, but in the opposite direction. Many stone +implements are found either isolated, or perhaps with no other +relics that serve to fix their period. The material alone is often +considered sufficient evidence of their being before the age of +metals; but it is at any rate quite certain that a large number of +stone axes, more particularly those with a socket for the handle, +belong really to the Bronze Age. This uncertainty makes any +account of the neolithic age difficult, unless the material is +taken as the main basis.</p> + +<p>Neolithic man, like his forerunners, still recognized that flint +and allied stones provided the best material for his cutting +and piercing implements, though he made use to a great extent +of other hard stones that came ready to his hand. The mining +of flint was undertaken on a large scale, and great care was taken +to get down to the layer containing the best quality. In Norfolk, +at Grime’s Graves, and in Sussex, at Cissbury near Worthing, the +flint shafts have been carefully explored by William Greenwell, +General Pitt-Rivers and others. The system was to sink +two shafts some little distance apart and deep enough to reach +the desired flint-bed, and the two shafts were then joined by a +gallery at the bottom. At Grime’s Graves large numbers of +deer’s horns were found, which had evidently been used as picks, +as is proved by the marks found in the chalk walls; and the +horn had been trimmed for the purpose. Cups of chalk were +also found in the galleries and were believed to have been used as +lamps. At Cissbury great quantities of unfinished and defective +implements were found in the work, as well as horn tools, as in +Norfolk. At such factories the primitive appliances correspond +very closely with those in use among existing savages. The +pebble was used as a hammer or an anvil, and the more delicate +flaking was done by pressure with a piece of horn rather than by +blows. Naturally enough the number of completed implements +found in these factories is small; the finished tools would be +bartered at once and carried away from the factory. All the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span> +animal remains found in these pits belong to present geological +conditions, thus emphasizing what has been stated above, that +the absence of polished implements is no evidence for great +age. Many other factories have been found in Britain, in Ireland +and on the continent of Europe: at Grovehurst in Kent, at +Stourpaine near Blandford, at Whitepark Bay, county Antrim, +and in Belgium at Spiennes. Among the North American +Indians the method would seem to have been somewhat different. +After journeying to the site of a suitable quality of stone, they +did not always complete the implements on the spot, but made +a number of oval chipped disks of good stone which they carried +away and worked up into the required implements at their +leisure. These disks bear a strong likeness to some of the +ovate implements from the Drift in Europe; in fact, but for +the difference of surface condition or patina, they would be +identical.</p> + +<p class="f90 pt2 sc noind"> Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:692px; height:821px" src="images/img348a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD.<br /> +1. French Drift +2. English Drift. +3. French transition (Le Moustier). +4. French Cave Period. +5. English Cave Period.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="f90 pt2 sc noind"> Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:885px" src="images/img348b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">SCULPTURE AND ENGRAVINGS OF THE CAVE PERIOD.<br /> +FROM DORDOGNE, FRANCE.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="f90 pt2 sc noind"> Plate III.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:680px; height:472px" src="images/img348c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">WALL PAINTINGS OF THE CAVE PERIOD.<br /> +CAVERN OF ALTAMIRA, SANTANDER, SPAIN.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:682px; height:290px" src="images/img348d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">OUTLINE OF WALL-PAINTINGS, ALTAMIRA, LENGTH ABOUT 45˝ FT.<br /> +(<i>cf</i> PAINTING, Plate I.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">By permission, from <i>La Caverne d’Altamira</i> by Cartaulhac and Breuil Monaco 1906.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="f90 pt2 sc noind"> Plate IV.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:682px; height:799px" src="images/img348e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3">NEOLITHIC PERIOD.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">1. Flint and stone implements, England</td> <td class="tcl f90">2. Flint arrow-heads, England.</td> <td class="tcl f90">3. Arrow-heads, Ireland.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">4. Flint and stone implements, Denmark.</td> <td class="tcl f90">5. Flint implements, France.</td> <td class="tcl f90">6. Flint implements, Egypt.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">While the severe climatic conditions that preceded the neolithic +age restricted the presence of man to the more temperate parts +of the globe, it may be assumed that in neolithic times there was +nothing to prevent him from occupying the greater part of the +earth’s surface, short of the neighbourhood of the two poles. +Thus it may be expected that an age of stone will be found, +if looked for, in every part of the globe. So far as our present +knowledge goes, all is in favour of the use of stone before metals, +in all countries. The one material requires no special treatment +before being adapted to man’s use, while the other demands +considerable knowledge, even if reasoning power have but +little place in the process. Thus the probabilities are here borne +out by the facts. In the extensive “kitchen-middens” of Japan +are found great numbers of chert implements mixed with pottery +of a primitive type, recalling that of European early Bronze +Age barrows, while the succeeding periods of metal are equally +clear. Even in the Far East, therefore, the same sequence is to +be observed. In China, the conditions are more obscure. The +superstitious regard for ancestors has prevented the exploration +of ancient tombs in that country, and thus systematic search +has been impossible, while the precise details of the discovery +of such relics as have come to light are difficult to obtain. In +spite of the assertion that China had no Stone Age, it is surely +more probable, in the absence of exact knowledge, that she followed +the normal course. Modern territorial divisions, more +especially if they are independent of the natural physical conditions +of the land, such as mountain ranges, great rivers and the +like, have but little value in considering the race problems +of remote ages. If, therefore, we find that, in the countries +bordering on what is now the Chinese empire, the ancient +inhabitants followed the same broad lines of culture that are +evident elsewhere, it is easy to believe that China too was normal +in this respect. The negroes and Bantu races of Africa also were +thought to have passed direct to the use of iron, perhaps owing +to the existence on the Nile of a civilization of great antiquity, +which enabled them to pass over the intervening stages. Inherently +improbable, this is now known not to have been the +case. Stone implements, whether ground or merely chipped, +have been discovered on the Congo, and more recently on the +Zambezi. It is quite true that in both cases they are found in +superficial deposits, and may be of any age. But here again the +probabilities are greatly in favour of their having been in use +before iron was known. While stone tools, such as knives or +arrow-heads, may possess qualities that render them superior to +bronze or copper, it is certain that once the working of iron was +understood, its superiority to stone would at once be perceived, +and the stone tools be discarded. There can be little doubt that +investigations in Central Africa will demonstrate that the same +course was followed there as elsewhere. In South Africa, in +Egypt and in Somaliland large quantities of stone implements +have been discovered, and of the great age of most of them there +can be no doubt. Some from the banks of the Nile have even +been claimed as “eolithic”; but here, as in Europe, We can +only say that the case is not proven: General Pitt-Rivers did +good service in Egypt by discovering among the stratified +gravels near Thebes a number of rude flints bearing unmistakeable +signs of human workmanship, but he described them +merely as of “palaeolithic type,” and deplored the absence of +mammalian remains in the gravels. At the same time he pointed +out that the bulk of the implements claimed as palaeolithic (and, +it may be, correctly) are found on the surface, and therefore +cannot be dissociated from the surface types; hence form alone +cannot be trusted to determine age. Further, we are by no means +well informed as to the value of patination in flints found on +the surface in Egypt. The depth and intensity of the patination +would no doubt have a direct relation to the age of the +implement, if only it could be proved that all of them had been +equally subjected to the conditions that produced the discoloration. +But this is clearly impossible. Some implements may +conceivably have been continuously on the surface of the desert +from the time they were made, and have been acted upon by the +sun and air for many thousands of years, while others, though +of equal age, may have been covered by sand or otherwise +protected for a large part of the intervening centuries. Patination, +therefore, like form, can only claim a conditional value. +It is at the best an uncertain indication of age, as great age +may be possible without it. Similarly, in Somaliland, the +condition of the implements is very curious, and in some respects +puzzling, while their forms resemble those from the +Drift in Europe. But as to the climatic conditions we know +nothing, and it is therefore useless to speculate on the condition +of the stones; as to the geology we know next to nothing, and +no mammalian remains give us a helping hand, while the form +alone is a dangerous foundation for argument.</p> + +<p>Investigations in the more remote parts of the world, though +they may occasionally produce some startling novelty in the +history of mankind, can scarcely be expected to +furnish the same trustworthy continuous story as is to +<span class="sidenote">Europe and America.</span> +be found in the European area. Here history provides +us with a fairly truthful account of what has happened +for a period varying from two to three thousand years, or in +some places even longer, and we are thus able to judge whether +particular discoveries come into the historical stage or not. In +more primitive lands where history (if there be any) partakes +more of the character of mythical tradition, the task of defining +the period to which particular discoveries belong is rendered much +more difficult. In America, where history may be said to have +begun five hundred years ago, such a feat is of course impossible, +until a great deal of work on comparative lines has been accomplished. +The accounts of the civilization of Mexico and Peru at +the time of the Spanish conquest show a state of culture which in +some respects must have put the Spaniards to shame, while in +others it was primitive in the extreme. As regards internal +communications, the working of gold and copper, and the +manufacture and decoration of pottery, these American kingdoms +were on a level with all but the most advanced nations; but of +history in the true sense of the word they have none. In spite +of this, it is by no means a hopeless task to disentangle the +apparent confusion of their archaeology. It is now fairly well +known what were the races or tribes that inhabited particular +districts, and it is thus easy to make a <i>corpus</i> of the types adopted +by the various peoples. This is the first certain step in the +application of archaeological method. By degrees, as these +types become familiar to the trained eye, it will not be difficult +to arrange them in a progressive series, from the earliest in style +to the latest. That this will be done by the archaeologists of the +American continent, even with the present scanty materials, +there can be little doubt. Numbers of young and enthusiastic +workers have now had a good training in exploration in historical +lands, and will usefully employ their experience on the antiquities +of their own country. But if once a key be found to the ancient +Mexican inscriptions, so plentifully scattered through the +ancient monuments, it may be that enlightenment will come +even more suddenly and more surely. The one problem that is +of the greatest interest still awaits solution, viz. whether there +is any relation, in culture or more remotely in race, between the +inhabitants of ancient America and those of Europe or Asia. +One thing is certain, that if there be any connexion, it is of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span> +infinite remoteness. But it is at any rate noteworthy that the +same designs, patterns and even games are found in ancient +Mexico and in India or China; and whether these resemblances +arise from relations between the peoples using them or from +accident, is a problem well worth investigation.</p> + +<p>In countries like Scandinavia or Switzerland, the story of the +early ages is clear and comparatively free from complications. +The one by its remoteness was left to develop with but little help +from the rest of Europe up to historical times; the other, +protected on so many sides by its mountain ranges, seems to +have enjoyed a peaceful existence during the Stone and Bronze +Ages. A community of fishermen and agriculturists, they led a +calm domestic life on the edges of their many lakes where they +constructed dwellings on piles with only a gangway to the shore, +to prevent the attacks of predatory animals. The practice of +building houses in lakes was a common one not only in Switzerland, +but also in Britain and in Ireland, as in modern times among +the natives of New Guinea. Besides securing the safety of the +inhabitants, it had the not unimportant advantage of being more +healthy; all refuse of food and other useless matter could at +once be thrown into the water where it would be harmless. A +similar form of dwelling is the Irish “crannog,” constructed on +an island or shoal in a lake, in some cases artificially heightened +so as to bring it above water. These crannogs were probably +inhabited in Ireland up to comparatively recent times, if one +may judge by the remains found on the sites.</p> + +<p>It must not be forgotten that although the neolithic period had +many phases, yet its duration is in no way comparable to the +incalculable length of the palaeolithic age. For a variety of +reasons it is thought that one of the earliest stages of neolithic +times is represented by the now well-known kitchen-middens +(refuse-heaps) of Denmark. These heaps are often of great size, +sometimes reaching 10 ft. in height, and nearly 350 yds. in +length. Here along the coast line the natives of Denmark lived, +apparently building their huts upon the mounds and cooking +their food upon hearths of stone. The conditions of their daily +life would seem to have resembled those of the natives of Tierra +del Fuego. Their implements of flint seem to have been chipped +only, and it is conjectured that the few polished and more highly +finished implements that have been found in the middens are +importations from more cultured tribes living inland. Their +food was in very great part composed of shell-fish, though they +evidently caught and ate various kinds of deer, boar and a +variety of carnivorous animals. The race which made these +mounds is believed to have been akin to the Lapps, and their +dwellings can hardly have been anything more than the rudest +protection from the weather. The Swiss lake-dwellers were far +more advanced, even in the Stone Age; their dwellings were +elaborately planned and constructed, and remains of them have +been plentifully found in the various Swiss lakes. Various forms +of construction were adopted: in one the foundations consisted +of poles driven into the bed of the lake; in others a kind of +framework simply rested on the bottom, and in a third, the +substructure was formed of layers of sticks reaching from the +bottom of the lake up to the surface. The walls were of wattle, +closed up with clay to keep out the weather; the hearths were +of stone slabs, and the floors of clay well trodden down. Practically +the same type of dwelling seems to have continued through +the Stone and Bronze Ages, though on some sites no metal +whatever is found and it is therefore assumed that these are of +the earlier period. These people cultivated the land, growing +wheat and barley; they were also hunters and fishermen, +capable of manufacturing pottery without the aid of the wheel, +which had not yet come into use so far north; and they wove +mats and garments, while ropes and netting are plentiful. Their +tools and weapons were made of stone, and to a great extent of +deer’s horn. Human remains are hardly ever found on the sites +of the lake-dwellings, and it is therefore uncertain what were the +social affinities of the people; but the evidence of the sites is in +favour of the same race being continuous into the Bronze Age, +when their condition was more comfortable, as is shown by the +abundant remains of domesticated animals.</p> + +<p>Among the most notable and obvious relics of prehistoric +times, both in Britain and in many other countries such as Spain, +Portugal, France and even India, are gigantic circles +and avenues of stone and dolmens (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stone Monuments</a></span>). +These enduring monuments have excited +<span class="sidenote">Stone Age relics.</span> +the wonder of countless generations, and lent themselves to +superstitious practices down to modern times. But the precise +purpose for which they were erected and even the period to +which they belonged, had never been definitely settled. They +had been called burial places of great chiefs, and not unnaturally +had been thought by others to have been temples or places of +primitive worship used by the Druids, who moreover were often +credited with their erection. Obviously such a question called +for settlement, and the British Association in the year 1898 +appointed a committee to investigate these stone circles with a +view to ascertaining their age. Operations were begun at the +well-known circle of Arbor Low, south of Buxton in Derbyshire; +careful excavations were made through the ditch and the +encircling mound and also within the circle, and although the +evidence was not of the most complete kind, yet the committee +came to the conclusion that the circle belonged to the end of the +neolithic age. At Arbor Low all the stones are now lying on the +ground (although, to judge from the other circles in England, +they were certainly once upright), and the opportunities for +surveying were thereby much diminished. It is a fortunate +circumstance, therefore, that the fall of one of the stones at +Stonehenge (<i>q.v.</i>) at the end of the 19th century, and the increasingly +perilous state of some of the others, caused the owner, with +the advice of the Society of Antiquaries of London, to undertake +the raising of the great leaning stone in the interior of the circle. +The work was superintended by W. Gowland, F.S.A., who made +special investigations during the necessary digging, for the +purpose of recovering any remains of man’s handiwork that had +been left by the builders of the monument. In this he was very +successful, finding in the course of the very limited excavation +at the base of the monolith, a great number of stone mauls or +hammers that corresponded so nearly with the bruised surfaces +of the monoliths, that there can be no doubt of their having been +used to dress the standing stones.</p> + +<p>From a review of all the evidence of an archaeological nature +that was to be obtained, Gowland came to the conclusion that +the construction of Stonehenge belonged to the latter part of +the neolithic age. No trace of a metal implement occurred +in any of the debris. This would of itself be an interesting fact, +but it became infinitely more interesting from researches in quite +another direction, which brought corroborative evidence of a +curious kind. For many years Sir Norman Lockyer and Prof. +Penrose were engaged in examining the orientation of temples +in Egypt and Greece, with a view to determining on what +astronomical principle, if any, the plans had been laid down. +With a rectangular plan, and with portions of the interior still +well defined, they were able by elaborate calculation to determine +that the temples had been definitely planned with relation +to the rising or setting of the sun or of a particular star. Having +been successful in these investigations they proceeded to apply +the test to Stonehenge. The experiment was made on the longest +day in the year 1901. Owing to a gradual change in the obliquity +of the earth’s orbit, the point of sunrise on corresponding days +of each year is not constant; and though the difference is +hardly perceptible from year to year, in the course of centuries +it becomes great enough for use as a measure of time. Enough +remains of the monument to show the direction of sunrise at +the time that Stonehenge was erected, it being always assumed +that the coincidence of the main axis with the central line of +the Avenue was designed with reference to sunrise on the longest +day of the year. At the date of the experiment it was found +that the sun had shifted nearly two diameters in the interval, +and this variation gives a date of about 1680 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, which practically +confirms the verdict of archaeology and seems to prove, +moreover, that Stonehenge was a temple of the sun.</p> + +<p>Stonehenge therefore may be taken as marking for Britain +the close of the neolithic period and heralding the dawn of a new +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span> +era, in which the inhabitants of the British Isles first acquired +the art of working metal.</p> + +<p>There is reason to believe that the transition from the use of +stone to that of bronze was not due to the peaceful advance +of civilization, but rather to the irruption of an Aryan +race from the south-east of Europe into the countries +<span class="sidenote">Bronze Age.</span> +to the west and north. Of these people the Celts are to +some extent the representatives at a somewhat more recent period. +Here, however, we are dealing with terms the precise meaning +of which is not yet generally admitted, and which, moreover, +have too intimate a relation to the problems of philology to be +fully discussed here (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-European</a></span>). The term Aryan (<i>q.v.</i>) +itself is not free from objections. It was held by Max Müller +to relate to a language and a civilization that took its rise in +Central Asia, while others now contend that, although it is the +mother language of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Teutonic and +Celtic languages, it might equally well have originated in Europe. +However this may be, and even this brief statement shows +how wide a field the arguments would cover, there can be little +doubt that the Bronze Age Celts were of this stock, and that in +course of time they gradually spread their language and culture +over a large part of Europe. Whether or no the knowledge of +bronze started from one or more centres, it gradually spread +from the south-east of Europe until it reached Scandinavia; +the dates being roughly in Crete, 3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; in Sicily, 2500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; +in central France, 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; in Britain and in Scandinavia +1800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The appearance of the Celts in Britain is indicated +by the presence of the round barrows. They were a fairly tall, +short-headed race, using cremation and also inhumation in their +burials, skilful in the manufacture of pottery and of the simpler +forms of bronze implements, and freely using bone, jet, and +at times amber, while gold was well known and evidently +greatly esteemed. In the early centuries of the Bronze Age, +swords, spears and shields were apparently quite unknown, +the principal metallic products being flat axes, simple knives +or daggers, and small tools or ornaments. In the burial places +the bodies, if unburnt, are nearly always found in a crouching +position, as if in the attitude of sleep; if cremated, the burnt +bones are generally enshrined in an urn under the tumulus, the +burial being sometimes in a cist formed of large stones. The +pottery vessels are remarkable in more ways than one. In +the first place they would seem to have been specially made +for the burial rites, for whenever domestic pottery has been +found, it is of quite a different character, unornamented and +simple in outline. It must be confessed, however, that this +latter is by no means common. The sepulchral vessels are at +times highly decorated, and sometimes of great size. They are +invariably hand made, and though they are by no means well +fired they are never sun-dried, as is often said to be the case. +A common kind of decoration is produced by impressing twisted +cords in the damp clay, and this is believed with some reason +to have had its origin in the practice of winding cords round +the unbaked vessel to prevent distortion before or during the +process of firing. That operation would of course burn away +the cord and leave only its impression on the urn. Other forms +of ornament are also used, incised lines in rudely geometrical +designs, impressions of the end of a stick, and at times rows +of hollows produced by the finger or thumb. The method of +the burial, beyond giving an insight into the art of the period, +also helps us to realize to some extent the ideas of primitive +man. The underlying reason for careful and ceremonial burial +is not always readily understood, apart from a knowledge of +the ritual, such as existed in ancient Egypt. But in the Bronze +Age in Britain it was the custom to bury with the dead not only +carefully made vessels which doubtless contained food for the +journey to the lower world, but also the ornaments and weapons +of the deceased. Often the bonea of a pig have been found in +the grave, doubtless representing part of the provender which +could not conveniently be placed in the so-called food-vessel. +Such practices indicate with a fair amount of certainty a belief +in a future life in another world, where probably the conditions +were thought to be much the same as in this. The burial of +the weapons and other property of a dead man is, however, not +always due to the belief that he may need them in some future +state. The reason may well be that it would be thought unlucky +for a survivor to use them.</p> + +<p>Just as the neolithic age was immeasurably shorter than the +palaeolithic, but was notable for great improvements in the +arts of life, so the Bronze Age in its turn was shorter than the +neolithic age, and again witnessed even more marked advance +in culture. It is in fact an illustration of the truism that each +step in knowledge renders all that follow less laborious; but it +is not easy to understand how the transition from stone to +metal came about, nor why bronze came to be the chosen metal +rather than iron. Bronze, in the first place, is a composite +metal, a mixture of copper and tin, while iron can be at once +reduced from its ores; indeed, in the form of meteoric iron, it +is already metallic, and needs but a hammer to produce whatever +form may be wanted. From the archaeological point of +view, there is, however, good reason for believing that bronze +preceded iron. The forms of axes that are without doubt the +earliest, are in outline much the same as the stone prototype, +being only thinner in proportion. Then again, iron implements +are never found on the earlier sites, and if they had been in +existence some of them certainly would remain: further, at +the end of the Bronze Age it is found that the forms of weapons +in that metal are exactly copied in iron, as, for instance, at Hallstatt +(<i>q.v.</i>) in the Salzkammergut, the famous cemetery which +best illustrates the passage from the use of bronze to that of iron. +It has been claimed that bronze was preceded by copper, a +sequence which seems inherently probable; and whether or no +it was general enough or enduring enough to constitute a period, +there can be no reasonable doubt that in the Mediterranean +area, and in central Europe, as well as in Ireland, great numbers +of implements were made of copper alone without any appreciable +admixture of tin. The casting of pure copper presents +certain difficulties, in that the metal is not adapted for anything +but a mould open to the air, and this would limit its utility, +until the discovery that tin in a certain proportion (roughly 1 : 9) +not only made the resulting metal much harder and better fitted +for cutting-tools and weapons, but at the same time rendered +possible the use of closed moulds.</p> + +<p>There are thus two problems in connexion with the history +of the Bronze Age. How was the metal discovered? And +by whom or where? As to the first, it must be remembered +that in some parts of the world, <i>e.g.</i> in China and in Cornwall, +copper and tin are found together, and it may well be that tin +was first accidentally included as an impurity, which, had it +been noticed, would have been eliminated. Once it was found +to produce a more useful metal, the blend would be deliberately +made, and repeated trials would eventually demonstrate the +most suitable proportion of one metal to the other. The question +of where it was first discovered is one that is not likely to be +answered with certainty, but the one essential is the presence +of the two metals in one and the same locality. Tin does not +exist in either Egypt or Mesopotamia, although bronze articles +from the fourth and third millennium respectively <span class="scs">B.C.</span> have been +found in these countries. The tin to produce the mere metal +must have come from some foreign country; and the choice +seems to be very small. Spain at the other end of the Mediterranean +is unlikely, and Britain still more so; central Asia, Asia +Minor, or China again seem too remote; for the spread of +metallurgy from these centres would imply a trade connexion +nearly 4000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In later times, later perhaps by 3000 years, +Spain and Britain were undoubtedly among the chief sources +of the tin supply of Europe and of the Mediterranean generally; +but it will long remain a problem where bronze was first produced. +There is indeed, no real necessity for confining its origin +to a single locality; it is easily conceivable that the invention +occurred independently in more places than one.</p> + +<p>The history of early metallurgy has been carefully studied +by W. Gowland, who communicated the results of his researches +to the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1899. In his opinion +the ores from which copper was first obtained by smelting were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span> +originally found as pebbles or boulders in the beds of streams, +where man in the Stone Age had been accustomed to search +for stones to convert into implements; and in the same way +the beds of rivers were for a long subsequent period the only +sources of tin. Actual mining belongs in his opinion to a far +later period, and naturally had its origin in the discovery of +outcrops of the metal on the surface. By the simple application +of fire, lumps of ore were reduced to a smaller size, and were +then prepared for smelting by further reduction to the condition +of a coarse powder. This latter process was carried out in the +same way that grain was crushed between two stones; and +stone-mills, doubtless used for the purpose, have been found +in ancient workings in Wales. The next stage would be the +furnace, and there can be little doubt that this would be of the +simplest kind, merely a hole in the ground with the fire covering +the metal, and with nothing but a natural draught. But Gowland +holds that even with these singularly inadequate appliances, +copper could be smelted from the surface ores, though the output +would naturally be of the most uncertain and intermittent +character, depending, as it must have done, on the wind. And +until the discovery of bellows or some other method of increasing +the draught of air, no progress could be made in this direction. +With regard to the resulting metal, viz. copper, we have certain +knowledge. From time to time there are found in the earth +in Britain and elsewhere, hoards of fragmentary or imperfect +bronze implements, portions of axes, swords, rings, &c., all of +which have been failures in castings. These hoards are assumed +to have been gathered together by the bronze founders to be +recast into perfect and useful implements. Now, frequently +associated with these hoards are portions of cakes of pure +copper, originally circular in shape, flat on one face and convex +on the other, like a lens with one flat face. The form of these +cakes is in itself a fair proof of the prevalence of the method +of smelting described above, as it is quite clear that the convex +face of the cake followed the contour of the hole in the ground +above which the fire was placed. The cakes are generally found +broken up into small handy blocks. This can only be done in +one way, viz. by watching the cake, after the fire and slag has +been raked off it, until it is on the point of becoming solid, when +it is quickly pulled out of the hole and broken up. It will be +noted that while the implements in these founders’ hoards are +invariably of bronze, the cakes are as invariably of copper. +This is at first sight puzzling, until it is realized that these +founders probably carried the tin necessary for forming bronze +in the form of ore, and that tin ore in its pure state is a snuff-coloured +powder very easily overlooked when lying on the earth, +which it might very nearly resemble in colour, though it would +be much heavier. Thus it is probable that in many such discoveries +the tin ore has accompanied the copper cakes and bronze +fragments, but has hitherto eluded the eyes of the finder. Not +only have we this conclusive evidence of the methods by which +Bronze Age man produced his raw material, but the discovery +of crucibles and moulds takes us a step further towards the +finished implements. The crucibles are generally simple bowls +of thick clay with an extension of the lip at one side to pour out +the molten metal. Several of these, with plentiful traces of +metal still remaining in them, were found by the brothers Siret +in the Bronze Age settlement at El Argar in Murcia. In the +same place also were found moulds of stone for the casting of +simple triangular axes. These were of the class known as open +moulds, one stone being hollowed to the desired form, the other +half being simply a flat cover, with no relation to the form +of the implement to be produced. From the nature of the +metal, such a mould is the only kind in which the casting of +an efficient copper implement would be possible; and among +the objects discovered by the Sirets were articles in plenty of +pure copper.</p> + +<p>Much has been written in support of the theory that the +bronze tools and implements found in this or that country must +have been importations from southern and more highly civilized +lands. More particularly has this been alleged with regard to +Britain, which, lying as it did on the extreme limit of the ancient +world, was regarded as being dependent on the continent for +the more complex weapons. The constant discovery, however, +of these hoards of rough metal, as well as of moulds of the highest +finish for casting swords, daggers, celts, and almost every kind +of ancient bronze implement and weapon known to us, provides +a conclusive proof of the contrary. The occurrence of a foreign +type of implement is so rare as to be a source of especial gratification +to the collector who secures it; and it may be taken +that, in general terms, all the bronze swords, daggers and spears +found in Britain were of home manufacture. Relations with the +continent, however, did exist, as is shown by the occurrence of +an Irish type of gold ornament in France and Scandinavia, and +by the similarity of ornamental motives in the British Isles and +elsewhere. Among the continental races it is natural to find +intercommunication more common, owing to the absence of +natural barriers. The weapons of the Bronze Age were swords, +spears, daggers and axes (celts), though the last would be +equally well adapted for more peaceful purposes. The swords +were usually of a narrow leaf shape, cast with the handle in one +piece, the mounting of the grip and the pommel being added. +For perfection of workmanship the weapons of this period have +never been surpassed, and the skill of adjustment in the moulds, +the fine and equal quality of the metal, and the flawless condition +of the surfaces still excite wonder among the most expert +of modern founders. The cutting edges of swords and “celts” +were often, if not always, hammered to serve the double purpose +of hardening that part of the weapon and sharpening the edge. +In the case of the axe-heads (celts), this hammering had a distinct +influence on the evolution of the form of the implement. +The earliest celts, whether of copper or bronze, were in form, +copies of their stone prototypes, and curiously enough exactly +like the ordinary woodman’s axe of to-day, but of course without +the socket for the handle. Hammering rendered the cutting edge +both broader and thinner, giving it at the same time a curved +outline. This widened curve eventually became an ornamental +feature, the two ends of the cutting edge becoming curved +points and adding greatly to the elegance of the outline. Later, +the other edges were finished by hammering also, at times in a +simple ornamental fashion; and whether for greater rigidity +or for some other reason, flanges were produced in the same way +on those edges, which again affected the ultimate form of the +celt. The early flat celt was no doubt simply fixed in a perforated +wooden handle, which would naturally tend to split if +wielded with any vigour. The side-flanges were in course of +time utilized to prevent this, by allowing the use of a different +form of handle. In place of the simple straight handle, a branch +was cut with an elbow-joint, and its shorter limb then divided +into two prongs, between which the metal passed, while the +flanges, beaten up from the edges, overlapped the two forks; +and no doubt a lashing of sinew was added to render the whole +secure. This made a good serviceable tool or weapon, and +prevented the splitting of the handle; but still another step +was taken. The flanges on the edges met over the prong of the +handle on either side, while the upper end of the celt itself +eventually became a mere septum dividing the two openings. +This septum was finally judged to be useless, and done away +with; and the celt was cast with one hollow only for the reception +of the ends of the handle; thus the flat celt became, +by a natural process of evolution and improvement, a socketed +celt. It is a curious fact, however, that the modern form of +axe where the handle passes through a socket in the metal itself +does not seem to have been much in favour in the Bronze Age, +although it was a stone form that certainly survived into the +succeeding period.</p> + +<p>This and other shortcomings in what must have been the +universal weapon and implement of the race, were remedied +from time to time by various improvements in the form of the +bronze axe-head and the method of hafting; and the various +stages of development, from the flat blade of copper or bronze +to the socketed implement and even to a pattern now in use, can +still be traced in the Bronze Age specimens that have come down +to us.</p> + +<p class="f90 pt2 noind sc">Plate V.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:324px; height:482px" src="images/img352a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:327px; height:478px" src="images/img352b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">SEPULCHRAL POTTERY, BRITISH ISLES (BRONZE AGE).<br /> +1-3, Drinking cups or beakers. 4-9, Food vessels. +10-12, Cinerary urns.</td> +<td class="caption">SEPULCHRAL POTTERY FROM THE CONTINENT OF +EUROPE (NEOLITHIC, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:688px; height:243px" src="images/img352c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE CELT OR IMPLEMENT OF CHISEL FORM.<br /> +(1) From stone to metallic form. (2) Growth of the stop ridge to palstave. +(3) Growth of the wings to socket-celt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">By permission, from the British Museum <i>Guide to the Bronze Age.</i></td></tr></table> + +<p class="f90 pt2 noind sc">Plate VI.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"> + <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> + <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:192px; height:399px" src="images/img352d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + <tr><td class="caption">1. Bronze shield with red enamel ornaments, found in the Thames + near Battersea; about 31 in. long.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:263px; height:340px" src="images/img352f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + <tr><td class="caption">Bronze mounted wooden bucket found in a pit burial at Aylesford.<br /> + Early Iron Age.<br /><br /> + The objects here represented are all in the British Museum.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="caption80">By permission, from the British Museum <i>Guide to the Early Iron Age.</i></td></tr></table></td> + +<td class="figcenter"> + <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> + <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:677px" src="images/img352e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + <tr><td class="caption">Chariot burial of a Gaulish chief, Somme Bionne, Marne, France.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:213px" src="images/img352g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + <tr><td class="caption">Horned bronze helmet with traces of enamel ornament, found in the + Thames near Waterloo Bridge.</td></tr></table> +</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span> </p> + +<p>With the discovery of iron as the ideal metal for cutting +implements and weapons, we enter into the millennium before +the Christian era; for roughly speaking, the development +of the civilization associated with the gradual +<span class="sidenote">Iron age.</span> +substitution of iron for bronze began about 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Again we +look towards the south-east of Europe for the earliest evidence +of this great advance; from that quarter it gradually spread +over the whole continent, reaching the more northern parts +about five hundred years later. In Egypt, the home of a marvellous +civilization at a very early time, the conditions were +different, and there is reason to suppose that iron was known +there long before it was in use on the northern side of the Mediterranean. +Our knowledge of the dates at which iron was first +known in parts of Asia is still very limited, and further discoveries +must be awaited.</p> + +<p>The archaeology of Ireland presents features in many respects +different from those of the rest of the British Islands in the Stone +and Bronze Ages. Such affinities in style as are +traceable connect it rather with Scotland than with +<span class="sidenote">Ireland.</span> +any part of the south, a fact doubtless due to proximity as well +as in part to race connexions. A special feature is the astonishing +quantity of gold that was produced in Ireland during the early +Bronze Age. The frequent discovery of gold ornaments of this +time has enriched to a surprising degree the museum of the +Royal Irish Academy in Dublin, while many private and public +collections both in Ireland and elsewhere contain a considerable +number of similar relics. If these represented the total wealth +of gold of the Bronze Age the amount would probably exceed +that of any ancient period in any country, except perhaps the +republic of Colombia in South America. But the known remains +can only be a small proportion of the original wealth. Vast +quantities must have been discovered from medieval times +onwards, nearly all of which would be melted down, owing to +the ignorance of the finders or to the uncertainty of ownership. +Further, it may be taken as certain that there still remains in the +earth a great mass of the metal which may or may not be discovered +at some future time. If it were by any means possible +to estimate what these united categories would amount to, the +result would scarcely be credited. It is well known that gold has +been, and still is, found in Ireland; but it is hard to believe that +there were no richer deposits than are now known. It is at any +rate certain that the rivers were worked as late as the opening +centuries of our era. In the Bronze Age the most characteristic +ornaments were penannular objects of all sizes from a small +finger ring up to an armlet, generally known as “ring money” +from the difficulty of assigning a definite use to the whole series; +and the flat, crescent-shaped, diadem-like objects called “lunulae,” +which are perhaps even more definitely characteristic of Ireland. +Such objects of gold, if ornamented at all, are, like some of the +flat axe-heads, engraved with simple geometrical patterns, +lozenge-shaped chequers and the like, a type of decoration in +itself easily determined as being of the Bronze Age, but bearing +at the same time an interesting and very curious analogy to +remains of the same period from the Iberian Peninsula, more +especially from Portugal. If any overland culture-relations +existed between the two countries, it would be only reasonable +to expect the occurrence of the objects in question in the +intervening districts. But so far nothing of the kind has been +discovered. Moreover, had it been an isolated instance of +resemblance it might be negligible, but an equally odd similarity +is found in the fact that the Irish were in the habit of grinding +the faces of their flint arrow-heads, an apparently useless +refinement, while the Portuguese of the early Bronze Age did the +same. Again, the dolmens of Ireland bear a distinct resemblance to +those of Spain and Portugal, while the French dolmens, with +few exceptions in the north, have a different character. These +curious points are in favour of the tradition that the original +inhabitants of Ireland were of Iberian origin, and further, that +they did not come overland but by sea, and there are indeed +signs of extensive navigation in the Bronze Age of northern +Europe. It was perhaps in the middle of our Bronze Age, say +about 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, that this Iberian race was supplanted by the +Celts, who took a considerable time to emerge from their native +barbarism. It is, at any rate, fairly certain that for some +hundreds of years previous to this Celtic invasion, Ireland was an +enormously rich country, supplying not only herself, but also +Britain and part of the Atlantic seaboard with gold. The fact +became eventually an ingrained tradition in the history of the +country, subsisting in Irish literature for centuries after the +Christian era. Such natural wealth must have produced in these +early times a marked effect on the relations and culture of these +Iberian Irish, and one might reasonably expect a much higher +level of luxury and wealth than is indicated by the remains +commonly found. With the opportunities provided by communication +with the continent, and the interchange of goods, with all +the chances of benefiting by ideas current among other races, +it is astonishing that Ireland did not play a more prominent part +in Europe, more than a thousand years before the Christian era.</p> + +<p>While gold as a metal was known in Europe, even before +copper, it is a curious fact that silver was almost unknown, and +hardly ever used. One of the most interesting sites for +the metal, at about the same period of which we have +<span class="sidenote">Mediterranean area.</span> +just been speaking in Ireland, was the Mediterranean +coast of Spain. Here in the neighbourhood of Almeria +have been found remains of a large and apparently prosperous +population ranging from the Stone Age to the end of the Bronze +Age, with houses and tombs, besides the fortifications rendered +necessary, in the later period, by their possession of the rare and +precious metal, silver. Rare it certainly was, for the quantity +found was exceedingly small, tiny slender rings for the fingers +or the ears, and rivets to hold the axe-blade in its handle; but +nothing to compare with the lavish richness of the American +mines. The interesting race who occupied these dwellings and +finally were laid to rest in the adjoining graves were evidently +connected more or less closely with the peoples inhabiting the +eastern coasts of the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>Recent discoveries in the central Mediterranean area not only +furnish new and trustworthy (though none the less surprising) +dates in ancient history, but may also bridge the distance +between the Levant and the Pillars of Hercules. The results +achieved by Arthur Evans and other distinguished explorers in +Crete (<i>q.v.</i>) opened a new chapter in the history of European +civilization, and may fitly be compared with the excavation of +Troy, Mycenae and Tiryns by Schliemann some thirty years +before. The progress of archaeology in the interval can be well +tested by a comparison of the discussions to which the two series +of discoveries gave rise. The mistaken attributions and unfortunate +animosities in connexion with earlier excavations are +almost forgotten, while the brilliant discoveries in the island of +King Minos have not only themselves been made on scientific +principles, but are illumined by the splendid revelation of the +civilizations of the Mycenaean and the pre-Mycenaean era.</p> + +<p>A great change indeed took place in the methods of classical +study during the last decade of the 19th century, a change +which affected the entire character of future classical +research. It was formerly the common habit among +<span class="sidenote">Classical.</span> +students and professors of archaeology to confine their attention +and their interests entirely to classical texts and even to classical +sites, rejecting as outside the scope of their studies anything +that was not manifestly beautiful as art. Whatever was primitive +in its aspect, or wanting in the familiar characteristics that +had for centuries been associated with Greek art, was either +rejected entirely or at any rate relegated to a second place, as +having but a poor claim to be classed with objects of the finer +periods. The result was necessarily misleading. The uninstructed +majority very naturally regarded the art of Pheidian +times as a thing of supernatural growth, which had been bestowed +by divine favour upon a chosen spot on the earth, without +a human parentage, and almost without leaving any descendants. +The evolutionary methods of other branches of science, however, +were by degrees brought to bear upon the sacred precincts of +pure Greek art. It was found that the crude products of the +second millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the formless images evolved by the +uncultured dwellers in the Mediterranean area more than a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span> +thousand years before the time of Pheidias, were in truth the +prototypes of the creations of himself and his contemporaries. +This step being taken, the rest became easy. The most commonplace +and ordinary relics were collected with as much avidity as they +had formerly been rejected, in the belief that their simple +forms would aid in the elucidation of their more complex and +highly elaborated descendants. This minute attention, moreover, +was not only given to the works of man, but even the +remains of humanity received the attention they merited. It +has been rightly thought, during recent years, that the question +of race was a factor that deserved treatment in dealing with +works of art of early times; and that natural evolution due to +man’s tendency to change with time, might not be sufficient to +account for the differences of type observed in human remains +from the same country. For this reason, not only the objects +associated with the burial have been preserved, but also the +skeleton itself. This has been examined, measurements taken +and recorded for comparison, and inferences made, sometimes +of a surprising character. For example, if a cemetery be found +with a preponderance of tall, long-headed skeletons in a district +where the prevailing type of skeleton is short and brachycephalic +(short-headed), the observer may reasonably expect +a different kind of burial-furniture, and suspect an intruding +race. In this particular respect, archaeology owes a signal +debt to physical anthropology and to anthropological methods +in general. The combination of the two is far more likely to +lead to a reasonable and satisfactory conclusion than would be +possible if the one branch of science had been pursued alone.</p> + +<p>When once the existence of abundant remains of prehistoric +man had been admitted, and their study had received recognition +as a branch of science, the evidence supplied +by the relics themselves and by their relation to +<span class="sidenote">Value of ethnology.</span> +extinct or existing animals would have sufficed to give +a considerable insight into the conditions of primitive life. +But, fortunately, corroborative evidence of the most useful +kind was at hand, and has been of the greatest service in solving +what might otherwise have been insoluble problems. Though +the progress of civilization, and more especially the ever +increasing rapidity of communication are rapidly changing the +habits of life among the primitive peoples in various parts of the +world, yet till past the middle of the 19th century, a certain +number of tribes, if not races, were still in the Stone Age. Even +at the present day stone-using tribes still exist, although by +chance metal may be known to them. The importance of the +study of their conditions of life and their technical processes, +and of the collecting of their implements for the express purpose +of illustrating prehistoric man, was recognized by Henry Christy +(1810-1865), who had made extensive investigations and collected +relics in conjunction with Edouard Lartet in the now +famous caverns of the Dordogne, at a time when such explorations +were somewhat of a novelty; and concurrently he formed +a large collection of the productions of existing savage peoples, +both collections after his death passing to the British Museum, +his intention being that the one should elucidate the ether. (It +is only fair to his memory, however, to state here that, by his +express wish, the most important of the relics that he had +obtained from the Dordogne caves were returned to France +where they now are. Such instances of international courtesy +are rare enough to deserve mention.) The value and interest +of such a series can scarcely be over-rated. Almost till the +20th century, the Indians of North America, the Australian +and Tasmanian natives, as well as those of New Zealand and +the many archipelagoes of the Pacific, were, if not ignorant of +the use of metals, at least habitually using stone where civilized +man would use metal. The Maori made his war club of jade +and the pounders for preparing his food of stone. The Australian +had his stone axe-blade; and low as he stands in the culture +scale, his spear-heads are chipped with an exquisite precision. +The Papuan of inland New Guinea is still making his weapons +of stone and wood; while until quite recently the North +American Indian was making his delicate stone arrow points, +and the Solomon islander his beautiful polished stone axe-blades. +The knowledge gained by the study of a large series of such +objects enables us to fill up very many gaps in the story of early +man as told by his own remains. In fact, in this respect, the +value of the comparison is much greater than could reasonably +be expected; for, whatever may be the reason, nothing is more +marked than the extraordinary similarity of stone implements +at all times and over the whole world. An arrow-point made by +a Patagonian Indian, one from a Japanese shell mound, and a +third of the Stone Age from Ireland, are found to be practically +identical. Whether it is that the same material and the same +necessity naturally produce a like result, or whether there has +existed throughout a continuity of type, is a question that will +never be satisfactorily answered. The results, however, are of +eminently practical value. The arrow-heads of neolithic man, +which are found by hundreds all over Europe, may be seen fixed +in their shafts in the hands of an American Indian; rude pieces +of quartz, which unmounted would escape notice as implements, +are seen to make excellent tools when mounted in a handle by +the Australian black, while flakes of slate find a use when +mounted as skinning knives by the Eskimo.</p> + +<p>Now that the narrower conception of archaeology as a minor +branch of classical studies has been given up, the new science +has gradually won its way to universal recognition; +and anthropology, a still wider subject but in many +<span class="sidenote">Organized study.</span> +points closely allied to the scientific study of ancient +remains, has still more recently found favour at all the leading +universities, and practical measures have been taken to establish +the study on a firm and scientific basis. Apart from this official +encouragement, much has been done towards the systematization +and teaching of archaeology by practical excavators, +whose pupils have attained considerable numbers and celebrity. +Something has been done, too, in the national and provincial +museums, to present the relics of past ages in an intelligible +manner, so that the collections no longer consist of curiosities +but of documents rich in instruction and interest even to the +general visitor. The progress of photography, as well as the +improvement and cheapening of methods of illustration, have +also assisted enormously in the advance of archaeology; and +similarly, the antiquities exhibited in museums and private +collections to illustrate and amplify written records, have in +the last generation received much attention on their own account, +and have reacted in various ways on the teaching of ancient +history. In some countries a further step in general education +has been taken, and the lamentable waste of archaeological +material arrested to some extent by the distribution of pictures +and diagrams among schools and institutions, to call attention +to the more ordinary local types, and to encourage those who are +likely to discover them in the soil to save them from destruction +and render them available for scientific study. A certain +familiarity on the part of the young with the mere appearance +of antiquities that come to light continually and are almost as +often discarded or destroyed, would probably result in valuable +additions being made to the available data.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The most useful general works are the following:— +Salomon Reinach, <i>Epoque des alluvions et des cavernes</i> (Musée de +St Germain); Hoernes, <i>Der diluviale Mensch in Europa;</i> Sir John +Evans, <i>Stone Implements of Great Britain</i>, and <i>Bronze Implements of +Great Britain;</i> Boyd Dawkins, <i>Cave-hunting</i>, and <i>Early Man in +Britain;</i> Greenwell, <i>British Barrows;</i> W.G. Smith, <i>Man the +Primeval Savage;</i> James Geikie, <i>Prehistoric Europe;</i> Mortillet, +<i>Le Préhistorique;</i> Robert Munro, <i>Lake Dwellings of Europe;</i> Ridgeway, +<i>Early Age of Greece;</i> Jos. Anderson, <i>Scotland in Pagan Times;</i> +the works of Oscar Montelius and Sophus Müller; <i>L’Anthropologie, +Matériaux pour l’histoire primitive de l’homme;</i> Christy and Lartet, +<i>Reliquiae Aquitanicae;</i> A. Michaelis, <i>A Century of Archaeological +Discovery</i> (Eng. trans., 1908). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anthropology</a></span>, and authorities +mentioned there; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stone Age</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bronze Age</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron Age</a></span>, &c.; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geology</a></span>; and the articles on different countries and sites.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. H. Rd.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHAEOPTERYX<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span>. The name of <i>Archaeopteryx lithographica</i> +was based by Hermann von Meyer upon a feather (Gr. <span class="grk" title="pteryx">πτέρυξ</span>, wing) +found in 1861 in the lithographic slate quarries of Solenhofen +in Bavaria, the geological horizon being that of the Kimmeridge +clay of the Upper Oolite or Jurassic system. In the same year +and at the same place was discovered the specimen (figs. 1 and 3) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span> +now in the British Museum, named by Andreas Wagner <i>Griphosaurus.</i> +Sir R. Owen has described it as <i>A. macroura.</i> Stimulated +by the high price paid by the British Museum, the quarry +owners diligently searched, and in 1872 another, much finer, +preserved specimen was found. This was bought by K.W. +v. Siemens, who presented it to the Berlin Museum. The late +W. Dames has written an excellent monograph on it.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:281px; height:382px" src="images/img355a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—The British Museum specimen.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:360px; height:286px" src="images/img355b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—The specimen in the Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin. +After a photograph taken from a cast.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Archaeopteryx</i> was a bird, without any doubt, but still with so +many low, essentially reptilian characters that it forms a link +between these two classes. About the size of a rook, its most +obvious peculiarity is the long reptilian tail, composed of 20 +vertebrae and not ending in a pygostyle. The last dozen vertebrae +each carry a pair of well-developed typical quills. Upon +these features of the tail E. Haeckel established the subclass +Saururae, containing solely Archaeopteryx, in opposition to the +Ornithurae, comprising all the other birds. Herein he has been +followed by many zoologists. However, the fact that various +recent birds possess the same kind of caudal skeleton, likewise +without a pygostyle, although reduced to at least 13 vertebrae, +shows that the two terms do not express a fundamental difference.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:289px; height:386px" src="images/img355c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Tail of British Museum specimen.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The importance of <i>Archaeopteryx</i> justifies the following +descriptive detail. Vertebral column composed of about 50 +vertebrae, viz. 10-11 cervical, 12-11 thoracic, 2 lumbar, 5-6 +sacral, and 20 or 21 caudal, with a total caudal length of the +Berlin specimen of 7 in. The cervical and thoracic vertebrae +seem to be biconcave; the cervical ribs are much reduced +and were apparently still movable; the thoracic ribs are devoid +of uncinate processes. Paired abdominal ribs are doubtful. +Scarcely anything is known of the sternum, and little of the +shoulder-girdle, except the very stout furcula; scapula typically +bird-like. Humerus about 2˝ in. long, with a strong crista +lateralis, which indicates a strongly developed great pectoral +muscle and hence, by inference, the presence of a keel to the +sternum. Radius and ulna typically avine, 2.1 in. in length. +Carpus with two separate bones. The hand skeleton consists +of 3 completely separate metacarpals, each carrying a complete, +likewise free, finger; the shortened thumb with 2, the +index with 3, the third with 4 phalanges; each finger with a +curved claw. The whole wing is consequently, although +essentially avine, still reptilian in the unfused state of the +metacarpals and the numbers of the phalanges. The pelvis is +imperfectly known. The preacetabular portion of the ilium is +shorter than the posterior half. The hind-limb is typically +avine, with intertarsal joint, distally reduced fibula, and the +three elongated metatarsals which show already considerable +anchylosis; reduction of the toes to four, with 2, 3, 4 and 5 +phalanges; the hallux is separate, and as usual in recent birds +posterior in position. Skull bird-like, except that the short +bill cannot have been enclosed in a horny rhamphotheca, since +the upper jaw shows a row of 13, the lower jaw 3 conical teeth, +all implanted in distinct sockets.</p> + +<p>The remiges and rectrices indicate perfect feathers, with shaft +and complete vanes which were so neatly finished that they must +have possessed typical radii and hooklets. Some of the quills +measure fully 5 in. in length. Six or seven remiges were attached +to the hand, ten to the ulna.</p> + +<p>It is idle to speculate on the habits of this earliest of known +birds. That it could fly is certain, and the feet show it to have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span> +been well adapted to arboreal life. The clawed slender fingers +did not make <i>Archaeopteryx</i> any more quadrupedal or bat-like +in its habits than is a kestrel hawk, with its equally large, or +even larger thumb-claw.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—H. v. Meyer, <i>Neues Jahrb.f. Mineralog.</i> (1861), +p. 679; Sir R. Owen, “On the Archaeopteryx von Meyer...” <i>Phil. +Trans.</i>, 1863, pp. 33-47, pls. i.-iv.; T.H. Huxley, “Remarks on the +Skeleton of the Archaeopteryx and on the relations of the bird to the +reptile,” <i>Geol. Mag. i.</i>, 1864, pp. 55-57; C. Vogt, “L’Archaeopteryx +macrura,” <i>Revue scient. de la France et de l’étranger</i>, 1879, +pp. 241-248; W. Dames, “Über Archaeopteryx,” <i>Palaeontol. Abhandl.</i> ii. +(Berlin, 1884); <i>Idem</i>, “Über Brustbein Schulter- und +Beckengürtel der Archaeopteryx,” <i>Math. naturw. Mitth.</i> Berlin. +vii. (1897), pp. 476-492.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. F. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHAISM<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (adj. “archaic”; from Gr. <span class="grk" title="harchaios">ἁρχαῖος</span>, old), an +old-fashioned usage, or the deliberate employment of an out-of-date +and ancient mode of expression.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHANGEL<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Archangelsk</span>), a government of European +Russia, bounded N. by the White Sea and Arctic Ocean, W. +by Finland and Olonets, S. by Vologda, and E. by the Ural +mountains. It comprehends the islands of Novaya-Zemlya, +Vaygach and Kolguev, and the peninsula of Kola. Its area is +331,505 sq. m., and its population in 1867 was 275,779 and in +1897, 349,943. The part which lies within the Arctic Circle is +very desolate and sterile, consisting chiefly of sand and reindeer +moss. The winter is long and severe, and even in summer the +soil is frozen. The rivers (Tuloma, Onega, Dvina, Mezen and +Pechora) are closed in September and scarcely thaw before July. +The Kola peninsula is, however, diversified by hills exceeding +3000 ft. in altitude and by large lakes (<i>e.g.</i> Imandra), and +its coast enjoys a much more genial climate. South of the Arctic +Circle the greater part of the country is covered with forests, +intermingled with lakes and morasses, though in places there is +excellent pasturage. Here the spring is moist, with cold, frosty +nights; the summer a succession of long foggy days; the +autumn again moist. The rivers are closed from October to +April. The inhabitants of the northern districts—nomad tribes +of Samoyedes, Zyryans, Lapps, and the Finnish tribes of Karelians +and Chudes—support themselves by fishing and hunting. In the +southern districts hemp and flax are raised, but grain crops are +little cultivated, so that the bark of trees has often to be ground +up to eke out the scanty supply of flour. Potatoes are grown as +far north as 65°. Shipbuilding is carried on, and the forests +yield timber, pitch and tar. Excellent cattle are raised in the +district of Kholmogory on the Dvina, veal being supplied to St +Petersburg. Gold is found in the districts of Kola, naphtha and +salt in those of Kem and Pinega, and lignite in Mezen. Sulphurous +springs exist in the districts of Kholmogory and Shenkursk. +The industry and commerce are noticed below in the article on +the town Archangel, which is the capital. The government is +divided into nine districts, the chief towns of which +are—Alexandrovsk or Kola (pop. 300), Archangel (<i>q.v.</i>), +Kem (1825), Kholmogory (1465), Mezen (2040), Novaya-Zemlya +(island), Pechora, Pinega (1000) and Shenkursk (1308).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.P. Engelhardt, <i>A Russian Province of the North</i> +(Eng. trans., by H. Cooke, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHANGEL<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Archangelsk</span>), chief town of the government +of Archangel, Russia, at the head of the delta of the Dvina, on +the right bank of the river, in lat. 64° 32′ N. and long. 40° 33′ E. +Pop. (1867) 19,936; (1897) 20,933. As early as the 10th century, +if not earlier, the Norsemen frequented this part of the world +(Bjarmeland) on trading expeditions; the best-known is that +made by Ottar or Othere between 880 and 900 and described +(or translated) by Alfred the Great, king of England. The +modern town dates, however, from the visit of the English +voyager, Richard Chancellor, in 1553. An English factory was +erected on the lower Dvina soon after that date, and in 1584 a +fort was built, around which the town grew up. Archangel was +for long the only seaport of Russia (or Muscovy). The tsar +Boris Godunov (1598-1605) threw the trade open to all nations; +and the chief participants in it were England, Holland and +Germany. In 1668-1684 the great bazaar and trading hall was +built, principally by Tatar prisoners. In 1691-1700 the exports +to England averaged Ł112,210 annually. After Peter the Great +made St Petersburg the capital of his dominions (1702), he +placed Archangel under vexatious commercial disabilities, and +consequently its trade declined. In 1762 it was granted the +same privileges as St Petersburg, and since then it has gradually +recovered its former prosperity. It is the seat of a bishop, and +has a cathedral (1709-1743), a museum, the monastery of the +Archangel Michael (whence the city gets its name), an +ecclesiastical seminary, a school of navigation and a naval +hospital. Linen, leather, canvas, cordage, mats, tallow, potash and +beer are manufactured. There is a lively trade with St Petersburg, +and the sea-borne exports, which consist chiefly of timber, flax, +linseed, oats, flour, pitch, tar, skins and mats, amount in value +to about 1˝ millions sterling annually (82˝ % for timber), but +the imports (mostly fish) are worth only about Ł200,000. A fish +fair is held every year on the 1st (15th) of September. Archangel +communicates with the interior of Russia by river and canal, and +has a railway line (522 m.) to Yaroslavl. The harbour, deepened +to 18ź ft., is about a mile below the city, and is accessible +from May to October. About 12 m. lower down there are a government +dockyard and merchants’ warehouses. A new military harbour, +Alexandrovsk or Port Catherine, has been made on Catherine +(Ekaterininsk) Bay, on the Murman coast of the Kola peninsula. +The shortest day at Archangel has only 3 hrs. 12 min., the +longest 21 hrs. 48 min. of daylight.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHBALD,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> a borough of Lackawanna county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, 10 m. N.E. of Scranton. +Pop. (1890) 4032; (1900) 5396; (1869 foreign-born); (1910) +7194. It is served by the Delaware & Hudson, and the New +York, Ontario & Western railways, and by an interurban electric +line. It is about 900 ft. above sea-level; in the vicinity are +extensive deposits of anthracite coal, the mining and breaking +of which is the principal industry; silk throwing and weaving is +another industry of the borough. At Archbald is a large glacial +“pot hole,” about 20 ft. in diameter and 40 ft. in depth. Archbald, +named in honour of James Archbald, formerly chief +engineer of the Delaware & Hudson railway, was a part of +Blakely township (incorporated in 1818) until 1877, when it +became a borough.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHBISHOP<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (Lat. <i>archiepiscopus</i>, from Gr. +<span class="grk" title="harchiepiskopos">ἀρχιεπίσκοπος</span>), in the Christian Church, the title of a bishop +of superior rank, implying usually jurisdiction over other bishops, +but no superiority of order over them. The functions of the +archbishop, as at present exercised, developed out of those of the +metropolitan (<i>q.v.</i>); though the title of archbishop, when it +first appeared, implied no metropolitan jurisdiction. Nor are the +terms interchangeable now; for not all metropolitans are +archbishops,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> nor all archbishops metropolitans. +The title seems to have been introduced first in the East, in the +4th century, as an honorary distinction implying no superiority of +jurisdiction. Its first recorded use is by Athanasius, bishop of +Alexandria, who applied it to his predecessor Alexander as a mark +of respect. In the same way Gregory of Nazianzus bestowed it upon +Athanasius himself. In the next century its use would seem to have +been more common as the title of bishops of important sees; for +several archbishops are stated to have been present at the council +of Chalcedon in 451. In the Western Church the title was hardly +known before the 7th century, and did not become common until +the Carolingian emperors revived the right of the metropolitans +to summon provincial synods. The metropolitans now +commonly assumed the title of archbishop to mark their pre-eminence +over the other bishops; at the same time the obligation +imposed upon them, mainly at the instance of St Boniface, to +receive the <i>pallium</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) from Rome, definitely marked the +defeat of their claim to exercise metropolitan jurisdiction +independently of the pope.</p> + +<p>At the present day, the title of archbishop is retained in +the Roman Catholic Church, the various oriental churches, +the Anglican Church, and certain branches of the Lutheran +(Evangelical) Church.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span> </p> + +<p>In the Roman Catholic Church the powers of the archbishop +are considerably less extensive than they were in the middle ages. +According to the medieval canon law, based on the +decretals, and codified in the 13th century in the +<span class="sidenote">Roman Catholic Church.</span> +<i>Corpus juris canonici</i>, by which the earlier powers +of metropolitans had been greatly curtailed, the powers +of the archbishop consisted in the right (1) to confirm and +consecrate suffragan bishops; (2) to summon and preside over +provincial synods; (3) to superintend the suffragans and visit +their dioceses, as well as to censure and punish bishops in the +interests of discipline, the right of deprivation, however, being +reserved to the pope; (4) to act as a court of appeal from the +diocesan courts; (5) to exercise the <i>jus devolutionis</i>, <i>i.e.</i> present +to benefices in the gift of bishops, if these neglect their duty +in this respect. These rights were greatly curtailed by the +council of Trent. The confirmation and consecration of bishops +(<i>q.v.</i>) is now reserved to the Holy See. The summoning of +provincial synods, which was made obligatory every three years +by the council, was long neglected, but is now more common +wherever the political conditions, <i>e.g.</i> in the United States, Great +Britain and France, are favourable. The disciplinary powers of +the archbishop, on the other hand, can scarcely be said to +survive. The right to hold a visitation of a suffragan’s diocese +or to issue censures against him was, by Sess. xxiv. c. 3 <i>de ref.</i>, +of the council of Trent, made dependent upon the consent of the +provincial synod after cause shown (<i>causa cognita et probata</i>); +and the only two powers left to the archbishop in this respect +are to watch over the diocesan seminaries and to compel the +residence of the bishop in his diocese. The right of the archbishop +to exercise a certain disciplinary power over the regular +orders is possessed by him, not as archbishop, but as the delegate +<i>ad hoc</i> of the pope. Finally, the function of the archbishop +as judge in a court of appeal, though it still subsists, is of little +practical importance now that the clergy, in civil matters, are +universally subject to the secular courts.</p> + +<p>Besides archbishops who are metropolitans there are in the +Roman Catholic Church others who have no metropolitan +jurisdiction. Such are the titular archbishops <i>in partibus</i>, +and certain archbishops of Italian sees who have no bishops under +them. Archbishops rank immediately after patriarchs and have +the same precedence as primates. The right to wear the <i>pallium</i> +is confined to those archbishops who are not merely titular. +It must be applied for, either in person or by proxy, at Rome +by the archbishop within three months of his consecration or +enthronement, and, before receiving it, he must take the oaths of +fidelity and obedience to the Holy See. Until the <i>pallium</i> is +granted, the archbishop is known only as archbishop-elect, +and is not empowered to exercise his <i>potestas ordinis</i> in the +archdiocese nor to summon the provincial synod and exercise +the jurisdiction dependent upon this. He may, however, exercise +his purely <i>episcopal</i> functions. The special ensign of his +office is the cross, <i>crux erecta</i> or <i>gestatoria</i>, carried +before him on solemn occasions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cross</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the Orthodox and other churches of the East the title of +archbishop is of far more common occurrence than in the West, +and is less consistently associated with metropolitan +functions. Thus in Greece there are eleven archbishops +<span class="sidenote">Eastern Church.</span> +to thirteen bishops, the archbishop of Athens alone +being metropolitan; in Cyprus, where there are four bishops and +only one archbishop, all five are of metropolitan rank.</p> + +<p>In the Protestant churches of continental Europe the title of +archbishop has fallen into almost complete disuse. It is, however, +still borne by the Lutheran bishop of Upsala, who is +metropolitan of Sweden, and by the Lutheran bishop +<span class="sidenote">Lutheran Church.</span> +of Ĺbo in Finland. In Prussia the title has occasionally +been bestowed by the king on general superintendents of the +Lutheran church, as in 1829, when Frederick William III. gave +it to his friend and spiritual adviser, the celebrated preacher, +Ludwig Ernst Borowski (1740-1831), general superintendent of +Prussia (1812) and bishop (1816).</p> + +<p>In the Church of England and its sister and daughter +churches the position of the archbishop is defined by the medieval +canon law as confirmed or modified by statute since the +Reformation. It is, therefore, as regards both the <i>potestas ordinis</i> +<span class="sidenote">Church of England.</span> +and jurisdiction, substantially the same as +in the Roman Catholic Church, save as modified on the +one hand by the substitution of the supremacy of the +crown for that of the Holy See, and on the other by the +restrictions imposed by the council of Trent.</p> + +<p>The ecclesiastical government of the Church of England is +divided between two archbishops—the archbishop of Canterbury, +who is “primate of all England” and metropolitan of the province +of Canterbury, and the archbishop of York, who is “primate +of England” and metropolitan of the province of York. The +jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury as primate of all +England extends in certain matters into the province of York. +He exercised the jurisdiction of <i>legatus natus</i> of the pope +throughout all England before the Reformation, and since that event +he has been empowered, by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, to exercise +certain powers of dispensation in cases formerly sued for in the +court of Rome. Under this statute the archbishop continues +to grant special licences to marry, which are valid in both provinces; +he appoints notaries public, who may practise in both +provinces; and he grants dispensations to clerks to hold more +than one benefice, subject to certain restrictions which have +been imposed by later statutes. The archbishop also continues +to grant degrees in the faculties of theology, music and law, +which are known as Lambeth degrees. His power to grant +degrees in medicine, qualifying the recipients to practise, was +practically restrained by the Medical Act 1858.</p> + +<p>The archbishop of Canterbury exercises the twofold jurisdiction +of a metropolitan and a diocesan bishop. As metropolitan +he is the guardian of the spiritualities of every vacant +see within the province, he presents to all benefices which fall +vacant during the vacancy of the see, and through his special +commissary exercises the ordinary jurisdiction of a bishop +within the vacant diocese. He exercises also an appellate jurisdiction +over each bishop, which, in cases of licensed curates, +he exercises personally under the Pluralities Act 1838; but his +ordinary appellate jurisdiction is exercised by the judge of the +Arches court (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arches, Court of</a></span>). The archbishop had +formerly exclusive jurisdiction in all causes of wills and intestacies, +where parties died having personal property in more than +one diocese of the province of Canterbury, and he had concurrent +jurisdiction in other cases. This jurisdiction, which he exercised +through the judge of the Prerogative court, was transferred +to the crown by the Court of Probate Act 1857. The Arches +court was also the court of appeal from the consistory courts +of the bishops of the province in all testamentary and matrimonial +causes. The matrimonial jurisdiction was transferred +to the crown by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. The court +of Audience, in which the archbishop presided personally, +attended by his vicar-general, and sometimes by episcopal +assessors, has fallen into desuetude. The vicar-general, however, +exercises jurisdiction in matters of ordinary marriage licences +and of institutions to benefices. The master of the faculties +regulates the appointment of notaries public, and all +dispensations which fall under 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21.</p> + +<p>A right very rarely exercised by the archbishop of Canterbury, +but one of great importance, is that of the visitation and deprivation +of inferior bishops. Since there is no example of the +archbishop of York exercising or being reputed to have such +disciplinary jurisdiction over his suffragans,<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and this right could, +according to the canon law cited above, in the middle ages +only be exercised normally in concert with the provincial synod, +it would seem to be a survival of the special jurisdiction enjoyed +by the pre-Reformation archbishop as <i>legatus natus</i> of the pope. +It was somewhat freely exercised by Cranmer and his successors +immediately after the Reformation; but the main precedent +now relied upon is that of Dr Watson, bishop of St Davids, who +was deprived in 1695 by Archbishop Tennison for simony and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span> +other offences, the legality of the sentence being finally confirmed +by the House of Lords on the 25th of January 1705. It was +proved in the course of the long argument in this case that the +archbishop of Canterbury had undoubtedly exercised such independent +power of visitation both before and after the Reformation; +and it was on this precedent that in 1888 the judicial +committee of the privy council mainly relied in deciding that +the archbishop had the right to cite before him the bishop of +Lincoln (Dr Edward King), who was accused of certain irregular +ritual practices. The trial began on the 12th of February 1889 +before the archbishop and certain assessors, the protest of Dr +King, based on the claim that he could only be tried in a +provincial synod, being overruled by Archbishop Benson on the +grounds above stated. The main importance of the “Lincoln +Judgment,” delivered on the 21st of November 1890, is that +it set a new precedent for the effective jurisdiction of the +archbishop, based on the ancient canon law, and so did something +towards the establishment of a purely “spiritual” court, the +absence of which had been one of the main grievances of a large +body of the clergy.</p> + +<p>It is the privilege of the archbishop of Canterbury to crown +the kings and queens of England. He is entitled to consecrate +all the bishops within his province and was formerly entitled, +upon consecrating a bishop, to select a benefice within his +diocese at his option for one of his chaplains, but this practice +was indirectly abolished by 3 and 4 Vict. c. III, § 42. He is +entitled to nominate eight chaplains, who had formerly certain +statutory privileges, which are now abolished. He is <i>ex officio</i> +an ecclesiastical commissioner for England, and has by statute +the right of nominating one of the salaried ecclesiastical commissioners.</p> + +<p>The archbishop exercises the ordinary jurisdiction of a bishop +over his diocese through his consistory court at Canterbury, the +judge of which court is styled the commissary-general of the +city and diocese of Canterbury. The archbishop holds a +visitation of his diocese personally every three years, and he +is the only diocesan who has kept up the triennial visitation +of the dean and chapter of his cathedral.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +The archbishop of Canterbury takes precedence immediately after +princes of the blood royal and over every peer of parliament, +including the lord chancellor.</p> + +<p>The archbishop of York has immediate spiritual jurisdiction as +metropolitan in the case of all vacant sees within the province +of York, analogous to that which is exercised by the archbishop +of Canterbury within the province of Canterbury. He has also +an appellate jurisdiction of an analogous character, which he +exercises through his provincial court, whilst his diocesan +jurisdiction is exercised through his consistorial court, the +judges of both courts being nominated by the archbishop. +His ancient testamentary and matrimonial jurisdiction was +transferred to the crown by the same statutes which divested +the see of Canterbury of its jurisdiction in similar matters. It +is the privilege of the archbishop of York to crown the queen +consort and to be her perpetual chaplain. The archbishop of +York takes precedence over all subjects of the crown not of royal +blood, but after the lord high chancellor of England. He is +ex officio an ecclesiastical commissioner for England (see further +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">England, Church of</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The Church of Ireland had at the time of the Act of Union +four archbishops, who took their titles from Armagh, Dublin, +Cashel and Tuam. By acts of 1833 and 1834, the metropolitans +of Cashel and of Tuam were reduced to the status of diocesan +bishops. The two archbishoprics of Armagh and Dublin are +maintained in the disestablished Church of Ireland.</p> + +<p>The title archbishop has been used in certain of the colonial +churches, <i>e.g.</i> Australia, South Africa, Canada, and the West +Indies, since 1893, when it was assumed by the metropolitans +of Canada and Rupert’s Land (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anglican Communion</a></span>). +Archbishops have the title of His (or Your) Grace and Most +Reverend Father in God.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hinschius, <i>System des katholischen Kirchenrechts</i> (Berlin, +1869), also article “Erzbischof,” in Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i> (1898); +Phillimore, <i>The Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England</i>, and +authorities there cited.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the Roman Church it is safe to say that all metropolitans are +archbishops. In, <i>e.g.</i>, the Scottish and American episcopal churches, +however, the metropolitan is the senior bishop <i>pro tem.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Unless the case of the claim of Mark, bishop of Carlisle, to be tried by +his ordinary instead of by a temporal court, be a precedent +(Phillimore, <i>Eccles. Law</i>, p. 74, ed. 1895).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The court of Peculiars is no longer held, inasmuch as the peculiars have +been placed by acts of parliament under the ordinary jurisdiction +of the bishops of the respective dioceses in which they are situated.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHCHANCELLOR<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Archicancellarius</i>; Ger. <i>Erzkanzler</i>), +or chief chancellor, a title given to the highest +dignitary of the Holy Roman Empire, and also used occasionally +during the middle ages to denote an official who supervised +the work of chancellors or notaries.</p> + +<p>In the 9th century Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, in his work, +<i>De ordine palatii et regni</i>, speaks of a <i>summus cancellarius</i>, +evidently an official at the court of the Carolingian emperors +and kings. A charter of the emperor Lothair I. dated 844 refers +to Agilmar, archbishop of Vienne, as archchancellor, and there +are several other references to archchancellors in various +chronicles. This office existed in the German kingdom of Otto +the Great, and about this time it appears to have become an +appanage of the archbishopric of Mainz. When the Empire was +restored by Otto in 962, a separate chancery seems to have been +organized for Italian affairs, and early in the 11th century the +office of archchancellor for the kingdom of Italy was in the hands +of the archbishop of Cologne. The theory was that all the imperial +business in Germany was supervised by the elector of Mainz, +and for Italy by the elector of Cologne. However, the duties +of archchancellor for Italy were generally discharged by deputy, +and after the virtual separation of Italy and Germany, the title +alone was retained by the elector. When the kingdom of +Burgundy or Arles was acquired by the emperor Conrad II. in +1032 it is possible that a separate chancery was established for +this kingdom. However this may be, during the 12th century +the elector of Trier took the title of archchancellor for the +kingdom of Arles, although it is doubtful if he ever performed any +duties in connexion with this office. This threefold division +of the office of imperial archchancellor was acknowledged in +1356 by the Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV., but the +duties of the office were performed by the elector of Mainz. The +office in this form was part of the constitution of the Empire +until 1803 when the archbishopric of Mainz was secularized. +The last elector, Karl Theodor von Dalberg, however, retained +the title of archchancellor until the dissolution of the Empire in +1806. H. Reincke in <i>Der alte Reichstag und der neue Bundesrat</i> +(Tübingen, 1906) points out a marked resemblance between the +medieval archchancellor and the German imperial chancellor of +the present day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s. “Archicancellarius”; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancellor</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHDEACON<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (Lat. <i>archidiaconus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="archidiakonos">ἀρχιδιάκονος</span>), a high +official of the Christian Church. The office of archdeacon is of +great antiquity. So early as the 4th century it is mentioned as +an established office, and it is probable that it was in existence +in the 3rd. Originally the archdeacon was, as the name implies, +the chief of the deacons attached to the bishop’s cathedral, his +duty being, besides preaching, to supervise the deacons and their +work, <i>i.e.</i> more especially the care of the sick and the arrangement +of the externals of divine worship. Even thus early their close +relation to the bishop and their employment in matters of +episcopal administration gave them, though only in deacons’ +orders, great importance, which continually developed. In the +East, in the 5th century, the archdeacons were already charged +with the proof of the qualifications of candidates for ordination; +they attended the bishops at ecclesiastical synods, and sometimes +acted as their representatives; they shared in the administration +of sees during a vacancy. In the West, in the 6th and 7th +centuries, besides the original functions of their office, +archdeacons had certain well-defined rights of visitation and +supervision, being responsible for the good order of the lower clergy, +the upkeep of ecclesiastical buildings and the safe-guarding of the +church furniture—functions which involved a considerable disciplinary +power. During the 8th and 9th centuries the office tended +to become more and more exclusively purely administrative, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span> +the archdeacon by his visitations relieving the bishop of the +minutiae of government and keeping him informed in detail of +the condition of his diocese. The archdeacon had thus become, +on the one hand, the <i>oculus episcopi</i>, but on the other hand, +armed as he was with powers of imposing penance and, in case +of stubborn disobedience, of excommunicating offenders, his +power tended more and more to grow at the bishop’s expense. +This process received a great impulse from the erection in the +11th and 12th centuries of defined territorial jurisdictions for the +archdeacons, who had hitherto been itinerant representatives +of the central power of the diocese. The dioceses were now +mapped out into several archdeaconries (<i>archidiaconatus</i>), which +corresponded with the political divisions of the countries; and +these defined spheres, in accordance with the prevailing feudal +tendencies of the age, gradually came to be regarded as independent +centres of jurisdiction.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The bishops, +now increasingly absorbed in secular affairs, were content with +a somewhat theoretical power of control, while the archdeacons +rigorously asserted an independent position which implied great +power and possibilities of wealth. The custom, moreover, had grown +up of bestowing the coveted office of archdeacon on the provosts, +deans and canons of the cathedral churches, and the archdeacons +were thus involved in the struggle of the chapters against the +episcopal authority. By the 12th century the archdeacon had +become practically independent of the bishop, whose consent +was only required in certain specified cases.</p> + +<p>The power of the archdeacon reached its zenith at the outset of +the 13th century. Innocent III. describes him as <i>judex ordinarius</i>, +and he possesses in his own right the powers of visitation, of +holding courts and imposing penalties, of deciding in matrimonial +causes and cases of disputed jurisdiction, of testing candidates +for orders, of inducting into benefices. He has the right to +certain procurations, and to appoint and depose archpriests and +rural deans. And these powers he may exercise through delegated +<i>officiales</i>. His jurisdiction has become, in fact, not +subordinate to, but co-ordinate with that of the bishop. Yet, so far +as orders were concerned, he remained a deacon; and if archdeacons +were often priests, this was because priests who were members of +chapters were appointed to the office.</p> + +<p>From the 13th century onward a reaction set in. The power +of the archdeacons rested upon custom and prescription, not +upon the canon law; and though the bishops could not break, +they could circumvent it. This they did by appointing new +officials to exercise in their name the rights still reserved to +them, or to which they laid claim. These were the <i>officiales:</i> +the <i>officiales foranei</i>, whose jurisdiction was parallel with +that of the archdeacons, and the <i>officiales principales</i> and +vicars-general, who presided over the courts of appeal. The clergy +having thus another authority, and one moreover more canonical, to +appeal to, the power of the archdeacons gradually declined; and, so +far as the Roman Catholic Church is concerned, it received its +death-blow from the council of Trent (1564), which withdrew all +matrimonial and criminal causes from the competence of the +archdeacons, forbade them to pronounce excommunications, +and allowed them only to hold visitations in connexion with +those of the bishop and with his consent. These decrees were +not, indeed, at once universally enforced; but the convulsions +of the Revolutionary epoch and the religious reorganization +that followed completed the work. In the Roman Church to-day +the office of archdeacon is merely titular, his sole function being +to present the candidates for ordination to the bishop. The +title, indeed, hardly exists save in Italy, where the archdeacon +is no more than a dignified member of a chapter, who takes rank +after the bishop. The ancient functions of the archdeacon are +exercised by the vicar-general. In the Lutheran church the +title <i>Archidiakonus</i> is given in some places to the senior +assistant pastor of a church.</p> + +<p>In the Church of England, on the other hand, the office of +archdeacon, which was first introduced at the Norman conquest, +survives, with many of its ancient duties and prerogatives. +Since 1836 there have been at least two archdeaconries in each +diocese, and in some dioceses there are four archdeacons. The +archdeacons are appointed by their respective bishops, and they +are, by an act of 1840, required to have been six full years in +priest’s orders. The functions of the archdeacon are in the +present day ancillary in a general way to those of the bishop of +the diocese. It is his especial duty to inspect the churches +within his archdeaconry, to see that the fabrics are kept in +repair, and to hold annual visitations of the clergy and +churchwardens of each parish, for the purpose of ascertaining that +the clergy are in residence, of admitting the newly elected +churchwardens into office, and of receiving the presentments of the +outgoing churchwardens. It is his privilege to present all +candidates for ordination to the bishop of the diocese. It is his +duty also to induct the clergy of his archdeaconry into the +temporalities of their benefices after they have been instituted +into the spiritualities by the bishop or his vicar-general. Every +archdeacon is entitled to appoint an official to preside over his +archidiaconal court, from which there is an appeal to the consistory +court of the bishop. The archdeacons are <i>ex officio</i> +members of the convocations of their respective provinces.</p> + +<p>It is the privilege of the archdeacon of Canterbury to induct +the archbishop and all the bishops of the province of Canterbury +into their respective bishoprics, and this he does in the case of a +bishop under a mandate from the archbishop of Canterbury, directing +him to induct the bishop into the real, actual, and corporal +possession of the bishopric, and to install and to enthrone him; +and in the case of the archbishop, under an analogous mandate +from the dean and chapter of Canterbury, as being guardians of +the spiritualities during the vacancy of the archiepiscopal see. +In the colonies there are two or more archdeacons in each +diocese, and their functions correspond to those of English +archdeacons. In the Episcopal church of America the office of +archdeacon exists in only one or two dioceses.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, ii., §§ 86. 87; Schröder, <i>Die +Entwicklung des Archdiakonats bis zum 11. Jahrhundert</i> (Munich, +1890); Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, +1882-1901); Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i> (ed. 1896); +Phillimore, <i>Ecclesiastical Law</i>, part ii. chap. v. +(London, 1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Archdeaconries were, indeed, +sometimes treated as ordinary fiefs and were held as such by laymen. +Thus Ordericus Vitalis says that “(Fulk) granted to the monks the +archdeaconry which he and his predecessors held in fee of the +archbishop of Rouen” (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> iii. 12).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHDUKE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Lat. <i>archidux</i>, Ger. <i>Erzherzog</i>,) a title +peculiar now to the Austrian royal family. According to Selden it +denotes “an excellency or pre-eminence only, not a superiority +or power over other dukes, as in archbishop it doth over other +bishops.” Yet in this latter sense it would seem to have been +assumed by Bruno of Saxony, archbishop of Cologne, and duke +of Lorraine (953-965), when he divided his duchy into the dukedoms +of Upper and Lower Lorraine. The designation was, +however, exceedingly rare during the middle ages. The title +of archduke of Lorraine ceased with the circumstances which +had produced it. The later dynasties of Brabant and Lorraine, +when these fiefs became hereditary, bore only the title of duke. +The house of Habsburg, therefore, did not acquire this title +with the inheritance of the dukes of Lorraine. Nor does it occur +in any of the charters granted to the dukes of Austria by the +emperors; though in that creating the first duke of Austria the +<i>archiduces palatii, i.e.</i> the principal dukes of the court, are +mentioned. The “Archidux Austriae, seu Austriae inferioris” +is spoken of by Abbot Rudolph (d. 1138) in his chronicles of the +abbey of St Trond (<i>Gesta Abbatum Trudonensium</i>) but this is no +more than a rhetorical flourish, and the title of “archduke +palatine” (Pfalz-Erzherzog) was, in fact, assumed first by +Duke Rudolph IV. (d. 1365), and was one of the rights and +privileges included in his famous forgery of the year 1358, the +<i>privilegium maius</i>, which purported to have been bestowed +by the emperor Frederick I. on the dukes of Austria in extension +of the genuine <i>privilegium minus</i> of 1156, granted to the +margrave Henry II. Rudolph IV. used the title on his seals and +charters till he was compelled to desist by the emperor Charles IV. +The title was also assumed for a time, probably on the strength of the +<i>privilegium maius</i>, by Duke Ernest of Styria (d. 1424); but it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span> +did not legally belong to the house of Habsburg until 1453, +when Duke Ernest’s son, the emperor Frederick III. (Frederick +V., duke of Styria and Carinthia, 1424-1493, of Austria, 1463-1493), +confirmed the <i>privilegium maius</i> and conferred the title of +archduke of Austria on his son Maximilian and his heirs. The +title archduke (or archduchess) is now borne by all members of +the Austrian imperial house.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i> (1672); Antonius Matthaeus, +<i>De nobilititate, de principibus, deducibus, &c., libriquatuor</i> (Amsterdam +and Leiden, 1696, lib. i. cap. 6); Pfeffel, <i>Abrégé chronologique de l’hist, +el du droit public d’Allemagne</i> (Paris, 1766); Brinckmeier, <i>Glossarium +diplomaticum, &c.</i> (1850-1863, 2 vols.); J.F. Joachim, “Abhandlung +von dem Titel ‘Erzherzog,’ welchen das Haus Oesterreich fuhrt.” +in <i>Prufende Gesellschaft zu Halle, 7</i>; F. Wachter, art. “Erzherzog,” +in <i>Allgem. Encykl. der Wissenschiften u. Kunste</i> (1842, pub. by +Ersch and Gruber); A. Huber, <i>Ueber die Entstehungszeit der oesterreichischen +Freiheitsbriefe</i> (Vienna, 1860); W. Erben, <i>Das Privilegium Friedrichs I. +für das Herzogtum Österreich</i> (Vienna, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHEAN SYSTEM<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (from <span class="grk" title="archae">ἀρχή</span>, beginning), in geology. +Below the lowest distinctly fossiliferous strata, that is, below +those Cambrian rocks which bear the <i>Olenellus</i> fauna, there +lies a great mass of stratified, metamorphic and igneous rock, +to which the non-committal epithet “pre-Cambrian” is often +applied; and indeed in not a few instances this general term +is sufficiently precise for the present state of our knowledge. +Nevertheless there are large tracts, both in the Old World and +in the New, in which a subdivision of this assemblage of ancient +rocks is not only possible but desirable. It is quite clear in +certain regions that there is a lowermost group with a prevailing +granitoid, gneissic and schistose facies, mainly of igneous origin, +above which there are one or several groups bearing a distinctly +sedimentary aspect. It is to this lowermost gneissic group that +the term “Archean” may be conveniently limited.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:515px; height:409px" src="images/img360.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p>Thus, while the name “pre-Cambrian” may be used to +indicate all these very old rocks whenever there is still any +difficulty in subdividing them further, it is an advantage to +have a special appellation for the oldest group where this can +be distinguished.</p> + +<p>It must be pointed out that the term “Archean” has been +used as a synonym for pre-Cambrian; and that the expressions +<i>Azoic</i> (from α-, privative; <span class="grk" title="zoae">ζωή</span>, life), <i>Eozoic</i> (from <span class="grk" title="aeos">ἠὠς</span>, dawn), +and <i>Fundamental Complex</i>, have been employed in somewhat +the same sense. <i>Archeozoic</i> has been proposed by American +writers to apply to the lowest pre-Cambrian rocks with the same +significance as “Archean” in the restricted sense employed +here; but it is perhaps safer to avoid any reference to the +supposed stage of life development where all direct evidence +is non-existent. The so-called “Azoic” rocks have already +been made to yield evidence of life, and there is no reason to +presuppose the impossibility of finding other records of still +earlier organisms.</p> + +<p>The prevailing rocks of the Archean system are igneous, with +metamorphosed varieties of the same; sedimentary rocks, +distinctly recognizable as such, are scarce, though highly metamorphosed +rocks supposed to be sediments, in some regions, take +an important place.</p> + +<p>There are several features which are peculiarly characteristic +of the Archean rocks:—(1) the extraordinary complexity of the +assemblage of igneous materials; (2) the extreme metamorphism +and deformation which nearly all the rocks have suffered; and +(3) the inextricable intermixture of igneous rocks with those +for which a sedimentary origin is postulated. Wherever the +Archean rocks have been closely examined two great groups +of rocks are distinguishable, an older, schistose group and a +younger, granitoid and gneissic group. For many years the +latter was supposed to be the older, hence the epithets “primitive” +or “fundamental” were applied to it. Now, however, +it has been shown, both in Europe and in North America, that in +certain regions a schistose series is penetrated by a gneissose +series and when this occurs the schists must be the older. But +bearing in mind the difficulties of interpretation, it is not at all +unreasonable to assume that there may yet be regions where +the gneissose rocks are the oldest; for where no schistose series +is present there may be no criterion for estimating the age of +the granites and gneisses. The exceedingly great difficulties +which lie in the way of every attempt to unravel the history +of an Archean rock-complex cannot be too forcibly emphasized; +for to be able to demonstrate the order of events and succession +of rocks we should at least know whether we are dealing with +sediments, flows of volcanic material, or intrusions, yet in many +instances this cannot be done. In some areas the gradual passage +of highly foliated and metamorphosed schists may be traced +into comparatively unaltered arkoses, greywackes, conglomerates; +or into volcanic lava-flows, pyro-clastic rocks or dikes; +or again through a gneissose rock into a granite or a gabbro; +but the districts wherein these relationships have been thoroughly +worked out are very few.</p> + +<p>This much may be said, that where the Archean system has +been most carefully studied, there appears to be (1) a schistose +series, of itself by no means simple but containing the foliated +equivalents of sedimentary and igneous rocks; into this series +a gneissose group (2) has been intruded in the form of batholites, +great sheets and sills with accompanying intrusional prolongations +into the schists; subsequently, into the gneisses and +schists, after they had been further deformed, sheared and +foliated, another set (3) of dikes or thin sheet-like intrusions +penetrated. All this, namely, the formation of sediments, the +outpouring of volcanic rocks, their repeated deformation by +powerful dynamic agencies and then their penetration by dikes +and sheets had been completed and erosion had been at work +upon the hardened and exposed rocks, before the earliest pre-Cambrian +sediment was deposited.</p> + +<p>There has been much premature speculation as to the nature +and origin of these very ancient rocks. The prevalence of regular +foliation with layers of different mineral composition, producing +a close resemblance to bedding, has led some to imagine that the +gneisses and schists were themselves the product of the primeval +oceans, a supposition that is no longer worthy of further discussion. +Others have supposed that the gneisses were largely +produced by the resorption and fusion of older sediments in the +molten interior of the earth; there is no evidence that this has +taken place upon an extended scale, though there is reason to +believe that something of this kind has happened in places, and +there is in the hypothesis nothing radically untenable. In one +way the sedimentary schists have undoubtedly been incorporated +within the gneissose mass, namely, by the extremely thorough +and intimate penetration of the former by the latter along planes +of foliation; and when a complex mass such as this has been +further sheared and metamorphosed, a uniform gneiss appears +to result from the intermixture.</p> + +<p>A not uncommon cause of the apparently bedded arrangement +of layers of different mineralogical composition may be +traced to the original differentiation of the granitoid magma +into different mineral-sheets. When these mineralogically +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span> +different layers were forced into other rocks, sometimes +before the complete consolidation of the former and sometimes +subsequent to it, in the generally metamorphosed condition of +the whole, it is easy to see a superficial resemblance to +bedding.</p> + +<p>The Archean rocks have frequently been spoken of as the +original crust of the earth; but even granting a cooling molten +globe with a first-formed stony surface, it is tolerably clear that +such a crust has nowhere yet been found, nor is it ever likely +to be discovered. The very earliest recognizable sediments are +the result of the destruction of still earlier exposures of rock; +the oldest known volcanic rocks were poured upon a surface +we can no longer distinguish, and as for the great granitoid +masses, they could only have been formed under the pressure +of superincumbent masses of material. The earliest known +sediments must have been deep in the zones of shearing and +rock flowage before the first pre-Cambrian denudation. The +time required for these changes is difficult to conceive.</p> + +<p>As regards the life of the Archean, or, as some call it, the +“Archeozoic” period, we know nothing. The presence of carbonaceous +shale and graphitic schists as well as of the altered sedimentary +iron ores has been taken as indicative of vegetable life. +Similarly, the occurrence of limestones suggests the existence +of organic activity, but direct evidence is wanting. Much interest +naturally attaches to this remote period, and when Sir William +E. Logan in 1854 found the foraminifera-like <i>Eozoon Canadense</i>, +high hopes of further discoveries were entertained, but the +inorganic nature of this structure has since been clearly proved.</p> + +<p><i>Distribution.</i>—It is generally assumed that the Archean +rocks underlie all the younger formations over the whole globe, +and presumably this is the only system that does so. Naturally, +the area of its outcrop is limited, for, directly or indirectly, all +the younger rock groups must rest upon it.</p> + +<p>It has been estimated that Archean rocks appear at the +surface over one-fifth of the land area (omitting coverings of +superficial drifts). This estimate is no more than the roughest +approximation, and is liable at any time to revision as our +knowledge of little-known regions is increased. It must ever +be borne in mind that the presence of a gneissose or schistose +complex does not in itself imply the Archean age of such a set +of rocks. Local manifestations of a similar petrological facies +may and do appear which are of vastly inferior geological age; +and unless there is unequivocal evidence that such rocks lie +beneath the oldest fossil-bearing strata, there can be no absolute +certainty as to their antiquity. It is more than likely that +certain occurrences of gneiss and schist, at present regarded as +Archean, may prove on fuller examination to be metamorphosed +representatives of younger periods.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Britain.</i>—The most important exposure of Archean rocks in Britain +is in the north-west of Scotland, where they form the mainland in +Sutherland and Ross-shire, and appear also in the outer Hebrides. +Their great development in the isle of Lewis has given rise to the +term “Lewisian” (Hebridean), by which the gneisses of this region +are now generally known. The Lewisian series comprises two great +groups of rocks, (1) the so-called “fundamental complex,” an +assemblage of acid, basic and intermediate irruptive rocks, associated +together in a complex of extraordinary intricacy, and (2) a series of +dikes, which like the rocks they traverse, show every gradation from +ultra-basic to ultra-acid types. But the above bald statement +conveys no idea of the complexity of the series, for before the +“fundamental complex” had been pierced by the later dike system it had +been subjected to severe dynamo-metamorphism and many of the +massive rocks had been folded, thrust and sheared, and a very +general state of foliation had been produced. Nor was this all, for +after the intrusion of the dikes, great movements brought about +vertical dislocations, and thrust planes, which traversed the rocks +at all angles, accompanied by still further internal shearing and +superinduced foliation.</p> + +<p>In the valley of Loch Maree and thence south-westward into +Glenelg, a series of mica-schists, quartz-schists, saccharoid limestones +and graphitic schists has been regarded as a group of sedimentary +origin through which the Lewisian rocks have been irrupted.</p> + +<p>In England several small masses of gneiss, notably at Primrose +Hill on the Wrekin, Shropshire, in the Malvern hills, and on the +island of Anglesey in North Wales, are supposed to correspond with +the Lewisian of Scotland.</p> + +<p><i>North America.</i>—In this continent there is a great development of +Archean rocks in Canada. On the eastern side it covers nearly the +whole of the Labrador peninsula, and extends into Baffin Bay and +possibly over much of Greenland; a broad tract unites the great +lake region with Labrador, and from the same region, by way of +the Mackenzie valley, a similar tract extends in a north-westerly +direction to the Arctic Ocean. This northern (Canadian) area of +Archean includes portions of the states of Minnesota, Michigan, +Wisconsin and the Adirondack region of New York. On the western +side of the continent a series of disconnected exposures of Archean +rocks runs downwards in a narrow belt from Alaska to New +Mexico; and on the eastern side a similar belt reaches from +Newfoundland to Alabama.</p> + +<p>Much attention is now being given to the more scattered exposures +of Archean rocks, but the best-known area is the classical ground in +the vicinity of Lake Superior and Lake Huron and in the Ottawa +gneiss region of Canada. Some of the more important districts are +the following:—</p> + +<p>Rainy Lake district, Canada: The Archean rocks here consist of +altered diorites and diabases (the lower Keewatin series) and black +hornblende schists (probably altered igneous rocks), with mica +gneisses which are perhaps of sedimentary origin.</p> + +<p>The Mona and Kiticni schists; metamorphosed lava and tuffs, +with serpentine and dolomite, probably derived from peridotites; +there are also gneissic granites and syenites.</p> + +<p>In the Menominee region of Michigan and Wisconsin, the Quinnesec +schist series mainly consist of schistose quartz porphyry with +associated gneisses.</p> + +<p>In the Mesaba district of Minnesota the Archean consists of a +complex of more or less foliated igneous rocks mostly basic in +character.</p> + +<p>The Archean of the Vermilion district of Minnesota comprises the +Soudan formation, an altered sedimentary series with banded cherts, +jasper and magnetite schists; the iron ores are extensively mined. +At the base is a conglomerate containing pebbles from the formation +below, the Ely greenstone, which is made up of altered basalts and +andesites, generally in a schistose condition, but occasionally exhibiting +spherulitic structures. Into these two formations a series +of granites have been intruded.</p> + +<p><i>Europe.</i>—In Scandinavia, as in Scotland, the pre-Cambrian is +represented by an earlier and a later series of rocks of which the +former (Grundfjeldet, Urberget) may be taken to be the equivalent +of the Lewisian gneisses. This assemblage of coarse red and grey +banded gneisses, with associated granulites and many varieties of +acid, basic and intermediate rocks in a gneissose condition, is intimately +related to a highly metamorphosed sedimentary series +comprising limestones, quartzites and schists, which, as in Scotland, +is apparently older than the gneisses. Similar rocks occur in Sweden +and Finland.</p> + +<p>In Bavaria and Bohemia the Archean is divisible into a lower red +gneiss, a comparatively simple series, called by C.W. von Gümbel +the “gneiss of Bojan”; and an upper, grey gneiss with other +schistose rocks, serpentine and graphitic limestone, termed by the +same author the “Hercynian gneiss.”</p> + +<p>In Brittany a gneissose and schistose igneous series lies at the +base of the pre-Cambrian. The pre-Cambrian cores of the eastern +and central Pyrenees, consisting of gneiss, schists and altered +limestones, are presumably of Archean age.</p> + +<p><i>Asia, Australia, &c.</i>—In northern China, mica-gneisses and granite-gneisses +with associated schists may be regarded as Archean. In +India the system is represented by the Bundelkhand gneiss and the +central older gneisses of the Himalayas. In Japan, in the Abukuma +plateau, there is much granite, gneiss and schist which may be of +this age. In Australia, similar rocks are recognized as Archean in +South Australia and Westralia, and they are estimated to cover an +area of no less than 20,000 sq. m.; in Tasmania they are well +developed on the western side. Although a great area is occupied +by crystalline rocks in New Zealand, the Archean age of any portion +of the series is not yet satisfactorily established; the lower granites +and gneisses may belong to this period. Africa contains enormous +tracts of crystalline gneisses, granites and schists, and some of these +are almost certainly of Archean age; but in the present state of our +knowledge it is impossible to speak more exactly.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">References</span>.—A good general account of the Archean system +will be found in Sir A. Geikie’s <i>Text Book of Geology</i>, vol. ii., 4th ed. +(1903), and in T.C. Chamberlin and R.D. Salisbury’s <i>Geology</i>, vol. +ii. (1906); these volumes contain references to all important +literature.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), general of +Mithradates the Great in the war against Rome. In 87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he +was sent to Greece with a large army and fleet, and occupied +the Peiraeus after three days’ fighting with Bruttius Sura, prefect +of Macedonia, who in the previous year had defeated Mithradates’ +fleet under Metrophanes and captured the island of +Sciathus. Here he was besieged by Sulla, compelled to withdraw +into Boeotia, and completely defeated at Chaeroneia (86). +A fresh army was sent by Mithradates, but Archelaus was again +defeated at Orchomenus, after a two days’ battle (85). On the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span> +conclusion of peace, Archelaus, finding that he had incurred +the suspicion of Mithradates, deserted to the Romans, by whom +he was well received. Nothing further is known of him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Appian, <i>Mithrid</i>. 30, 49, 56, 64; Plutarch, <i>Sulla</i>, 11, 16-19, 20, +23; <i>Lucullus</i>, 8.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Archelaus,</span> king of Egypt, was his son. In 56 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he married +Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, queen of Egypt, but his +reign only lasted six months. He was defeated by Aulus +Gabinius and slain (55).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Strabo xii. p. 558, xvii. p. 796; Dio Cassius xxxix. 57-58; +Cicero, <i>Pro Rabirio</i>, 8; Hirtius (?), <i>Bell. Alex</i>. 66; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ptolemies</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Archelaus,</span> king of Cappadocia, was grandson of the last +named. In 41 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (according to others, 34), he was made king +of Cappadocia by Mark Antony, whom, however, he deserted +after the battle of Actium. Octavian enlarged his kingdom by +the addition of part of Cilicia and Lesser Armenia. He was not +popular with his subjects, who even brought an accusation +against him in Rome, on which occasion he was defended by +Tiberius. Subsequently he was accused by Tiberius, when +emperor, of endeavouring to stir up a revolution, and died in +confinement at Rome (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 17). Cappadocia was then made a +Roman province. Archelaus was said to have been the author +of a geographical work, and to have written treatises <i>On Stones</i> +and <i>Rivers</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Strabo xii. p. 540; Suetonius, <i>Tiberius</i>, 37, <i>Caligula</i>, 1; Dio +Cassius xlix. 32-51; Tacitus, <i>Ann</i>. ii. 42.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHELAUS,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> king of Judaea, was the son of Herod the Great. +He received the kingdom of Judaea by the last will of his father, +though a previous will had bequeathed it to his brother Antipas. +He was proclaimed king by the army, but declined to assume +the title until he had submitted his claims to Augustus at Rome. +Before setting out, he quelled with the utmost cruelty a sedition +of the Pharisees, slaying nearly 3000 of them. At Rome he was +opposed by Antipas and by many of the Jews, who feared his +cruelty; but Augustus allotted to him the greater part of the +kingdom (Judaea, Samaria, Ituraea) with the title of ethnarch. +He married Glaphyra, the widow of his brother Alexander, +though his wife and her second husband, Juba, king of Mauretania, +were alive. This violation of the Mosaic law and his +continued cruelty roused the Jews, who complained to Augustus. +Archelaus was deposed (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 7) and banished to Vienne. The +date of his death is unknown.</p> + +<p>Archelaus is mentioned in Matt. ii. 22, and the parable of +Luke xix. 11 f. probably refers to his journey to Rome.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Schürer, <i>Gesch. des jüdischen Volkes</i>, i. 449-453.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHELAUS,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> king of Macedonia (413-399 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), was the son +of Perdiccas and a slave mother. He obtained the throne by +murdering his uncle, his cousin and his half-brother, the legitimate +heir, but proved a capable and beneficent ruler. He +fortified cities, constructed roads and organized the army. +He endeavoured to spread among his people the refinements of +Greek civilization, and invited to his court, which he removed +from Aegae to Pella, many celebrated men, amongst them +Zeuxis, Timotheus, Euripides and Agathon. In 399 he was +killed by one of his favourites while hunting; according to +another account he was the victim of a conspiracy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Diodorus Siculus xiii. 49, xiv. 37; Thucydides ii. 100. See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Macedonia</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHELAUS OF MILETUS,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> Greek philosopher of the 5th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was born probably at Athens, though Diogenes +Laërtius (ii. 16) says at Miletus. He was a pupil of Anaxagoras, +and is said by Ion of Chios (<i>ap</i>. Diog. Laërt. ii. 23) to have been +the teacher of Socrates. Some argue that this is probably only +an attempt to connect Socrates with the Ionian school; others +(<i>e.g.</i> Gomperz, <i>Greek Thinkers</i>) uphold the story. There is similar +difference of opinion as regards the statement that Archelaus +formulated certain ethical doctrines. In general, he followed +Anaxagoras, but in his cosmology he went back to the earlier +Ionians. He postulated primitive Matter, identical with air and +mingled with Mind, thus avoiding the dualism of Anaxagoras. +Out of this conscious “air,” by a process of thickening and +thinning, arose cold and warmth, or water and fire, the one passive, +the other active. The earth and the heavenly bodies are formed +from mud, the product of fire and water, from which springs also +man, at first in his lower forms. Man differs from animals by +the possession of the moral and artistic faculty. No fragments of +Archelaus remain; his doctrines have to be extracted from +Diogenes Laërtius, Simplicius, Plutarch and Hippolytus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian School</a></span>; for his ethical theories see T. Gomperz, +<i>Greek Thinkers</i> (Eng. trans., 1901), vol. i. p. 402.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELM VON<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1743-1812), +German historian, was born at Langfuhr, a suburb of Danzig, +on the 3rd of September 1743. From the Berlin Cadet school +he passed into the Prussian army at the age of sixteen, and took +part in the last campaigns of the Seven Years’ War. Retiring +from military service, on account of his wounds, with the rank +of captain in 1763, he travelled for sixteen years and visited +nearly all the countries of Europe, and resided in England for +ten years (1769-1779). Returning to Germany in 1780, he +obtained a lay canonry at the cathedral of Magdeburg, and +immediately entered upon a literary career by publishing the +periodical <i>Litteratur- und Völkerkunde</i> (Leipzig, 1782-1791). +This was followed in 1785 by <i>England und Italien</i> (2nd ed., +Leipzig, 1787), in which he gives a remarkably unprejudiced appreciation +of English political and social institutions. Between +1789 and 1798 he published his <i>Annalen der britischen Geschichte</i> +(20 vols). But the work by which he is best known to fame is +his brilliantly written history of the Seven Years’ War, <i>Geschichte +des siebenjährigen Krieges</i> (first published in the <i>Berliner +historisches Taschenbuch</i> of 1787, and later in 2 vols., Berlin, +1793; 13th ed., Leipzig, 1892). This work, though as regards +the main facts and details it only follows other writers, is still +a useful source of information upon the epoch with which it +deals. In 1792 Archenholz removed to Hamburg, and there, +from 1792 to 1812, edited the journal <i>Minerva</i>, which had a +great reputation for its literary, historical and political information. +Archenholz died at his country seat, Oyendorf, near +Hamburg, on the 28th of February 1812.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHER, WILLIAM<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1856-  ), English critic, was born +at Perth on the 23rd of September 1856, and was educated +at Edinburgh University. He became a leader-writer on the +<i>Edinburgh Evening News</i> in 1875, and after a year in Australia +returned to Edinburgh. In 1879 he became dramatic critic of the +<i>London Figaro</i>, and in 1884 of the <i>World</i>. In London he soon +took a prominent literary place. Mr Archer had much to do +with introducing Ibsen to the English public by his translation +of <i>The Pillars of Society</i>, produced at the Gaiety Theatre, London, +in 1880. He also translated, alone or in collaboration, other +productions of the Scandinavian stage: Ibsen’s <i>Doll’s House</i> +(1889), <i>Master Builder</i> (1893); Edvard Brandes’s <i>A Visit</i> (1892); +Ibsen’s <i>Peer Gynt</i> (1892); <i>Little Eyolf</i> (1895); and <i>John Gabriel +Borkman</i> (1897); and he edited <i>Henrik Ibsen’s Prose Dramas</i> +(5 vols., 1890-1891). Among his critical works are:—<i>English +Dramatists of To-day</i> (1882); <i>Masks or Faces?</i> (1888); five +vols. of critical notices reprinted, <i>The Theatrical World</i> (1893-1897); +<i>America To-day, Observations and Reflections</i>; <i>Poets +of the Younger Generation</i> (1901); <i>Real Conversations</i> (1904).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHERMUS,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a Chian sculptor of the middle of the 6th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His father Micciades, and his sons, Bupalus and +Athenis, were all sculptors of marble, using doubtless the fine +marble of their native land. The school excelled in draped +female figures. Archermus is said by a scholiast (on Aristophanes’ +<i>Birds</i>, v. 573) to have been the first to represent Victory and +Love with wings. This statement gives especial interest to a +discovery made at Delos of a basis signed by Micciades and +Archermus which was connected with a winged female figure +in rapid motion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>), a figure naturally at first +regarded as the Victory of Archermus. Unfortunately further +investigation has discredited the notion that the statue +belongs to the basis, which seems rather to have supported a +sphinx.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHERY,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> the art and practice of shooting with the bow +(<i>arcus</i>) and arrow, or with crossbow and bolts. Though these +weapons are by no means widely used amongst savage tribes +of the present day, their origin is lost in the mists of antiquity. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span> +Amongst the great peoples of ancient history the Egyptians were +<span class="sidenote">History in war.</span> +the first and the most famous of archers, relying on the bow +as their principal weapon in war. Their bows were +somewhat shorter than a man, and their arrows varied +between 2 ft. and 2 ft. 8 in. in length. Here, as elsewhere, +flint heads for arrows were by no means rare, but bronze was the +usual material employed. The Biblical bow was of reed, wood +or horn, and the Israelites used it freely both in war (Gen. xlviii. +22) and in the chase (xxi. 20). The Assyrians also were a +nation of archers. Amongst the Greeks of the historic period +archery was not much in evidence, in spite of the tradition of +Teucer, Ulysses and many other archers of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>. +The Cretans, however, supplied Greek armies with the bowmen +required. In the “Ten Thousand” figured two hundred Cretan +bowmen of Sosias’ corps. Rüstow and Köchly (<i>Geschichte des +griechischen Kriegwesens</i>, p. 131) estimate the range of the +Cretan bow at eighty to one hundred paces, as compared with +the sling-bullet’s forty or fifty, and the javelin’s thirty to forty. +The Romans as a nation were, equally with the Greeks, indifferent +to archery; in their legions the archer element was furnished +by Cretans and Asiatics. On the other hand nearly all Asiatic +and derived nations were famous bowmen, from the nations who +fought under Xerxes’ banner onwards. The Persian, Scythian +and Parthian bow was far more efficient than the Cretan, though +the latter was not wanting in the heterogeneous armies of the +East. The <i>sagittarii</i>, three thousand strong, who fought in the +Pharsalian campaign, were drawn from Crete, Pontus, Syria, &c. +But the Roman view of archery was radically altered when the +old legionary system perished at Adrianople (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 378). After +this time the armies of the empire consisted in great part of +horse-archers. Their missiles, we are told, pierced cuirass and +shield with ease, and they shot equally well dismounted and at +the gallop. These troops, combined with heavy cavalry and +themselves not unprovided with armour, played a decisive +part in the Roman victories of the age of Belisarius and Narses. +The destruction of the Franks at Casilinum (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 554) was practically +the work of the horse-archers.</p> + +<p>In the main, the nations whose migrations altered the face +of Europe were not archers. Only with the Welsh, the Scandinavians, +and the peoples in touch with the Eastern empire was the +bow a favourite weapon. The edicts of Charlemagne could not +succeed in making archery popular in his dominions, and Abbot +Ebles, the defender of Paris in 886, is almost the only instance +of a skilled archer in the European records of the time. The +sagas, on the other hand, have much to say as to the feats +of northern heroes with the bow. With English, French and +Germans the bow was the weapon of the poorest military classes. +The Norman archers, who doubtless preserved the traditions of +their Danish ancestors, were in the forefront of William’s line at +Hastings (1066), but contemporary evidence points conclusively +to the short bow, drawn to the chest, as the weapon used on +this occasion. The combat of Bourgthéroulde in 1124 shows +that the Normans still combined heavy cavalry and archers as +at Hastings. Horse-archers too (contrary to the usual belief) +were here employed by the English.</p> + +<p>Yet the “Assize of Arms” of 1181 does not mention the bow, +and Richard I. was at great pains to procure crossbowmen for +the Crusades. The crossbow had from about the 10th century +gradually become the principal missile weapon in Europe, in +spite of the fact that it was condemned by the Lateran Council +of 1139. As early as 1270 in France, and rather later in Spain, +the master of the crossbowmen had become a great dignitary, +and in Spain the weapon was used by a <i>corps d’élite</i> of men of +gentle birth, who, with their gay apparel, were a picturesque +feature of continental armies of the period. But the Genoese, +Pisans and Venetians were the peoples which employed the +crossbow most of all. Many thousand Genoese crossbowmen +were present at Creçy.</p> + +<p>It was in the Crusades that the crossbow made its reputation, +opposing heavier weight and greater accuracy to the missiles +of the horse-archers, who invariably constituted the greatest and +most important part of the Asiatic armies. So little change in +warfare had centuries brought about that a crusading force in +1104 perished at Carrhae, on the same ground and before the +same mounted-archer tactics, as the army of Crassus in 55 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +But individually the crusading crossbowman was infinitely +superior to the Turkish or Egyptian horse-archer.</p> + +<p>England, which was to become the country of archers <i>par +excellence</i>, long retained the old short bow of Hastings, and the +far more efficient crossbow was only used as a rule by +mercenaries, such as the celebrated Falkes de Breauté +<span class="sidenote">English use.</span> +and his men in the reign of John. South Wales, it +seems certain, eventually produced the famous long-bow. In +Ireland, in Henry II.’s time, Strongbow made great use of Welsh +bowmen, whom he mounted for purposes of guerrilla warfare, +and eventually the prowess of Welsh archers taught Edward I. +the value of the hitherto discredited arm. At Falkirk (<i>q.v.</i>), once +for all, the long-bow proved its worth, and thenceforward for +centuries it was the principal weapon of English soldiers. By +1339, archers had come to be half of the whole mass of footmen, +and later the proportion was greatly increased. In 1360 +Edward III. mounted his archers, as Strongbow had done. +The long-bow was about 5 ft., and its shaft a cloth-yard long. +Shot by a Welsh archer, a shaft had penetrated an oak door +(at Abergavenny in 1182) 4 in. thick and the head stood out a +hand’s breadth on the inner side. Drawn to the right ear, the +bow was naturally capable of long shooting, and in Henry VIII.’s +time practice at a less range than one furlong was forbidden. +In rapidity it was the equal of the short bow and the superior +of the crossbow, which weapon, indeed, it surpassed in all +respects. Falkirk, and still more Creçy, Poitiers and Agincourt, +made the English archers the most celebrated infantry in Europe, +and the kings of England, in whatever else they differed from +each other, were, from Edward II. to Henry VIII., at one in +the matter of archery. In 1363 Edward III. commanded the +general practice of archery on Sundays and holidays, all other +sports being forbidden. The provisions of this act were from +time to time re-issued, particularly in the well-known act of +Henry VIII. The price of bows and arrows was also regulated +in the reign of Edward III., and Richard III. ordained that for +every ton of certain goods imported ten yew-bows should be +imported also, while at the same time long-bows of unusual +size were admitted free of duty. In order to prevent the too +rapid consumption of yew for bow-staves, bowyers were ordered +to make four bows of wych-hazel, ash or elm to one of yew, and +only the best and most useful men were allowed to possess yew-bows. +Distant and exposed counties were provided for by +making bowyers, fletchers, &c., liable (unless freemen of the city +of London) to be ordered to any point where their services might +be required. In Scotland and Ireland also, considerable attention +was paid to archery. In 1478 archery was encouraged in +Ireland by statute, and James I. and James IV. of Scotland, +in particular, did their best to stimulate the interest of their +subjects in the bow, whose powers they had felt in so many +battles from Falkirk to Homildon Hill.</p> + +<p>The introduction of hand-firearms was naturally fatal to the +bow as a warlike weapon, but the conservatism of the English, +and the non-professional character of wars waged by +them, added to the technical deficiencies of early +<span class="sidenote">Decline as weapon.</span> +firearms, made the process of change in England +very gradual. The mercenary or professional element +was naturally the first to adopt the new weapons. At Pont +de l’Arche in 1418 the English had “<i>petits canons</i>” (which seem to +have been hand guns), and during the latter part of the Hundred +Years’ War their use became more and more frequent. The +crossbow soon disappeared from the more professional armies +of the continent. Charles the Bold had, before the battle of +Morat (1476), ten thousand <i>coulevrines ŕ main</i>. But in the hands +of local forces the crossbow lingered on, at least in rural France, +until about 1630. Its last appearance in war was in the hands +of the Chinese at Taku (1860). But the long-bow, an incomparably +finer weapon, endured as one of the principal arms of +the English soldier until about 1590. Edward IV. entered +London after the battle of Barnet with 500 “smokie gunners” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span> +(foreign mercenaries), but at that engagement Warwick’s centre +consisted solely of bows and bills (1471). The new weapons +gradually made their way, but even in 1588, the year of the +Armada, the local forces of Devonshire comprised 800 bows to +1600 “shot,” and 800 bills to 800 pikes. But the Armada year +saw the last appearance of the English archer, and the same +county in 1598 provides neither archers nor billmen, while in +the professional army in Ireland these weapons had long given +way to musket and caliver, pike and halberd. Archers appeared +in civilized warfare as late as 1807, when fifteen hundred +“baskiers,” horse-archers, clad in chain armour, fought against +Napoleon in Poland.</p> + +<p>As a weapon of the chase the bow was in its various forms +employed even more than in war. The rise of archery as a sport +in England was, of course, a consequence of its military value, +which caused it to be so heartily encouraged by all English +sovereigns.</p> + +<p>The Japanese were from their earliest times great archers, +and the bow was the weapon <i>par excellence</i> of their soldiers. +The standard length of the bow (usually bamboo) was +7 ft. 6 in., of the arrow 3 ft. to 3 ft. 9 in. Numerous +<span class="sidenote">Japan.</span> +feats of archery are recorded to have taken place in the “thirty-three +span” halls of Kioto and Tokyo, where the archer had +to shoot the whole length of a very low corridor, 128 yds. long. +Wada Daihachi in the 17th century shot 8133 arrows down the +corridor in twenty-four consecutive hours, averaging five shots +a minute, and in 1852 a modern archer made 5583 successful +shots in twenty hours, or over four a minute.</p> + +<p><i>The Pastime of Archery</i>.—The use of the bow and arrow as +a pastime naturally accompanied their use as weapons of war, +but when the gun began to supersede the bow the +pastime lost its popularity. Charles II., however, +<span class="sidenote">History of Sport.</span> +and his queen, Catherine of Braganza, interested +themselves in English archery, the queen in 1676 presenting +a silver badge or shield to the “Marshall of the Fraternity of +Archers,” which badge, once the property of the Finsbury +Archers, was transferred to the keeping of the Royal Toxophilite +Society, when in 1841 the two clubs combined. The +Toxophilite Society was founded in 1781; for though in the +north archery had long been practised, its resuscitation in the +south really dates from the formation of this club by Sir Ashton +Lever. This society received the title of “Royal” in 1847, +though it had long been patronized by royalty. It is an error +to suppose that the Finsbury Archers were connected with the +Archers’ division of the Hon. Artillery Company, but many +members of the Toxophilite Society joined that division, and +used its ground for shooting, securing, however, a London ground +of their own in the district where Gower Street, W.C., now is. +When this ground became unavailable, the shooting probably +took place at Highbury, and later in 1820, on Lord’s cricket +ground, the present ground in the Inner Circle of Regent’s Park, +near the Botanical Gardens, not being acquired till 1833. The +society may be regarded as the most important body connected +with archery, most of the leading archers belonging to it, though +the Grand National Archery Society controls the public meetings. +Among its more important events is the shooting of 144 arrows +at 100 yds. for the Crunder Cup and Bugle. In the early days +of the club targets of different sizes were used at the different +ranges, and the scores were recorded in money (<i>e.g.</i> “Mr Elwin, +86 hits, Ł5 : 5 : 6”). The Woodmen of Arden can claim an almost +equal antiquity, having been founded—some say “revived”— +in 1785. The number of members is limited to 80; at one time +there were 81, Sir Robert Peel having been elected as a +supernumerary by way of compliment. The headquarters of the +Woodmen are at Meriden in Warwickshire; the club has a +nominal authority over vert and venison, whence its officers +bear appropriate names-warden, master-forester and verderers; +and the annual meeting is called the Wardmote. The master-forester, +or captain for the year, is the maker of the first “gold” +at the annual target; he who makes the second is the senior +verderer. The club devotes itself to the old-fashioned clout-shooting +at long ranges, reckoned by “scores,” nine score +meaning 180 yds., and so on. (<i>Vide</i> “Clout-shooting” <i>infra</i>.) +The chief matches in which the Woodmen engage are those +against the Royal Company of Scottish Archers. The Royal +British Bowmen date back to the end of the 18th century. Like +many others, during the Napoleonic war they suspended operations, +revived when peace was made. The club was finally +dissolved in 1880. The Royal Kentish Bowmen were founded +in 1785, but did not survive the war. John O’Gaunt’s Bowmen, +who still meet at Lancaster, were revived, not created, at the +same time, and still flourish. The Herefordshire Bowmen only +shoot at 60 yds., while the West Berks Society is limited to +twelve members, who meet at each other’s houses, except for +their Autumn Handicap, shot on the Toxophilite Grounds— +216 arrows at 100 yds. The Royal Company of Archers is the +chief Scottish society. Originally a semi-military body constituted +in 1676, it practised archery as a pastime from the time +of its foundation, several meetings being held in the first few +years of its existence. It devoted itself to “rovers,” or long-range +shooting at the “clout,” among its most interesting +trophies being the “Musselburgh Arrow,” first shot for in 1603, +possibly even earlier, in that town; the competition was then +open to all comers, for archery was long popular in Scotland, +especially at Kilwinning, the headquarters of popinjay (<i>q.v.</i>) +shooting. Other prizes are the “Peebles Silver Arrow,” dating +back to 1626, the “Edinburgh Silver Arrow” (1709), the “Selkirk +Arrow,” a very ancient prize, the “Dalhousie Sword,” the +“Hopetoun Royal Commemoration Prize,” and others, shot +for at ranges of 180 or 200 yds. The most curious is the “Goose +Medal.” Originally a goose was buried in a butt with only its +head visible, and this was the archers’ mark; now a small glass +globe is substituted. The “Popingo (Popinjay) Medal,” for +which a stuffed parrot was once used as the mark, is now contested +at the ordinary butts. The Kilwinning Society of Archers, +founded in 1688, did not disband till 1870; the Irvine Toxophilites +flourished from 1814 till about 1867. But of all societies +the Grand National Archery Society, regulating the great +meetings, though comparatively young, is the most important. +Various open meetings were already in existence, but in 1844 a +few leading archers projected a Grand National Meeting, which +was held in York in that year and in 1845 and 1846, and subsequently +in other places. But the society did not exist as such +till 1861, after the meeting held at Liverpool, since when, notwithstanding +some financial troubles, it has been the legislative +and managing body of English archery. The chief meetings are +the “Championship,” the “Leamington and Midland Counties,” +the “Crystal Palace,” the “Grand Western” and the “Grand +Northern.” For some years a “Scottish Grand National” was +held, but fell into abeyance. The “Scorton Arrow” is no longer +shot for in the Yorkshire village of that name, but the meeting, +held regularly in the county, dates back to 1673 by record, and +is probably far older. The silver arrow and the captaincy are +awarded to the man who makes the first gold; the silver bugle +and lieutenancy to the first red; the gold medal to most hits, +and a horn spoon to the last white.</p> + +<p>In the United States archery has had a limited popularity. +The only one of the early clubs that lasted long was the “United +Bowmen of Philadelphia,” founded in 1828, but defunct in 1859. +There was a revival twenty years later, when a National +Association was formed; and various meetings were held annually +and championships instituted, but there was never any popular +enthusiasm for the sport, though it showed signs of increasing +favour towards the end of the 19th century. The longer ranges +are not greatly favoured by American archers, though at some +meetings the regulation “York Round” (<i>vide infra</i> under +“Targets”) and the “National” are shot. Other rounds are the +“Potomac,” 24 arrows at 80, 24 at 70, and 24 at 60 yds.; the +“Double American,” 60 arrows each at 60, 50 and 40 yds.; and +the “Double Columbia,” for ladies, 48 each at 50, 40 and 30 +yds. In team matches ladies shoot 96 arrows at 50 yds., gentlemen +96 at 60.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Bow</i>.—As used in the pastime of archery the length of the +bows does not vary much, though it bears some relation to the length +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span> +of the arrow and the length of the arrow to the strength of the +archer, to which the weight of the bow has to be adapted. The +proper weight of a bow is the number of ℔ which, attached to the +string, will draw a full-length arrow to its head. For men’s bows the +drawing-power varies from 40 to 60 ℔, anything above this being +extreme; ladies’ bows draw from 24 to 32 ℔ Estimating 50 ℔ +as a fair average, such a bow would be 6 ft. 1 in. long for a 30-in., +6 ft. for a 28-in., and 5 ft. 11 in. for a 27-in. arrow, but the height as +well as the strength of the archer have to be considered. Similarly a +lady’s bow on the average measures about 5 ft. 6 in. and her arrows +25 in. Modern bows are either made entirely of yew (occasionally +of other woods), when they are called “self-bows,” or of a combination +of woods, when they are called “backed-bows.” Self-bows +are rarely or never made in a single stave, owing to the difficulty of +obtaining true and flawless wood of the necessary length; hence two +staves joined by a double fish-joint, which forms the centre of the +bow, are used, tested and adjusted so that they may be as equally +elastic as possible. The best yew is imported from Italy and Spain, +and is allowed to season for three years before it is made into a bow, +which again is not used till it is two years older. In backed-bows +the belly, the rounded part nearest to the string, is generally but not +necessarily made of yew, the back, or flat part, of yew (the best), +hickory, lance or other woods, glued together in strips. The centre +of the bow, for about 18 in., should be stiff and resisting, then tapering +off gradually to the horns in which the string is fitted, the greatest +care being taken that the two limbs are uniform. The bow of self-yew +is generally considered more agreeable to handle and has a +better “cast,” throwing the arrow more smoothly and with less jar, +and since no glued parts are exposed, it is less liable to injury from +wet. On the other hand, “crysals” (tiny cracks, which are apt to +extend) are more frequent in this class of bow. Self-yew bows cost +Ł8 or Ł10, where a good backed-bow can be bought for about half +that. The self-bow is more sensitive than other bows, and its work +is mostly done during the last few inches of the pull, where the +backed-bow pulls evenly throughout. The backed-bow should be +perfectly straight in the back, but after use often loses its shape +either by “following the string,” <i>i.e.</i> getting bent inwards on the +string-side, or by becoming “reflex” (bending the opposite way). +Self-bows are even more apt to lose their shape than backed-bows, +as there is no hard wood to counteract the natural grain. A bow +that is strongly reflexed at the ends is known as a “Cupid’s +bow.” To form the handle the wood of the bow is left thick in +the centre, and braid, leather or indiarubber is wound round it to +give a better grip.</p> + +<p><i>The String and Stringing.</i>—The string is made of three strands of +hemp, dressed with a preparation of glue, and should be perfectly +round, smooth and not frayed, as a broken string may result in a +broken bow. The string, at its centre, is 6 in. from the belly of the +man’s bow; 5 in. in the lady’s bow. The clenched fist with the +thumb upright was the old, rough and ready estimate, known as +“fist-mele.” For a few inches above and below the nocking point the +string is lapped with carpet-thread to save it from fraying by contact +with the arm; the nocking point being made by another lapping of +filoselle silk, so that the string may exactly fit the nock of the arrow. +When a bow is properly strung the string should be longitudinally +along the middle of the belly.</p> + +<p><i>Arrows and Nocking.</i>—The parts of the arrow are the shaft, the +“nock” or notch, the “pile” or point, and the feathers. The shaft +is made of seasoned red deal, and may be “self” or “footed.” +Most arrows are “footed,” <i>i.e.</i> a piece of hard wood to which the +pile is attached is spliced to the deal shaft, which should be perfectly +straight and stiff. The shaft is made in several shapes. Most +archers prefer the “parallel” pattern—the shaft being the same size +from nock to pile; the next is the “barrelled,” the shape being +thick in the centre and tapering towards the ends. The “bob-tail” +diminishes from the pile to the nock; the “chested” tapers from +the middle to the pile. The pile should not be taper but cylindrical, +“broadshouldered” where the point begins. The nock is cut square. +There are three feathers, the body feathers of a turkey or peacock +being the best. They should all curve the same way, are about 1˝ in. +long and ˝ in. deep, with the ends near the nock either square, or +balloon-shaped. The weight of an arrow is its weight in new English +silver; a five-shilling arrow is heavy for a man’s bow, while four-shillings +is light. A 28-in. arrow for a 50-℔ bow may weigh four-and-ninepence; +a 27-in. arrow four-and-sixpence. This may serve as +a rough standard.</p> + +<p><i>Other Implements.</i>—The archer uses finger-tips, or a “tab” of +leather, to protect the fingers against the string, and a leather +“bracer” to protect the left arm from its blow. Quivers are not +now used except by ladies. A special box for carrying bows and +arrows about; a proper cupboard, known as an “ascham,” in which +they may be kept at home in a dry, even temperature, not too hot; +and a baize or leather case for use on the ground, are important +minor articles of equipment.</p> + +<p><i>Targets, Scoring and Handicapping.</i>—The targets, 4 ft. in diameter, +are made of straw 3 to 4 in. thick, and are supported sloping slightly +backwards by an iron stand. The faces are of floor-cloth painted +with concentric rings, 4<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> in. each in breadth. The outer ring, white, +counts one point; the next, black, three; the next, blue, five; the +next, red, seven; and the next, gold—a complete circle of 4<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> in. +radius—nine. The exact centre of the gold is called the “pin-hole.” +The targets are set up in pairs, facing each other, the distances for +men being 100, 80 and 60 yds.; for ladies, 60 and 50; for convenience, +5 yds. are added to allow for a shooting-line that distance +in front of each target. The centre of the gold should be 4 ft. from +the ground. Each archer shoots three arrows—an “end”—at one +target; they then cross over and mark the scores. If an arrow cuts +two rings, the archer is credited with the value of the higher one. +In matches a “York Round” or a “St George’s Round” is usually +shot by men, the former consisting of 144 arrows, 72 at 100 yds., +48 at 80 yds., and 24 at 60 yds., the latter of 36 arrows at each of +these distances. One York Round only is shot on a day; a double +York Round is shot, one on each day, at the more important meetings. +Ladies usually shoot the “National Round” of 48 arrows at 60 yds. +and 24 at 50 yds. At most meetings the prizes are awarded on the +gross scores; at others, including the Championship meeting, on +points, two points for the highest score on the round and two for +most hits on the round, one point each for highest score and most +hits at each of the three ranges, ten points in all. Ladies’ scores +are calculated similarly. To decide the Championship, the Grand +National Archery Society passed a rule in 1894 that “The Champion +prizes shall be awarded to the archer gaining the greatest number of +points, provided that those for gross hits or gross score are included; +any points won by other archers shall be redistributed among those +gaining the points for gross hits or gross score.” Handicapping may +be done by “rings,” the winner of a first prize not being allowed to +count “whites” at subsequent meetings, and “blacks” and +“blues” being lost for further successes. Better methods are (1) to +deduct a percentage from the gross score of successful shooters, +(2) to handicap by points, as in other pastimes, or (3) to rate a +shooter according to the average of his last year’s performances, +re-rating him monthly, or at convenient intervals, the system being +to add his average of the current year to his average of last year, +and divide the sum by two to form his new rating.</p> + +<p><i>Clout and Long Distance Shooting.</i>—This form of archery is chiefly +supported by the Woodmen of Arden and the Royal Company. At +100 yds., the target (smaller by 4 in. than the usual one, but with an +inner white circle instead of the blue) is set up against a butt only +18 in. from the ground, but for nine-score, ten-score, and twelve-score +shooting it is a white target, 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, with a +black centre. The target, the centre and the arrow that hits the +centre are each known as a “clout.” Hits and misses are signalled +by a marker stationed, rather perilously, by the side of the butt. +The target is sloped backwards to an angle of 60°, with rings marked +round it on the ground at distances of 1˝ ft., 3 ft., 6 ft. and 9 ft., a +hit in the outer ring counting one, and in the next two, and so on, +the clout or centre counting six. For the longer ranges lighter +arrows are used. The Scottish clout was a piece of canvas, stretched +on a frame; the range 180 or 200 yds.; all arrows counted one that +were within 24 ft. of the target, the clout counting two. Modern +archers have paid scant attention to mere distance-shooting, which +is an art of its own, but their experiments prove that with a fairly +heavy bow, say 60 ℔ or 63 ℔, and a long light arrow, known as a +“flight arrow,” a good archer should be able to reach 300 or 310 yds. +With a heavier bow, properly under control, 50 or 60 yds. might +be added to this by a strong man. These experiments seem to +be verified by a quotation from Shakespeare (Henry IV. Act iii. +Sc. 2): “A’ would have clapped i’ the clout and twelve score, and +carried you a forehand shaft a fourteen and fourteen and a half,” +<i>i.e.</i> 280 or 290 yds. Instances are recorded of Englishmen shooting +340 and 360 yds., but in 1795 Mahmoud Effendi of the Turkish +embassy shot 482 yds. with a Turkish bow, and Sultan Selim 972. +The Turk, however, used a Turkish bow and a 14-in. arrow, with a +grooved rest on his left arm along which the arrow passed, to compensate +for the difference between the draw of the bow and the +shortness of the arrow. The diplomatist’s shot is supported by +good evidence, but the sultan’s is regarded as improbable at +least.</p> + +<p><i>Championship and Scores.</i>—The British championship meetings, +instituted in 1844, are conducted under the laws of the Grand +National Archery Society: the prizes, apart from the Challenge +prizes, are given in money, there being also a rule that any one who +makes three golds at one end receives a shilling from all others of the +same sex who are shooting. The most notable champion was +Horace A. Ford (d. 1880), who held the title for eleven consecutive +years, 1849 to 1859 inclusive, and again in 1867. He made a four-figure +score at four other championship meetings, his highest, 1251 +(in 1857) for 245 hits being unapproached. To him the modern +scientific practice of archery must largely be attributed, together +with its improvement and its popularity. The names of G. Edwards, +Major C. Hawkins Fisher, H.H. Palairet, C.E. Nesham, and G.E.S. +Fryer, are also notable as champions. Among ladies Mrs Horniblow +was champion for eleven years between 1852 and 1881, Miss Legh +for nineteen years between 1880 and 1908; Mrs Piers Legh, Miss +Betham and Mrs Bowly claim the title on four occasions. Mrs +Bowly’s score of 823 (1894) was the highest made for the championship +till Miss Legh made 825 with 143 hits—only one arrow missed +altogether—in 1898; beating her own record with a score of 841 (143 +hits) in 1904. It should not be forgotten that as the championship +is awarded by points, the highest score does not necessarily win.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span> </p> + +<p>See Roger Ascham, <i>Toxophilus</i> (1545), edited by Edward Arber +(London, 1868); <i>The Arte of Warre</i>, by William Garrard (London +1591); <i>The Arte of Archerie</i>, by Gervase Markham (London, 1634); +<i>Ancient and Modern Methods of Arrow Release</i>, by E.S. Morse +(1885); <i>The English Bowman</i>, by T. Roberts (London, 1801); <i>A +Treatise on Archery</i>, by Thomas Waring (London, 9th ed., 1832); +<i>The Theory and Practice of Archery</i>, by Horace A. Ford (new ed., +London, 1887); <i>Archery</i>, by C.J. Longman and H. Walrond (Badminton +Library, London, 1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. J. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHES, COURT OF,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> the English ecclesiastical court of appeal +of the archbishop of Canterbury, as metropolitan of the province +of Canterbury, from all the consistory and commissary courts in +the province. It derives its name from its ancient place of +judicature, which was in the church of <i>Beata Maria de Arcubus</i>—St +Mary-le-Bow or St Mary of the Arches, “by reason of the +steeple thereof raised at the top with stone pillars in fashion +like a bow bent archwise.” This parish was the chief of thirteen +locally situated within the diocese of London but exempt from +the bishop’s jurisdiction, and it was no doubt owing to this +circumstance that it was selected originally as the place of +judicature for the archbishop’s court. The proper designation of +the judge is official principal of the Arches court, but by custom +he came to be styled the dean of the Arches, a title belonging +formerly to the chief official of the subordinate court. Originally, +the official principal exercised metropolitan jurisdiction, while +the dean of the Arches exercised the “peculiar” jurisdiction. +The jurisdictions called “peculiars” at one time numbered +nearly 300 in England. They were originally introduced by the +pope for the purpose of curtailing the bishop’s legitimate authority +within his diocese; “an object which,” says Phillimore, +“they certainly attained, to the great confusion of ecclesiastical +jurisdiction for many years.” The dean of the Arches originally +had jurisdiction over the thirteen London parishes above mentioned, +but as the official principal was often absent as ambassador +on the continent, he became his substitute, and gradually the +two offices were blended together. The original office of the +dean of the Arches may now be regarded as extinct, though the +title is still popularly used, for no dean of the Arches has been +appointed <i>eo nomine</i> for several centuries, and by an act of 1838 +bishops have jurisdiction over all peculiars within their diocese. +The judge of the Arches court was until 1874 appointed by the +archbishop of Canterbury by patent which, when confirmed by +the dean and chapter of Canterbury, conferred the office for the +life of the holder. He took the oaths of office required by the +127th canon. But by the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 +the two archbishops were empowered, subject to the approval +of the sovereign by sign-manual, from time to time to appoint +a practising barrister of ten years’ standing, or a person who +had been a judge of one of the superior courts (being a member +of the Church of England) to be, during good behaviour, a judge +for the purpose of exercising jurisdiction under that act, and it +was enacted (sec. 7) that on a vacancy occurring in the office of +official principal of the Arches court the judge should become +<i>ex officio</i> such official principal. In this way the late Lord +Penzance became dean on the retirement of Sir Robert Phillimore +in 1875. Lord Penzance received in 1878 a supplemental +patent as dean from Archbishop Tait, but did not otherwise +fulfil the conditions observed on the appointment of his predecessors. +On Lord Penzance’s retirement in 1899, his successor, +Sir Arthur Charles, received a patent from the archbishop of +Canterbury as official principal of the Arches court, and he took +the oaths of office according to the practice before the Public +Worship Regulation Act. He was subsequently and separately +appointed judge under that act. Sir A. Charles resigned in 1903 +and was succeeded by Sir L.T. Dibdin, who qualified in the same +way as his immediate predecessor. The official principal of +the Arches court is the only ecclesiastical judge who is empowered +to pass a sentence of deprivation against a clerk in +holy orders. The appeals from the decisions of the Arches court +were formerly made to the king in chancery, but they are now +by statute addressed to the king in council, and they are heard +before the judicial committee of the privy council. By an act +of Henry VIII. (Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1532) the Arches +court is empowered to hear, in the first instance, such suits as +are sent up to it by letters of request from the consistorial courts +of the bishops of the province of Canterbury, and by the Church +Discipline Act 1840, this jurisdiction is continued to it, and it +is further empowered to accept letters of request from the bishops +of the province of Canterbury after they have issued commissions +of inquiry under that statute, and the commissioners have made +their report.</p> + +<p>The Arches court was also the court of appeal from the consistory +courts of the bishops of the province in all testamentary +and matrimonial causes. The matrimonial jurisdiction was +transferred to the crown by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. +Under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892 an appeal lies from the +judgment of a consistory court under that act, in respect of +fact by leave of the appellate court, and in respect of law +without leave, to either the Arches court or the judicial committee +of the privy council at the option of the appellant. Under the +Benefices Act 1898 the official principal of the archbishop is +required to institute a presentee to a benefice if the tribunal +constituted under that act decides that there is no valid ground +for refusing institution and the bishop of the diocese notwithstanding +fails to institute him. After the College of Advocates +was incorporated and had established itself in Doctors’ Commons, +the archbishop’s court of appeal, as well as his prerogative court, +were usually held in the hall of the College of Advocates, but +after the destruction of the buildings of the college, the court +of appeal held its sittings, for the most part, in Westminster Hall. +For many years past there has been but little business in the +Arches court, mainly owing to the unwillingness of a large number +of the clergy to recognize the jurisdiction of what they deny to +be any longer a spiritual court, and the consistent use by the +bishops of their right of veto in the case of prosecutions under the +Public Worship Regulation Act. On the rare occasions when +a sitting of the court is necessary, it is held in the library of +Lambeth Palace, or at the Church House, Westminster.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHESTRATUS,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> of Syracuse or Gela, a Greek poet, who +flourished about 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After travelling extensively in search +of foreign delicacies for the table, he embodied the result in a +humorous poem called <span class="grk" title="Hedupatheta">Ήδυπάθεια</span>, afterwards freely translated +by Ennius under the title <i>Heduphagetica</i>. About 300 lines +of this gastronomical poem are preserved in Athenaeus. The +writer, who has been styled the Hesiod or Theognis of gluttons, +parodies the style of the old gnomic poets; chief attention is +paid to details concerning fish.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Ribbeck, <i>Archestrati Reliquiae</i> (1877); Brandt, <i>Corpusculum +Poesis Epicae Graecae ludibundae</i>, i. 1888; Schmid, <i>De Archestrati +Gelensis Fragmentis</i> (1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIAC, ÉTIENNE JULES ADOLPHE DESMIER DE SAINT SIMON,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Vicomte D’</span> (1802-1868), French geologist and +palaeontologist, was born at Reims on the 24th of September +1802. He was educated in the Military School of St Cyr, and +served for nine years as a cavalry officer until 1830, when he +retired from the service. Prior to this he had published an +historical romance; but now geology came to occupy his chief +attention. In his earlier scientific works, which date from 1835, +he described the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations of France, +Belgium and England, and dealt especially with the distribution +of fossils geographically and in sequence. Later on he investigated +the Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian formations. +His great work, <i>Histoire des progrčs de la géologie</i>, 1834-1859, +was published in 8 volumes at Paris (1847-1860). In 1853 the +Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society was awarded to him. +In the same year, with Jules Haime (1824-1856), he published +a monograph on the Nummulitic formation of India. In 1857 +he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in +1861 he was appointed professor of palaeontology in the Muséum +d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris. Of later works his <i>Paléontologie +stratigraphique</i>, in 3 vols. (1864-1865); his <i>Géologie et paléontologie</i> +(1866); and his palaeontological contributions to de +Tchihatcheff’s <i>Asie mineure</i> (1866), may be specially mentioned.</p> + +<p>He died on the 24th of December 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Notice sur les travaux scientifiques du vicomte d’Archiac</i>, par +A. Gaudry (Meulan, 1874); <i>Extrait du Bull. Soc. Géol. de France</i>, +ser. 3, t. ii. p. 230 (1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span> </p> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIAS, AULUS LICINIUS,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> Greek poet, was born at Antioch +in Syria 120 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In 102, his reputation having been already +established, especially as an improvisatore, he came to Rome, +where he was well received amongst the highest and most +influential families. His chief patron was Lucullus, whose +gentile name he assumed. In 93 he visited Sicily with his patron, +on which occasion he received the citizenship of Heracleia, one +of the federate towns, and indirectly, by the provisions of the +lex Plautia Papiria, that of Rome. In 61 he was accused by +a certain Gratius of having assumed the citizenship illegally; +and Cicero successfully defended him in his speech <i>Pro Archia</i>. +This speech, which furnishes nearly all the information concerning +Archias, states that he had celebrated the deeds of Marius and +Lucullus in the Cimbrian and Mithradatic wars, and that he was +engaged upon a poem of which the events of Cicero’s consulship +formed the subject. The Greek Anthology contains thirty-five epigrams +under the name of Archias, but it is doubtful how many of these +(if any) are the work of the poet of Antioch.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Cicero, <i>Pro Archia</i>; T. Reinach, <i>De Archia Poeta</i> (1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIDAMUS,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> the name of five kings of Sparta, of the +Eurypontid house.</p> + +<p>1. The son and successor of Anaxidamus. His reign, which +began soon after the close of the second Messenian War, is said +to have been quiet and uneventful (Pausanias iii. 7. 6).</p> + +<p>2. The son of Zeuxidamus, reigned 476-427 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (but see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leotychides</a></span>). He succeeded his grandfather Leotychides +upon the banishment of the latter, his father having already +died. His coolness and presence of mind are said to have saved +the Spartan state from destruction on the occasion of the great +earthquake of 464 (Diodorus xi. 63; Plutarch, <i>Cimon</i>, 16), +but this story must be regarded as at least doubtful. He was a +friend of Pericles and a man of prudence and moderation. +During the negotiations which preceded the Peloponnesian +War he did his best to prevent, or at least to postpone, the +inevitable struggle, but was overruled by the war party. He +invaded Attica at the head of the Peloponnesian forces in the +summers of 431, 430 and 428, and in 429 conducted operations +against Plataea. He died probably in 427, certainly before the +summer of 426, when we find his son Agis on the throne.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Herod, vi. 71; Thuc. i. 79-iii. 1; Plut. <i>Pericles</i>, 29. 33; Diodorus xi. 48-xii. 52.</p> +</div> + +<p>3. The son and successor of Agesilaus II., reigned 360-338 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> During his father’s later years he proved himself a brave +and capable officer. In 371 he led the relief force which was +sent to aid the survivors of the battle of Leuctra. Four years +later he captured Caryae, ravaged the territory of the Parrhasii +and defeated the Arcadians, Argives and Messenians in the +“tearless battle,” so called because the victory did not cost the +Spartans a single life. In 364, however, he sustained a severe +reverse in attempting to relieve a besieged Spartan garrison at +Cromnus in south-western Arcadia. He showed great heroism +in the defence of Sparta against Epaminondas immediately +before the battle of Mantineia (362). He supported the Phocians +during the Sacred War (355-346), moved, no doubt, largely by +the hatred of Thebes which he had inherited from his father; he +also led the Spartan forces in the conflicts with the Thebans and +their allies which arose out of the Spartan attempt to break up +the city of Megalopolis. Finally he was sent with a mercenary +army to Italy to protect the Tarentines against the attacks of +Lucanians or Messapians; he fell together with the greater part +of his force at Mandonion<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> on the same day as that on which +the battle of Chaeronea was fought.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Xen. <i>Hell.</i> v. 4, vi. 4, vii. 1. 4, 5; Plut. <i>Agis</i>, 3, <i>Camillus</i>, 19, +<i>Agesilaus.</i> 25, 33, 34, 40; Pausanias iii. 10, vi. 4; Diodorus xv. 54, +72, xvi. 24, 39, 59, 62, 88.</p> +</div> + +<p>4. The son of Eudamidas I., grandson of Archidamus III. +The dates of his accession and death are unknown. In 294 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +he was defeated at Mantineia by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who +invaded Laconia, gained a second victory close to Sparta, and +was on the point of taking the city itself when he was called +away by the news of the successes of Lysimachus and Ptolemy +in Asia Minor and Cyprus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Plut. <i>Agis</i>, 3, <i>Demetrius</i>, 35; Pausanias, i. 13. 6, vii. 8. 5; Niese, +<i>Gesch. der griech. u. makedon. Slaalen</i>, i. 363.</p> +</div> + +<p>5. The son of Eudamidas II., grandson of Archidamus IV., +brother of Agis IV. On his brother’s murder he fled to Messenia +(241 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In 227 he was recalled by Cleomenes III., who was +then reigning without a colleague, but shortly after his return +he was assassinated. Polybius accuses Cleomenes of the murder, +but Plutarch is probably right in saying that it was the work +of those who had caused the death of Agis, and feared his +brother’s vengeance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Plutarch, <i>Cleomenes</i>, i. 5; Polybius v. 37, viii. I; Niese, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. +304, 311.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So Plut. <i>Agis</i>, 3 (all MSS.). Following Cellarius, some +authorities read Manduria or Mandyrium.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIL<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (a corruption of “orchil,” Ital. <i>oricello</i>, the origin +of which is unknown), a purple dye obtained from various species +of lichens. Archil can be extracted from many species of the +genera <i>Roccella</i>, <i>Lecanora</i>, <i>Umbilicaria</i>, <i>Parmelia</i> and others, +but in practice two species of <i>Roccella</i>—<i>R. tinctoria</i> and <i>R. +fuciformis</i>—are almost exclusively used. These, under the name +of “orchella weed” or “dyer’s moss,” are obtained from +Angola, on the west coast of Africa, where the most valuable +kinds are gathered; from Cape Verde Islands; from Lima, +on the west coast of South America; and from the Malabar +coast of India. The colouring properties of the lichens do not +exist in them ready formed, but are developed by the treatment +to which they are subjected. A small proportion of a colourless, +crystalline principle, termed orcinol (a dioxytoluene), is found +in some, and in all a series of acid substances, erythric, lecanoric +acids, &c. Orcinol in presence of oxygen and ammonia takes +up nitrogen and becomes changed into a purple substance, +orceine (C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">7</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>), which is essentially the basis of all lichen +dyes. Two other colouring-matters, azoerythin and erythroleinic +acid, are sometimes present. Archil is prepared for the +dyer’s use in the form of a “liquor” (archil) and a “paste” +(persis), and the latter, when dried and finely powdered, forms +the “cudbear” of commerce, a dye formerly manufactured +in Scotland from a native lichen, <i>Lecanora tartarea</i>. The manufacturing +process consists in washing the weeds, which are then +ground up with water to a thick paste. If archil paste is to be +made this paste is mixed with a strong ammoniacal solution, +and agitated in an iron cylinder heated by steam to about +140° F. till the desired shade is developed—a process which +occupies several days. In the preparation of archil liquor the +principles which yield the dye are separated from the ligneous +tissue of the lichens, agitated with a hot ammoniacal solution, +and exposed to the action of air. When potassium or sodium +carbonate is added, a blue dye known as litmus, much used +as an “indicator,” is produced. French purple or lime lake +is a lichen dye prepared by a modification of the archil process, +and is a more brilliant and durable colour than the other. The +dyeing of worsted and home-spun cloth with lichen dyes was +formerly a very common domestic employment in Scotland; +and to this day, in some of the outer islands, worsted continues +to be dyed with “crottle,” the name given to the lichens +employed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHILOCHUS, G<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span>reek lyric poet and writer of lampoons, +was born at Paros, one of the Cyclades islands. The date of his +birth is uncertain, but he probably flourished about 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; +according to some, about forty years earlier but certainly not +before the reign of Gyges (687-652), whom he mentions in a +well-known fragment. His father, Telesicles, who was of noble +family, had conducted a colony to Thasos, in obedience to the +command of the Delphic oracle. To this island Archilochus +himself, hard pressed by poverty, afterwards removed. Another +reason for leaving his native place was personal disappointment +and indignation at the treatment he had received from Lycambes, +a citizen of Paros, who had promised him his daughter Neobule +in marriage, but had afterwards withdrawn his consent. Archilochus, +taking advantage of the licence allowed at the feasts of +Demeter, poured out his wounded feelings in unmerciful satire. +He accused Lycambes of perjury, and his daughters of leading +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span> +the most abandoned lives. Such was the effect produced by +his verses, that Lycambes and his daughters are said to have +hanged themselves. At Thasos the poet passed some unhappy +years; his hopes of wealth were disappointed; according to him, +Thasos was the meeting-place of the calamities of all Hellas. +The inhabitants were frequently involved in quarrels with their +neighbours, and in a war against the Saians—a Thracian tribe—he +threw away his shield and fled from the field of battle. He does +not seem to have felt the disgrace very keenly, for, like Alcaeus +and Horace, he commemorates the event in a fragment in which +he congratulates himself on having saved his life, and says he +can easily procure another shield. After leaving Thasos, he is +said to have visited Sparta, but to have been at once banished +from that city on account of his cowardice and the licentious +character of his works (Valerius Maximus vi. 3, <i>externa</i> 1). He +next visited Siris, in lower Italy, a city of which he speaks very +favourably. He then returned to his native place, and was slain +in a battle against the Naxians by one Calondas or Corax, who +was cursed by the oracle for having slain a servant of the Muses.</p> + +<p>The writings of Archilochus consisted of elegies, hymns—one +of which used to be sung by the victors in the Olympic games +(Pindar, <i>Olympia</i>, ix. i)—and of poems in the iambic and trochaic +measures. To him certainly we owe the invention of iambic +poetry and its application to the purposes of satire. The only +previous measures in Greek poetry had been the epic hexameter, +and its offshoot the elegiac metre; but the slow measured +structure of hexameter verse was utterly unsuited to express +the quick, light motions of satire. Archilochus made use of the +iambus and the trochee, and organized them into the two forms +of metre known as the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetrameter. +The trochaic metre he generally used for subjects of a +serious nature; the iambic for satires. He was also the first +to make use of the arrangement of verses called the epode. +Horace in his metres to a great extent follows Archilochus +(<i>Epistles</i>, i. 19. 23-35). All ancient authorities unite in praising +the poems of Archilochus, in terms which appear exaggerated +(Longinus xiii. 3; Dio Chrysostom, <i>Orationes</i>, xxxiii.; Quintilian +x. i. 60; Cicero, <i>Orator</i>, i.). His verses seem certainly to have +possessed strength, flexibility, nervous vigour, and, beyond +everything else, impetuous vehemence and energy. Horace +(<i>Ars Poetica</i>, 79) speaks of the “rage” of Archilochus, and +Hadrian calls his verses “raging iambics.” By his countrymen +he was reverenced as the equal of Homer, and statues of these +two poets were dedicated on the same day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His poems were written in the old Ionic dialect. Fragments in +Bergk, <i>Poetae Lyrici Graeci</i>; Liebel, <i>Archilochi Reliquiae</i> (1818); +A. Hauvette-Besnault, <i>Archiloque, sa vie et ses poésies</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIMANDRITE<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="archon">ἄρχων</span>, a ruler, and <span class="grk" title="mandra">μάνδρα</span>, +a fold or monastery), a title in the Greek Church applied to a +superior abbot, who has the supervision of several abbots and +monasteries, or to the abbot of some specially great and important +monastery, the title for an ordinary abbot being hegumenos. +The title occurs for the first time in a letter to Epiphanius, +prefixed to his <i>Panarium</i> (c. 375), but the <i>Lausiac History</i> of +Palladius may be evidence that it was in common use in the 4th +century as applied to Pachomius (<i>q.v.</i>). In Russia the bishops +are commonly selected from the archimandrites. The word +occurs in the <i>Regula Columbani</i> (c. 7), and du Cange gives +a few other cases of its use in Latin documents, but it never +came into vogue in the West. Owing to intercourse with Greek +and Slavonic Christianity, the title is sometimes to be met with +in southern Italy and Sicily, and in Hungary and Poland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the article in the <i>Dictionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne et de +liturgie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIMEDES<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 287-212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek mathematician and +inventor, was born at Syracuse, in Sicily. He was the son of +Pheidias, an astronomer, and was on intimate terms with, if not +related to, Hiero, king of Syracuse, and Gelo his son. He studied +at Alexandria and doubtless met there Conon of Samos, whom he +admired as a mathematician and cherished as a friend, and to +whom he was in the habit of communicating his discoveries +before publication. On his return to his native city he devoted +himself to mathematical research. He himself set no value on +the ingenious mechanical contrivances which made him famous, +regarding them as beneath the dignity of pure science and even +declining to leave any written record of them except in the case +of the <span class="grk" title="sphairopoiia">σφαιροποιἶα</span> (<i>Sphere-making</i>), as to which see below. +As, however, these machines impressed the popular imagination, +they naturally figure largely in the traditions about him. Thus +he devised for Hiero engines of war which almost terrified the +Romans, and which protracted the siege of Syracuse for three +years. There is a story that he constructed a burning mirror +which set the Roman ships on fire when they were within a bowshot +of the wall. This has been discredited because it is not +mentioned by Polybius, Livy or Plutarch; but it is probable +that Archimedes had constructed some such burning instrument, +though the connexion of it with the destruction of the Roman +fleet is more than doubtful. More important, as being doubtless +connected with the discovery of the principle in hydrostatics +which bears his name and the foundation by him of that whole +science, is the story of Hiero’s reference to him of the +question whether a crown made for him and purporting +to be of gold, did not actually contain a proportion of silver. +According to one story, Archimedes was puzzled till one day, as he +was stepping into a bath and observed the water running over, +it occurred to him that the excess of bulk occasioned by the +introduction of alloy could be measured by putting the crown +and an equal weight of gold separately into a vessel filled with +water, and observing the difference of overflow. He was so +overjoyed when this happy thought struck him that he ran +home without his clothes, shouting <span class="grk" title="euraeka, euraeka">εὒρηκα, εὒρηκα</span>, “I have +found it, I have found it.” Similarly his pioneer work in +mechanics is illustrated by the story of his having said +<span class="grk" title="dos moi pon sto kai kino taen gaen">δός μοι ποῦ στῶ καὶ κινῶ τὴν γῆν</span> (or as another version has it, +in his dialect, <span class="grk" title="pa bo kai kino tan gan">πᾶ βῶ καὶ κινῶ τὰν γᾶν</span>), “Give me a place to +stand and I (will) move the earth.” Hiero asked him to give +an illustration of his contention that a very great weight +could be moved by a very small force. He is said to have +fixed on a large and fully laden ship and to have used a mechanical +device by which Hiero was enabled to move it by himself: but +accounts differ as to the particular mechanical powers employed. +The water-screw which he invented (see below) was probably +devised in Egypt for the purpose of irrigating fields.</p> + +<p>Archimedes died at the capture of Syracuse by Marcellus, +212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In the general massacre which followed the fall of the +city, Archimedes, while engaged in drawing a mathematical +figure on the sand, was run through the body by a Roman +soldier. No blame attaches to the Roman general, Marcellus, +since he had given orders to his men to spare the house and +person of the sage; and in the midst of his triumph he lamented +the death of so illustrious a person, directed an honourable +burial to be given him, and befriended his surviving relatives. +In accordance with the expressed desire of the philosopher, his +tomb was marked by the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder, +the discovery of the relation between the volumes of a sphere +and its circumscribing cylinder being regarded by him as his +most valuable achievement. When Cicero was quaestor in +Sicily (75 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), he found the tomb of Archimedes, near the +Agrigentine gate, overgrown with thorns and briers. “Thus,” +says Cicero (<i>Tusc. Disp.</i>, v. c. 23, § 64), “would this most famous +and once most learned city of Greece have remained a stranger +to the tomb of one of its most ingenious citizens, had it not been +discovered by a man of Arpinum.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Works</i>.—The range and importance of the scientific labours of +Archimedes will be best understood from a brief account of those +writings which have come down to us; and it need only be added +that his greatest work was in geometry, where he so extended the +method of <i>exhaustion</i> as originated by Eudoxus, and followed by +Euclid, that it became in his hands, though purely geometrical in +form, actually equivalent in several cases to <i>integration</i>, as expounded +in the first chapters of our text-books on the integral calculus. This +remark applies to the finding of the area of a parabolic segment +(mechanical solution) and of a spiral, the surface and volume of a +sphere and of a segment thereof, and the volume of any segments +of the solids of revolution of the second degree.</p> + +<p>The extant treatises are as follows:—</p> + +<p>(1) <i>On the Sphere and Cylinder</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri sphairas kai kylindron">Περὶ σφαίρας καὶ κυλίνδρου</span>). +This treatise is in two books, dedicated to Dositheus, and deals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span> +with the dimensions of spheres, cones, “solid rhombi” and cylinders, +all demonstrated in a strictly geometrical method. The first book contains forty-four propositions, and those in which the +most important results are finally obtained are: 13 (surface of right +cylinder), 14, 15 (surface of right cone), 33 (surface of sphere), 34 +(volume of sphere and its relation to that of circumscribing cylinder), +42, 43 (surface of segment of sphere), 44 (volume of sector of sphere). +The second book is in nine propositions, eight of which deal with +segments of spheres and include the problems of cutting a given +sphere by a plane so that (<i>a</i>) the surfaces, (<i>b</i>) the volumes, of the +segments are in a given ratio (Props. 3, 4), and of constructing a +segment of a sphere similar to one given segment and having (<i>a</i>) its +volume, (<i>b</i>) its surface, equal to that of another (5, 6).</p> + +<p>(2) <i>The Measurement of the Circle</i> (<span class="grk" title="Kuklou metraesis">Κύκλου μέτρησις</span>) is a short +book of three propositions, the main result being obtained in Prop. 2, +which shows that the circumference of a circle is less than 3<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> and +greater than 3<span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">71</span> times its diameter. Inscribing in and circumscribing +about a circle two polygons, each of ninety-six sides, and +assuming that the perimeter of the circle lay between those of the +polygons, he obtained the limits he has assigned by sheer calculation, +starting from two close approximations to the value of √3, which he +assumes as known (265/153 < √3 < 1351/780).</p> + +<p>(3) <i>On Conoids and Spheroids</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri konoeideon kai sphairoeideon">Περὶ κωνοειδέων καὶ σφαιροειδέων</span>) +is a treatise in thirty-two propositions, on the solids generated by +the revolution of the conic sections about their axes, the main results +being the comparisons of the volume of any segment cut off by a +plane with that of a cone having the same base and axis (Props. 21, +22 for the paraboloid, 25, 26 for the hyperboloid, and 27-32 for the +spheroid).</p> + +<p>(4) <i>On Spirals</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri helikon">Περὶ ἑλίκων</span>) is a book of twenty-eight propositions. +Propositions 1-11 are preliminary, 13-20 contain tangential +properties of the curve now known as the spiral of Archimedes, and +21-28 show how to express the area included between any portion +of the curve and the radii vectores to its extremities.</p> + +<p>(5) <i>On the Equilibrium of Planes or Centres of Gravity of Planes</i> +(<span class="grk" title="Peri hepipedon isorropion ae kentra baron hepipedon">Περὶ ἐπιπέδων ὶσορροπιῶν ἤ κεντρα βαρῶν ἐπιπέδων</span>). This consists +of two books, and may be called the foundation of theoretical +mechanics, for the previous contributions of Aristotle were comparatively +vague and unscientific. In the first book there are fifteen +propositions, with seven postulates; and demonstrations are given, +much the same as those still employed, of the centres of gravity +(1) of any two weights, (2) of any parallelogram, (3) of any triangle, +(4) of any trapezium. The second book in ten propositions is devoted +to the finding the centres of gravity (1) of a parabolic segment, (2) of +the area included between any two parallel chords and the portions +of the curve intercepted by them.</p> + +<p>(6) <i>The Quadrature of the Parabola</i> (<span class="grk" title="Tetragonisaeos parabolaes">Τετραγωνισμὸς παραβολῆς</span>) is +a book in twenty-four propositions, containing two demonstrations +that the area of any segment of a parabola is <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of the triangle which +has the same base as the segment and equal height. The first (a +mechanical proof) begins, after some preliminary propositions on the +parabola, in Prop. 6, ending with an integration in Prop. 16. The +second (a geometrical proof) is expounded in Props. 17-24.</p> + +<p>(7) <i>On Floating Bodies</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri ochoumenon">Περὶ ὀχουμένων</span>) is a treatise in two +books, the first of which establishes the general principles of hydrostatics, +and the second discusses with the greatest completeness the +positions of rest and stability of a right segment of a paraboloid of +revolution floating in a fluid.</p> + +<p>(8) The <i>Psammites</i> (<span class="grk" title="Psammitaes">Ψαμμίτης</span>, Lat. <i>Arenarius</i>, or sand reckoner), +a small treatise, addressed to Gelo, the eldest son of Hiero, expounding, +as applied to reckoning the number of grains of sand that could +be contained in a sphere of the size of our “universe,” a system +of naming large numbers according to “orders” and “periods” +which would enable any number to be expressed up to that which +we should write with 1 followed by 80,000 ciphers!</p> + +<p>(9) <i>A Collection of Lemmas</i>, consisting of fifteen propositions in +plane geometry. This has come down to us through a Latin version +of an Arabic manuscript; it cannot, however, have been written by +Archimedes in its present form, as his name is quoted in it more than +once.</p> + +<p>Lastly, Archimedes is credited with the famous <i>Cattle-Problem</i>, +enunciated in the epigram edited by G.E. Lessing in 1773, which +purports to have been sent by Archimedes to the mathematicians at +Alexandria in a letter to Eratosthenes. Of lost works by Archimedes +we can identify the following: (1) investigations on <i>polyhedra</i> +mentioned by Pappus; (2) <span class="grk" title="Harchai">Άρχαί</span>, <i>Principles</i>, a book addressed to +Zeuxippus and dealing with the <i>naming of numbers</i> on the system +explained in the <i>Sand Reckoner</i>; (3) <span class="grk" title="Peri zygon">Περὶ ζυγῶν</span>, <i>On balances or +levers</i>; (4) <span class="grk" title="Kentrobarika">Κεντροβαρικά</span>, <i>On centres of gravity</i>; (5) <span class="grk" title="Katoptrika">Κατοπτρικά</span>, an +optical work from which Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about +refraction; (6) <span class="grk" title="Hephodion">Έφόδιον</span>, a <i>Method</i>, mentioned by Suidas; (7) <span class="grk" title="Peri sphairopoiias">Περὶ σφαιροποιἶας</span>, +<i>On Sphere-making</i>, in which Archimedes explained +the construction of the sphere which he made to imitate the motions +of the sun, the moon and the five planets in the heavens. Cicero +actually saw this contrivance and describes it (<i>De Rep.</i> i. c. 14, +§§ 21-22).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The <i>editio princeps</i> of the works of Archimedes, +with the commentary of Eutocius, is that printed at Basel, in 1544, +in Greek and Latin, by Hervagius. D. Rivault’s edition (Paris, +1615) gave the enunciations in Greek and the proofs in Latin somewhat +retouched. A Latin version of them was published by Isaac +Barrow in 1675 (London, 4to); Nicolas Tartaglia published in +Latin the treatises on <i>Centres of Gravity</i>, on the <i>Quadrature of the +Parabola</i>, on the <i>Measurement of the Circle</i>, and on <i>Floating Bodies</i>, i. +(Venice, 1543); Trojanus Curtius published the two books on +<i>Floating Bodies</i> in 1565 after Tartaglia’s death; Frederic Commandine +edited the Aldine edition of 1558, 4to, which contains +<i>Circuli Dimensio</i>, <i>De Lineis Spiralibus</i>, <i>Quadratura Paraboles</i>, <i>De +Conoidibus et Spheroidibus</i>, and <i>De numero Arenae</i>; and in 1565 the +same mathematician published the two books <i>De iis quae vehuntur +in aqua</i>. J. Torelli’s monumental edition of the works with the +commentaries of Eutocius, published at Oxford in 1792, folio, +remained the best Greek text until the definitive text edited, with +Eutocius’ commentaries, Latin translation, &c., by J.L. Heiberg +(Leipzig, 1880-1881) superseded it. The <i>Arenarius</i> and <i>Dimensio +Circuli</i>, with Eutocius’ commentary on the latter, were edited by +Wallis with Latin translation and notes in 1678 (Oxford), and the +<i>Arenarius</i> was also published in English by George Anderson (London, +1784), with useful notes and illustrations. The first modern translation +of the works is the French edition published by F. Peyrard +(Paris, 1808, 2 vols. 8vo.). A valuable German translation with +notes, by E. Nizze, was published at Stralsund in 1824. There is +a complete edition in modern notation by T.L. Heath (<i>The Works +of Archimedes</i>, Cambridge, 1897). On Archimedes himself, see +Plutarch’s <i>Life of Marcellus</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. L. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OF,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a machine for raising water, +said to have been invented by Archimedes, for the purpose of +removing water from the hold of a large ship that had been +built by King Hiero II. of Syracuse. It consists of a water-tight +cylinder, enclosing a chamber walled off by spiral divisions +running from end to end, inclined to the horizon, with its lower +open end placed in the water to be raised. The water, while +occupying the lowest portion in each successive division of the +spiral chamber, is lifted mechanically by the turning of the +machine. Other forms have the spiral revolving free in a fixed +cylinder, or consist simply of a tube wound spirally about a +cylindrical axis. The same principle is sometimes used in +machines for handling wheat, &c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conveyors</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIPELAGO,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a name now applied to any island-studded +sea, but originally the distinctive designation of what is now +generally known as the Aegean Sea (<span class="grk" title="Aigaion pelagos">Αἰγαῖον πέλαγος</span>), its +ancient name having been revived. Several etymologies have +been proposed: <i>e.g.</i> (1) it is a corruption of the ancient name, +<i>Egeopelago</i>; (2) it is from the modern Greek, <span class="grk" title="Hagio pelago">Άγιο πέλαγο</span>, the +Holy Sea; (3) it arose at the time of the Latin empire, and +means the Sea of the Kingdom (<i>Archi</i>); (4) it is a translation +of the Turkish name, Ak Denghiz, <i>Argon Pelagos</i>, the White +Sea; (5) it is simply <i>Archipelagus</i>, Italian, <i>arcipelago</i>, the chief +sea. For the Grecian Archipelago see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Sea</a></span>. Other +archipelagoes are described in their respective places.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIPPUS,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> an Athenian poet of the Old Comedy, who +flourished towards the end of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His most +famous play was the <i>Fishes</i>, in which he satirized the fondness +of the Athenian epicures for fish. The Alexandrian critics +attributed to him the authorship of four plays previously +assigned to Aristophanes. Archippus was ridiculed by his contemporaries +for his fondness for playing upon words (Schol. on +Aristophanes, <i>Wasps</i>, 481).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Titles and fragments of six plays are preserved, for which see +T. Kock, <i>Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta</i>, i. (1880); or A. Meineke, +<i>Poetarum Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta</i> (1855).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHITECTURE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (Lat. <i>architectura</i>, from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="harchitekton">ἀρχιτέκτων</span>, +a master-builder), the art of building in such a way as to accord +with principles determined, not merely by the ends the edifice +is intended to serve, but by high considerations of beauty and +harmony (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fine Arts</a></span>). It cannot be defined as the art of +building simply, or even of building well. So far as mere excellence +of construction is concerned, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Building</a></span> and its +allied articles. The end of building as such is convenience, use, +irrespective of appearance; and the employment of materials +to this end is regulated by the mechanical principles of the +constructive art. The end of architecture as an art, on the other +hand, is so to arrange the plan, masses and enrichments of a +structure as to impart to it interest, beauty, grandeur, unity, +power. Architecture thus necessitates the possession by the +builder of gifts of imagination as well as of technical skill, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span> +in all works of architecture properly so called these elements +must exist, and be harmoniously combined.</p> + +<p>Like the other arts, architecture did not spring into existence +at an early period of man’s history The ideas of symmetry and +proportion which are afterwards embodied in material structures +could not be evolved until at least a moderate degree of civilization +had been attained, while the efforts of primitive man in the +construction of dwellings must have been at first determined +solely by his physical wants. Only after these had been provided +for, and materials amassed on which his imagination +might exercise itself, would he begin to plan and erect structures, +possessing not only utility, but also grandeur and beauty. It +may be well to enumerate briefly the elements which in combination +form the architectural perfection of a building. These +elements have been very variously determined by different +authorities. Vitruvius, the only ancient writer on the art whose +works have come down to us, lays down three qualities as +indispensable in a fine building: <i>Firmitas, Utilitas, Venustas</i>, +stability, utility, beauty. From an architectural point of view +the last is the principal, though not the sole element; and, +accordingly, the theory of architecture is occupied for the most +part with aesthetic considerations, or the principles of beauty +in designing. Of such principles or qualities the following appear +to be the most important: size, harmony, proportion, symmetry, +ornament and colour. All other elements may be reduced under +one or other of these heads.</p> + +<p>With regard to the first quality, it is clear that, as the feeling +of power is a source of the keenest pleasure, size, or vastness +of proportion, will not only excite in the mind of man the feelings +of awe with which he regards the sublime in nature, but will +impress him with a deep sense of the majesty of human power. +It is, therefore, a double source of pleasure. The feelings with +which we regard the Pyramids of Egypt, the great hall of columns +at Karnak, the Pantheon, or the Basilica of Maxentius at Rome, +the Trilithon at Baalbek, the choir of Beauvais cathedral, +or the Arc de l’Étoile at Paris, sufficiently attest the truth of +this quality, <i>size</i>, which is even better appreciated when the +buildings are contemplated simply as masses, without being +disturbed by the consideration of the details.</p> + +<p>Proportion itself depends essentially upon the employment +of mathematical ratios in the dimensions of a building. It is +a curious but significant fact that such proportions as those of +an exact cube, or of two cubes placed side by side—dimensions +increasing by one-half (<i>e.g.</i>, 20 ft. high, 30 wide and 45 long)—or +the ratios of the base, perpendicular and hypotenuse of a +right-angled triangle (<i>e.g.</i> 3, 4, 5, or their multiples)—please the +eye more than dimensions taken at random. No defect is more +glaring or more unpleasant than want of proportion. The +Gothic architects appear to have been guided in their designs +by proportions based on the equilateral triangle.</p> + +<p>By harmony is meant the general balancing of the several +parts of the design. It is proportion applied to the mutual +relations of the details. Thus, supported parts should have +an adequate ratio to their supports, and the same should be +the case with solids and voids. Due attention to proportion +and harmony gives the appearance of stability and repose +which is indispensable to a really fine building. Symmetry +is uniformity in plan, and, when not carried to excess, is undoubtedly +effective. But a building too rigorously symmetrical +is apt to appear cold and tasteless. Such symmetry of general +plan, with diversity of detail, as is presented to us in leaves, +animals, and other natural objects, is probably the just medium +between the excesses of two opposing schools.</p> + +<p>Next to general beauty or grandeur of form in a building +comes architectural ornament. Ornament, of course, may +be used to excess, and as a general rule it should be confined +to the decoration of constructive parts of the fabric; but, on +the other hand, a total absence or a paucity of ornament betokens +an unpleasing poverty. Ornaments may be divided into two +classes—mouldings and the sculptured representation of natural +or fanciful objects. Mouldings, no doubt, originated, first, in +simply taking off the edge of anything that might be in the way, +as the edge of a square post, and then sinking the chamfer in +hollows of various forms; and thence were developed the +systems of mouldings we now find in all styles and periods. +Each of these has its own system; and so well are their characteristics +understood, that from an examination of them a +skilful architect will not only tell the period in which any building +has been erected, but will even give an estimate of its probable +size, as professors of physiology will construct an animal from +the examination of a single bone. Mouldings require to be +carefully studied, for nothing offends an educated eye like a +confusion of mouldings, such as Roman forms in Greek work, +or Early English in that of the Tudor period. The same remark +applies to sculptured ornaments. They should be neither too +numerous nor too few, and above all, they should be consistent. +The carved ox skulls, for instance, which are appropriate in +a temple of Vesta or of Fortune would be very incongruous +on a Christian church.</p> + +<p>Colour must be regarded as a subsidiary element in architecture, +and although it seems almost indispensable and has always +been extensively employed in interiors, it is doubtful how far +external colouring is desirable. Some contend that only local +colouring, <i>i.e.</i> the colour of the materials, should be admitted; +but there seems no reason why any colour should not be used, +provided it be employed with discretion and kept subordinate +to the form or outline.</p> + +<p><i>Origin of the Art</i>.—The origin of the art of architecture is to be +found in the endeavours of man to provide for his physical +wants; in the earliest days the cave, the hut and the tent may +have given shelter to those who devoted themselves to hunting +and fishing, to agriculture and to a pastoral and nomadic life, +and in many cases still afford the only shelter from the weather. +There can be no doubt, however, that climate and the materials +at hand affect the forms of the primitive buildings; thus, in the +two earliest settlements of mankind, in Chaldaea and Egypt, +where wood was scarce, the heat in the day-time intense, and +the only material which could be obtained was the alluvial clay, +brought down by the rivers in both those countries, they shaped +this into bricks, which, dried in the sun, enabled them to build +rude huts, giving them the required shelter. These may have +been circular or rectangular on plan, with the bricks laid in +horizontal courses, one projecting over the other, till the walls +met at the top. The next advance in Egypt was made by the +employment of the trunks of the palm tree as a lintel over the +doorway, to support the wall above, and to cover over the hut +and carry the flat roof of earth which is found down to the present +day in all hot countries. Evidence of this system of construction +is found in some of the earliest rock-cut tombs at Giza, where the +actual dwelling of the deceased was reproduced in the tomb, +and from these reproductions we gather that the corners, or +quoins of the hut were protected by stems of the douva plant, +bound together in rolls by the leaves, which, in the form of torus +rolls, were also carried across the top of the wall. Down to the +present day the huts of the fellahs are built in the same way, +and, surmounted as they are by pigeon-cots, bear so strong +a resemblance to the pylons and the walls of the temples as at +all events to suggest, if not to prove, that in their origin these +stone erections were copies of unburnt brick structures. From +long exposure in the sun, these bricks acquire a hardness and +compactness not much inferior to some of the softer qualities +of stone, but they are unable to sustain much pressure; consequently +it is necessary to make the walls thicker at the bottom +than at the top, and it is this which results in the batter or raking +sides of all the unburnt brick walls. The same raking sides are +found in all their <i>mastabas</i>, or tombs, sometimes built in unburnt +brick and sometimes in stone, in the latter case being +simple reproductions of the former. In some of the early +mastabas, built in brick, either to vary the monotony of the +mass and decorate the walls, or to ensure greater care in their +construction, vertical brick pilasters are provided, forming sunk +panels. These form the principal decoration, as reproduced in +stone, of an endless number of tombs, some of which are in the +British Museum. At the top of each panel they carve a portion +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span> +of trunk necessary to support the walls of brick, and over the +doorway a similar feature. In Chaldaea the same decorative +features are found in the stage towers which constituted their +temples, and broad projecting buttresses, indented panels and +other features, originally constructive, form the decorations of +the Assyrian palaces. There also, built in the same material, +unburnt brick, the walls have a similar batter, though they were +faced with burnt bricks. In later times in Greece and Asia +Minor, where wood was plentiful, the stone architecture suggests +its timber origin, and though unburnt brick was still employed for +the mass of the walls, the remains in Crete and the representations +in painting, &c., show that it was encased in timber +framing, so that the raking walls were no longer a necessary +element in their structure. The clearest proofs of original +timber construction are shown in the rock-cut tombs of Lycia, +where the ground sill, vertical posts, cross beams, purlins and +roof joists are all direct imitations of structures originally +erected in wood.</p> + +<p>The numerous relics of structures left by primeval man have +generally little or no architectural value; and the only interesting +problem regarding them—the determination of their date and +purpose and of the degree of civilization which they manifest—falls +within the province of archaeology (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archaeology</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barrow</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lake-Dwellings</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stone Monuments</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Technical terms in architecture will be found separately +explained under their own headings in this work, and in this +article a general acquaintance with them is assumed. A number +of architectural subjects are also considered in detail in separate +articles; see, for instance, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capital</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Column</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Design</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order</a></span>; +and such headings as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abbey</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aqueduct</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arch</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basilica</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baths</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bridges</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catacomb</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crypt</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dome</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mosque</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palace</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pyramid</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Temple</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theatre</a></span>; &c., &c. Also such general articles +on national art as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">China</a></span>: <i>Art</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Art and Archaeology</i>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Art</a></span>; &c., and the sections on architecture +and buildings under the headings of countries and towns.</p> + +<p>In the remainder of this article the general history of the evolution +of the art of architecture will be considered in various +sections, associated with the nations and periods from which +the leading historic styles are chronologically derived, in so far +as the dominant influences on the art, and not the purely local +characteristics of countries outside the main current of its +history, are concerned; but the opportunity is taken to treat +with some attempt at comprehensiveness the leading features +of the architectural history of those countries and peoples which +are intimately connected with the development of modern +architecture.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>These consecutive sections are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>Egyptian</p> +<p>Assyrian</p> +<p>Persian</p> +<p>Greek</p> +<p>Parthian</p> +<p>Sassanian</p> +<p>Etruscan</p> +<p>Roman</p> +<p>Byzantine</p> +<p>Early Christian</p> +<p>Early Christian Work in Central Syria</p> +<p>Coptic Church in Egypt</p> +<p>Romanesque and Gothic in—</p> +<p class="i2">Italy</p> +<p class="i2">France</p> +<p class="i2">Spain</p> +<p class="i2">England</p> +<p class="i2">Germany</p> +<p class="i2">Belgium and Holland</p> +<p>Renaissance: Introduction</p> +<p class="i2">Italy</p> +<p class="i2">France</p> +<p class="i2">Spain</p> +<p class="i2">England</p> +<p class="i2">Germany</p> +<p class="i2">Belgium and Holland</p> +<p>Mahommedan</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>Finally, a section on what can only be collectively termed <i>Modern</i> +architecture deals with the main lines of the later developments +down to the present day in the architectural history of different +countries.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Egyptian Architecture</p> + +<p>Although structures discovered in Chaldaea, at Tello and Nippur, +seeming to date back to the fifth millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, suggest that the +earlier settlements of mankind were in the valley of the Tigris and +Euphrates, north of the Persian Gulf, it is to Egypt that we must +turn for the most ancient records of monumental architecture +(see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Art and Archaeology</i>). The proximity of the +ranges of hills (the Arabian and Libyan chains) to the Nile, and the +facilities which that river afforded for the transport of the material +quarried in them, enabled the Egyptians at a very early period to +reproduce in stone those structures in unburnt brick to which we +have already referred.</p> + +<p>Although the great founder of the first Egyptian monarchy is +reputed to be Menes, the Thinite who traditionally founded the +capital at Memphis, he was preceded, according to Flinders Petrie, +by an earlier invading race coming from the south, who established +a monarchy at This near Abydos, having entered the country by the +Kosseir road from the Red Sea; and this may account for the early +tradition that it was the Ethiopians who founded the earliest dynastic +race, “Ethiopians” being a wide term which may embrace several +races.</p> + +<p>Egyptian architecture is usually described under the principal +periods in which it was developed. They are as follows<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>:—(A) the +Memphite kingdom, whose capital was at Memphis, south-west of +Cairo, the Royal Domain extending south some 30 to 40 m.; (B) +the first Theban kingdom with Thebes as the capital; this covers +three dynasties. Then follows an interregnum of five dynasties, +when the invasion of the Hyksos took place; this was architecturally +unproductive. On the expulsion of the Hyksos there followed (C) +the second Theban kingdom, consisting of three dynasties, under +whose reign the finest temples were erected throughout the country. +After 1102 followed six dynasties (1102-525 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), with capitals at +Sais, Tanis and Bubastis, when the decadence of art and power took +place. Then followed the Persian invasion, 525-331 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, which was +destructive instead of being reproductive. On the defeat of the +Persians by Alexander the Great, and after his death in 323 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +was founded (D) the Ptolemaic kingdom, with Alexandria as the +capital. A great revival of art then took place, which to a certain +extent was carried on under the Roman occupation from 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and lasted about 300 years.</p> + +<p>With the exception of a small temple, found by Petrie in front of +the temple of Medum, and the so-called “Temple of the Sphinx,” +the only monuments remaining of the Memphite kingdom are the +Pyramids, which were built by the kings as their tombs, and the +<i>mastabas</i>, in which the members of the royal family and of the priests +and chiefs were buried. The mastaba (Arabic for “bench”) was a +tomb, oblong in plan, with battering side and a flat roof, containing +various chambers, of which the principal were (1) the Chapel for +offerings, (2) the Serdab, in which the Ka or double of the deceased +was deposited, and (3) the well, always excavated in the rock, in +which the mummy was placed.</p> + +<p>The three best-known pyramids are those situated about 7 m. +south-west of Cairo, which were built by the second, third and +fourth kings of the fourth dynasty,—Khufu (<i>c.</i> 3969-3908 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +Khafra (<i>c.</i> 3908-3845 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and Menkaura (<i>c.</i> 3845-3784 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who +are better known as Cheops, Cephren and Mycerinus. The first of +these is the largest and most remarkable in its construction and +setting out. The pyramid of Cephren was slightly smaller, and that +of Mycerinus still more so, compensated for by a casing in granite. +The dimensions and other details are given in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pyramids</a></span>. +From the purely architectural point of view they are the least impressive +of masses, and their immense size is not realized until on a +close approach.</p> + +<p>The temple of the Sphinx, attributed to Cephren, is T-shaped +in plan, with two rows of square piers down the vertical and one +row down the cross portion. These carried a flat roof of stone. +The temple is remarkable for the splendid finish given to the granite +piers, and to the alabaster slabs which cased the rock in which it had +been partially excavated (but see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i>, I.).</p> + +<p>The Serapeum at Sakkara, in which the sacred bulls were embalmed +and buried, the tomb of Ti (a fifth dynasty courtier), and the tombs +of the kings and queens of Thebes, have no special architectural +features which call for description here.</p> + +<p>We pass on to the first Theban kingdom, the eighth king of which, +Nebheprē Menthotp III., built the temple lately discovered on the +south side of the temple at Deir-el-Bahri, of which it is the prototype. +It was a sepulchral temple, and being built on rising ground was +approached by flights of steps. In the centre was a solid mass of +masonry which, it is thought by some authorities, was crowned by a +pyramid. This was surrounded by a double portico with square +piers in the outer range, and octagonal piers in the inner range, +there being a wall between the two ranges.</p> + +<p>The earliest tombs in which the <i>column</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) appears, as an architectural +feature, are those at Beni Hasan, attributed to the period +of Senwosri (formerly read Usertesen) I., the second king of the +twelfth dynasty. These are carved in the solid rock. There are two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span> +types, the Polygonal column, sometimes in error called the Protodoric, +which was cut in the rock in imitation of a wooden column, +and a second variety known as the Lotus column, which is employed +inside, supporting the rock-cut roof, but having such slender +proportions as to suggest that it was copied from the posts of a porch, +round which the Lotus plant had been tied.</p> + +<p>The culminating period of the Egyptian style begins with the +kings of the eighteenth dynasty, their principal capital being Thebes, +described by Herodotus as the “City with the Hundred Gates”; +and although the execution of the masonry is inferior to that of the +older dynasties, the grandeur of the conception of their temples, +and the wealth displayed in their realization entitle Thebes to the +most important position in the history of the Egyptian style, +especially as the temples there grouped on both sides of the river exceed +in number and dimensions the whole of the other temples throughout +Egypt. This to a certain extent may possibly be due to the distance +of Thebes from the Mediterranean, which has contributed to their +preservation from invaders. We have already referred to the probable +origin of the peculiar batter or raking side given to the walls of the +pylons and temples, with the Torus moulding surrounding the same +and crowned with the cavetto cornice. What, however, is more +remarkable is the fact that, once accepted as an important and +characteristic feature, it should never have been departed from, +and that down to and during the Roman occupation the same batter +is found in all the temples, though constructively there was no +necessity for it. The strict adherence to tradition may possibly +account for this, but it has resulted in a magnificent repose possessed +by these structures, which seem built to last till eternity.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:154px; height:357px" src="images/img372a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Plan of the Temple of Chons.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>A, Pylon.</p> +<p>B, Great court.</p> +<p>C, Hall of columns.</p> +<p>D, Priest’s hall.</p> +<p>E, Sanctuary.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>An avenue with sphinxes on both sides forms the approach to +the temple. These avenues were sometimes of considerable length, +as in the case of that reaching from Karnak to Luxor, which is +1˝ m. long. The leading features of the +temple (see fig. 1) were:—(A) The +pylon, consisting of two pyramidal +masses of masonry crowned with a +cavetto cornice, united in the centre +by an immense doorway, in front of +which on either side were seated +figures of the king and obelisks. +(B) A great open court surrounded +by peristyles on two or three sides. +(C) A great hall with a range of +columns down the centre on either +side, forming what in European +architecture would be known as +nave and aisles, with additional +aisles on each side; these had +columns of less height than those +first mentioned, so as to allow of +a clerestory, lighting the central +avenue. (D) Smaller halls with +their flat roofs carried by columns. +And finally (E) the sanctuary, with +passage round giving access to the +halls occupied by the priest.</p> + +<p>Broadly speaking, the temples +bear considerable resemblance to +one another (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Temple</a></span>), except +in dimensions. There is one important +distinction, however, to be +drawn between the Theban temples +and those built under the Ptolemaic +rule. In these latter the halls are +not enclosed between pylons, but +left open on the side of the entrance +court with screens in between the +columns, the hall being lighted from +above the screens. The temples of +Edfu, Esna and Dendera are thus +arranged.</p> + +<p>The great temple of Karnak (fig. 2) differs from the type just +described, in that it was the work of many successive monarchs. +Thus the sanctuary, built in granite, and the surrounding chambers, +were erected by Senwosri (Usertesen) I. of the twelfth dynasty. In +front of this, on the west side, pylons were added by Tethmosis +(Thothmes, Tahutmes) I. (1541-1516), enclosing a hall, in the walls +of which were Osirid figures. In front of this a third pylon was +added, which Seti (Sethos) I. utilized as one of the enclosures of the +great hall of columns (fig. 3), measuring 170 ft. deep by 329 ft. wide, +having added a fourth pylon on the other side to enclose it. Again +in front of this was the great open court with porticoes on two sides, +and a great pylon, forming the entrance. In the rear of all these +buildings, and some distance beyond the sanctuary, Tethmosis III. +(1503-1449) built a great colonnaded hall with other halls round, +considered to have been a palace. All these structures form a part +only of the great temple, on the right and left of which (<i>i.e.</i> to the +north-east and south-west) were other temples preceded by pylons +and connected one with the other by avenues of sphinxes. Though +of small size comparatively, one of the best preserved is the temple +of Chons, built by Rameses III. It was from this temple that an +avenue of sphinxes led to the temple of Luxor, which was begun by +Amenophis III. (1414-1379 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and completed by Rameses II. (1300-1234).</p> + +<p>On the opposite or west bank of the Nile are the temple of Medinet +Abu, the Ramesseum, the temples of Kurna and of Deir-el-Bahri; +the last being a sepulchral temple, which, built on rising ground, +had flights of steps leading to the higher level (fig. 4), and porticoes +with square piers at the foot of each terrace. In the rear on the +right-hand side was found an altar, the only example of its kind known in +Egypt. The halls behind this and the portico of the right flank had +polygonal columns.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:1058px" src="images/img372b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the palace of Tell el-Amarna, built shortly before 1350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by +the heretic king Akhenaton (whose name was originally Amenophis IV.), +and discovered by Petrie, there were no special architectural +developments, but the painted decoration of the walls and pavements +assumed a literal interpretation of natural forms of plants and +foliage and of birds and animals, recalling to some extent that +found at Cnossus in Crete.</p> + +<p>Ascending the river from Cairo, the first temples of which important +remains exist are the two at Abydos. One of these has an +exceptional plan, with seven sanctuaries in the rear. It was built +by Seti I., and consists of an outer portico with square piers, a hall +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span> +with two rows of columns down to the centre, and a second hall with +three rows of columns. These halls are placed longitudinally to give +access to the seven sanctuaries. The second temple is of the ordinary +type, with pylon, court with portico on all four sides, two halls of +columns, and three sanctuaries in the rear. The next temple is that of +Dendera, commenced under the second Ptolemy but not completed until the +reign of Nero. It has been completely excavated, and retains the whole +of its external walls. Above Thebes is the temple of Esna, of which the +hall of columns only has been cleared out. The capitals of the front +belong to the lotus-bud type, and those of the interior are carved with +many varieties of river plant. The temple of Edfu is the best preserved +in Egypt. Its plan (fig. 5) would seem to have been determined from the +first, and it is singular to note that it presents the traditional type +of plan, which in the Theban examples was evolved from additions made by +successive monarchs. In dimensions it is but little inferior to these. +Its pylon (fig. 6) is 250 ft. wide and 150 ft. high; the first court has +porticoes on three sides. The great hall of columns, all of which here +are of the same height, is lighted from above (fig. 7), the screen +facing the court. Then follow the second hall of columns, two +vestibules, and the sanctuary, surrounded by a passage giving access to +the priest’s rooms round. The temple of Kom Ombo, which comes next, was +dedicated to two deities, and had therefore two sanctuaries.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:186px" src="images/img373a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Section through Hall of Columns, Karnak. +<i>a</i>, Clerestory window.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:298px" src="images/img373b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Temple of Deir-el-Bahri, conjectural restoration +by Prof. E. Brune.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The temples of Philae owe much of their beauty and picturesqueness to +the island on which they are situated; their plans, and that of the long +porticoes in front of the pylons of the great temple, being fitted to +the irregularity of the site. In the first court is a well-preserved +example of the Mammeisi temple (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Temple</a></span>), the sanctuary and other +rooms in which are entirely enclosed in a peristyle. It was built by +Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). A second monarch of the same name +(about 125 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) built the pavilion on the north side of the island, +known as “Pharaoh’s bed,” the roof of which was covered with stone +slabs, resting on timber beams. In consequence of the building of the +Assuan dam all these temples are submerged for the greater part of the +year. The principal temples between Philae and the second cataract +are:—Dabōd, of which little remains; Kartassi; Kalābsha, still +preserving its pylon and great hall of columns; the Bēt el-Wāli, in +which are two ancient polygonal columns; Gerf Husen, partially cut in +the rock; Dakka; Wadi es-Sebū’a; and lastly Abū Simbel. Owing to the +proximity of the ranges of hills to the Nile, there was no room for the +ordinary type of temple at Abū Simbel, so that those founded here by +Rameses the Great (<i>c.</i> 1300-1234 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) were excavated in the rock. In the +place of the pylon the side of the cliff was worked off, leaving in +relief four immense seated figures, 66 ft. high. The first hall had +three aisles, divided by four piers on each side, in front of which +Osirid figures (18 ft. high) were carved; beyond was a second hall, +vestibule and sanctuary. The long rectangular chambers on each side are +provided with benches cut in the rock. The depth of the temple is 90 ft. +There is a second temple of smaller size which faces the Nile.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:175px; height:368px" src="images/img373c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Plan of the Temple of Edfu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>AA, Pylon.</p> +<p>B, Entrance door.</p> +<p>C, Great Court.</p> +<p>D, Hall of Columns.</p> +<p>E, Second Hall.</p> +<p>F, Hall of the Altar.</p> +<p>G, Hall of the Centre.</p> +<p>H, Sanctuary.</p> +<p>KK, Storerooms.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>We have already referred to the lotus columns at Beni Hasan; these, when +employed constructionally to carry stone roofs, assumed a far more solid +appearance, and the stems of the lotus plant carved in the earlier +examples were omitted in the later, in order to give more surface for +intaglio carving. The capital and its neck still retain the lotus buds +and the bands which tied them round the column. In the central avenues +of the great halls the columns had bell capitals, the decoration of +which was based on the flower of the papyrus. There are a few examples +of the palm capital, often carved in granite, which date from an early +period. Commencing with the Ptolemaic revival the capitals assume a much +greater variety of form, their decoration being based on river plants; +but here again the lotus plant, which seems still to be the favourite +type, predominates, the buds in various degrees of their growth +alternating one with the other. All these varieties of form are +described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capital</a></span>, but two or three may be mentioned +here, as they depart from the usual type. The Hathor-headed capital, +with faces on all four sides, and surmounted with a miniature shrine, is +found at Dendera, Philae and other temples of the Ptolemaic or Roman +periods; one of the earliest examples, but without the shrine, dates +back to Tethmosis III. (1503-1449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). As a distinct type of pier +decoration, the Osirid figures at Medinet Abu, at Karnak, Gerf Husen, +Abu Simbel and other temples, constitute important features: the figure +is carved in front of the pier and does not serve any constructive +function.</p> + +<p>With the exception of the great building in the rear of the temple at +Karnak, built by Tethmosis III., and the pavilion of Medinet Abū on the +west bank of the Nile at Thebes, no palatial residences of any +importance have yet been found, from which it might be inferred that the +king, being the head of the Egyptian religion, occupied with his family +the sacred precincts of the temple; but large as these temple enclosures +are, there would have been no room for the immense army of attendants +and servants required in an Oriental court. Moreover, the darkness of +the halls and the rigid enclosures would have made a residence in them +anything but cheerful. There are two instances where, in consequence of +the subsequent desertion of the site, remains have been found of ancient +towns. At Tell el-Amarna, built by the heretic king, Akhenaton, portions +of the houses remain, and at Kahun, in the Fayum, Petrie discovered the +walls of a town which, erected for the overseers and workmen employed in +the construction of the pyramid of Illahun, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span> +built by Senwosri (Usertesen) II. (2684-2666 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), was abandoned +when the pyramid was completed. The houses were all built in +unburnt brick, and in those cases where the rooms exceeded 8 or 9 ft. +in width, columns in stone or wood were employed to assist in carrying +the roof, which was constructed of beams carrying smaller +timbers covered over with a flat roof of mud. The plans of the houses +were not unlike those found in Pompeii, with open courts and +porticoes and no external windows. The streets ran at right angles +to one another, and the houses varied in size from the workman’s +hut, of one room, to the overseer’s house with several rooms and +courts; the principal residence, in the centre, occupied by the +governor of the town, being of still larger dimensions.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:341px" src="images/img374a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Exterior of the Pylon of the Temple of Edfu.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:157px; height:265px" src="images/img374b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Façade of the Great Hall of Columns of the +Ptolemaic temple at Edfu.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Further knowledge of the Egyptian dwellings is chiefly derived +from the “soul-houses” recently discovered by Petrie, and from the +paintings in the tombs, which suggest that +they corresponded to that class of residence +which in Rome was known as a villa, viz. a +series of detached buildings built in immense +enclosures, with porticoes round, groves of +trees, artificial lakes, &c. The walls, gates +and buildings were all built probably in unburnt +brick, and the whole site, if on the +borders of the river, raised on great mounds. +In this respect they accord with the houses +of the fellah at the present day, which are +raised on the accumulation of centuries, for +when, owing to the rise of the Nile, the +houses succumb to the moisture creeping up, +another house is built on the top. The +representations in paintings show that the +houses were chiefly built in unburnt brick, and +they sometimes were of two or three storeys +with windows in the upper floors, +and a flat roof with a kind of dormer known +as the Mulhuf, turned towards the north-west +to ventilate the house. The paintings frequently +represent the store-rooms, or granaries; +and the preservation of those built by +Rameses the Great, in the rear of the Ramesseum at Thebes, as +granaries to hold corn, enables us to follow their construction. +These granaries consist of a series of long cellars, about 12 to 14 ft. +wide, placed side by side, and roofed over with elliptical barrel +vaults. The reason for the elliptical form and the method of their +construction is given in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vault</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The pavilion of Medinet Abū was built in stone, and consequently +has been preserved more or less complete to our day. It consisted of +three storeys with a flat roof and battlement round, said to be in +imitation of those on a Syrian fortress, as they are quite unlike +anything else in Egypt. The floors were in wood, but there are traces +of a stone staircase. The windows, of large size, were filled with +thin stone slabs pierced with vertical slits, like those of the hall of +columns at Karnak.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc" style="clear: both;">Assyrian Architecture</p> + +<p>About 3800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the earlier inhabitants of Chaldaea or Babylonia +were invaded and absorbed by a Semitic race, whose first monarch +was Sargon of Agade (Akkad). 1800 years later, emigrations took +place northward, and founded Nineveh on the banks of the Tigris, +about 250 m. north of Babylon. 1200 years later, the Assyrians +began building the magnificent series of palaces from which were +brought the winged man-headed bulls and the sculptured slabs now +in the British Museum. The leading characteristics of the style, and +the nature of the structures, temples and palaces, evolved by the +Chaldaeans (or first Babylonian empire), the Assyrians, and the new +Babylonian empire, are similar; they are best known by those +which represent a culmination of the style in north Mesopotamia, +and are therefore described here.</p> + +<p>By a singular coincidence the remains of the oldest building +found at Nippur (Niffar), in lower Mesopotamia, bear a close resemblance +to the oldest pyramid in Egypt, Medum, before it received +its final casing. The latter, however, is known to have been a tomb, +whereas the structure at Nippur was a temple, which took the form +of a <i>ziggurat</i> or stage tower. It consisted of several storeys built one +over the other, the upper storey in each case being set back behind +the lower, in order to leave a terrace all round. In some cases the +terrace was wider in front, to give space for staircases ascending +from storey to storey. In consequence of the extreme flatness of +the country and its liability to sudden inundations, it became +necessary, when erecting buildings of any kind, to raise them on +mounds of earth. The more important the structure, the higher was +it deemed necessary to raise it, so as to make it the most conspicuous +feature in the landscape. The result is that from Abu Shahrain, +the most southern town, to Akarkuf (Aqarquf), 220 m. north, +there are a series of immense mounds, sometimes nearly a mile in +diameter, and rising to a height of 200 ft., crowned with the remains +of towns, which, notwithstanding the thirty centuries more or less +during which they have been exposed to the torrential rains and the +destructive agencies of man, form still the most prominent features +in the country. The structures which were raised on the mound, +<i>i.e.</i> the temples and palaces with their enclosure walls, were all +built with bricks made of the alluvial clay of the country, shaped in +wooden moulds and dried in the heat of the sun, a heat so intense +that they acquired sometimes the hardness of the inferior qualities +of stone. The walls of the temples, palaces and enclosures had the +same batter as that already referred to in the preceding section on +Egypt. In the latter country they were reproduced in stone, of +which there were many quarries on either side of the Nile; in +Chaldaea they were obliged to content themselves with the preservation +of their ziggurats by outer casings of burnt brick and with +pavements of tiles for their terraces. In order to vary the monotony +of their temple walls, and perhaps to give them greater strength, +they built vertical bands or buttresses at intervals, or they sank +panels in the walls to two depths, a natural decoration to which brick +work lends itself; and these two methods, which were employed in +early times, were followed by the Assyrians in the palaces of Nimrud, +Nineveh and Khorsabad.</p> + +<p>The earlier settlements were those founded between the mouths +of the Tigris and the Euphrates, on what was then the shore of the +Persian Gulf, now some 140 m. farther south. The principal towns +where the remains of ziggurats have been found, all on the borders +of the Euphrates, beginning with the most southern, are:—Abu +Shahrain (Eridu); Mugheir (Ur of the Chaldees); Senkera (? Ellasar +or Larsa); Warka (Erech); Tello (Eninnu); Nippur; Birs +Nimrud (Borsippa); Babil (Babylon); El Ohemir (Kish); Abu +Habba (Sippara); and Akarkuf (Durkurigalsu).</p> + +<p>Although the ziggurats at Warka, Nippur and Tello are probably +of older foundation, the great temple of Borsippa at Birs Nimrud +is in better preservation, having been restored or rebuilt by +Nebuchadrezzar, and may be taken as a typical example. The +ground storey was 272 ft. square, and, according to Fergusson, 45 ft. +high. The upper storeys or stages receded back, one behind the +other, so as to leave a terrace all round. Although it is not possible +to trace more than four storeys, it is known from the description on a +cylinder found on the site that there were seven storeys, dedicated +to the planets, each coloured with the special tint prescribed. The +total height was about 160 ft., and on the top was a shrine dedicated +to the god Nebo. An invaluable record of the researches which +have been made during the last three centuries or more is given in +H.V. Hilprecht’s <i>Explorations in Bible Lands during the 19th Century</i>. +Two or three of them might be mentioned here. At Warka Mr +Kenneth Loftus uncovered a wall, strengthened by buttresses 15 ft. +wide and projecting 18 in., between which were panels filled with a +series of semicircular shafts side by side, both buttresses and shafts +being decorated with geometrical patterns consisting of small +earthenware cones embedded in the wall, the ends of which were +enamelled in various colours. The design of these patterns is so +unlike anything found in Assyrian work, but bears so close a resemblance +to the geometrical designs carved on the columns at Diarbekr +ascribed to the Parthians, that this wall may have been built at a +much later period; and this becomes the more probable in view +of the discoveries made subsequently at Tello and Nippur, where +Parthian palaces have been found, crowning the summits of the +ancient Chaldaean mounds. In both these towns the researches +made in later years have been carried out far more methodically +than previously, and, following the example of Schliemann, excavations +have been made to great depths, careful notes being taken of +the strata shown by the platforms at different levels. At Tello, de +Sarzac discovered the magnificent collection of statues of diorite +now in the Louvre, one of them (unfortunately headless) of Gudea, +priest-king and architect of Lagash, seated and carrying on his lap +a tablet, on which is engraved the plan of a fortified enclosure, +whilst a divided scale and a stylos are carved in relief near the upper +and right-hand side. A silver inlaid vase of Entemena, also priest-king +of Lagash (about 3950 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and other treasures, were found on +the same site.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span> </p> + +<p>At Nippur (the ancient Calneh) the research undertaken by the +university of Pennsylvania resulted in the discovery, under a +ziggurat dated from 4000-4500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, of a barrel-vaulted tunnel, in +the floor of which were found terra-cotta drain pipes with flanged +mouths. At a later date (3750 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Naram-Sin, the son of Sargon, +had built over the older ziggurat a loftier and larger temple, above +which was a third built by Ur Gur (2500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which still retained +its burnt brick casing, 5 ft. thick. Crowning all these was the +Parthian palace mentioned in the section on Parthian architecture +below. The result of these researches has not only carried back the +date of the earlier settlements to a prehistoric period quite unknown, +but has suggested that if similar researches are carried out in other +well-known mounds, among which the great city of Babylon should +be counted as the most important, further revelations may still +be made.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:509px; height:573px" src="images/img375a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">From <i>The History of Art in Chaldaea and Assyria</i>, +by permission of Chapman & Hill, Ltd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8—Plan of the Palace at Khorsabad.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Principal courtyard.</p> +<p>B, The harem.</p> +<p>C, The offices.</p> +<p>DD, The halls of state.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>E, Official residences.</p> +<p>F, The king’s residence.</p> +<p>G, The ziggurat or temple.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">But we have now to pass to the principal cities of the Assyrian +monarchy on the river Tigris. At Nineveh, the capital, which is +about 250 m. north of Babylon, the remains of three palaces have +been found, those of Sennacherib (705-681 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Esarhaddon (681-668 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and Assurbampal (668-626 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). At Nimrud (the ancient +Calah, founded by Assur), 20 m. south of Nineveh, are also three +palaces, one (the earliest known) built by Assurnazirpal (885-860 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the others by Shalmaneser II. (860-825 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Esarhaddon. +At Balawat, 10 m. east of Niniveh, was a second palace of Shalmaneser +II., and at Khorsabad, 10 m. north-east of Nineveh, the +palace (fig. 8) built by Sargon (722-705 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which was situated on +the banks of the Khanser, a tributary of the Tigris. As this palace +is one of the most extensive of those hitherto explored, its description +will best give the general idea of the plan and conception of an +Assyrian palace.</p> + +<p>The palace was built on an immense platform, made of sun-dried +bricks, enclosed in masonry, and covering an area of nearly one +million square feet, raised 48 ft. above the town level. The principal +front of the palace measured 900 ft., there being a terrace in front. +The approach was probably by a double inclined ramp which chariots +and horses could mount. A central and two side portals (fig. 9), +flanked with winged human-headed bulls (now in the British +Museum), led to the principal courtyard (A), measuring 300 ft. by +240 ft. The block (B) on the left of the court, containing smaller +courts and rooms, constituted the harem; that on the right the +offices (C); those in the rear the halls of state (DDD), the residences +of the officers of the court (E), the king’s private apartments (F) +being on the left, facing the ziggurat or temple (G). In the extreme +rear were other state rooms with terraces probably laid out as +gardens and commanding a view of the river and country beyond.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:357px; height:302px" src="images/img375b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Entrance gateway, Palace of Khorsabad.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:445px" src="images/img375c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Bas-relief of group of buildings at Kuyunjik. +(After Layard.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>As there must have been nearly 700 rooms in the palace, the +destination of the greater number of which it would be difficult to +determine, it will be sufficient to refer only to those state rooms +in which the principal sculptured slabs were found, and which +decorated the lower 9 ft. of the walls. The two chief factors to be +noted are (1) the great length of the halls compared with their +width, the chief hall being 150 ft. long and 30 ft. wide, and (2) the +immense thickness of the walls, which measured 28 ft. The only +reason for walls of this thickness would be to resist the thrust of a +vault, and as La Place, the French explorer, found many blocks of +earth of great size, the soffits of which were covered with stucco and +had apparently fallen from a height, he was led to the conclusion, +now generally accepted, that these halls were vaulted. These discoveries, +and the fact that in none of the palaces excavated has a +single foundation of the base of any column been found, quite dispose +of Fergusson’s restoration, which was based on the palaces of +Persepolis. Moreover, the two climates are entirely different. In +the mountainous country of Persia the breezes might be welcomed, +but in Mesopotamia the heat is so intense that every precaution +has to be taken to protect the inmates of the house or palace. Thick +walls and vaults were a necessity in Nineveh, and even the windows +or openings must have been of small dimensions. No windows have +been found, nor are any shown on the bas-reliefs, except on the +upper parts of towers. It is possible therefore that the light was +admitted through terra-cotta pipes or cylinders, of which many were +found on the site, and this is the modern system of lighting the dome +in the East. Although no remains have ever been found of domes +in any of the Assyrian palaces, the representation of many domical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span> +forms is given in a bas-relief found at Kuyunjik (fig. 10), suggesting +that the dome was often employed to roof over their halls.</p> + +<p>Reference has already been made to the bas-reliefs which decorated +the lower portion of the great halls; the less important rooms had +their walls covered with stucco and painted. Externally the architectural +decoration was of the simplest kind; the lower portion of +the walls was faced with stone; and the monumental portals, in +addition to the winged bulls which flanked them, had deep archivolts +in coloured enamels on glazed brick, with figures and rosettes in +bright colours. A similar decoration would seem to have been +applied to the crenellated battlements, which crowned all the +exterior walls, as also those of the courts. The buttresses inside the +courts, and the towers which flanked the chief entrance, were +decorated with vertical semicircular mouldings of brick. This +system of decoration is also found in the ziggurats or observatories +behind the harem, where the three lower storeys still exist. A +winding ramp was carried round this tower, the storeys of which +were set back one behind the other, the burnt brick paving of the +ramp and the crenellated battlements forming a parapet, portions +of which are still <i>in situ</i>.</p> + +<p>Although not unknown in either Chaldaea or Assyria, the stone +column, according to Perrot and Chipiez, found no place in those +structures of crude brick of which the real architecture of Mesopotamia +consisted. Only one example in stone, in which the shaft and +capital together are 3 ft. 4 in. in height, has been found. Two bases +of similar design to the capital are supposed to have supported +wooden columns carrying an awning. There are representations in +the bas-reliefs of kiosks in a garden, the columns in which, with +volute capitals, are supposed to have been of wood sheathed in +metal, and on the bronze bands of the Balawat gates in the British +Museum are representations of the interior of a house with wood +columns and bracket capitals, and several awnings carried by posts. +Small windows are shown in some of the bas-reliefs, with +balustrades of small columns, which were doubtless copied from +the ivory plaques found at Nimrud and now in the British +Museum.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Persian Architecture</p> + +<p>The origin of Persian architecture must be sought for in that of the +two earlier dynasties,—the Assyrian and Median, to whose empire +the Persian monarchy succeeded by conquest in 560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> From the +former, it borrowed the raised platform on which their palaces were +built, the broad flights of steps leading up to them and the winged +human-headed bulls which flank the portals of the propylaea. From +Media it would seem to have derived the great halls of columns and +the porticoes of the palaces, so clearly described by Polybius (x. 24) +as existing at Ecbatana; the principal difference being that the +columns of the stoas and peristyle, which there consisted of cedar +and cypress covered with silver plates, were in the Persian palaces +built of stone. The ephemeral nature of the one material, and the +intrinsic value of the other, are sufficient to account for their entire +disappearance; but as Ecbatana was occupied by Darius and +Xerxes as one of their principal cities, the stone column, bases and +capitals, which still exist there, may be regarded as part of the +restoration and rebuilding of the palace; and as they are similar to +those found at Persepolis and Susa, it is fair to assume that the source +of the first inspiration of Persian architecture came from the Medians, +especially as Cyrus, the first king, was brought up at the court of +Astyages, the last Median monarch.</p> + +<p>The earliest Persian palace, of which but scanty remains have +been found, was built at Pasargadae by Cyrus. There is sufficient, +however, to show that it was of the simplest kind, and consisted of a +central hall, the roof of which was carried by two rows of stone +columns, 30 ft. high, and porticoes <i>in antis</i> on two if not on three sides.</p> + +<p>The great platform, also at Pasargadae, known as the Takht-i-Suleiman, +or throne of Solomon, covered an area of about 40,000 +sq. ft., and is remarkable for the beauty of its masonry and the large +stones of which it is built. These are all sunk round the edge, being +the earliest example of what is known as “drafted masonry,” which +at Jerusalem and Hebron gives so magnificent an effect to the great +walls of the temple enclosures. No remains have ever been traced +on this platform of the palace which it was probably built to support.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:748px; height:499px" src="images/img376.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 11.</td></tr></table> + +<p>We pass on therefore to Persepolis, the most important of the +Persian cities, if we may judge by the remains still existing there. +Here, as at Pasargadae, builders availed themselves of a natural +rocky platform, at the foot of a range of hills, which they raised in +parts and enclosed with a stone wall. Here the masonry is not +drafted, and the stones are not always laid in horizontal courses, +but they are shaped and fitted to one another with the greatest +accuracy, and are secured by metal clamps. The plan (fig. 11) +shows the general configuration of the platform on which the palaces +of Persepolis are built, which covered an area of about 1,600,000 +sq. ft. The principal approach to it was at the north-west end, up +a magnificent flight of steps (A) with a double ramp, the steps being +22 ft. wide, with a tread of 15 in. and a rise of 4, so that they could be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span> +ascended by horses. The first building opposite this staircase was +the entrance gateway or propylaea (B), a square hall, with four +columns carrying the roof and with portals in the front and rear +flanked by winged bulls. The earliest palace on the platform (D) +is that which was built by Darius, 521 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was rectangular on +plan, raised on a platform approached by two flights of steps, and +consisted of an entrance portico of eight columns, in two rows of +four placed <i>in antis</i>, between square chambers, in which were probably +staircases leading to the roof. This portico led to the great hall, +square on plan, whose roof was carried by sixteen columns in four +rows. This hall was lighted by two windows on each side of the +central doorway, all of which, being in stone, still exist, the lintels +and jambs of both doors and windows being monolithic. The walls +between these features, having been built in unburnt brick, or in +rubble masonry with clay mortar, have long since disappeared. +There were other rooms on each side of the hall and an open court in +the rear. The bases of the columns of the portico still remain <i>in situ</i>, +as also one of the antae in solid masonry; and as these in their +relative position and height are in exact accordance with those +represented on the tomb of Darius (fig. 12) and other tombs carved +in the rock near Persepolis (<i>q.v.</i>), there is no difficulty in forming a +fairly accurate conjectural restoration of the same. In the representation +of this palace, as shown on the tomb, and above the portico, +has been sculptured the great throne of Darius, on which he sat, +rendering adoration to the Sun god.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:470px" src="images/img377a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—The Tomb of Darius, cut in the cliff at +Nakshi Rustam, near Persepolis.</td></tr></table> + +<p>All the other palaces on the site, built or added to by various +monarchs and at different periods, preserve very much the same +plan, consisting always of a great square hall, the roof of which was +carried by columns, with one or more porticoes round, and smaller +rooms and courts in the rear. In one of the palaces (G) the roof was +carried by 100 columns in ten rows of ten each. The most important +building, however, and one which from its extent, height and magnificence, +is one of the most stupendous works of antiquity, is the great +palace of Xerxes (C), which, though it consists only of a great central +hall and three porticoes, covered an area of over 100,000 sq. ft., +greater than any European cathedral, those of Milan and St Peter’s +at Rome alone excepted.</p> + +<p>It was built on a platform raised 10 ft. above the terrace and +approached by four flights of steps on the north side, the principal +entrance. The columns of the porticoes and of the great hall were +65 ft. high, including base and capital. In the east and west porticoes +the capitals consist only of the double bull or griffin; the cross +corbels on their backs, similar to those shown on the tomb of Darius, +have disappeared, being probably in wood. In the north or entrance +portico, and in the great hall, the capitals are of a much more +elaborated nature, as under the double capital was a composition of +Ionic capitals set on end, and below that the calix and pendant leaves +of the lotus plant. It can only be supposed that Xerxes, thinking the +columns of the east portico required more decoration, instructed his +architects to add some to those of the entrance portico and hall, and +that they copied some of the spoils brought from Branchidae and +others from Egypt.</p> + +<p>Fig. 13 shows the plan of the palace according to the researches +of Mr Weld Blundell, who found the traces of the walls surrounding +the great hall and of the square chambers at the angles, and also +proved that the lines of the drains as shown in Coste’s and Texier’s +plans were incorrect. M. Dieulafoy also traced the existence of +walls enclosing the Apadana at Susa from the paving of the hall and +the portico which stopped on the lines of the wall. The plan of +the palace at Susa was similar to that of the palace of Xerxes, +except that on the side facing the garden facing south the apadana +or throne room was left open. M. Dieulafoy’s discoveries at Susa +of the frieze of archers, the frieze of the lions, and other decorations +of the walls flanking the staircase, all executed in bright coloured +enamels on concrete blocks, revealed the exceptional beauty of the +decoration both externally and internally applied to the Persian +palaces.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:297px" src="images/img377b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From R.P. Spier’s <i>Architecture, East and West</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Plan of the Hall of Xerxes.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The only other monumental works of Persian architecture are the +tombs; to those cut in the solid rock, of which there are some +examples, we have already referred. The most ancient tomb is that +erected to Cyrus the Elder at Pasargadae, and consists of a small +shrine or cella in masonry raised on a series of steps, inspired (according +to Fergusson) by the ziggurat or terrace-temples of Assyria, +but on a small scale. The tomb was surrounded on three sides by +porticoes of columns. There are two other tombs, one at Persepolis +and one at Pasargadae—small square towers with an entrance +opening high up on one side, sunk panels in the stone, and a dentil +cornice, copied from early Ionian buildings.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Greek Architecture</p> + +<p><i>Prehistoric Period.</i>—We have now to retrace our steps and go +back to the prehistoric period of Greek architecture, to the origin +and early development of that style which sowed the seed and determined +the future form and growth of all subsequent European art.</p> + +<p>The discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek +architecture owes much less than was at one time supposed to +Egyptian and Chaldaean architecture; and although from very +early times there may have been a commercial exchange between the +several countries, the objects imported suggested only new and +various schemes of decorative design, and exercised no influence on +the development of architectural style. The remains of the palace at +Cnossus in Crete, together with the representations in fresco painting +and other decorative objects, show that whilst the lower part of the +walls under the level of the ground and up to a height of 5 ft. above +were all built in well-worked masonry, the upper portions were constructed +in unburnt brick with timber framing, which not only gave +strength and solidity to the walls, but carried the cross beams and +timbers of intermediate floors and the roof, and further, that the walls +were always vertical, which was not the case in Egypt or Chaldaea.</p> + +<p>The principal remains discovered by Dr Arthur J. Evans (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>) are described by him as belonging to the later Minoan +age, from which it may be inferred they are the result of same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span> +centuries of previous development. What, however, is most remarkable +is the admirable planning of the whole palace, the bringing +together, under one roof and in proper and regular intercommunication, +of the numerous services, which in a palace are somewhat +complicated. The palace measured about 400 ft. square, and was +built round an open court, nearly 200 ft. long by 90 ft. wide; as the +same arrangement was found at Phaestus, excavated by the Italian +archaeologists, it may be assumed to have been the Cretan plan. +It was built on the crest of a hill, and in the western or highest portion +was the court entrance from the agora to the megaron or throne-room, +and the halls of the officers of the state. In the lower portion +facing the east (the rooms in which were two storeys below the level +of the court on account of the slope of the hill) was the private suite +of apartments of the king and queen. All the services of the palace +were at the north end of the palace, where the entrance gateway +to the central court was situated. This northern entrance, Dr +Evans points out, “represents the main point of intercourse +between the palace and the city on the one hand and the port on the +other.” This is the only part of the palace in which there is evidence +of some kind of fortification, as the road of access is dominated by a +tower or bastion. Other provisions also in the plan of the western +entrance suggest that its passage was guarded to some extent. In +this respect the palace of Tiryns, excavated by Dr Schliemann, +presents an entirely different aspect; the whole stronghold bears a +singular resemblance to a fortified castle of the middle ages; a +high wall from 24 to 50 ft. thick surrounded the acropolis, and the +inclined paths of approach and the double gateways gave that +protection at Tiryns which at Cnossus was assured, as Dr Evans +remarks, by the bulwarks of the Minoan navy. The area on the spur +of the hill, on which the citadel of Tiryns was placed, was very much +smaller, but if we accept the forecourt at Tiryns as equivalent to +the great central court at Cnossus, there are great similarities in +the plans of the two palaces. The propylaea, the altar court, the +portico, and the megaron are found in both, and those details which +are missing in the one are found in the other. The discoveries at +Cnossus have enabled Dr Evans to reconstitute the timber columns, +of which the bases only were found at Tiryns, and the spur walls of +the portico of the megaron and the sills of the doorways at Tiryns +give some clue to the restoration of similar features at Cnossus; +and if in the latter palace we find the origin of the Doric column, at +Tiryns is found that of the antae and of the door linings, further +substantiated by the careful analysis made by Dr Dörpfeld of the +Heraeum at Olympia.</p> + +<p>The reconstruction by Dr Evans of the timber columns at Cnossus, +which tapered from the top downwards, the lower diameter being +about six-sevenths of the upper, has little historical importance (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order</a></span>), so that we may now pass on to the next early monument +of importance, the tomb of Agamemnon, the principal and the best +preserved of the beehive tombs found at Mycenae and in other parts +of Greece. This tomb consists of three parts, the <i>dromos</i> or open +entrance passage, the <i>tholos</i> or circular portion domed over, and a +smaller chamber excavated in the rock and entered from the larger +one. The tomb was subterranean, the masonry being concealed +beneath a large mound of earth. The domed part, 48 ft. 6 in. in +diameter and 45 ft. high, is built in horizontal courses of stone, +which project one over the other till they meet at the top. Subsequently +the projecting edges were dressed down, so that the section +through the dome is nearly that of an equilateral triangle. Notwithstanding +the great thickness of the lintel (3 ft.) over the entrance +doorway, the Mycenaeans left a triangular void over, to take off the +superincumbent weight, subsequently (it is supposed) filled with +sculpture, as in the Lions’ Gate at Mycenae. The doorway was +flanked by semi-detached columns 20 ft. high, the shafts of which +tapered downwards like those reconstituted at Cnossus; the shafts +rested on a base of three steps, and carried a capital with echinus +and abacus. These shafts carried a lintel which has now disappeared; +the wall above was set back, and was at one time faced +with stone slabs carved with spiral and other patterns, of which there +are fragments in various museums, the most important remains being +those of the shafts, of which the greater part, which was brought +over to England in the beginning of the 19th century by the 2nd +marquess of Sligo, was presented by the 5th marquess to the British +Museum in 1905. These shafts, as also the echinus moulding of the +capitals, are richly carved with the chevron and spirals, probably +copied from the brass sheathing of wood columns and doorways +referred to by Homer.</p> + +<p><i>The Archaic Period</i>.—The buildings just referred to belong to +what is known as the prehistoric age in Greece; the dispersion of the +tribes by invaders from the north about 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> destroyed the +Mycenaean civilization, and some centuries have to pass before we +reach the results of the new development. Among the invaders the +Dorians would seem to have been the chief leaders, who eventually +became supreme. They brought with them from Olympus the +worship of Apollo, so that henceforth the sanctuary of the god takes +the place of the megaron of the king. From Greece the Dorians +spread their colonies through the Greek islands and southern Italy. +Later they passed on to Sicily and founded Syracuse, and subsequently +Selinus and Agrigentum (Acragas). The prosperity of all +these colonies is shown in the splendid temples which they built in +stone, the remains of many of which have lasted to our day.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 365px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:309px; height:735px" src="images/img378.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Curtius and Adler’s <i>Olympia</i>, by permission +of Behrend & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—Plan of the Heraeum. +A, Peristyle; B, Pronaos; C, Naos; +D, Opisthodomus; E, Base of statue +of Hermes.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The earliest Greek temple of which remains have been discovered<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +is that of the Heraeum at Olympia, ascribed to about 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Its plan (fig. 14) shows that the enclosure of the sanctuary and its +porticoes in a peristyle had already been found necessary, if only to +protect the walls of the cella, built in unburnt brick on a stone +plinth; further, that the antae of the portico and the dressings of +the entrance were in wood; and, following Pausanias’ statement +relative to the wood column in the opisthodomos, all the columns +of the peristyle were in that material, gradually replaced by stone +columns as they decayed, evidenced by the character of their capitals, +which in style date from the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to Roman times. The +ephemeral nature of the +materials employed in this +and other early temples, +and the risk of fire, must +have naturally led to the +desire to render the Greek +sanctuaries more permanent +by the employment +of stone. But the Greeks +were always timid as +regards the bearing value +of that material, and would +seem to have imagined +that unless the blocks were +of megalithic dimensions +it was impossible to build +in stone. This may be +gathered from the remains +of the earliest example +found, the temple of Apollo +in the island of Ortygia, +Syracuse, where the monolith +columns had widely +projecting capitals, the +abaci of which were set +so close together that the +intercolumniation was less +than one diameter of the +column.</p> + +<p>Following the temple of +Apollo at Syracuse is the +temple of Corinth, ascribed +to 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, of which seven +columns remain <i>in situ</i>, all +monoliths, and the Olympieum +at Syracuse. Nearly +contemporary with the +latter is one of the temples +at Selinus in Sicily, 630 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, remarkable for the +archaic nature of its sculptured +metopes. Of later +date there are five or six +other temples in Selinus, +all overthrown by earthquakes; +the temple of +Athena at Syracuse, which +having been converted +into a church is in fair preservation; +an unfinished +temple at Segesta; and +six at Agrigentum, built +on the brow of a hill facing +the sea, one of which was +so large that it was necessary to build in walls between the columns.</p> + +<p>In Magna Graecia, in the acropolis at Tarentum, are the remains +of a 7th century temple and three at Paestum about a century +later in date. In one of these, the temple of Poseidon (figs. 15 and 16) +the columns which carried the ceiling and roof over the cella are still +standing; these are in two stages superimposed with an architrave +between them, and although there are no traces in this instance of a +gallery, they serve to render more intelligible Pausanias’ description +of that which existed in the temple of Zeus at Olympia.</p> + +<p>The temple of Assus in Asia Minor is an early example remarkable +for its sculptured architrave, the only one known, and in the temple +of Aphaea in Aegina (<i>q.v.</i>) we find the immediate predecessor of the +Parthenon, if we may judge by its sculpture and the proportions of +its columns.</p> + +<p>So far we have only referred to the early temples of the Doric +order; of the origin and development of those of the Ionic order +far less is known. The earliest examples are those of the temple of +Apollo at Naucratis in Egypt, and of the archaic temple of Diana +at Ephesus, both about 560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The remains of the latter, discovered +by Wood, are now in the British Museum; they consist of +two capitals, one with a portion of a shaft in good preservation; +the sculptured drum and the base of one of the columns, inscribed +with the name of Croesus, who is known to have contributed to it; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span> +two other bases, and the cornice or cymatium. The treasury of the +Cnidians at Delphi was Ionic, judging by the carved ornament enriching +the cornice and architraves, and in the Naxian votive column +we have another early example of an early voluted capital.</p> + +<p>The tombs of Tantalais, near Smyrna, and of Alyattes, near Sardis, +belong to the same date as those we shall find in Etruria. The +Harpy tomb, now in the British Museum, built after 547 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, is the +predecessor of many other Lycian tombs of the 5th and 4th centuries, +to which we return.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:179px; height:368px" src="images/img379a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—Plan of the Temple of Poseidon at Paestum.</td></tr></table> + +<p>As already pointed out, in the temple of Hera at Olympia (10th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), we find the complete plan of an hexastyle peripteral +Greek temple, where columns originally in wood supported a wood +architrave and superstructure protected by terra-cotta plaques and +roofed over with tiles. The temple of Apollo at Syracuse, and the +temple at Corinth (7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) represent the earliest examples +in stone, and in the temple of Poseidon at Paestum (6th century) +are preserved the columns of the cella which carried the ceiling and +roof. The structural development +therefore of the temple was completed, +and no great constructional +improvements reveal themselves +after 550 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The next century +would seem to have been chiefly +directed to the beautifying and +refining of the features already +prescribed, and it was the traditional +respect for, and the conservative +adherence to, the older +type, which led the architects to +the production of such masterpieces +as the Parthenon and the +Erechtheum, which would have +been impossible but for the careful +and logical progression of preceding +centuries.</p> + +<p>The Parthenon (<i>q.v.</i>) at Athens +represents the highest type of +perfection, not only in its conception +but in its realization. It +is only necessary here to give a +general description. It was +designed by Ictinus in collaboration +with Callicrates, and built +on the south side of the Acropolis +on a foundation carried down to +the solid rock. The temple, commenced +in 454 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and completed +in 438 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was of the Doric order +and raised on a stylobate of three +steps; it had eight columns in +front and rear and was surrounded +by a peristyle, there being twenty +columns on the flanks. It contained +two divisions; the eastern +chamber was originally known as the Hekatompedos (temple +of 100 ft.), that being the dimension of the cella of the ancient +temple which it was built to replace. The chamber on the western +side was called the Parthenon (<i>i.e.</i> chamber of the virgin). +All the principal lines of the building had delicate curves. The +entablature rose about 3 in. in the middle to correct an optical +illusion caused by the sloping lines of the pediment, which gave to +the horizontal cornice the appearance of having sunk in the centre. +The stylobate had therefore to be similarly curved so that the +columns should be all of the same height. The columns are not all +equidistant, those nearer the angle being closer together than the +others, which gave a greater appearance of strength to the temple; +this was increased by a slight inclination inwards of all the columns. +In order to correct another optical illusion, which causes the shaft of +a column, when it diminishes as it rises, and is formed with absolute +straight lines, to appear hollow or concave, an increment known as +the entasis was given to the column, about one-third up the shaft. +The columns were not monoliths, like those of the earliest stone +temples mentioned above; they were built in several drums, so +closely fitted together that the joint would be imperceptible but for +the slight discoloration of the marble. The setting of the lowest +drum of these columns on the curved stylobate, with the slight +inclination of the column, must have been a work of an extraordinary +nature, only possible with such a material as Pentelic +marble. The cella or naos was built to enshrine the chryselephantine +statue of Athena by Pheidias. In order to carry the ceiling and roof +there was a range of columns on each side of the cella returning +round the end. These columns probably carried an upper range as +in the temple of Poseidon at Paestum. The tympana of the two +pediments and all the metopes were enriched with the finest sculpture, +and were realized, designed, and executed by Pheidias and his pupils. +On the upper part of the cella wall and under the peristyle was the +Panathenaic frieze, of which, as also of the other sculptures, the +British Museum possesses the finest examples.</p> + +<p>The Propylaea (<i>q.v.</i>), designed by Mnesicles and built 437-432 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +was the only entrance to the Acropolis. It was of the Doric order, +and consisted of a portico of six columns, the two centre ones being +wider apart, to allow of the road through, up which the chariots and +beasts for sacrifices ascended. The columns carrying the marble +ceiling of the vestibule were of the Ionic order; beyond them the +wall was pierced by three doorways, and on the other side and facing +east was another portico of six columns. The front entrance was +flanked on the left hand by a chamber known as the Pinacotheca, +and on the right by a chamber intended probably to be a replica +but subsequently curtailed in size in consequence of the proximity +of another temple.</p> + +<p>The Erechtheum on the north side of the Acropolis occupied the +site of three older shrines, which may account for its irregular plan. +The eastern portion was the temple of Athena Polias, with a portico +of six columns of the Ionic order. At a lower level on the north side +was a portico of six columns (four in front and two at the sides) +leading to the shrine of Erechtheus; the west front of this shrine +had originally a frontispiece of four columns <i>in antis</i>raised on a +podium; subsequently during the Roman occupation these columns +were taken down and reproduced as semi-detached columns with +windows between. On the west side was a court in which was the +olive tree and the shrine of Pandrosus (Pandroseion). At the south-west +angle was the well-known portico or tribune of the Caryatides. +There was a small entrance through the podium at the side, and +stairs leading down to the shrine of Erechtheus.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:315px" src="images/img379b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From a photo by Brogi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Temple of Poseidon at Paestum.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The only other building remaining on the Acropolis is the temple +of Niké Apteros, raised on a lofty substructure south-west of the +propylaea. It also was of the Ionic order, and belonged to the type +known as “amphiprostyle,” with a portico of four columns in the +front and rear but no peristyle. The term “apteros” applied to the +temple and not to the goddess of victory.</p> + +<p>In 430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, shortly after the completion of the Parthenon, Ictinus +was employed to design the temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassae, +in Arcadia. This temple externally was of the Doric order, but, +being built in local stone, no attempt was made to introduce those +refinements which are found in the Parthenon. In the rear of the +cella is a second sanctuary with a doorway facing east; it was +probably the site of an ancient temple which had to be preserved, +and this may account for the fact that the temple runs north and +south. The cella is flanked by five columns of the Ionic order +which are conntected by spur walls to the cella wall. These columns +carry an architrave, frieze richly sculptured with figure subjects, +cornice and wall above rising to the roof. There was no ceiling +therefore, and the interior was probably lighted through pierced +Parian marble tiles, of which three examples were found. The +Corinthian capital found on the site is supposed by Cockerell to have +belonged to the shaft between the two cellas.</p> + +<p>The same architect, Ictinus, was employed in 420 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to rebuild +the hall of the mysteries at Eleusis on a larger scale. The hall was +185 ft. square, and its ceiling and roof were carried by seven rows +of columns with six in each row. The propylaea, which gave access +to the sacred enclosure at Eleusis, was copied from the propylaea +at Athens. The so-called lesser propylaea had some connexion with +the mysteries.</p> + +<p>The temple of Zeus at Olympia had much in common with the +Parthenon, being nearly contemporaneous, built to enshrine a second +chryselephantine statue by Pheidias, and in plan having a similar +arrangement of columns inside the cella; the lower range of columns +(according to Pausanias) supported a gallery round, so that privileged +visitors could approach nearer to the statue. The temple, however, +was built in the local conglomerate stone covered with a thin coat of +stucco and painted.</p> + +<p>Of circular temples there are two examples known, the Philippeion +at Olympia and the Tholos at Epidaurus. The latter had, inside +the cella, a peristyle of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which +are of great beauty and represent in their design the transition +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span> +between those of the monument of Lysicrates and the temple of +Zeus Olympius at Athens.</p> + +<p>In the sacred enclosures of the Greek sanctuaries were other +smaller temples or shrines, altars, statues and treasuries, the latter +being built by the various cities, from which pilgrimages were made, +to contain their treasures. At Olympia there were ten or eleven, +the remains of some of which are of great interest. Of the treasury +of the Cnidians at Delphi, discovered by the French, so much has +been found that it has been possible to evolve a complete conjectural +restoration in plaster, now in the Louvre. Its sculpture and the rich +carving of its architectural features show that it was Ionian in +character. In front was a portico-in-antis, in which the caryatide +figures standing on pedestals took the place of columns. These are +the earliest examples known of caryatide figures, and they precede +those of the Erechtheum by about a century.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:364px; height:367px" src="images/img380a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.—Lycian Tomb of Telmessus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The most important temple in Asia Minor was the temple of Diana +(Artemis) at Ephesus (356-334 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The archaic temple was burnt +in 356, and was immediately rebuilt with greater splendour from the +designs of Paeonius. The site of the temple was discovered by Wood +in 1869, and the remains brought over to the British Museum in +1875. There were 100 columns, 36 of which (according to Pliny) +were sculptured, and it was probably on account of the magnificence +of the sculpture that this temple was included among the seven +wonders of the world. The sculptured bases are of two kinds, +square and circular, in the latter case being the lower drums of the +columns. Examples of both are in the British Museum, and several +conjectural restorations have been made, among which that of Dr +A.S. Murray has been generally accepted, but recent researches +(1905) suggest that it remains still an unsolved problem.</p> + +<p>The temple of Apollo Didymaeus, near Miletus, was the largest +temple in Asia Minor, and its erection followed that of the temple +at Ephesus, Paeonius and Daphnis of Miletus being the architects. +The temple was decastyle, dipteral, with pronaos and vestibule, +but no opisthodomos. The cella was so wide (75 ft.) that it remained +open to the sky. The bases of the columns were elaborately carved +with ornament, as if in rivalry with the temple of Diana. Both these +temples were of the Ionic order, as also were those of Athena Polias +at Priene (340 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), many of the capitals of which are in the British +Museum, and the temples of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias and Cybele at +Sardis.</p> + +<p>The mausoleum at Halicarnassus, also of the Ionic order, built by +Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband Mausolus, who died in +353 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was, according to Pliny, recorded as one of the seven wonders +of the world, probably on account of the eminence of the sculptors +employed, Bryaxis, Leochares, Timotheus, Scopas and Pythius. +Pliny’s description is somewhat vague, so that its actual design is +a problem not yet solved. Professor Cockerell’s restoration is in +accord with the description, but does not quite agree with the actual +remains brought over by Newton and deposited in the British +Museum. If the Nereid monument and the tombs at Cnidus and +Mylasa be taken as suggesting the design, the peristyle (pteron) of +thirty-six columns of the Ionic order with entablature stood on a +lofty podium, richly decorated with bands of sculpture, and was +crowned by a pyramid which, according to Pliny, “contracted itself +by twenty-four steps into the summit of a meta.” The steps found +are not high enough to constitute a meta, and it is possible therefore +that, according to Mr J.J. Stevenson, these steps were over the +peristyle only, and that the lofty steps which constituted the meta +were in the centre, carried by the inner row of columns. The +magnificent sculpture of the Macedonian period has in recent times +been demonstrated by the discovery of the marble sarcophagi found +at Sidon by Hamdi Bey and now in the museum at Constantinople.</p> + +<p>The Lycian tombs, of which there are many hundreds carved in +the rock in the south of Asia Minor, are copies of timber structures, +based on the stone architecture of the neighbouring Greek cities +(fig. 17). The Paiafaor Payava tomb (375-362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), found at Xanthus +and now in the British Museum, is apparently a copy, cut in the solid +rock, of a portable shrine, in which the wood construction is clearly +defined.</p> + +<p>Capitals of the Greek Corinthian order have been found at Bassae, +Epidaurus, Olympia and Miletus, but the earliest example of the +complete order is represented in the Choragic monument of Lysicrates +at Athens.</p> + +<p>The most important example of the Greek Corinthian order is +that of the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, begun in 174 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +but not completed till the time of Hadrian, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 117. The temple +was 135 ft. wide and 354 ft. long, built entirely in Pentelic marble, +the columns being 56 ft. high. There were eight columns in front +and a double peristyle round.</p> + +<p>The two porches of the Tower of the Winds at Athens (<i>c</i>. 75 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +had Corinthian capitals. The upper part of the tower, which was +octagonal in plan, was sculptured with figures representing the winds.</p> + +<p>The Greek houses discovered at Delosand Priene were very simple +and unpretentious, but the palace near Palatitza in Macedonia, +discovered by Messrs Heuzey and Daumet, would seem to have +been of a very sumptuous character. The front of the palace +measured 250 ft. In the centre was a vestibule flanked with Ionic +columns on either side, leading to a throne room at one time richly +decorated with marble, and with numerous other halls on either side. +The date is ascribed to the middle of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>In selecting the sites for their theatres, the Greeks always utilized +the slope of a hill, in which they could cut out the cavea, and thus +save the expense of raising a structure to carry the seats, at the +same time obtaining a beautiful prospect for the background. The +theatre of Dionysus at Athens was discovered and excavated in +1864, and has fortunately preserved all the seats round the orchestra, +sixty-seven in number, all in Pentelic marble, with the names +inscribed thereon of the priests and dignitaries who occupied them. +The largest theatre was at Megalopolis, with an auditorium 474 ft. +in diameter. The most perfect, so far as the seats are concerned, +is the theatre at Epidaurus, with a diameter of 415 ft. Other theatres +are known at Dodona in Greece, Pergamum and Tralles in Asia +Minor, and Syracuse and Segesta in Sicily.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Parthian Architecture</p> + +<p>The architecture of the Parthian dynasty, who from 250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 226 occupied the greater part of Mesopotamia, their empire in +160 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> extending over 480,000 sq. m., was quite unknown until +Sir A.H. Layard, following in the steps of Ross and Ainsworth, +visited and measured the plan of the palace at Hatra (el Hadr) +about 30 m. south of Mosul; the architecture of this palace shows +that, on the one hand, the Parthians carried on the traditions +of the barrel vault of the Assyrian palace, and on the other, from +their contact with Hellenistic methods of building, had acquired +considerable knowledge in the working of ashlar masonry.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:264px; height:228px" src="images/img380b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—Plan of Palace of el Hadr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>A, Throne or reception room.</p> +<p>B, Large hall, or</p> +<p>C, Entrance hall of temple.</p> +<p>D, Temple.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>El Hadr is first mentioned in history as having been unsuccessfully +besieged by Trajan in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 116, and it is recorded to have been a +walled town containing a temple of the sun, celebrated for the value +of its offerings. The temple +referred to is probably the large +square building at the back of +the palace, as above the doorway +is a rich frieze carved with +griffins, similar to those found at +Warka by Loftus, together with +large quantities of Parthian +coins. The remains (fig. 18) +consist of a block of 380 ft. +frontage, facing east, and 128 ft. +deep, subdivided by walls of +great thickness, running at right +angles to the main front, and +built in an immense court, +divided down the centre by a +wall, separating that portion on +the south side, where the temple +was situated, from that on the +north side, which constituted +the king’s palace. The seven +subdivisions of the different +widths were all covered with semi-circular barrel vaults which, +being built side by side, mutually resisted the thrust, the outer walls +being of greater thickness, with the same object. In the centre of the +south block was an immense hall 49 ft. wide and 98 ft. deep, which +formed the vestibule to the temple in the rear; this vestibule was +flanked by a series of three smaller halls on either side, over which +there was probably a second floor. On the palace or north side were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span> +two great aiwans or reception halls. The main front (fig. 19) was +built in finely jointed ashlar masonry with semicircular attached +shafts between the entrance doorways, which had semicircular heads, +every third voussoir of the three larger doors being decorated by +busts in strong relief with a headgear similar to that shown on +Parthian coins; other carvings, with the acanthus leaf, belonged to +that type of Syrio-Greek work, of which Loftus found so many +examples at Warka (Loftus, <i>Chaldaea, Susiana</i>, p. 225). In the great +mosque of Diarbekr are two wings at the north and south ends +respectively, which are said to have been Parthian palaces built by +Tigranes, 74 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; they have evidently been rearranged or rebuilt +at various times, the columns with their capitals and the entablature +having been utilized again. The shafts of the columns of the upper +storey are richly carved with geometrical patterns similar to those +found by Loftus at Warka.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:371px; height:209px" src="images/img381a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—Portion of front of Palace of el Hadr.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:303px; height:296px" src="images/img381b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Prof H V. Hilprecht’s <i>Exploration in Bible Lands</i>, +by permission of A.J. Holman & Co. and T. & T. Clark.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.—Plan of the Parthian Palace at Nippur.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The American researches at Nippur have resulted in the discovery +on the top of the mounds of the remains of a Parthian palace; and +the disposition of its plan (fig. 20), and the style of the columns of +the peristylar court, show so strong a resemblance to Greek work +as to suggest the same Hellenistic influence as in the palace of el +Hadr. Having no stone, however, they were obliged to build up +these columns at Nippur with sections in brick, covered afterwards +with stucco. The columns diminished at the top to about one-fifth +of the lower diameter, and would seem to have had an entasis, as the +lower portion up to one-third of the height is nearly vertical. A +similar palace was discovered at Tello by the French archaeologists, +and the bases of some of the brick columns are in the Louvre.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Sassanian Architecture</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:248px; height:260px" src="images/img381c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:223px" src="images/img381d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Plan.</td> +<td class="caption">Section in lines BC, DE, FG of plan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21 and <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.—The Palace of Serbistan.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:155px; height:282px" src="images/img381e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.—Plan of the Palace at Firuzabad.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Although, on the overthrow of the Parthian dynasty in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 226, +the monarchs of the Sassanian dynasty succeeded to the immense +Parthian empire, the earliest building found, according to Fergusson, +is that at Serbistan, to which he ascribes the date <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 380. The +palace (fig. 21), which measures 130 ft. frontage and 143 ft. deep, +with an internal court, shows so great an advance in the arrangements +of its plan as to suggest considerable acquaintance with +Roman work. The fine ashlar work of el-Hadr is no longer adhered +to, and in its place we find rubble masonry with thick mortar joints, +the walls being covered afterwards, both externally and internally, +with stucco. While the barrel vault is still retained for the chief +entrance porches, it is of elliptical section, and the central hall is +covered with a dome, a feature probably handed down from the +Assyrians, such as is shown in the bas-relief (fig. 10) from Kuyunjik, +now in the British Museum. In order to carry a dome, circular on +plan, over a square hall, it was necessary to arch across the angles, +and here to a certain extent the Sassanians were at fault, as they +did not know how to build pendentives, and the construction of these +are of the most irregular kind. As, however, their mortar had excellent +tenacious properties, these pendentives still remain <i>in situ</i> +(fig. 22), and their defects were probably hidden under the stucco. +In the halls which flank the building on either side, however, they +displayed considerable knowledge of construction. Instead of having +enormously thick walls to resist the thrust of their vaults, to which +we have already drawn attention in the Assyrian work and at el +Hadr, they built piers at intervals, covering over the spaces between +them, with semi-domes on which the walls carrying the vaults are +supported, so that they lessened the span of the vault and brought +the thrust well within the wall. +This, however, lessened the width +of the hall, so they replaced the +lower portions of the piers by the +columns, leaving a passage round. +It is possible that this idea was +partly derived from the great +Roman halls of the thermae +(baths), where the vault is +brought forward on columns; +but it was an improvement to +leave a passage behind. The +elliptical sections given to all the +barrel vaults may have been the +traditional method derived from +Assyria, of which, however, no +remains exist. In the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vault</a></span> there will be found a reason +why these elliptical sections were adopted (see also below in the +description of the great hall at Ctesiphon). In the palace of +Firuzabad, attributed by Fergusson to Peroz (Firuz) (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 459-485), +the plan (fig. 23) follows more closely the disposition of the +Assyrian palaces, and we return again to the thick walls, which +might incline us to give a later date to Serbistan, except that +in the pendentives carrying the three great domes in the centre +of the palace at Firuzabad they show greater knowledge +in their construction. The angles of the square hall are vaulted, +with a series of concentric arches, each ring as it rises being brought +forward, the object being to save centreing, because each ring rested +on the ring beneath it. The plan is a rectangular parallelogram +with a frontage of 180 ft. and a depth of 333 ft., more than double, +therefore, of the size of Serbistan. +An immense entrance hall in the +centre of the main front is flanked +on each side by two halls placed at +right angles to it, so as to resist the +thrust of the elliptical barrel vaults +of the entrance hall. This hall leads +to a series of three square halls, side +by side, each surmounted by a dome +carried on pendentives. Beyond is an +open court, the smaller rooms round +all covered with barrel vaults. Here, +as in Serbistan, the material employed +is rubble masonry with thick joints of +mortar, and fortunately portions of +the stucco with which this Sassanian +masonry was covered remain both +externally and internally. As there are +no windows of any sort, the wall +surface of the exterior has been +decorated with semi-circular attached +shafts and panelling between, +which recall the primitive decorations found in the early Chaldaean +temples, except that arches are carried at the top across the sunk +panels. Internally an attempt has been made to copy the decoration +of the Persian doorway, which represents a kind of renaissance of +the ancient style. But instead of the lintel the arch has been +introduced, and the ornament in stucco representing the Persian cavetto +cornice shows imperfect knowledge of the original and is clumsily +worked. The niches also, in the main front, have been copied from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span> +the windows which flank the doorway in the Persian palace. +But they are decorative only, and are too shallow to serve any +purpose.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:338px; height:462px" src="images/img382.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Dieulafoy’s <i>L’Art Antique</i> by permission of Morel et Cie.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—The Great Hall at Ctesiphon.</td></tr></table> + +<p>If there has been some difficulty in determining the exact date of +Firuzabad, that of the third great palace, at Ctesiphon, on the borders +of the Tigris, is known to have been built by Chosroes I. in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 550. +Owing probably to its proximity to Bagdad, from which it lies about +25 m. distant, it is much better known than the other examples we +have quoted; but while they are constructed in rubble masonry, +Ctesiphon is built of brick, because we have now returned to the +alluvial plain where no stone could be procured. The only portion +of the palace which still exists is that which was built in burnt brick, +and this far exceeds in dimensions Serbistan and Firuzabad. Its +main front measured 312 ft.; its height was about 115 ft.; and its +depth 175 ft. The plan is very simple, and consisted of an <i>aiwan</i> +or immense hall, 86 ft. in width and 163 ft. long, covered with an +elliptical barrel vault, the thrust of which is counteracted by five +long halls on each side, also covered with barrel vaults and probably +used as guard chambers or stores. The great hall was open in the +front, and constituted an immense portal, 83 ft. wide and 95 ft. to +the crown of the arch. The springing of the vault is 40 ft. from the +ground, but up to about 26 ft. above the springing the walls are +built in horizontal courses projecting inwards as they rise, so that the +actual width of the vaulted portion (fig. 24) has been diminished +one-sixth and measures only about 71 ft. The crown of the vault is +9 ft. thick, the walls at the base being 23 ft. The bricks or tiles of +which the vault is built are, like those at Thebes, laid flat-wise, and +there is also a similar inclination of the rings of brick-work, which +are about 10° out of the vertical. This leads to the conclusion that +this immense vault was built without centreing, as the tenacious +quality of the mortar would probably be sufficient to hold each tile +in its position until the ring was complete. In the building of the +arch of the great portal other precautions were taken; bond timbers +23 ft. long and in five rows, one above the other, were carried through +the wall from front to back. The lower portion of the arch (5 ft. in +height) was built with bricks placed flat-wise; the upper portion +(4 ft. in height) in the usual way, viz. right angles to the face. The +reason for this change was probably that the upper portions might +be carved, as they have been, with a series of semi-circular +cusps.</p> + +<p>The decoration of the flanks of this great central portal is of the +most bewildering description. There has evidently been a desire to +give a monumental character to the main front. With this idea in +view they would seem to have attempted to reproduce Roman +features, such as are found decorating the fronts of the various +amphitheatres of the Empire. But the semi-circular shafts which +form the decoration do not come one over the other on the several +storeys, and there is a reckless employment of blank arcades +distributed over the surface.</p> + +<p>There are remains of two other palaces at Imamzade and Tag +Iran, and in Moab a small example, the Hall of Rabboth Ammon, +supposed to have been erected for Chosroes II. during the subjugation +of Palestine, which is richly decorated with carving, probably by +Syrio-Greek artists, with a mixture of Greek, Jewish and Sassanian +details. At Takibostan and Behistun (Bisutun), some 200 m. +north-east of Ctesiphon, are some remarkable Sassanian capitals +and panels (published in Flandin and Coste’s <i>Voyage en Perse</i>, +1851, Paris).</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Etruscan Architecture</p> + +<p>Although our acquaintance with Etruscan architecture is confined +chiefly to the entrance gateways and the walls of towns, and to tombs, +it forms a very important link between the East and the West. +Though little is known of the history of Etruria (<i>q.v.</i>), the influence +which her people exerted on Roman architecture, lasting down to the +period when Greece was overrun and plundered of her treasures, +was so great that it would be difficult to follow the origin of Roman +architecture without some inquiry into the work of its immediate +predecessor. The theory put forward by Fergusson, as to the migration +of the Etruscans from Asia Minor in the 12th or 11th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +is substantiated by the resemblance of the tumuli in the latter +country, such as those at Tantalais, on the northern shore of the +gulf of Smyrna, and that of Alyattes near Sardis, as compared with +the Regulini Galeassi tomb at Cervetri and the Cucumella tomb at +Vulci, in all cases consisting of a sepulchral chamber buried under +an immense mound surrounded by a podium in stone. The chamber +was covered over with masonry, laid in horizontal courses, each stone +projecting slightly over the one below. The same system of construction +prevailed in the bee-hive tombs of Greece, except that the +latter were always circular on plan, whilst these cited above were +rectangular. Similar methods of construction are found at Tusculum +and in a gateway at Arpino. In all these cases the projecting courses +were worked off on the completion of the tomb, in Greece and at +Tusculum and Arpino following a curve, and in the Regulini Galeassi +tomb a raking line.</p> + +<p>The earliest example known of the arched vault, with regular +voussoirs in stone, is found in the canal of the Marta near Graviscae, +ascribed to the 7th century. The vault is 14 ft. in span, with +voussoirs from 5 to 6 ft. in depth. In the tomb of Pythagoras near +Cortona, with a span of about 10 ft., only four voussoirs were employed. +In the Cloaca Maxima at Rome the vault (now ascribed by +Commendatore Boni to the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is built with three +concentric rings of voussoirs. In all these cases the thrust of the +arch was amply resisted as they were constructed under ground, and +in the entrance gateways at Volterra, Perugia and Falerii a similar +resistance was given by the immense walls in which they were built.</p> + +<p>We have already referred to one class of tomb in which the sepulchral +chamber, built above the ground, was covered over with a +mound of earth; there is a second class, carved out of the solid rock, +in which we find the same treatment as that described in connexion +with Egypt. The tomb represents, in its internal arrangements and +in its decorations, the earthly dwelling of the defunct (compare the +Egyptian “soul-houses”). The ceilings are carved in imitation of +the horizontal beams and slanting rafters of the roof, the former +carried by square piers with capitals; one well-known tomb at +Corneto (fig. 25) represents the atrium of an Etruscan house, which +corresponds with the description given by Vitruvius of the <i>cavaedia +displuviata</i>, in which there was a small opening at the top, known as +the compluvium, the roof sloping down on all four sides.</p> + +<p>The paintings which decorate these tombs have very much the +same character as those which are found on what were thought to +have been Etruscan, but are now generally considered as Greek +vases, the principal difference being that instead of allegorical +subjects, domestic scenes recalling the life of the deceased are +represented. In a tomb at Cervetri the walls and piers were carved +with representations of the helmets, swords and other accoutrements +of a soldier, and also the mirrors and jewelry of his wife, even the +kitchen utensils being included, so as to give the complete fittings +of the house they occupied. In two examples at Castel D’Asso the +rock has been cut away on all sides, leaving a rectangular block, +crowned with reverse mouldings.</p> + +<p>Scarcely any remains <i>in situ</i> of Etruscan temples have been found, +and the description given by Vitruvius is very scanty. Of late years, +however, in the British Museum and in the museums at Florence and +Rome, a large amount of material has been brought together, from +which it is possible to make some kind of conjectural restoration. +This has been facilitated by the discoveries made at Olympia, +Delphi and elsewhere in Greece, showing the important function +which terra-cotta served in the protection and decoration of the +timber roofs of the Greek temples and treasuries. The cornices, +antefixae, pendant slabs and other decorative features in terra-cotta, +found on the sites of the Etruscan temples, show that the +timber construction of their roofs was protected in the same way; +and although Vitruvius (bk. iii. ch. 2) considered the temple of Ceres +at Rome to be clumsy and heavy, and its roofs low and wide, in +comparison with the purer examples of Greek architecture, the +remains of terra-cotta found at Civita Castellana (the ancient +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span> +Falerii), at Luna, Telamon and Lanuvium (the latter in the British +Museum), show that in their modelling and colour they must have +possessed considerable decorative effect, and when raised on an +eminence, as in the case of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, +formed striking features of importance, enriched as they were with +gilding. There is one feature in the Etruscan examples which +seems to have been peculiar to their temples, viz. the pendant slabs +hung round the eaves to protect the walls; these latter were probably +covered with stucco and decorated with paintings. The lower +portions of many of these slabs were decorated in relief and in colour +at the back, showing that they were exposed to view below the +soffit of the projecting eaves.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:409px; height:320px" src="images/img383.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25.—The Corneto Tomb.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Owing to the ephemeral nature of the materials employed in the +building of the walls of Etruscan temples, viz. unburned brick or +rubble masonry with clay mortar, the roofs being in timber, little +is known of their general design; the terra-cotta decorations are, +however, fortunately in good preservation, and suggest that although +the Etruscan temple, architecturally speaking, was not of a very +monumental character, its external decoration and colour added +considerably to its effect.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Roman Architecture</p> + +<p>The rebuilding of Rome, which began in the reign of Augustus, +and was carried on by his successors to a much greater extent, has +caused the destruction of nearly all those examples of early work to +which the student, working out the history of a style, would turn. +There are, however, a few early buildings still existing, and these +are of value as showing the extremely simple nature of their design. +The temple of Fortuna Virilis (so-called) in the Forum Boarium, +attributed to the beginning of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, shows the great +difference between Greek and Roman temples. Like the Etruscan +temple, it is raised on a podium, and approached by a flight of +steps. The Etruscan cella is dispensed with; and what may be +looked upon as the semblance of a Greek peristyle is retained in the +semi-detached columns which are carried round the walls of the cella. +To the entrance portico, however, the Roman architect attached +great importance, and we find here that one-third of the whole +length of the temple is given up to the portico. The Tabularium +built by Lutatius Catulas (78 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is a second example of early work. +On a lofty substructure, built of peperino stone, was raised an arcade, +which formed a passage from one side of the capitol to the other, +and here we find the earliest example of the use of the Classic order, +as a decorative feature only, applied to the face of a wall. The arcade +consists of a series of arches with intermediate semi-detached Doric +columns carrying an entablature. The architectural design of the +substructure is of the simplest kind, depending for its effect only on +the size of the stones employed and the finish given to the masonry. +The same remark applies to the few remains left of the Forum Julium +(47 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), where an additional decorative effect was produced by +the bevelled edge worked round all the stones, producing the effect +of rusticated masonry.</p> + +<p>If, however, the remains are few, the records of classical writers +show that already before the beginning of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the +influence of Greece had been shown in the transformation of the +Forum, the embanking of the river Tiber, the erection of numerous +porticoes throughout the Campus Martius, and of basilicas, one of +which, rebuilt by Paulus Aemilius in 50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was remarkable for its +monolithic columns of pavonazetto marble; and further that on the +Palatine hill were various mansions, the courts and peristyles of +which were richly decorated with marble.</p> + +<p>The boast of Augustus that he found Reme built of brick and left +it in marble is true in a sense, but not in the way it is usually interpreted. +He greatly encouraged the use of marble—the temple of +Venus in the forum of Julius Caesar is said to have been built +entirely of that material—but as a rule marble was only used as a +facing. This, however, led to the substitution of solid concrete for +the core of walls, in place of the unburnt brick which up to that +time had been employed. On this subject the writings of Vitruvius, +the Roman architect, are of the greatest value, as they describe +clearly not only the materials used at this time (about 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), but +the different methods of building walls (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>). The material +which contributed more than any other to the magnificent conceptions +of the Roman Imperial style was that known as pozzolana, a +volcanic earth which, mixed with lime, formed an hydraulic cement +of great cohesion and strength. Not only the walls but the vaults +were built in this pozzolana concrete, and formed one solid mass. +Bricks were employed in arches, on the quoins of walls, occasionally +in bond courses, and in the constructional vaults as ribs, in order to +relieve the centreing of the weight until the pozzolana concrete had +been poured in and had consolidated. The bricks employed in these +ribs, and for the voussoirs of arches, were of the kind we should +describe as tiles, being about 2 ft. square and 2 in. thick. Bricks +also of smaller size and triangular in shape were used for the facing +of walls, the triangular portions being embedded into the concrete +walls.</p> + +<p>The Romans themselves do not seem to have realized the tenacious +properties of this pozzolana cement which, when employed for the +foundation of temples, formed a solid mass capable of bearing as +much weight as the rock itself. They feared also the thrust of the +immense vaults over their halls, and always provided crosswalls to +counteract the same, as shown in the plan of all the thermae; +when, however, they had discovered the secret of covering over large +spaces with a permanent casing indestructible by fire, it not only +gave an impetus to the great works in Rome, but led to a new type of +plan, which spread all through the Empire, varied only by the +difference in materials and in labour. In this respect the Romans +always availed themselves of the resources of the country, which they +turned to the best account. As pozzolana was not to be found in +North Africa or Syria, they had to trust to the excellent qualities of +the Roman mortar, but even in Syria, where stone was plentiful and +could be obtained in great dimensions, when they attempted to +erect vaults of great span similar to those in Rome, these probably +collapsed before the building was finished, and were replaced by +roofs in wood.</p> + +<p>In the styles hitherto described the gradual development has been +traced to their primitive, culminating and decadent periods. This +is not called for in a description of the Roman style of architecture, +which to a certain extent appeared phoenix-like in its highest +development under Augustus. Roman orders in the Augustan age +had reached their culminating development. The capitals of the +portico of the Pantheon (27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), or of the temple of Mars Ultor +(2 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), constitute the finest examples of the Corinthian order, +whilst those of later temples show a falling off in style. It was only +in the application of the orders that new combinations presented +themselves, and this can be better understood when we refer to the +monuments themselves. The description of the Roman orders, +with the subsequent modifications, is given in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order</a></span>. +It is necessary, however, here to draw attention to two very important +developments which the Roman architect introduced as regards the +orders: firstly, their employment as decorative features in combination +with the arcade, known as composite arcades, and secondly, +their superposition one above the other in storeys. The earliest +example of the first class is that found in the Tabularium as it now +exists; of the second class the Colosseum and the theatre of Marcellus +are the best known examples. In principle the practice must +be condemned, for the employment of the column and entablature, +which was designed by the Greek architect as an independent +constructive feature, in a purely decorative sense stuck on the face +of a wall, is contrary to good taste, but it is impossible not to recognize +in its application to the Colosseum the value of the scale which +it has given to the whole structure, a scale which would have been +entirely lost if the building had been treated as one storey. The +superposition of the orders as exemplified in the Roman theatres +and amphitheatres throughout the Empire constitutes the greatest +development made in the style, and it is one which, from the Italian +revivalists down to our time, has had more influence in the design +of monumental work than any other Roman innovation.</p> + +<p>In the preceding sections it has been necessary to confine our +descriptions, in the case of Egypt and Greece, more or less to temples +and tombs, and in that of Assyria to palaces, but in Roman architecture +the monuments are not only of the most extensive and +varied kinds, but in some parts of the Empire they become modified +by the requirements of the country, so that a tabulated list alone +would occupy a considerable space. The following are the principal +subdivisions: The Roman forum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>); the colonnaded +streets in Syria and elsewhere, and temple enclosures; temples (<i>q.v.</i>), +rectangular and circular; basilicas (<i>q.v.</i>); theatres (<i>q.v.</i>) and amphitheatres +(<i>q.v.</i>); thermae or baths (<i>q.v.</i>); entrance gateways and +triumph arches (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Triumphal Arch</a></span>); memorial buildings and +tombs, aqueducts (<i>q.v.</i>) and bridges (<i>q.v.</i>), palatial architecture (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palace</a></span>); domestic architecture (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">House</a></span>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span> </p> + +<p>The <i>Forum Romanum</i> under the Republic would seem to have +served several purposes. The principal temples and important +public buildings occupied sites round it, and up to the time of Julius +Caesar there were shops on both sides: it was also used as a hippodrome +and served for combats and other displays. Under the +Empire, however, these were relegated to the amphitheatre and the +theatre, markets were provided for elsewhere, and the forum became +the chief centre for the temples, basilicas, courts of law and exchanges. +But already in the time of Julius Caesar the Forum Romanum had +become too small, and others were built by succeeding emperors. +In order to find room for these, not only were numerous crowded +sites cleared, but vast portions of the Quirinal hill were cut away to +make place for them. The Fora added were those of Julius Caesar, +Augustus, Trajan, Nerva and Vespasian. Outside Rome, in provincial +towns and in Africa and Syria, the Forum was generally built +on the intersection of the two main streets, and was surrounded by +porticoes, temples and civic monuments.</p> + +<p><i>Colonnaded Streets</i>.—We gather from some Roman authors that +in early days the Campus Martius was laid out with porticoes. All +these features have disappeared, but there are still some existing +in Syria, North Africa and Asia Minor, which are known as colonnaded +streets. The most important of these are found in Palmyra, +where the street was 70 ft. wide with a central avenue open to the +sky and side avenues roofed over with stone. The columns employed +were of the Corinthian order, 31 ft. high, and formed a peristyle on +each side of the street, which was nearly a mile in length. The triple +archway in this street is still one of the finest examples of Roman +architecture. At Gerasa, the colonnaded streets had columns of the +Ionic order, the street being 1800 ft. long, with other streets at right +angles to it; similar streets are found at Amman, Bosra, Kanawat, +&c. At Pompeiopolis, in Asia Minor, are still many streets of +columns, and in North Africa the French archaeologists have traced +numerous others.</p> + +<p><i>Temple Enclosures</i>.—In Rome the great cost, and the difficulty of +obtaining large sites, restricted the size of the enclosures of the +temples; this was to a certain extent compensated for by the +magnificence of the porticoes surrounding them. The most important +was that built by Hadrian, measuring 480 ft. by 330 ft., to enclose +the double temples of Venus and Rome. The portico of Octavia +measures 400 ft. by 370 ft., enclosing two temples, and the portico +of the Argonauts, which enclosed the temple of Neptune, was about +300 ft. square. These dimensions, however, are far exceeded by +those of the enclosures in Syria and Asia Minor. The court of the +temple of the Sun at Palmyra was raised on an artificial platform +16 ft. high, and measured 735 ft. by 725 ft., with an enclosure wall +of 74 ft. on the west and 67 ft. high on the other three sides.</p> + +<p>At Baalbek the platform was raised 25 ft. above the ground, the +dimensions being 400 ft. wide and 900 ft. deep. At Damascus the +enclosure of the temple of the Sun has been traced, and it extended +to about 1000 ft. square. Similar enclosures are found at Gerasa, +Amman and other Syrian towns. In Asia Minor, at Aizani the platform +was 520 by 480 ft., raised about 20 ft., and in Africa the French +have found the remains of similar enclosures.</p> + +<p><i>Roman Temples</i>.—The Romans, following the Etruscan custom, +invariably raised their temples on a podium with a flight of steps +on the main front. Their temples were not orientated, and being +regarded more as monuments than religious structures occupied +prominent sites facing the Forum or some great avenue. Much +importance was attached to the entrance portico, which was deeper +than those in Greek temples, and the peristyle when it existed was +rarely carried round the back. On the other hand the cella exceeded +in span those of the Greek temples, as the Roman, being acquainted +with the principle of trussing timbers, could roof over wider spaces. +The principal temples in Rome, of which remains still exist, are +those of Fortuna Virilis, Mars Ultor, Castor, Neptune, Antoninus +and Faustina, Concord, Vespasian, Saturn and portions of the +double temples of Venus and Rome. At Pompeii are the temples of +Jupiter and Apollo, at Cora the temple of Mercury, and in France, +the Maison Carrée at Nîmes and the temple at Vienne. In Syria +are the temples of Jupiter at Baalbek, of the Sun at Palmyra and +Gerasa, and in Spalato the temple of Aesculapius.</p> + +<p>Of circular temples the chief are the Pantheon at Rome, the +temple of Vesta on the Forum, of Mater Matuta, so-called, on the +Forum Boarium, the temple of Vesta at Tivoli, of Jupiter at Spalato +and of Venus at Baalbek.</p> + +<p>Of the rectangular temples the Maison Carrée at Nîmes is the +most perfect example existing (fig. 26). It was built by Antoninus +Pius, and dedicated to his adopted sons Lucius and Martius. This +temple, 59 ft. by 117 ft., is of the Corinthian order, hexastyle, +pseudoperipteral, with a portico three columns deep, and is raised +on a podium 12 ft. high. The next best preserved example is the +temple of Jupiter at Baalbek, also of the Corinthian order, octastyle, +peripteral, with a deep portico, and a cella richly decorated with +three-quarter detached shafts of the Corinthian order.</p> + +<p>Of the circular temples the Pantheon is the most remarkable. It +was built by Hadrian, and consists of an immense rotunda 142 ft. in +diameter, covered with a hemispherical dome 140 ft. high. Its +walls are 20 ft. thick, and have alternately semicircular and +rectangular recesses in them. In the centre of the dome is a circular +opening 30 ft. in diameter open to the sky, the only source from +which the light is obtained. The rotunda is preceded by a portico, +originally built by Agrippa as the front of the rectangular temple +erected by him, taken down and re-erected after the completion of +the rotunda, with the omission of the two outer columns. In other +words Agrippa’s portico was decastyle; the actual portico is octastyle.</p> + +<p><i>Basilicas</i>.—The earliest example of which remains exist is that +of the Basilica Julia on the Forum, the complete plan of which is now +exposed to view. It consisted of a central hall measuring 255 ft. +by 60 ft., surrounded by a double aisle of arches carried on piers, +which were covered with groined vaults. The Basilica Ulpia built +by Trajan was similar in plan, but in the place of the piers were +monolith columns, with Corinthian capitals carrying an entablature, +with an upper storey forming a gallery round.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:386px; height:634px" src="images/img384.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.—Elevation and plan of the Maison Carrée, Nîmes.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The third great basilica, commenced by Maxentius and completed +by Constantine, differs entirely from the two above mentioned. It +followed the design and construction of the Tepidarium of the +Roman thermae, and consisted of a hall 275 ft. long by 82 ft. wide +and 114 ft. high, covered with an intersecting barrel vault with deep +recesses on each side which communicated one with the other by +arched openings and constituted the aisles.</p> + +<p><i>Theatres</i>.—The only example in Rome is the theatre of Marcellus, +built by Augustus 13 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and one of the purest examples of Roman +architecture. Amongst the best preserved examples is the theatre +of Orange in the south of France, the stage of which was 203 ft. long. +In the theatre at Taormina in Sicily are still preserved some of the +columns which decorated the rear wall of the stage. The theatre +of Herodes Atticus at Athens (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 160) retains portions of its +enclosure walls and some of the marble seats. There are two theatres +in Pompeii where the seats and the stage are in fair preservation. +Other examples in Asia Minor are at Aizani, Side, Telmessus, Alinda, +and in Syria at Amman, Gerasa, Shuhba and Beisan.</p> + +<p><i>Amphitheatres</i>.—The largest amphitheatre is that known as the +Colosseum, commenced by Vespasian in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 72, continued by Titus +and dedicated by the latter in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 80. This refers to the three lower +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span> +storeys, for the topmost storey was not erected until the first part +of the 3rd century, when it was completed by Severus Alexander +and Gordianus. The building is elliptical in plan and measures +620 ft. for the major axis and 513 ft. for the minor axis. There were +eighty entrances, two of which were reserved for the emperor and +his suite. The Cavea (<i>q.v.</i>) was divided into four ranges of seats; +the whole of the exterior and the principal corridors were built in +travertine stone, and all other corridors, staircases and substructures +in concrete. Externally the wall was divided into four storeys, the +three lower ones with arcades divided by semi-detached columns of +the Tuscan, the Ionic and the Corinthian orders respectively. The +walls of the topmost storey were decorated with pilasters of the +Corinthian order, the only openings there being small windows, to +light the corridors and the upper range of seats. Among other +amphitheatres the best preserved are those found at Capua, Verona, +and Pompeii in Italy; at El Jem in North Africa; at Pola in Istria, +and at Aries and Nîmes in France.</p> + +<p><i>The Thermae</i> or <i>Imperial Baths</i>.—The term thermae is given to the +immense bathing establishments which were built by the emperors +to ingratiate themselves with the people. Of the ordinary baths +(<i>Balneae</i>) there were numerous examples not only in Rome but at +Pompeii and throughout the Empire. The thermae were devoted +not only to baths but to gymnastic pursuits of every kind, and +being the resorts of the poets, philosophers and statesmen of the day, +contained numerous halls where discussions and orations could take +place. The plans of these thermae were measured by Palladio about +1560, at a time when they were in far better preservation and more +extensive than they are to-day. They have, however, been measured +since by some of the French Grand Prix students; and Blouet’s +work on the <i>Thermae of Caracalla</i>(1828) and Paulin’s on the <i>Thermae +of Diocletian</i>(1890) give accurate drawings as well as conjectural +restorations which are of the greatest value. The earliest thermae +were those built by Agrippa (20 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in the Campus Martius, and of +others those of Titus and Trajan are the best preserved; plans can +be found in Cameron’s <i>Baths</i>(1775).</p> + +<p><i>Entrance Gateways</i> and <i>Arches of Triumph</i>.—As the entrance +gateways were sometimes erected to commemorate some important +event, we have grouped these together, the real difference being +that the arch of triumph was an isolated feature and served no +utilitarian purpose, whereas the entrance gateway constituted part +of the external walls of the city and could be opened and closed at +will. Of the latter those at Verona, Susa, Perugia and Aosta in +Italy, Autun in France, and the Porta Nigra at Trčves (Trier) are +the best known, but there are also numerous examples throughout +Syria and North Africa. The arches of triumph offered a fine scope +for decoration with bas-reliefs setting forth the principal events of +the campaign; the representation on coins also suggests that they +were looked upon as pedestals to carry large groups of sculpture. +The best known examples are those of Titus, Septimius Severus +and Constantine at Rome, of Trajan at Ancona, and, in France, +at Orange, St Remi and Reims. There were numerous examples +throughout North Africa and Syria, of which the arch of Caracalla +at Tebessa in the former and the great gateway of Palmyra in Syria +are the best preserved.</p> + +<p><i>Memorial Buildings and Tombs</i>.—Columns of victory constituted +another type of memorial, and the shafts of the columns of Trajan +and Marcus Aurelius in Rome lent themselves to a better representation +of the records of victory than those which could be obtained in +the panels of a triumphal arch. Other columns erected are those of +Antoninus Pius in Rome, a column at Alexandria, and others in +France and Italy.</p> + +<p>If the Romans derived from the Etruscans a custom of erecting +tombs in memory of the dead, they did not follow on the same +lines, for whilst the Etruscans always excavated the tomb in the +solid rock, constituting a more lasting memorial, the Romans +regarded them as monumental features and lined the routes of the +<i>via sacra</i> of their towns with them. The earliest example remaining +is that of Caecilia Metella (58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), of which the upper portion, +consisting of a circular drum 93 ft. in diameter, remains. Of the +tomb of Hadrian the core only exists in the castle of Sant’ Angelo. +From the descriptions given it must have been a work of great +magnificence. The tombs known as Columbaria (<i>q.v.</i>) were always +below ground, but in some cases an upper storey was built above +them consisting of a small temple, and these flanked the Via Appia +in large numbers. At Pompeii outside the Herculaneum Gate the +Via Appia was lined on both sides with tombs of varied design, and +with exedrae or circular seats in marble, provided for the use of +those visiting the tombs. The tombs in Syria form a very large and +important series, the earliest perhaps being those in Palmyra, +where they took the form of lofty towers, from 70 to 90 ft. high, +externally simple as regards their design, but in the several storeys +inside profusely decorated with Corinthian pilasters and coffered +ceilings in stone. The tombs in Jerusalem built in the 1st century +of our era are partly excavated in the rock and partly erected. The +most important were those known as the tomb of Absalom, the tomb +of St James, and the tombs of the judges and the kings, all cut in +the solid rock. In central Syria some of the tombs are excavated in +the rock, and over them are built a group of two or more columns +held together by their entablatures. The most important series +are the tombs at Petra, all cut in the side of cliffs and of elaborate +design. The sculptor, being free from the restriction of construction, +realized his conception much in the same way as a scene-painter +produces a theatrical background.</p> + +<p><i>Aqueducts</i> and <i>Bridges</i>.—Although at the present day aqueducts +and bridges would be classed under the head of engineering works, +those built by the Romans are so fine in their conception and design +that they take their place as monuments. The Pont-du-Gard near +Nimes, and the aqueducts of Segovia, Tarragona and Merida in +Spain, and some of those in or near Rome, are of the simplest design, +depending for their effect on their magnificent construction, their +dimensions both in length and height, and the scale given in the +ranges of arches one above the other. Few of the Roman bridges +have lasted to our day; the bridges of Augustus at Rimini and of +Alcantara in Spain may be taken as types of the design, in which we +note that there are no architectural superfluities; the quality of the +design depends on the graceful proportion of the arches and the fine +masonry in which they are built.</p> + +<p><i>Palatial Architecture</i>.—By far the most magnificent group of +palaces are those which were erected by the Caesars on the Palatine +hill at Rome. Commenced by Augustus and added to by his successors +down to the reign of Severus, they cover an area considerably +over 1,000,000 sq. ft., and comprise an immense series of great halls, +throne room, banqueting hall, basilicas, peristylar courts, temple, +libraries, schools, barracks, a stadium and separate suites for princes +and courtiers. The service of the palace would seem to have been +carried on in vaulted corridors in several storeys, some of which +on the north side, overlooking the Circus Maximus, must have been +over 100 ft. in height. Except under the Villa Mills, the greater part +of the plan has been traced; and large remains of mosaic pavements +have been found <i>in situ</i>, and in the approaches, vaulted halls, some +still retaining their stucco decoration.</p> + +<p>A similar variety of groups of every description of structure is +found at Tivoli, but spread over a very much larger area. The villa +of Hadrian extended over 7 m.; the works there were probably +begun about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 123, the first portion being his own residential +palace. In addition to the numerous halls, courts, libraries, &c., +Hadrian attempted to reproduce some of the most remarkable monuments +which he had seen during his long travels; the Stadium, +Palaestra, Odeum, the two theatres, the artificial lake, Canopus and +other features were, however, constructed in the Roman style. +Built on a ridge between two valleys, the several buildings occupied +various levels, so that immense terraces and flights of stairs existed +throughout the site and, combined with the natural scenery, must +have been of extraordinary beauty.</p> + +<p>The palace of Diocletian at Spalato, to which he retired after +his abdication, constituted a fortress, three of its walls being +protected by towers, the fourth on the south by the sea. For an +account of its well-preserved remains see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spalato</a></span>. The emperor’s +own residence was on the south side, and had a gallery 520 ft. long +overlooking the sea. The two main streets, with arcades on each +side and crossing one another, divided the whole palace into four +sections. One of these streets crossed from gate to gate, the other +from the north gate led to the entrance into the palace of the emperor.</p> + +<p><i>Private Houses</i>.-The entire absence of the remains of the private +houses of Rome, with the single exception of the house of Livia on +the Palatine, would have left us with a very poor insight into their +design were it not for the discovery of Pompeii (<i>q.v.</i>) and Herculaneum +(<i>q.v.</i>). The descriptions given by Pliny of the lavish extravagance +in the Roman houses, and the employment of various +Greek marbles in the shape of monolith columns and panelling of +walls, are substantiated by those which are found in the Pantheon, +in the palaces on the Palatine, and in Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli; +and these compared with what is found at Pompeii show that the +latter was only a provincial town of second or third-rate importance, +where painted imitations took the place of real marbles, and where +the wall paintings were very inferior to those which have been +discovered in Rome.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Byzantine Architecture</p> + +<p>The term “Byzantine” is applied to the style of architecture +which was developed in Byzantium after Constantine had transferred +the capital of the Roman empire to that city in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 324.</p> + +<p>It is not possible, in the early ages of any style which is based on +preceding or contemporaneous styles, to draw any hard and fast line +of demarcation; and already before the Peace of the Church, a +gradual transformation in the Roman style had been taking place, +even in Rome itself. Thus the arch had gradually been taking the +place of the lintel, either frankly as a relieving arch above it (portico +of Pantheon), or introduced in the frieze just above the architrave +(San Lorenzo), or by the conversion of the architrave into a flat arch +by dividing it into voussoirs, as in the Forum Julium at Rome or +in the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek. In the palace built by Diocletian +at Spalato, the architrave or lintel of the Golden Gate is built with +several voussoirs, and the pressure is further relieved by an arch +thrown across above it. Long before this, however, and already in +the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> in Syria, this relieving arch had been moulded +and decorated, with the result of emphasizing it as a new architectural +feature. In this same palace at Spalato, in order to obtain a +wider opening in the centre of the portico, leading to the throne +room, it was spanned by an arch, round which were carried the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span> +mouldings of the whole entablature, viz. architrave, frieze and +cornice. At a still earlier date in Syria the same had been done in +the Propylaea of the temple at Damascus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 151) and other +examples are found in North Africa.</p> + +<p>Now when Constantine transferred the capital to Byzantium, he +is said to have imported immense quantities of monolith columns +from Rome, and also workmen to carry out the embellishments of +the new capital; for his work there was not confined to churches, +but included amphitheatres, palaces, thermae and other public +buildings. Owing to the haste with which these were built, and in +some cases probably to the ephemeral materials employed, for the +roofs of the churches were only in timber, all these early works have +been swept away; but there remain two structures at least, which +are said to date from Constantine’s time, viz. the Binbirderek or +cistern of a thousand columns, and the Yeri-Batan-Serai, both in +Constantinople. As one of the first tasks a Roman emperor set +himself to perform was the provision of an ample supply of water, +of which Byzantium was much in need, there is every reason to +suppose that they are correctly attributed to Constantine’s time. If +so, as the construction of their vaults is quite different from that +employed by the Romans, it suggests that there already existed in +the East a traditional method of building vaults of which the emperor +availed himself; and, although it is not possible to trace all the earlier +developments, the traditional art of the East, found throughout +Syria and Asia Minor, must from the first have wrought great changes +in the architectural style, and in some measure this would account +for the comparatively short period of two centuries which elapsed +between the foundation of the new empire and the culminating period +of the style under Justinian in AD. 532-558.</p> + +<p>Constantine is said to have built three churches in Palestine, but +these have either disappeared or have been reconstructed since; +an early basilican church is that of St John Studius (the Baptist) in +Constantinople, dating from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 463, and though it shows but little +deviation from classic examples, in the design and vigorous execution +of the carving in the capitals and the entablature we find the germ +of the new style. The next typical example is that found in the +church of St Demetrius at Salonica, a basilican church with atrium +in front, a narthex, nave and double aisles, with capacious galleries +on the first floor for women, and an apsidal termination to the nave. +Instead of the classic entablature, the monolithic columns of the +nave carry arches both on the ground and upper storeys; above the +capitals, however, we find a new feature known as the <i>dosseret</i>, +already employed in the two cisterns referred to, a cubical block +projecting beyond the capital on each side and enabling it to carry +a thicker wall above. In later examples, when the aisles were +vaulted, the dosseret served a still more important purpose, in +carrying the springing of the vaults. The nave and aisles of this +church of St Demetrius were covered with timber roofs, as the +architects had neither the knowledge, the skill, nor perhaps +the materials to build vaults, so as to render the whole church +indestructible by fire.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:237px; height:337px" src="images/img386a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.—Plan of SS. Sergius +and Bacchus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>One of the first attempts at this (though the early date given is +disputed) would seem to have been made at Hierapolis, on the +borders of Phrygia in Asia Minor, where there are two churches +covered with barrel vaults carried +on transverse ribs across the nave, +the thrust of which was met by +carrying up solid walls on each side, +these walls being pierced with openings +so as to form aisles on the +ground floor and galleries above. +The same system was carried out +a century earlier in central Syria, +where, in consequence of the absence +of timber, the buildings had to be +roofed with slabs of stone carried on +arches across the nave. It is probable +that in course of time other examples +will be found in Asia Minor, giving +a more definite clue to the next +development, which we find in the +work of Justinian, who would seem +to have recognized that the employment +of timber or combustible +materials was fatal to the long +duration of such buildings. Accordingly +in the first church which he +built (fig. 27), that of SS. Sergius +and Bacchus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 527), the whole +building is vaulted; the church is about 100 ft. square, with a +narthex on one side. The central portion of the church is octagonal +(52 ft. wide), and is covered by a dome, carried on arches across the +eight sides, which are filled in with columns on two storeys. These +are recessed on the diagonal lines, forming apses. The vault is +divided into thirty-two zones, the zones being alternately flat and +concave.</p> + +<p>We now pass to Justinian’s greatest work, the church of St +Sophia (fig. 28), begun in 532 and dedicated in 537, which marks +the highest development of the Byzantine style and became the +model on which all Greek churches, and even the mosques built by +the Mahommedans in Constantinople, from the 15th century onwards, +were based. The architects employed were Anthemius of +Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, and the problem they had to solve +was that of carrying a dome 107 ft. in diameter on four arches. The +four arches formed a square on plan, and between them were built +spherical pendentives, which, overhanging the angles, reduced the +centre to a circle on which the dome was built. This dome fell down in +555, and when rebuilt was raised higher and pierced round its lower +part with forty circular-headed windows, which give an extraordinary +lightness to the structure. At the east and west ends are immense +apses, the full width of the dome, which are again subdivided into +three smaller apses. The north and south arches are filled with lofty +columns carrying arches opening into the aisle on the ground storey +and a gallery on the upper storey, the walls above being pierced with +windows of immense size. The church was built in brick, and +internally the walls were encased with thin slabs of precious marble +up to a great height (fig. 29). The walls and vault above were +covered with mosaics on a gold ground, which, as they represented +Christian subjects, were all covered over with stucco by the Turks +after the taking of Constantinople. During the restoration in the +middle of the 19th century, when it became necessary to strip off +the stucco, these mosaics were all drawn and published by Salzenburg, +and they were covered again with plaster to prevent their +destruction by the Turks. The columns of the whole church on the +ground floor are of porphyry, and on the upper storey of verd +antique. The length of the church from entrance door to eastern +apse is 260 ft.; in width, including the aisles, it measures 238 ft., +and it measures 175 ft. to the apex of the dome. The columns and +arches give scale to the small apses, the small apses to the larger +ones, and the latter to the dome, so that its immense size is grasped +from the first. The lighting is admirably distributed, and the rich +decoration of the marble slabs, the monolith columns, the elaborate +carving of the capitals, the beautiful marble inlays of the spandrils +above the arches, and the glimpse here and there of some of the +mosaic, which shows through the stucco, give to this church an effect +which is unparalleled by any other interior in the world. The +narthex or entrance vestibule forms a magnificent hall 240 ft. in +length, equally richly decorated. Externally the building has little +pretensions to architectural beauty, but its dimensions and varied +outline, with the groups of smaller and larger apses and domes, +make it an impressive structure, to which the Turkish minarets, +though ungainly, add picturesqueness.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:378px; height:652px" src="images/img386b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.—Plan of St Sophia.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 536 a second important church was begun by Theodora, +the church of the Holy Apostles, which was destroyed in 1454 by +order of Mahommed II. to build his mosque. The design of this +church is known only from the clear description given by Procopius, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span> +the historian who has transmitted to us the record of Justinian’s +work, and its chief interest to us now is that it forms the model +on which the church of St Mark at Venice was based, when it was +restored, added to, and almost rebuilt about 1063.</p> + +<p>The church of St Sophia was not only the finest of its kind at the +time of its erection, but no building approaching it has ever been +built since in the Byzantine style, nor does much seem to have been +done for two or three centuries afterwards. At the same time the +erection of new churches must have been going on, because there are +certain changes in design, the results probably of many trials. The +difficulty of obtaining sufficient light in domes of small diameter led +to the windows being placed in vertical drums, of which the earliest +example is that of the western dome of St Irene at Constantinople, +rebuilt <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 718-740. This simplified the construction and externally +added to the effect of the church. The greatest change, however, +which took place, arose in consequence of the comparatively small +dimensions given to the central dome, which rendered it necessary +to provide more space in another way, by increasing the area on +each side, so that the plan developed into what is known as the Greek +cross, in which the four arms are almost equal in dimensions to the +central dome, and were covered with barrel vaults which amply +resisted its thrust. In front of the church a narthex and sometimes +an exonarthex was added, which was of greater width than the +church itself, as in the churches (both in Constantinople) of the +Theotokos and of Chora (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1080). The latter, better known as the +“mosaic mosque,” on account of its splendid decoration in that +material, is of special interest, because in the five arches of its façade +we find the same design as that which originally constituted the front +of the lower part of St Mark’s at Venice, before it was encrusted with +the marble casing and the plethora of marble columns and capitals +brought over from Constantinople.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:553px; height:423px" src="images/img387.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.—Cross section of the interior of St Sophia.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Sometimes an additional church was built adjoining the first +church and dedicated to the immaculate Virgin, as in the church of +St Mary Panachrantos, Constantinople, the church of St Luke of +Stiris, Phocis, and the church in the island of Paros. In the last-named +church the apse still retains its marble seats, rising one above +the other, with the bishop’s throne in the centre. In addition to +the churches already mentioned in Constantinople, there are still +some which have been appropriated by the Turks and utilized as +mosques. At Mount Athos there are a large number of Greek +churches, ranging from the 10th to the 16th centuries, which are +attached to the monasteries. At Athens one of the most beautiful +examples is preserved in the Catholicon or cathedral, the materials +of which were taken from older classical buildings. This cathedral +measures only 40 ft. by 25 ft., and is now overpowered by the new +cathedral erected close by.</p> + +<p>The external design of the Byzantine churches, as a rule, is +extremely simple, but it owes its quality to the fact that its features +are those which arise out of the natural construction of the church. +The domes, the semi-domes over the apses, and the barrel vaults +over other parts of the church, appear externally as well as internally, +and as they are all covered with lead or with tiles, laid direct on the +vaults, they give character to the design and an extremely picturesque +effect. The same principle is observed in the doorways and windows, +to which importance is given by accentuating their constructive +features. The arches, always in brick, are of two orders or rings of +arches set one behind the other, and the voussoirs, alternately in +brick and stone, have the most pleasing effect. The same simple +treatment is given to the walls by the horizontal courses of bricks +or tiles, alternating with the stone courses. In the apse of the +church of the Apostles at Salonica, variety is given by the interlacing +of brick patterns. This elaboration of the surface decoration is +carried still further in the palace of Hebdomon at Blachernae, in +Constantinople, built by Constantine Porphyrogenitus (913-949), +where the spandrils of the arches are inlaid with a mosaic of bricks in +various colours arranged in various patterns.</p> + +<p>There would seem to have been a revival in the 11th century, +possibly a reflex of that which was taking place in Europe, and it is +to this period we owe the churches of St Luke in Phocis, the church +at Daphne, and the churches of St Nicodemus and St Theodore in +Athens. The finest example of brick patterns is that which is found +in the church of St Luke of Stiris, attached to the monastery in the +province of Phocis, north of the Gulf of Corinth, of which an admirable +monograph was published in 1901 by the committee of the +British School at Athens, illustrated by measured drawings of the +plans, elevations, sections and mosaics by Messrs Schultz and +Barnsley, with a detailed description. The church of St Luke of +Stiris is one of those already referred to, where a second church +dedicated to the Holy Virgin has been added, but in this case, +according to Messrs Schultz and Barnsley, on the site of a more +ancient church of which the narthex alone was retained. The plan +of the great church differs from the ordinary Greek cross in that the +arms of the cross are of much less width than the central domed +square, and arches being thrown across the angles carry eight +pendentives instead of four. On the east side the Diaconicon and +Prothesis are included in the width of the domed portion instead of +forming the eastern termination of the aisles. The churches at +Daphne in Attica and of St Nicodemus at Athens +have a similar plan.</p> + +<p>The decoration of the smaller church of St Luke +of Stiris is of the most elaborate character, bright +patterns of infinite variety alternating with the +brick courses, and as blocks of marble, removed +from the site of the old city near, were available, +they have been utilized in various parts of the +structure and richly carved. The church at +Mistra in the Peloponnesus, 13th century, built in +the side of a hill, is one of the most picturesque +examples, and is almost the only example in +which a tower is to be found.</p> + +<p><i>Armenia</i>.—One other phase of the Byzantine +style has still to be mentioned, the development +of church architecture in Armenia, which follows +very much on the same lines as that of the Greek +church, with a central dome on the crossing, a +narthex at the west end and a triapsal east end. +In two churches at Echmiadzin and Kutais there +are transeptal apses in addition to those at the east +end. One of the differences to be noted is that +the domes and roofs are generally in stone +externally, and this has led to another change; +the domes, though hemispherical inside, have +conical roofs over them. There is also a greater +admixture of styles, the Persian, Byzantine +and Romanesque phases entering into the design; the last +was probably derived from the churches of central Syria, as +the Armenians were the only race who seem to have penetrated +there, and the finest example, at Kalat Seman, was at one time in +their possession. The church at Dighur near Ani, of the 7th century, +also probably owes its classical details to the work in central Syria. +The most important example of the Armenian style is found in the +cathedral at Ani, the capital of Armenia, dating from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1010. In +this church pointed arches and coupled piers are found, with all the +characteristics of a complete pointed-arch style, which, as Fergusson +remarks, “might be found in Italy or Sicily in the 12th or 14th +century.” Externally the walls are decorated with lofty blind +arcades similar to those in the cathedral at Pisa and other churches +in the same town, which are probably fifty years later. The elaborate +fret carving of the window dressings and hood moulds are probably +borrowed from the tile decoration found in Persia.</p> + +<p><i>Russia</i>.—The architecture of Russia is only a somewhat degraded +version of the style of the Byzantine empire. The earliest buildings +of importance are the cathedrals of Kiev and Novgorod, 1019-1054. +The original church of Kiev consisted of nave, with triple aisles each +side, the piers in which are of enormous size, a transept and square +bays of the choir beyond, each with deep apsidal chapels. Externally +the chief features are the bulbous domes adopted from the Tatars, +which sometimes assume great dimensions. Internally, the chief +feature is the Iconostasis, which corresponds to the English rood +screen, except that in Russia it forms a complete separation between +the church and the sanctuary with its altar.</p> + +<p>One of the most remarkable churches is that of St Basil at Moscow +(1534-1584), which in plan looks like a central hall, surrounded by +eight other halls of smaller dimensions, all separated one from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span> +other by vaulted corridors; this arrangement is not intelligible until +one sees the exterior view, which accounts for the plan; each one +of these halls is crowned by lofty towers with bulbous domes, the +centre one rising above all the others and terminated with an +octagonal roof, probably derived from the Armenian conical roof. +The oldest and most interesting church in Moscow is the church of +the Assumption (1479), where the tsars are always crowned; but +as it measures only 74 ft. by 50 ft., it is virtually little more +than a chapel; the plan is that of a Greek cross with central dome and four +others over the angles. One other church deserves mention—at +Curtea de Argesh, in Rumania. It was built in 1517-1526, and +though small (90 by 50 ft.), is built entirely of stone, instead +of brick covered with stucco, as is the case with the churches in Moscow. +The interior has been entirely sacrificed to the exterior, the domes +being raised to an extravagant height. The relative proportion of +width of nave to height of dome in St Sophia at Constantinople is +about one to two; in the church at Curtea de Argesh it is about +one to five; and yet there can be little doubt the design was made +by one of those Armenian architects who seem to have been always +employed at Constantinople, and who presumably based their +designs there on St Sophia as regards its principal features. Here, +however, he was working for Tatar employers who attached more +importance to display than to good proportion. In general design +the church is based on Armenian work. The elaborately carved +panels and disks are copied from the inlays in the mosques in +Damascus and of Sultan Hassan at Cairo, and the stalactite cornices +and capitals of the columns are transcripts of the Mahommedan style +of Constantinople, which was derived from the style developed by +the Seljuks.</p> + +<p>We were only able to point to a single example of a tower in the +Byzantine style, but in Russia the towers not only constitute the +principal accessory to the church but were necessary adjuncts, in +order to provide accommodation for bells, the casting of which has +at all times formed one of the most important crafts in Russia. The +chief examples, all in Moscow, are the tower attached to the church +of the Assumption; the tower of Boris, inside the Kremlin; and +that erected over the sacred gate of the same. But they abound +throughout Russia and in some cases form important features in +the principal elevations on either side of the narthex.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Early Christian Architecture</p> + +<p>Of the earliest examples of the housing of the Christian church +few remains exist, owing partly to their destruction from time to +time by imperial edicts, and partly to the fact that in most cases +they were only oratories of a small and unpretending nature, which, +immediately after the Peace of the Church, were rebuilt of greater +size and with increased magnificence. In Rome itself, the principal +religious centre was that which was found in the catacombs (<i>q.v.</i>), +almost the only resort in times of persecution. In the houses of the +wealthy Romans who had been converted, rooms were set apart for the +reception of the faithful, and these may have been increased in size by +the addition of side aisles. At all events, either in Rome or in the +East, where greater freedom of worship was observed, the requirements of +the religious had already resulted in a traditional type of plan, which +may account for the similarity of all the great churches built by +Constantine. It has often been assumed that the great Roman basilicas, +if not actually utilized by the Christians, were copied so far as their +design is concerned. This, however, is not borne out by the facts, there +being very little similarity between the first churches built and the +two great Roman basilicas, the Ulpian basilica and that built by +Constantine; the latter was roofed with an immense vault, an +imperishable covering, not attempted till two centuries later in +Byzantium, and the former had its entrance in the centre of the longer +side, and the tribunes at either end were divided +off from the basilica by a double aisle of columns. The basilica plan +was adopted because it was the simplest and most economical +building of large size which could be erected, having an immense central +area or nave well lighted by clerestory windows, and single or double +aisles to divide the two sexes, and further because the immense supply +of columns which could be taken from existing temples or porticoes +enabled the architect to provide at small cost the colonnades or arcades +between the nave and the aisles. On the other hand, there is no doubt +that the temples, for which there was no further use, were largely +appropriated, not only in Italy but in Greece, Sicily and elsewhere, and +it is to this appropriation that we owe the preservation of the +Parthenon, the Erechtheum and the temple of Theseus at Athens. There are +some cases in which it is interesting to note the +changes which were made to convert the temple into a church. In +the temple of Athena at Syracuse, walls were built in between the +columns of the peristyle, the cella was appropriated for the nave, and +arcades were cut through the cella walls to communicate with the +peristyle, so as to constitute the aisles. In the temple of Aphrodisias, +in Asia Minor, a further development occurred. The walls of the cella were +taken down, a wall was built outside the columns of the peristyle to form +aisles, and the columns of the east and west end +were taken down and placed in line with the others, in order to +increase the length of the church.</p> + +<p>The earliest Christian basilica built in Rome was the Lateran, +which has, however, been so completely transformed in subsequent +rebuildings as to have lost its original character. The next in date +was that of the old St Peter’s, which was taken down in 1506, in +consequence of its ruinous condition, in order to make way for the +present cathedral, begun by Pope Julius II. It was of considerable +size, covering an area of 73,000 ft. Its plan consisted of an atrium, +or open court, having a fountain in the centre, and arcades round; +a nave, 275 ft. long and 77 ft. wide, with double aisles on each side; +a transept, 270 ft. long by 54 ft. wide; and a semi-circular apse or +tribune with a radius of 27 ft.; the high altar being in the centre of +its choir, and ranges of marble seats and the papal throne in the +middle, corresponding to the benches and the judge’s seat of the +Roman tribune. The nave, therefore, with its double aisles, was +similar to that of the Ulpian basilica, but the aisles were not returned +across the east end, and at the west end, in their place, was the great +triumphal arch opening into the transept. The monolith columns of the +nave and their capitals (together 40 ft. high) were all taken from +ancient buildings, as also were those of the aisle arcades and in the atrium.</p> + +<p>The basilica of St Paul, outside the walls, was originally of comparatively +small dimensions, with its apse at the west end; in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 386 the church was rebuilt on a plan similar to St Peter’s, with +nave and double aisles, divided by columns carrying arches, transept +and apse. In the Lateran basilica, St Peter’s, Santa Maria Maggiore, +and St Lawrence (outside the walls), the columns of the nave were +close-set (<i>i.e.</i> with narrow intercolumniations) and supported +architraves, but in St Paul (outside the walls) the columns of the +second church (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 386) were wider apart and carried arches. The +same feature is found in the church of St Agnes, founded <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 324, +but rebuilt 620-640; here the arcade is carried across the west +end and there are galleries above, the arches being carried on dosseret +blocks above the capitals; these are also found in the galleries over +the western end of St Lawrence, added by Honorius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 620-640); +the dosseret, a Byzantine feature, being derived either from Ravenna +or from the East. In the church of Santa Maria-in-Cosmedin (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +772-795) another Byzantine feature appears in the triple apse at +the east end, the earliest example in Europe. In this church, as +also in those of San Clemente and San Prassede, piers are built at +intervals to carry the arcades separating the nave and aisles. Those +in the latter, however, were probably added when the great arches +were thrown across the nave. The church of San Clemente was +built in 1108, above a much older church dating from 385 and restored +later; it is almost the only church in Rome which has preserved its +atrium intact; the internal arrangement of the church +also is different from that found elsewhere, the choir, enclosed with +marble piers and screens removed from the lower church and erected +in front of the tribune, dating from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 514-523. The mosaics +executed in 1112 are in fine preservation.</p> + +<p>Other early churches in Rome are those of Santa Pudenziana +(335); San Pietro-in-Vincoli (442), with Doric columns in the nave; +SS. Quattro Coronati (450); Santa Sabina (450), an interesting +church on account of the marble inlaid decoration in the arch +spandrils of the nave, which date from 824; San Prassede (817), +with arches thrown across the nave later; San Vincenzo ed Anastasio +alle Tre Fontane (626); and Santa Maria in Domnica, where there +are galleries over the aisles and across the east end as in St Agnes.</p> + +<p>Hitherto we have said little about the architectural design, the +fact being that externally these churches had the appearance of +barns; it is only in a few cases, notably in St Peter’s, that the +principal fronts were decorated with mosaics. The magnificent +materials employed internally, the monolith marble columns, the +enrichment of the apse and the triumphal arch with mosaics, and +probably the painting and gilding of the ceiling or roof, gave to +the early basilican churches in Rome that splendour which +characterizes those in Byzantium and in Ravenna.</p> + +<p>With the exception of the baptistery attached to St John Lateran, +and the so-called tomb of Santa Constantia, both erected by Constantine, +the circular form of church was not adopted in Rome; +there is one remarkable circular building of great size, San Stefano +Rotondo, at one time thought to have been a Roman market, but +now known to have been erected by Pope Simplicius (468-482). +It consisted of a central circular nave, 44 ft. in diameter, and double +aisles round. In the arcade dividing the aisles the arches are carried +on dosserets, the earliest known example of this feature in Rome.</p> + +<p>Although inferior in size, the two churches of S. Appollinare Nuovo, +built by Theodoric (493-525) and Sant’ Apollinare-in-Classe (538-549), +both in Ravenna, have the special advantage that they were +constructed in new materials, there being no ancient Roman temples +there to pull down. The ordinary basilican plan was adhered to, +but as the architects and workmen came from Constantinople, they +incorporated in the building various details of the Byzantine style, +with which they were best acquainted. Thus the contour of the +mouldings, the carrying of the capitals and imposts, the dosseret +above the capital, and the scheme of decoration of the interior with +marble casing on the lower portion of the walls and mosaic above, +are all Byzantine. Externally the churches are extremely plain, +the wall surfaces of the nave and aisle walls being varied by blind +arcades.</p> + +<p>The earliest building in Ravenna is the tomb of Galla Placidia, +built 450, a small cruciform structure with a dome on pendentives +over the centre, perhaps the earliest example known. The baptistery +of St John, which was attached to the cathedral built by Archbishop +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span> +Ursus (380), now destroyed, is a plain octagonal building, 40 ft. in +diameter, originally with a timber roof; when in 451 it was determined +to replace this by a vault, in order to resist the thrust, the +upper part of the walls was brought forward on arches and corbels, +and the interior richly decorated with paintings, stucco reliefs and +mosaics in the dome. The most interesting building in Ravenna, +however, from many points of view, is the church of San Vitale +(fig. 30), built 539-547, its plan and design being based on the +church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople. The proportions +of the interior of St Sergius are much finer than those in San +Vitale, where the dome is raised too high; the timber roofs also of +San Vitale have deprived the church externally of that fine architectural +effect found in Byzantine churches. In order to lighten the +dome, its shell was built with hollow pots, the end of one fitted into +the mouth of the other. The interior of the church is of great beauty, +owing to the alternating of the piers carrying the eight arches with +the columns set back in apsidal recesses. Unfortunately the church +has been much restored, but the magnificent mosaics in the choir +and the variety of design shown in the capitals and dosserets render +this church, though small, one of the most attractive in Italy. +One other Ravenna building must be mentioned, though it would +be difficult to know under what style to class it. The tomb of +Theodoric, having a decagonal plan in two storeys, the lower one +vaulted at the upper storey, set back to allow of a “terrace” round, +once sheltered by a small arcade, and covered by a single stone +35 ft. in diameter, belongs to no definite style; the mouldings of the +upper portion have some resemblance to the mouldings of some of +the Etruscan tombs at Castel d’Asso, which was probably known to +Theodoric.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:382px; height:439px" src="images/img389.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.—Plan of S. Vitale, Ravenna.</td></tr></table> + +<p>As Dalmatia and Istria both formed part of Theodoric’s kingdom, +we find there the same Byzantine influence as that which was +asserted in Ravenna, in both cases the work being done by artists +and masons from Constantinople. There is not much left in Dalmatia, +but in Istria are two important examples,—the churches at +Parenzo (535-543) and Grado (571-586). Like the two churches in +Ravenna, they are basilican in plan, with apses, semi-circular +internally and polygonal externally, the latter being a characteristic +found in all the churches in Europe which were influenced directly +by Byzantine custom. Although the monolith columns were derived +from ancient Roman buildings, all the capitals were specially carved +for the two churches, and they have the same variety of design +and in many cases are identical with those in San Vitale, Sant’ +Apollinare Nuovo, Sant’ Apollinare-in-Classe, and those brought +over from Constantinople, which now decorate St Mark’s at Venice +internally as well as externally. The decoration of the lower part +of the walls internally with marble slabs, and the upper portion and +apsidal vaults with mosaic, follows on the same lines as those at +Ravenna and Constantinople. The church at Parenzo still retains +its baptistery and atrium, from which fragments of the mosaics +which originally decorated the west front can be seen. The +church at Aquileia was rebuilt in the 11th century, and the +Duomo of Trieste has been so altered as to lose its original Byzantine +character.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Early Christian Work in Central Syria</p> + +<p>Contemporaneously with the early developments of the Christian +churches just described, another line of treatment was being evolved +in central Syria, which would seem to have been quite independent +of the others, though at first sight it bears considerable resemblance +to the Byzantine style, and for that reason was probably classed +and described under that head by Fergusson. But the leading +characteristic of the Byzantine style is the dome over the centre of the +church round which all other features are grouped, whereas in central +Syria, with the exception of two examples—one a circular, the other +a polygonal church—there are no domes. There is considerable Greek +feeling in the mouldings and carvings of the capitals, but that is +probably due to the fact that the masons were originally of Greek +extraction. A comparison, for instance, of the design and carving +of the largest church in central Syria, the famous building erected +round the column of St Simeon Stylites at Kalat-Seman, dating +from the 6th century, with any Byzantine church of the same date, +shows very little resemblance, because the former was inspired more +or less directly by the Roman remains in the country. A similar +inspiration is found in the churches of St Trophime at Arles and St +Gilles in the south of France, and at Autun and Langres in Burgundy. +Both were founded on Roman work, and the mouldings of the +pediments and archivolts and the fluting of the pilasters at Kalat-Seman, of the 6th century, are identical with what is found, quite +independently, in Provence and Burgundy in the 11th and 12th +centuries. There is, however, another special characteristic found +in the masonry of the churches in central Syria, which is peculiar +to the whole of Palestine, and is found in the earliest remains there, +as also in Roman work, and to a certain extent in much of the +Mahommedan construction and in that of the Crusaders, viz. its +megalithic qualities. Instead of building an arch in several voussoirs, +they preferred to do it in three or five only, and sometimes +would cut the whole arch out of a single vertical slab. If they +employed voussoirs, they were not content with ordinary depth, +shown by the archivolt mouldings, but made them three or four +times as deep.</p> + +<p>The masons, in fact, would seem to have retained the traditional +Phoenician custom of the country to employ the largest stones they +were able to quarry, transport and raise on the building. Subsequently, +in working down the masonry, they reproduced the architectural +features they found in Roman buildings; this was done, +however, without any knowledge as to their constructional origin or +meaning; thus, in copying a Roman pilaster, the capital and part +of the shaft would be worked out of one stone, and the lower part +of the shaft and the base out of another. It is only from this point +of view that we can account for the peculiar development given to +the decoration of their later work, where archivolts, wood mouldings +and window dressings are looked upon as simply surface +decoration to be applied round doorways and windows, without any +reference to the jointing of the masonry.</p> + +<p>The immense series of monuments, civil as well as religious +existing throughout central Syria, were almost entirely unknown +before the publication of the marquis of Vogüé’s work, <i>La Syrie +centrale</i>, in 1865-1867. This work, illustrated with measured plans, +sections and elevations, with perspective views, and accompanied +by detailed descriptions of the various buildings, forms an invaluable +record of an architectural style, more or less completely developed, +which flourished from the 3rd to the beginning of the 7th century. +An American archaeological expedition made further investigations +in 1899-1900, and its report, written by Mr H.C. Butler, contains +additional plans and a large number of photogravures, which bear +testimony to the truth and accuracy of the engraved plates of the +marquis de Vogüé. The preservation of these central Syrian remains, +more or less intact, is considered to have been due either to the +desertion of all the towns in which they were situated by the inhabitants +at the time of the Mahommedan invasion, or, according +to Mr H.C. Butler, to the deforesting of the whole country about the +commencement of the 7th century.</p> + +<p>The monuments and buildings illustrated may be divided into +three classes,—ecclesiastical, including monasteries; civil and +domestic; and tombs. It is in the two first that the principal +interest is centred.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 215px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:162px; height:340px" src="images/img390a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 31.—Plan of Church of Kalb-Lauzeh.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Churches</i>.—The earliest of these date from the end of the 4th +century, and the latest inscription on a church is 609, so that a +little over 200 years includes the whole series. With one or two +small exceptions all the churches follow the basilican plan, with +nave and aisles separated by arcades, the arches of which are carried +by columns, four arches on each side in the smaller churches, ten in +the largest. The churches are all orientated, and have generally a +semi-circular apse, and occasionally a square or rectangular sanctuary +at the east end, on either side of which are square chambers,—the +<i>diaconicon</i>, reserved for the priests, on the south side, and the +<i>prothesis</i>, on the north side, in which the offerings of the faithful +were deposited. Except in the earliest churches, the entrance was +generally at the west end, and was sometimes preceded by a porch. +In addition to the west entrance, there were sometimes doorways +leading direct into the north and south aisles, with projecting +porticoes. About the middle of the 6th century a change was made +in the design of the arcades in the nave, and rectangular piers with +arches of wide span were substituted for the ordinary arcade with +columns. The effect as shown in the engravings and photogravures +is so fine that it is strange that the scheme was never adopted in +the earlier Romanesque churches of Europe. The two more +important examples are at Kalb-Lauzeh (fig. 31) and Ruweiha, but +three or four others are known, and this plan was adopted in the +basilica erected in the great court of the temple at Baalbek. All +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span> +the churches are built in fine ashlar masonry, with moulded archivolts +and architraves to doorways and windows, and moulded +string courses and cornices of simple design. The principal decoration +externally is found in the hood-mould or label round the +windows, continued as a string-course and carried round other +windows, and sometimes terminating in a disk with cross in centre. +These hood-moulds are occasionally richly carved. All the churches +in central Syria had open timber roofs which have now disappeared; +this is proved by the sinkings in the end walls to receive the purlins, +and the corbels provided to carry the tie beams. The apses were +always covered with semi-domes. The +three most important churches were those +of Turmanin, Kalb-Lauzeh and Kalat-Seman. +The plans of the two first are +similar, except that in Turmanin the +nave arcade is of the ordinary type, +with seven arches carried on columns, +while in Kalb-Lauzeh (fig. 32) there are +three wide arches on each side carried +on two rectangular piers and responds. +Both have entrance porches (fig. 33), +which are flanked by angle buildings +carried up as towers in three storeys; +these probably contained wooden staircases +to ascend to an open gallery, which +consisted of four columns in-antis between +the angle towers above the porch. The +north and south walls were quite plain, +except for window and door dressings +and string courses; the apse was richly +decorated, with wall shafts superimposed +between the windows, and carrying a +projecting cornice with alternate corbels. +The church at Ruweiha has a similar +plan to that at Kalb-Lauzeh, but two +transverse arches in stone are thrown across the nave, resting on +abutments attached to the nave piers.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:371px; height:466px" src="images/img390b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.—Interior of the Church of Kalb-Lauzeh.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The most remarkable example and by far the largest is the great +basilica at Kalat-Seman (fig. 34), which was erected round the pillar +on which St. Simeon Stylites spent thirty years of his life. The base +of the pillar stands in the centre of an immense octagonal court +open to the sky. The plan consists of nave, transept and choir, all +with side aisles, separated in the centre by the octagonal court +which constitutes the crossing. The nave built on the side of a hill +is raised on a crypt, and the principal entrance would seem to have +been through the porch of the north transept, which occupies the full +width of transept and aisles. There were, however, in addition two +doorways with porches to each aisle, as well as portico and doors +to the north transept. At the eastern end were three apses, the +two outer ones, facing the aisles, being additions in the second half +of the 6th centurv. St. Simeon died in 459, and the church was +probably begun shortly afterwards, but not completed till the +6th century. The archivolts of the great arches on each side of the +octagonal court consist of architrave, frieze and cornice, copied +from the arch of the propylaca at Baalbek or other Roman work. +Here, as in the great southern porch, the classic nature of the details +is remarkable, the pilasters are all fluted, and the modillion and +dentil, derived from Roman models, exist throughout. On the other +hand, the carving of the foliage was certainly executed by Greek +artists, and the well-known Byzantine capital, with the leaves +bending under the influence of the wind, is here reproduced. The +great apse externally retains its decoration with superimposed shafts +and cornice, as in Turmanin and Kalb-Lauzeh.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:440px; height:359px" src="images/img390c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 33.—Church of Turmanin.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The monastery of Kalat-Seman was built on the south side of the +great church, and many of the rooms had roofs of slabs of stone +carried on arches across the room, a method of construction universally +found in the Hauran, where the absence of timber necessitated +this more permanent method of construction. The monasteries +differ from the domestic work in being much plainer, and, instead +of columns in the porticoes, having invariably square piers of +stone.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:383px; height:416px" src="images/img390d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 34.—Plan of Church of Kalat-Seman.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among circular churches, the walls of the cathedral at Bozra are +gone, so that the conjectural restoration shown in de Vogué’s work +is purely speculative, but in the church at Ezra (510) the central +octagon is covered by a high dome of elliptical section. An aisle is +carried round the octagon with similar recesses on the diagonal lines, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span> +the whole being enclosed in a square; in the apse at the east end the +seats of the tribune are still preserved.</p> + +<p><i>Domestic Work</i>.—The domestic work in central Syria is, in a way, +even more remarkable than the ecclesiastical. Broadly speaking, +there are two types of plan—those found in the towns and grouped +together, and those which, with increased area, constituted a villa. +At El Barah the average house occupied a site of about 80 ft. by +60 ft., of which about 30 ft. in width was occupied by an open court; +facing this court, which was enclosed with high walls, is an open +colonnade on two floors, which always faces south, occupies the +whole front (80 ft.) of the house, and is the only means of approach +to the rooms in the rear, three on each floor, side by side. In the +centre of these rooms, 14 ft. wide each, an arch is thrown across on +each floor, which carries slabs of stone covering the first floor and +the roof; the upper storey was reached probably by a timber +staircase, now gone, but in poorer dwellings an external flight of +steps in stone led to an upper floor. All the houses face the same way. +The colonnade of the house consisted of about fifteen columns on +each storey. Each column, including its capital and base, was cut +out of a single stone; on the upper storey, between the columns, +are stone vertical slabs forming a balustrade; the houses are all +built in fine ashlar masonry with architraves and cornices to doors +and windows, a luxury which in England could rarely be indulged +in for ordinary houses. At El Barah, in an area of about 250 ft. by +150 ft. as shown by de Vogüé, there are about 100 monolith columns, +12 ft. high, on the ground storey alone. In a villa at El Barah the +open court is surrounded on three sides by buildings, those at the east +end of considerable extent and in three storeys. A smaller example +at Mujeleia has two courts, one of them being for stables and other +services; otherwise the residence of the proprietor is similar to the +one above described. Here and there the fantasy of the artist has +been allowed to revel in the carving of the balustrades, door lintels, +&c. The capitals are of endless design, and show interpretations +of Ionic and Corinthian capitals, in some cases not dissimilar to the +Byzantine versions in St Mark’s at Venice.</p> + +<p>Hostelries and public baths are amongst other civil buildings +which are recognizable, the hostelries in some cases being attached +to the monasteries.</p> + +<p><i>Tombs</i>.—The principal tombs are either excavated in the rock, +with an open court in front and an entrance portico, like the tombs +of the kings at Jerusalem, and sometimes a superstructure of columns +or a podium raised above them; or again they are built in masonry, +and take the form of sepulchral chapels; in the latter case, if many +sarcophagi have to be deposited, and the chapel is of great length, +arches are thrown across, about 6 ft. centre to centre, to support the +slabs of stone with which they are covered. This carries on the +traditional custom of the Roman temples in Syria, the roofs of +which, in stone, were similarly supported. Sometimes there will be +two storeys, the upper one covered with a dome. Those which are +peculiar to the country are square tombs, with a pyramidal stone roof +all built in horizontal courses, and either enclosed with a peristyle all +round, on one or two storeys, or having a portico in front with flat +stone roof. The cornices, string courses and lintels of the doors of +these tombs of the 4th and 5th centuries, are enriched with carving, +showing strong Byzantine influence, though probably due to the +employment of Greek artists.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">The Coptic Church in Egypt</p> + +<p>The earliest places of Christian worship in Egypt were probably +only chapels or oratories of small dimensions attached to the +monasteries, which were spread throughout the country; a wholesale +destruction of these took place at various times, more especially by +the order of Severus, about 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, so that no remains have come +down to us. The most ancient examples known are those which are +attributed to the empress Helena, of which there are important +portions preserved in the churches of the White and Red monasteries +at the foot of the Libyan hills near Suhag.</p> + +<p>Although the plan of the Coptic church is generally basilican, <i>i.e.</i> +consists of nave and aisles, it is probable that they were not copied +from Roman examples, but were based on expansions of the first +oratories built, to which aisles had afterwards been added. There +are no long transepts, as in the early Christian basilicas of St Peter’s +at Rome, and of St Paul outside the walls, and there is only one +example of a cruciform church with a dome in the centre following +the Byzantine plan. Even at an early period the nave and aisles +were covered sometimes with barrel vaults, either semicircular or +elliptical. The Coptic church was always orientated with the +sanctuaries at the east end. The aisles were returned round the west +end and had galleries above for women. Sometimes the western +aisle has been walled up to form a narthex; in many cases a narthex +was built, but, in consequence of the persecution to which the Copts +were subject at the hands of the Moslems, its three doors have been +blocked up and a separate small entrance provided. The narthex +was the place for penitents, but was sometimes used for baptism by +total immersion, there being epiphany tanks sunk in the floor of the +churches at Old Cairo, known as Abu Serga, Abu-s-Sifain (Abu +Sefen) and El Adra; these are now boarded over, as total immersion +is no longer practised.</p> + +<p>There are a few exceptions to the basilican plan; and in four +examples (two in Cairo and two at Deir-Mar-Antonios in the eastern +desert by the Gulf of Suez) there are three aisles of equal widths, +divided one from the other by two rows of columns with three in +each row, thus dividing the roof into twelve square compartments, +each of which is covered with a dome.</p> + +<p>The sanctuaries at the east end, as developed in the Coptic church, +differ in some particulars from those of any other religious structures. +There are always three chapels or sanctuaries, with an altar in each, +the central chapel being known as the Haikal. The chapels are more +often square than apsidal, and are always surmounted by a complete +dome, a peculiarity not found out of Egypt. The seats of the tribune +are still preserved in a large number of the sanctuaries, and there +are probably more examples in Egypt than in all Europe, if Russia +and Mount Athos be excepted. Those of Abu-Serga, El Adra and +Abu-s-Sifain, with three concentric rows of seats and a throne in the +centre, are the most important; but even in the square sanctuaries +the tradition is retained, and seats are ranged against the east wall, +and in one case (at Anba-Bishôi) three steps are carried across, and +behind them is a segmental tribune of three steps, with throne in the +centre.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable Coptic churches in Egypt are those of the +Deir-el-Abiad (the White monastery) and the Deir-el-Akhmar (the +Red monastery) at Suhag. These were of great size, measuring about +240 ft. by 130 ft. with vaulted narthex, nave and aisles separated by +two rows of monolith columns taken from ancient buildings, twelve +in each row and probably roofed over in timber, and three apses, +directed respectively towards the east, north and south. These +apses are unusually deep and have five niches in each, in two storeys +separated by superimposed columns. In the church of St John at +Antinoe there are seven niches. A similar arrangement is found in +the three apses, placed side by side, in the more ancient portion of +St Mark’s, Venice, built <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 820, and said to have been copied from +St Mark’s at Alexandria. There is no external architecture in the +Coptic churches; they are all masked with immense enclosure +walls, so as to escape attention. The walls of the interior still +preserve a great portion of the paintings of scriptural subjects; +the screens dividing off the Haikal and other chapels from the choir +are of great beauty, and evidently formed the models from which +the panelled woodwork, doors and pulpits of the Mahommedan +mosques have been copied and reproduced by Copts.</p> + +<p>Illustrations are given in A.J. Butler’s <i>Ancient Coptic Churches of +Egypt</i>(1884); Wladimir de Bock’s <i>Matériaux archéologiques de +l’Égypte chrétienne</i>(1901); and A. Gayet’s <i>L’art coptique</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in Italy</p> + +<p>“Romanesque” is the broad generic term adopted about the +beginning of the 19th century by French archaeologists in order +to bring under one head all the various phases of the round-arched +Christian style, hitherto known as Lombard and Byzantine +Romanesque in Italy, Rhenish in Germany, “Romane” and +Norman in France, Saxon and Norman in England, &c. In +character, as well as in time, the Romanesque lies between the +Roman and the Gothic or Pointed style, but its first manifestation +in Italy has already been described in the section on “Early +Christian Architecture,” and it only remains to deal with the +subsequent development from the age of Charlemagne, which +marks an epoch in the history of architecture, and from which +period examples are to be found in every country.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the lack of homogeneousness in the Romanesque +style as developed in Italy, owing to the mixture of styles, +and the difficulty of tracing the precise influence of any one race +in buildings frequently added to, restored or rebuilt, their +description will be more easily followed if a geographical subdivision +be made, the simplest being Northern or Lombard +Romanesque, Central Romanesque and Southern Romanesque; +after the latter would follow the Sicilian Romanesque, which, +owing to the Saracenic craftsman, constitutes a type by itself. +This leaves still one other phase to be noted, the influence +recognized in northern Italy of the architectural style of the +Eastern Empire at Byzantium, either direct or through Istria and +Dalmatia. In the churches at Ravenna, this influence has +already been referred to in the section on “Early Christian +Architecture,” but it appears again in the church of St. Mark +at Venice, and in much of its domestic architecture, so that it +is necessary to recognize another term,, that of “Byzantine +Romanesque.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Northern or Lombard Romanesque</i>.—Although the materials for +forming an adequate notion of the earlier work of the Lombards are +very scanty, after their conversion to the Catholic faith the Church +probably exercised a powerful influence in their architectural work. +Under Liutprand, towards the close of the 8th century, an order +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span> +known as the Magistri Commacini was established, to whom were +given the privileges of freemen in the Lombard State. These +Commacini, so named from the island in the lake of Como whence +they sprang, were trained masons and builders, who in the 9th and +10th century would seem to have carried the Lombard style through +north and south Italy, Germany and portions of France. It was at +one time assumed that they had influenced the church architecture +throughout Europe, but this is not borne out by the evidence of the +buildings themselves, except in the Rhenish provinces and in the +districts on the slope of the Harz Mountains, where in sculpture a +strange mixture is found of monstrous animals with Scandinavian +interlaced patterns and Byzantine foliage, bearing a close resemblance +to the early sculpture in Sant Ambrogio at Milan and San Michele +at Pavia (Plate V, fig. 72). Although the earliest Lombard buildings +in Italy (such as those of San Salvatore in Brescia, San Vincenzo in +Prato at Milan the church of Agliate and Santa Maria delle Caccie +at Pavia) were basilican in plan with nave and aisles, there are some +instances in which the adoption of a transept has produced the +Latin cross plan (<i>e.g.</i> San Michele at Pavia, Sant’ Antonino at +Piacenza, San Nazaro-Grande at Milan, and the cathedrals of Parma +and Modena), though to what extent this is due to subsequent +rebuilding is not known. In the early basilicas above mentioned +the columns, carrying the arcades between nave and aisles, were +taken from earlier buildings, while the capitals, where not Roman, +were either rude imitations of Roman, or Byzantine in style. The +roofs were always in wood, and the exteriors of the simplest description. +In the external decoration, however, of the apses of the +churches of San Vincenzo in Prato, Santa Maria delle Caccie, the +church at Agliate and the ancient portion of S. Ambrogio at Milan, +we find the germ of that decorative feature which (afterwards +developed into the eaves gallery) became throughout Italy and on +the Rhine the most beautiful and characteristic element of the +Lombard style. In order to lighten the wall above the hemispherical +vault of the apse, a series of niches was sunk within the arches of the +corbel table, which gave to the cornice that deep shadow where it +was most wanted for effect. In addition to the churches above +named, similar niches are found in the baptisteries of Novara and +Arsago, the Duomo Vecchio at Brescia and the church of San +Nazaro Grande at Milan. Towards the close of the 11th century, +the imposts of these niches take the form of isolated piers, with a +narrow gallery behind, and eventually small shafts with capitals are +substituted for the piers, producing the eaves-galleries of the apses, +which in Santa Maria Maggiore at Bergamo (1137) and the cathedral +of Piacenza are the forerunners of numerous others in Italy, and in +the churches of Cologne, Bonn, Bacharach and other examples on the +Rhine, constitute their most important external decoration.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:205px; height:534px" src="images/img392a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 35.—Plan of +S. Ambrogio.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the apses of San Vincenzo in Prato and of the church at Agliate +(both of the 9th century) there is another decorative feature, destined +afterwards to become one of the most +important methods of breaking up or +subdividing the wall surface, <i>i.e.</i> the thin +pilaster strips, which, at regular intervals, +rise from the lower part of the wall to the +corbel table of the cornice.</p> + +<p>The two most important churches of +the Lombard Romanesque style are +those of Sant’ Ambrogio at Milan and S. +Michele at Pavia, their importance being +increased by the fact that they probably +represent the earliest examples of the +solution of the great problem which was +exercising the minds of the church +builders towards the end of the 11th +century, the vaulting of the nave. In +the original church, of the 9th century, +the nave and aisles of Sant’ Ambrogio +were divided in the usual way with +arcades, and were covered with open +timber roofs. In the rebuilding of the +church (fig. 35) the nave (38 ft. wide) +was divided into four square bays, and +compound piers of large dimensions were +built, to carry the transverse and +diagonal ribs of the new vault. To resist +the thrust, the walls across the aisles were +built up to the roof, and had external +buttresses, the diagonal ribs instead of +following the elliptical curve which the +intersection of the Roman semicircular +barrel vault gave to the groin, were made +semicircular, so that the web or vaulting +surface which rested on these ribs rose +upwards towards the centre of the bay, +giving a distinct domical form to the +vault. The aisles, being half the +width of the nave, were divided into eight compartments, two +to each bay of the nave, and were covered both in the ground +storey and the triforium with intersecting groin vaults. When this +rebuilding took place, the front of the church was brought forward, +bearing a narthex, and the arcades of the atrium were rebuilt in +the first years of the 12th century. The triple apse, to the external +decoration of which we have called attention, the crypt underneath, +and the south campanile, are the only remains of the 9th century +church. The campanile on the north side was built 1125-1149, and +the decoration with pilaster strips, semi-detached shafts, and arched +corbel table, is repeated on the façade of the church and on the arcade +round the atrium. In the rebuilding, portions of the sculptural +decoration of the 9th century church were utilized, this would +appear to have been a Lombard custom, as in the church of San +Michele the lower part of the main front is encrusted with sculptured +decoration taken from the earlier churches built on the site. These +ancient sculptures are of special interest, as they constitute the best +records of the rude Lombard work of the 8th and 9th centuries, and +are intermingled with Byzantine scroll work and interlaced patterns. +If the plan of Sant’ Ambrogio, with its comparatively thin enclosure +walls suggests its original construction as an ordinary basilica, this +is not the case with San Michele (fig. 36), where all the external +walls are of great thickness, showing that from the first it was intended +to vault the whole structure The church is much smaller than +Sant Ambrogio, there being originally only two square bays to the +nave (in the 15th century the vaults were rebuilt with four bays), +the transept, however projects widely beyond the aisles, and as +there is another bay given to the choir in front of the apse, the area +of the two churches is about the same. The existing church was +probably begun shortly after the destructive earthquake of 1117, +and was consecrated in 1132. In Sant’ Ambrogio the transverse +and diagonal arches spring from just above the triforium floor, so +that there was no room for clerestory windows, and consequently +the interior is dark. In San Michele the ribs rise from the level of +the top of the triforium arcades and two clerestory windows are +provided to each bay. The crossing of the nave and transept is +covered with a dome carried on squinches, which dates from the +first building. The dome over the fourth bay of Sant’ Ambrogio +replaced the original vault about the beginning of the 13th century.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:318px; height:451px" src="images/img392b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 36.—Plan of San Michele Pavia.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The cathedral of Novara, originally of the ordinary basilica type +of the 10th century with timber roofs, was reconstructed in the 11th +century, compound piers being built to carry the transverse and +diagonal ribs and walls built across the outer aisles to resist the +thrust, on the other hand SS. Pietro and Paolo at Bologna is a 12th +century church which was designed from the first to be vaulted. +To these, and still belonging to the basilican plan, must be added +San Pietro in Cielo d’oro (1136) and San Teodoro, both in Pavia; +S. Evasio at Casale Monferrato, having a comparatively narrow +nave with double aisles on either side and a very remarkable narthex +or porch. S. Lorenzo at Verona (lately restored), which in the 12th +century was rebuilt with compound piers to carry a vault (the apse +and the two remarkable circular towers in the west front belong to +the ancient church), and Sant’ Abbondio at Como often restored +and partly rebuilt, retaining however, some of the original sculpture +of the early Lombard period.</p> + +<p>Of churches built on the plan of the Latin cross, examples are +Sant’ Antonino at Piacenza, with an octagonal lantern tower over +the crossing, Parma cathedral (<i>c.</i> 1175), with an octagonal pointed +dome over the crossing, Modena cathedral, rebuilt and consecrated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span> +in 1184; San Nazaro-Grande at Milan; and San Lanfranco at Pavia, +the two latter without aisles.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:673px; height:492px" src="images/img392c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 62.—PISA.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:701px; height:481px" src="images/img392d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 63—ST MARK’S, VENICE.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:351px; height:478px" src="images/img392e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:349px; height:475px" src="images/img392f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdean.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Frith & Co.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 64.—AMIENS CATHEDRAL.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 65.—BURGOS CATHEDRAL.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:349px; height:478px" src="images/img392g.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:349px; height:477px" src="images/img392h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Frith & Co.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Frith & Co.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 66.—ST PAUL’S, LONDON.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 67.—ELY CATHEDRAL.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Reference has already been made to the eaves-galleries of the +apses of the Lombard churches. A similar gallery was carried across +the main front, rising with the slope of the roof, as in San Michele, +Pavia; also on the west fronts of San Pietro in Cielo d’oro and San +Lanfranco, at Pavia; and in the cathedrals of Parma and Piacenza. +In all these cases the galleries are not quite continuous, vertical +buttresses or groups of shafts or single shafts being carried up through +them to the corbel tables. In S. Ambrogio at Milan the central +original lantern is surrounded with two tiers of galleries. The finest +example of their employment, however, is in the magnificent central +tower of the Cistercian church at Chiaravalle, near Milan, where the +two lower storeys form the drum of the internal dome, the two +storeys above are set back, and the upper storey consists of a lofty +octagonal tower with conical spire.</p> + +<p>One of the serious defects in the front of the church of San Michele +at Pavia is that it forms a mask, and takes no cognizance of the aisle +roofs, which are at a lower level, and the same is found in San +Pietro-in-Cielo d’oro at Pavia. This mask is carried to an absurd +extent in the church of Santa Maria della Pieve at Arezzo, in which, +above the ground storey of the arcades, are three galleries forming +strong horizontal lines, which suggest the numerous floors of a civic +building instead of the vertical subdivisions of a church. This +defect is not found in the church of San Zeno at Verona, which is one +of the finest of the Lombard churches; the church is basilican in +plan, the nave being divided into five bays with compound piers, +as in Sant’ Ambrogio, as if it were intended to vault it; this, however, +was never done, but stone arches arc thrown across the two westernmost +bays of the nave as if to carry the roof (now concealed by a +wooden ceiling). The façade is of marble and sandstone, with +pilaster-strips rising from the base to the arched corbel table, and +the outline of the nave and aisles is preserved in the front, in which +all the mouldings and carving arc of the utmost delicacy. Both here +and in the cathedral are fine examples of those projecting porches, +the columns of which are carried on the backs of lions or other beasts. +At Piacenza, Parma, Mantua, Bergamo and Modena are porches of +a similar kind, and in the cathedral of Modena the columns which +support the balcony on the entrance to the crypt are all carried on +the backs of lions. The cathedral of Verona has suffered so much +from rebuilding and restoration that little remains of the earlier +structure, but the apse of the choir, decorated with a close set range +of pilaster-strips, with bases and Corinthian capitals and crowned +with a highly enriched entablature, is quite unique in its design.</p> + +<p>Among circular buildings, the Rotonda at Brescia was at one +time considered to date from the 8th century, owing to its massive +construction and the simplicity and plainness of its external design. +Later discoveries, however, have shown that the early date can only +be given to the crypt of San Filasterio situated to the eastward of the +Rotonda. The church of Santo Sepolcro at Bologna, as its name +implies, is one of those reproductions of the church of the Holy +Sepulchre at Jerusalem which were built by the Templars during +the crusades. Of much earlier date is the circular church of San +Tommaso-in-Limine, an early Lombard work of the 9th century, to +which period belong also the baptisteries of Albenga, Arsago, Biella, +Galliano and Asti. One of the most beautiful examples is the +baptistery of Santa Maria at Gravedona, at the northern end of the +lake of Como, built in black and white marble. The plan is unusual, +and consists of a square with circular apses on three sides.</p> + +<p><i>Byzantine Romanesque</i>.—Although in the first basilican church of +St Mark at Venice, erected in 929 to receive the relics of the saint +recovered from St Mark’s in Alexandria, the capitals of the columns +and other decorative accessories showed Greek influence, its transformation +into a five-domed Byzantine structure was not begun till +about the middle of the 11th century. The date given by Cattanco +is 1063, the same year in which the cathedral of Pisa was begun; +it is probable, however, that the scheme had already been in contemplation +for some years, as the problem was not an easy one to +solve, owing to the restrictions of the site, and to the desire to +reproduce in some way the leading features of the church of the Holy +Apostles at Constantinople. This church was destroyed in 1464, +but its description by Procopius is so clear, and corresponds so closely +with St Mark’s, completed towards the end of the 11th century, as to +leave little doubt about the source of its inspiration. From what has +already been said with reference to the great changes made when it +was proposed to vault the early Lombard basilican churches, those +of equal importance which were carried out in St Mark’s will be +better understood. The nave was divided into three square bays +(fig. 37), with additional bays on the north and south to form transepts; +the five square bays thus obtained were covered with domes +carried on pendentives, as in St Sophia at Constantinople, and on +wide transverse barrel vaults; the domes over the north and south +transepts and the choir were of slightly less dimensions than those +over the nave and crossing, in consequence of the limitations in area +caused by the chapel of St Theodore on the north, the ducal palace +on the south, and the ancient apse of the original basilica which it +was desired to retain. In the reconstruction, many of the old columns, +capitals and parapets were utilized again in the arcades carrying the +galleries and in the balustrades over them. Externally the brick +walls were decorated with blind arcades and niches of Lombard +style, and all the roof vaults were covered with lead as in Constantinople. +The subsequent decoration of the exterior took two centuries +to carry out, not including the florid work of later date. There is no +precedent in the East for the superimposed columns and capitals +exported from Constantinople and Syria which now decorate the +north, south and west fronts (Plate I., fig. 63), though the materials +were all of the finest Byzantine type. Internally, the mosaic decoration +of the domes, vaults and the upper part of the walls, was carried +out by Greek artists from Constantinople, who probably also were +employed for the marble panelling of the lower part of the walls. +The marble casing of the front was certainly executed by Constantinopolitan +artists, since the moulded string known as the “Venetian +dentil” is a direct reproduction of that in St Sophia. At a later +date the domes were all surmounted by lanterns in wood, covered +with lead, and the roofs were all raised. So far, therefore, the building +departs from its prototype, the church of the Apostles. A +similar transformation took place in the church of Santa Fosca at +Torcello, where a single large dome was contemplated over the centre +of the original basilican church, but was never built. The cathedral +of Torcello and the church at Murano are richly decorated with +carved panels, capitals, choir screens and other features, either +imported from the East or reproduced by Greek artists or Italians +trained in the style. The influence of St Mark’s in this respect +extended far and wide on the east coast of Italy; and at Pomposa, +Ancona, and as far south as Brindisi, Byzantine details can be traced +everywhere. The designs of the churches of San Ciriaco at Ancona +and of Sant’ Antonio at Padua were both based on St Mark’s. +Sant’ Antonio’s had six domes, there being two over the nave; +and in all cases the domes were surmounted by domes in timber like +those of St Mark’s.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:665px" src="images/img393.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From R.P. Spiers’s <i>Architecture, East and West</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 37.—Plan of St Mark’s, Venice.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In domestic work, Venice is richer in Byzantine architecture than +Constantinople, for with the exception of the Hebdomon palace the +continual fires there have destroyed all the earlier palaces and houses. +The Fondaco-dei-Turchi, built probably in the 11th century, is one +of the most remarkable; the front on the great canal is 160 ft. long, +having a lofty arcade with ten stilted arches on the ground storey +and an arcade of eighteen arches above; the pavilion wings at the +east end are in three storeys, with blind arcades and windows pierced +in the central arcade. The whole was built in brick encased with +marble, with panels or disks enriched with bas-reliefs or coloured +marbles. A second example is found in the Palazzo Loredan, having +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span> +similar arcades, stilted arches and marble panelling; and there are +two others, one on the Grand Canal and the other on the Rio-Cŕ-Foscari. +Throughout Venice the decoration of these Byzantine +palaces would seem to have influenced those of later date; for the +Venetian dentil, interlaced scroll-work and string courses, with the +Byzantine pendant leaf, are found intermingled with Gothic work, +even down to the 15th century, and the same to a certain extent is +found at Padua, Verona and Vicenza.</p> + +<p><i>Central Romanesque.</i>—The builders in the centre of Italy would +seem to have followed more closely the Roman basilican plan, for +in two of the earliest churches, Santa Maria Fuorcivitas at Lucca +and San Paolo a Ripa d’Arno at Pisa, the T-shaped plan of St Peter’s +and St Paul’s, with widely projecting transepts, was adopted; the +difference also between the north and central developments is very +marked, as in the place of the massive stone walls, compound piers, +and internal and external buttresses deemed necessary to resist the +thrusts of the great vaults, and the low clerestory of the northern +churches, those in the south retain the light arcades with classic +columns, the wooden roofs, and the high clerestory of the Roman +basilicas. Instead of the vigorous sculpture of the Lombards in +the Tuscan churches, marbles of various colours take its place, the +carving being more refined in character and much quieter in effect.</p> + +<p>The earliest church now existing is that of San Frediano at Lucca, +dating from the end of the 7th century. Originally it was a five-aisled +basilica, with an eastern apse, but when it was included +within the walls in the 11th century the apse and the entrance +doorway changed places, and a fine eaves-gallery was carried round +the new apse; the outer aisles were also transformed into chapels. +So many of the churches in Pisa and Lucca had new fronts given to +them in the 11th or 12th century, that it is interesting to find, in +the church of San Pietro-in-Grado at Pisa, an example in which +the external decoration with pilaster strips and arched corbel tables +is retained, showing that in the 9th century, when that church was +built, the Lombard style prevailed there. Other early churches are +those of San Casciano (9th century), San Nicola and San Frediano +(1007), all in Pisa.</p> + +<p>Of early foundation, but probably rebuilt in the 11th century, +are two interesting churches in Toscanella, Santa Maria and San +Pietro; they are both basilican on plan, but the easternmost bay is +twice the width of the other arches of the arcade, and is divided +from the nave by a triumphal arch. In both churches the floor of +the transept is raised some feet above the nave, and a crypt occupies +the whole space below it.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest and most perfect examples of this subdivision +is the church of San Miniato, on a hill overlooking Florence. The +church was rebuilt in 1013, and some of the Roman capitals of the +earlier building are incorporated in the new one. It is divided into +nave and aisles by an arcade of nine arches, and every third support +consists of a compound pier with four semi-detached shafts, one of +which, on each side of the nave, rises to the level of the summit of +the arcade and carries a massive transverse arch to support the roof. +The east end of the church, occupying the last three bays of the +arcade, is raised 11 ft. above the floor of the nave, over a vaulted +crypt extending the whole width of the church and carried under the +eastern apse. The interior of the church, which is covered over +with an open timber roof, painted in colour and gilded, is decorated +with inlaid patterns of black and white marble of conventional +design, and the same scheme is adopted in the main façade, enriching +the panels of the blind arcade on the lower storey, and above an +extremely classic design of Corinthian pilasters, entablature and +pediment.</p> + +<p>As none of the façades of the Pisan churches was built before the +middle of the 11th century, it is possible that Buschetto, the architect +of the cathedral of Pisa, may have profited by the scheme suggested +in the lower storey of San Miniato; if so he departed from its classic +proportions. There are seven blind arcades in the lower storey of +the Pisan cathedral, the arcades are loftier, and the position of the +side doors which open into the inner aisle on each side is of much +better effect. The cathedral was begun in 1063, the year following +the brilliant capture of Palermo by the Pisans, when they returned +in triumph with immense spoils. In plan it consists of a Latin cross, +with double aisles on either side of the nave extending to the east +end, a central apse, transepts with single aisles on each side, and +north and south transepted apses (fig. 38). The nave arcade, with +its Corinthian capitals and monolith stone columns, is of exceptional +boldness, and as it is carried across the transept up to the east end +(a length of 320 ft.) it forms a continuous line greater than that +in any other cathedral. The crossing is covered by a dome, elliptical +on plan, being from east to west the length of the transept and +aisles. The result is unfortunate, and detracts both externally and +internally from its beauty, otherwise the exterior decoration, which +must have been schemed out in its entirety from the beginning (with +the exception of the dome, which is of later design), has the most +satisfactory and pleasing effect. The lofty blind arcade of the lower +storey and the open gallery above on the façade (the latter +represented by a blind arcade), are carried round the whole building, +and the horizontal lines of the galleries of the upper storeys accord +with the roofs of the aisles and nave respectively and the blind arcade +of the clerestory. The walls are faced within and without with +white and grey marble, and the combination of sculpture and inlay +which enriches the arcades of the façades gives an additional attraction +to the building. The cathedral is sometimes quoted as Byzantine +in style, but its plan and design are of widely different character +from those of any building found in the East, and the mosaics, +which constitute the finest decorative element in that style, were not +added till the 14th century, and formed no part of the architect +Buschetto’s scheme.</p> + +<p>The Baptistery, begun in 1153, was not completed till towards the +close of the 13th century, when important alterations were made +in the design to bring it into accordance with the new Gothic style. +The crocketed gables, and the upper gallery, substituted for the +arcades, which followed on the lines of those in the cathedral, have +taken away the quiet repose found in the latter; the lower storey, +however, with its lofty blind arcades, similar to those of the +cathedral, and the principal doorway, are of great beauty. The central +area of the baptistery, which is surrounded by aisles and triforium +gallery, is covered by a conical dome; internally as well as externally +this can never have been a beautiful feature, and the additions +of the 13th century have made it one of the ugliest roofs in existence.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:438px; height:723px" src="images/img394.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38. PISA.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Campanile or leaning tower was begun in 1174. Owing, +however, to the treacherous nature of the ground, the piles driven +in to support the tower gave way on the south side, so that, when +only 35 ft. above the ground, a settlement was noticed, and slight +additions in height were made from time to time in order to obtain +a horizontal level for the stone courses; but this was without avail, +and on the completion of the third gallery above the ground storey +the work was suspended for many years. In 1350 it was recommenced, +three more gallery storeys were added, and the upper or belfry stage +was set back in the inner wall. The tower is now 178 ft. high, and +overhangs nearly 14 ft. on the south side; its design is made to +harmonize with the cathedral, but shows much less refinement and grace.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span> </p> + +<p>The Campo Santo, an immense rectangular court 350 ft. long by +70 ft. wide, surrounded by a cloister 35 ft. wide, was begun in 1280; +the details are refined, but the poverty in the design of the tracery +with which the arcades were fitted in at a much later date detracts +from its interest, which is now mainly concerned with the beautiful +frescoes which decorate its walls.</p> + +<p>As might have been expected, the cathedral of Pisa set the model +not only for the restoration of existing churches but also for new +ones, in Pisa itself and also at Lucca, Pistoia and Prato. In Pisa, +the church of San Paolo a Ripa d’Arno was rebuilt about 1060, +possibly by the architect of the cathedral; San Pietro-in-Vincoli +and San Nicola date from the early years of the 12th century. At +Lucca the churches of Santa Giuha, San Giusto, San Martino, San +Michele, and the restored front of Santa Maria Fuorcivitas, are the +principal examples in which the Pisan cathedral has suggested the +design, and at Pistoia we can point to the cathedral, Sant’ Andrea, +San Pietro and San Giovanni Fuorcivitas, the latter with a south +wall decorated with three stages of blind arcades of great richness. +The cathedral of Lucca was either restored or rebuilt at the beginning +of the 14th century, and has a distinctly Gothic effect. The lower +storey of the façade presents the unusual feature of an open porch +across the whole front with three great archways. This porch with +the three galleries above was added to the cathedral at the beginning +of the 13th century.</p> + +<p><i>Southern Romanesque</i>.—The influences exerted in the early +development of the Romanesque style in the south of Italy are +much more complicated than in the north, since two new elements +come into the field, the Norman and Saracenic. Of early work very +little remains, owing to the general rebuilding in the 11th century; +what is more remarkable, there is scarcely any trace of the result +of the Byzantine occupation for so many centuries; the only +exception being the church of San Gregorio at Bari, a small basilican +structure in which the arches of the arcades separating the nave +from the aisles are stilted like those of the Fondaco-dei-Turchi at +Venice.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:228px; height:391px" src="images/img395.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 39.—Plan of S. Nicola at Bari.</td></tr></table> + +<p>One of the chief characteristics noticeable in the plan is the +almost universal adoption of a transept projecting north and south +slightly beyond the aisle walls, and in some cases raised over a crypt, +as in the churches at Toscanella. Since, however, there is no +choir bay, and the central apse +opens direct into the transept, the +plan is not that of the Latin cross. +The most complete development of +this arrangement is found in the +cathedral and in the church of San +Nicola at Bari (fig. 39); both being +basilican churches with a triumphal +arch opening into the transept,—in +this respect similar to the churches +of St Peter and St Paul at Rome, +except that the transepts project +only slightly, beyond the aisles. +There is one peculiarity in both +these churches, as also in that of +the cathedral at Molfetta. East of +the transept, and at the north and +south sides, are towers, between +which is carried a wall which hides +the apse, the only indication of its +existence being the round arched +window which lights it. A similar +arrangement exists in the cathedrals +of Giovenazzo, Bitetto and Bitonto. +The central bay of the transept +of the cathedral at Bari is surmounted +by an octagonal drum, the +dome within which is carried on +squinches; a similar dome was +projected in San Nicola, but never built. In the cathedral at Bari, +as also in San Nicola, the lofty nave is covered with a timber roof, +and has an arcade on the ground storey and a fine triforium and +clerestory windows above.</p> + +<p>Externally these churches depend for their effect more on +their fine masonry than on any decorative treatment; the blind +arcades of the lower storey have very little projection, and the +pilaster strips which in the Lombard churches break up the wall +surface are not found here; the arched corbel table is freely employed +but rarely the open gallery. There is one remarkable example in +Bitonto cathedral; above the aisle chapels, and approached from +the triforium, is an open gallery, the arches of which rest on widely +projecting capitals sculptured with animals and foliage, half Lombardic +and half Byzantine in style. The small shafto supporting +these capitals are of infinite variety of design, with spirals, chevrons, +fluting and vertical mouldings of many kinds.</p> + +<p>The cathedral at Molfetta is in plan quite different from those +already described, and consists of square bays with aisles, transept +and apse, having domes over the nave and crossing. The Byzantine +influence here comes in, but it is much more pronounced in La +Cattohca at Stilo, a small church square on plan with four columns +carrying the superstructure, which consists of a central and four +domes on the angles. Other domed churches are those of the +Immaculata at Trani; San Sabino, Canosa; and San Marco, +Rossano. The lower part of the cathedral at Troja shows the direct +influence of the cathedral at Pisa. The cathedral at Trani has the +same plan as the churches at Bari, except that the earlier apses are +not enclosed. The cathedral of Salerno retains still the fine atrium +by Robert Guiscard in 1077. In the cathedrals of Acerenza, Aversa +and Venosa, the French chevet was introduced towards the end of +the 12th century.</p> + +<p>In the magnificent octagonal tower which encloses the dome on the +crossing in the cathedral of Caserta-Vecchia, we find the interlacing +blind arcades of the Norman architecture in Sicily, as also in the +cathedral at Amalfi. The porches, entrance doorways and windows +being the chief decorative feature of the south Italian churches, +were enriched with splendid sculptures. So were the pulpits of the +cathedrals of Sessa, Ravello, Salerno and Troja, the rich mosaic +inlays at Sessa, Ravello and Salerno according in design with the +Cosmati work in Rome, though they possibly had an earlier origin +in Sicily.</p> + +<p><i>Sicilian Romanesque</i>.—Although the earliest remains in Sicily date +from the Norman occupation of the island, they are so permeated +with Saracenic detail as to leave no doubt that the conqueror +employed the native workmen, who for two centuries at all events +had been building for the Mahommedans, and therefore, whether +Arab or Greek, had been reproducing the same style as that found +in Egypt or North Africa.</p> + +<p>It is possible that, so far as the Norman palaces of the 12th century +are concerned, they were based on those built under the Saracenic +rule, but the requirements of a mosque and of a church are entirely +different, and therefore in the earliest church existing (San Giovanni-dei-Leprosi, +at Palermo, built by Robert Guiscard in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1071) we +find a completely developed Christian structure, having nave, +aisles and transepts, with a dome over the crossing and three apses. +The next church, at Troina (1078), was similar on plan, but had +three square wings at the east end instead of apses. The next two +churches, La Martorana and San Cataldo (1129), at Palermo, +followed the plan of the Greek church, with four columns carrying +the superstructure and three domes over the nave bays carried on +Saracenic squinches, similar to those in San Giovanni-dei-Leprosi. +San Giovanni-degli-Eremiti (T-shaped on plan) has no aisles, but +carries domes over the nave and three smaller domes on the transept. +The most important feature found in all these churches is the pointed +arch, of Saracenic origin imported from the East, which was employed +for the nave, arcades, the crossing, and in the squinches carrying +the domes. The blind arcades which decorate the walls of San +Cataldo and of the Norman palaces—La Favara, the Torre della +Ninfa, La Ziza and La Cuba (all in or near Palermo),—in two or +three orders, and sometimes (as in the Favara palace) of great height, +have all pointed arches and no impost mouldings or capitals. The +distinguishing characteristic of these blind arcades (and the same is +found in the open arcades) is the very slight projection of the outer +order of arch.</p> + +<p>The finest early example of Norman architecture in Sicily is the +Cappella Palatina, at Palermo, consecrated in 1140, and attached +to the palace. The plan consists of nave, aisles, transept and triple +apse, the arches, all pointed and stilted, being carried on monolith +columns of granite and marble alternately. The nave is covered +over with a timber roof with stalactitic coves and coffered ceiling, +richly decorated in colour and gilded, the borders of the panels +bearing Arabic inscriptions in Cufic characters. Similar inscriptions +exist on the upper part of the walls of the Cuba and Ziza palaces, +proving that they were built by Saracenic workmen. The plans of +the cathedrals of Palermo, Messina (destroyed 1908), Cefalu and +Monreale are all similar, with nave and aisles separated by arcades, +in which the arches are all pointed and stilted, transepts projecting +north and south beyond the aisle walls, and square bays beyond, +with apsidal terminations. That of Palermo has much suffered +from restorations, but the cathedral of Monreale is in perfect condition. +It was begun in 1176 and consecrated in 1182. The proportions +of the arcade are much finer than in the Cappella Palatina, +where the stilted arch was of the same height as the shaft of the +columns, whereas here it is only half the height. The columns are +all of granite with extremely fine capitals, some of which were taken +from ancient buildings. All the roofs are in wood, with coffered +ceilings richly decorated in gold and colour. The walls to a height +of 22 ft. are all lined with slabs of marble with mosaic friezes, and +all the surfaces of walls and arches are covered above with mosaics +representing scenes from the Old and New Testaments, while in the +apse at the east end a gigantic figure of Christ dominates the whole +church. The same is found at Cefalu, where the mosaic decorations, +however, are confined to the apses. Externally the walls are comparatively +plain, the decoration being confined to the east end, +where the three apses are covered with a series of blind intersecting +arcades of pointed arches. This class of enrichment prevails throughout +the great Sicilian churches, and extends sometimes to the smaller +churches, as that of the Chiesa-dei-Vespri. Of the conventual buildings +attached to the cathedral of Monreale, which occupied an +immense site, there remain only the cloisters, about 140 ft. square, +enclosed by an arcade with pointed arches carried on coupled +columns, the shafts of which are elaborately carved and inlaid with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span> +mosaic; the capitals are of the most varied design and of exquisite +execution.</p> + +<p><i>Italian Gothic</i>.—Italy is poorer than any other country in examples +of the transition from round arched to pointed arched buildings. +The use of the pointed arch was accepted at last as a necessity, +and cannot be said ever to have been welcomed. The first buildings +in which it is seen worked out fully in detail are those of Niccola +Pisano, and but few examples exist of good Gothic work earlier than +his time. The elaborately arcaded and sculptured west front of +Ferrara cathedral is a screen to an early building. The cathedral +and other churches at Genoa are certainly exquisite works, but they +appear to owe their internal design rather to the influence of (perhaps) +Sicilian taste than north Italian, and the exquisite beauty of the +west front owes a good deal, at any rate, to French influence, +softened, refined and decorated by the extreme taste of an Italian +architect. The feature which most marks all Italian Gothic is the +indifference to the true use of the pointed arch. Everywhere arches +were constructed which could not have stood for a day had they +not been held together by iron rods. There was none of that sense +of the unities of art which made a northerner so jealous to maintain +the proper relations of all parts of his structure. In Niccola Pisano’s +works the arch mould rarely fits the capital on which it rests. The +proportions of buttresses to the apparent work to be done by them +are bad and clumsy. The window traceries look like bad copies of +some northern tracery, only once seen in a hurry by an indifferent +workman. There is no life, or development, or progress in the +work. If we look at the ground-plans of Italian Gothic churches, +we shall find nothing whatever to delight us. The columns are +widely spaced, so as to diminish the number of vaulting bays, +and to make the proportions of the oblong aisle vaulting bay very +ungainly. Clustered shafts are almost unknown, the columns being +plain cylinders with poorly sculptured capitals. There are no +triforium galleries, and the clerestory is generally very insignificant. +In short, a comparison of the best Gothic works in Italy with the +most moderate French or English work would show at once how +vast its inferiority must be allowed to be. Still there were beauties +which ought not to be forgotten or passed over. Such were the +beautiful cloisters, whose arcades are carried on delicate coupled +shafts,—<i>e.g.</i> in St John Lateran and St Paul’s at Rome. Such also +were the porches and monuments at Verona and elsewhere; and the +campaniles,—both those in Rome, divided by a number of string-courses +into a number of storeys, and those of the north, where there +are hardly any horizontal divisions, and the whole effort is to give +an unbroken vertical effect; or that unequalled campanile, the tower +of the cathedral at Florence by Giotto, where one sees in ordered +proportion, accurately adjusted, line upon line, and storey upon +storey, perhaps the most carefully wrought-out work in all Europe.</p> + +<p>The Italian architects were before all others devoted to the display +of colour in their works. St Mark’s had led the way in this, but, +throughout the peninsula, the bountiful plenty of nature in the +provision of materials was seconded by the zeal of the artist. They +were also distinguished for their use of brick. Just as in parts of +Germany, France, Spain and England, there were large districts +in which no stone could be had without the greatest labour and +trouble; and here the reality and readiness which always marked +the medieval workman led to his at once availing himself of the +natural material, and making a feature of his brickwork.</p> + +<p>The Gothic of Italy has, it must be admitted, no such grand works +to show as more northern countries have. Allowance has to be made +at every turn for some incompleteness or awkwardness of plan, +design or construction. There is no attempt to emulate the beauties +of the best French plans. Milan cathedral, magnificent as its scale +and material make it, is clumsy and awkward both in plan and +section, though its vast size makes it impressive internally. San +Francesco, Assisi, is only a moderately good early German Gothic +church, converted into splendour by its painted decorations. At +Orvieto a splendid west front is put, without any proper adjustment, +against a church whose merit is mainly that it is large and in parts +beautifully coloured.</p> + +<p>The finest Gothic interiors are of the class of which the Frari at +Venice and Sant’ Anastasia at Verona are examples. They are +simple vaulted cruciform churches, with aisles and chapels on the +east side of the transepts. But even in these the designs of the +various parts in detail are poor and meagre, and only redeemed +from failure by the picturesque monuments built against their walls, +by the work of the painter, and by their furniture. In fine, Gothic +art was never really understood in Italy, and, consequently, never +reached to perfection.</p> + +<p>Whilst the Pointed style was almost exclusively known and practised +in northern Europe, the Italians were but slowly improving in +their Gothic style; and the improvement was more evinced in their +secular than in their ecclesiastical structures. Florence, Bologna, +Vicenza, Udine, Genoa, and, above all, Venice, contain palaces and +mansions of the 12th, 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, which for +simplicity, utility and beauty far excel most of those in the same +and other places of the three following centuries. The contemporary +churches do not exhibit the same degree of improvement in style +that is conspicuous in these domestic works, for there are no works in +Europe more worthy of study and admiration than the Ducal Palace +at Venice, and some of the older works of the same class, and even +of earlier date. The town halls of Perugia, Piacenza and Siena, and +many houses in these cities, and at Corneto, Amalfi, Asti, Orvieto +and Lucca, the fountains of Perugia and Viterbo, and the monuments +at Bologna, Verona and Arezzo, may be named as evidence of +the interest which the national art affords to the architectural +student even in Italy, as late as the end of the 14th century; but +after this it gradually gave way to the new style, though in +some instances its influence may be traced even when it had been +overborne by it.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in France</p> + +<p>Most generally, Romanesque art is thought of as that period +of art which followed and partook of the nature of Roman +art and yet was too far removed from it to be classed as Roman. +The difference, however, was not merely one of decay; it is rather +in positive factors that we shall find the true characteristics of +the style. Its formation was parallel to the development of the +Romance languages, and like them it acquired barbaric elements.</p> + +<p>In Rome itself hardly any, if any, contributions were made +to its growth, and there as late as the 12th century the early +Christian form of basilican church continued to be built. It +may, perhaps, best be conceived as a Germano-Roman product, +for even in Spain and north Italy, which became such strong +centres of the art, the Visigoths and Lombards provided the +Teutonic element. Besides this change of “blood” in the style, +there is another element of change in the influences obtained from +the more rapidly developed art of the East. This influence +indeed was so strong and constant that, having it in view, we +might almost describe the Romanesque style as Germano-Byzantine.</p> + +<p>In the 6th and 7th centuries we have, on the one hand, the +almost pure traditional early Christian art of Rome and indeed +of western Europe, and on the other the direct establishment of +matured Byzantine art at Ravenna, Parenzo, Naples and even +in Rome. Then followed the mixture of these and of barbaric +elements in the formation of several pre-Romanesque varieties, +one of which has been named Italo-Byzantine. It was not until +the age of Charlemagne that a centre was established strong +enough for the formation of a new western school which should +persist. From this time a progressive style was developed which +led straight forward to the Gothic, and it is this movement which +is best called Romanesque. This art was a perfect ferment of +striving and experiment, of gathering and even of research; +Roman, Byzantine and Saxon elements entered into its composition. +It is probable also, as a result of Saracenic pressure +on Syria, Asia Minor, North Africa and Spain, that artists, +“bringing their crafts with them,” drew together from still +remoter parts to gain the protection of the great ruler of the +West and to help in the formation of Carolingian art. With the +disintegration of the empire of Charlemagne many local schools +arose in Germany, France and Lombardy, which—especially +after the year 1000, when there appears to have been a renewed +burst of building energy—resulted in considerable differentiation +of styles. The centre of energy seems to have been now here, +now there, yet with all the differences there was a general +resemblance over the whole field. Until the exact date of a +very large number of monuments is more perfectly established, +it will be impossible to trace out exactly the intricate windings of +the line of advance. In fact there are two conflicting sides to the +question presented by Romanesque art. In the first place we have +to consider the several schools in regard to a standard of absolute +attainment, and in the second as relative to the line of persistence +and to the formation of Gothic, which was so largely the culmination, +and then the decay, of the forces present in Romanesque +art. Some of the most beautiful and complete of the Romanesque +schools contributed least, some of the most inchoate gave the +most, to that which was to be.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most important existing monument of the age of Charlemagne +is the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle (see fig. 44), which was being built +in the year 800. It has an octagonal central area, covered by a +dome and surrounded with two storeys of aisles both completely +vaulted. The interior surface of the dome was encrusted with +mosaic. Another important work of about the same time is the +church of Germigny-des-Prés near Orleans, which also is of the +“central type,” having a square tower above four piers surrounded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span> +by an aisle with semicircular apses in the centre of each external +wall, the apse to the east having a mosaic.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate III.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:673px; height:477px" src="images/img396a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Brogi.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 68.—ST PETERS, ROME.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:687px; height:480px" src="images/img396b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Alinari.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 69.—INTERIOR OF ST PETER’S, ROME.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate IV.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:608px; height:464px" src="images/img396c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Koch.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 70.—TOWN HALL, BREMEN.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:645px; height:469px" src="images/img396d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Brogi.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7l.—VENDRAMINI PALACE, VENICE.</td></tr></table> + +<p>From the 9th to the 11th century the great problem worked out +was that of perfecting the standard plans of large churches. In the +MS. plan of the monastic church of St Gall, drawn about 820, we +find a great nave with aisles, apsidal terminations both to the east +and the west, transepts and probably a central tower (cf. the abbey +church of Saint-Riquier near Abbeville, built <i>c</i>. 800, of which a slight +representation has been preserved). In St Martin at Tours was +probably evolved the most perfect type of plan, that with an ambulatory +and radiating chapels surrounding the eastern apse. A +magnificent church of this form was built here at the beginning of +the 11th century, but not for the first time. Excavations have shown +that the plan was probably suggested by a still earlier church in +which five tomb-niches surrounded the central apse and tomb of +St Martin. At Jumičges (begun 1040) it has recently been found +that the plan terminated to the east with parallel apses, as at St +Albans in England; this is a second important type. A third type +is that in which the transepts as well as the east end are finished +with apses, like St Mary-in-the-Capitol at Cologne.</p> + +<p>When we come to the developed Romanesque of the end of the +11th century, we find not only several French varieties, but strong +schools in Lombardy and on the Rhine. Without distinguishing too +minutely, four broad types representing schools of the east and west, +north and south (or rather north-east, north-west, south-east and +south-west) of France, may be spoken of, and all of these were +engaged in the task of completely covering with vaults large churches +of basilican plan—the typical problem of this period. In the east +of France we have a school represented by the monastic church of +Tournus, where the nave was vaulted by a series of compartments +placed transversely to the axis of the church. This church, which +has a plan of the type of St Martin’s at Tours, was begun in 1019, but +the nave vaults were not reached until after 1066. This style of +vaulting persisted in Burgundy, and from thence it spread to Fountains +Abbey in England, where it is found over the aisles. The most +beautiful class of buildings in eastern France is that of which the +church at Issoire is the most perfect example. The external walls +are here ornamented with patterns countercharged in light and +dark stone. The wonderful church at Le Puy also belongs to this +group, but here strong Moorish influence is to be traced. The inlays +were probably derived from a late Gallo-Roman source. Countercharging +of stones of two colours was a favourite method of building +in Romanesque churches erected between 1100 and 1150. We find +it at Vézelay, a magnificent abbey church of Burgundy, at Le Mans +cathedral, and as far north-west as Exeter and Worcester. In the +west (south-west) the most prominent school was that of Perigord, +of which the church of St Front, Périgueux, may be taken as the +example. St Front was rebuilt after a fire in 1120, but there are +many earlier specimens, two of the most important being at +Angoulęme (1105-1128) and Fontevrault. This school applied a +series of domes of eastern fashion not only at the centre but over +the whole extent of the church. St Front so closely resembles St +Mark’s, Venice, that it must be derived from it or from some similar +eastern church. The method largely influenced the Angevin school +of vaulting, but it does not seem to have been effective as a protection +from the weather. Some examples were covered by external +roofs, as was St Front itself at a late time. St Ours at Loches, +originally a small church covered by domes, had spire-like pyramids +substituted for them when the church was enlarged about 1168.</p> + +<p>The third class of vaulting we may for symmetry’s sake associate +with the south, though it is found widely distributed. The chapel +in the Tower of London is an example, and its true centre seems +to be the Auvergne. The vaults of this type run along with the +axis of the space to be covered. In the case of large churches the +central span is frequently supported by quadrant vaults leaning +against it on either side. One of the most noble churches in which +the central span is covered by such a barrel vault is that of St +Savin near Poitiers, where very much has been preserved of the complete +series of paintings which once adorned it and the walls beneath.</p> + +<p>The most characteristic buildings of the south are the churches +of Moissac, St Trophime at Aries, St Gilles near Nîmes and St +James of Compostella, where there is much sculpture of a Lombardic +type. There was a great revival of sculpture, going together with a +study of the antique, in Lombardy at the end of the 11th century. +Wiligelmus, who later worked at San Zeno, Verona, signed some +sculptures at Modena in 1099.</p> + +<p>Of the schools of the north, Normandy took the lead. It was +adventurous, if somewhat barbaric. It derived much from Germany +and gave much to the Gothic style. About the middle of the 11th +century the Normans began to experiment with cross-groined vaults +and their application to the church problem. This from the first +contained an important possibility of future development, in that +it allowed of windows of considerable height being placed in the +lunettes of these vaults. Soon a very great step in advance was made +by the invention or application of diagonal ribs under the intersection +of the plain groined vault. This association of strengthening +ribs in a cross form to each bay of the structure forms the <i>ogive</i>, the +characteristic form from which the alternative name to Gothic, +“ogival,” has been derived. The first instance we know of the use +of this system is at Durham cathedral, where the aisles of the east +end were so covered about 1093, and where the high vault erected +about 1104 was almost certainly of the same kind. Another outcome +of the genius of Norman builders seems to have been the donjon or +keep type of castle.</p> +</div> + +<p>The word “Gothic” was applied by Italian writers of the +Renaissance to buildings later than Roman, which in some cases +(<i>e.g.</i> Theodoric’s works at Ravenna) might be properly so named. +What we now call Gothic the same writers called Modern. +Later the word came to mean the art which filled the whole +interval between the Roman period and the Renaissance, and +then last of all, when the Byzantine and Romanesque forms of +art were defined, Gothic became the art which intervened +between the Romanesque era and the Renaissance.</p> + +<p>As remarked above, Gothic architecture is to a large extent +the crown of Romanesque. It is agreed that its chief element +of construction was the ogival vaulting which was being widely +used by Romanesque builders in the first half of the 12th century; +and pointed arches appeared as early.</p> + +<p>The eminent architect, G.E. Street, writing<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> of what we have +called the standard plan of great 12th-century churches, says, +“In whatever way the early <i>chevets</i> (as the French term them) +grew up there is no doubt that they contain the germ of the +magnificent <i>chevets</i> in the complete Gothic churches of the north +of France.” Architecture of the middle ages having been continuously +developed, it is necessarily somewhat arbitrary to +mark off any given period; all are agreed, however, that about +the year 1150 there was a time of rapid change towards a slenderer +and more energetic type of building, and the forms which +followed for about four centuries we now call Gothic. The +special character which the architecture of this period took +was partially conditioned by the fact that the expanding power +of the French kingdom, with its centre at Paris, was situated +in a particular artistic environment. The body of ideas on which +it for the most part worked was furnished by the Romanesque +art of north France, the German borderland and Burgundy. +A great contributory cause was the immense monastic activity +of the time, and the need of accomplishing large results with +limited means resulted in a casting aside of old ornamental +commonplaces and in innovations of planning and structure. +This was especially the case with the Cistercian order, which +carried certain transitional Gothic forms of building into England, +Germany, Italy and Spain. If, however, we make the transition +to Gothic date from the first use of “ogival” vaults in north-west +Europe, then Durham cathedral is, so far as we now know, +the earliest example of the transitional style. The next step, the +appearance of Gothic itself, may best be held to date from +the systematic but not exclusive use of pointed arches in association +with ogival vaults about the middle of the 12th century.</p> + +<p>At this time was waged a war of domination amongst the +styles, a war which resulted not necessarily in the victory of the +most beautiful nor even of the strongest, but one in which +political and geographical considerations had much to do with +the decision. When the French kingdom took the lead in western +civilization, it was settled that a northern form of art, one which +had perforce to make a chief element of the window, should be +followed out. The consequent development of the window is, +after all, as the first observers thought, the great mark of the +mature style. As to the position of France in the movement, +Mr Street may again be quoted:—“When once the Gothic +style was well established, the zeal with which the work of +building was pursued in France was almost incredibly great. +A series of churches exists there within short distances of each +other, so superb in all their features that it is impossible to +contest their superiority to any corresponding group of buildings. +The old Domaine Royale is that in which French art is seen in +its perfection. Notre Dame, Paris, is a monument second to +nothing in the world; but for completeness in all its parts +it would be better to cite the cathedral of Chartres, a short +description of which must suffice as an explanation of what French +art at its zenith was. The plan has a nave with aisles, transepts +with aisles on each side, a choir with two aisles all round it, +and chapels beyond them. There are two immense steeples +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span> +at the west end, two towers to each transept and two towers at +the junction of the choir with its apse. The doorways are triple +at the west end, whilst to each transept is a vast triple porch in +front of the three doorways. The whole of these doorways +are covered with sculpture, much of it refined, spirited and +interesting in the highest degree. You enter and find the interior +surpassing even the exterior. The order of the columns and +arches, and of all the details, is so noble and simple that no +fault can be found with it. The whole is admirably executed; +and, finally, every window throughout its vast interior is full of +the richest glass coeval with the fabric. As compared with +English churches of the same class, there are striking differences. +The French architects aimed at greater height, greater size, +but much less effect of length. Their roofs were so lofty that +it was almost impossible for them to build steeples which should +have the sort of effect that ours have. The turret on Amiens +cathedral is nearly as lofty as Salisbury spire, but is only a turret; +and so throughout. Few French churches afford the exquisite +complete views of the exterior which English churches do; but, +on the other hand, their interiors are more majestic, and man +feels himself smaller and more insignificant in them than in ours. +The palm must certainly be given to them above all others. +There is no country richer in examples of architecture than +France. The student who wishes to understand what it was +possible for a country to do in the way of creating monuments +of its grandeur, would find in almost every part of the country, +at every turn and in great profusion, works of the rarest interest +and beauty. The 19th century may be the consummation of all, +but the evidences of its existence to posterity will not be one-tenth +in number of those which such a reign as that of Philip +Augustus has left us, whilst none of them will come up to the +high standard which in his time was invariably reached.”</p> + +<p>The remarks which have been made as to the variation in +style visible in various parts of the same country, apply with +more force, perhaps, in what we now call France than to any other +part of Europe. For the purposes of complete study it would +be necessary to keep distinct from each other in the mind the +following important divisions:—(1) Provence and Auvergne; +(2) Aquitaine; (3) Burgundy; (4) Anjou and Poitou, (5) Brittany; +(6) Normandy; (7) the Île-de-France and Picardy; (8) Champagne; +and, finally, (9) the eastern border-land (neither quite German +nor quite French in its character), the meeting-point +of the two very different developments of French and +German art. Speaking generally, it is safe to say that Gothic +architecture was never brought to its highest perfection in any +portion of the south of France. Aquitaine, Auvergne and +Provence were too wedded to classic traditions to excel in an art +which seems to have required for its perfection no sort of looking +back to such a past. Hence there is no Gothic work in the south +for which it is possible to feel the same admiration and enthusiasm +as must be felt by every artist in presence of the great works of +the north. In Anjou this is less the case; but even there the +art is extremely inferior to that which is seen in Normandy and +the Île-de-France. Brittany may be dismissed from consideration, +as being, like Cornwall, so provincial and so cut off from +neighbours, that its art could not fail to be very local, and +without much influence outside its own borders.</p> + +<p>There are examples of true Gothic outside its proper habitat, +almost pure French works being found as far south as Laon and +Burgos, as far east as Strassburg and Lausanne and as far north +as Canterbury and Cologne. Westminister Abbey was profoundly +influenced by direct study of French work. Normandy, +Burgundy, and the land as far north as Tournay seem to have +shared in the work of transition; but the Gothic area proper is +the Île-de-France with Picardy and Champagne, then Burgundy, +Normandy and England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Four remarkable buildings best represent the early phase of the +Gothic style, the abbey church of St Denis, and the cathedrals of +Noyon, Senlis and Sens. The first was begun in 1137, and the choir was +consecrated in 1143. The few parts of this work which remain are +sufficient to show how stately and yet fresh the whole work must +have been. Noyon cathedral, begun after a fire which occurred in +1131, had its choir consecrated in 1157. The cathedral of Senlis was +begun in 1155. Sens cathedral, begun about the same time, or even +earlier, is the first of the great cathedrals. Many other buildings +belong to the first years of the style; such are the abbey churches of +St Remi at Reims, Notre Dame at Châlons and St Germain-des-Prés, +Paris. The choir of this last was consecrated in 1163, and in +the same year Notre Dame, Paris, was begun. This mighty building, +although very complete, was altered as to its effect by the substitution, +early in the 13th century, of large two-light windows for the +earlier lancets of the clerestory. The sculptures of the west front +are exquisite. Laon cathedral, another of the great churches, is of +about the same age as Notre Dame. It also has beautiful sculpture +in its western porches, but its most marked characteristic is the group +of six great and romantic towers which flank the fronts to the west, +the north and the south. In the 13th century, the church was extended +to the east and the original <i>chevet</i> was destroyed. From the +evidence furnished by fine double-staged chapels to the transepts, +it is most probable that three similar chapels were set about the +ambulatory of the apse, the upper chapels opening from the fine +vaulted triforium. Such an arrangement existed at the noble church +of Valenciennes, now destroyed, but well recorded. At the end of +the 12th century Chartres cathedral was begun, perhaps its most +notable constructive feature being the high development that the +flying buttresses have here attained. It was followed in the early +years of the 13th century by Rouen cathedral, which derived much +from its prototype. St Omer, a fine early church, in turn, followed +Rouen.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:266px; height:557px" src="images/img398.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 40.—Plan of Cathedral at Amiens.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The second stage of Gothic, introducing the traceried window, +was opened by the building of the cathedral of Reims, begun in 1211. +This is in every way one of the most perfect of cathedrals, as well for +its sculpture and glass as for its structure. Reims was followed by +the still greater cathedral at +Amiens (fig. 40), which was +begun in 1220 at the west front, +so that the superb sculpture +(Plate II., fig. 64) of the porches +is earlier than that of Reims. +Beauvais cathedral was begun +in 1247 on a still vaster scale, +and with an ambition that +o’erleaped itself. Auxerre +cathedral, and the very beautiful +collegiate churches of St Quentin +and Semur, also followed Reims. +Two other cathedrals of the +first rank which must be mentioned +are those of Bourges and +Le Mans, each of these having +double aisles about the apse, +with a large clerestory to the +inner one of the two, above +which rises the great clerestory. +This scheme is one of the great +feats of Gothic construction. +Le Mans again furnished the +most highly developed form +of <i>chevet</i> planning (fig. 41). On +this point Mr Street may again +be cited. “It was in the planning +of the apse, with its +surrounding aisles and chapels, +that all their ingenuity and +science were displayed. A +simple apse is easy enough of +construction, but directly it is +surrounded by an aisle or +aisles, with chapels again beyond +them, the difficulties are great. +The bays of the circular aisle, +instead of being square, are very much wider on one side than +the other, and it is most difficult to fit the vaulting to the unequal +space. In order to get over this, various plans were tried. At Notre +Dame, Paris, the vaulting bays were all triangular on plan, so that +the points of support might be twice as many on the outside line of +the circle as on the inside. But this was rather an unsightly +contrivance, and was not often repeated, though at Bourges there is +something of the same sort. At Le Mans the aisle vaulting bays are +alternately triangular and square; and this is, perhaps, the best +arrangement of all, as the latter are true and square, and none of +the lines of the vault are twisted or distorted in the slightest degree. +The arrangement of the chapels round the apse was equally varied. +Usually they are too crowded in effect; and, perhaps, the most +beautiful plan is that of Rouen cathedral, where there are only three +chapels with unoccupied bays between, affording much greater relief +and variety of lighting than the commoner plan which provided a +chapel to every bay. The planning and design of the <i>chevet</i> is +the great glory of the French medieval school. When the same thing +was attempted, as at Westminster, or by the Germans at Cologne, +it was evidently a copy, and usually an inferior copy, of French +work. No English works led up to Westminster Abbey, and no +German works to the cathedral at Cologne.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span> </p> + +<p>The variety in the planning of the <i>chevets</i> must be remarked. +There might be only one chapel opening from the semicircular +ambulatory, as at Langres, Sens, Auxerre, Bayeux and Lausanne. +Canterbury cathedral, designed by William of Sens, is perhaps the +most perfect example. There were three separated chapels, as at +Rouen, St Omer, Semur, &c., or there might be five filling the whole +space, which became the general later scheme. Chartres furnishes an +intermediate plan, in having the alternate chapels much shallower +than the others. The chapels might be circular or polygonal or +alternately square and round. Of the last the cathedral of Toledo +is a wonderful example. The plan with parallel apses also continued +in use, as at the beautiful abbey church at Dijon and St Urbain at +Troyes. Apsidal transepts were built at Noyon, Soissons and +Valenciennes.</p> + +<p>Another stage of development was reached with the building of +the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, begun in 1244. With this work the +Gothic system reached complete maturity. Here for the first time +large traceried windows seem to have been perfected, and, moreover, +the structure was so organized into a series of wide window spaces, +only divided by strong far-projecting buttress piers, that the stained +glass ideal found full expression and the building became a lantern +for its display.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:438px; height:352px" src="images/img399.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 41.—Cathedral of Le Mans. East end and Chevet.</td></tr></table> + +<p>During the next half-century the influence of the Sainte Chapelle +is to be traced everywhere, and its system of construction was +developed to the furthest possible point in St Urbain at Troyes, +begun in 1260. Exploration of the Gothic theory of structure +could be carried no further. From this point the style turned in on +itself, becoming more unreasonably intricate, artificial and mannerized. +One of the finest examples of the style of the early 14th century +is the eastern limb of St Ouen, Rouen; Troyes cathedral is also an +important example of later work. As Mr Street says: “Later +French architecture ran a very similar course to that in England. +The 13th century was that in which it was seen at its best. In the +14th the same sort of change took place as elsewhere; and art was +beautiful, but it was too much an evidence of skilfulness and +adroitness. It was harder and colder also than English work of the same +age; and when it fell, it did so before the inroads of a taste for what +has been called Flamboyant architecture,—a gay and meretricious +style which trusted to ornament for all its effect, and, in spite of +many beauties, had none of the sturdy magnificence of much of our +English Perpendicular style.”</p> + +<p>M. Enlart has recently accepted the view that the germs of +flamboyancy in the later French Gothic are to be found in the +flowing curvilinear forms of early 14th-century work in England.</p> + +<p>Up to the middle of the 16th century, magnificent works in the +national style were still being executed. St Vulfran at Abbeville, +St Maclou in Rouen, and the façade of the cathedral of Rouen, +may be mentioned; some of the last works were the immense +transepts of Beauvais cathedral and the façade of Tours.</p> + +<p>We have necessarily spoken most of churches, but the palaces, +castles and civic buildings form another great class hardly less +interesting. The castles of Coucy and Château Gaillard may rival +any cathedral. Among civic buildings may be mentioned the palais +de justice at Rouen and the hôtel de ville at Compičgne, both late +but beautiful and impressive types. The royal palace of Paris is now +represented by the Sainte Chapelle, but accounts of its splendid hall +and general arrangements have been preserved. At Poitiers is still +extant the hall of the palace of the counts of Poitou; at Laon the +episcopal palace is almost entire; there are considerable remains of +the bishops’ palaces of Beauvais, Evreux, Rouen, Reims: and the +pope’s palace at Avignon must also be mentioned in this connexion. +The most perfect existing great houses of the middle ages are those +of Jacques Coeur at Bourges and of the abbot of Cluny in Paris. +A large number of fine houses on a small scale, dating from the 12th +and 13th centuries, are still preserved at Beauvais, Auxerre, Chartres, +Cordes, &c. The house of the musicians at Reims, <i>c.</i> 1280, is adorned +by a series of seated life-sized figures playing instruments, in sculpture +of a very high order. A good and concise account of the smaller houses +in France is given in Hudson Turner’s <i>Some Account of Domestic +Architecture</i>, and in C. Enlart’s <i>Manuel d’archéologie</i>, +the best and most recent survey of the whole field of medieval antiquities +in France.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. L.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in Spain</p> + +<p>What strikes the architectural student most forcibly in Spain +is the concurrent existence of two schools of art during the best +part of the middle ages. The Moors invaded Spain in 711, and +were not finally expelled from Granada until 1492. During the +whole of this period they were engaged, with more or less success, +in contests for superiority with the Christian natives. In those +portions of the country which they held longest, and with the +firmest hand, they enforced their own customs and taste in art +almost to the exclusion of all other work. Where their rule was +not permanent their artistic influence was still felt, and even +beyond what were ever the boundaries of their dominion, there +are still to be seen in Gothic buildings some traces of +acquaintance with Arabic art not seen elsewhere in Europe, with +the exception, perhaps, of the southern part of the Italian +peninsula, and there differing much in its development. The mosque +of Cordova in the 9th century, the Alcazar and Giralda at Seville +in the 13th, the Court of Lions in the Alhambra in the 14th, several +houses in Toledo in the 15th century, are examples of what the +Moors were building during the period of the middle ages in +which the best Gothic buildings were being erected. Some +portions of Spain were never conquered by the Moors. These +were the greater part of Aragon, Navarre, Asturias, Biscay +and the northern portion of Galicia. Toledo was retaken by the +Christians in 1085, Tarragona in 1089, Saragossa in 1118, Lerida +in 1149, Valencia in 1238 and Seville in 1248. In the districts +occupied by the Moors Gothic architecture had no natural +growth, whilst even in those which were not held by them +the arts of war were of necessity so much more thought of +than those of peace, that the services of foreign architects were +made use of to an extent unequalled in any other part of Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of early Christian buildings erected from the 9th to the 11th +century remains of some twenty to thirty are known, and there are +probably others which will be found when the communications in +the country become more extended. The most interesting of these +is Santa Maria de Naranco near Oviedo, originally built in 848 as +part of a palace. It consisted of a rectangular hall, 42 ft. long +and 16 ft. wide, with entrance doorways in the centre of each side, +and at each end an arcade of three arches, carried on piers and coupled +columns, which led to an open loggia from which the hall was +lighted. Fifty to sixty years later it was converted into a church +by blocking up the end of the east loggia. The church is remarkable +for its barrel vault, built in fine masonry, and for the knowledge +that is displayed in meeting its thrust. Internally, in order to lessen +the span, the upper part of the walls is brought forward and carried +on a series of arches on each side, which are supported on piers +consisting of four coupled columns, virtually constituting an interior +abutment. Externally, the thrust is met by buttresses, features not +found in France until about a century and a half later. All the +columns are spiral-fluted, and a twisted-cord torus-moulding decorates +the capitals and other features in the church. The transverse ribs +of the hall, which are of slight projection, are carried on broad +bands with disks in the spandrils of the arches, the disks having +badges in the centre, and being bordered, as well as the bands, with +twisted cords. Underneath the church is a spacious vaulted crypt, +which was built as a cellar or basement storey, to raise and give +more importance to the palace. The twisted cord seems to have +been a favourite device in all the early churches, and is extensively +employed in the decoration of San Miguel de Lino, a small church +about a quarter of a mile from Santa Maria de Naranco and coeval +with that church. Externally the church of San Miguel has all the +character of a Byzantine church; the windows in the front are +pierced with Moorish tracery, probably brought there by those +Christians who were flying to the sanctuaries of Asturias from +the incursions of the Moors. In another church, about 15 m. south +of Oviedo, Santa Christina de Leon, all the attached staffs are +decorated with spiral fluting. The choir is raised, and approached +by steps on either side through a screen of three arches, of the type +known as Transennae in the earlier Christian of Rome. Here, as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span> +in Santa Maria de Naranco, the church is covered with a barrel +vault with similar constructive and decorative features. Externally +the buttresses are in great profusion, there being two to each bay. +The screen, the pierced marble slabs between the columns carrying +it, and the decoration of the capitals, all show Byzantine influence. +Other early churches are those of San Pablo del Campo (930) and +San Pedro de las Puellas, both in Barcelona, the fine church at the +village of Priesca near Villaviciosa (915), the monastery of Valdedios +(893) and that of San Salvador (1218), in which, notwithstanding +its late date, there is a distinct Moorish influence. This influence +is also to be noticed in the north of Spain, although it was never +occupied by the Moors. Thus in the earliest church known, at +Banos de Cerrato near Palencia (founded in 662, but restored in +711), there is a horse-shoe barrel vault over the square apse. Again +in San Miguel de Escalada (913) near Leon, there are horse-shoe +arches in the nave, and the three apses are horse-shoe on plan. +San Pedro at Zamora is a vaulted church with horse-shoe arches in +the nave, but otherwise Byzantine in style. In the church of Corpus +Christi at Segovia the nave is Moorish in style, and the octagonal +columns of the nave have capitals with fir cones, as in the well-known +Santa Maria la Blanra at Toledo, originally a synagogue. The most +remarkable church of all, so far as Moorish style is concerned, is the +church of the monastery of Santiago de Peńalva, near Villafranca +del Vierzo, built between 931 and 951, and therefore coeval with +Cordova. The church is 40 ft. long by 20 ft. wide, covered by a +barrel vault with transverse horse-shoe arch in the centre carrying +the same. At each end is an apse with horse-shoe arches carried on +marble shafts with Byzantine capitals. Though of later date, there +is another interesting Romanesque example in the Templars’ church +of La Vera Cruz at Segovia (1204), which is twelve-sided with three +apses, and in the centre has a chapel built in imitation of the Holy +Sepulchre at Jerusalem.</p> + +<p>The buildings which come next in point of date are all evidently +derived from or erected by the architects of those which were at +the time being built in the south of France. These churches are +uniform in plan, with central lanterns and three eastern apses. The +nave has usually a waggon or barrel vault, supported by quadrant +vaults in the aisles, and the steeples are frequently polygonal in +plan. If these churches are compared with examples like that of the +cathedral at Carcassonne on the other side of the Pyrenees, their +identity in style will at once be seen. A still more remarkable +evidence of similarity has been pointed out between the church of +St Sernin, Toulouse, and the cathedral of Santiago. The plan, +proportions and general design of the two churches are identical. +Here we see a noble ground-plan, consisting of nave with aisles, +transepts, central lantern and chevet, consisting of an apsidal choir, +with a surrounding aisle and chapels opening into it at intervals. +This example is the more remarkable, inasmuch as the early Spanish +architects very rarely built a regular <i>chevel</i>, and almost always preferred +the simpler plan of apsidal chapels on either side of the choir. +And its magnificent scale and perfect preservation to the present day +combine to make it one of the most interesting architectural relics +in the country.</p> + +<p>Among the more remarkable buildings of the 12th and the beginning +in the 13th century are San Isidore, Leon; San Vicente, Avila; +several churches in Segovia; and the old cathedral at Lerida. +They are much more uniform in character than are the churches +of the same period in the various provinces of France, and the +developments in style, where they are seen at all, seldom have much +appearance of being natural local developments. This, indeed, is +the most marked feature of Spanish architecture in all periods of its +history. In such a country it might have been expected that many +interesting local developments would have been seen; but of these +there are but one or two that deserve notice. One of them is illustrated +admirably in the church of San Millan, Segovia, where +beyond the aisles of the nave are open cloisters or aisles arcaded +on the outside, and opening by doors into the aisles of the nave. A +similar external south portico exists in San Miguel de Escalada, +already referred to, Santo Domingo, Burgos, and San Estéban at +Segovia. It would be difficult to devise a more charming arrangement +for buildings in a hot country, whilst at the same time the +architectural effect is in the highest degree beautiful. The universality +of the central tower and lantern has been already mentioned. +This was often polygonal, and its use led to the erection of +some lanterns or domes of almost unique beauty and interest. The +old cathedral at Salamanca, the church at Toro and the cathedral +of Zamora, all deserve most careful study on this score. Their +lanterns are almost too lofty in proportion to be properly called +domes, and yet their treatment inside and outside suggests a very +beautiful form of raised dome. They are carried on pointed arches, +and are circular in plan internally and octagonal on the exterior, +the angles of the octagon being filled with large turrets, which add +much to the beauty of the design, and greatly also to its strength. +Between the supporting arches and the vault there are, at Salamanca, +two tiers of arcades continued all round the lantern, the lower one +pierced with four, and the upper with twelve lights, and the vault or +dome is decorated with ribs radiating from the centre. On the +exterior the effect is rather that of a low steeple covered with a stone +roof with spherical sides than of a dome, but the design is so novel +and so suggestive, that it is well worth detailed description. Nothing +can be more happy than the way in which the light is admitted, +whilst it is also to be noted that the whole work is of stone, and that +there is nothing in the design but what is essentially permanent +and monumental in construction. The only other Spanish development +is the introduction, to a very moderate extent, of features +derived from the practice of the Moorish architects. This is, however, +much less seen than might have been expected, and is usually +confined to some small feature of detail, such, <i>e.g.</i> as the carving of a +boss, or the filling in of small tracery in circular windows, where +it would in no way clash with the generally Christian character of +the art.</p> + +<p>The debateable period of transition which is usually so interesting +is very sterile in Spain. A good model once adopted from the French +was adhered to with but little modification, and it was not till the +13th-century style was well established in France and England that +any introduction of its features is seen here; and then, again, it is +the work of foreign architects imported for the work and occasion, +bringing with them a fully developed style to which nothing whatever +in Spain itself led up by a natural or evident development. The +three great Spanish churches of this period are the cathedrals of +Toledo, Leon and Burgos (Plate II., fig. 65). Those of Siguënza, +Lerida and Tarragona, fine as they are, illustrate the art of the +12th rather than of the 13th century, but these three great churches +are perfect Early Pointed works, and most complete in all their parts. +The cathedral of Toledo is one of the most nobly designed churches in +Europe. In dimensions it is surpassed only by the cathedrals of +Milan and Seville, whilst in beauty of plan it leaves both those great +churches far behind. The <i>chevet</i>, in which two broad aisles are carried +round the apse with chapels alternately square and apsidal opening +out of them, is perhaps the most perfect of all the schemes we know. +It is as if the French <i>chevets</i>, all of which were more or less tentative +in their plan, had culminated in this grand work to which they had +led the way. The architectural detail of this great church is generally +on a par with the beauty and grandeur of its plan, but is perhaps +surpassed by the somewhat later church at Leon. Here we have a +church built by architects whose sole idea was the erection of a +building with as few and small points of support as possible, and +with the largest possible amount of window opening. It was the +work of men whose art had been formed in a country where as much +sun and light as possible were necessary, and is quite unsuited for +such a country as Spain. Nevertheless it is a building of rare beauty +and delicacy of design. Burgos, better known than either of the +others, is inferior in scale and interest, and its character has been +much altered by added works more or less Rococo in character, so +that it is only by analysis and investigation that the 13th-century +church is still seen under and behind the more modern excrescences.</p> + +<p>The next period is again marked by work which seems to be that +of foreigners. The fully developed Middle Pointed or Geometrical +Gothic is indeed very uniform all over Europe. Here, however, its +efforts were neither grand in scale nor interesting. Some of the +church furniture, as, <i>e.g.</i> the choir screens at Toledo, and some of +the cloisters, are among the best features. The work is all correct, +tame and academical, and has none of the dignity, power and +interest which marked the earlier Spanish buildings. Towards the +end of the 14th century the work of Spanish architects becomes +infinitely more interesting. The country was free from trouble with +the Moors; it was rich and prosperous, and certainly its buildings +at this period were so numerous, so grand and so original, that they +cannot be too much praised. Moreover, they were carefully designed +to suit the requirements of the climate, and also with a sole view to +the accommodation conveniently of enormous congregations, all +within sight of the preacher or the altar. This last development +seems to have been very much the work of a great architect of +Majorca, Jayme Fabre by name. The grandest works of his school +are still to be seen in Catalonia. Their churches are so vast in their +dimensions that the largest French and English buildings seem to +be small by comparison, and being invariably covered with stone +vaults, they cannot be compared to the great wooden-roofed churches +of the preaching orders in Italy and elsewhere, in which the only +approach is made to their magnificent dimensions. The cathedral of +Gerona is the most remarkable example. Here the choir is planned +like the French <i>chevet</i> with an aisle and chapels round it, and opens +with three lofty arches into the east wall of a nave which measures +no less than 73 ft. in the clear, and is covered with a stone vaulted +ceiling. In Barcelona there are several churches of very similar +description; at Manresa another, but with aisles to its nave; and +at Palma in Majorca one of the same plan as the last, but of even +much larger dimensions. Perhaps there is no effort of any local +school of architects more worthy of study and respect than this +Catalonian work of the 14th and 15th centuries. Such a happy +combination of noble design and proportions with entirely practical +objects places its author among the very greatest architects of any +time. It is one thing to develop patiently step by step from the +work of one’s fathers in art, quite another to strike out an entirely +new form by a new combination of the old elements. In comparison +with the works just mentioned the other great Spanish churches of +the 15th century are uninteresting. But still their scale is grand +and though their detail is over-elaborated and not beautiful, it is +impossible to deny the superb effect of the interior of such churches +as those of Seville, Segovia and Salamanca (new cathedral). They +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span> +are very similar in their character, their columns are formed by the +prolongation of the reedy mouldings of the arches, their window +traceries are poorly designed, and their roofs are covered with a +complex multitude of lierne ribs. Yet the scale is fine, the admission +of light, generally high up and in sparing quantity, is artistic, and +much of the furniture is either picturesque or interesting. The <i>tout +ensemble</i> is generally very striking, even where the architectural +purist is apt to grumble at the shortcomings of most of the detail.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind sc">Plate V.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:356px; height:568px" src="images/img400a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:351px; height:570px" src="images/img400b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Alinari.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Lacoste.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 72.—DOOR OF SAN MICHELE, PAVIA.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 73.—UNIVERSITY, SALAMANCA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:745px; height:362px" src="images/img400c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2"><i>Photo, Lacoste.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 74.—TOWN HALL, SEVILLE.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind sc">Plate VI.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:575px; height:345px" src="images/img400e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Frith & Co.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 75.—BANQUETING HOUSE, WHITEHALL.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:739px; height:347px" src="images/img400f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Frith & Co.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 76.—WOLLATON HALL.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:735px; height:233px" src="images/img400g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Stuart.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 77.—HAMPTON COURT.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The remarks which have been made so far have been confined to +the fabrics of the churches of Spain. It would be easy to add +largely to them by reference to the furniture which still so often +adorns them, unaltered even if uncared for; to the monuments of +the mighty dead; to the sculpture which frequently adorns the +doorways and screens; and to the cloisters, chapter-houses and +other dependent buildings, which add so much charm in every way +to them. Besides this, there are very numerous castles, often planned +on the grandest scale, and some, if not very many, interesting remains +of domestic houses and palaces; and most of these, being to some +extent flavoured by the neighbourhood of Moorish architects, have +more character of their own than has been accorded to the churches. +Finally, there are considerable tracts of country in which brick was +the only material used; and it is curious that this is almost always +more or less Moorish in the character of its detail. The Moors were +great brickmakers. Their elaborate reticulated enrichments were +easily executed in it, and the example set by them was, of course, +more likely to be followed by Spaniards than that of the nearest +French brick building district in the region of Toulouse. The brick +towers are often very picturesque; several are to be seen at Toledo, +others at Saragossa, and, perhaps the most graceful of all, in the old +city of Tarazona in Aragon, where the proportions are extremely +lofty, the face of the walls everywhere adorned with sunk panels, +arcading, or ornamental brickwork, and at the base there is a bold +battered slope which gives a great air of strength and stability to +the whole. On the whole, it must be concluded that the medieval +architecture of Spain from the 12th century is of less interest than +that of most other countries, because its development was hardly +ever a national one. The architects were imported at one time +from France, at another from the Low Countries, and they brought +with them all their own local fashions, and carried them into +execution in the strictest manner; and it was not till the end of +the 14th century, and even then only in Catalonia, that any buildings +which could be called really Spanish in their character were +erected.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in England</p> + +<p><i>Pre-Conquest</i>.—The history of English architecture before the +Norman Conquest is still only imperfectly known. Its parentage +is triple: Roman, Celtic and Teutonic. To the first belongs the +general building tradition of the Romanized West, and the influence +of the mission of Augustine at the end of the 6th century, +and of such men as Wilfrid in the 7th. The Celtic element is +due to the Scottish (Irish) church, which never gained much +hold on the south of England, while the Teutonic influence +shows itself in the later developments, which are allied to the +early buildings of kindred peoples in Germany. Fragments of +existing early churches have been attributed to the time of the +Roman occupation, but all are doubtful, with the exception of the +remains of what is believed to have been a Christian church +excavated at Silchester in 1892. This was a basilica of ordinary +form, comprising an apse with western orientation, nave and +aisles, transepts of slight projection, and narthex. Augustine’s +cathedral church of Canterbury, which he had learned was +originally constructed by the labours of Roman believers (Bede), +was also a basilica with western apse; its eastern apse and +<i>confessio</i> beneath were probably a later addition. Remains of +early churches are found on several sites where churches are +recorded to have been built during the missionary period. Of +these, Reculver (<i>c.</i> 670) and Brixworth (<i>c.</i> 680) have aisled +naves and eastern apses. At Brixworth a square bay intervenes +between the apse and the nave. St Pancras, Canterbury, of +the time of Augustine, Rochester (604), and Lyminge (founded +633), show unaisled naves of relatively wide proportion, with +eastern apses of stilted curve. In some of these churches there +was a triple arcade in front of the sanctuary, in place of the usual +“triumphal arch.” The technique shows Roman influence, and +Roman materials are largely used. The existing crypts of +Hexham and Ripon were built by Wilfrid, <i>c.</i> 675. The description +of Wilfrid’s church at Hexham gives the impression of an +elaborate structure (<i>columnis variis et porticibus multis suffultam</i>). +Wilfrid also built at Hexham a church of central plan, with +projections (<i>porticus</i>) on the four sides, a type of which no +example has survived in England. Escomb (Durham) and parts +of Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, which are attributed to the +same period, have plans of an entirely different type—a relatively +long and narrow nave, with small square-ended chancel—a plan, +usually attributed to Celtic influence, which is most extensively +represented in churches recognized as Saxon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The evolution of the characteristic features of pre-Conquest +architecture was slow, and was doubtless greatly hindered by the +invasions of the Northmen from the end of the 8th century onward, +but germs of the fully developed style are to be found in the earliest +buildings. The western tower, usually of tall and slender proportion, +was developed from the western porch found at St Pancras, Canterbury, +and Monkwearmouth; sometimes, as in the latter church, +actually raised over the older porch. The lateral chapels of St +Pancras, which existed also in the Saxon cathedral of Canterbury, +were developed into a transept, culminating in the cruciform plan +with central tower. The characteristic “long-and-short” work, +which consists of tall upright stones alternating with stones bedded +flat bonding into the rubble work of the wall, has its prototype in +the western arch of the porch of Monkwearmouth, and in the jambs +of the chancel arch at Escomb. Sometimes the flat stones are cut +back on the face, so that the plaster which covered the rubble +extended up to the line of the upright stones, thus giving the quoin +the appearance of a narrow pilaster. The repetition of these pilasters +on the face of the walling constitutes rib-work, and these ribs are +frequently connected by semicircular or so-called “triangular” +arches, forming a land of rude arcading (Earls Barton, Barton-on-Humber.) +Windows in the earliest Saxon work are generally wide +in proportion, and splayed on the inside only; in the later work they +commonly have splays both on the inside and outside. Doorways +have square jambs, without splay or rebate; sometimes the jambs +of doorways and windows are inclined, as in early buildings in Ireland. +Imposts to doorways, tower arches or chancel arches are often square +projecting blocks, sometimes chamfered on the lower edge. The +mid-wall shaft is a characteristic feature in the belfry openings of +Saxon towers; it supports an impost or through-stone, of the full +thickness of the wall, which receives the semicircular arches over the +openings. The method is analogous to that commonly found in +northern Italy and the Rhineland. Sometimes the mid-wall shaft +is a baluster, turned in a lathe. In some of the later belfry openings, +a capital intervenes between the mid-wall shaft and the impost. +The dating of buildings of this style is at present a matter of considerable +difficulty, but certain points, such as the development of +the cruciform plan, are useful for comparison. A fully developed +cross church was built at Romsey in 969, having also a single axial +western tower, and this seems to have been the normal type of a +large church in the later years of the style. Cruciform plans, not +yet fully developed, are found at Deerhurst, Breamore and St Mary +in the castle at Dover, and fully developed at Norton (Durham) +and Stow (Lincolnshire). The most advanced detail which occurs +in pre-Conquest buildings is the recessing of arches in orders. But +for the Conquest, English architecture might have developed somewhat +on the lines of contemporary work in Germany. It must be +remembered, however, that, although the Norman Conquest marks +the beginning of a new epoch in English architecture, the Norman +manner had already been introduced into England under Edward +the Confessor, as is proved by the considerable remains of that king’s +work at Westminster Abbey.</p> +</div> + +<p>The succeeding periods of English architecture have been +divided into so-called “styles” or “periods,” though it should +be recognized that all such hard and fast divisions are purely +artificial, and that, apart from the objection that they exaggerate +the importance of mere details, they tend to obscure the fact +that the history of Gothic architecture is a history of continuous +development. The following classifications, those of Thomas +Rickman and Edmund Sharpe, are in most general use for the +present by such students as are not content with a nomenclature +based on simple chronology:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Rickman.</td> <td class="tcc">Sharpe.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1066-1189 Norman.</td> <td class="tcl">1066-1145 Norman.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">1145-1190 Transitional.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1189-1307 Early English.</td> <td class="tcl">1190-1245 Lancet.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">1245-1315 Geometrical.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1307-1377 Decorated.</td> <td class="tcl">1315-1360 Curvilinear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1377-1546 Perpendicular.</td> <td class="tcl">1360-1550 Rectilinear.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Norman Conquest to c. 1150.</i>—At the time of the Conquest of +England, the Norman school was already one of the most advanced +Romanesque schools of western Europe. Its marked +individuality and logical character are clearly expressed in the +abbey churches of Jumičges and St Étienne and Sainte-Trinité +at Caen, and it quickly supplanted the less advanced Romanesque +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span> +manner of the conquered English. As soon as the conqueror had +made himself master in his new kingdom, cathedral and abbey +churches were rebuilt on a scale hitherto unknown either in +Normandy or England. As the effect of the Norman Conquest +was to incorporate the church in England more closely with +western Christendom, so its effect on architecture was to bring it +into line with the best continental achievement of its time. +The immense energy of the Norman bishops and abbots gave such +a stimulus to architecture that by the close of the 11th century, +England, rather than Normandy, had become the real <i>foyer</i> of +the Norman school.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The plans of the larger churches show greater development in +the length of choir, transept and nave than was usual in Normandy. +Many follow the type of choir plan generally represented in the +contemporary churches of Normandy which have survived—a +central apse, flanked by an apse terminating each aisle, but the +two bays usual in the Norman churches frequently became four in +England. The Confessor’s church of Westminster seems to have +had an ambulatory with radiating chapels, a plan which, although +rare in the surviving churches of Normandy, was adopted in several +of the more important English churches (St Augustine’s, Canterbury; +Winchester; Worcester; Gloucester; Bury St Edmunds; Norwich; +Tewkesbury). Some of these have great vaulted crypts extending +under the choir and its aisles. The transept, generally of +considerable length, has one or more apsidal chapels on the east side +of each arm, or an eastern aisle, or even (as at Winchester and Ely) +both eastern and western aisles. The lantern-tower over the crossing +was a characteristic feature in England, as in Normandy. Frequently +the nave was of great length, extending to twelve bays at Winchester, +thirteen at Ely, and fourteen at Norwich. Some churches, as Ely, +Bury St Edmunds, and later Peterborough (Plate VIII., fig. 81), show +a western transept, with corresponding development of the west front. +Two western towers are most usual, but Ely (Plate II., fig. 67), +and originally Winchester, had the single western tower, +a survival from pre-Conquest times, which is found also in numberless +parish churches. In their general design, the Norman churches +show great skill in composition, and in the logical expression of +structure, and sure grasp of the problems to be solved. The subordination +of arches (arches built in rings, or orders, recessed one +within the other) was carried further than in other Romanesque +schools, and with this went the subordination of the pier, planned +with a shaft to receive each order of the semicircular arch. Sometimes +the shafted piers of the great arcades alternate with cylindrical +(or later with octagonal) pillars; sometimes, as at Gloucester and +Tewkesbury, all the pillars are cylindrical. The triforium usually +has a single wide semicircular arched opening, enclosing two or more +minor semicircular arches springing from detached shafts. Usually +the aisle wall is carried up to form a complete triforium storey, +unvaulted, and lighted by windows in the outer wall. The clerestory +has a single window in each bay, with a wall passage between the +window and an internal arcade, usually of three semicircular arches +on shafts, the central arch being wider than the side arches. Most +frequently naves and transepts were unvaulted, and finished with +wood ceilings, while the aisles were covered with groined vaults of +rubble, on transverse arches. The general design of the greater +churches indicates, however, that the Norman builders were aiming +at a completely vaulted structure. The half-barrel vault over the +triforium of Gloucester, and the transverse arches over the triforium +of Chichester, seem to be constructed to afford the necessary abutment +to vaults over the choir, such indeed as still exist over some +choirs in Normandy built before the end of the 11th century. The +problem was only successfully solved by the introduction of the +diagonal rib, which completed the structural membering of the vault. +Durham, begun in 1093 (fig. 42), is the earliest example in England +of this important innovation, and it precedes by some quarter of a +century the earliest ribbed vaults of the Île-de-France. The abutting +arches under the roof of its triforium are actually rudimentary +flying-buttresses, and we have here all the essential elements of Gothic +architecture, except the pointed arch, which is only systematically +used in English vaulted construction from about the middle of the +12th century. The decorative forms of the earlier buildings of the +Norman school are severely simple. Arches, which at first were +usually unmoulded, soon received effective mouldings of rolls and +hollows, continuing a tradition of the latest pre-Conquest +architecture. Two types of capitals are found in the earlier buildings +after the Conquest; the volute capital, descended from the Corinthian, +which was the normal type in Normandy; and the cubic or cushion +capital, formed by the penetration of a segment of a sphere, or +segments of cones, with a cube, a type which, appearing earlier in +England than in Normandy, was doubtless derived from pre-Conquest +models, and in the 12th century developed into the scalloped capital. +The decoration of wall-surfaces by arcades, frequently of intersecting +semicircular arches, is characteristic of the Norman school. +Windows are splayed in the interior, and in the more important +buildings are enriched with shafts and moulded arches. Ornamentation +is frequently concentrated on the doorways, which are often of +many orders, with a shaft under each order. Based chiefly on +geometric forms, such as the chevron or zigzag, star, fret and cable, +the decoration becomes richer and more refined as the 12th century +advances, though in sculpture the Norman was less advanced than +some other Romanesque schools.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:412px; height:575px" src="images/img402.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Rickman’s <i>Styles of Architecture</i>, by permission of Parker & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42.—Plan of Durham Cathedral.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The foregoing generalization applies more particularly to the +greater churches, but numberless parish churches present similar +characteristics. Chancels are sometimes apsidal, but by far the most +prevalent type of plan is the aisleless oblong nave and square-ended +chancel, with or without a western tower. Other types of aisleless +plans are the cruciform church with central tower, or simply nave and +chancel with central tower. Even where subsequent alterations and +rebuildings have destroyed almost everything, the influence of these +plans on the later work is the key to a right understanding of the +history of the greater number of English medieval churches.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>12th Century</i> (<i>second half</i>).—The second half of the 12th century +is the period of transition <i>par excellence</i>—of transition from +Romanesque to Gothic. The school of the Île-de-France, which +up to <i>c.</i> 1120 was one of the most backward of the Romanesque +schools, had made enormous progress when the ambulatory of +Suger’s church of Saint-Denis was built (1140-1144), and thenceforth +it continued to lead the way. There is no doubt that, +from the middle of the 12th century, English architecture was +continuously influenced by the Île-de-France, for the most part +through Normandy, but it must be considered to be a development +on parallel lines, with strongly marked characteristics of +its own, and not merely as an importation of forms already +developed elsewhere. At the same time, the influence of the +Cistercian revival was considerable, not so much in the introduction +of foreign forms as in the direction of simplicity and severity, +which acted as a valuable check to the prevalent tendency to +exaggerate the importance of surface decoration.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The substitution of the square east-end for the apse in the plans of +the greater churches, already effected at Romsey, was furthered by +the simple plans of the Cistercian churches. The altar spaces provided +by the radiating chapels of the French chevet were in England +obtained by returning the aisles across the square east-end of the +choir, or by an eastern transept. The latter occurs first here in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span> +“the glorious choir of Conrad” of the beginning of the 12th century +at Canterbury which affords also the first example of the eastward +extension of the choir which became so characteristic a feature of +English planning. The reconstruction of Conrad’s choir after the +fire of 1174 led to a further extension eastward with the eastern chapel +which was adopted in many of the greater churches, either in the form +of a lower building, sometimes of three spans eastward of the east gable +or of an extension of the choir itself to its full height. The work of +William of Sens at Canterbury (1175-1178) was naturally more French in +character than other contemporary works in England, but the work of his +successor, William the Englishman (1179-1184) shows the beginnings of +what became the characteristically English manner of the 13th century.</p> + +<p>The second half of the 12th century was a period of rapid development of +architectural forms in the direction of increased elegance and +refinement. The pointed arch employed at first for the arches of +construction entirely superseded the semicircular arch in doorways, +windows and arcades by the end of the century and its adoption finally +solved the problem of vaulted construction. The abutting arches under +the triforium roofs of the earlier churches were developed into flying +buttresses above the roofs springing from buttresses of increased +projection and weighted by pinnacles. Mouldings became more graceful and +subtle in their profiles. Capitals reverted to the volute type, +transformed and refined. The massive Romanesque pier was gradually +developed into the lighter Gothic pier in which detached shafts were +extensively adopted. The use of Purbeck marble for these shafts must be +considered in relation to the painted decoration of the wall surfaces +which although now almost entirely lost was an important factor in the +internal effect.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>13th Century</i> (<i>first half</i>).—The last decade of the 12th century marks +the achievement of a fully developed Gothic style, with strongly marked +national individuality. During the 13th century, English Gothic follows +the same general course of evolution as that of northern France, but the +parallelism is less close than in the preceding century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>St Hugh’s choir at Lincoln (begun 1192) had indeed an apse, with +ambulatory and radiating chapels though its plan does not appear to have +been controlled by the vaulting as in the French chevets and what there +is of French influence seems to have come rather through Canterbury than +by a more direct route. This choir has the eastern transept which +characterizes several of the greater churches of the first half of the +13th century—Salisbury (fig. 43), Beverley, Worcester, Rochester, +Southwell. The square eastern termination, the less ambitious height, +and the comparatively simple buttress-system combine to give the English +Gothic cathedral an air of greater repose than is found in the +magnificent triumphs of French Gothic art. In its structural system, +too, English Gothic retained something of the Romanesque treatment of +wall surface, the suppression of the wall and the concentration of the +masonry in the pier was never carried so far as in the complete Gothic +of France. The general tendency during the 13th century, as in the 12th, +was in the direction of increased lightness and elegance. The employment +of detached shafts and the extensive use of marble (generally Purbeck) +for these shafts is a distinguishing feature of the first half of the +century. The vaulting system is fully developed, the most usual form is +the simple quadripartite but the tendency to introduce additional ribs +(tiercerons) and ridge ribs already makes its appearance in the nave of +Lincoln and the presbytery of Ely (Plate VIII., fig. 82) to be yet +further developed in the second half of the century. Capitals are either +simply moulded an elaboration of the plain bell capitals of the latter +part of the 12th century, or finely sculptured, with conventional or +stiff leaved, foliage of the crocket type. The use of the circular +abacus begun in the preceding century entirely supersedes the square +abacus which was retained in France. Mouldings are profiled with great +refinement, the alternation of rounds and hollows producing effective +contrasts of light and shade, and the far more complicated profiles of +arch mouldings provide another feature which distinguishes English work +of this period from French. Windows of single pointed lights the so +called “lancet,” though frequently by no means sharply pointed are the +prevalent type, grouped in pairs triplets &c. and arranged in tiers in +the large gables or sometimes with only a single group of tall lights, +like the “five sisters” of the north transept of York. Few works are +more admirably designed than some of the towers of this period. Probably +the greatest excellence ever attained in English art of the 13th century +was reached in the great Yorkshire abbeys, for purity of general design +excellence of construction, and beauty of detail, they are unsurpassed +by the work of any other period.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>13th Century</i> (<i>second half</i>).—The grouping together of “lancet” +windows, the piercing of the wall above them with foiled circles, and +the combination of the whole under an enclosing arch, soon led to the +introduction of tracery, for which the design of earlier triforium +arcades had also afforded a suggestion.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:404px; height:485px" src="images/img403.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 43.—Plan of Salisbury Cathedral.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bar-tracery appears just before the middle of the 13th century, and the +great tracery window filling the whole width of a bay, or the entire +gable end, soon becomes a most characteristic feature. The earlier +tracery windows show only simple geometrical forms, foiled arches to the +heads of the lights and foiled circles above, of which the abbey church +and the chapter houses of Westminster and Salisbury afford most +beautiful examples. In some particulars, such as its chevet plan and its +comparatively great height, Westminster approaches more nearly to the +French type than other English churches of the 13th century, but its +details are characteristically English and of great beauty. In the last +quarter of the century, pointed trefoils or quatrefoils are largely used +in tracery, and the foliations frequently form the lines of the tracery, +without enclosing circles. Contemporary with this change is the gradual +absorption of the triforium into the clerestory, of which Southwell and +Pershore are precocious examples. Contemporary also was the adoption of +an excessively naturalistic type of foliage. The art of masonry and +stone cutting was rapidly developed. The detached shaft, always +structurally weak, was abandoned for the pier with engaged shafts +separated by mouldings. The mouldings of arches become less deeply +undercut, and the greater use of the fillet tends to give a more liney +effect. The whole practice of art was growing more scholarly, perhaps +but at the same time it was more conscious, and the cleverness of the +mason was almost as often suggested as the noble character of his work.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>14th Century</i> (<i>first half</i>).—The juxtaposition of the foliations +without enclosing circles in tracery windows produced curves of +contraflexure, which led insensibly to the complete substitution of +flowing lines for geometrical forms in tracery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Flowing tracery makes its appearance in England about 1310, and lasts +some fifty years. Up to the end of the 13th century, window tracery had +developed in France and England on parallel lines though the English +work was always slightly behind France in point of date. All this is +changed with the adoption of flowing tracery in England its development +was purely national, and owed nothing to France. Indeed, the French +flamboyant only makes its appearance at the time when flowing tracery +was being abandoned in England. Not only window traceries, but +mouldings, carvings and other details are changed in character. The ogee +form is used in arches in wall arcades of great beauty and elaboration, +as in the Lady chapel at Ely, and in the canopies of tombs, such as the +magnificent Percy tomb at Beverley. Niches and arcades are richly +ornamented, and small decorative buttresses are used in the jambs of +doorways, windows and niches. The moulded capital is still used, along +with the capital with a continuous convex band of wavy foliage. Many of +the most beautiful English towers and spires date from this period, the +work of which is perhaps seen at its best in the parish churches of +south Lincolnshire.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span> </p> + +<p><i>From Middle of 14th Century</i>.—The over-elaboration of flowing +tracery inevitably led to a reaction. The beauty of the lines +of the tracery had controlled everything, and the resulting forms +of the openings, which presented serious difficulties for the glass +painter, had been a secondary consideration. Hence an endeavour +to return to a simpler and more dignified, if more mechanical, +style of building. The splendid exuberance of the earlier 14th +century style gave way to the introduction of vigorous, straight, +vertical and horizontal lines.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The beginnings of the new manner are to be seen in the south +transept of Gloucester before 1337. After the great interruption of +building works caused by the Black Death of 1349 and its recurrence +in following years, the so-called “Perpendicular” style became +general all over the country. The preference for straight in place of +flowing lines became more and more developed. Doorways and +arches were enclosed within well-defined square outlines; walls +were decorated by panelling in rectangular divisions; vertical lines +were emphasized by the addition of pinnacles, and buttresses were +used as mere decorations, while horizontal lines were multiplied in +string-courses, parapets and window transoms. Capitals were frequently +omitted, and the mouldings of arches were continued down +the piers. The use of the depressed “four-centred” arch became +common. Vaulting, which had already been enriched by the +multiplication of ribs, was further complicated by cross-ribs (liernes), +subdividing the simple spaces naturally produced by the intersection +of necessary ribs into panels; these, again, were filled with +tracery. The fan-vault was developed by giving to all the ribs the +same curvature; the outline of the fan is bounded by a horizontal +circular rib, and its effect is that of a solid of revolution upon whose +surface panels are sunk. The cloister of Gloucester presents the +earliest and perhaps the most beautiful example. Finally, the builders +displayed their mechanical skill by introducing pendants, as in +Henry VII.’s chapel at Westminster. This latest period of English +Gothic was a purely national development of which it has been too +much the fashion to speak disparagingly; for it is futile to call such +works as the nave of Winchester or the choir and Lady-chapel of +Gloucester “debased.” Perhaps the worst that can be said of this +period is that there was too great a love of display, and too much +mechanical repetition, but it is none the less true that it is to the +15th century that a very large number of English parish churches +owe their fine effect. East Anglia and Somersetshire possess some +of the choicest examples, and few things can be more beautiful than +the central towers of Gloucester and Canterbury, and the towers of +the Somersetshire churches. The open timber roofs, as, for instance, +those of the East Anglian churches, are superb, while many of the +churches of this period are still full of interesting furniture and +decoration. Finally, a word must be said of the wealth of interesting +examples of domestic architecture, which yet count among the +ornaments of the country.</p> + +<p>After the middle of the 16th century the practice of Gothic architecture +virtually died out, though traces of its influence, especially +in rural districts, were hardly lost until the end of the 17th century. +Good, sound, solid and simple forms, well constructed by men who +respected themselves and their work, and did not build only for the +passing hour, were still popular and general, so that the vernacular +architecture to a late period was often good and never absolutely +uninteresting.</p> + +<p><i>Scotland</i>.—A few words will suffice for Scottish and Irish architecture, +since the development in these countries followed much the +same course of change as in England.</p> + +<p>The earliest ecclesiastical structures which still survive in Scotland +follow the same general type as those of Ireland. The monastic +foundations of Queen Margaret and her sons introduced into Scotland +the Norman manner then universal in England. The best examples, +such as the nave of Dunfermline, which is an obvious inspiration +from Durham, Kelso of the later 12th century, and the parish +churches of Dalmeny and Leuchars, present the same characteristics +as are found in English churches of somewhat earlier dates than the +buildings in question, and some Romanesque forms survive to a later +period than in England. In the 13th century, too, the style of the +Scottish churches corresponds very closely with that of England, +though the details are generally simpler, and the structures are +smaller. It is naturally allied most closely with the north of England, +where Cistercian influence in the direction of simplicity and severity +had been exercised with the best results. The transept of Dryburgh, +the choir and crypt of Glasgow cathedral, the nave of Dunblane, +the choir of Brechin, and later Elgin cathedral, exhibit the style at +its purest and best. The disturbed condition of the country during +the 14th century was unfavourable to architecture, and when +building revived at the beginning of the 15th century its style became +more national. During the first half of the 15th century, it shows a +certain borrowing from English architecture of the flowing-tracery +period. Later, many features are borrowed both from England and +France, and architecture develops in picturesque and interesting +fashion. Melrose is one of the most characteristic, as it certainly is +one of the most charming of Scottish buildings; its earlier parts +bear a close resemblance to the earlier 14th-century work at York, +while its later parts show more similarity to English “Perpendicular” +than is common in Scotland. One of the most characteristic features +of Scottish architecture in the 15th century is the pointed barrel +vault, which directly supports the stone flagged roof. French influence +is seen in the employment of the polygonal apse for the +termination of choirs, and in some approaches to Flamboyant +tracery. The details of the later Gothic churches have but slight +connexion either with France or England, and show a curious +revival of earlier motives. The semicircular arch is in frequent use, +and the “nail-head” and “dog-tooth” ornament, as well as the use +of detached shafts, are revived. One of the most remarkable buildings +of the 15th century in Scotland is the collegiate church of +Roslin, which has a pointed barrel vault over its choir, with transverse +barrel vaults over the aisles, and is distinguished by the +extreme richness of its decoration.</p> + +<p>The domestic remains in Scotland are full of picturesque beauty +and magnificence. They are a distinctly national class of buildings +of great solidity, and much was sacrificed by their builders to the +genius of the picturesque. They can only be classed with the latest +Gothic buildings of other countries, but the mode of design shown in +them lasted much later than the late Gothic style did in England. +The vast height to which their walls were carried, the picturesque +use made of circular towers, the freedom with which buildings were +planned at various angles of contact to each other, and the general +simplicity of the ordinary wall, are their most distinct characteristics.</p> + +<p><i>Ireland</i>.—The chief interest of the medieval architecture of +Ireland belongs to the buildings which were erected before the +English conquest of the 12th century. The early monastic settlements +seem to have resembled the primitive Celtic fortresses, and +consisted of a series of huts or cells, surrounded by an enclosing wall. +The so-called “bee-hive” cell, which goes back to pre-Christian +times, was built of rough stone rubble without mortar, and roofed in +the same manner by corbelling over the courses of masonry. Some +of these were certainly dwellings, but others were oratories. The +largest of those in Skellig Michael is four-sided, and from this type +the stone-roofed church of oblong plan was developed. The later +type, with oblong nave and small square-ended chancel, retained +much of the character of these primitive structures, and their barrel +vaults were sometimes independent of the stone roof-covering, a +system which lasted into the 12th and 13th centuries. A certain +megalithic character, and the inclined jambs of doorway openings, +are marked features of these early churches. The round towers so +frequently associated with them are believed to be not earlier than +the 9th century. Before the introduction of Norman forms, Ireland +possessed a Romanesque style of her own, characterized by the +survival of horizontal forms and their incorporation into the round-arched +style, the retention of the inclined jambs of doorways, rich +surface decoration, and the use of certain ornamental motives of +earlier Celtic origin. King Cormac’s chapel at Cashel is one of the +best examples of the imported Norman manner of the 12th century, +and here we find much of the influence of the earlier native style. +The English conquest may be said to have been the introduction to +Ireland of Gothic art, and it was the local variety of western England +and south Wales which the conquerors introduced. Among the +buildings erected by the English in Ireland, Kilkenny cathedral +and the two 13th-century cathedrals of Dublin—Christ Church and +St Patrick’s—are the most remarkable, but there are many others. +Their style is most plainly that of the English conqueror, with no +concession to, or consideration of, earlier Irish forms of art. The +result of the conquest was that the native style of construction was +never applied to large buildings, though it did not at once disappear, +as is witnessed by the church St Doulough near Malahide, which +appears to be a 14th-century building. The characteristic features +of later medieval Irish buildings, such as the stepped battlements, +the retention of flowing lines in the tracery, and the peculiar treatment +of crockets, are matters of no great importance in the history +of architecture, and indeed it is hardly to be expected that a country +with so stormy a history could have given rise to any systematic +developments. Of the monastic remains those of the friaries are +the most numerous, Ireland having many more friars’ churches to +show than England, but such peculiarities as they possess belong +rather to the order than to any local influences.</p> +<div class="author">(J. Bn.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in Germany</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:185px; height:316px" src="images/img405a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 44.—Plan of Cathefral at Aix-la-Chapelle.</td></tr></table> + +<p>With the exception of the church built at Trčves (Trier) by the +empress Helena, of which small portions can still be traced in the +cathedral, there are no remains of earlier date than the tomb-house +built by Charlemagne at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), which, though +much restored in the 19th century, is still in good preservation. It +consists (fig. 44) of an octagonal domed hall surrounded by aisles in +two storeys, both vaulted; externally the structure is a polygon of +sixteen sides, about 105 ft. in diameter, and it was preceded by a +porch flanked by turrets. It is thought to have been copied from +S. Vitale at Ravenna, but there are many essential differences. The +same design was repeated at Ottmarsheim and Essen, and a simpler +version exists at Nijmwegen in the Netherlands, also built by +Charlemagne. Although no remains exist of the monastery of St +Gall in Switzerland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abbey</a></span>), built in the beginning of the 9th +century, a valuable manuscript plan was found in the 17th century, +in its library, which would seem to have been a design for a complete +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span> +monastery. It contains features which are peculiar to the early +German churches and are rarely found elsewhere, and is therefore +of considerable interest, suggesting that some of the accessories of a +monastery, supposed to have been the result of subsequent development, +were all clearly set forth at this early period. The plan shows +an eastern apse with a crypt, and a choir in front; a western apse, +nave and aisles, with a series of altars down the latter; and on the +west side, but detached from the apse, two circular towers with +staircases in them. Unfortunately there are no churches remaining +of the same date from which we might judge how far these arrangements +were followed; but there are three early churches in the island +of Reichenau on the Lake of Constance, in one of which, Mittelzell, +is a western apse with staircases (here +built up into a central tower), nave, and +aisles with altars at the side between +every window. The eastern portion has +been rebuilt. At Oberzell, at the south +end of the island, is a vaulted crypt, +which dates from the end of the 10th +century. In the third and much +smaller church, Unterzell, there was no +crypt, but three eastern apses and a +western apse, which was destroyed +when the present nave was built. At +Gernrode in the Harz is a church with +western and eastern apses with vaulted +crypts underneath (one of which dates +from 960 when the church was founded), +and circular towers with staircases in +them on either side of the western apse. +The church was completed about a +century later. In the arcade between +the nave and aisles piers alternate +with the columns. Alternating piers +are found also in Quedlinburg (the crypt +of which dates from 936 and the church +above about 1030) and many other early churches. Western apses +exist at Drubeck, Ilbenstadt, Trčves, Huyseberg, St Michael and St +Godehard at Hildesheim, Mainz, the Obermunster at Regensburg, +Laach, Worms, and at a later date at Naumbergand Bamberg, showing +that it was a feature generally accepted in early and late periods. +It has, however, one great defect, that of depriving the west end of +the church of those magnificent porches which are the glory of the +churches of France, the cathedral of Spires (Speyer), the church at +Limburg near Durkheim, the cathedrals of Erfurt and Regensburg, +being the few examples where a dignified entrance is given; and +further, that on entering the church from the side, one is distracted +by the rivalry of the two apses, and it is only when turning the back +on one or the other that one is able to judge of the monumental effect +of the interior.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:473px; height:508px" src="images/img405b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 45.—Plan of Cathedral<br />at Mainz.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 46.—Plan of Cathedral<br />at Worms.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:185px; height:434px" src="images/img405c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 47.—Plan of Cathedral in Spires.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The greater number of the churches above mentioned were +covered over with open timber roofs or flat ceilings; but the problem +to be solved in Germany, as well as in Italy, was that of vaulting +over the nave, and the cathedrals of Spires, Worms and Mainz +(fig. 45) are the three most important churches in which this was +accomplished. The dates of their vaults have never been quite +settled; that of Spires would seem to have been the earliest built, +probably after 1162, when the church was seriously damaged by a +conflagration, and the vault is groined only. In Worms (fig. 46) +and Mainz there are diagonal moulded ribs, which suggest a later date. +Although of great height and width, the absence of a triforium +gallery in these cathedrals is a serious defect, as it deprives the +interior of that scale which the smaller arcades in such a gallery +give to the nave arcade below and the clerestory above, and of those +horizontal lines given by string courses which are entirely wanting +in these churches. Seeing that in some of the earlier churches, as +at Gernrode, St Ursula (Cologne), and Nieder-Lahnstem, the triforium +had already been introduced, and that it was repeated in the +later examples at Limburg on the Lahn, +Bacharach, Andernach, Bonn, Sinzig, +and St Gereon (Cologne), it is difficult +to understand why, in the three great +typical German Romanesque churches, +they should have been omitted. Externally +the design is extremely fine, +owing to the grouping of the many +towers at the west and on either side +of the transept or choir. In this +respect the cathedral of Mainz is the +most superb structure in Germany, and +to the cathedral of Spires with its fine +entrance porch (fig. 47) must be given +the second place.</p> + +<p>One of the most perfect examples of +the Rhenish-Romanesque styles is the +church of the abbey of Laach, completed +shortly after the middle of the 12th +century. The eastern part of the +church resembles the ordinary type, +but at the west end there is a narrow +transept flanked by circular towers, +and a western apse enclosed in an +atrium with cloisters round, which +forms the entrance to the church. The +sculptures in the capitals of the atrium +are of the finest description and represent +the perfected type of the German +Romanesque style. In addition to the +two circular towers flanking the west +transept, a square tower rises in the centre of the west front, two +square towers flank the choir and a crystal lantern crowns the +crossing of the main transept, and the grouping of all these features +is very fine and picturesque in effect. A small church at Rosheim in +Alsace is quite Lombardic in its exterior design, the pilaster strips +and arched corbel tables being almost identical. The same applies +to the church at Marmoutier, but the towers flanking the main front +and the square tower on the crossing of the western transept produce +a composition which one looks for in vain in the greater number of +the churches in Italy.</p> + +<p>In describing the Lombardic churches of North Italy, reference +has been made to the probable origin of the eaves-gallery, best +represented in the eastern apse of Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo. +This feature was largely adopted throughout the Rhine churches, +and in the Apostles’ church and St Martin’s at Cologne receives its +fullest development, being in addition to the eastern apse carried +round the apses of the north and south transepts, which in these two +churches and in St-Mary-in-the-Capitol, also in Cologne, constitute +a special treatment. In the Apostles’ church, where round towers +are built at the junction of the three apses, the effect is extremely +pleasing. In the church at Bonn, the single apse is flanked by two +lofty towers which give great importance to the east front.</p> + +<p>The steeples of the same period have a character of their own. +They are either square or octangular in plan, arcaded or pierced +with windows, and roofed with gables or with spires rising out of the +gables.</p> + +<p>One peculiarity found in some of the German churches, and +specially those in the north-east, is that the nave and aisles are of +the same height. To these the term <i>Hallenkirchen</i> is given. This +type of design is very grand internally, owing to the vast height of +the piers and arches. It also dispenses with the necessity for flying +buttresses, as the aisles, which are only half the width of the nave, +carry the thrust of the vault direct to the external buttresses. The +nave, however, is not so well lighted, though the aisle windows are +sometimes of stupendous height. The principal examples are those +of the church of St Stephen, Vienna, where both nave and aisles are +carried over with one vast root; at Munster, the <i>Wiesenkirche</i> at +Soest; St Lawrence, Nuremberg; St Martin’s, Landshut; Munich +cathedral, and others.</p> + +<p>St Gereon (1200-1227) and St Cunibert (1205-1248), in Cologne, +besides churches at Naumburg, Limburg and Gelnhausen, in which +the pointed arch is employed, are almost the only transitional +examples in Germany, and respond to work of a century earlier in +France. Toward the end of the 13th century the Romanesque style +was supplanted by a style which in no way grew out of it, but was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span> +rather an imitation of a foreign style, the earliest examples being in +the <i>Liebfrauenkirche</i> at Trčves (1227-1243), and the churches at +Marburg (1235-1283) and Altenberg (1255-1301). In the latter +church is a French chevet with seven apsidal chapels. This brings +us to the great typical cathedral of Germany at Cologne (fig. 48), +which had the advantages of having been designed at the best age +and completed on the original design, so that with small exceptions +a uniformity of style reigns throughout it. It was begun in 1270 +and apparently based on the plan of Amiens, the transepts however +having an additional bay each, and the two first bays of the nave +having thicker piers so as to carry the enormous towers and spires +which flank the chief façade. The principal defect of the building +is its relative shortness, owing to its disproportionate height. This +has always been felt in the interior, and now that the lofty buildings +all round have been taken down, isolating the cathedral on all sides, +it has the appearance of an overgrown monster. The length of the +cathedral is 468 ft., 17 ft. less than the cathedral at Ulm, the longest +in Germany. The height of the nave vault is 155 ft., and as the width +is only 41.6 (about one in four) the proportion is very unpleasing. +There is also a certain mechanical finish throughout the design, +which renders it far less poetical than the great French cathedrals. +Where, however, it excels is in the extraordinary vigour of its +execution, the depth of the mouldings, and the projection given to +the leading architectural features; and in this respect, when compared +with St Ouen at Rouen, about fifty years later, the latter +(which is even more mechanical in its setting out) looks wire-drawn +and poor. The twin spires of the façade rise to the height of 510 ft.; +they were completed only in the latter part of the 19th century, +and would have gained in breadth of effect if there had been some +plain surfaces left. In this respect the spire of Freiburg cathedral, +which is simple in outline and detail, is finer, and gains in contrast +on account of the simpler masonry of the lower part of the tower. +The spire at Ulm cathedral, only recently terminated, rises to the +height of 530 ft. In both these cases the single tower is preferable +to the double towers of Cologne, when elaborated to the same extent, +as they are in all these examples; and perhaps that is one of the +reasons why the spires of Strassburg and Antwerp cathedrals are +more satisfactory, as the twin towers were never built. The front +of Strassburg cathedral (1277-1318), by Erwin von Steinbach, is +too much cut up by vertical lines of masonry, owing to the <i>tours-de-force</i> +in tracery of which the German mason was so fond. On the +whole the most beautiful of German spires is that of St Stephen’s +at Vienna, and one of its advantages would seem to be that its +transition from the square base to the octagon is so well marked +in the design that it is difficult to say where the tower ends and the +spire begins. The strong horizontal courses under the spires of +Strassburg or Freiburg are defects from this point of view.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:414px; height:688px" src="images/img406.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 48.—Plan of Cathedral at Cologne.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In domestic architecture nothing remains of the palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, +but at Lorsch near Mannheim is the entrance gateway +of the convent which was dedicated by Charlemagne in 774. It is +in two storeys, in the lower one three semicircular arches flanked +by columns with extremely classic capitals. The upper storey is +decorated with what might have been described as a blind arcade, +except that instead of arches are triangular spaces similar to some +windows found in Saxon architecture; the whole gateway being +crowned with a classic cornice. The palaces at Goslar (1050) and +Dankwarderode in Brunswick (1150-1170) still preserve their great +halls, and in the palace built (1130-1150) by the emperor Frederick I. +at Gelnhausen there remain portions extremely fine and vigorous in +style, and showing a strong Byzantine influence. The largest and +most important castle is that of the Wartburg at Eisenach, which +is in complete preservation.</p> + +<p>To sum up, the German Complete Gothic is essentially national in +its complete character. It has many and obvious defects. From +the first there is conspicuous in it that love of lines, and that desire +to play with geometrical figures, which in time degenerated into +work more full of conceit and triviality than that of any school of +medieval artists. These conceits are worked out most elaborately +in the traceries of windows and panelling. The finest early examples +are in the cathedral at Minden; a little later, perhaps, the best +series is in the cloister of Constance cathedral; and of the latest +description the examples are innumerable. But it is worth observing +that they rarely at any time have any ogee lines. They are severely +geometrical and regular in their form, and quite unlike our own late +Middle Pointed, or the French Flamboyant. In sculpture the +Germans did not shine. They, like the English, did not introduce +it with profusion, though they were very prone to the representations +of effigies of the deceased as monuments.</p> + +<p>In one or two respects, however, Germany is still possessed of a +wealth of medieval examples, such as is hardly to be paralleled in +Europe. The vast collection of brick buildings, for instance, is unequalled. +If a line be drawn due east and west, and passing through +Berlin, the whole of the plain lying to the north, and extending +from Russia to Holland, is destitute of stone, and the medieval +architects, who always availed themselves of the material which +was most natural in the district, built all over this vast extent of +country almost entirely in brick. The examples of their works in +this humble material are not at all confined to ecclesiastical works; +houses, castles, town-halls, town walls and gateways, are so plentiful +and so invariably picturesque and striking in their character, that +it is impossible to pass a harsh verdict on the architects who left +behind them such extraordinary examples of their skill and fertility +of resource.</p> + +<p>This development is largely due to the fact that all these countries +in north-east Germany were connected and very much influenced by +the confederation of the Hanse towns, and hence the similarity in +the design of all their buildings. Although some of the earliest +buildings date from the 12th century, the chief development took +place in the 14th and 15th centuries, and in the 16th century formed +the basis of the transitional works of the Renaissance. The principal +Hanse towns are Hamburg, Lübeck and Danzig. The chief buildings +in Hamburg were destroyed by the fire in 1842, and it is in Lübeck +that the most important churches are to be found. The church of +St Mary (Marienkirche), 1304, is the most striking on account of its +dimensions, 346 ft. in length, the nave being 123 ft. high, with two +western towers 407 ft. high. Great scale is given to the building in +consequence of the small material (brick) used, and some of the +windows in this or other churches are nearly 100 ft. in height, with +lofty mullions, all in moulded brick. The <i>Dom</i> or cathedral of +Lübeck, though slightly larger, is not so good in design, but has a +remarkable north porch in richly moulded brick, with marble shafts +and carved capitals. In the church of St Catherine the choir is +raised above a lofty vaulted crypt, similar to examples in some of +the Italian churches. The <i>Marienkirche</i> at Danzig (1345-1503), +built by a grand master of the Teutonic knights, to whom the chief +development of the architecture of north-east Germany is largely +due, is one of those examples already mentioned as <i>Hallenkircken</i>. +The nave, aisles, side chapels, transept and aisles, and choir with +square east end, are all of the same height; as the church is 280 ft. +long and 125 ft. wide, with a transept 200 ft. long, the effect is that +of one stupendous hall, but as the light is only obtained through the +windows of the side chapels, the interior, though impressive, is +somewhat gloomy. The same is found in the choir of the Franciscan +church at Salzburg, where five slender piers, 70 ft. in height and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span> +4 ft. in diameter, carry the vault over an area 160 ft. long by 66 ft. +wide. Right up in the north of Germany, in Pomerania, are many +fine examples in brick and sometimes of great size, such as those at +Stralsund, Stettin, Stargard, Pasewalk, and in the island of Rugen. +The <i>Marienkirche</i> at Stralsund, owing to its massive construction +and picturesque grouping, is an interesting example. Its western +transept or narthex with tower in centre is a common type of the +churches in Pomerania, and though very inferior in design is a +version of those which in England are seen in Ely and Peterborough +cathedrals.</p> + +<p>In the entrance gateways to the towns and in domestic architecture +north Germany is very rich; the palace of the grand master +of the Teutonic Order at Marienburg is a vast and imposing +structure in brick (1276-1335), in which the chapter house of the +grand master, with its fan-vaulted roof, resting on a single pillar +of granite in the centre, and the entrance porch of the church richly +carved in brick, are among the finest examples executed in that +material.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Romanesque and Gothic in Belgium and Holland</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 275px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:222px; height:443px" src="images/img407a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 49.—Plan of Cathedral at Tournai.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Of early Romanesque work neither Belgium nor Holland retains +any examples; for with the exception of the small building at +Nijmwegen built by Charlemagne, there are no churches prior to the +11th century, and at first the influence in Belgium would seem to +have come from Lombardy, through the Rhine Provinces. As all +her large churches are built in the centres of her most important +towns, it is probable that the older examples were pulled down to +make way for others more in accordance with the increasing wealth +and population. In the 13th +century they came under the +influence of the great Gothic +movement in France, and two +or three of their cathedrals +compare favourably with the +French cathedrals. The finest +example of earlier date is that +of the cathedral of Tournai +(fig. 49), the nave of which +was built in the second half of +the 11th century, to which a +transept with north and south +apses and aisles round them +was added about the middle +of the 12th century. These +latter features are contemporaneous +with similar examples +at Cologne, and the +idea of the plan may have +been taken from them; externally, +however, they differ so +widely that the design may be +looked upon as an original +conception, though the nave +arcades, triforium storey, and +clerestory resemble the contemporaneous +work in Normandy. +The original choir +was pulled down in the 14th +century, and a magnificent +<i>chevet</i> of the French type +erected in its place. The +grouping of the towers which +flank the transept, with the +central lantern, the apses, and +lofty choir, is extremely fine +(fig. 50). The sculptures on +the west front, dating from +the 12th to the 16th century, protected by a portico of the late 15th +century, are of remarkable interest and in good preservation. They +are in three tiers, the two lowest consisting of bas-reliefs, the upper +tier with life-size figures in niches, resting on corbels. The +Romanesque tower of the church of St Jacques in the same town, +with angle turrets, is a picturesque and well-designed structure.</p> + +<p>Other early examples are those of St Bartholomew at Liége (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +1015) and the churches at Roermonde and St Servais at Maastricht, +both belonging to Holland. The latter is an extremely fine example, +which recalls the work at Cologne, and in its great western narthex +follows on the lines of the German churches at Gernrode, Corvey and +Brunswick.</p> + +<p>Among other churches of later date are St Gudule at Brussels, +with Gothic 13th century choir and a 14th century nave with great +circular pillars, the west front of later date, approached by a lofty +flight of steps, having a very fine effect; Ste Croix at Liége, with a +western apse; St Martin at Ypres and St Bavon at Ghent, both +with 13th-century choir and 14th-century nave; Tongres, 13th +century with great circular pillars and an early Romanesque cloister; +Notre Dame de Pamele at Oudenarde; and Notre Dame at Bruges, +14th century. Of 15th and 16th century work (for the Gothic style +lasted without any trace of the Renaissance till the middle of the +16th century) are St Gommaire at Lierre (1425-1557); St Martin, +Alost (1498), St Jacques, Antwerp; and St Martin and St Jacques, +both at Liége. The largest in area, and in that sense the most important +church in Belgium, is Notre Dame at Antwerp (misnamed the +cathedral). It was begun in 1352, but not completed till the 16th +century, so that it possesses many transitional features. It is one +of the few churches with three aisles on each side of the nave, the +outer aisle being nearly as wide as the nave, which is too narrow +to have a fine effect. Only one of the two spires of the west front +is built, perhaps to its advantage; the upper portion presents in its +pierced stone spires one of those remarkable <i>tours-de-force</i> of which +masons are so proud, and having a simple substructure it gains by +contrast with and is much superior to the spires of Cologne, Vienna +and Ulm.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:380px; height:540px" src="images/img407b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 50.—Tournai Cathedral.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among the most remarkable features in these Belgian churches +are the rood screens, the earliest of which is in the church of St +Peter at Louvain, dating from 1400, in rich Flamboyant Gothic, +retaining all its statues. In the church at Dixmuiden, St Gommaire +at Lierre (1534), and in Notre Dame, Walcourt (1531), are other +examples all in perfect preservation; the last is said to have been +given by the emperor Charles V., and in the same church is a lofty +tabernacle in Flamboyant Gothic.</p> + +<p>Owing to the comparatively late date of many of the Belgian +churches, they are all more or less unfinished, as the religious fervour +of the citizens who built them would seem to have changed in favour +of their town halls and civic buildings immediately connected with +trade. The Cloth Hall at Ypres (1200-1334) with a frontage of +460 ft., three storeys high with a lofty central tower and a hall on +the upper storey 435 ft. long, one of the finest buildings of the period +in Europe; Les Halles at Bruges, originally built as a cloth hall, +also with a lofty central tower; and a simple example at Malines, +are the earliest buildings of this type.</p> + +<p>There follow a series of magnificent town halls, of which that at +Brussels is the largest, but the tower not being quite in the centre +of its façade gives it a lopsided appearance. There is no tower to the +town hall at Louvain (1448-1469), but this is compensated for by +the angle turrets, and the design is far bolder. In both these examples +the vertical lines are too strongly accentuated, and seeing that they +are in two or three storeys, the latter should have been maintained +in the design of the façades. In this respect the town hall of +Oudenarde (1527-1535) is more truthful, and as a result is far superior +to them; the tower also is in the centre of the principal front, +which at all events is better than at Brussels, though as a matter of +composition it would have been more effective and picturesque if it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span> +had been placed at one end of the façade. In the town hall at Mons +there is no tower, but a fine upper storey with ten windows filled +with good tracery. Of the town hall at Ghent only one half is Gothic +(1480-1482), as it was not completed till a century later, and though +overladen with Flamboyant ornament it has fine qualities in its design. +Although but few examples still exist of the Gothic structures +belonging to the various gilds, owing to their having been rebuilt +in the Renaissance style, those of the Bateliers at Ghent (1531), and +of the Fishmongers at Malines (1519), bear witness in the rich +decoration to the wealth of these corporations.</p> + +<p>Holland is extremely poor in church architecture, but there are +two examples which should be noted, at Utrecht and Bois-le-Duc +(’s Hertogenbosch). Of the former only the choir exists. It is of +great height (115 ft.), and belongs to the finest period of Gothic +architecture (1251-1267). The nave was destroyed by a hurricane +in 1674, and so seriously damaged that it was all taken down (a wall +being built to enclose the choir) and an open square left between +it and the lofty west tower. The cathedral of St John at Bois-le-Duc, +though founded in 1300, was rebuilt in the Flamboyant period +(1419-1497). It is of great length (400 ft.) with a fine <i>chevet</i>, and +possessed originally a magnificent rood screen in the early Renaissance +style (1625); this seemed to the burghers to be out of keeping +with the Gothic church, so it was taken down and sold to the South +Kensington Museum, being replaced by a very poor example in +Modern Gothic.</p> + +<p>There is only one Gothic town hall of importance in Holland, +that at Middleburg (1468), a fine example, and quite equal to those +in Belgium. The ground and upper floors are kept distinct, and as +the wall surface of these lower storeys is in plain masonry, the +traceried windows and the canopied niches (all of which retain their +statues) gain by the contrast. There is a small picturesque specimen +at Gouda, and at Leeuwarden in the house of correction (Kanselary) +a rich example in brick and stone, with a remarkable stepped gable +in the centre having statues on its steps.</p> + +<p>Both in Belgium and Holland there are numerous examples of +domestic architecture in brick with quoins and tracery in stone, in +both cases alternating with brick courses and arch voussoirs and with +infinite variety of design.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">The Renaissance Style: Introduction</p> + +<p>The causes which led to the evolution of the Renaissance +style in Italy in the 15th century were many and diverse. The +principal impulse was that derived from the revival of classical +literature. Already in the 14th century the coming movement +was showing itself in the works of the painters and sculptors, +especially the latter, owing to the influence of the classic sculpture +which abounded throughout Italy. Thus in the tomb of St +Dominic (1221) at Bologna, the pulpits of Pisa (1260) and +Siena (1268), and in the fountain of Perugia (1277-1280) by +Niccola Pisano and his son Giovanni, all the figures would seem +to have been inspired in their character by those found in Roman +sarcophagi. A classic treatment is noticeable in the doorway +of the Baptistery of Florence by Andrea Pisano (1330), probably +influenced by Giotto, in whose paintings are found the representation +of imaginary buildings in which Gothic and Classic details +are mixed up together. The time for its full development, however, +did not come till the following century, when, with the +papal throne again firmly established under Martin V., the +amelioration of the city of Rome was commenced, and discoveries +were made which awakened an archaeological interest fostered +by the Medici at Florence, who not only became enthusiastic +collectors of ancient works of art, but promoted the study of +the antique figure. In addition to the acquisition of marbles +and bronzes, ancient manuscripts of classic writers were sought +for and supplied by Greek exiles who seemed to have foreseen +the breaking up of the eastern empire; everything, therefore, +at the beginning of the 15th century fostered the spread of the +new movement. Accordingly, when a great architect like +Brunelleschi, who for fifteen years had been making a special +study of the ancient monuments in Rome and who possessed +in addition great scientific knowledge, brought forward his +proposals for the completion of the cathedral built by Arnolfo di +Lapo, and showed how the existing substructure could be +covered over with a dome like the Pantheon at Rome, his designs +were accepted by the town council of Florence, and in 1420 he was +entrusted with the work. Subsequently he carried out other +works, in which pure classic architectural forms are the chief +characteristics. There were, however, other causes which not +only promoted the encouragement of the revival, but extended +it to other countries, though at a later period; the most important +of these was the invention of printing (1453), which in a +sense revolutionized art, not so much in its enabling classical +literature to be more extensively studied and known, as in its +taking away to a certain extent from the painter and sculptor +and indirectly the architect one of their principal missions, so +far as ecclesiastical architecture is concerned. Henceforth +these who had hitherto taught their lessons in sculpture, painting, +stained glass and fresco, could, through the printed book, bring +them more immediately before and directly to mankind. Victor +Hugo’s pithy saying, “<i>ceci tuera cela; le livre tuera l’église</i>,” +expressed not only the fall of architecture from the position it +occupied as the principal teacher, but to a certain extent the +change in the channel by which religious teachers and the writers +of the day, the poets and philosophers, could best make their +works known.</p> + +<p>With the invention of printing came the partial cessation of +fresco painting, stained glass and sculpture, which subsequently +came to be regarded more as decorative adjuncts than as having +educational functions. But this transfer from the Church to +the Book, the extinction of the one by the other, led to another +important change. Henceforth the architect or master-mason, +as he was then known, could no longer count on the co-operation +of the various craftsmen, men often of greater culture than himself; +and the individuality of the man, which has sometimes been put +forward as a gain to humanity, was a loss so far as architecture +is concerned, since it was scarcely possible that the imagination +and conceptions of a single individual, however brilliant they +might be, could ever reach to the high level of the joint product +of many minds, or that there could be the same natural expression +in what had hitherto been the traditional work of centuries.</p> + +<p>In France the introduction of the Revival resulted at first in a +transitional period during which classic details gradually crept +in, displacing the Gothic. In Italy this does not seem to have +been the case to the same extent. It is true that in Florence and +Venice, where an independent style existed, the new buildings +in their general principles of design were, copied from the old, +but with no mixture of details as in France; in Brunelleschi’s +church, Santo Spirito at Florence, the capitals and details are +all pure Italian, as pure as if they had been carried out in the 3rd +or 4th century, the fact being that already before the 15th +century the craftsman’s work was approaching the new movement, +and this was facilitated by the numerous remains still +existing of Roman architecture. In the four or five years +Brunelleschi spent in Rome, he had the opportunity of studying +a far larger number of Roman buildings than are preserved at the +present day, so that the purity of style in the work which he +carried out in Florence was due to his previous training; the +same is found in Alberti’s work, and with these two great men +leading the way it is not surprising that throughout the earlier +Renaissance period in Italy we find a classic perfection of detail +which it took half a century to develop in other countries.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to say what might have been its ultimate development +if another discovery had not been made about 1452, +that of the manuscript of Vitruvius, a Roman architect who +lived in the time of the emperor Augustus; his work on architecture +gives an admirable description of the building materials +employed in his day (<i>c</i>. 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and among other subjects, a +series of rules regulating the employment of the various orders +and their correct proportions. These rules were based on the +descriptions which Vitruvius had studied of Greek temples, +but as he was not acquainted with the examples quoted, never +having been in Greece or even in south Italy at Paestum, his +knowledge was confined to the architectural monuments then +existing in Rome. Vitruvius’s manuscript, entitled <i>De re aedificatoria</i>, +was illustrated by drawings, none of which have +however been preserved; when therefore in subsequent years +translations of the architectural portion of the manuscript were +printed and published by various Italian architects, among +whom Vignola and Palladio were the more important, they were +accompanied by woodcuts representing their interpretation of +the lost illustrations, and thus copybooks of the orders were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span> +published, with more or less fidelity to those of existing Roman +monuments, in which attempts were made to adhere to the rules +laid down by Vitruvius. In Rome and other parts of Italy, +where ancient monuments or portions of them still remained +<i>in situ</i>, architects could study their details and base their designs +on them, but in other countries they were bound to follow the +copybook, and thus they lost that originality and freedom of +design which characterizes the earlier work of the Renaissance.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, there is no doubt that the publications of +Vignola and Palladio, based as they were on the remains of +ancient Rome, then much better preserved than at the present +day, tended to maintain a high standard in the employment of +the Classic orders, with correct proportions and details; so +much so, that in referring to the influence which those works +exerted from the middle of the 16th century in France and +Spain, and during the 17th and 18th centuries in England +and to a certain extent in Spain, Germany and the Netherlands, +it is generally spoken of as the introduction of the pure Italian +style. The tendency, however, of such hard and fast rules leads +eventually to an excess in the opposite direction, and the works +of Borromini in Italy and Churriguera in Spain in the middle of +the 17th century resulted in the production of what is generally +referred to as the Rococo style. This style was fostered in +France by the attempts to reproduce, externally and in stone, +ornamental decoration of a type which is only fitted for internal +work in stucco, and in Germany and the Netherlands by reproductions +of fantastic designs published in copybooks, which led +to the bastard style of the Zwinger palace in Dresden and the +Dutch architecture of the 18th century. Vignola’s work on the +five orders was published in 1563, and Palladio’s in 1570; they +were preceded by a publication of Serlio’s in 1540, giving examples +of various architectural compositions, and to him is probably +due the introduction of the pure Italian style in the Louvre in +1546. They were followed by other authors, as Scamozzi in +Italy, Philibert de l’Orme in France, and, at a later date, +Sir William Chambers in England.</p> + +<p>The term given to the earlier Renaissance or transition work +in Italy is the Cinque cento style, though sometimes that title +is given to buildings erected in the 16th century; in France it +is known as the François I. style, in Spain as the Plateresque +or Silversmiths’ style, and in England as the Elizabethan and +Jacobean styles.</p> + +<p>There is still another and very important difference to be noted +between the styles of the middle ages and those of the Renaissance. +Although the names of the designers in the former are occasionally +known and have been handed down to us, they were only +partially responsible, as the works were carried out by other craftsmen +working on traditional lines, whereas in the latter they are +of much more importance because of the independent thought and +study of the individual; and though to a certain extent the +development of each man’s work may have been influenced by +others working in the same direction, his special object was to +acquire personal fame and by his own fancy or predilection +to produce what he conceived to be an original work peculiar +to himself. Consequently in our description the name of the +architect who designed a particular building, as well as the date +of its erection, are necessarily given to show the progress made +In his studies or otherwise.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Renaissance Architecture in Italy</p> + +<p>In the styles hitherto described a chronological order has been +followed, as far as possible, in order to show the gradual development +of the style; that course is adopted here to a certain extent, +when dealing with the Renaissance, though the introduction of +the personal element, to which reference has been made, brings +in a change of some importance. Henceforth the career of the +individual has to be taken into consideration, and at times it +may be an advantage when describing a building by an architect +of eminence to mention other works by him, and so depart from +the chronological sequence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Ecclesiastical.</i>—The classic revival in Italy, though foreshadowed +in other branches of art, as in painting and sculpture, and also to +a marked degree in literature, was virtually introduced by one +great man, Filippo Brunelleschi of Florence, who, trained as a +sculptor, and disappointed with his want of success in the competition +held in 1403 for the bronze gates of the baptistery at Florence, +determined to devote himself to architecture, possibly in the hope +that he might some day be able to solve the great problem of erecting +over the crossing of Arnolfo di Lapo’s great cathedral the dome +projected by the latter but never executed. Having spent some +years in Rome, Brunelleschi returned to his native town about 1410, +with a profound knowledge of classic architecture and of Roman +construction, as shown in the Pantheon, the thermae, Colosseum +and other remains, then in much better preservation than at the +present day. Some years passed in the production of various schemes +and in deliberations with the council of Florence, but eventually in +1420 the completion of the cathedral was entrusted to him, and he +undertook to construct the dome without centreing, and to raise it +on a drum so as to give it greater importance than Arnolfo had +contemplated, as shown in the fresco of the Spanish chapel of Santa +Maria Novella, Florence. The dome as projected by Brunelleschi +was of considerable size, being 130 ft. in diameter and 135 ft. from +the cornice to the eye of the dome, including the drum on which it +was raised; it was octagonal in plan, and built with an inner and +outer casing partly in brick, with angle and two intermediate ribs +on each face, which were in stone. The construction of the dome was +completed in 1434; but the lantern, built on the basis of the model +he had made, was not carried out till 1462, some years after his death. +Brunelleschi’s other works in Florence consisted of the church of San +Lorenzo, which he rebuilt in 1425 after a fire, and the church of +Santo Spirito (1433), a very remarkable building, the design of which +was based on the medieval basilicas of Rome, with such modifications +in plan and section as his knowledge of ancient Roman work +suggested. This church consists of nave, transept and choir, with +aisles all round, the centre or crossing being covered with a dome +on pendentives, which henceforth became the chief characteristic in +all the Renaissance churches. Brunelleschi’s earliest work was the +Pazzi chapel, an original conception which is more remarkable for +the pure classic feeling and refinement in all its details than for the +design. The weakness of the archivolt round the central archway, +and the mass of panelled wall carried on columns (far too slight in +their dimensions), detract seriously from the effect of the façade; +internally the structural function of the pilasters is not sufficiently +maintained, and instead of a simple hemispherical dome, as in the +cathedral, a quasi-Gothic type was built, with twelve ribs and +scalloped cells, which destroys its dignity.</p> + +<p>Brunelleschi was followed by another great Florentine architect, +Leon Battista Alberti, who was also a great mathematician and a +scholar, and further promoted the study of classic architecture by +writing a treatise in Latin, <i>Opus praestantissimum de re aedificatoria</i>, +which was based partly on that of Vitruvius and was published in +1485, after his death, accompanied by illustrations. The first +building with which he was connected was the church of San Francesco +at Rimini, to which in 1440 he added the front. In this he +was evidently inspired by the Roman triumphal arch in that city, +and his interpretation of it, to meet the requirements in its façade +which were imposed upon him by the existing nave, was admirable. +Unfortunately the principal front was never completed, but on the +south side he designed a series of recesses to hold the sarcophagi +containing the remains of the friends of his client, Sigismondo +Malatesta, the effect of which is simple and grand. Alberti’s largest +work, the church of Sant’ Andrea at Mantua (1472), in which the +nave, transept and choir are all covered with barrel vaults, recalls +the vaulted corridors of the Colosseum. There are no aisles, but a +series of rectangular chapels on each side, the division walls of which +act as buttresses to resist the thrust of the great vault. The lofty +arched openings to the chapels, separated by Corinthian pilasters +with entablature supporting the coffered vault and a central dome +(since rebuilt), complete the structure, which has served since as the +model for all the Renaissance churches of the same type. The +principal front is not satisfactory, as it takes no cognizance of +the width of the nave, and the side doors have no use or meaning; +here Alberti seems to have been led astray in his triumphal arch +treatment, which is inferior to his scheme for the church at Rimini.</p> + +<p>In 1462 Michelozzo, another Florentine architect, built the chapel +of St Peter at the east end of the church of Sant’ Eustorgio, Milan. +Externally it has little attraction, but internally the dome, with its +magnificent frieze of winged angels in relief with a painted background +of arcades and other accessories, is the most beautiful +composition of the Renaissance. Michelozzo’s first work was the +Dominican monastery and church of San Marco at Florence (1439-1452), +but he is better known for his secular work, to which we shall +return.</p> + +<p>The next great architect chronologically is Bramante d’ Urbino, +to whom was entrusted the commencement of the church of St Peter +at Rome. His first important work was the church of Santa Maria +della Consolazione at Todi (1472), which consists of a square nave +with immense semicircular apses, one on each side. The nave is +covered with a dome raised on a drum, and carried on pendentives, +and the apses with hemispherical vaults butt against the nave walls +and form externally a very fine group. Bramante was the architect +of the chapel in the cloisters of San Pietro-in-Montorio, Rome (1472), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span> +a small circular building covered with a dome and surrounded with a +peristyle of columns of the Doric order; and of the dome of the +church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, as also of the three +apses, which are decorated with pilasters and baluster shafts with +circular medallions enclosing busts, all in terra cotta. Before passing +to his work at St Peter’s there are some other early churches we must +notice. The Certosa, near Pavia, was begun in 1396, and in one sense +suggests the revival of classic architecture, in that all its arches +have semicircular heads. The magnificent façade of the church was +commenced in 1473 from the designs of Borgognone, a Milanese +architect: it is one of the few examples in Italy of large size in +which the transition is noticeable, for although there are no Gothic +details the design follows that of the middle ages, and instead of +great pilasters of the Corinthian order, buttresses with niches +containing statues divide the façade and accentuate the internal +divisions of the church; the open galleries above the entrance +doorway crossing the upper storey of the central portion are all +derived from well-known Lombardic features. The upper part of +the façade is inferior to the lower, Borgognone’s design having been +departed from. The enrichment of the whole front, from the lower +plinth to the string course under the first gallery, with bas-reliefs, +panelled pilasters, niches, medallions and other decorative accessories, +all in white marble, so completely covers the whole surface +that scarcely any portion is left plain, which to a certain extent +detracts from its effect as a whole; but there is an endless variety of +design, and the baluster or candelabrum shafts dividing the windows +and the friezes and cresting above their cornices, are of great beauty. +The circular rose window above, with its enclosing frontispiece of +later date, shows the coming influence of the later Italian style. +The cloisters adjoining are surrounded with a light arcade, with +enrichments in the spandrils and frieze, all in terra cotta.</p> + +<p>The cathedral of Como is also a transitional example, where +buttresses are employed all round the church, and it is only in the +finials which surmount them, the great projecting cornice which +crowns the structure, and the doorways and windows, that we find +classical details; the doorways recall the porches of the Lombard +churches, and are of great beauty in design, the south doorway +being said to be by Bramante. Another example, remarkable for +its elaborately carved front and porch, is the church of Santa Maria +dei Miracoli at Brescia (1487-1490) by Ludovici Beretta, which +both externally and internally is one of the richest specimens of +the early Italian Renaissance. The church dedicated to Santa +Maria dei Miracoli in Venice (1481-1489), by Pietro Lombardo, is +another transitional example in which the Byzantine influence of +St Mark’s is recognizable in the semicircular pediments of its façade +and of the exterior of the chancel, and Lombardic influence in its +external decorations with pilaster strips and blind arcades. The +interior is one of the gems of the Renaissance, on account of its +splendid decoration with marble linings and fine cinque-cento carving. +Similar semicircular pediments are found in the façade of the +church of San Zaccharia at Venice (1515), but are purely decorative +because the roof behind is not semicircular like that of the Miracoli. +The decoration of the main front, here all in marble, is of an entirely +different design, and is subdivided into a series of storeys, the lower +panelled, the first storey with arcades and the upper ones with +pilasters. An earlier example (1461) in San Bernardino at Perugia +is of a far higher standard, and its enrichment with bas-reliefs by +the Florentine sculptor Agostino di Duccio (<i>c.</i> 1418-<i>c.</i> 1490) gives +it the first place for its conception and execution. Among others, +the church of Spirito Santo, Bologna, in terra cotta; the church of +Santa Giustina, Padua (1532); the sacristy of San Satiro, Milan +(1479), by Bramante; and the sacristy of the church of Santo +Spirito, Florence (1489-1496), by Sangallo, are all interesting +examples of the early Renaissance in Italy.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:394px; height:750px" src="images/img410.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 51.—Plan of St Peter’s at Rome.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In 1505, on the advice of Michelangelo, Bramante was instructed +to prepare designs for a new church in Rome dedicated to St Peter, +to take the place of the early basilica, which, built in haste, began +to show serious signs of failure. Already, fifty years earlier, Pope +Nicholas V. had commenced a new building, the erection of which +was stopped by his death in 1454. The scheme was revived by +Julius II., and the foundation stone of the new structure was laid +in 1506. On Bramante’s death in 1514, Raphael, Peruzzi and +Sangallo were successively appointed, and the last named prepared +a new design, which, however, was not carried out, as he found +it necessary first to strengthen the piers of the dome provided by +Bramante and to remedy the defects of his successors. In 1546 +Michelangelo, then seventy-two years of age, was entrusted with +the continuance of the work, and he made radical changes, chiefly +in the design of the dome. Comparison of the plans of Bramante +and Sangallo with that actually carried out by Michelangelo +shows that he not only increased the size of the piers to carry his +dome, but the outer walls of the north, south and west apses, and +omitted the aisles which surrounded the latter (fig. 51). He would +seem to have availed himself of the foundation walls already built +and of Bramante’s piers to carry the dome, which had been raised +up to the cornice, but otherwise the architectural features of the +whole building externally and internally were carried out from +Michelangelo’s own designs. Sangallo had suggested for the exterior +a series of superimposed orders with three storeys; Michelangelo +elected to have one order only with an attic storey. The +building gained thereby in dignity, but it lost in scale, for the huge +pilasters of the Corinthian order (87 ft. high) look considerably +smaller, in spite of the two storeys of windows between them. +These windows also, which from their design are apparently about +10 to 12 ft. high, actually measure 20 ft. in height. The same defect +exists in the interior, where the Corinthian order, over 100 ft. in +height to the top of the cornice (Plate III., fig. 69), calls for a similar +increase in the dimensions of all the sculptured decorations; the +figures in the spandrils being 20 ft. high, and the cherubs supporting +the holy water spouts 10 ft. Otherwise the scheme realizes the +conception which Bramante proposed from the first, viz. to raise +the dome of the Pantheon on the top of the basilica of Constantine; +the latter being represented by the magnificent barrel vault (75 ft. +in span) of the nave, transepts and choir; the former by the great +hemispherical dome, 140 ft. in diameter, which, including the drum, +is 162 ft. from the top of the cornice above the pendentives to the +soffit of the dome. The dome is built in two shells with connecting +ribs on the same principle as Brunelleschi’s dome in Florence, and +was nearly completed before Michelangelo’s death in 1563, and the +lantern in 1590 from the model which he had made. In 1605 the +east end of the old basilica was taken down, and three more bays +were added, thus converting the Greek cross of Michelangelo’s +design into the Latin cross originally conceived by Bramante. The +nave and the eastern vestibule were completed in 1620, and the great +semicircular portico was added by Bernini in 1667. The immense +height of the east façade, and its prolongation in front of Michelangelo’s +chief feature, the dome, hides the design of a great portion +of the latter, so that it can only be seen either from a great distance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span> +(Plate III., fig. 68), or from behind the western apse, where the +relative grouping with the great apses can be properly appreciated. +A second well-known work by Michelangelo is the new sacristy +of the church of San Lorenzo, Florence (1523-1529), designed to +contain the monuments of Giuliano and Lorenzo de’ Medici, the +architectural design of which is poor.</p> + +<p>Antonio di Sangallo was the architect of the church of San Biagio +at Montepulciano (1518), with a cruciform plan, and dome in the +centre, and a campanile at the south-west angle somewhat similar +to those of Wren in London.</p> + +<p>The church of Santa Maria-di-Carignano (1552) at Genoa, by +Galeazzo Alessi, is finely situated but unsatisfactory in its design, +the lower part being stunted in its proportions and its order to a +different scale from that in the campanile towers and the dome. +The most beautiful interior is that of the Annunziata in the same +town, by Giacomo della Porta (1587); the arches of its nave arcade +are carried on Corinthian columns of marble, of fine proportion, +and the nave is covered with a barrel vault with penetrations +admitting the light from clerestory windows. The churches of San +Giorgio Maggiore (1556-1579), San Francesco della Vigna (1562), +and II Redentore (1577), all in Venice, were designed by Palladio, +the interior of the latter being the finest; the façade of the first +named is the best-proportioned, but whether its design is due to +Palladio, or to Scamozzi, who built it in 1610, is not known. A far +finer church in its picturesque grouping and the originality of its +design is that of Santa Maria della Salute on the Grand Canal (1631), +by Baldassare Longhena; the church is octagonal on plan, with +aisles round, giving access to six recesses with altars and to an +important eastern chapel with central dome. The central octagon is +covered with a lofty dome with immense corbel buttresses of vigorous +and fine design. The entrance portal of the west front is perhaps +the best example of the period in Italy. Longhena also designed the +Santa Maria degli Scalzi (1680), completed by Sardi in 1689, the +latter being responsible for the heavy front of San Salvatore (1663), +as also of the rich but somewhat debased church, in the Jesuit style, +Santa Maria Zobenigo (1680-1683).</p> + +<p><i>Secular Architecture</i>.—In the application of the leading features of +classical architectural design to palaces and mansions, the Italians +had a much easier field on which to exercise their originality, as the +requirements were very different from those which obtained in the +middle ages. Moreover, the classic style lent itself more readily to +the horizontal lines given by string courses, cornices and ranges of +windows, which naturally exist in dwelling-houses on account of the +various storeys. As in ecclesiastical, so in secular architecture, the +first introduction of the Revival takes place in Florence, which was +then the principal art centre of Italy, and the earliest examples are +in a sense transitional, in that they are based on the earlier medieval +work. As in the Palazzo Vecchio (1298) in Florence, and the +Ricciarelli palace at Volterra (<i>c.</i> 1320), the rusticated masonry which +gives them so fine a character forms the chief characteristic of the +Riccardi and Strozzi palaces, the only changes being the substitution +of a classic cornice of considerable projection in the place of the machicolations +of the Palazzo Vecchio, and the employment of circular +arches in the windows in the place of the pointed and curved arches.</p> + +<p>The earliest example, the Riccardi palace (1430), by Michelozzo +(fig. 52), built for Cosimo de’ Medici, is certainly the finest, owing +partly to its size but more especially to the magnificent bossed and +rusticated masonry of the ground storey and the bold projecting +cornice, which crowns so admirably the whole structure. The lower +two storeys of the main front of the Pitti palace were built by +Brunelleschi in 1435, the return wings and court not being carried +out till after 1550 from the designs of Ammanati; compared with +the other Tuscan palaces the cornice is extremely poor and the whole +front too monotonous. The beautiful court of the Palazzo Vecchio +was reconstructed and decorated by Michelozzo in 1434. The +Strozzi palace (1489), by Benedetto da Maiano and S. Pollajuolo, +(Cronaca), comes next to the Riccardi as regards general design, but +in comparison with it the windows are too small, and the want of a +much bolder rustication, as provided in the latter, is much felt. +Other examples of the same type are the Gondi (1481) and the +Antinori palaces, by G. di Sangallo, and the Casa Larderel, all in +Florence; the Spanochi (1470) and the Piccolomini (1460) palaces +in Siena, and the Piccolomini palace (1490) in Pienza. In the +Guadagni palace at Florence, by S. Pollajuolo, there is a third storey, +consisting of an open gallery, which gives the depth of shadow +otherwise afforded by the projecting cornice. In the Ruccellai +palace (1460), by Alberti, the design is spoilt by the introduction +of the classic pilasters at regular intervals on each storey, which +suggest no structural object and have too little projection to give +any effect of light and shade, so that it is only on account of the +purity of their details that they are worth notice. The Pandolphini +palace, the design of which is attributed to Raphael, carried out after +his death by Sangallo, is a simple and unpretentious building of fine +proportions: the Pall Mall façade of Sir Charles Barry’s Travellers’ +Club in London is a reproduction of this palace. The Bartolini +palace (1520), by Baccio d’ Agnolo, is said to have been the first +astylar example in which the Classic orders were employed only to +decorate the entrance door and windows, but this had already been +done in 1488 in the Scuola di San Marco in Venice.</p> + +<p>Throughout the greater part of the 15th century, the Venetian +Gothic style still held its own in the palaces of Venice, so that it is +only towards the close of the century we find the first actual results +of the Classic Revival. The earlier palaces may be looked upon as +transitional work, in which Gothic principles rule the design while the +details are borrowed from classic sources. The intimate acquaintance +with the proportions of the Classic orders and their ornamental +detail shows that the designers of the earliest Renaissance palaces +must have acquired their knowledge outside Venice. Among these +designers we find the names of members of the Lombardi family +(which, as the name suggests, come from Lombardy), who for three +or four generations, either as architects or sculptors, would seem +to have been the chief founders of the Renaissance style in Venice. +One of these, Pietro Lombardo, has already been referred to as the +designer of the church of the Miracoli, and to him is due the Vendramini-Calerghi +palace on the Grand Canal (Plate IV., fig. 71), built +in 1481, which in some respects is the finest example in Venice. +It should be observed that all these palaces on the Grand Canal +have an architectural frontage only, the flanks being built in plain +masonry or brick stuccoed over, and with very poor, if any, dressings +to the windows. This is well exemplified in the Vendramini palace, +where there are gardens on each side, showing the total want of +correlation between the rich architectural front and the poverty of +the flanks.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:414px; height:623px" src="images/img411.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From a photo by Almari.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.—Riccardi Palace, Florence.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In a still earlier example, the Dario palace, one of the flanks +borders on a side canal, so that its brick construction, partly covered +with stucco, contrasts strangely with the rich marbles encrusting +the main front. In the Dario palace the transition from Gothic to +Renaissance is more clearly seen, as the only changes made are the +substitution of circular window-heads for the Ogee Venetian arch, +the projecting cornice with modillions, and more or less pure classic +details. In the Vendramini palace the employment of the orders, +to break up or subdivide the wall surface, has become a recognized +treatment, based on the theatre of Marcellus and the Colosseum at +Rome. On the ground storey there are panelled pilasters only, but +on the first and second storeys three-quarter detached columns of +the Corinthian order are employed, and the entablature is doubled +in height with a bold projecting cornice, so as to crown properly the +whole building.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span> </p> + +<p>The semicircular-headed windows of the palace are filled with +moulded tracery carried on columns in the centre of each, which must +be looked upon as the classic version of the arcade of the Ducal +palace. This feature is found in other early Renaissance work in +Venice, as in the Scuola de San Rocco (1517), and the Cornaro +Spinelli palace (1480). In the latter, probably also by Pietro +Lombardo, there are pilasters only on the groins of the main front, +and the window-heads are enclosed in square-headed frames. In the +Scuola de San Marco (1488), by Lombardo, we find another type of +window, single and lofty, with pilaster strips each side carrying an +entablature with pediment. The same window decoration is found +on the south and west fronts of the court of the Ducal palace and +the external south front, and also in the Camerlenghi palace (1525), +by Bergamasco and in other examples of early 16th-century work. +In the Scuola de San Rocco the columnar decoration assumes much +greater importance, and, in imitation of the triumphal arches of +Septimus Severus and Constantine in Rome, the column is completely +detached, with a wall-respond behind. Among other examples to be +noted are the Cornaro-della-Grande palace (1532), by Sansovino, +which is very inferior to his other work in Venice; the Grimani +palace (1554), by San Michele (who also designed the fortifications +of the Lido); the Zecca or mint (1537), the small loggetta (1540) at +the foot of the campanile of St Mark’s and now destroyed, and the +Procuratie Nuove (completed by Scamozzi in 1584), all by Sansovino; +the Balbi palace (1582), by Vittoria; and the Ponte Rialto (1588), +by Antonio da Ponte. Sansovino’s greatest work in Venice was the +library of St Mark’s, which was commenced in 1531; in this he has +shown not only remarkable powers of design but great boldness in +the projection of his columns, cornices and other architectural +features. The upper frieze has been increased in height, so as to +admit of the introduction of small windows to light an upper storey, +and this gives much greater importance and dignity to the entablature +crowning the whole structure. Two of the most imposing +palaces on the Grand Canal, but of later date, are the Pesaro (1679) +and the Rezzonico (1680), both by Longhena, the architect of the +Salute church. The former is too much overcharged with ornament, +but it has one advantage, the classic superimposed orders of the main +front being repeated on the flank overlooking the side canal, with +pilasters substituted for the detached columns of the main front. +The Rezzonico palace is much quieter in design, and finer in its +proportions, but even there the cherubs in the spandrils are too +pronounced in their relief.</p> + +<p>In Rome there are no important examples of the 15th century, +with the exception of the so-called “Venetian palace,” which still +retains externally the features of the feudal castle, such as machicolations, +small windows and rusticated masonry. This was owing +probably to the comparative poverty of the city, which had to +recover from the disasters of the 14th century. The earliest example +of the Renaissance is that of the Cancellaria palace (1495-1505), by +Bramante, the architect of the church at Todi; this was followed +by a second and less important example, the Giraud or Torlonia +palace (1506). The former is an immense block, 300 ft. long and +76 ft. high, in three storeys, with coursed masonry and slightly +bevelled joints, the upper two storeys decorated with Corinthian +pilasters of slight projection and crowned with a poor cornice, so +that its general effect is very monotonous, and the design is only +relieved by the purity of its details, such as those of the window +and balcony on the return flank. In 1506 Bramante was instructed +to carry out the court of the Vatican, of which the great hemicycle +at one end, designed in imitation of similar features in the Roman +thermae, is an extremely fine example; to what extent he was +responsible for the court of the Loggie, decorated by Raphael, is +not known. The Villa Farnesina (1506), best known for its fresco +decorations by Raphael and his pupils; the Ossoli palace (1525); +and the Massimi palace (1532-1536), with magnificent interiors, +were all built by Baldassare Peruzzi. The finest example in Rome +is the Farnese palace, commenced in 1530 from the designs of +Antonio di Sangallo; the design is astylar, as the employment of the +orders is confined to the window dressings, the angles of the front +having rusticated quoins; the upper storey, with the magnificent +cornice which crowns the whole building, was designed by Michelangelo, +and in the upper storey he introduced a feature borrowed +from the Roman thermae, brackets supporting the three-quarter +detached columns flanking the windows. The brilliance of the design +is not confined to the exterior, and the entrance vestibule and the +great central court are the finest examples in Rome. Here the upper +storey added by Michelangelo is inferior to the two lower storeys +by Sangallo.</p> + +<p>The museum in the Capitol at Rome, by Michelangelo (1546), is +one of those examples in which the principles of design are violated +by the suppression of the horizontal divisions of the storeys which +it should have been an object to emphasize. By carrying immense +Corinthian pilasters, through the ground and first storeys, Michelangelo, +it is true, obtained the entablature of the order as the chief +crowning feature, and so far the result is a success, but in other hands +it led to the decadence of the style. Among other examples in Rome +which should be mentioned are the Villa Madama by Giulio Romano +(1524); the Nicolini palace (1526) by Giacomo Sansovino; the +Villa Medici (1540) by Annibale Lippi; the Chigi palace (1562) by +G. de la Porta; the Spada palace (1564) by Mazzoni; the Quirinal +palace (1574) by Fontana (the architect who raised the obelisk in +the Piazza di San Pietro); and the Borghese palace (1590) by +Martino Lunghi.</p> + +<p>We now return to about the middle of the 16th century, to the +period when the great architects Barozzi da Vignola and Andrea +Palladio of Vicenza commenced their career, and by their works and +publications exercised a great and important influence on European +architecture.</p> + +<p>The villa of Pope Julius (1550), and the Costa palace, Rome, are +good examples of Vignola’s style, always very pure and of good +proportions, but his principal work was that of the Caprarola +palace (1555-1559), about 30 m. from Rome, which he built for the +cardinal Alessandro Farnese. The plan is pentagonal with a central +circular court, and it is raised on a lofty terrace; the palace is in +two storeys with rusticated quoins to the angle wings, and the Doric +and Ionic orders, superimposed, separating arcades on the lower +storeys and windows on the upper. The arcade of the central court +is of admirable proportions and detail, second only to that of the +Farnese palace.</p> + +<p>Palladio in his earlier career measured and drew many of the +remains of ancient Rome, and more particularly the thermae (the +drawings of which are in the Burlington-Devonshire Collection), but +he does not seem to have carried out any buildings there. His most +important work, and the one which established his reputation, is +that known as the basilica at Vicenza (1545-1549), which he enclosed +with an arcaded loggia in two storeys of fine design and proportion, +and extremely vigorous in its details. He built a large number of +palaces in his native town, among which the Tiene (1550) and the +Colleone Porto are the simplest and best, the latter being the model +on which the front of Old Burlington House (London) was rebuilt +in 1716. In the Valmarana, the Consiglio and the Casa del Diavolo +he departed from his principles, in carrying the Corinthian pilasters +through two floors, and by returning the cornice round the order he +destroyed its value as a crowning feature. Among other works of +his are the Chiericate (1560), Trissino (1582) and Barbarano (1570) +palaces; the Olympic theatre (1580), which was completed after +his death; and the Rotonda Capra near Vicenza, reproduced by +Lord Burlington at Chiswick.</p> + +<p>Though he laid down no rules for the guidance of others, the works +of San Michele are superior to those of Palladio, with the exception, +perhaps, of the basilica at Vicenza and the library at Venice. In the +Bevilacqua palace (1527), at Verona, there is far greater variety of +design than in Palladio’s work, and the Pompei palace (1530) and +the two gateways at Verona (1533 and 1552) are all bold and simple +designs. In the same town is an extremely beautiful example of the +early Renaissance, the Loggia del Consiglio (1476) by Fra Giocondo; +a similar example with open gallery on the ground storey exists at +Padua, where there is also the Giustiniani palace (1524) by Falconetto, +an interesting example of a master not much known. The +town hall of Brescia (1492) was built from the designs of Tommaso +Formentone, who employed for the carving of the medallions on the +lower storey, and the pilasters with their capitals and the friezes, +various artists of high merit, so that the building takes its rank as +one of the finest in north Italy, but independently of their collaboration +the design of the first floor is in design and execution equal to +Greek work. The upper storey and its circular windows are said +to have been added by Palladio, and they are so commonplace and +out of scale that by contrast they increase the artistic value of +Formentone’s work.</p> + +<p>The so-called Palazzo de’ Diamanti at Ferrara, built in 1493 for +Sigismondo d’Este, is decorated externally with a peculiar kind of +rustication, in which the square face of the stones is bevelled towards +the centre in imitation of diamond facets: the quoins of the palace +have panelled pilasters richly carved, and similar pilasters flank the +entrance door; the windows, with simple architrave mouldings and +cornices on ground storey and pediments on the first storey, constitute +the only architectural features of a novel treatment.</p> + +<p>At Bologna there are two or three palaces of interest,—the Bevilacqua +by Nardi (1484), chiefly remarkable for its central court +surrounded with arcades, there being two arches on the upper storey +to one on the lower, which presents a pleasant contrast and gives +scale to the latter; the Fava palace (1484), in which on one side of +the court are elaborately carved corbels carrying arches supporting +an upper wall; and the Albergati palace (1521), by Peruzzi, in +which the architectural decoration is confined to the entrance doorway +windows flanked with pilasters and cornices in pediments and +the entablatures of the ground and upper storeys, all the features +being in stone on a background of simple brick construction. The +Casa Tacconi is similarly treated. Many of the streets in Bologna +have arcades on which the upper part of the house is built, and there +is an endless variety in the capitals of these arcades.</p> + +<p>If the palaces of Genoa are disappointing as regards their external +design, this is in some measure compensated for by the magnificence +of their entrance vestibules, which (with the staircases and the arcades +in the courts beyond) are built in white marble, and have probably +suggested the title of the “marble palaces of Genoa.” Many of these +palaces are situated in narrow streets, so that no general view can be +obtained of them, which may account for their exterior being erected +in inferior materials with stucco facing. The ground storey of the +palaces is almost always raised about 6 to 8 ft. above the street level, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span> +so that the first flight of steps leading up to the court forms a +prominent feature in every palace; the ceilings of the entrance +vestibule are also mostly decorated with arabesque work in stucco, +or with painted devices, &c. The palaces in the town are lofty, +and as a rule crowned with fine cornices, and there are no examples +of pilasters being carried through the floors; the palaces and villas +in the vicinity of Genoa are of less height, and owe much of their +magnificence to the terraces on which they are erected. They have +no special qualities except in slight variations of the external wall +surface decoration, consisting of the applied orders on the several +storeys. Among the best examples are the Palazzo Cataldi, formerly +Palazzo Carega (1560), in which there are no pilasters, but rusticated +quoins at the angles and windows with moulded dressings and +pediments. The entrance vestibules of the Durazzo-Pallavicini, +Rosso (1558) and Balbi (1610) palaces are in each case their finest +features. The Pallavicini palace, and the Pallavicini, Spinola, +Giustiniani and Durazzo villas, are all fairly well designed and in +good proportions, but with no original treatment. Two of the palaces +are flanked by open loggias with arcades, from which fine views are +obtained, giving them a special character; that of the Durazzo +palace being on the first floor, and of the Doria Tursi on the ground +storey. The University (1623) and the Ducal palaces have very +magnificent entrance vestibules, the former with lions on the lower +ramp of the staircase.</p> + +<p>Many of the finest palaces at Genoa are by Galeazzo Alessi, but in +none of them has he approached the design of the Marino or municipal +palace at Milan, in which he produced a remarkable work; the +internal courtyard surrounded with arcades carried on coupled +columns is an original combination which is not excelled in any +other court in Italy, and the exterior façades are very fine.</p> + +<p>The internal courtyard of the hospital at Milan (243 ft. by 220 ft.), +with an arcade in two storeys, was designed by Bramante and begun +in 1457; only one side was completed by him, but in 1621, in consequence +of a large benefaction, the remainder was completed by +Ricchini according to the original design; the proportions of the +arcade are extremely pleasing, and it forms now one of the chief +monuments of the town. Ricchini was the architect of the Litta +palace, one of the largest in Milan.</p> + +<p>There still remains to be mentioned one of the early examples of +the Renaissance, the triumphal arch which was erected in 1470 at +Naples to commemorate the entry of Alphonso of Aragon into the +town. It is built against the walls of the old castle in four storeys, +and connected with bas-reliefs and statues. The largest palace in +Italy, that of the Caserta at Naples, with a frontage of 766 ft., +built in 1752 by Vanvitelli, is one of the most monotonous designs, +rivalled in that respect only by the Escurial in Spain.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Renaissance Architecture in France</p> + +<p>The classical revival of the 15th century in Italy was too +important a movement to have remained long without its +influence extending to other countries. In France this was +accelerated by the campaigns of Charles VIII., Louis XII. and +Francis I., which led to the revelation of the artistic treasures +in Italy; the result being the importation of great numbers of +Italian craftsmen, who would seem to have been employed in the +carving of decorative architectural accessories, such as the panels +and capitals of pilasters, niches and canopies, corbels, friezes, &c., +either in tombs, as for instance in those of Charles of Anjou at +Le Mans (1472) and at Solesmes (1498), of Francis, duke of +Brittany (1501), and of the children of Charles VIII. (1506) +at Tours, and of Cardinal d’Amboise in Rouen cathedral, the +figures in all these cases being carved by French sculptors. They +were also employed in architectural buildings, where the design +and execution were by French master-masons, and the Italians +were called in to carve the details, as in the choir screens of +Chartres, Albi and Limoges cathedrals, the portal of St. Michel +at Dijon, the eastern chapels of St Pierre at Caen, and numerous +other churches throughout France; or for mansions like the +Hôtel d’Alluye at Blois, the Hôtel d’Allemand at Bourges, and +the châteaux of Meillant (1503), Châteaudun and Nantouillet +(1519). The great centre of the artistic regeneration was at +first at Tours, so that in Touraine, and generally on the borders +of the Loire and the Cher at Amboise, Blois, Gaillon, Chenonceaux, +Azay-le-Rideau and Chambord, are found the principal +examples; later, Francis I. transferred the court to Paris, and +the château of Madrid, and the palaces of Fontainebleau, St +Germain-en-Laye, and the Louvre, follow the change. In all +these châteaux the Italian craftsman would seem to have been +under the direction of the master-mason or architect, because the +whole scheme of the design and its execution is French, and only +the decoration Italian. In cases where the Italian was not called +in, the Gothic flamboyant style flourishes in full vigour with no +suggestion of foreign influence, as in the palais de justice at +Rouen, the church of Brou (Ain), 1505-1532, the Hôtel de Cluny, +Paris, and the rood-screen of the church of the Madeleine at +Troyes (1531).</p> + +<p>Between the last phase of Flamboyant Gothic and the introduction +of the pure Italian Revival there existed a transitional +period, known generally as the “Francis I. style,” which may be +subdivided under three heads:—the Valois period, comprising +the reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. (1483-1515); the +Francis I. period (1515-1547); and the Henry II. and Catherine +de’ Medici period (1547-1589). The first two are characterized +by the lofty roofs, dormers and chimneys, by circular or square +towers at the angles of the main building with decorative machicolations +and hourds, by buttresses set anglewise, which run up +into the cornice, and square-headed windows with mullions and +transoms. In the second period the machicolations are converted +into corbels carrying semicircular arcaded niches in +which shells are carved; the buttresses become pilasters with +Renaissance capitals; and the Gothic detail, which in the first +period is mixed up with the Renaissance, disappears altogether. +In the third period Italian design begins to exert its influence +in the regular interspacing of the pilasters or columns with due +proportion of height to diameter, in the completion of the order +with the regular entablature, and its employment generally in +a more structural manner than in the earlier work.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The two first periods are well represented in the château of Blois, +where, in the east wing built by Louis XII., square-headed windows +alternate with three central arches, the buttresses are set anglewise +running into the cornice, and pillars and angle shafts are carved with +chevrons, spiral flirtings, or cinque-cento arabesque; the cornices +of the towers containing staircases project and are carried on arched +niches supported on corbels (the new interpretation of the machicolations +of the feudal castle); above the cornice is a balustrade with +pierced flamboyant tracery, and the dormer windows retain their +Gothic detail. In the north wing of Francis I. all these Gothic +ornamental details disappear, and are replaced by the Renaissance. +Panels and pilasters take the place of the buttresses—the panels +sometimes enriched with cinque-cento arabesque; shells are carved +in the arched niches of the cornice, and modillions and dentil courses +are introduced; the balustrade is pierced with flowing Renaissance +foliage interspersed with the salamanders and coronets; the same +high roofs are maintained, but the dormer windows and chimneys, +still Gothic in design, are entirely clothed with Renaissance detail.</p> + +<p>The finest feature of the façade of this north wing, facing the court, +is the magnificent polygonal staircase tower in its centre (Plate VIII., +fig. 84); four great piers rise from ground to cornice, between +which the rising balustrade is fitted; the whole feature Gothic in +design, but Renaissance in all its details. The splendid carving of +the panels of the piers and the niches with their canopies was probably +done by Italian artists. The figures in these niches are said +to be by Jean Goujon. The great dormers and chimneys have not +the refinement in their design which characterizes the lower portion, +and may be of later date. The north front of the château is raised +on the foundation walls of the old castle, part of which is encased +in it, and this may account for the slight irregularities in the widths +of the bays. The design differs from that of the south front, the +windows all being recessed behind three-centre arched openings; +the open loggia at the top, which is admirable in effect, is a subsequent +alteration.</p> + +<p>Before passing to the Louvre and Tuileries, representing the +third period, we must refer to some other important early châteaux +and buildings. Some of these, such as the châteaux of Madrid and +Gaillon, are known chiefly from du Cerceau’s work, as they were +destroyed at the Revolution. Of the latter building, the entrance +gateway is still <i>in situ</i>; there are some portions in the court of +the École des Beaux-Arts at Paris, consisting of a second entrance +gateway, a portico and some large panels. The gateway shows a +singular mixture of Gothic and Renaissance; the centre portion, +with the gateway and great niche over, is debased classic, the side +portions retaining the buttresses, mouldings, panels and other +features belonging to the latest phase of Flamboyant Gothic.</p> + +<p>Of buildings still existing, the hôtel de ville of Orleans (1497) +is a good example of early transition work, in which Gothic and +Renaissance work is intermingled, and it is interesting to compare +it with the hôtel de ville at Beaugency, built by the same architect, +Viart, some twenty-five years later. There is the same principle in +design, much improved in the later example, but all the Gothic +details have disappeared.</p> + +<p>In the château of Chenonceaux (1515-1524) we find a compromise +between the two styles; Gothic corbels, piers and three-centre +arches are employed, varied with debased classic mouldings, shells +and capitals; here, as at Azay-le-Rideau (1520), the château was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span> +not transformed like those at Langeais and Rochefoucauld, where +what was externally a 14th-century castle developed internally into +a 16th-century mansion; both Chenonceaux and Azay-le-Rideau +were built as residences, and yet in both are displayed those features +which belong to the fortified castle; at the angles of the main +structure in both cases are circular towers, in the latter case crowned +with machicolations and hourds, which, however, are purely decorative, +pierced with windows, and broken at intervals with dormer +windows, a feature which gives it the aspect of an attic storey. +The lofty roofs and conical terminations to these angle towers, +with dormer and chimney, give the same picturesque aspect to the +grouping as that which was afforded in the fortified castle, where, +however, they originated in the necessity for defence. The entrance +portals of both chateaux are beautiful features, absolutely Gothic in +design, and only transformed by cinque-cento detail.</p> + +<p>In the château of Chambord (1526) we find the same defensive +features introduced, in the shape of great circular towers at the angles, +but here with more reason, as the chateau was intended more for +display than habitation. The chateau itself, about 200 ft. square, +has circular towers at the angles, and in the centre a spiral staircase +with double flight, leading to great halls on each side, which give +access to the comparatively small rooms in the angles of the square +and the towers beyond, and to the roof, which would seem to have +been the chief attraction, as there is a fine view therefrom; and the +elaborate octagonal lantern over the staircase, the dormer windows, +chimneys and lanterns on the conical roofs of the towers, are all +elaborately carved. There are three storeys to the building, subdivided +horizontally by string courses, and terminated with a fine +cornice carrying a balustrade, and vertically by a series of pilasters +of the Corinthian order. The varied outline of this building, with +the alternation of blank panels and windows between the pilasters, +relieves what might otherwise have been its monotony. The château +is situated on the east side of a great court measuring about 500 ft. +by 370 ft., with a moat all round. To the right and left of the central +block the walls are carved up three storeys, and an attic, with open +arcades inside, leading to the angle towers of the enclosure. At a +later period Louis XIV. continued the unfinished structure by a one-storey +building round. The carving of the capitals, corbels and other +decorative work was all done by Italian artists, under the direction +of some architect whose name is not known.</p> + +<p>One of the gems of Francis I.’s work is the small hunting lodge +originally built at Moret near Fontainebleau, to which at one time +the king thought of adding, before he began his great palace there. +This was taken down in 1826, and re-erected in the Cours-la-Reine +at Paris. Though small, it is the purest example of the first Renaissance. +Other examples are the hôtel de ville of Paray-le-Monial +(1526); the Hôtel d’Anjou at Angers (1530), built by Pierre de +Pincé; the Hôtel Bernuy at Toulouse (1530); the Hôtel d’Ecoville +at Caen (1532); the Manoir of Francis I. at Orleans; the Hotel +Bourgthéroulde at Rouen (1520-1532) and other buildings opposite +Rouen cathedral, and what remains of the château known as the +Manoir d’Ango (1525) at Varengeville, near Dieppe. The château of +St Germain-en-Laye (1539-1544), the upper half of which is built +in brick, belongs also to the early period, as also the hôtel de ville at +Paris, built in 1533 by Domenico da Cortona, an Italian, who after +spending some thirty years in France would seem to have caught +the spirit of the French Renaissance so well as to be able to produce +one of the most remarkable examples of the Francis I. style. In +the existing building the original design has been copied from the +building burnt down by the Communists in 1871.</p> + +<p>From this we pass to the palace at Fontainebleau, begun by +Francis I. in 1526, to which there have been so many subsequent +additions and alterations that it is difficult to differentiate between +them. The building owes its picturesque effect more to its irregular +plan (as portions of an earlier structure were enclosed in it) than to +any brilliant conceptions on the part of its architect. There is an +endless variety of charming detail in the capitals, corbels and other +decorative features, but the employment of pilaster strips purely +as decorative features (without any such structural property as that +in the Porte Dorée at the Cour Ovale) suggests that the Italian +architect Serlio, to whom sometimes the work is ascribed, certainly +had nothing to do with it.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, there is every reason to believe that the +designs made by Pierre Lescot for the Louvre, begun in 1546, were, +as regards their style, largely based on the principles set forth in +Serlio’s work on architecture, published in 1540. The south-west +angle of the court of the Louvre is the earliest example of the third +period of the Renaissance, in which the orders are employed in +correct proportions with columns or pedestals carrying entablatures +with mouldings based on classic precedent. The portion built from +Lescot’s designs (Plate VIII., fig. 83) consists of the nine bays on +the east and north sides, the latter not being completed till 1574, +as the workmen would seem to have been transferred to the building +of the Tuileries, begun in 1564.</p> + +<p>The Corinthian order is employed for the ground and first storeys +and an attic storey above, in which the pilaster capitals run into the +bedmold of the upper cornice. Of the nine bays, the central and +side bays are twice the width of the others, and project slightly with +the cornices breaking round them; this feature, and the crowning +of the western bays with a segmental pediment, give a variety to +the design, which otherwise might have become monotonous by its +repetition of similar features. The balustrade also is replaced by +the <i>chęneau</i>, a cresting in stone, which hereafter is found in nearly +all French buildings. The sculptor, Jean Goujon, would seem to +have worked in complete harmony with the architect, thus producing +what will always be considered as one of the <i>chef-d’œuvres</i> +of French architecture.</p> + +<p>The architect employed by Catherine de’ Medici for the Tuileries +was Philibert de l’Orme, who combined the taste of the architect +with the scientific knowledge of the engineer. Only a portion of his +design was carried out, and of that much disappeared in the 17th +century, when his dormer windows were taken down and replaced +by a second storey and an attic. Bullant and du Cerceau also added +buildings on each side.</p> + +<p>The Tuileries were built about 500 yds. from the Louvre, and +Catherine de’ Medici conceived the idea of connecting the two. +The work, which began with the “Petite Galerie,” with the south +wing, as far as the Pavilion Lesdiguieres, was started in 1566, being +of one storey only. The mezzanine and upper storey were not +completed till the beginning of the 17th century. In 1603 the +remainder of the south front and the Pavillon-de-Flore were +completed by Jacques Androuet du Cerceau.</p> + +<p>Of Philibert de l’Orme’s work at Anet (1549), only the entrance +gateway, the left-hand side of court, and the chapel remain, sufficient, +however, to show that he had already at that early date +mastered the principles of the Italian Revivalists. The chapel is in +its way a remarkable design, but the hemispherical dome, pierced by +elliptical winding arches inside, is not happy in its effect. The +frontispiece which he created opposite the entrance, now in the court +of the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, shows great refinement in its +details, but proportionally errs in many points. De l’Orme built +also the bridge and gallery on the river Cher, forming an addition +to the château of Chenonceaux.</p> + +<p>Amongst other work of this period are the additions made by +Bullant to the château de Chantilly, where he traversed the principles +of classic design by running Corinthian pilasters through two storeys +and cutting through the cornice of his dormer windows. At Écouen +(1550) he destroyed the scale of the earlier buildings of 1532 by +raising in front of the left wing of the court four lofty Corinthian +columns with entablature complete, which he copied from the temple +of Castor in Rome.</p> + +<p>Among the early Renaissance work are the chateau of Ancy le +Franc (Yonne), Italian in character, which may be by Serlio (1546); +the Hôtel d’Assézat at Toulouse (1555), in which there is a strong +resemblance to the court of the Louvre; the houses at Orleans, +known as those of Agnes Sorel, Jeanne d’Arc and Diane de Poitiers +(1552); and there is other work at Caen, Rouen, Toulouse, Dijon, +Chinon, Périgueux, Cahors, Rodez, Beauvais and Amiens, dating +up to the close of the 16th century. In this list might also be included +the fine town hall of La Rochelle, the Hôtel Lamoignon in +the rue des Francs-Bourgeois, Paris (1580), and the Hôtel de Vogüé +at Dijon, which retained the Renaissance character, though built in +the first year of the 17th century.</p> + +<p>In the reigns of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. the first work of +importance in Paris is that of the Place Royale, now the Place des +Vosges; in this brick was largely employed, and the conjunction +of brick and stone gave a decorative effect which dispensed with +the necessity of employing the Classic orders. At Fontainebleau, +where Henry IV. made large additions, the same mixture of brick +and stone is found in the Galerie des Cerfs, and in the great service +court (<i>cour des cuisines</i>). The example set was followed largely +through the country, and numerous mansions and private houses +in brick and stone still exist. Henry IV.’s most important work at +Fontainebleau is the Porte Dauphine, of which the lower part, +with rusticated columns and courses of masonry, does not quite +accord in scale or character with the superstructure, in which is put +some of the best work of the century.</p> + +<p>Except perhaps for the monotony of the rusticated masonry +which is spread all over the building, the palace of the Luxembourg, +by Salomon de Brosse (1615), is an important work, in which he +was probably instructed by Marie de’ Medici to reproduce the general +effect of the Pitti palace at Florence. The three storeys of the main +block are well proportioned, but the absence of a boldly projecting +cornice, such as is found in the Riccardi and Strozzi palaces, is a +defect; the same architect reconstructed the great hall of the palace +of justice at Paris, burnt in 1871 but now rebuilt to the same design.</p> + +<p>In 1629 the building subsequently known as the Palais Royal was +begun from the designs of Lemercier; but it has been so materially +altered since that scarcely anything remains of his design, though the +works carried out from his designs at the Louvre were of the greatest +possible importance. The court of the latter, as begun by Pierre +Lescot, was of small dimensions, corresponding with that of the +palace of Philip Augustus, but Lemercier proposed to quadruple its +dimensions. It is not certain whether he built the lower portion of +the Pavilion d’Horloge, but he designed the upper part, with the +caryatid figures sculptured by Jacques Sarrazin. On the north side +of this pavilion he built a wing similar in length and design to that +of Pierre Lescot, and continued the wing along the north side to the +centre pavilion; this was continued by Levau, the architect of +Louis XIV., round the other sides of the court. His design for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span> +east front, however, did not recommend itself to the king or to his +minister Colbert, and a competition was held, the first place being +given to the design by a physician, Dr Perrault. Prior to its being +begun, however, Bernini was sent for, and he submitted other +designs, fortunately not carried out, as they would have destroyed +the court of the Louvre. In 1665 the works were begun on the +design of Perrault, a grandiose frontispiece which appealed to +Louis XIV., but in which no cognizance had been taken of the various +rooms against which it was built; consequently no windows could +be opened, and it forms now a useless peristyle. Moreover it was so +much wider than the original building that on the north side it +became necessary to add a new front. Fortunately the example set +by Perrault of coupling columns together has rarely been followed +since in France, so that in the Garde-Meuble on the south side of +the Place de la Concorde, by Gabriel, we return again to the original +classic peristyle. The works undertaken at the Louvre progressed +but slowly, in consequence of the greater interest taken by Louis XIV. +in the palace he was building at Versailles, an extension of the +hunting-box built by his father Louis XIII., which he insisted should +be maintained and incorporated as the central feature in the new +building. But as it was comparatively small in dimensions, of simple +design, and in brick and stone, it was quite unfit to become the central +feature of the main front of the largest palace in Europe. To make +it worse, the new wings built on either side were lofty and of more +importance architecturally, and as they projected some 300 ft. in +advance of the earlier building, they reduced it to still greater +insignificance. But even then the architect, Jules Hardouin Mansart, +might have redeemed his reputation by buildings of greater interest +than those which now exist. The back elevation of the central block +is 330 ft. wide, the returns 280 ft., and the length of the wings on +each side 500 ft.; in other words he had nearly 1900 ft. run of +façade, and it is simply a repetition of the same bays from one end +to the other, in three storeys all of the same height, the lower one +with semicircular arched openings, the first floor decorated with +pilasters on columns of the Ionic order, and an attic storey above +with balustrade. The slight projection given to the central and side +bays of each block, just sufficient to allow of columns in the first +floor as decorative features instead of pilasters, is of no value in +fronts of such great dimensions. The great galleries inside have +the same monotonous design as in the façades, relieved only by the +rich decoration in the first case and the splendid masonry in the +latter. There is one saving clause in the main front, the chapel +by R. de Cotte on the right-hand side being externally and +internally a fine structure, and the best ecclesiastical example of +the period.</p> + +<p>Among other buildings of the 17th century are those begun by +Cardinal Mazarin in the rue de Richelieu, which now constitute the +National library; the Hôtel de Toulouse (1626), now the Bank of +France; the Hôtel de Sully (1630), by du Cerceau; the Hôtel de +Beauvais (1654), by le Pautre; the Hôtel Lambert (also by le +Pautre), in the Île St Louis; the château at Maisons, near St +Germain-en-Laye, by François Mansart (1656); the Institute of +France (1662), by Levau; two triumphal arches, of St Denis (1672), +by Blondel, and St Martin (1674) by Bullet; the Hôtel des Invalides +(1670), by Bruant; the Place des Victoires and the Place Vendôme +(1695-1699), by Jules Hardouin Mansart, in which a series of large +houses are grouped together in one design; the Trianon at Versailles +(1676), and the château of Marly (1682), both by J.H. Mansart; +and important monumental buildings in the principal provincial +cities, such as Lyons, Bordeaux, Nantes and Tours.</p> + +<p>In the 18th century those which are worthy of note are the Hôtel +Soubise (1706), now the “Archives Nationales”; the fountain in +the rue de Crenelle, a fine composition; the École Militaire (1752), +by Gabriel; the Ęcole de Médecine (1769), by Gondouin; the mint +(1772), by Antoine; the Place de la Concorde, with the Garde-Meuble, +by Gabriel (1765); the Hôtel de Salm, now the Legion of +Honour; the Place Stanislas at Nancy (1738-1766), in which are +grouped the town hall, archbishop’s palace, theatre and other +public buildings, with triumphal arch and avenues leading to the +palace of the duke Stanislaus (with magnificent wrought-iron +enclosures and gates by Jean Lamour, the greatest craftsman of the +century); the theatre at Bordeaux by Louis; and the Odéon, Paris +(1789).</p> + +<p>The ecclesiastical architecture of the French Renaissance comes +at the end of our description owing to the far greater importance +of the palaces, mansions and public monuments, and also because +in the beginning of the 16th century France found herself in possession +of a much larger number of cathedrals and large churches than +she could maintain. Some of these are still unfinished, so that her +first efforts would seem to have been directed to the completion of +those already begun rather than to the erection of new ones, St +Eustache in Paris being nearly the only exception of importance +prior to the 17th century.</p> + +<p>We have from time to time dwelt upon the important consideration +which must not be lost sight of, viz. that nearly all the buildings +erected in France up to the accession of Henry IV. were conceived +and carried out in the spirit of the Flamboyant Gothic style, cinque-cento +details mixed up with Gothic at first, then superseding them, +and even when the influence of the Italian revivalists began to exert +itself, still retaining much of her traditional methods of design. +If this was the case in civil architecture, it was naturally more +pronounced in the additions made to ecclesiastical structures, and +the gradual development of the style may be more easily followed in +the latter. These are, however, so numerous, and they are so universally +spread throughout France, that only a few of the most +interesting examples can be here given; for instance, the porch of +St Michel at Dijon; the upper part of the western towers of the +cathedrals of Orleans and Tours; the three eastern chapels of St +Jacques, Dieppe, built at the cost of Jean Ango, a celebrated +merchant-prince of Dieppe, to whose chateau at Varengeville we +have already referred; the eastern chapels of St Peter’s, Caen, +from the designs of Hector Sohier (1521), both internally and +externally of great interest; the west end of the church at Vétheuil +(Seine-et-Oise); the magnificent work of the west front and tower +of the church at Gisors; the upper part of the west front of the +cathedral at Angers; the portals of the church at Auxonne (Fichot); +the choir at Tilličres; the lantern of the church of St Peter, +Coutances (1541); the porch of the Dalbade at Toulouse; and the +north front of the church of Ste Clotilde at Les Andelys, which dates +from the age of Henry II.</p> + +<p>The church of St Eustache at Paris, begun in 1533, but not completed +till the end of the century, is a large cruciform Gothic structure +with lofty double aisles on each side and carried round the choir, +and rectangular chapels round the whole building, excepting the +west end. Structurally also it possesses all the most characteristic +features of the Gothic church, with nave arcades carried on compound +piers, triforium and clerestory, vaulted throughout, and +flying buttresses outside. Close examination shows that all the +details are of the early cinque-cento work, panelled pilasters of +varying proportions, but with Renaissance capitals, corbels, niches +and canopies all grouped together in a Gothic manner, and quite +opposed to the principles of the Italian revivalists; what is more +remarkable is that though long before its completion these principles +had already borne fruit in the Louvre and Tuileries, the original +conception was adhered to, and the portals of the north and south +transepts (the last features added, with the exception of the ugly +west front of the 18th century) still retain the character of the early +French Renaissance.</p> + +<p>In St Étienne-du-Mont, sometimes claimed as a second example, +the church is Flamboyant Gothic throughout, the chief additions +being the magnificent rood-screen of 1600, and the west portal, in +which the banded columns of the Bourbon period form the chief +features.</p> + +<p>Coming to churches of later date, Salomon de Brosse (<i>c</i>. 1565-1627), +the architect of the Luxembourg palace, added in 1616 a fresh +front to the church of St Gervais, finely proportioned and of pure +Italian design, which contrasts favourably with the Jesuits’ church +of St Paul and St Louis (1627-1641), overladen with rococo ornament; +then came the churches of the Sorbonne (1629), by Jacques +Lemercier, and of the Val-de-Grace (1645), by François Mansart, +the dome of the latter, though small, being a fine design; the church +of the Invalides, also by Mansart, the dome of which is the most +graceful in France; the cathedral of Nancy (1703-1742), by Jules +Hardouin Mansart and Germain Boffrand (1667-1754), the principal +front of which is flanked by two towers with octagonal lanterns +which group so well with the central portion (of the usual design, in +two stages with pilasters and coupled columns, carrying a third +stage with circular pediment) that it is unfortunate it should be +almost the only example of its kind; and lastly the church of +Ste Genevičve, better known as the Panthéon (1755), by Jacques +Germain Soufflot (1713-1780), the dome of which is based largely +on that of St Peter’s in Rome. The main building with its great +portico is a simple and fine piece of design, and unlike St Peter’s +the dome is well seen from every point of view; the decoration of +its walls with paintings by Puvis de Chavannes and other French +artists has now rendered the interior one of the most interesting in +France.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Renaissance Architecture in Spain</p> + +<p>In Spain, as in France, the revival of classic architecture +was engrafted on the Flamboyant style of the country, influenced +here and there by Moorish work, so that the earlier examples +of Spanish Renaissance constitute a transitional style which +lasted till the accession of Philip II. (1558), who introduced what +was then considered to be the purer Italian style of Palladio and +Vignola. This, however, did not seem to have had much attraction +for the Spaniards, owing to its coldness and formality, so +that in the latter half of the 17th century a reaction took place +in favour of the most depraved and decadent architecture in +existence.</p> + +<p>The magnificence of the earlier Renaissance work, which was +introduced into Spain when she was at the zenith of her power, +and (owing to the discovery of a new world) the possessor of +enormous wealth, has scarcely yet been recognized, in consequence +of the greater attraction of the Moorish architecture; there is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span> +no doubt that its exuberant richness in the 16th century derives +its inspiration from the latter, and especially so in patios +or courts found in every class of building, ecclesiastical as well +as civil. There is still, however, another characteristic in the +early Renaissance of Spain, which is not found in Italy or France, +and which again owes its source to Moorish work, where the +external walls and towers consist of simple plain masonry, and +the rich decoration, generally in stucco brilliantly coloured and +gilded, is confined to the courts and to the interiors of their +magnificent halls. The Italian method of decorating the external +front of the palaces with flat pilasters of the various orders placed +at regular intervals, the windows and doors forming features of +second-rate importance, was not followed by the architects of +the Spanish Renaissance, who retained the simple plain masonry +and reserved their decorations for the entrance doorways and +windows, emphasizing therefore these features, and by contrast +increasing their value and interest.</p> + +<p>Instead also of the huge <i>cornicione</i> which the Italians employed +to give the shadows required to emphasize the crowning features +of their palaces, the Spanish architects preferred to obtain a +similar effect by an open arcaded upper storey, which, as Fergusson +remarks, “forms one of the most pleasing architectural +features that can be applied to palatial architecture, giving +lightness combined with shadow exactly where wanted for effect +and where they can be applied without any apparent interference +with solidity.” These galleries would seem to have been +provided to serve as promenades to the occupants of the palace, +and more especially for the ladies when it would have been unwise +or imprudent for them to venture into the streets. There is one +well-known example in France, in the château of Blois, which +is so attractive a feature that it is singular it has not been more +often adopted.</p> + +<p>Instead also of the monotonous balustrade, which is invariably +found in Italy, the Spanish architects introduced richly carved +crestings, with finials at regular intervals, a feature probably +borrowed from Flamboyant Gothic and Moorish.</p> + +<p>The three periods into which the architectural phases of the +Renaissance style in Spain are divided are:—(1) The Plateresque +or Silversmiths’ work, from the conquest of Granada to the reign +of Philip II. (2) The purer Italian style, called by the Spanish +the Greco-Roman, though it has no Greek elements in its design, +being based on the work of Palladio and Vignola. This style +prevailed until the end of the 17th century. (3) The Rococo +or Churrigueresque style, so called from the name of the architect, +José Churriguera (d. 1725), the chief leader of the movement, +which lasted for about 100 years.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Ecclesiastical Architecture</i>.—The cathedral of Granada, built from +the designs of Diego de Siloé, is the earliest example of the Renaissance +in Spain, and in some respects the most remarkable, not only +for its plan, in which there is an entirely new feature, but for the +scheme adopted in the vaulting, which covers the whole church, +and shows that its architect had studied the earlier Gothic churches, +and was well acquainted with the principles of thrust and counter-thrust +developed in them. The cathedral is 400 ft. long by 230 ft. +wide, and therefore of the first class as far as size is concerned. +The western portion consists of nave and double aisles on each side, +the outer aisle being carried round the whole church and giving +access to the chapels which enclose the building. The principal +feature of the cathedral is at the east end, where the place of the +ordinary apse is occupied by a great circular area, 70 ft. in diameter, +crowned by a lofty dome, in the centre of which in a flood of light +stands the high altar. The vista from the nave through the great +arch (37 ft. 6 in. wide and 97 ft. high) is extremely fine, and it is +strange that it should be the only example of its kind. The west +front was completed at a later date; the only feature of it belonging +to the original church being the north-west tower, which, in its design, +resembles the south-west tower of the church at Gisors in France. +There are two other important Renaissance cathedrals at Jaen and +Valladolid. The latter was built from a design of Juan de Badajoz +in 1585 but never completed. On the south side of the cathedral is +the chapel in which the Catholic kings lie buried, where there are +two fine marble tombs enclosed by the <i>reja</i> or wrought-iron screen +partly gilt, forged in 1522 by Maestre Bartholome. The <i>sagrario</i> or +parish church, also on the south side, is a small version of the scheme +of design employed in the cathedral.</p> + +<p>In Spain, as in France, magnificent portals have been added to +cathedrals and churches, and these are amongst the finest works +of the Renaissance period. The more remarkable of these are the +portals of the cathedral of Malaga, a deeply recessed porch, enriched +with slender shafts and niches between; of Santa Engracia at +Saragossa; and of Santo Domingo and the cathedral at Salamanca. +Externally the Renaissance domes over the crossings of Spanish +cathedrals are poor, but this is compensated for by the lofty steeples +which form striking features. The western towers of the cathedral +at Valladolid; the tower of the Seo in Saragossa, which bears some +resemblance to Wren’s steeples in the setting back of the several +storeys and the crowning with octagonal lanterns; the tower of the +cathedral Del Pilar at Saragossa, and that at Santiago, are all +interesting examples of the Spanish Renaissance.</p> + +<p>One of the most beautiful features of the Spanish Renaissance is +found in the magnificent <i>rejas</i> or wrought-iron grilles, richly gilt, +which form the enclosures of the chapels. Besides the example at +Granada, others are found at Seville, where is the masterpiece of +Sancho Muńoz (1528); at Palencia (1582); Cuenca (1557), where +there are three fine examples; Toledo; Salamanca; and other +cathedrals. The iron pulpit at Avila, the eagle lectern at Cuenca +and the staircase railing at Burgos are all remarkable works in +metal.</p> + +<p><i>Secular Architecture</i>.—With the exception of the magnificent +portals, the finest works of the Renaissance in Spain as in France +are to be found in the secular buildings, but with this difference, +that the best examples in France are those built in the country or in +comparatively small provincial towns, whereas in Spain they are all +in the midst of the larger towns, and further they are not confined +to palaces and chateaux; monasteries and universities coming in +for an equal share in the great architectural development.</p> + +<p>The characteristic style of the Spanish architecture of the Renaissance +period is due probably to the influence of the earlier Moorish +work, where the value of the rich Alhambresque decorations in the +entrance doorways and windows, and the patios or courts, is enhanced +by contrast with the plain masonry of their walls and towers. This +influence had already been felt in the Spanish flamboyant Gothic +panelling and tracery; when translated into Renaissance, and +probably, at first, executed by Italian artists, it displayed a variety +and beauty in its design scarcely inferior to some of the best work +in Italy. And this development, taking place at a time when Spain +was overflowing with wealth, resulted in that exuberant richness we +find in the entrance doorways and windows, the external galleries +of the upper storey, and the rich cresting surmounting the cornice.</p> + +<p>Comparison with the contemporary and even earlier work in +Italy, where the principal thought of the architect would seem to +have been to break the wall surface by an unmeaning series of flat +pilasters, and then fill in the windows as features of secondary +importance, will show that the Spanish architect recognized more +fully the true principle of design, and although, in the profiles of +their mouldings, and the execution of the sculpture decorating +their pilasters and friezes, Spanish work in contrast with Italian +looks somewhat coarse, in general picturesqueness it is far in advance +of the palaces of Rome, Florence, and even Venice, and has not yet +received the recognition which it deserves.</p> + +<p>The earliest palace built in the Renaissance style is that which +adjoins the Alhambra at Granada, and was begun by the emperor +Charles V. for his own residence in 1527, but never completed. +The building is nearly an exact square of 205 ft., with a great circular +court in the centre, nearly 100 ft. in diameter. This central court +was enclosed by a colonnade with Doric columns, and an upper +storey with columns of the Ionic order. From the unfinished condition +of the palace and the absence of roofs, it is difficult to decide +what the form of the latter might have been. But the design, begun +by Pedro Machuca and continued by Alonso Berruguete (1480-1561), +is so remarkable that it ought to be better known. Its +proximity to the Alhambra, however, deprives it of the attention +which otherwise it deserves for the purity of its details and for its +good proportion.</p> + +<p>A second palace, the Alcazar at Toledo, was begun in 1540 by +Charles II., but little else than the bare walls remain, as it was +destroyed by fire in 1886, after having been twice rebuilt. In its +design it belongs to the true Spanish type of the Renaissance, with +the simple ashlar masonry of its walls and the accentuation of the +principal entrance doorway and the windows. In this palace also +the plan is square, about 110 ft., with a square courtyard (240 ft.).</p> + +<p>The third palace built, the Escorial, some 20 m. to the north-east +of Madrid, is the most renowned—more, however, on account of its +immense size than for its design. It was built for Philip II. and +begun in 1563 from the designs of Juan Bautista de Toledo, being +completed by his pupil, Juan de Herrera, in 1584. The principal front +is 680 ft. in width, the depth of the palace 540 ft., with the king’s +residence in the rear. The plan is a fine conception, and consists +of a large entrance court in the centre, with the church in the rear, +having on the right the Colegio and on the left the monastery, with +numerous courts in each case. The church is 320 ft. long by 220 ft. +wide, the principal portion being the intersection of the nave and +transept, which is covered by a dome. The coro is placed above +the entrance vestibule, which is 100 ft. long and 27 ft. high, imperfectly +lighted, but by contrast emphasizing the dimensions and +the splendour of the church beyond. Externally the grouping is +fine; the lofty towers at the angles, the central composition of the +main front, and at the rear of the court the front of the church +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span> +with its corner towers and the great dome, all form an exceedingly +picturesque group, and it is only when one begins to examine the +work in detail that its poverty in design reveals itself. Instead of +accentuating the windows of the principal storeys and giving them +appropriate dressings, the fronts are pierced with innumerable +windows, which give the appearance of a factory, and the angle +towers, nine storeys high, look like ordinary “sky-scrapers,” without +any of the dignity and importance which the architectural design +of a palace requires. The same applies to the great entrance courts +five storeys high with an attic, all of the most commonplace design. +Internally the church is fine, but it is dwarfed by the immense size +of the Doric pilasters, 62 ft. high, all in plain stone masonry, the +coldness of which is emphasized by the rich colouring of the vaulted +ceilings and the elaboration of the pavement, all in coloured marbles. +The palace is regarded by the Spaniards as the Versailles of Spain, +and if it had been possible to have interchanged some of the features, +to transfer to Versailles some of the towers, and to break up the wall +surface of the Escorial with the superimposed order of pilasters, +which became monotonous by their repetition at Versailles, both +palaces would have gained.</p> + +<p>The palace at Madrid is the last of the series, and although it was +begun at a much later period, by Philip V. in 1737, from the designs +of the Italian architect Sachetti, it is a fine and simple composition, +consisting of a lofty ground storey with coursed masonry, carrying +semi-detached columns of the Ionic order, rising through three +storeys, the whole crowned by an entablature and a bold balustrade. +The slightly projecting wings at each end of the main front and the +central frontispiece give that variety and play of light and shade of +which one regrets the absence in the Cancellaria palace at Rome.</p> + +<p>We must, however, retrace our steps to the beginning of the +16th century, to take up the early buildings of the style; the palace +of the Conde de Monterey at Salamanca, built in 1530 from the +designs of Alonso de Covarrubias, is a fine example. The masonry +of the ground and first floors is of the simplest character, the decoration +being confined to the entrance doorways and to the windows +of the important rooms. It is on the second floor that the design +becomes enriched with an open arcade and entablature above, +crowned with a rich cresting. In the wings at the angles, and in +the central block, the buildings are carried up an additional storey, +the plain masonry of which gives value to the open galleries between. +On these wings and the central block are other galleries crowned +with entablature and cresting. These features therefore form +towers, which break the sky-line. There is still another treatment +peculiar to the Spanish Renaissance, in which the example of the +Moorish palaces would seem to have been followed, viz. the elaborate +carving of the pilasters and their capitals, of the panelling and +the horizontal friezes, which is extremely minute and finished in the +lower storeys, but increases in scale and projection towards the +upper storeys. This is very notable in the entrance gateway of the +university of Salamanca (Plate V., fig. 73), where the carved arabesque +in the panelling above the doors is of the finest description, equal to +what might be found in cabinet work, whilst that of the upper +portion immediately under the cornice is at least twice the scale of +that below and is in bold relief.</p> + +<p>The principal buildings characteristic of the Spanish Renaissance, +in chronological order, are:—the hospital of Santa Cruz at Toledo, +built in 1504-1514, and the Hospicio de los Reyes at Santiago +(1504), both from the designs of Enrique de Egas, the former with a +magnificent portal rising through two storeys and a gallery with an +open arcade above; the Irish college at Salamanca, built (1521) +from the designs of Pedro de Ibarra, Alonso de Covarrubias, and +Berruguete; the convent of San Marcos, Leon, by Juan de Badajoz +(1514-1545)—here, however, the whole façade is panelled out in +imitation of late Gothic work, Renaissance pilasters and devices +taking the place of the buttresses set angle-wise and flamboyant +panelling; the Colegio de San Ildefonso at Alcalá de Henares +(formerly the seat of the university), built in 1557-1584 by Rodrigo +Gil de Ontańon.</p> + +<p>Of municipal buildings the Lonja or exchange at Toledo (1551), +built in brick-work, is somewhat Florentine in style.</p> + +<p>The town hall of Seville (1527-1532), by Diego de Riańo and +Martin Garuza, may be taken as the most gorgeous example in Spain +(Plate V., fig. 74). The front facing the square is very simple, +compared with the façade in the street at the rear, and here again +we find, in the ornamental carving of the windows and door mouldings +on the ground floor, a different scale from that adopted on the +first floor, where the shafts are enriched with a superabundance +of carved ornament in strong relief. There is still one other feature +of great importance in Spain, the magnificent galleries of the patios +or courts found in all the important buildings. It is from these +galleries that access is obtained to the rooms on the first floor. +They have sometimes arcades on the first floor, and columns with +bracket-capitals on the upper storey. There is an infinite variety +of design in these capitals, the brackets on each side of which lessen +the bearing of the architrave.</p> + +<p>The earliest Renaissance example of these patios (1525) is in the +Irish college at Salamanca; it was carved by Berruguete, Alonso de +Covarrubias being the architect. In the same town is the Casa de la +Salinas, another example with fine sculpture. In the Casa Polentina +(1550) at Avila, and the Casa de Miranda at Burgos, columns with +bracket-capitals are employed on both storeys. Rich examples are +found in the Casa de la Infanta and Casa Zaporta (1580), both at +Saragossa. Of late examples the patio of the Lonja at Seville by +Juan de Herrera resembles in its style the courtyard of the Farnese +palace at Rome; and the same style obtains in the court of the +Escorial, built at a time when the purer Italian style was introduced +into Spain. These courts, though cold in design, compared with the +earlier Renaissance type, are of fine proportion. Two other examples +are found in the bishop’s palace at Alcalá de Henares, one of which +has a magnificent staircase.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Renaissance Architecture in England</p> + +<p>In England, as in France, the influence of the Classic Revival +was first seen in connexion with tombs and church work, though +not nearly to the same extent as in France, where throughout +the country the work of the Italian sculptor is to be found not +only in churches but in country mansions. On the other hand, +two if not three of the Italian artists who came over to England +were men of some reputation, such as Pietro Torrigiano, a +Florentine sculptor who was invited over by Henry VIII. and +entrusted with the tomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey +(1512-1518), and executed the tomb of John Young (in terra-cotta) +in the Rolls chapel (1516). Another Italian was Giovanni +da Maiano, who was also a Florentine, who modelled the busts +of the emperors in the terra-cotta medallions over the entrance +gates at Hampton Court, and probably the panel flanked by +Corinthian pilasters, in which are modelled the arms of Cardinal +Wolsey, also in terra-cotta. Benedetto da Rovezzano (1478-<i>c.</i> +1552), and Toto del Nunziata, Italian artists of note, were also +employed in England, the first on the tomb of Cardinal Wolsey +(now destroyed), and the second on the palace of Nonsuch, built +by Henry VIII., which was pulled down in 1670. Other early +Renaissance work is found at Christchurch Priory, in the Salisbury +Chantry (1529), the design of which is Gothic and some of the +details Italian, and in the tombs of the countess of Richmond in +Westminster Abbey (1519), of the earl of Arundel in Arundel +church, Sussex, of Henry, Lord Marney, at Layer Marney (1525), +of the duke of Richmond (1537) and the duchess of Norfolk +(1572) in Framlingham church; and of Queen Anne of Cleves +(1557) in Westminster Abbey, attributed to Haveus of Cleves. +The sedilia (in terra-cotta) of Wymondham church, Norfolk, +the choir screen at St Cross, and Bishop Gardiner’s chantry, +Winchester, and the vaulted roof of Bishop West’s chapel at +Ely, all show the direct influence of the Italian cinque-cento +style. The most beautiful example in England of Italian woodwork +is the organ screen in King’s College chapel, Cambridge +(1534-1539), which, except for the coats of arms, the roses, portcullis +and other English emblems, might be in some Italian church, +so perfect is its design and execution. Of early domestic work, +Sutton Place (1523-1525), near Guildford, Surrey, is a good +example of transition work. The design is Tudor, but the window +mullions and panels inserted throughout the structure, which +is built in brick, are all enriched with cinque-cento details in +terra-cotta, and probably executed by Italian craftsmen. Similar +enrichments in the same material are found decorating the +entrance tower (1522-1525) at Layer Marney, Essex.</p> + +<p>Nearly all the examples above mentioned come within the +first half of the 16th century. Passing into the second half and +dealing with domestic architecture, we find the history of the +introduction of classic work into England more complicated than +in other countries, because in addition to the Italian, we have +French, Flemish and German influences to reckon with, and it +is sometimes difficult to decide from which source the features +are borrowed. There were, however, two still more important +considerations to be taken into account—firstly, the extremely +conservative character of the English people, who were satisfied +with the traditional work of the country, and the methods by +which it was carried out, and secondly, the great progress in +design which was made during the Elizabethan period, resulting +in a phase which was peculiarly English and did not lend itself +easily to classic embellishment.</p> + +<p>Already in the last phase of Gothic work, to which the title +of Tudor is generally given, important changes were being made +in the planning of the larger country mansions, and features +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span> +were introduced which seemed to give an impetus towards their +further development.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most important of these features were the following:—the +bow window, rectangular or polygonal, of which the earliest examples +date from the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483), such as Eltham +Palace in Kent, Cowdray Castle in Sussex, and Thornbury Castle in +Gloucestershire, and at a later period at Hampton Court; octagonal +towers or turrets flanking the entrance gateway at each end of the +main front; the projecting forward of the side wings so as to get +better light to the rooms in them by having windows on both sides, +such projections varying the otherwise monotonous effect of a uniform +façade without breaks; the long gallery (generally on an upper +floor), which was an important characteristic of the Elizabethan +house; and last but not least, the adherence to the type of old +Tudor window, with its moulded mullions and transoms but with +square head.</p> + +<p>One of the first modifications was the introduction of semicircular +bow windows, as in Kirby Hall, Northamptonshire, followed by a +second example at Burton Agnes in Yorkshire (1602-1610), and a +third at Lilford Hall in Northamptonshire (1635). They were +carried up through three storeys at Kirby Hall, the upper storey +in the roof; three storeys at Burton Agnes with balcony and +balustrade; and two storeys at Lilford Hall—these features being +extremely simple but fine in effect, and the windows with moulded +mullions and transoms lending themselves naturally to the curve.</p> + +<p>The projecting bays and bow windows seemed to have such an +attraction for the builders of these country mansions that at Burton +Agnes (with a rectangular plan of 120 ft. by 80 ft.) there are no fewer +than thirteen of them, which break up the wall surface and give a +picturesque group externally, whilst internally they add to the fine +effect of the rooms. At Barlborough Hall, Derbyshire, with a +frontage of 80 ft., there is a central rectangular bay forming the +entrance porch and carried up above the roof, and two large octagonal +bow windows which rise as towers with an extra storey. In all these +mansions the only influence which the Revival seems to have +exerted was in the introduction of an entablature, which sometimes +takes the place of the Gothic string course, balustrades which crown +the building, but with no projecting cornice, and gables with curved +outlines and Renaissance panels or scrolls. The fact is that, with +prominent features so widely differing from those which were +represented on the perspective drawings attached to the earlier +publications of the five orders, such as those of Serlio (1537) and +Vredeman de Vries of Antwerp (1577), the only course left open to +the master-mason was to decorate the principal entrance with +columns and pilasters of the Classic orders, sometimes superposed +one upon the other.</p> + +<p>To the further development of this singular introduction of the +Classic orders we shall return; for the moment it will be better to +follow a chronological sequence and take up the principal examples +of the country mansion, some of which were from the first intended +to be Classic buildings. Of the house built at Gorhambury in +Hertfordshire (1563) for Sir Nicholas Bacon, the father of Lord +Bacon, too little remains to render its design intelligible, except +that it still retains in its lofty window the Tudor pointed arch; but +in Longleat in Wiltshire, built by Sir John Thynne (1567-1580), we +have a typical example, the design of which departs from the English +type, though it would seem to have been carried out according to +the traditional custom of entrusting the whole work to a master-mason, +and furnishing him with sketch designs of some kind suggesting +the required arrangements of the plan, the principal features +of the exterior elevation and the internal disposition. This custom +was adhered to far into the 18th century at Oxford and Cambridge, +where the alterations and additions to some of the colleges, such as +the chapel of Clare College, Cambridge (1763), were carried out by +master-masons or builders who were supplied with sketch designs +and sometimes even the materials for the buildings they had to carry +out, notwithstanding the existence of properly trained architects, +who from the first half of the 17th century were usually entrusted +with the preparation of the necessary designs for new structures of +any considerable importance.</p> + +<p>The name of the designer of Longleat is not known; the master-mason +was Robert Smithson, who in 1580 went to Wollaton in +Nottinghamshire and constructed the mansion there. Longleat is so +Italian in style that it must have been conceived by some one who +had been in Italy, because it departs from the usual English type. +The plan is rectangular, with a frontage of 220 ft. by 180 ft. deep, +an entrance porch in the centre, with two projecting bays on each +side carried up through the three storeys, and three similar bays on +the flanks. The whole block is crowned with a parapet, the centre +portion of which is pierced with a balustrade, but the main cornice +bears no resemblance to the Italian feature, being only that of the +entablature of the upper order. The projecting bays are decorated +with pilasters of the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, each with its +proper entablature. These classic features would seem to have +been copied from a work by John Shute, painter and architect, who +had been sent to Italy by the duke of Northumberland in 1551, +and in 1563 brought out his <i>Chief Groundes of Architecture</i>, the first +practical work published in English on architecture. Shute died in +the same year, but two other editions appeared in 1579 and 1584, +which shows that it must have had an extensive circulation and +probably exercised the greatest influence on English architecture. +A second book on the orders, already referred to as published in +1577 by Jan Vredeman de Vries of Antwerp, was not of the same +type, for instead of confining his work, like Shute and Serlio, to a +simple representation of the Classic orders, he introduced, on the +shafts of his columns and on the pedestals, designs of the most +debased rococo type, with additional plates suggesting their application +to various buildings. Robert Smithson, or his client Sir Fr. +Willoughby, apparently obtained a copy of this book, and the result +is seen (Plate VI., fig. 76) in the mansion built at Wollaton (1580-1588), +in which we find the first examples of elaborately decorated +pedestals; crestings on the angle towers, the design of which is +known as strap-work; and medallions with busts in them, enclosed +with twisted curves similar to those which flowers and leaves take +when thrown into the fire. The plan and the scheme of the design of +Wollaton is, however, so far superior to the usual type, that it may +fairly be ascribed to John Thorpe, an architect or surveyor, of whose +drawings there is a large collection in the Soane Museum, representing +many of the more important mansions of the Elizabethan era; +some of his own design, others either plans measured from existing +buildings upon which he was called in to report or copies from other +sources, and some reproduced from published works such as Vredeman +de Vries’s pattern book and Androuet du Cerceau’s <i>Des plus +excellents bastiments de France</i> (1576).</p> + +<p>To John Thorpe is also attributed the design of Kirby Hall +(1570-1572) in Northamptonshire, in which the plan of the feudal +castle with great central court is still retained. This court is +symmetrically designed, and was evidently considered to be the +principal feature, the decoration being far richer than that of the +exterior of the building.</p> + +<p>Amongst other important mansions are Moreton Old Hall (1550-1559, +partly rebuilt in 1602; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">House</a></span>, Plate III., fig. 11) in +Cheshire, a fine house in half-timber; Knole House, Kent (1570), +possibly also designed by John Thorpe; Charlecote Hall (1572) +near Stratford-on-Avon; Burleigh House, Northamptonshire (1575), +the most remarkable feature in which is the great tower in the courtyard, +decorated with the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders superposed, +the design apparently suggested by a similar feature in the +château of Anet, France (published in du Cerceau); Apethorpe +Hall, Northamptonshire (1580); Montacute House, Somersetshire +(1580-1600); Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire (1583-1589); +Brereton Hall, Cheshire (1575-1586), in brick and stone; Westwood +Park, Worcestershire (1590); Wakehurst Place, Sussex (1590); +Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire (1590-1597); Longford Castle, Wiltshire +(1591-1612); Cobham Hall, Kent (1594); Dorton House, Buckinghamshire +(1596); Speke Hall, Lancashire (1598), partly in half-timber +work; Holland House, Kensington (1606; wings and arcades, +1624); Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire (1607-1613); Charlton House, +Kent (1607); Bramshill, Hampshire (1607-1612), an interesting +example of Jacobean architecture; Hatfield, Hertfordshire (1608-1611), +with an extremely fine courtyard (north side in brick and +stone, 1621); Audley End, Essex (1610-1616), a great portion of +which was afterwards pulled down; Ham House, Surrey (1610), +chiefly in brick; Pinkie House, at Musselburgh in Midlothian +(1613); Aston Hall near Birmingham (1618-1635); Blickling Hall, +Norfolk (1619); Heriot’s hospital, Edinburgh (1628-1659); and +Lanhydroc, Cornwall (1636-1641), which brings us down to the period +of the pure Italian Revival introduced by Inigo Jones.</p> + +<p>We have already referred to the reproduction of the Classic +orders, superposed as an enrichment of the principal entrance +doorways. In addition to Burton Agnes and Burleigh House, +there are endless examples in mansions and country houses, but the +most remarkable are those at Oxford: in the old Schools, where coupled +columns flank the entrance gateway with the five orders superposed, +and in Merton and Wadham Colleges, with four orders (the Tuscan +being omitted), in neither case taking any cognizance of the levels +of windows or string courses of the earlier building to which they +were applied, or serving any structural purpose. The orders were +all taken from one of the pattern books, and in the Schools and in +Merton College the rococo ornament and strap-work found in Vredeman +de Vries’s work were copied with more or less fidelity to the +original. There are, however, two or three buildings in Northamptonshire +which are free from rococo work, and in their design form a +pleasant contrast, as much to the elaboration of the buildings just +described as to the cold formality of the works of the later Italian +style. Lyveden new buildings (1577), the Triangular Lodge at +Rushton, and the Market House at Rothwell, are all examples in +which the orders from Serlio or John Shute are faithfully represented, +and are of a refined character; in the first named the entablatures +only of the orders are introduced. In Rushton Hall +(1595) the cresting of the bow windows shows the evil influence of +Vredeman de Vries’s pattern-book and of numerous designs by him +and other Belgian artists, which were printed at the Plantin press. +Two other publications of a similar rococo type were brought out in +Germany, one by Cammermayer (1564) and the other by Dietterlin +(1594), both at Nuremberg; neither of them would seem to have +been much known in England, but indirectly through German +craftsmen they may have influenced some of the work of the Jacobean +period, and more particularly the chimney pieces and the ceilings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span> +of the gallery and other important rooms in which strap-work is +found. Among the finer examples of ceilings of early date are those +of Knole, Kent; Haddon Hall, Derbyshire; Sizergh Hall, Westmorland; +South Wraxall Manor House, Wiltshire; the Red Lodge, +Bristol; Chastleton House; and Canons Ashby—in the last three +with pendants. Two of the best-designed ceilings of modest dimensions +are those of the Reindeer Inn at Banbury and the Star Inn at +Great Yarmouth. The principal decorative feature of the reception +rooms was the chimney-piece, rising from floor to ceiling, in early +examples being very simple—as those at Broughton House and +Lacock Abbey—but at a later date overlaid with rococo strap-work +ornament and misshapen figures, as at South Wraxall and Castle +Ashby. One of the most beautiful chimney-pieces is in the ballroom +at Knole, probably of Flemish design, but at Cobham Hall, +Hardwick, Hatfield and Bolsover Castle are fine examples in which +different-coloured marbles are employed, there being a remarkable +series at the last-named place.</p> + +<p>The long gallery has already been incidentally mentioned. Its +origin has never been clearly explained; it was generally situated +in an upper storey, and may have been for exercise, like the eaves +galleries in Spain. The dimensions were sometimes remarkable; +one at Ampthill (no longer existing) was 245 ft. long; and a second +at Audley End, 220 ft. long and 34 ft. wide. Of moderate length, +the best known are those of Haddon Hall, with rich wainscotting +carried up to the ceiling, Hardwick, Knole, Longleat, Blickling Hall +and Sutton Place, Surrey.</p> + +<p>In early work the staircases were occasionally in stone with +circular or rectangular newels, but the more general type was that +known as the open well staircase, with balustrade and newels in +timber. Of these the more remarkable examples are those at Hatfield; +Benthall Hall, Shropshire; Sydenham House, Devonshire; +Charterhouse, London; Ockwells Manor House, Berkshire; +Blickling, Norfolk; and the Old Star Inn at Lewes, Sussex.</p> + +<p>One of the important features in the old halls was the screen +separating the hall from the passage, over the latter being a gallery; +the front of the screen facing the hall was considered to be its chief +decoration, and was accordingly enriched with columns of the Classic +orders, and balustrade or cresting over. The screens of Charterhouse +(London), Trinity College (Cambridge), Wadham College +(Oxford), and the Middle Temple Hall (London), are remarkable for +their design and execution. The great hammer-beam roof (1562-1572) +in the last named is the finest example of the Renaissance in +existence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roofs</a></span>, Plate I., fig. 25).</p> + +<p>With the exception of chantry or other chapels added to existing +buildings, there was only one church built in the period we are now +describing, St John’s at Leeds. This church is divided down the +centre by an arcade of pointed arches, virtually constituting a double +nave, and the rood-screen is carried through both. The window +tracery and the arcade show how the master-mason adhered to the +traditional Gothic style, but the rood-screen, notwithstanding its +rococo decoration, is a fine Jacobean work, eclipsed only by the +magnificent example at Croscombe, which, with the pulpit and other +church accessories, dating from 1616, constitutes the most complete +example of that period.</p> +</div> + +<p>The pure Italian style, as it is sometimes called, was introduced +into France probably by Serlio, and the result of its first influence is shown in the Louvre, begun in 1546. It entered +Spain about 20 years later, under the rule of Philip II., +and Germany about the same time, creating about +<span class="sidenote">Inigo Jones.</span> +100 years later a reaction in Spain in favour of a less cold and +formal style, and scarcely taking any root in Germany. In +England its first appearance does not take place till 1619, when +Inigo Jones, after his second visit to Rome, designed an immense +palace, measuring 1150 ft. by 900 ft., of which the only portion +built was the Banqueting House in Whitehall (Plate VI., fig. 75); +a fine design, in which the emphasizing of the central portion by +columns in place of pilasters is an original treatment not found in +Italy, but of excellent effect. Unfortunately many subsequent +designs of Inigo Jones were either not carried out or have +since been destroyed; but nothing approached this admirable +work in Whitehall.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his buildings still remaining are St Paul’s, Covent Garden +(1631), a simple and massive structure which requires perhaps an +Italian sun to make it cheerful; York Stairs Water-gate (1626); the +front of Wilton House, near Salisbury (1633); the Queen’s House, +Greenwich (1617), a very poor design; Coleshill, Berkshire; Raynham +Park, Norfolk, with weakly-designed gables and an entrance doorway +with curved broken pediment, which can scarcely be regarded as +pure Italian; and Ashburnham House, Westminster (the staircase +of which is extremely fine), carried out after his death by his pupil +John Webb, who, at Thorpe Hall, near Peterborough (1656), shows +that he possessed some of his master’s qualities in his employment of +simple and bold details.</p> +</div> + +<p>Sir Christopher Wren, who follows, was by far the greatest +architect of the Italian school, though curiously enough he had +never been in Italy. His first work was the library of Pembroke +College, Cambridge (1663-1664), followed by the +<span class="sidenote">Wren.</span> +Sheldonian theatre at Oxford, in the construction of +the roof of which, with a span of 68 ft., he showed his great +scientific knowledge. In 1665 he went to Paris, where he stopped +six months studying the architectural buildings there and in its +vicinity, and where he came across Bernini, whose designs for +destroying the old Louvre (fortunately not carried out) were +being started. On his return Wren occupied himself with +designs for the rebuilding of the old St Paul’s, but these were +rendered useless by the great fire of the 22nd of September 1666, +which opened out his future career. His plan for the reconstruction +of the city was not followed, owing to the opposition of the +owners of the sites, but he began plans for the rebuilding of the +churches and of St Paul’s cathedral. In his treatment of the +former, where he was obliged to limit himself to the old sites, +often very irregular, and in most cases to the old foundations, +he adopted, perhaps quite unconsciously, one of the principles +of ancient Roman architecture, and made the central feature +the key of his plan, fitting the aisles, vestries, porches, &c., into +what remained of the site; this central feature varied according +to its extent and proportions, and sometimes from a desire to +work out a new problem. The central dome was a favourite +conception, the finest example of which is that of St Stephen’s, +Walbrook (1676); other domed churches are St Mary-at-Hill, +St Mildred’s, Bread Street, St Mary Abchurch (1681), where the +dome virtually covers the whole area of the church, and St +Swithin’s, Cannon Street, an octagonal example. In St Anne +and St Agnes, Aldersgate, the crossing is covered with an intersecting +barrel vault; and in this small church, about 52 ft. +square with four supporting columns, he manages to get nave, +transept and choir with aisles in the angles. In those churches +where there was sufficient length, the ordinary arrangement of +nave and aisle is adopted, with an elliptical barrel vault over +the nave, sometimes intersected and lighted from clerestory +windows, the finest example of these being St Bride’s, Fleet +Street; other examples are St Mary-le-Bow (Cheapside), Christchurch +(Newgate) and St Andrew’s (Holborn). In St James’s, +Piccadilly, of which the site was a new one, the plan of nave and +aisles with galleries over, and a fine internal design with barrel-vaulted +ceiling, was adopted; the exterior is very simple, +which suggests that Wren attached much more importance to +the interior. It should be pointed out that in all these cases, +the vaults, to which we have referred, were in lath and plaster, +and consequently covered over with slate roofs, and as a rule +the exteriors (which are rarely visible) were deemed to be of +less importance. This is, however, made up for by the position +selected for the towers, and in their varied design those of St +Mary-le-Bow, St Bride’s (Fleet Street) and St Magnus (London +Bridge) are perhaps the finest of a most remarkable series.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The foundation stone of St Paul’s cathedral was laid in 1675, and +the lantern was finished in 1710. The silhouette of the dome (Plate +II., fig. 66), which is, of course, its principal feature, is far +superior to those of St Peter’s at Rome, or the Invalides or Panthéon at Paris, +and the problem of its construction with the central lantern was +solved much more satisfactorily than in any other example. Wren +realized that the attempt to render a dome beautiful internally as +well as externally could only be obtained by having three shells in +its construction; the inner one for inside effect, the outer one to +give greater prominence externally, and the third, of conical form, +to support the lantern.</p> + +<p>In plan, Wren’s design (fig. 53) was in accordance with the traditional +arrangement of an English cathedral, with nave, north and +south transepts and choir, in all cases with side aisles, and a small +apse to the choir. The great dome over the crossing is, like the +octagon at Ely, of the same width as nave and aisles together. It +resembles the plan of that cathedral also in the four great arches +opening into nave, transepts and choir, with smaller arches between. +Instead of the great barrel vault of St Peter’s, Rome, Wren introduced +a series of cupolas over the main arms of the cathedral, which +enabled him to light the same with clerestory windows; these are +not visible on the exterior, as they are masked by the upper storey +which Wren carried round the whole structure, in order, probably, +to give it greater height and importance; by its weight, however, +it serves to resist the thrust of the vaults transmitted by buttresses +across the aisles. The grouping of the two lanterns on the west front +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span> +with the central dome is extremely fine; the west portico is not +satisfactory, but the semicircular porticoes of the north and south +transepts are very beautiful features. Greater importance is given +to the cathedral by raising it on a podium about 12 ft. above the +level of the pavement outside, which enables the crypt under the +whole cathedral to be lighted by side windows.</p> + +<p>The principal examples of the churches which followed are those +of St George’s, Bloomsbury; St Mary Woolnoth; Christ Church, +Spitalfields, by Nicholas Hawksmoor; and St Mary-le-Strand +(1714), and St Martin’s-in-the-Fields (1721), by James Gibbs. Gibbs’s +interiors are second only to those of Wren, while Hawksmoor’s are +very weak; in both cases, however, the exteriors are finely designed. +Amongst subsequent works are St John’s, Westminster, and St +Philips, Birmingham (1710), by Thomas Archer; St George’s, +Hanover Square (1713-1714), by John James; All Saints’ church, +Oxford, by Dean Aldrich; St Giles-in-the-Fields (1731), by Henry +Flitcroft; and St Leonard’s, Shoreditch (1736), by George Dance.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:363px; height:665px" src="images/img420.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 53.—Plan of St Paul’s Cathedral, London.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Sir Christopher Wren’s chief monumental work was Greenwich +hospital, in the arrangement of which he had to include the Queen’s +House, and a block already begun on the west side. His solution +was of the most brilliant kind, and seen from the river the grouping +of the several blocks with the colonnade and cupolas of the two +central ones is admirable.</p> + +<p>Wren’s next great work was the alterations and additions to +Hampton Court palace, begun in 1689, the east front facing the park +(Plate VI., fig. 77), the south front facing the river, the fountain +court and the colonnade opposite the great hall. Chelsea hospital +(1682-1692), the south front (now destroyed) to Christ’s hospital +(1692), and Winchester school (1684-1687), are all examples in +brick with stone quoins, cornices, door and window dressings, which +show how Wren managed with simple materials to give a monumental +effect. The library which he built in Trinity College, +Cambridge (1678), with arcades on two storeys divided by three-quarter +detached columns of the Doric and Ionic orders, is based +on the same principle of design as those in the court of the Farnese +palace at Rome by Sangallo, a part of the palace which is not likely +to have been known by him.</p> + +<p>The results of the Italian Revival in domestic architecture were +not altogether satisfactory, for although it is sometimes claimed +that the style was adapted by its architects to the traditional requirements +and customs of the English people, the contrary will be found +if they are compared with the work of the 16th century. The chief +aim seems to have been generally to produce a great display of +Classic features, which, even supposing they followed more closely +the ancient models, were quite superfluous and generally interfered +with the lighting of the chief rooms, which were sacrificed to them. +In fact there are many cases in which one cannot help feeling how +much better the effect would be if the great porticoes rising through +two storeys were removed. This is specially the case in Sir John +Vanbrugh’s mansion, Seaton Delaval, in Northumberland (1720); +his other works, Blenheim (1714) and Castle Howard (1702), are +vulgarized also by the employment of the large orders. The same +defect exists in Stoneleigh Abbey, Leamington, where the orders +carried up through two and three storeys respectively destroy the +scale of the whole structure.</p> + +<p>Among other mansions, the principal examples are Houghton in +Norfolk (1723), a fine work, the villa at Mereworth in imitation of +the Villa Capra near Vicenza, and the front of old Burlington House +(1718), copied from the Porto palace at Vicenza, by Colin Campbell; +Holkham in Norfolk and Devonshire House, London, by William +Kent; Ditchley in Oxfordshire, and Milton House near Peterborough, +by Gibbs; Chesterfield House, London, by Isaac Ware; +Wentworth House in Yorkshire (1740), and Woburn Abbey in +Bedfordshire (1747), by Henry Flitcroft; Spencer House, London +(1762), by John Vardy; Prior Park and various works in Bath by +John Wood; the Mansion House, London, by George Dance; +Wardour in Wiltshire, Kedleston Hall in Derbyshire, and Worksop +in Nottinghamshire (1763), by James Paine; Gopsall Hall, Ely +House, Dover Street, London (1772), and Heveringham Hall in +Suffolk, by Sir Robert Taylor, to whose munificence we owe the +Taylor Buildings at Oxford; Harewood House in Yorkshire (1760), +Lytham Hall in Lancashire, and (part of) Wentworth House in +Yorkshire, by John Carr; and Luton Hoo (1767), now largely +reconstructed, and Sion House (1761), the best-known mansions +by Robert Adam, who with his brothers built the Adelphi and many +houses in London. Adam designed a type of decoration in stucco +for ceilings and mantelpieces, the dies of which are still in existence +and are utilized extensively in modern houses. His labours were not +confined to buildings, but extended to their decoration, furniture and +fittings.</p> + +<p>The works of Sir William Chambers were of a most varied nature, +but his fame is chiefly based on Somerset House in the Strand, +London (1776), with its façade facing the river, a magnificent work +second only to Inigo Jones’s Whitehall, but infinitely more extensive +and difficult to design. He was also the author of a work on +<i>The Decorative Part of Civil Architecture</i>, which is still the standard +work on the subject in England. His pupil, James Gandon, won the +first gold medal given by the Royal Academy in 1769, and his +principal work was the Custom House in Dublin (1781). Newgate +prison (1770), a remarkable building now destroyed, was the chief +work carried out by George Dance, jun.</p> + +<p>Other buildings not yet mentioned are the Alcove and Banqueting +Hall (Orangery) of Kensington Palace, by Wren; the Radcliffe +library, Oxford, by Gibbs, an extremely fine work both externally +and internally; Queen’s College, Oxford, by Hawksmoor; the +county hall, Northampton, by Sir Roger Norwich; the town hall, +Abingdon (1677), designer unknown; the Ashmolean museum, +Oxford (1677), by T. Wood; Clare College, Cambridge, and St +Catherine’s Hall, Cambridge (1640-1679), by Thomas and Robert +Grumboll, master-masons; the custom house, King’s Lynn (1681), +by Henry Bell; Nottingham Castle, designed by the duke of Newcastle +in 1674 and carried out by March, his clerk of works—the +central portion is finely proportioned, and it is only in the pilasters +at the quoins that one recognizes the amateur; two houses in Cavendish +Square, London (1717), on the north side, by John James; +Lord Burlington’s villa (1740) at Chiswick, by William Kent, which +with its internal decorations is still perfect; the celebrated Palladian +Bridge at Wilton, by R. Morris; and last but not least, in consequence +of its great influence on modern architecture, Sparrowe’s +house at Ipswich (1567-1662), the timber oriel windows of which +are now so often reproduced.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Renaissance Architecture in Germany</p> + +<p>The classical revival does not seem to have taken root in +Germany much before the middle of the 16th century, some forty +to fifty years later than in France, from which country it is said to +have been introduced, and in some of the early work there is a +great similarity to French examples, but without the refinement +and variety of detail which one finds in the châteaux of the +Loire and in many of the French towns. In the rood-screen of +the cathedral at Hildesheim (1546), the court of the town hall +at Görlitz (1534), the portal of the Petershof at Halberstadt +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span> +(1552), and the entrance gateway of the castle at Brieg (1553), +one is able to recognize certain ornamental details and a similar +superposition of pilasters in several storeys to that which is +found in various towns in Normandy and on the Loire. In both +countries the new style was engrafted on the last phase of the +Gothic period, so forming at first a transitional style, which +lasted about fifty years. Thus the lofty roofs which prevailed +in the 15th century are developed further, but with this great +divergence in the two countries. In France there are rarely +gable ends, in Germany they are not only the chief characteristic +feature of the main front, but are introduced in the side +elevations in the shape of immense dormers with two or three +storeys and rising the full height of the roof, as in the castle at +Hämelschenburg near Hameln. Throughout Germany, therefore, +the gable end and the dormer gable became the chief features on +which they lavished all their ornamental designs, the main walls +of the building being as a rule either in plain masonry, rubble +masonry with stucco facing, or brick and stone. Other prominent +features are the octagonal and circular oriel windows rising +through two or three storeys at the corners of their buildings—rectangular +bow windows in two or three storeys, which were +allowed apparently to encroach on the pavement, and octagonal +turrets or towers instead of circular as in France. In the +vicinity of the Harz mountains, where timber was plentiful, +a large proportion of the factories, houses and even public +buildings, are erected in half-timber work with elaborate carving +of the door and window jambs, projecting corbels, &c. At +Hildesheim, Wernigerode, Goslar, &c., these structures are +sometimes of immense size and richly decorated. Among +early examples in stone, the porch added to the town hall of +Cologne (1571), the projecting wings of the town halls at Halberstadt +and Lemgo (1565), and the town halls at Posen (1550), +Altenburg (1562-1567) and Rothenburg (1572-1590), are all +picturesque examples more or less refined in design. In the last-named +example the purer Italian style has exercised its influence +in the principal doorway and in the arcaded gallery on the east +front. This same influence shows itself in the courtyard of the +town hall at Nuremberg, where the arcades of the two upper +storeys might be taken for those of the courts of the palaces at +Rome.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Amongst other 16th-century work there are two entrance gates +at Danzig, the Hohe Tor (1588), a fine massive structure, and the +Langgasse Tor (1600), more or less pure Italian in style. At +Augsburg, the arsenal (1603-1607), by the architect Elias Holl (1573-1646), +is of a bold and original design, and the town hall has magnificent +ceilings and wainscotting round the walls of the principal halls. +This brings us to the castle of Heidelberg (Plate VII., figs. 78, +79 and 80), which is looked upon by the Germans as the chef d’œuvre +of the Renaissance in Germany. As seen from the great court it +forms an interesting study, there being the work of three periods: +in the centre the picturesque group of the older building (<i>c.</i> 1525), +on the right the Otto-Heinrichs-Bau (1556-1559), and on the left +the Friedrichs-Bau (1602-1607). Of the two the latter is the finer. +The architect of the Otto-Heinrichs-Bau would seem to have been +undecided whether to give greater prominence and projection to his +pilasters and cornices or to his windows with their dressings and +pediments, so he has compromised the matter by making them +both about the same, and the effect is most monotonous. In the +Friedrichs-Bau, which is a remarkable work, the pilasters are of +great projection, with bold cornices and simple windows well set +back, while the tracery of the ground-floor windows is a pleasant +relief from the constant repetition of pilaster window dressings. +The gables also of the Friedrichs-Bau break the horizontal sky-line +agreeably. A more minute examination of the decorative details, +however, betrays the advent of a peculiar rococo style of a most +debased type, which throughout the 17th century spread through +Germany, and the repetition of the same details suggests that it was +copied from some of the pattern books which were published towards +the end of the 16th century, comprising heterogeneous designs for +title pages, door heads, frontispieces, and even extending to new +versions of the orders, which apparently appealed to the German +mason and saved him the trouble of invention. These books, compiled +by de Vries and Dietterlin, emanated from the Low Countries, +and their influence extended to England during the Elizabethan +period. At all events in Germany it would seem to have arrested +the purer Italian work, which we have already noticed, and henceforth +in the gable ends one finds the most extraordinary accumulation +of distorted forms which, though sometimes picturesque, +disfigure the German work of the 17th century. An exception +might perhaps be made in favour of the Peller’sche Haus in Nuremberg +(1625), one of the best houses of modest dimensions in Germany. +The façade in the Aegidien-Platz is a fine composition; inside is a +very picturesque court and staircase, and the painted ceiling and the +wainscotting of one of the rooms in woods of different colours, +though not very pure in style, are of excellent design and execution.</p> + +<p>Some of the most characteristic work of this type exists at Hameln, +where the façades of the Rattenfängerhaus (1602), the Hochzeitshaus +(1610), and many other buildings, are covered with the most extraordinary +devices, leaving scarcely a foot of plain masonry as a relief. +The south front of the town hall of Bremen (1612) is in the same +style (Plate IV., fig. 70), relieved, however, by the fine large windows +of the great hall and the arcade in front, in which there is some +picturesque detail. Later in the century the degradation increases +until it reaches its climax in the Zwinger palace at Dresden (1711), +the most terrible rococo work ever conceived, if we except some of +the Churrigueresque work in Spain.</p> + +<p>Among the most pleasing features in Germany are the fountains +which abound in every town; of these there are good examples at +Tübingen, Prague, Hildesheim, Ulm, Nuremberg, already famed +for its Gothic fountains, Mainz and Rothenburg. In the latter town, +built on an eminence, they are of great importance for the supply of +the town, and some of them are extremely picturesque and of good +design.</p> + +<p>Up to the present we have said nothing about the ecclesiastical +buildings in Germany, for the reason that the period between the +Reformation and the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War was not +favourable to church building. The only example worth mentioning +is the church of St Michael at Munich (1583-1597), and that more for +its plan than for its architecture. It has a wide nave covered with +a barrel vault, and a series of chapels forming semicircular recesses +on each side, the walls between acting as buttresses to the great +vault. The transept is not deep enough to have any architectural +value, but if at the east end there had been only an apse it would +have been a better termination than the long choir. The Liebfrauenkirche +at Dresden (1726-1745) has a good plan, but internally is +arranged like a theatre with pit, tiers of boxes, and a gallery, all in +the worst possible taste, and externally the dome is far too high +and destroys the scale of the lower part of the church. An elliptical +dome is never a pleasing object, and in the church of St Charles +Borromeo, at Vienna, there are no other features to redeem its +ugliness. The Marienkirche at Wolfenbüttel (1608-1622) has a fine +Italian portal; its side elevation is spoilt by the series of gable +dormers, which are of no possible use, as the church (of the <i>Hallenkirchen</i> +type) is well lighted through the aisle windows. The portal +of the Schlosskapelle (1555) at Dresden is a fine work in the Italian +style; and lastly the church at Bückeburg, in a late debased style, +is redeemed only by the fact that it is built in fine masonry and +that the joints run through all the rococo details.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Renaissance Architecture In Belgium And Holland</p> + +<p>The Gothic development in the 15th century in Belgium, +as evidenced in her magnificent town halls and other public +buildings, not only supplied her requirements in the century +following, but hindered the introduction of the Classic Revival, +so that it is not till the second half of the 16th century that we +find in the town hall of Antwerp a building which is perhaps more +Italian in design than any work in Germany. There are, however, +a few instances of earlier Renaissance, such as the Salm Inn +(1534) at Malines; the magnificent chimneypiece, by Conrad +van Noremberger of Namur, in the council chamber of the +palais de justice at Bruges (1529); and the palais de justice +of Liége (1533), formerly the bishop’s palace, in the court of +which are features suggesting a Spanish influence. The influence +of the cinque-cento style of Italy may be noticed in the tomb +of the count de Borgnival (1533) in the cathedral of Breda, +and in the choir stalls of the church at Enkhuisen on the borders +of the Zuyder Zee, both in Holland, and in the choir stalls of the +cathedral of Ypres in Belgium; the carving of these bears so +close a resemblance to cinque-cento work in design and execution +that one might conclude they were the work of Italian artists, +but their authors are known to have been Flemish, who must, +however, have studied in Italy. Again, in the stained-glass +windows of the church of St Jacques at Liége, the details are all +cinque-cento, with circular arches on columns, festoons of leaves +and other ornament, all apparently derived from Italian sources, +but necessarily executed by Flemish painters, as stained-glass +windows of that type are not often found in Italian churches.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of public buildings in Belgium, the most noted example is that +of the town hall at Antwerp, designed by Cornelius de Vriendt (1564). +It has a frontage of over 300 ft. facing the Grande Place, and is an +imposing structure in four storeys, arcaded on the lower storey and +the classic orders above, with mullioned windows between on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span> +three other storeys, the uppermost storey being an open loggia, +which gives that depth of shadow obtained in Italy by a projecting +cornice. It is almost the only building in Belgium without the usual +gable, the centre block being carried up above the eaves and +terminated with an entablature supporting at each end a huge +obelisk, and in the centre what looks like the miniature representation +of a church. The only other classic building is the Renaissance +portion of the town hall at Ghent, which is very inferior to the older +Gothic portion.</p> + +<p>What is wanting in the town halls, however, is amply replaced +by the magnificence of the houses built for the various gilds, as for +instance those of the Fishmongers at Malines (1580), of the Brewers, +the Archers, the Tanners and the Cordeliers (rope-makers) at Antwerp, +and, in the Grande Place at Brussels, the gilds of the Butchers, +the Archers, the Skippers (the gable end of which represents the +stern of a vessel with four cannons protruding), the Carpenters and +others. Besides these, and especially in Antwerp, are to be found +a very large series of warehouses, which in the richness of their +decoration and their monumental appearance vie with the gilds +in the evolution of a distinct style of Renaissance architecture—a +type from which the architect of the present day might derive more +inspiration than from the modest brick houses of Queen Anne’s time.</p> + +<p>In domestic architecture, the best-preserved example of the 16th +and 17th centuries is the Musée Plantin at Antwerp, the earliest +portion of which dates from 1535. This was bought by Ch. Plantin, +who was employed by Philip of Spain to print all the breviaries and +missals for Spain and the Netherlands; the fortune thus acquired +enabled him and his successors to purchase from time to time +adjoining properties which they rebuilt in the style of the earlier +buildings. After 1637 the buildings followed the style of the period, +but up to that date they were all erected in brick with stone courses +and window dressings round a central court. Internally the whole +of the ancient fittings are retained, including those of the old shop, +the show-rooms, reception rooms and the residential portion of the +house, with the wainscotting and Spanish leather on the walls +above, panelled ceilings, chimney-pieces, stained glass, &c., the most +complete representation of the domestic style of Belgium.</p> + +<p>Of ecclesiastical architecture in the Renaissance style there are +scarcely any examples worth noting. The tower of the church of St +Charles Borromeo at Antwerp (1595-1610) is a fine composition +similar in many respects to Wren’s steeples, and the nave of St +Anne’s church at Bruges is of simple design and good proportion. +The Belgian churches are noted for their immense pulpits, sometimes +in marble and of a somewhat degraded style. The finest features in +them are the magnificent rood-screens, in which the tradition of the +Gothic examples already quoted seems to have been handed down. +In the cathedral at Tournai is a fine specimen by Cornelius de +Vriendt of Antwerp (1572), and there is a second at Nieuport, both +similar in design to the example from Bois-le-Duc now in the Victoria +and Albert Museum; and in the church of St Leonard at Léau is a +tabernacle in stone, over 50 ft. high, in seven stages, with numerous +figures by Cornelius de Vriendt (1550).</p> + +<p>In Holland, nearly all the principal buildings of the Renaissance +date from the time of her greatest prosperity when the Dutch threw +off their allegiance to the Spanish throne (1565). With the exception +of the palace at Amsterdam (1648-1655), an immense structure +in stone with no architectural pretensions, there are no buildings in +Holland in which the influence of the purer style of the Italian +revival can be traced. Internally the great hall of the palace and +the staircase in the Louis XIV. style are fine examples of that period.</p> + +<p>The earliest Renaissance town hall is that of the Hague (1564), +situated at the angle of two streets, which is an extremely picturesque +building, in fact one of the few in which the architect has known +how to group the principal features of his design. The Renaissance +addition made to the old town hall of Haarlem is a characteristic +example of the Dutch style. The walls are in red brick, the decorative +portions, consisting of superimposed pilasters with mullioned +and transomed windows, cornices and gable end, all being in stone. +Inside this portion of the town hall, which is now a gallery and +museum, is an ancient hall (not often shown to visitors) in which all +the decorations and fittings date from the 17th century. There is a +second example of an ancient hall in the Stadthuis at Kampen, one +of the dead cities of the Zuyder Zee, which served originally as a +court of justice, and retains all its fittings of the 16th century, +including a magnificent chimneypiece in stone, some 25 ft. high and +dated 1543.</p> + +<p>The town hall at Bolsward in Friesland is another typical specimen +of Dutch architecture, in which the red brick, alternating with stone +courses running through the semi-detached columns which decorate +the main front, has given variety to the usual treatment of such +features. The external double flight of steps with elaborate balustrade, +and the twisted columns which flank the principal doorway, +are extremely picturesque, if not quite in accordance with the +principles of Palladio or Vignola.</p> + +<p>A similar flight of steps with balustrade forms the approach to +the entrance doorway (on the first floor) of the town hall at Leiden, +where the rich decoration of the centre block and its lofty gable is +emphasized by contrast with the plain design of the chief front.</p> + +<p>In the three chief cities in Holland, the Hague, Amsterdam and +Rotterdam, there are few buildings remaining of 17th-century work, +so that they must be sought in the south at Dordrecht and Delft, +or in the north at Leiden, Haarlem, Alkmaar, Hoorn, Enkhuisen, or, +crossing the Zuyder Zee into Friesland, in Leeuwarden, Bolsward, +Kampen and Zwolle, the dead cities. In all these towns ancient +buildings have been preserved, there being no reason to pull them +down. Of the entrance gateways at Hoorn there is an example +left, of which the lower portion might be taken for a Roman +triumphal arch, so closely does it adhere to the design of those +monuments, extending even to a long Latin inscription in the frieze. +The tower (1531-1652), built to protect the entrance to the harbour, +has no gateway. There are some old buildings in Kampen, in +one of which the entrance gateway is a simple and fine composition +in brick and stone, the chief characteristics of the gateways here +being the enormously high roofs of the circular towers flanking them. +A finer and more picturesque grouping of roofs exists in the entrance +gateway (Amsterdam Gate) at Haarlem, which is perhaps, however, +eclipsed by those of the Waaghuis at Amsterdam with its seven +conical roofs.</p> + +<p>The Waaghuisen, or weighing-houses for cheeses, are, next to the +town halls, the most important buildings in Holland, and in fact +vie with them in richness of design. The example at Alkmaar +possesses not only an imposing front with gable in three storeys, +but a lofty tower with belfry. At Deventer the main building is late +Gothic (1528), in brick and stone, with an external double flight of +steps and balustrades added in 1643.</p> + +<p>The Fleesch Halle (meat-market) at Haarlem, also in brick and +stone, is of a very rococo style, but notwithstanding all its vagaries +presents a most picturesque appearance.</p> + +<p>The domestic architecture of Holland and the shop fronts retain +more of their original dispositions than will be found in any other +country. At Hoorn, Enkhuisen and other towns, there has virtually +been no change during the last 200 years. In the more flourishing +towns as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the increasing prosperity of +the inhabitants led them in the latter portion of the 17th and in the +18th centuries to adapt features borrowed from the French work +of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., without, however, their refinement, +luxuriance or variety, so that although substantial structures they +are extremely monotonous in general effect.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Mahommedan Architecture</p> + +<p>Before proceeding with “modern architecture,” to which +the styles now discussed have gradually led us, we have still +another important architectural style to describe, in Mahommedan +architecture. The term “Mahommedan” has been selected +in preference to “Saracenic,” because it includes a much wider +field, and enables us to bring in many developments which could +not well come under the latter title. It was the Mahommedan +religion which prescribed the plan and the features of the mosques, +and it was the restriction of that faith which led to the principal +characteristics of the style. The term “Saracenic” could hardly +be applied to the architecture of Spain, Persia or Turkey.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The earliest mosques at Mecca and Medina, which have long since +passed away, were probably of the simplest kind; there were no +directions on the subject in the Koran, and, as Fergusson remarks, +had the religion been confined to its native land, it is probable that +no mosques worthy of the name would have ever been erected. In +the first half-century of their conquest in Egypt and Syria the +Mahommedans contented themselves with desecrated churches and +other buildings, and it was only when they came among the temple-building +nations that they seemed to have felt the necessity of +providing some visible monument of their religion. The first requirement +was a structure of some kind, which should indicate to the +faithful the direction of Mecca, towards which, at stated times, +they were to turn and pray. The earliest mosque, built by Omar +at Jerusalem, no longer exists, but in the mosque of ‘Amr at Cairo +(fig. 54), founded in 643 and probably restored or added to at various +times, we find the characteristic features which form the base of the +plans of all subsequent mosques. These features consist of (<i>a</i>) a +wall built at right angles to a line drawn towards Mecca, in which, +sunk in the wall, was a niche indicating the direction towards which +the faithful should turn; (<i>b</i>) a covered space for shelter from the +sun or inclement weather, which was known as the prayer chamber; +(<i>c</i>) in front of the prayer chamber, a large open court, in which +there was a fountain for ablution; and (<i>d</i>) a covered approach on +either side of these courts and from the entrance. The materials +employed in the earlier mosque were all taken from ancient structures, +Egyptian, Roman and Byzantine, but so arranged as to +constitute the elements of a new style. The columns employed +were not always of sufficient size, and therefore in order to obtain +a greater height, above the capitals were square dies, carrying +ranges of arches, all running in the direction of Mecca; to resist +the thrust, wood ties were built in under the arches, so that the +structure was of the lightest appearance. The same principle was +observed in the mosque of Kairawan, in Tunisia (675), and in the +mosque of Cordova (786-985), copied from it. Similar wooden ties +are found in the mosque of El Aksa and the Dome of the Rock at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span> +Jerusalem (built 691), so that they became one of the characteristics +of the style. For constructional reasons, however, this method of +building was not always adhered to, and in the mosque of Tulun +(fig. 55) in Cairo (879), the first mosque in Egypt, built of original +materials, we find an important departure. The arcades, instead of +running at right angles to the Mecca wall, are built parallel with it, +on account of the great thrust of the arches, all built in brick (fig. 56). +The wood ties would have been quite insufficient to resist the thrust, +and in the case of this mosque were probably used to carry lanterns.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:379px; height:461px" src="images/img423a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 54.—Plan of Mosque of ‘Amr. Old Cairo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1. Kibla.</p> +<p>2. Mimbar.</p> +<p>3. Tomb of ‘Amr.</p> +<p>4. Dakka.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>5. Fountain for Ablution</p> +<p>6. Rooms built later.</p> +<p>7. Minaret.</p> +<p>8. Latrines.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The mosque of Tulun is the earliest example in which the pointed +arch appears throughout, and it forms the leading and most characteristic +constructional feature of the style in its subsequent +developments in every country, except in Barbary and Spain, +where the circular-headed horse-shoe arch seems to be preferred. +As it is also the earliest mosque in which the decoration applied is +that which was by inference laid down in the Koran, some allusion +to the restrictions therein contained, and the consequent result, +may not be out of place. The representation of nature in any form +was absolutely forbidden, and this applied generally to foliage of all +kinds, and plants, the representation of birds or animals, and above +all of the human figure. The only exceptions to the rule would seem +to be those found in the very conventional representations of lions +carved over the gateways of Cairo and Jerusalem and in the courts +of the Alhambra. It was this restriction which produced the extremely +beautiful conventional patterns which are carried round the +arches of the mosque of Tulun, and are found in the friezes, string-courses +and the capitals of the shafts, and when these patterns +form the background of the text of the Koran in high relief, in the +splendid Arabic characters, it would be difficult to find a more +beautiful decorative scheme in the absence of natural forms. As the +mosque of Tulun was built by a Coptic architect, and its decoration +is evidently the result of many years of previous developments, +it is probably to the Copts that its evolution was due. The second +type of decoration is that which is given by geometrical forms, +and either in pavements or wall decorations in marble, or in the +framing of woodwork in ceilings, or in doorways, the most elaborate +and beautiful combinations were produced. The third type of +decoration is one which in a sense is found in the origin of most +styles, but which, restricted as the Mahommedans were to conventional +representations, received a development of far greater +importance, and in one of its forms—that known as stalactite +vaulting—constitutes the one feature in the style which is not found +in any other, and which, from the western coast of Spain to the east +of India, at once differentiates it from any other style.</p> + +<p>A complete account, with illustrations of the origin of the stalactite +will be found in the <i>Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects</i> +(1898) The earliest example is found in the tomb of Zobeide, the +favourite wife of Harun al-Rashid, at Bagdad, built at the end of +the 8th century. This tomb, octagonal in plan, and of modest +dimensions, was vaulted over by a series of niches in nine stages or +levels rising one above the other, and brought forward on the inside, +so that the ninth course completed the covering of the tomb. It +was built in this way to save centreing, each niche when completed +being self-supporting. There is a second tomb at Bagdad, of later +date—the tomb of Ezekiel,—constructed in the same way, except +that in each stage the niches are built not one over the other but +astride between the two, and this is the way in which in subsequent +developments it always appears to have been built. Its application +to the pendentives of the portals of the mosque at Tabriz and +Sultaniya was the next development; and when some two centuries +later it is found in Europe, in the palaces of the Ziza at Palermo, +dating from about the beginning of the 11th century, it has lost its +brick constructive origin, and, being cut in slabs of stone, has +become simply a decorative feature. Its earliest example in Egypt +is in the tomb of ash-Shafi’i at Cairo, built by Saladin about 1240. +Here and in all subsequent examples throughout Egypt and Syria +it is always carved in stone. In the Alhambra another material was +employed, the elaborate vaults being built with a series of small +moulds in stucco. In the ceilings of the mosques at Cairo it was +frequently carved in wood, and consequently lost all trace of its +origin.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:339px; height:464px" src="images/img423b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Coste’s <i>Architecture Arabe en Caire</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 55.—Plan of Mosque of Tulun, Cairo.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Two other decorative features, but having a constructive origin, +are (1) the alternating of courses of stone of different colour, probably +derived from Byzantine work, where bands of brick were employed; +and (2) the elaborate forms given to the voussoirs of the arches of +the Mecca niche.</p> + +<p>Having now described the principles which ruled the plans of the +mosques and formed the <i>motifs</i> of their architectural design, it +remains to take the principal examples in the various countries +where the style was developed.</p> + +<p>Although the tendency of modern research points to Persia as the +country in which the first development of the art took place, and we +have already referred to two tombs at Bagdad, in which the earliest +examples of a stalactite vault are found, so far as remains are +concerned nothing can be traced earlier than the work of Ghazan +Khan (1294), whose mosque at Tabriz, half in ruins, is the earliest +example.</p> + +<p>It is to Egypt therefore we turn first. There still exist—and +sometimes in good preservation—mosques and other buildings in +Cairo of every period showing the development of the Mahommedan +style, from the 9th to the 17th century. Owing to the magnificent +material at their command—for unfortunately more of it was taken +from the ancient Egyptian monuments than from the quarries—a +much purer style was evolved than in Persia; and owing to the +absence of rain those ephemeral structures built in brick and covered +with stucco, which in other countries would long have passed away, +retained the crispness of their flowing ornament, which is still as +sharp and well defined as when executed. We have already referred +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span> +to two of the earlier mosques, those of ‘Amr in Old Cairo and of +Tulun. The next in date, and built also in brick, is the mosque El +Hakim (<i>c.</i> 1003). The mosque of El Azhar (“the Splendid”) was +founded about 970, but entirely rebuilt in 1270 and enlarged in 1470. +It is the university, and its Liwan or prayer chamber is the largest +in Cairo, there being 380 columns carrying its roof.</p> + +<p>The mosque of al-Zahir (founded 1264) is now occupied as barracks. +In one of its entrance porches the arches are decorated with the +well-known zigzag or chevron ornament, and a second porch with +cushion voussoirs, features found elsewhere only in Sicily, so that the +mosque was probably built by masons brought from thence. Then +follows a series of mosques: Kalaun (1287); al-Nāsir (1299-1303); +Merdani (1338); all based on the same plan as those described +with a large courtyard surrounded by porticoes. The mosque of +al-Nāsir has a portal with clustered piers and pointed and moulded +orders. This is said to have been brought over as a trophy from +Acre, but it is more probable that Syrian masons were imported to +carry on the style introduced by the Crusaders.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:692px; height:435px" src="images/img424a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 56.—Court of the Mosque of Tulun, Cairo. (From Coste.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:435px; height:299px" src="images/img424b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 57.—Plan of the Mosque of the Sultan Hasan.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The mosque of Sultan Hasan (1357-1360) marks an important +change in the scheme of its plan, which served afterwards as a +future model (fig. 57). It consists of a central court, 117 ft. by 105 ft. +open to the sky, and instead of the covered porticoes on each side +there are immense recesses covered over with pointed vaults. The +prayer chamber is 90 ft. deep, 90 ft. high to the apex of the vault +and 69 ft. wide, a greater span than any Gothic cathedral, and only +exceeded in dimensions by the great hall of the palace at Ctesiphon +built by the Sassanian dynasty. The mosque covers a large area, +and would seem to have been occupied by four religious sects, +whose rooms, situated on the outer side, are lighted by windows in +eight or ten storeys, giving the appearance of a factory. Its entrance +portal, 60 ft. to 70 ft. high, is the finest in Egypt, and is only exceeded +in dimensions by those of the Persian and Indian mosques. The +vestibule is covered by a dome with stalactite pendentives, and is +perhaps the most complete and perfect example in Cairo. Beyond +the prayer chamber is the tomb of the founder, which is covered by +a dome. This, according to Poole, was not originally a feature in +Saracenic mosques. A dome, he says, has nothing to do with prayer +and therefore nothing with a mosque. It is simply the roof of a +tomb, and only exists when there is at least a tomb to be covered. +The greater number of the mosques in and outside Cairo are +mausoleums, which accounts for the large number of domes found +there.</p> + +<p>Of the tombs of the caliphs, outside Cairo, the most important is +the tomb of ash-Shafi‘ī, reputed to have been built by Saladin but +now quite changed by restoration. The tomb of Barkuk, in which +the courtyard plan of Sultan Hasan is retained, has porticoes round +it, which are of much more solid construction than those in earlier +examples, and carry small domes. The two great domes on the east +side and the minarets on the west are among the finest in Cairo. +The tomb-mosque of Kait Bey (<i>c.</i> 1470), though comparatively +small, is the finest in design and most elegant of its type in Egypt. +Here the central court is covered by a cupola lantern (fig. 58), and +the ceiling over the prayer chamber and other recesses is framed +in timber and elaborately painted and gilded. The tomb is at the +south-east corner, and is covered with a dome in stone, beautifully +carved with conventional designs. In some of the mosques by the +side of the portal is a fountain enclosed with bronze grilles, and above +it a small room sometimes used as a school with open arcades on +two sides. This feature in the mosque of Kait Bey, with the portal +on its right, the lofty minaret beyond, and the great dome at the +farther end, makes it the most picturesque in aspect of any Cairene +mosque. (For plan see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mosque</a></span>, fig. 3.)</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate VII.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:348px; height:473px" src="images/img424c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:349px; height:454px" src="images/img424d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo L.L. Paris.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo L.L. Paris.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 78.—HEIDELBERG CASTLE, FRIEDRICHSBAU.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 79.—HEIDELBERG CASTLE, OTTO-HEINRICHSBAU.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:777px; height:486px" src="images/img424e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2"><i>Photo L.L. Paris.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 80.—HEIDELBERG CASTLE, OTTO-HEINRICHSBAU.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate VII.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:352px; height:377px" src="images/img424f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:355px; height:459px" src="images/img424g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, J. Valentine, Ltd.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, G.W. Wilson & Co.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 81.—PORCH, PETERBORO’ CATHEDRAL.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 82.—ELY CATHEDRAL.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:353px; height:543px" src="images/img424h.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:357px; height:477px" src="images/img424i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 83.—THE LOUVRE—PAVILLON HENRI II.<br /> +(<i>Portion of Lescot’s work on left.</i>)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 84.—GRAND STAIRWAY, CHATEAU OF BLOIS.</td></tr></table> + +<p>It was in Egypt that the minaret received its highest development. +The earliest example is that of the mosque of Tulun, which is of +unusual shape, and has winding round it an inclined plane or staircase +of easy ascent which can be made on horseback. The original design +of this scheme was probably derived from the mosque of Samara, a +town 60 m. north of Bagdad, where the minaret built <i>c.</i> 850 has a +spiral ascent round it, recalling that of the Assyrian ziggurat as at +Khorsabad. The general design of the Cairo minarets would seem +to have been universally adhered to from the 12th century onwards, +but the upper storeys are all varied in detail, there being virtually no +two alike. As a rule the lower portion of the minaret forms part of +the main wall of the mosque, and was carried up square a few feet +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span> +above the cresting. It then became octagonal on plan, the sides +decorated with niches or geometrical ornaments in bold relief. +This, the first independent storey, was crowned by a stalactite +cornice carrying the balcony (fig. 59), from which the <i>muezzin</i> (call-to-prayer) +was chanted. In the early and fine examples the balustrade +round it consisted of vertical posts with panels between, +pierced with geometric ornaments, and all in stone. The second +storey, also octagonal, was set back sufficiently to allow a passage +round, and this was crowned by a similar stalactite cornice and +balustrade. A third storey, sometimes circular on plan, completed +the tower, which was crowned with a bulbous terminal. In one of +the mosques, that of El Azhar, the first storey is square on plan, +and the second storey has twin towers with lofty bulbous finials. +The elaboration of the carved ornament on the various storeys of +the minarets is of considerable beauty. Among the most remarkable, +other than those already referred to, are the minarets of the mosque +of al-Bordeni, of Kalaun, al-Nazir, Mu‘ayyad (built on the semicircular +bastion wall of the Zuwela Gate), Sultan Barkuk (1348), +and numerous other mosques or tombs outside Cairo.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:356px; height:528px" src="images/img425a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 58.—Interior of Kait Bey Mosque. (From Coste.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The earlier domes were quite plain, hemispherical, with buttresses +round the base, similar to those of St Sophia at Constantinople. +In the later domes it was found that by raising the upper portion +so as to take the form in section of a pointed arch, they could be +built in horizontal courses of masonry up to about two-thirds of +their height, the upper portion forming a lid without any thrust. +It is probably owing to this method of construction that they still +exist in such large numbers. The outer surfaces are decorated in +various ways with geometrical designs, star patterns, chevrons, +diapers, &c. Domes built in brick were covered with stucco and +divided up into godroons.</p> + +<p>We have already referred to the lofty portal of the mosque of +Sultan Hasan; portals of smaller dimensions form the principal +entrance to all the mosques and private houses. The recessed portion +rises to twice or three times the height of the door, and its pointed +or cusped head is always filled by a rich stalactite vault.</p> + +<p>The descriptions of the disposition of plan, and the principles +which have governed the plans of the Cairene mosques, apply +equally to those in Syria, so that it now only remains necessary to +quote the chief examples. Of these the earliest is the Dome of the +Rock, incorrectly called the mosque of Omar, which was built by +Abdalmalik in 691, partly with materials taken from the buildings +destroyed by Chosroes. At first it consisted of a central area enclosing +the sacred rock, covered with a dome and with aisles round +carried on columns and piers, and like the smaller Dome of the Chain +open all round, but the climate of Syria is very different from that +in Egypt, and consequently at a later period (813-833) the sultan +Mamun built the walls which now enclose the whole structure. +Many restorations have taken place since, and the dome with its +rich internal decoration is attributed to Saladin (1189). The +magnificent Persian tiles which encase the walls, the marble casing +of some of the piers, and the stained glass, form part of the works of +Suleiman (1520-1560).</p> + +<p>The great mosque of Damascus occupied the site of an ancient +church dedicated to St John the Baptist, which for a time was +divided between the Christians and the Mahommedans. But in 705 +the caliph al-Walid took possession of the whole church, which he +rebuilt, retaining, however, the whole of the south wall, portions of +which belonged to a Roman temple. This, which by chance happened +to face south, became the Mecca wall, the niche being sunk in one of +the doorways of the original temple. Its plan, therefore, is a variation +of those we have already described. It consists of a transept with +dome over the centre, three aisles of equal width, running both east +and west, and a great court on the north side surrounded by arcades. +The great transept is virtually the prayer chamber. The new building +was erected by Byzantine masons sent from Constantinople, +and decorated with marbles and mosaic by Greek artists. The +mosque was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1893, but has since +been rebuilt.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:457px; height:532px" src="images/img425b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 59.—Exterior of Kait Bey Mosque, Cairo. (From Coste.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The mosque of El Aksa in the sacred enclosure in Jerusalem, and +south of the Dome of the Rock, was commenced by Abdalmalik +(691), who used up materials taken from the church of St Mary, +built by Justinian on Mount Sion, which had been destroyed by +Chosroes. There have been so many restorations and rebuildings +since, owing to destructive earthquakes and other causes, that it is +difficult to give the precise dates of the various portions. The +columns of the nave and aisles are extremely stunted in proportion, +and their capitals are of a very debased type, copied by inferior +artists from Byzantine models. They carry immense wood beams +cased, and above them a range of pointed arches, among the earliest +examples used throughout a mosque, and probably dating from the +rebuilding (774-785). The Crusaders made various additions in +the rear, but the great entrance porch is said to have been added +by Saladin, after 1187, and was built probably by Christian masons +who were allowed to remain in the country.</p> + +<p>The numerous minarets at Jerusalem and Damascus in general +design follow those of Egypt, but instead of the incised work are +generally encased with marble in geometric patterns.</p> + +<p>The great mosque at Mecca, from which it was thought at one time +the plan of the Egyptian and other mosques was taken, is necessarily +different from all others, because the Ka‘ba or Holy Stone, towards +which all the niches in all other mosques turn, stood in its centre. +The arcades which surround the court were nearly all rebuilt in the +17th century, as the whole mosque was washed away by a torrent +in 1626.</p> + +<p>The mosque of Kairawan in Tunisia was built in 675. It occupies +an area of 427 ft. deep and 225 ft. wide, with a prayer chamber at the +Mecca end of 17 aisles and 11 bays deep, more than twice, therefore, +that of ‘Amr in Old Cairo. The columns to the prayer chamber, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span> +all taken from ancient buildings, are 22 ft. high in the central aisle +and 15 ft. in all the others. They carry horse-shoe arches, which, +as in the mosque of ‘Amr, are all tied together by wood beams inserted +at the springing of the arches.</p> + +<p>The mosque of Cordova was built by Abdarrahman (Abd-ar-Rahman) +in 786-789 in imitation of the mosque of Kairawan. +There were eleven aisles of twenty-one bays, the centre one slightly +wider than the other. The materials were taken from earlier buildings, +and, as the columns and caps were not considered high enough, +above the horse-shoe arches are built a second row of arches which +carry the barrel vaults. To this mosque Hakim added twelve more +bays in depth at the Mecca end (962), and in 985 Mansur added eight +more aisles of thirty-three bays on the east side. Part of the open +court on the north side dates from Abdarrahman’s foundation (690) +and part from Mansur.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:197px; height:530px" src="images/img426a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 60.—Capital and Springing of Arch, from +the Hall of Abencarrages, Alhambra.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the mosque of Cordova we find the earliest example of the +cusped arch, in the additions made by Hakim in 961; in order to +obtain a greater height above the columns, it became necessary to +employ the expedient of raising arch above arch in order to obtain +the height they required for the ceilings; and as these arches formed +purely decorative features, which might otherwise have become +monotonous, variety was given by introducing the cusped form of +arch and interlacing them one +within the other. It is probably +this elaborate design which suggested +the plaster decorations of +the screens above the arches in +the court of the Alhambra. +Though commenced in 1245, the +existing palace of the Alhambra +was built in the first half of the +14th century, at a time when the +style was fully developed. There +are two great courts at right +angles to one another, the most +important of which was the Court +of the Lions, so called from the +fountain in the centre, with +twelve conventional representations +of that animal carrying the +basins. This court is surrounded +by an arcade with stilted arches +carried on slender marble columns +with extremely rich decoration +above, partly in stucco painted +and gilt. The hall of the Abencerrages +(35 ft. square) has a +polygonal dome covered with +arabesque (fig. 60). Two other +halls are roofed with lofty stalactite +vaults of great intricacy, +richly gilded and of remarkable +effect (fig. 61), but the employment +of stucco instead of stone, +as in Egypt, has led to an abuse in +the wealth of enrichment, which +is only partly redeemed by the +plain masonry of the towers and +walls enclosing the palace. The +Giralda at Seville is the only +example of a tower, but it does +not seem to have served the +purpose of a minaret.</p> + +<p>With the exception of the +tombs of Zobeide and Ezekiel +near Bagdad, and a hospital at +Erzerum of the 12th century, +built by the Seljukian dynasty, +the Mahommedan style in Persia dates from the 13th century, +i e. if Ghazan Khan built the mosque at Tabriz in 1294. +The plan is that of a Byzantine church with a central dome, +aisles and sanctuary. The portal consists of a lofty niche vaulted +with semi-domes and stalactite pendentives, similar in many respects +to the well-known example of Sultan Hasan in Cairo, built sixty +years later. It is built in brick and covered internally and externally +with glazed bricks of various colours, wrought into most intricate +patterns with interlacing ornament and with Cufic inscriptions. +The dazzling and perfect beauty in point of colour is not to be +surpassed, but from the architectural point of view it possesses the +fatal sin of not showing its construction. The bricks and tiles +are only a veneer, and though in certain features (such as the +portal and the dome) the construction is at least suggested, the +tendency is to trust to decoration alone to produce architectural +effects. (But see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tabriz</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The great mosque at Isfahan (1585) is a good illustration of the +danger attending a too free use of surface decoration. Strip the +walls of their tiles, and nothing is left except square box-like forms +with pointed arched openings of different form. The interior, however, +owing to the variety of its features, and the varied play of light +and shade given in the hemispherical vaults of its transepts and +niches and the vaulted aisles, constitutes one of the most beautiful +monuments of Mahommedan art.</p> + +<p>Apart from the great development of Mahommedan architecture +in India (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indian Architecture</a></span>), there remains now to be +described only one other phase of the style, that found in +Constantinople.</p> + +<p>Prior to the conquest of Constantinople in 1445, two mosques +were built by the Turks at Brusa in Asia Minor. The plan of Ulu +Jami, the great mosque, follows the original courtyard type. Yeshil +Jami, the Green mosque (1430), built on the site of a Byzantine +church, is cruciform on plan. In both of them the Persian influence +is shown, in the magnificent towers with which they are covered, the +marble casing and the stalactite vaults.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:356px; height:499px" src="images/img426b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 61.—Pendentive, from the Court of the Lions, Alhambra.</td></tr></table> + +<p>After the conquest of Constantinople, the supreme beauty of St +Sophia, and the adaptability of its plan to the requirements of the +Mahommedan faith, caused it to be accepted as the model on which +all the new mosques were based. The first two erected were the +Bayezid (1497-1515) and the Selim mosques (1520-1526). In the +former the dome and its pendentives are carried on octagonal piers, +and the dome, 108 ft. in diameter, is greater than in any subsequent +example. The finest mosque, and the example in which we find the +complete development of the Turkish style, is that erected by +Suleiman the Magnificent in 1550-1555. This mosque, designed by +Sinan, an Armenian architect, is still quite perfect. The plan follows +very closely its model, St Sophia, and consists of a central dome, +86 ft. in diameter and 156 ft. high, carried on pendentives, resting +on great arches which are slightly pointed, with great apses on the +east and west sides, and three smaller apses in each, the arches of +which ate all circular. The principal change in design is that found +in the north and south walls, under the arches carrying the dome; +in St Sophia they were subdivided into two storeys with galleries +overlooking the church, but in the Suleimanic mosque the galleries +are set back in the outer aisles, and the screen walls consist of a wide +central and two side pointed arches, and voussoirs alternately of +black and white marble. The tympana above this is pierced with +eighteen windows filled with geometric tracery. Stalactite work is +employed in the pendentive of the smaller apses and in the capitals +of the columns carrying the pointed arches. The columns are of +porphyry, the shafts, 28 ft. high, being taken from the Hippodrome +and probably brought originally from Egypt. The walls are cased +with marble up to the springing of the dome, but the magnificent +mosaics of St Sophia are here replaced by vulgar colouring and +plaster decoration of a rococo style, due probably to recent restorations. +The mosque is preceded by a forecourt, surrounded by an +arcade on all sides and containing a fountain, and in the garden in +the rear is the tomb of the founder and his wife.</p> + +<p>The Shah-Zadeh mosque, known as the prince’s mosque, was also +built by Sultan Suleiman, from the designs of Sinan, the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span> +Armenian architect who built the Suleimanic mosque. Here, +instead of confining the great apses to the east and west sides, they +are introduced on the north and south sides in place of the screen, +and produce a monotonous and poor effect. The same design is +found in the Ahmedin mosque, built 1608, and with the same result. +Externally, however, they are both fine, owing to the variety of +domes, semi-domes and other curved forms of roof.</p> + +<p>The minarets of the Turkish mosques are very inferior to those of +Cairo. They are of great height, generally semicircular, with +narrow balconies round the upper part, and crowned with extinguisher +roofs. To a certain extent, however, they contrast very +well with the domes and semi-domes of St Sophia and those of the +mosques built by the Turks.</p> + +<p>In the mosque of Osman, built 1748-1757, we find the first trace +of Western influence in its rococo design, but here, as in the mosque +of Mehemet Ali in Cairo, built in 1837, the scheme is so good that, +notwithstanding the great falling off in design, and, in the latter +mosque, the construction, the effect of the interior is very fine.</p> + +<p>Amongst other architectural features, the fountains in the courtyards +of the mosques and those which decorate the public squares +are extremely pleasing in design. The latter are square on plan +with polygonal angles elaborate niches with stalactite heads, with +overhanging eaves on each side; the ornament is very varied and +the colour sometimes very attractive. The roofs have sometimes +most picturesque outlines.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Modern Architecture</p> + +<p>The beginning of the 19th century may be considered to mark +the beginning of the modern era in architecture. The 19th +century is the period <i>par excellence</i> of architectural “revivals.” +The great Renaissance movement in Italy already described was +something more than a mere revival. It was a new spirit +affecting the whole of art and literature and life, not an architectural +movement only; and as far as architecture is concerned +it was not a mere imitative revival. The great Italian architects +of the Renaissance, as well as Wren, Vanbrugh and Hawksmoor +in England, however they drew their inspiration from antique +models, were for the most part original architects; they put the +ancient materials to new uses of their own. The tendency of +the 19th-century revivals, on the other hand, except in France, +was distinctly imitative in a sense in which the architecture of +the great Renaissance period was not. Correctness of imitation, +in the English Gothic revival especially, was an avowed object; +and conformity to precedent became, in fact, except with one or +two individual architects, almost the admitted test of excellence.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:741px; height:163px" src="images/img427.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 85—Bank of Ireland, Dublin.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The earliest classical London building of note in the 19th +century is Soane’s Bank of England, which as a matter of date +belongs in fact to the end of the 18th century; but its +architect lived well into the 19th century, and the bank +<span class="sidenote">Classical revival in British architecture.</span> +may be classed with this section of the subject. Soane +had to make something architectural out of the walls +of a very extended building of only one storey, in which +external windows were not admissible; and he did so by applying +a classical columnar order to the walls and introducing sham +window architraves. The latter are indefensible, and weaken the +expression of the building; the columnar order was the received +method at the time of making a building (as was supposed) +“architectural,” and the building has grace and dignity, and could +hardly be taken for anything except a bank, although a more +robust and massive treatment would have been more expressive +of the function of the building, as a kind of fortress for the storage +of money. It was only some years later that the Greek revival +took some hold of English architects (the Bank of England is +rather Roman than Greek); the impetus to it was probably +given by the “Elgin marbles”; Stuart and Revett’s great +work on the <i>Antiquities of Athens</i> had been issued a good while +previously, the three first volumes being dated respectively +1762, 1787 and 1794; but the appearance of the fourth volume +in 1816 was no doubt influenced by the transportation to London +of the Elgin marbles, and the sensation created by them. One +of the first architectural results was the erection, at an immense +cost in comparison with its size, of the church of St Pancras +in London (1819-1822), designed by Inwood, who published a +fine and still valuable monograph on the Erechtheum, and +showed his enthusiasm for Greek architecture by copying the +Erechtheum order and doorways for his façade, and erecting +over it a tower composed of the Temple of the Winds with an +octagonal imitation of the monument of Lysicrates imposed +above it. This use of Greek monuments was architecturally +absurd, though at the time it was no doubt the offspring of a +genuine enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>A better use was made of the study of Greek architecture +by William Wilkins (1778-1839), who was in his way a great +architect, and whose University College (1827-1828), as designed +by him, was a noble and dignified building, of which he +only carried out the central block with the cupola and portico. +The wings were somewhat altered from his design but not +materially spoiled, but the university authorities permitted the +vandalism of erecting a low building as a partial return of the +quadrangle on the fourth side, for the purposes of a mechanical +laboratory, which ruined the appearance of the building.<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +Wilkins’s other well-known work is the National Gallery (1832-1838), +which he was not allowed to carry out exactly as he wished, +and in which the cupola and the “pepperpots” are exceedingly +poor and weak. But his details, especially the profiles of his +mouldings, are admirably refined, and show the influence of a +close study of Greek work. Among other prominent English architects +of the classic revival in England are Sir Robert Smirke and +Decimus Burton (1800-1881). To Burton we owe the Constitution +Hill arch and the Hyde Park screen. The latter is a very +graceful erection of its kind; the arch has never been completed +by the quadriga group which the architect intended as its crowning +feature, though for many years it was allowed to be disfigured +by the colossal equestrian statue of Wellington, completely out +of scale and crushing the structure. Smirke is kept in memory +by his fine façade of the British Museum, which has been much +criticized for its “useless” colonnades and the wasted space +under them. The criticism is hardly just; for classic colonnades +have at least some affinity with the purposes of a museum of +antique art, and it conveys the impression of being a frontispiece +to a building containing something of permanent value and +importance. The early classic revival set its mark also, in a +very fine and unmistakable manner, on the capital of the sister +island. Dublin is almost a museum of fine classic buildings of +the period, among which the most remarkable is the present +Bank of Ireland (fig. 85), originally begun as the Parliament +House. The beginning of the building belongs to the 18th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span> +century, but it was not completed in its present form till 1805, +and was the work of five successive architects, only one of them, +James Gandon (1743-1823), a man of the first importance; but +it was Gandon who in 1790 did most to give the building its +effective outline on plan, by introducing one of the curved +quadrant walls, the building being subsequently finished in +accordance with this suggestion. It is a remarkable combination +of symmetry and picturesqueness, and as a one-storey classic +building is far superior to Soane’s Bank of England, with which +a comparison is naturally suggested. Gandon’s custom house, +with its fine central cupola, is another notable example. Edinburgh +too can show examples of the classic revival, and bears +the title of “modern Athens” as much from her architectural +experiments as from her intellectual claims; she illustrates +the application of Greek architecture to modern buildings in +two really fine examples, the Royal Institution by W.H. Playfair +(1780-1857), and the high school by Thomas Hamilton (1784-1858). +It was a pity that she added to these the collection of +curiosities on the Calton Hill.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:412px; height:423px" src="images/img428a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 86.—Liverpool Branch of the Bank of England. (Cockerell.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>But before we quit the classic revival in England, there are +two architects to be named who came a little later in the day, +living in fact into the time of the Gothic revival, who were superior +to any of the earlier classic practitioners: Harvey Lonsdale Elmes +and C.R. Cockerell. Elmes, who died very young, seems to +have been as completely a born architectural genius as Wren, +and his great work, St. George’s Hall at Liverpool, has done +more than any other building in the world to glorify the memory +of the classic revival. Granting all that may be said as to the +unsuitability of Greek architecture to the English climate, one +can hardly complain of any movement in architecture which +gave the opportunity for the production of so grand an architectural +monument. It is true that it is badly planned and lighted, +and the exterior and interior do not agree with each other +(the exterior is Greek, and the great hall is Roman); but if +from our present point of view it is a mistake, it is certainly one +of the finest mistakes ever made in architecture. Cockerell, who +completed the interior of the building after Elmes’s death, was +an architect permeated with the principles and feeling of Greek +architecture, who brought to his work a refinement of taste and +perception in regard to detail which has rarely been equalled +and never surpassed. Perhaps the very best example of his +scholarly taste in the application of classic architecture to +modern uses is to be found in his façade to the branch Bank of +England at Liverpool (fig. 86).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:301px" src="images/img428b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From a photo by W.A. Manseli & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 87.—Royal Theatre, Berlin. (Schinkel.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:414px; height:577px" src="images/img428c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From a photograph by W.A. Manseli & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 88.—Nikolai Kirche, Potsdam. (Schinkel.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate IX.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:738px; height:294px" src="images/img428d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Seer.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 115.—PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, BUDAPEST. (STEINDL.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:735px; height:253px" src="images/img428e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Lowy.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 116.—PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, VIENNA. (HANSEN.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:739px; height:351px" src="images/img428f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Linde.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 117.—PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, BERLIN. (WALLOT.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate X.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:740px; height:480px" src="images/img428g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F.G.O. Stuart.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 118.—HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, LONDON. (BARRY.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:740px; height:454px" src="images/img428h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Emery Walker.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 119.—SCOTLAND YARD, LONDON. (SHAW.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In Germany, and especially at Berlin and Munich, the Greek +revival took hold of architecture in the early part of the century +in a more decisive but also in a more academical +spirit than in England. The movement is connected +<span class="sidenote">Classical revival in Germany.</span> +more especially with the name of one eminent architect, +Karl Friedrich Schinkel, who must have been a man +of genius to have so impressed his taste on his generation as he +did in Berlin, where he was regarded as the great and central +power in the architecture of his day; yet his buildings are +marked by learning and academical correctness rather than +original genius. Elmes’s St George’s Hall, already referred to +as one great English work of the classic revival, is by no means +a mere piece of academical architecture; it exhibits in some +of its details a great deal of originality, and in its general design +a remarkably fine feeling for architectural grouping. In particular, +the solid masses and the heavy square columns at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span> +ends of his building, which seem like Greek architecture treated +with Egyptian feeling, give support to, while they form a most +effective contrast with, the richer and more delicate Corinthian +order of the central portion. The only work of Schinkel’s which +shows something of the same feeling for contrast in architectural +composition is one of his smaller buildings, the Konigswache or +Royal Guard-house, in which a Doric colonnaded portico is +effectively flanked and supported by two great masses of plain +wall. But in general Schinkel does not seem to have known +what to do with the angles of his buildings, or to have realized +the value of mass as a support to his colonnades. This is +strikingly exemplified in his museum at Berlin, where the tall +narrow piers at the angles have a very weak effect, and are quite +inadequate as a support to the long open colonnade. His +Royal theatre also (fig. 87), though the central portico is fine, +is monotonous and weak in its two-storeyed repetition of the +small order in the wings, and it has also the fault (which it shares, +no doubt, with a great many theatres, large and small) that its +exterior design +gives no hint of the +theatre form; it +might just as well +be a museum. His. +Nikolai Kirche +(1830-1837) at +Potsdam (fig. 88), +which has considerable +celebrity, +though not +so merely academical +in character, +and in fact possessed +of a certain +originality, has a +fault of another +kind, in its entire +lack of architectural +unity; the +dome does not +seem to belong to +or to have any +connexion with +the substructure, +while the portico is quite out of scale with the great block of +building in its rear, and looks like a subsequent addition. The +fault of the Schinkel school of architecture is an almost total +want of what may be called architectural life; it is an artificial +production of the studio. The same kind of cold classicism prevailed +at Munich, where Leo von Klenze (1784-1864), though a +lesser man than Schinkel, played somewhat the same part as the +latter played at Berlin. His Propylaea (fig. 89), in which Greek +and Egyptian influences are combined, is a characteristic example +of his cold and scholastic style. His well known <i>Ruhmeshalle</i>, +with its boldly projecting colonnaded wings and the colossal statue +of Bavaria in front of it, is in its way a fine architectural conception—perhaps +finer and more consistent in its kind than any +one work of Schinkel, though he evidently did not exercise so +wide an influence on the German art of his day. A third eminent +name in the German classic revival is that of Gottfried Semper +(1803-1879), somewhat later in date (Schinkel was born in 1781), +but more or less of the same school. Semper practised successively +at Dresden and at Zurich, but finally settled in Vienna, where, +however, he did not live to see the execution of his two most +important designs, the museum and the Hofburg theatre, which +were carried out by Baron Karl von Hasenauer (1833-1894) +from his designs, or approximately so. Semper’s theatre at +Dresden, however, shows that he could recognize the practical +basis of architecture, as the expression of plan, in a way that +Schinkel could not; for in that building he frankly adopted the +curve of the auditorium as the <i>motif</i> for his exterior design, +thus producing a building which is obviously a theatre, and +could not be taken for anything else, and putting some of +that life into it which is so much wanting in Schinkel’s rigid +classicalities.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:596px; height:357px" src="images/img429.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From a photograph by Ferd. Finsterlin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 89.—Propylaea at Munich. (Von Klenze.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In spite of the Romanizing influence of the First Empire, +the classic revival did not leave by any means so academical +a stamp on French as on German architecture of the +early period of the century. French architects in the +<span class="sidenote">French Classicism.</span> +main have always had too much original genius to +be entirely taken captive by a general movement of this kind. +There is the weak classicism of Bernard Poyet’s façade to the +chamber of deputies, a very poor affair; and there are two +important buildings in the guise of Roman peripteral temples, +devoted respectively to business and to religion—the Bourse, +by Alexandre Théodore Brongniart (1739-1813), and the Madeleine, +begun under Napoleon, as a “Temple de la Gloire,” +by Pierre Vignon (1763-1828), and completed as a church in +1841 by Jean Jacques Huve (1783-1852). Both of these are +very well carried out externally, and enable us to judge of what +would be the effect of a Roman temple of the kind. It must +be admitted that +the plain oblong +mass of the Bourse +has really been +very much improved +by the +recent addition of +the two wings, +carried out by +Cavel, though +there was a great +deal of opposition +at first to meddling +with so celebrated +a building. +Unfortunately, +the exterior of the +Bourse is a mere +piece of architectural +scenery, +quite unconnected +with the internal +object and arrangement +of the +building. The +Madeleine is a really fine exterior in its way; if a modern church +was to put on the guise of a pagan temple, the task could hardly +have been better carried out; and the interior might have been +as fine if properly treated, but it has little artistic relation with +the noble exterior, and is spoiled by poor architectural treatment +and bad ornament. The church of St Vincent de Paul, by Jacques +Ignace Hittorff (1792-1867), an architect who was one of the most +learned students of Greek architecture of his day, is another important +example of the French classical church of the period +(Plate XII., fig. 125). In this the interior is more consistent +with the exterior than is the case in the Madeleine; and by adding +a tower at each angle of the façade, above the colonnaded portico, +the architect gave it more the expression of a church, which the +Madeleine wants. In the Arc de l’Étoile, by Jean François T. +Chalgrin (1739-1811), we have a really great, even sublime work, +which, though suggested by the Roman triumphal arches, is no +mere copy, but bears the impress of the French genius in its +details as well as in François Rude’s grand sculptures on the +east face, while its great scale places it above everything else of +the kind in the world. It is only after ascending the interior +and seeing the vaults carrying the roof that one fully realizes +what a stupendous piece of work this is. Under Napoleon there +was at least no jerry-building.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:415px; height:652px" src="images/img430.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 90.—Halifax Town Hall. (Barry.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Returning to the consideration of architecture in England, we +come, at about the close of the classic revival, to the name of +the man who was undoubtedly the most remarkable +English architect since Wren, Sir Charles Barry. To +<span class="sidenote">Barry’s “common-sense” style, in England.</span> +class him, as some would do, with the classic revival, +would be a misapprehension. Barry was no revivalist; +he never attempted to recreate Greek architecture on +English soil. He adopted for most of his works what has been +called, for want of a better name, the Italian style, which may really +rather be called the common-sense style of a civilized society. +The two first works which brought him into notice, the Travellers’ +and Reform clubs in London, were no doubt based on special +Italian models, the Pandolfini and Farnese palaces; but a +consideration of his whole career shows that he was in fact +anything but a copyist. The comparison of him with Wren is +justified by the fact that he was, like Wren, a born architect, +in the sense that he grasped every problem presented to him +from the true architect’s point of view; with both of them +architecture was not the dressing up of an exterior, but the +fashioning of a building as a conception based on plan and +section as well as on the desire to secure a certain external +appearance; and, like Wren, he never failed to grasp the true +requirements of a site and to adapt his architectural conception +to it; a power perfectly different from that of merely producing +agreeable elevations in this or that adopted style. Though very +careful of his detail, he did not rely on detail, but on the general +conception of an architectural scheme. This power was never +so remarkably shown as in his grand scheme, unhappily never +carried out, for the concentration of all the British government +offices in one great architectural <i>ensemble</i>, which was to extend, +on the west of Parliament Street and Whitehall, from Great +George Street nearly to Charing Cross, the whole of the buildings +to be carried out as one design, distributed into quadrangles, +each of which was to be connected with one department of the +administration, while all would have internal communication. +Had this great idea been carried out we might at the present +day have found some of the detail of the building unsatisfying to +our taste, as we often find the detail in some of Wren’s buildings, +but we should have had a grand architectural achievement which +would have made London pre-eminent among the capitals of the +world. Nothing so great had been proposed in England since +Inigo Jones’s plan for Whitehall Palace, which also survives only +in drawings, except the one noble bit of classic architecture +known as the Banqueting House (Plate VI., fig. 75). It was one +of the greatest misfortunes to London as a capital city that the +government of the day could not rise to the height of Barry’s +ambitious scheme, in which there was nothing financially +insuperable, since it was all designed to be carried out by portions +at a time, as funds could be spared; but each government office +built would in that way have been one step towards the completion +of a great central idea; whereas the nation now spends the same +money in erecting detached government buildings which have no +architectural connexion with each other.</p> + +<p>Barry’s two clubs before mentioned are almost ideals of club +architecture—the architecture of a civilized society; his Bridge-water +House is a building on a larger scale of the same type. +That he had architectural ideas less staid and sober than these +is shown, however, by the remarkable tower and spire of the +Halifax Town Hall (fig. 90), his last work, which he did not +live to see carried out, in which he contrived with remarkable +success to give the Gothic spirit and multiplicity of effect to a +tower which is nevertheless classic in detail. This tower is one +of the most original and striking things in modern English +architecture and shows how Barry’s architectural ideas were +developing up to the close of his life.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Barry’s great building, the Houses of Parliament (Plate X., +fig. 118), with which his name will always be more especially +associated, comes accidentally, though not by natural development +nor by his own choice, under the head of the Gothic revival. The +style of Tudor Gothic was dictated to the competitors, apparently +from a mistaken idea that the building ought to “harmonize” +with the architecture of Henry VII.’s chapel adjacent to the site. +Had Barry been left to himself, there is no doubt that the Houses of +Parliament, with the same main characteristics of plan and grouping, +would have been of a classic type of detail, and would possibly have +been a still finer building than it is; and since the choice of the +Gothic style in this case was not a direct consequence of the Gothic +revival movement, it may be considered separately from that. The +architectural greatness of the building consists, in the first place, +in the grand yet simple scheme of Barry’s plan, with the octagon +hall in the centre, as the meeting-point for the public, the two +chambers to north and south, and the access to the committee-rooms +and other departments subordinate to the chambers. The +plan (fig. 91) in itself is a stroke of genius, and has been more or less +imitated in buildings for similar purposes all over the world; the +most important example, the Parliament House of Budapest (Plate +IX., fig. 115 and fig. 92), being almost a literal copy of Barry’s plan. +Thus, as in all great architecture, the plan is the basis of the whole +scheme, and upon it is built up a most picturesque and expressive +grouping, arising directly out of the plan. The two towers are most +happily contrasted as expressive of their differing purposes; the +Victoria Tower is the symbol of the State entrance, a piece of architectural +display solely for the sake of a grand effect; the Clock +Tower is a utilitarian structure, a lofty stalk to carry a great clock +high in the air; the two are differentiated accordingly, and the +placing of them at opposite ends of the structure has the fortunate +effect of indicating, from a distance, the extent of the plan. The +graceful spire in the centre offers an effective contrast to the masses +of the two towers, while forming the outward architectural expression +of the octagon hall, which is, as it were, the keystone of the plan.</p> + +<p>The detail is another consideration. Barry, having had a style +forced upon him (most unwisely), which he had not studied much +and with which he was not much in sympathy, associated Pugin +with him to design a good deal of the detail; exactly how much is +not certainly known; probably Pugin was responsible for all the +interior detail and fittings; the exterior detail may have been +only suggested or sketched by him. On this ground absurd attempts +have been made, by people who do not seem to understand what +architecture in the true sense means, to claim for Pugin what they +call the “artistic merit” of the Houses of Parliament. The artistic +merit consists in the whole plan, conception and grouping, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span> +are entirely Barry’s, and which represent something beyond Pugin’s +grasp; the detail is in fact the weak element in the building. That +Pugin’s Gothic detail is better than Barry’s would have been is very +likely the case; but had Barry been left unfettered to work out +the detail in his own school, the result would probably have been +still better. Even as it is, however, the Houses of Parliament is one +of the finest buildings in the world, ancient or modern, and it is to be +regretted that Englishmen generally seem to be so little aware of this.</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span></p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="4">HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, WESTMINSTER.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:1142px; height:559px" src="images/img431.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="4"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 91.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f80" style="width: 25%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1. Reading Clerk.</p> +<p>2. Dressing Room.</p> +<p>3. Clerk of the Parliament.</p> +<p>4. Clerk Assistant’s Dressing Room.</p> +<p>5. Clerk Assistant.</p> +<p>6. Clerk, House of Lords.</p> +<p>7. Messengers.</p> +<p>8. Waiting Room.</p> +<p>9. Lord Chancellor’s Secretaries.</p> +<p>10. Lord Chancellor.</p> +<p>11. Lord Chancellor’s Dressing Room.</p> +<p>12 Permanent Secretary.</p> +<p>13. Sergeant-at-Arms.</p> +<p>14. Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod.</p> +<p>15. Private Bill Office.</p> +<p>16. Chairman’s Dressing</p> +<p>17. Chairman of Committees.</p> +<p>18. Clerk to Private Bill and Taxing Office.</p> +<p>19. Chairman of Committees Counsel.</p> +<p>20. Royal Staircase.</p> +<p>21. Clerk to Public Bills.</p> +<p>22. Minutes.</p></td> + +<td class="f80" style="width: 25%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>23. Peers’ Staircase.</p> +<p>24. Inner Office.</p> +<p>25. Printed Papers Office.</p> +<p>26. Private Bills and Taxing Office.</p> +<p>27. Earl Marshal.</p> +<p>28. Strangers’ and Reporters’ Stairs.</p> +<p>29. Peers’ Standing Order Committee Room.</p> +<p>30. The Thrones.</p> +<p>31. Bar of the House.</p> +<p>32. Leader of the Opposition in the House of Lords.</p> +<p>33. Premier.</p> +<p>34. Telegraph.</p> +<p>35. Solicitor-General.</p> +<p>36. Attorney-General.</p> +<p>37. Lord Advocate.</p> +<p>38. Resident Superintendent.</p> +<p>39. Archbishops.</p> +<p>40. Principal Stairs.</p> +<p>41. Residence of the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod.</p> +<p>42. Sitting Room.</p> +<p>43. Residence of the Clerk of Parliament.</p> +<p>44. Members’ Entrance.</p></td> + +<td class="f80" style="width: 25%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>45. Dining Room of the Deputy Sergeant-at-Arms.</p> +<p>46. Turret Room.</p> +<p>47. Private Stairs of the Deputy Sergeant-at-Arms.</p> +<p>48. Journal Office Stores.</p> +<p>49. Police.</p> +<p>50. Ministers.</p> +<p>51. Opposition Ministers.</p> +<p>52. Members’ Entrance Stairs.</p> +<p>53. Members’ Conference Room.</p> +<p>54. Members’ Private Secretaries</p> +<p>55. Members’ Small Conference Room.</p> +<p>56. Votes and Proceedings.</p> +<p>57. Accountant and Chief Public Bill Office.</p> +<p>58. Old Treasury Stairs.</p> +<p>59. Post Master.</p> +<p>60. Strangers’ Stairs.</p> +<p>61. Cistern Tower.</p> +<p>62. Irish Whips.</p> +<p>63 Government Whips.</p> +<p>64. Opposition Whips.</p> +<p>65. Deputy Sergeant-at-Arms.</p> +<p>66. Clerk to Deputy Sergeant-at-Arms.</p></td> + +<td class="f80" style="width: 25%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>67. Speaker’s Counsel.</p> +<p>68. Speaker’s Counsel’s Clerk.</p> +<p>69. Vote Office.</p> +<p>70. Bar Lobby.</p> +<p>71. Speaker’s Lobby.</p> +<p>72. Ministers.</p> +<p>73. Clerk Assistant.</p> +<p>74. Train Bearers.</p> +<p>75. Speaker’s Retiring Room.</p> +<p>76. Old Prison Rooms Lobby.</p> +<p>77. Sergeant-at-Arms’ Smoking Room.</p> +<p>78. Clock Weight Shaft.</p> +<p>79. Air Shaft.</p> +<p>80. Smoking Room Lobby.</p> +<p>81. Butler.</p> +<p>82. Speaker’s Secretary.</p> +<p>83. Audience Room.</p> +<p>84. <i>Times</i> Reporters.</p> +<p>85. Strangers’ Gallery.</p> +<p>86. Waste Paper.</p> +<p>87. Mess.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:846px; height:385px" src="images/img432.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 92.—Plan of the Parliament House, Budapest. (Steindl.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>We may now turn to consider the Gothic Revival movement +itself, of which Pugin was one of the most important pioneers. +New ideas, however, as to the importance of Gothic architecture +had been in the air before he came on the scene, and +<span class="sidenote">The Gothic Revival, England.</span> +quite early in the century John Britten’s <i>Architectural +Antiquities of Great Britain</i> and <i>Cathedral Antiquities</i>, +with their beautiful steel engravings by Le Keux, had +done much to call attention to the neglected beauty of English +medieval churches; and Thomas Rickman’s remarkable and (for +its day) masterly analysis of the variations of style in Gothic architecture, +which first appeared in 1817, and went through edition +after edition in succeeding years, gave the first intelligent direction +to the study of the subject. Pugin supplied to the movement +not analysis, but passion. He had the merit of having perceived, +when quite a youth, that one thing wanted was better craftsmanship, +and that craftsmanship in the medieval period was something +very different from what it was in the early Victorian +period; he set up an atelier of craftsmen, and was the real pioneer +of what may be called the Arts and Crafts movement in England. +An enthusiast by nature, he flung his whole soul into the task +of reviving, as he believed, the glory of English medieval architecture; +nothing else in architecture was worth thinking of; +Classic and Renaissance were only worth sarcasm. The result in +his works was a curious inconsistency. Pugin was not in the +true sense a great architect; his mind was not practical enough +to grasp an architectural problem as a whole, plan and building +combined; in fact, he was no master of plan, and does not seem +to have troubled himself much about it. But he had a remarkable +perception of interior effect; whenever you go into +one of his churches you recognize the desire to realize the greatest +effect of height, the most soaring effect of lines, possible within +the actual vertical measurements. But in his passion for this +soaring expression he seems to have entirely lost sight of the +essential quality of solidity and genuineness of material in +the medieval architecture which he was trying to emulate or +to outvie. So long as he could get his effect of height, his +poetic interior, he was content to have thin walls and plaster +vaults and ornaments; or, in other words, he spent upon height +what should first have been spent upon solid and monumental +building. The result has been gently but effectively satirized by +Browning in “Bishop Blougram’s Apology”:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“It’s different preaching in Basilicas</p> +<p class="i05">To doing duty in some masterpiece</p> +<p class="i05">Like this of brother Pugin’s, bless his heart.</p> +<p class="i05">I doubt if they’re half-baked, those chalk rosettes,</p> +<p class="i05">Ciphers and stucco-twiddlings everywhere;</p> +<p class="i05">It’s just like breathing in a limekiln, eh?”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>It is too true; and there is something pathetic in Pugin’s +career, in this passionate and sincere pursuit after a revival +of the medieval spirit in life and in architecture—a pursuit which +towards the close of his life he himself evidently more than half +suspected to have been a fallacy.</p> + +<p>The full tide of the Gothic revival is connected more especially +with the name of Sir Gilbert Scott. He was hardly a pure +enthusiast like Pugin; he was a shrewd man of the world, the +commencement of whose professional career coincided with the +rising tide of ecclesiological reform, and he had the ability to +make the best of the opportunity. He appears to have had, +even as a child, an inborn interest in church architecture and in +Gothic detail (witness the description, in his <i>Memoirs</i>, of his +astonishment and interest, at the age of eleven, at the first sight +of capitals of the Early English type), and he acquired by unremitting +study a knowledge of English Gothic architecture in +its every detail which few architects have ever equalled. His +numerous churches were, intentionally and confessedly, as close +reproductions as possible of medieval architecture, generally +that of the Early Decorated period; and if it were desirable that +modern church architecture should consist in the reproduction +of medieval churches, the task could not have been carried out +with more learning and exactitude than it was by him. It was +this minute and accurate knowledge of medieval church architecture +which made him such a power when the idea of restoring +English cathedrals became popular. He had an acquired instinct +in tracing out the existence of details which had been overlaid +by modern repairs or plasterwork; in going over a cathedral +to decide on a scheme of restoration he seemed to know it as an +anatomist knows the suggestions of a fossil skeleton; and in the +course of his restorations he unearthed many points in the +architectural history of the buildings which but for him would +never have been elucidated. We now recognize that much of this +“restoration” was a mistake, which destroyed the real interest +of the cathedrals; and it is unhappily a mistake which cannot +be undone. But the violent reproaches which have been heaped +upon Scott’s memory on this account are rather unjust. It +is forgotten that he was doing what at the time every one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span> +considered to be the right thing; cathedral bodies vied with +each other in restoration, and were enthusiastic in the cause; +there were few if any dissenting voices; and in regard to the +interiors of the cathedrals which were in modern use as places +of worship, much that he did really required to be done to put +them into decent condition. His churches have ceased to be +interesting now, as is usually the case with copied architecture; +but when they were built they were exactly what every one +wanted and was asking for. And he produced at all events one +original work which is a great deal better than it is now the +fashion to think—the Albert Memorial. It is injured by the +statue, for which the commission went to the wrong sculptor; +but Scott’s idea of producing, as he phrased it, “a shrine on a +great scale,” was really a fine one, and finely carried out. The +most important objection to it is one which popular criticism +does not recognize, viz. that the vault is tied by concealed iron +ties, and would hardly be safe without them. But apart from +that it is a fine conception, and Scott was right in regarding it +as his best work.</p> + +<p>G.E. Street, who was a pupil of Scott, was a greater enthusiast +for medieval architecture (which, with him, as with Pugin, +included medieval religion) than even Scott, and an architect +of greater force and individuality. He was especially devoted +to the early Transitional type of Gothic, and in all his buildings +there is apparent the feeling for the solidity and monumental +character, and the reticence in the use of ornament, which is +characteristic of the Transitional period. His churches are +noteworthy for their monumental character; and he had a +remarkable faculty for giving an appearance of scale and dignity +to the interiors of comparatively small churches. Hence his +modern-medieval churches retain their interest more than Scott’s, +but in respect of secular architecture his taste was hopelessly +medievalized, and his great building, the law courts in London, +can only be regarded as a costly failure; it is not even beautiful +except in regard to some good detail; it is badly planned; +and the one fine interior feature, the great vaulted hall, is rendered +useless by not being on the same floor with the courts, so that +instead of being a <i>salle des pas perdus</i> it is a desert. Street’s +career is a warning how real architectural talent and vigour +may be stultified by a sentimental adherence to a past phase of +architecture. No modern architect had more fully penetrated +the spirit of Gothic architecture, and his nave of Bristol cathedral +is as good as genuine medieval work, and might pass for such +when time-worn; but that is rather archaeology than architecture.</p> + +<p>The competition for the law courts was one of the great +architectural events of the middle of the century, and made +or raised the reputation even of some of the unsuccessful competitors. +Edward Barry (the son of Sir Charles) gained the +first place for “plan,” which the advisers of the government +had foolishly separated from “design” (as if the plan of a building +could be considered apart from the architectural conception!), +giving first marks for plan, and second for design. E. Barry +therefore had really gained the competition, “design,” which +was awarded to Street, counting second; but Street managed +to push him out, and it is a nemesis on him for this by no means +loyal proceeding that the building he contrived to get entirely +into his own hands has served to injure rather than benefit +his reputation. William Burges (1827-1881), an ardent devotee +of French early Gothic, produced a design in that style, which, +though quite unsuitable practically, is a greater evidence of +architectural power than is furnished by any of his executed +buildings. J.P. Seddon (1828-1906), an old adherent of Rossetti +and the pre-Raphaelite brotherhood, an architect of genius +who never got his opportunity, produced a design which was +wildly picturesque in appearance but in reality more practical +than might be thought at first sight, and his proposal for a great +Record tower for housing official records was a really fine and +original idea.</p> + +<p>Among the ecclesiastical buildings of the Gothic revival +those of William Butterfield (1814-1900), much less numerous +than those of Scott and Street, have a special interest as the +work of a revival architect who was something more than a +mere archaeologist. All Saints, Margaret Street (1859), is the +production of an architectural artist using medieval materials +to carry out a conception of his own, and hence, like Babbacombe +church and others by the same hand, it has an interest for the +present day which Scott’s churches have not. His Keble College +chapel rather failed from an exaggeration of the use of polychromatic +materials, which in some of his other churches he had +used with moderation and with good effect. J.L. Pearson was +another distinguished architect of the later period of the Gothic +revival who was able to put something of his own into modern +Gothic churches. No one was more learned in medieval architecture +than he was; and as of Street’s nave of Bristol, so we +may say of Pearson’s nave of Truro, that it is as good as medieval +Gothic; indeed Truro nave is finer in character than some of +the ancient cathedral naves, and represents pure Gothic at its +best. But in the exteriors of his churches, as at Truro and in +the churches of Kilburn and Red Lion Square, Pearson evolved +a Gothic of his own which is Pearsonesque and not merely +archaeological. James Brooks (1825-1901) also deserves an +honoured place in the chronicle of the Gothic revival for being +the first to show how large town churches might be erected in +brick (fig. 93), in which largeness of scale and a certain grandeur +of effect could be obtained without extravagant cost, and in +which it was practically demonstrated that architecture in the +true Gothic spirit could be produced without depending on +ornament.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:438px" src="images/img433.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 93.—Exterior of modern English Church. (James Brooks.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Alfred Waterhouse began his remarkable career as an adherent +of the Gothic revival, and merits separate mention inasmuch +as he was the only one of the Gothic revivalists who from the +first set himself to adapt Gothic to secular uses and to make +out of it a modern Gothic manner of his own. His first success +was made with the Manchester law courts, a design more +purely Gothic than his later works, and an admirably planned +building (the only good point in the national law courts plan, +the access to the public galleries, is taken from it); his special +style was more developed in the Manchester town hall, a building +typical both of the defects and merits of his secular Gothic +style. This style of his received the compliment, for a good +many years, of an immense amount of imitation; in fact, +during that earlier period of his work it may be said to have +influenced every secular building that was erected in the medieval +style all over England. His Gothic detail was, however, not very +refined, and he has been subject to the same kind of retrospective +injustice which has fallen on Scott, critics in both instances +forgetting that what they do not like <i>now</i> was what every one +liked <i>then</i>, and could not have enough of. Waterhouse was a +master of plan, and a man of immense business and administrative +ability, without which he could not have carried out the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span> +number of great building schemes which fell into his hands, and +he had much more of the qualities of a great architect than are +to be found in the works of some of his latter-day critics. His +later works, one or two of which will be referred to, do not +come under the head of the Gothic revival.</p> + +<p>In France, the Gothic revival, which so strongly affected the +whole school of English architecture for thirty or forty years, +took little hold. Its most remarkable monument is +the church of Ste Clotilde at Paris, built about the +<span class="sidenote">France.</span> +middle of the century from the designs of Ballu. In size it equals +a second-class cathedral, and is a fine monument, though it does +not show that complete knowledge of medieval Gothic which we +find in the churches of Scott, Street, Pearson and G.F. Bodley. +But as with the Classic, so with the Gothic revival—the leading +French architects of the period had too much personal architectural +feeling to be carried along in the wake of a “movement.” +Two very important Paris churches, built just after the middle +of the century, illustrate well this independence of spirit. The +one is the domed church of St Augustin in the Boulevard +Malesherbes (Plate XII., fig. 122), designed by Victor Baltard +(1805-1874). It may be called a Classic church treated in a quasi-Byzantine +manner. A remarkable point about it is that, standing +between the divergence of two streets at an acute angle, the outer +walls of the nave follow the line of the two streets, the church +thus expanding towards the centre; internally the colonnades +are parallel, the chapels outside of them increasing in depth +from the entrance of the nave towards the centre—a very clever +device for reconciling exterior and interior effect. The other +church referred to, built about the same time, is La Trinité +(Plate XII., fig. 123) by Théodore Ballu (1817-1885)—a church +which is Renaissance in detail and yet distinctly Gothic in its +general effect and in the multiplicity of its detail, somewhat +recalling in this sense Barry’s Halifax tower before referred to. +The sense in which there has really been a general movement +in church architecture in France has been in the direction of a +kind of modernized Byzantine, of which one of the earliest and +best examples is the church of St Pierre de Montrouge, by +Joseph Auguste E. Vaudremer (Plate XII., fig. 124). A later and +more important example is the cathedral of Marseilles, by Leon +Vaudoyer (1803-1872) and Henry Espérandieu (1829-1874), a +mingling of Romanesque and Byzantine, and in many respects a +fine building (Plate XIII., fig. 126). This modern feeling in favour +of a Byzantine type of church architecture culminated in the +great church of the Sacré Coeur on Montmartre, at Paris, begun +in the early ’eighties from the designs of Paul Abadie (1812-1884). +This grand building stands on a most effective site, and is of a +monumental solidity seldom met with in modern architecture; it +is more pure and consistent in style than many of the smaller +churches of the same school of architecture. These latter are +not for the most part very attractive; they represent in general +a kind of Frenchified Byzantine detail which exhibits neither +Byzantine spirit nor French grace and finish; and on the whole +it may be said that church architecture is the field in which the +French architects of the 19th century were least successful.</p> + +<p>As regards secular buildings, on the other hand, the Paris of +the middle portion of the 19th century can show some of the +most unquestionable architectural successes of the period. The +modern portions of the Palais de Justice by Louis Joseph Duc +(1802-1879)—not Viollet-le-Duc, as is often mistakenly asserted in +guide-books—and of the École des Beaux-Arts, by Jacques Félix +Duban (1797-1870), are among the best examples of the application +of classic forms of architecture to modern buildings; and the +Bibliothčque Ste Genevičve (Plate XIII., fig. 128), by Henri +Labrouste (1801-1875), was in its day (about 1850) a new creation +in applied classic architecture; a building in which the exterior +design was entirely subservient to and expressive of the requirements +of a library, a large portion of the wall being left unpierced +for the storage of books, windows being only inserted where they +did not interfere with this object; and the manner in which +these walls are treated so as to produce a decorative architectural +effect without having recourse to sham colonnades and sham +window openings, was entirely new at the time in modern work. +It is instructive to compare this design with that of the Bank +of England, as examples of the right and the wrong way of +treating buildings in which much blank wall space was required. +The new buildings of the Louvre (Plate XIV., fig. 129), built +under Napoleon III. from the designs of Louis Tullius Joachim +Visconti (1791-1853), are not to be passed over, though they have +too much of the showy and flaunting character which belonged +to both the society and the art of the Second Empire; a fault +which also destroys some of the value of the Grand Opera house, +a remarkable work by a remarkable architect (Jean Louis Charles +Garnier), and typical, more than any other structure, of the +epoch in which it was built. Some of its effect it owes to the +admirable painting and sculpture with which it is decorated, +but the grand staircase is a fine architectural conception (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Garnier</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In England and in the United States, the last quarter of the +19th century was a period of unusual interest and activity in +architectural development. While other nations have +been content to carry on their architecture, for the +<span class="sidenote">Recent English architecture.</span> +most part, on the old scholastic lines which had been +prevalent since the Renaissance, in the two countries +named there has been manifest a spirit of unrest, of critical +inquiry into the basis and objects of architecture; an aspiration +to make new and original creations in or applications of the art, +without example in any other period in the modern history of +architecture. In England, the “note”—heard with increasing +shrillness of <i>crescendo</i> towards the very last year of the +century—was the cry for originality, for throwing off the trammels of the +past, for rendering architecture more truly a direct expression +of the conditions of practical requirement and of structure. +This was no doubt to some extent the effect of a reaction. During +the greater part of the century architectural strength, as has been +already shown, had been spent in revivals of past styles. Churches +indeed, up to the close of the century, continued to be built, +for the most part, in revived Gothic; but this was owing to +special clerical influence, which saw in Gothic a style specially +consecrated to church architecture, and would be satisfied, as +a rule, with nothing else. Efforts have been made by architects +to modify the medieval church plan into something more practically +suited to modern congregational worship, by a system +of reducing the side aisles to mere narrow passages for access to +the seats, thus retaining the architectural effect of the arcade, +while keeping it out of the way of the seated congregation; and +there have been occasional reversions to the ancient Christian +basilica type of plan, or sometimes, as in the church in Davies +Street, London, attempts to treat a church in a manner entirely +independent of architectural precedent; but in the main, +Gothic has continued to rule for churches. Apart from this +special class of building, however, revived Gothic began to droop +during the ’seventies. All had been copied that could be copied, +and the result, to the architectural mind, was not satisfaction +but satiety. Gothic began to be regarded as “played out.” +The immediate result, however, was not an organized attempt +to think for ourselves, and make our own style, but a recourse +to another class of precedent, represented in the type of early +<span class="sidenote">“Queen Anne.”</span> +18th-century building which became known as “Queen +Anne,” and which, like Gothic before it, was now to +be recommended as “essentially English,” as in fact +it is. It can hardly, however, be called an architectural style; +it would have no right to figure in any work illustrating the great +architectural styles of the world. It was, in fact, the last dying +phase of the English Renaissance; the architecture of the classic +order reduced to a threadbare condition, treated very simply +and in plain materials, in many cases shorn of its columnar +features, and reflecting faithfully enough the prim rationalistic +taste in literature and art of the England of the 18th century. +Though not to be dignified as a <i>style</i>, it was, however, a recognizable +and consistent <i>manner</i> in building; it made extensive use +of brick, a material inexpensive and at the same time very well +suited to the English climate and atmosphere; and it was +generally carried out in very solid proportions, and with very +good workmanship. To a generation tired of imitating a great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span> +style at second hand, this unpretending and simple model was +a welcome relief, and led to the erection of a considerable number +of modern buildings, dwelling-houses especially, the obvious +aim of which was to look as like 18th-century buildings as +possible. A typical example is the large London house by Norman +Shaw, at the corner of Queen’s Gate and Imperial Institute +Road The Chelsea town hall (fig. 94), by J.M. +Brydon (1840-1901), is a good example of a public +building in the revived Queen Anne style.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate XI.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:736px; height:460px" src="images/img434a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Valentine & Sons, Dundee.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 120.—NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON. (WATERHOUSE.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:736px; height:439px" src="images/img434b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, M. Gerbeault.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 121.—LAW COURTS, BRUSSELS. (POELAERT.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate XII.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:460px; height:462px" src="images/img434c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:251px; height:464px" src="images/img434d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 122.—CHURCH OF ST AUGUSTIN, PARIS.(BALTARD.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 123.—CHURCH OF LA TRINITE, PARIS. (BALLU.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:249px; height:466px" src="images/img434e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:461px" src="images/img434f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, A. Lévy.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 124.—CHURCH OF ST PIERRE DE MONTROUGE, PARIS. (VAUDREMER.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 125.—CHURCH OF ST VINCENT DE PAUL, PARIS. +(HITTORFF.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:497px; height:293px" src="images/img435a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 94.—Chelsea Town Hall. (J.M. Brydon.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>A change of front from copying a great style like +the medieval to copying what is at best a bastard +one, if a style at all, might not seem to promise very +much for the emancipation of modern architecture; +yet there turned out to be one element of progress in +it, resting on the fact that the comparatively simple +detail of the 18th-century buildings formed a kind of +vernacular of building workmanship, which could be +comprehended and carried out by good artisans as a +recognized tradition. Now to reduce architecture to +good sound building and good workmanship seemed +to promise at any rate a better basis to work upon than +the mere imitation of classic or medieval detail; it +might conceivably furnish a new starting-point. This +was the element of life in the Queen Anne revival, and +it had, as we shall see, an influence beyond the circle +of the special revivers of the style. But almost concurrently +with, or following hard upon, the “Queen +Anne” movement arose the idea of a modern architecture, +founded on a free and unfettered treatment of +the materials of our earlier Renaissance architecture, +as illustrated in buildings of the Stuart period. This +<span class="sidenote">“Free classic.”</span> +new ideal was styled “free classic,” and it +gave the prevailing tone to English architecture +for the last fifteen years of the +century, though it had its commencement in certain +characteristic buildings a good many years earlier +than that. In 1873, for instance, there arose a comparatively +small front in Leadenhall Street, under the +name of “New Zealand Chambers” (fig. 95), designed +by Norman Shaw, which excited more attention, and +had more influence on contemporary architecture than +many a building of far greater size and importance. +This represented the playful and picturesque possibilities +of “free classic.” Its more restrained and refined +achievements were early exemplified in G.F. Bodley’s +design for the front of the London School Board offices +on the Thames Embankment,<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> a comparatively small +building which also exercised a considerable influence. +There were no details here, however, but what +could be found in Stuart (or, as it is more often +called, Jacobean) architecture, but the building, and +the prominence of its architect’s name, helped to draw +attention to the possibilities of the style, and it has been +discovered that free classic is susceptible of a great deal of original +treatment based on Renaissance elements. As an example +we may cite a street front built some twenty years later by +another academician-architect, viz. the offices of the Chartered +Accountants in the City, by J. Belcher. More dignified and more +monumental than New Zealand Chambers, more original than +the School Board offices, this front contains some details and a +general treatment which may be said to be absolutely new; +it affords another example of a piece of street architecture which +attracted a great deal of attention, and has had an effect quite +disproportionate to its size and importance as a building; and +it gives a general measure of the progress of the “free classic” +idea. During the last decade of the century “free classic” +was almost the recognized style in English architecture, and has +been illustrated in many town halls and other large and important +buildings, among which the Imperial Institute is a prominent +example (fig. 96).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:479px; height:680px" src="images/img435b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 95.—New Zealand Chambers. (R. Norman Shaw, R.A.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Concurrently with this tendency towards a free classic style +there has arisen another movement which has had a considerable +influence on English architecture, viz. an increased +perception of the importance of decorative arts—sculpture, +<span class="sidenote">The allied arts.</span> +painting, mosaic, etc.—in alliance with +architecture, and of the architect and the decorative artist +working together and in harmony. This is no more than what +has long been understood and acted on in France, but it has been +a new light to modern English architecture, in which, until a +comparatively recent period, decorative painting was hardly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span> +thought of, and decorative sculpture, where it was introduced, +was too often, or indeed generally, the mere work of some trading +firm of masons But of late years sculpture has taken a far +more prominent place in connexion with architecture; it has +become a habit with the best architects to rely largely on the +introduction of appropriate and symbolic sculpture to add to +the interest of their buildings, and to associate with them eminent +sculptors, who, instead of regarding their work only in the light of +isolated statues or groups for the exhibition room and the art +gallery, are willing to give their best efforts to produce high-class +sculpture for the decoration of an architectural design which +forms the framework to it.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:417px; height:496px" src="images/img436.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 96.—Staircase, Imperial Institute. (Collcutt.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Notice should be taken, however, of another movement in +English architecture during the closing years of the 19th century. +Reference has already been made to one idea which +prompted the culture of the “Queen Anne” type of +<span class="sidenote">The craftmanship ideal.</span> +architecture: that it presented a simple vernacular of +construction and detail, in which solid workmanship +a more prominent element than elaboration of what is +known as architectural style. To a small group of clever and +enthusiastic architects of the younger generation it appeared +that this idea of reducing architecture to the common-sense +of construction might be carried still further; that as all the +revivals of styles since the Renaissance had failed to give permanent +satisfaction and had tended to reduce architecture +to a learned imitation of the work of former epochs, the real +chance for giving life to architecture as a modern art was to +throw aside all the conventionally accepted insignia of architectural +style—columns, pilasters, cornices, buttresses, etc.—and +to begin over again with mere workmanship—wall-building and +carpentry—and trust that in process of time a new decorative +detail would be evolved, indebted to no precedent. The building +artisans, in fact, were collectively to take the place of the architect +and the form of the building to be evolved by a natural process +of growth. This was a favourite idea also with William Morris, +who insisted that medieval art—the only art which he recognized +as of any value (Greek, Roman and Renaissance being alike +contemptible in his eyes)—was essentially an art of the people, +and that in fact it was the modern architects who stood in the +way of our having a genuine architecture of the 19th century. +Considering how much of merely formal, conventional and soulless +architecture has been produced in our time under the guidance +of the professional architect, it is impossible to deny that there +is an element of truth in this reasoning; at all events, that there +have been a good many modern architects who have done more +harm than good to architecture. But when we come to follow +out this reasoning to its logical results, it is obvious that there +are serious flaws in it. Morris’s idea that medieval architecture +alone was worthy the name, we may, of course, dismiss at once; +it was the prejudice of a man of genius whose sympathies, both in +matters social and artistic, were narrow. Nor can we regard the +medieval cathedrals as artisan’s architecture. The name of +“architect” may have been unknown, but that the personage +was present in some guise, the very individuality and variety +of our English cathedrals attest. Peterborough front was no +mere mason’s conception. And when we come to consider +modern conditions of building, it is perfectly obvious that with +the complicated practical requirements of modern building, +in regard to planning, heating, ventilation, etc., the planning +of the whole in a complete set of drawings, before the building +is begun, is an absolute necessity. We are no longer in medieval +times; modern conditions require the modern architect. The +real cause of failure, as far as modern architecture is a failure, +lies partly in the fact that it is practised too much as a profession +or business, too little as an art; partly in the deadening effect +of public indifference to art in Britain. If the public really +desired great and impressive works of architecture they would +have them; but neither the British public nor its mouthpiece +the government, care anything about it. Their highest ambition +is to get convenient and economical buildings. And as to the +theory of the new school, that we should throw overboard all +precedent in architectural detail, that is intellectually impossible. +We are not made so that we can invent everything <i>de novo</i>, +or escape the effect on our minds of what has preceded us; the +attempt can only lead to baldness or eccentricity. Every great +style of architecture of the past has, in fact, been evolved from +the detail of preceding styles; and some of the ablest and most +earnest architects of the present day are, indeed, urging the +desirability of clinging to traditional forms in regard to detail, +as a means of maintaining the continuity of the art. This does +not by any means imply the absence of original architecture; +there is scope for endless origination in the plan and the general +design of a building. The Houses of Parliament is a prominent +example. The detail is a reproduction of Tudor detail, but the +plan and the general conception are absolutely original, and +resemble those of no other pre-existing building in the world.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to take account of all these movements of +opinion and principle in English architecture to appreciate +properly its position and prospects at the time with +which we are here dealing. Turning now from England +<span class="sidenote">United States.</span> +to the United States, which, as already observed, is +the only other important country in which there has been +a general new movement in architecture, we find, singular to +say, that the course of development has in America been almost +the reverse of what has taken place in England. The rapidity +of architectural development in America, it may be observed, +since about 1875, has been something astonishing; there is no +parallel to it anywhere else. Before then the currently accepted +architecture of the American Republic was little more than +a bad repetition of the English Gothic and Classic types of +revived architecture. At the present day no nation, except +perhaps France, takes so keen an interest in architecture and +produces so many noteworthy buildings; and it may be observed +that in the United States the public and the official authorities +seem really to have some enthusiasm on the subject, and to +desire fine buildings. But the stirring of the dry bones began +in America where it ended in England. The first symptoms of +an original spirit operating in American architecture showed +themselves in domestic architecture, in town and country houses, +the latter especially; and the form which the movement took +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span> +was a desire to escape conventional architectural detail and to +return to the simplest form of mere <i>building</i>; rock-faced masonry, +sometimes of materials picked up on the site; chimneys which +were plain shafts of masonry or brickwork; woodwork simply +hewn and squared, but the whole arranged with a view to +picturesque effect (figs. 97 and 98). This form of American +house became an incident in the course of modern architecture; +it even had a recognizable influence on English architects. +About the same time an impetus of a more special nature was +given to American architecture by a man of genius, H.H. +Richardson, who, falling back on Romanesque and Byzantine +types of architecture as a somewhat unworked field, evolved +from them a type of architectural treatment so distinctly his +own (though its <i>origines</i> were of course quite traceable) that he +came very near the credit of having personally invented a style; +at all events he invented a manner, which was so largely admired +and imitated that for some ten or fifteen years American architecture +showed a distinct tendency to become “Richardsonesque” +(see also Plate XVI., fig. 137). As with all architectural fashions, +however, people got tired of this, and the influence of another +very able American architect, Richard M. Hunt, coupled perhaps +with the proverbial philo-Gallic tendencies of the modern +American, led to the American architects, during the last decade +of the 19th century, throwing themselves almost entirely into +the arms, as it were, of France; seeking their education as +far as possible in Paris, and adopting the theory and practice +of the École des Beaux-Arts so completely that it is often +impossible to distinguish their designs, and even their methods +of drawing, from those of French architects brought up in the +strictest regime of the “École.” By this French movement +the Americans have, on the one hand, shared the advantages +and the influence of what is undoubtedly the most complete +school of architectural training in the world; but, on the other +hand, they have foregone the opportunity which might have +been afforded them of developing a school or style of their own, +influenced by the circumstances of their own requirements, +climate and materials. Figs. 133 and 134, Plate XV., show +examples of recent American architecture of the European +classic type. Thus, in the two countries which in this period +have shown the most activity and restlessness in their architectural +aspirations, and given the most original thought to the +subject, England has constantly tended towards throwing off +the yoke of precedent and escaping from the limits of a scholastic +style; while America, commencing her era of architectural +emancipation with an attempt at first principles and simple +but picturesque building, has ended by a pretty general adoption +of the highly-developed scholastic system of another country. +The contrast is certainly a curious one. Only one original +contribution to the art has been made by America in recent days—one +arising directly out of practical conditions, viz. the “high +buildings” in cities; a form of architecture which may be said to +have originated in the fact that New York is built on a peninsula, +and extension of the city is only possible vertically and not horizontally. +The tower-like buildings (see Plate XV., fig. 131, and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steel Construction</a></span>, Plate II., figs. 3 and 4), served internally +by lifts, to which this condition of things has given rise, form +a really new contribution to architecture, and have been handled +by some of the American architects in a very effective manner; +though, unfortunately, the rage for rapid building in the cities +of the United States has led to the adoption of the false architectural +system of running up such structures in the form of +a steel framing, cased with a mere skin of masonry or terra-cotta, +for appearance’ sake, which in reality depends for its stability +on the steel framing. It must be admitted, however, to be a +new contribution to architecture, and renders New York, as +seen from the harbour, a “towered city” in a sense not realized +by the poet.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:345px" src="images/img437a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 97.—American Type of Country-House Architecture.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:507px; height:191px" src="images/img437b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 98.—American Seaside Villa. (Bruce Price.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:246px" src="images/img437c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 99.—Crane Public Library, Quincy, Mass. (H.H. Richardson.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Some sketch of the state of recent architectural thought or +endeavour in England seemed essential to the subject, since +it is there that what may be called the philosophy of +architecture has been most debated, and that thought +<span class="sidenote">English progress.</span> +has had the most obvious and most direct effect on +architectural style and movement. That this has been the case +has no doubt been largely due to the influence of Ruskin, who, +though his architectural judgment was on many points faulty +and absurd in the extreme, had at any rate the effect of setting +people thinking—not without result. In other countries +architecture continued to pursue, up to the close of the century, +the scholastic ideal impressed upon it by the Renaissance, +without exciting doubt or controversy unless in a very occasional +and partial manner, and without any changes save those minor +ones arising from changing habits of execution and use of material. +In Germany there appears to be a certain tendency to a greater +freedom in the use of the materials of classic architecture, a +certain relaxation of the bonds of scholasticism; but it has hardly +assumed such proportions as to be ranked as a new movement +in architecture.</p> + +<p>The last years of the 19th century witnessed the progress to +an advanced stage of the most remarkable piece of English +church architecture of the period, the Roman Catholic +cathedral at Westminster, by J.H. Bentley (1839-1902), +<span class="sidenote">English churches.</span> +a building which is not a Gothic revival, but +goes back to earlier (Byzantine) precedents; not, however, +without a considerable element of novelty and originality in +the design, especially in some of the exterior detail. The interior +was intended for decoration in applied marble and mosaic, yet +even as a shell of brickwork, with its solid domes and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span> +immense masses of the piers, it is one of the most impressive +and monumental interiors of modern date.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:474px; height:655px" src="images/img438a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 100.—Interior, St Clare’s, Liverpool. (Leonard Stokes.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In ordinary church architecture, though there is still a good +deal of mere imitation medieval work carried out, England +has not been without examples of a new and original application +of Gothic materials. The interior of the church of St Clare, +Liverpool, by Mr Leonard Stokes (fig. 100), is a good example +of the modified treatment of the three-aisled medieval plan +already referred to, the side aisles being reduced to passages; +and also of the tendency in recent years to simplify the treatment +of Gothic, in contrast to the florid and over-carved churches +of the Gothic revival. The churches of James Brooks, as already +noted, have shown many examples of a solid plain treatment +of Gothic, yet with a great deal of character; and J.D. Sedding +(1838-1891) built some showing great originality, among which +the interior of his church of the Holy Redeemer, Clerkenwell, +affords also an interesting example of the modern free treatment +of forms derived from classic architecture.</p> + +<p>The event of most importance in English church architecture +at the beginning of the 20th century was the commencement +of a modern cathedral at Liverpool. In the early ’eighties the +proposal for a cathedral had led to an important competition +between three sets of invited architects, Sir William Emerson, +Messrs Bodley and Garner and James Brooks. Nothing, +however, resulted, except the production of three very fine sets +of drawings. Subsequently the subject was taken up again with +more energy, and a sketch competition invited for a cathedral +on a new site (the one originally intended being no longer +available); from among the sketch competitors five were +invited to join in a final competition, viz. Messrs Austin and +Paley, C.A. Nicholson, Gilbert Scott (grandson of Sir Gilbert +Scott), Malcolm Stark and W.J. Tapper. Mr Scott’s design +was selected (May 1903) and the building of it commenced not +long after. It is a design in revived Gothic, of the orthodox +type as to detail, though containing some points of decided +originality in the general treatment. The condition proposed +in the first instance by the committee, that the designs sent in +must be in the Gothic style, gave rise to a strong protest, in the +architectural journals and elsewhere, on the ground that the +revival of ancient styles was a mistaken and exploded fallacy; +and in deference to this expression of opinion the +committee officially withdrew the limitation as to style. +That, in view of their obvious bias, they would confine +their selection to designs in the Gothic style, was, +however, a foregone conclusion. It is much to be +regretted that the opportunity was not taken to evolve +a modern and Protestant type of cathedral, with a +central area and a dome as its principal feature.</p> + +<p>In the architecture of public buildings one of the +earliest incidents in this latest period was the completion +of the Albert Hall, which, though the work of +an engineer, and commonplace in detail, is +in the main a fine and novel architectural conception, +<span class="sidenote">English public buildings.</span> +and a practical success (considering +its abnormal size) as a building for musical performances. +Had its constructor been bold enough to roof +it with a solid masonry dome, with an “eye” in the +centre (as in the Pantheon) instead of a huge dish-cover +of glass and iron, there would have been little to find +fault with in its general conception. It was also the +first modern English building of importance to be +decorated externally with symbolical figure composition, +in the shape of the large frieze in coarse mosaic of +terra-cotta, which is carried round the upper portion +of the exterior, and which, if not very interesting in +detail, at all events fulfils very well its purpose as a +piece of decorative effect. The subject of the government +offices in London forms in itself an important +chapter in recent architectural history. The home +and foreign office block was finished in 1874; a +sumptuous, but weak and ill-planned building designed +by Scott, <i>invita Minerva</i>, in a style alien to his own +predilections. In 1884 took place the great competition +for the war and admiralty offices conjointly, won by +a commonplace but admirably drawn design, presenting +some good points in planning. The building was to +stand between Whitehall and St James’s Park, with +a front both ways. The competition came to nothing, +and the successful architects were eventually employed +to build the new admiralty as it now stands, a mean +and commonplace building with no street frontage, in +which economy was the main consideration, and +totally discreditable to the greatest naval power in +the world. In 1898-1899 it was at last resolved to +a war office and other government offices much +needed, and an irregular site opposite the Horse Guards +was selected for the war office and one in Great George +Street for the others. In this case there was no competition, +but the government selected two architects after inquiry as to +their works (“classic” architecture being a <i>sine qua non</i>); +W. Young (d. 1900) for the war office, and J.M. Brydon for the +Great George Street block. The war office site is inadequate +and totally unsymmetrical, the boundary of the building being +settled by the boundary of the street curb, and the inner courtyards +are of very mean proportions compared with the great +courtyard of the home and foreign office. Both architects +produced grandiose designs, but in regard to the war office at +least the government threw away a great opportunity.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate XIII.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:412px; height:444px" src="images/img438b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:305px; height:476px" src="images/img438c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 126.—CATHEDRAL, MARSEILLES. (VAUDOYER AND ESPERANDIEU.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 127.—MAIRIE, Xth ARRONDISSEMENT, PARIS. (ROUYER.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:735px; height:466px" src="images/img438d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2"><i>Photo, A. Lévy.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 128.—BIBLIOTHČQUE STE GENEVIČVE, PARIS. (LABROUSTE.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate XIV.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:735px; height:417px" src="images/img438e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, L.L. Paris.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 129.—PAVILLON RICHELIEU, THE LOUVRE, PARIS. (VISCONTI.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:732px; height:491px" src="images/img438f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdin.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 130.—PETIT PALAIS, PARIS. (GIRAULT.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>There can only be further enumerated a few of the more +important buildings erected in England during the later years +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span> +of the 19th century, and mention made of the general course +which architecture has taken in regard to special classes of +buildings. The Natural History Museum (Plate XI., fig. 120), +completed in 1881 by Alfred Waterhouse, may stand as a type +of the taste for the employment of terra-cotta, with all its +dangerous facilities in ornamental detail, of which that architect +specially set the example. Detail is certainly overdone here, +but the building is strikingly original; a point not to be +overlooked in these days of architectural copying. The Imperial +Institute, the result of a competition among six selected architects, +represents also a type of architecture which its architect, +T.E. Collcutt, maybe said to have matured for himself, and +which has been extensively imitated; a refined variety of free +classic, always quiet and delicate in detail, though perhaps +rather wanting in architectonic force. The next great architectural +competition was that for the completion of the +South Kensington Museum, the bare brick exterior of which, +waiting for architectural completion, had long been a national +disgrace. The competition produced some fine and striking +designs, some of them perhaps more so than the selected +one by Sir Aston Webb, whose fine plan, however, justified the +selection. Another competition which excited general interest +was that in 1894, for the rebuilding on a country site of Christ’s +Hospital schools, also gained by Aston Webb (in collaboration +with Ingress Bell), by a design which, in its arrangement of +schoolhouses in detached blocks (fig. 101), but in a symmetrical +grouping, opened up a new idea in public-school planning, and +struck a blow at the picturesque but insanitary quadrangle +system. Among notable public buildings of the period ought +to be mentioned Norman Shaw’s New Scotland Yard, built +in a style neither classic nor Gothic, but partaking of the elements +of both (Plate X., fig. 119). A competition in 1908 for the +design of the new county hall for the London County Council, +to be “English Renaissance” in style, was won by a young +architect, till then unknown, Mr Ralph Knott.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:533px; height:383px" src="images/img439a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 101.—Plan of a Master’s House, New Christ’s Hospital. +(Webb and Bell.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:515px; height:494px" src="images/img439b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 102.—Sheffield Town Hall. (Mountford.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:282px" src="images/img439c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 103.—Oxford Town Hall. (Hare.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In recent years there has been a great movement for building +town halls; towns rather vying with each other in this way. +Of late nearly all of these have been carried out in some variety +of free classic. Among the more important in point of scale is +that of Sheffield, by E.W. Mountford (1856-1908) (fig. 102); +among smaller ones, those of Oxford, by H.T. Hare (fig. 103); +and Colchester, by John Belcher, are +particularly good examples of recent +architecture of this class, the former +distinguished also by an exceptionally +good plan. The merit of excellent +planning also belongs to Aston Webb +and Ingress Bell’s Birmingham law +courts, one of the modern terra-cotta +buildings of somewhat too florid +detail, though picturesque as a whole. +Among public halls the M‘Ewan +Hall at Edinburgh, completed in +1898 from the designs of Sir Rowand +Anderson, deserves mention as one +of the most original and most carefully +designed of recent buildings in +Great Britain.</p> + +<p>The various new buildings erected +in connexion with the university of +Oxford, those by T.G. Jackson (b. +1835) especially, form an important +incident in modern English +architecture. Mr Jackson succeeded to a remarkable degree in designing +new buildings which are in harmony with the old architecture +of the university city; sometimes perhaps a little too imitative +of it, but at any rate he has the credit of having added rather +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span> +extensively to Oxford without spoiling it; while his school +buildings in different parts of the country have a refinement and +domesticity of feeling which is the true note of school architecture. +Among buildings of an educational class, the move in +technical education has led to the erection of a good many large +polytechnic and similar institutions, which in many cases have +been well treated architecturally; the Northampton Institute at +Clerkenwell (fig. 104), by Mountford, being perhaps one of the +boldest and most effective of recent public buildings. In the +building of hospitals and asylums much has been done, and great +progress made in the direction of hygienic and practical planning +and construction, but the tendency has been (perhaps rightly) +towards making this practical efficiency the main consideration +and reducing architectural treatment to the simplest character. +St Thomas’s hospital at Lambeth exemplifies the treatment +of hospital architecture at the commencement of the last quarter +of the 19th century; the separate pavilion system had been +already adopted on practical grounds, but the building is treated +in a sumptuous architectural style, as if representing so many +detached mansions—a treatment which would now be deprecated +as an expenditure foreign to the main purpose of the building. +One recent hospital, however, that at Birmingham, by W. +Henman, combining architectural effect with the latest hygienic +improvements, was the first large hospital in Great Britain in +which the system of mechanical ventilation was completely and +consistently carried out.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:526px; height:272px" src="images/img440a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 104.—Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell. (Mountford.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:371px" src="images/img440b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 105.—Cragside. (R. Norman Shaw.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In theatre building there has been an immense improvement +in regard to planning, ventilation and fireproof construction, +but little to note in an architectural sense, since theatres in +England are never designed by eminent architects, the financial +and practical aspects being alone considered.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:365px; height:599px" src="images/img440c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 106.—London City & Midland Bank, Ludgate Hill Branch. +(Collcutt.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In domestic architecture the tendency has been to quit +picturesque irregularity for a more formal and more dignified +treatment. Such a house as Norman Shaw’s “Cragside,” built +in the earlier part of our period (fig. 105), however its picturesque +<span class="sidenote">English domestic and street architecture.</span> +treatment may still be admired, would hardly be built now on +a large scale; its architect himself has of late years shown a +preference for a symmetrical and regular treatment of +house architecture sometimes to the extent of making +the mansion look too like a barrack. In street +architecture, however, the tendency has been towards a +more characteristic and more picturesque treatment; +nor is there any class of building in which the improvement in +English architecture has been more marked and more unquestionable. +Many of the new residential streets in the west end of +London present a really picturesque <i>ensemble</i>, and many shops +and other commercial street buildings have been erected with +admirable fronts from the designs of some of the best architects +of the day. Norman Shaw’s building at the corner of St James’s +Street and Pall Mall was one of the first, and is still one of the +best examples of modern street architecture, though surpassed +by the same architect’s more recent building opposite, at the +south-west angle of St James’s Street—one of the finest and +most monumental examples of street architecture in London. +Among other examples may be cited T.E. Collcutt’s London +City & Midland Bank in Ludgate Hill (fig. 106) and R. Blomfield’s +narrow house-front in Buckingham Gate (fig. 107). The +introduction of sculpture in street fronts is also beginning to +receive attention; and a simple house-front recently erected +in Margaret Street, London, from the design of Beresford Pite +(fig. 108), is an excellent example of the use of sculpture in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span> +connexion with ordinary street architecture. It is significant of +the increased attention accorded to street architecture, that the +most important architectural event in England at the very close +of the 19th century, was the outlay of Ł2000 by the London +County Council, in fees to eight architects for designs for the +front of the proposed new streets of Kingsway and Aldwych. +The idea was to treat these streets as comprehensive architectural +designs with a certain unity of effect. Unfortunately this idea +was abandoned for merely commercial reasons, it being feared that +there would be a difficulty in letting the sites if tenants were +required to conform their frontages to a general design. In the +case of Aldwych, which is a crescent street, this decision was +fatal. A crescent loses all its effect unless treated as a complete +and symmetrical architectural design.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:315px; height:576px" src="images/img441a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 107.—House in Buckingham Gate, London. (R. Blomfield.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The competition for the Queen Victoria Memorial, consisting +of a processional road from Whitehall to Buckingham Palace, +culminating in a sculptural trophy in front of the palace, +attracted a great deal of attention in 1901. Of the five invited +competitors—Sir Aston Webb (b. 1849), T.G. Jackson, Ernest +George (b. 1839), Sir Thomas Drew (b. 1838), and Sir Rowand +Anderson (b. 1834) the two latter representing Ireland and +Scotland respectively,—Sir Aston Webb’s design was selected, +and unquestionably showed the best and most effective manner +of laying out the road, as well as a very pleasing architectural +treatment of the semicircular forecourt in front of the palace, +with pavilions and fountain-basins symmetrically spaced; +but some of this was subsequently sacrificed on grounds of +economy. The building, a triumphal arch flanked by pavilions, +forming the entry to the processional road from Whitehall, is +a dignified design.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:153px; height:488px" src="images/img441b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 108.—House in Margaret +Street, London. (Beresford +Pite.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In France, still the leading artistic nation of the world, the art +of architecture has been in a most flourishing and most active +state in the most recent period. It is true that there +is not the same variety as in modern English +<span class="sidenote">Recent French architecture.</span> +architecture, nor have there been the same discussions and +experiments in regard to the true aim and course of +architecture which have excited so much interest in England; +because the French architects, unlike the English, know exactly +what they want. They have a “school” of architecture; they +adhere to the scholastic or academic theory of architecture as +an art founded on the study of classic models; and on this +basis their architects receive the +most thorough training of any in +the world. This predominance of +the academic theory deprives their +architecture, no doubt, of a good +deal of the element of variety and +picturesqueness; a French architect +<i>pur sang</i>, in fact, never attempts +the picturesque, unless in a country +residence, and then the results are +such that one wishes the attempt +had not been made. But, on the +other hand, modern French architecture +at its best has a dignity and +style about it which no other nation +at present reaches, and which goes +far to atone for a certain degree +of sameness and repetition in its +motives; and living under a government +which recognizes the importance +of national architecture, and +is willing to spend public money +liberally on it (with the full approbation +of its public), the French +architects have opportunities which +English ones but seldom enjoy— +the predominant aim with a British +government being to see how little +they can spend on a public building. +The two great Paris exhibitions of +1889 and 1900 may be regarded as +important events in connexion with +architecture, for even the temporary +buildings erected for them showed +an amount of architectural interest +and originality which could be met +with nowhere else, and which in each +case left its mark behind it, though +with a difference; for while in the 1889 exhibition the main +object was to treat temporary structures—iron and concrete +and terra-cotta—in an undisguised but artistic manner, +in those of the 1900 exhibition the effort was to create an +architectural <i>coup d’œil</i> of apparently monumental structures +of which the actual construction was disguised. In spite of +some eccentricities the amount of invention and originality +shown in these temporary buildings was most remarkable; +but fortunately the exhibition left something more permanent +behind it in the shape of the two art-palaces and the new bridge +over the Seine. The two palaces are triumphs of modern +classic architecture; the larger one (by MM. Thomas, Louvet +and Deglane) is to some extent spoiled by the apparently +unavoidable glass roof, the smaller one, by M. Girault, escapes +this drawback, and, still more refined than its greater opposite, +is one of the most beautiful buildings of modern times; the +central portion is shown in Plate XIV., fig. 130. The architectural +pylons, with their accompanying sculpture, which flank the +entries to the bridge, are worthy of the best period of French +Renaissance. Thus much, at least, has the 1900 exhibition +done for architecture.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span> </p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:605px; height:390px" src="images/img442a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 109.—Plan of Hôtel de Ville, Paris.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Salle des Fętes.</p> +<p>B, Salle ŕ manger.</p> +<p>C, Salons de Réception.</p> +<p>D, Council Chamber.</p> +<p>E, Grand Staircase.</p> +<p>F, Salle des Cariatides.</p> +<p>G, General Secretary.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>H, Prefect.</p> +<p>K, Committee Rooms.</p> +<p>L, Public Works.</p> +<p>M, Corridor.</p> +<p>N, President of Council.</p> +<p>O, Library.</p> +<p>P, Refreshment Room.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">At the beginning of the last quarter of the 19th century stands +one of the most important of modern French buildings, the Paris +hotel de ville, commenced shortly after the war, from the +designs of MM. Ballu and Deperthes, planned on an immense +scale, and on the stateliest and most monumental lines: the +plan is given in fig. 109. The central block is, externally, a +restoration of the old hotel de ville, the remainder carried out +in an analogous but somewhat more modern style. The interior +has been the scene of sumptuous pictorial decoration, in which all +the first artists of the day were employed—unfortunately in +too scattered a manner and on no predominant +or consistent scheme. One of the +most characteristic architectural efforts of +the French has consisted in the erection of +the various smaller hôtels-de-ville or mairies, +in the city and suburban districts of the +capital; as at Pantin, Lilas, Suresnes and +in various arrondissements within the city +proper (Plate XIII., fig. 127). Nothing shows +the quality of modern French architecture +better, or perhaps more favourably, than this +series of district town halls; all have a distinctly +municipal character and a certain +family resemblance of style amid their +diversity of details; all are refined specimens +of pre-eminently civilized architecture. +Among the greater architectural efforts of +France is the immense block of the new +Sorbonne, by M. Nénot, a building sufficient +in itself for an architectural reputation. +Among smaller French buildings of peculiar +merit may be mentioned the Musée Galliera, +in the Trocadéro quarter of Paris, designed +by M. Ginain—a work of pure art in architecture +such as we should nowadays look +for in vain out of France; the École de +Médecine, by the same refined architect +(fig. 110); and the chapel in rue Jean +Goujon (Guilbert), erected as a memorial to +the victims of the bazaar fire, again a +notable instance of a work of pure thought +in architecture—a new conception out of old materials. The +new Opéra Comique (Bernier) should also be mentioned, the +rather disappointing result of a competition which excited +great interest at the time. Street architecture has been carried +out of late in Paris in a sumptuous style, with great stone fronts +and a profusion of carved ornament, such as we know nothing of +in England; and though there is a rather monotonous repetition +of the same style and character throughout the new or newly +built streets, it is impossible to deny the effect of palatial dignity +they impart to the city. In the matter of country houses the +French architect is less fortunate; when he attempts what he +regards as the rural picturesque, his good taste seems +entirely to desert him, and the <i>maison de campagne</i> is +generally a mere riot of gimcrack bargeboards and +finials. In Paris, the taste for the contortions of what +is called <i>art nouveau</i> has led to the erection, here and +there, of ugly and eccentric fronts with preposterous +ornamental details; but the invasion of this element +is only partial and will probably not prove other than a +passing phase.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:550px; height:453px" src="images/img442b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 110.—École de Médecine, Paris. (Ginain.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The great military success of Germany in 1870, and +the founding of the German empire, gave, as is usual +in such crises, a decided impetus to public +architecture, of which the central and most +important visible sign is the German Houses of Parliament +<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span> +(Plate IX., fig. 117), by Paul Wallot (b. 1841), +whose design was selected in a competition. There is +something essentially German in the quality of this +national building; classic architecture minus its refinement. +The detail is coarse; the finish of the end +pavilions of the principal front absolutely unmeaning— +mere architectural rodomontade; the central cupola of +glass and iron, on a square plan, probably the ugliest +central feature on any great building in Europe; and +yet there is undeniable power about the whole thing; it +is the characteristic product of a conquering nation not +reticent in its triumph. The new cathedral at Berlin, by +Julius Raschdorff (b. 1823), is the other most important German +work of the period (fig. 111); a building very striking and +unusual in plan, but absolutely commonplace in its architectural +detail; school classic of the most ordinary type, without +even any of those elements of originality +which are to be found in the Houses of +Parliament. A curious feature in the plan +(fig. 112) is that the building, alone of any +cathedral we can recall, has its principal +general entrance at the side, the end +entrance being reserved for a special +imperial cortčge on special occasions, the cathedral also serving the +second purpose of an imperial mausoleum. Theatre building has +been carried on very largely in Germany, and among its productions +the Lessing theatre at Berlin (fig. 113) (Hermann von der Hude +and Julius Hennicke, d. 1892) is a favourable example of German +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span> +classic at its best, besides being, like most modern German +theatres, very well planned (fig. 114). Hamburg has had its new +municipal buildings (Grotjan), a florid Renaissance building with +a central tower, showing in its general effect and grouping a good +deal of Gothic feeling Mention may also be made of the Imperial +law courts (Reichsgerichtsgebaude) at Leipzig, designed +by Ludwig Hoffmann (b. 1852) and finished in 1895, a building +with no more charm about it, externally, than the Berlin Parliament +Houses, but with some good interior effects. The new +post offices in Germany have been an important undertaking, +and are, at all events, buildings of more mark than those in +England. There has also been a great deal of new development +in street architecture, which shows an immense variety, and a +constantly evident determination to do something striking, but +we find in it neither the dignity of Parisian street architecture nor +the refinement of modern London work; there is an element of +the bombastic about it.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:507px; height:458px" src="images/img443a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 111.—Cathedral at Berlin. (Raschdorff.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:351px" src="images/img443b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 112.—Plan of Cathedral at Berlin.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:518px; height:452px" src="images/img443c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 113—Lessing Theatre, Berlin. (Von der Hude and +Hennicke.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:459px" src="images/img443d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 114.—Plan of Lessing Theatre, Berlin.</td></tr></table> + +<p>No modern building on the European continent is more +remarkable than the Brussels law courts (Plate XI., fig. 121) +from the designs of Joseph Poelaert (1816-1879), an original +genius in architecture, who had the good fortune to be appreciated +and given a free hand by his government. The design +is based on classic architecture, but with a treatment so completely +<span class="sidenote">Other countries.</span> +individual as to remove it almost entirely from +the category of imitative or revival architecture; somewhat +fantastic it may be, but as an original architectural +creation it stands almost alone among modern public buildings. +In Vienna the scholastic classic style has been retained with +much more purity and refinement than in the German capital, +and the Parliament Houses (Plate IX., fig. 116), by Theophil +Hansen (1813-1891), if they show no originality of detail, have +the merit of original and very effective grouping. Budapest, on +the other hand, which has almost sprung into existence since 1875 +as the rival of the Austrian capital, has erected a great Parliament +building of florid character (Plate IX., fig. 115), in a style in +which the Gothic element is prevalent, though the central feature +is a dome. The plan (see fig. 92) is obviously based on that of the +Westminster building, the exterior design, however, has the merit +of clearly indicating the position of the two Chambers as part of +the architectural design, the want of which is the one serious defect +of Barry’s noble structure. +In Italy modern +architecture is at a very +low ebb; the one great +work of this period was the +building of the façade to +the Duomo at Florence, +from the design of de +Fabris, who did not live +to see its completion. As +the completion in modern +times of a building of +world-wide fame, it is a +work of considerable interest, +and, on the whole, +not unworthy of its position; +that it should +harmonize quite satisfactorily +with the ancient +structure was hardly to +be expected. It was probably +the completion of +this façade which led the +city of Milan to start a +great architectural competition, +in the early +’eighties, for the erection of a new façade to its celebrated +cathedral, not because the façade had never been completed, but +because it had been spoiled and patched with bad 18th-century +work. The ambition was a legitimate one, and the competition, +open to all the world, excited the greatest interest; but the +young Italian architect, Brentano, to whom the first premium +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span> +was awarded, died shortly afterwards, and other causes, partly +financial, led to the postponement of the scheme, though it +is understood that there is still an intention of carrying out +Brentano’s design under the direction of the official architectural +department of the city.</p> + +<p>In summing up the present position of modern architecture, +it may be said that architecture is now a more cosmopolitan +art than it has been at any previous period. The +separate development of a national style has become +<span class="sidenote">Conclusion.</span> +in the present day almost an impossibility. Increased +means of communication have brought all civilized nations into +close touch with each other’s tastes and ideas, with the natural +consequence that the treatment of a special class of building +in any one country will not differ very materially from its +treatment in another; though there are nuances of local taste +in detail, in manner of execution, in the materials used. And +the civilized countries have almost with one consent returned, +in the main, to the adoption of a school of architecture based +on classic types. The taste for medievalism is dying out even in +Great Britain, which has been its chief stronghold.</p> + +<p>What course the future of modern architecture will take it +is not easy to prophesy. What is quite certain is that it is now +an individual art, each important building being the production, +not of an unconsciously pursued national style, but of a personal +designer. As far as there is a ruling consensus in architectural +taste, this will tend to become, like dress and manners, more and +more cosmopolitan; and it seems probable that it will be based +more or less on the types left us by Classic and Renaissance +architecture. There are, however, two influences which may +have a definite effect on the architecture of the near future. +One of these is the possible greater <i>rapprochement</i> between +architecture and engineering, of which there are already some +signs to be seen; architects will learn more of the kind of structural +problems which are now almost the exclusive province +of the engineer, and there will be a demand that engineering +works shall be treated, as they well may be, with some of the +refinement and expression of architecture. The other influence +lies in the closer connexion, which is already taking place, +between architecture and the allied arts, so that an important +building will be regarded and treated as a field for the application +of decorative sculpture and painting of the highest class, and +as being incomplete without these. It is in this closer union +of architecture with the other arts that there lies the best hope +for the architecture of the future.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate XV.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:280px; height:960px" src="images/img444a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Copyright 1903 by Detroit Photographic Co.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 131.—“FLAT-IRON” BUILDING, NEW YORK.<br /> +(For method of construction, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steel Construction</a></span>, +and Plate II., Fig. 4, of that article.)</td></tr></table></td> + +<td class="figcenter"> +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:127px" src="images/img444b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Copyright 1899 by Detroit Photographic Co.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 132.—A NEWPORT, R.I., “COTTAGE”: “THE BREAKERS.”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:335px" src="images/img444c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 133.—THE METROPOLITAN CLUB, NEW YORK.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:454px" src="images/img444d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Copyright 1905 by Detroit Publishing Co.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 134.—THE UNIVERSITY CLUB, NEW YORK.</td></tr></table> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate XVI.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:295px" src="images/img444e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:491px; height:288px" src="images/img444f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Detroit Publishing Co.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Geo. P. Hall & Son.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 135.—PUBLIC LIBRARY, BOSTON. (McKIM, MEAD & WHITE.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 136.—PUBLIC LIBRARY, NEW YORK. (CARRČRE & HASTINGS.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:490px; height:373px" src="images/img444g.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:489px; height:376px" src="images/img444h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Elmer Chickering.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Copyright 1906 by Detroit Publishing Co.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 137.—TRINITY CHURCH, BOSTON. (H.H. RICHARDSON.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 138.—STATE CAPITOL, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The literature of architecture as a modern art is +limited, the most important publications of recent times being +mainly devoted to the study and illustration of ancient architecture. +The following, however, may be named:—James Fergusson, <i>History +of Modern Architecture</i> (2nd ed., London, 1873); T.G. Jackson, +<i>Modern Gothic Architecture</i> (London, 1873); J.T. Micklethwaite, +<i>Modern Parish Churches</i> (London, 1874); E.R. Robson, <i>School +Architecture</i> (London, 1874); J.J. Stevenson, <i>House Architecture</i> +(London, 1880); E.E. Viollet-le-Duc, <i>How to Build a House</i> (London, +1874); <i>Lectures on Architecture</i> (London, 1881); H.C. Burdett, +<i>Hospitals and Asylums of the World</i> (London, 1892-1893); Professor +Oswald Kuhn, <i>Krankenhauser</i> (Stuttgart, 1897); E.O. Sachs, +<i>Modern Opera-Houses and Theatres</i> (London, 1897-1899); E. +Wyndham Tarn, <i>The Mechanics of Architecture</i> (London, 1893); +R. Norman Shaw, R.A., T.G. Jackson, R.A., and others, <i>Architecture, +a Profession or an Art</i> (London, 1892); W.H. White, <i>The Architect +and his Artists</i> (London, 1892); <i>Architecture and Public Buildings +in Paris and London</i> (London, 1884); H.H. Statham, <i>Architecture +for General Readers</i> (London, 1895); <i>Modern Architecture</i> (London, +1898); Herrmann Muthesius, <i>Die englische Baukunst der Gegenwart</i> +(Berlin and Leipzig, 1900); Der Architekten Verein zu Berlin, +<i>Berlin und Seine Bauten</i> (Berlin, 1896). The real literature of +modern architecture, however, is to be found mainly in the articles +and illustrations in the best periodical architectural publications of +various countries. Among these Italy has none worth mention, +and France, with all her architectural enthusiasm, has had no first-class +architectural periodical since the extinction, about 1890, of the +<i>Revue générale de l’architecture</i>, conducted for more than fifty years +by the late César Daly, and in its day the first periodical of its class +in the world. Among the best periodical publications are: <i>The +Architectural Record</i> (quarterly), (New York); <i>The Architectural +Review</i> (monthly), (Boston); the <i>Allgemeine Bauzeitung</i> (quarterly), +(Vienna); the <i>Berlin Architekturwelt</i> (monthly), (Berlin); <i>The +Builder</i> (weekly), (London); <i>La Construction moderne</i> (weekly), +(Paris).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. H. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the various chronological systems proposed see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: +<i>Chronology</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Except, possibly, the earliest of those at Sparta +(<i>q.v.</i>).—ED.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Article “Architecture,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, 9th ed.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Wilkins made two designs for the whole building; one leaving +the quadrangle entirely open on the fourth side, towards the street +the other showing a low open colonnaded screen connecting the ends +of the two wings. He never for a moment contemplated closing in +the quadrangle by buildings on the fourth side.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> A remarkable instance of this is shown by the railway viaduct +at Passy, a large and monumental piece of work in itself, which is +built along the centre of the roadway of Napoleon’s bridge. It was’ +at first proposed to have a steel railway viaduct parallel with the +old bridge, but it was found that the latter, both in respect of solidity +and spacious dimensions, would fully bear the erection of the railway +viaduct along its centre.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The western half of the present front; the design was duplicated +afterwards, on the extension of the building, but Bodley originated it.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHITRAVE<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>arcus</i>, an arch, and <i>trabs, trabem</i>, a +beam), an architectural term for the chief beam which carries +the superstructure and rests immediately on the columns. +In the ordinary entablature it is the lowest of the three divisions, +the other two being the frieze and the cornice (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order</a></span>). +The term is also applied to the moulded frame of a doorway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIVE<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (Lat. <i>archivum</i>, a transliteration of Gr. <span class="grk" title="archeion">ἀρχεῖον</span>, +an official building), a term (generally used in the plural +“archives”), properly denoting the building in which are kept +the records, charters and other papers belonging to any state, +community or family, but now generally applied to the documents +themselves (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Record</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHIVOLT<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>arcus</i>, an arch, and <i>volta</i>, a vault), +an architectural term applied to the mouldings of an architrave, +when carried round an arched opening.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHON<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="archon">ἄρχων</span>, ruler), the title of the highest magistrate +in many ancient Greek states. It is only in Athens that we have +any detailed knowledge of the office, and even in this one case +the evidence presents problems of the first importance which +are incapable of decisive solution. There is no doubt that the +archons represented the ancient kings, whose absolutism, under +conditions which we can only infer, yielded in process of time to +the power of the noble families, supported no doubt by the fighting +force of the state. As to the process by which this change +was effected there are two accounts. Traditionally, the monarchy +after the death of Codrus (? 1068 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) gave place to the life +archon whose tenure of office was limited afterwards to ten +years and then to one year. Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of Athens</i> +(<i>q.v.</i>) speaks of five stages: (1) the institution of the polemarch +who took over the military duties of the king; (2) the institution +of <i>the</i> archon to relieve the king of his civil duties; (3) the tenure +of office was reduced to ten years (? 752 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); (4) the office +was taken from the “royal” clan and thrown open to all Eupatridae +(? 712 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); (5) office was made annual, and to the existing +three offices were added the six thesmothetae whose duty it +was to record judicial decisions. The value of this latter account +is, of course, debatable, but it is at least compatible with the +general trend of development from hereditary absolutism, civil, +military and religious, in the person of the “king,” to a constitutional +oligarchy. The change was clearly effected by the +devolution of the military and civil powers of the king to the +polemarch and the archon, while the archon basileus (or king) +retained control of state religion. It is equally clear that owing +to the predominating importance of civil affairs, <i>the</i> archon +became the chief state official and gave his name to the year +(hence archon eponymus). It should be noticed that the analogy +which has often been suggested between the early history of +the archonship at Athens, and such cases as the mayors of the +palace in French history, or the tycoon (shogun) and mikado +in Japanese history, is misleading. In these cases it is the old +royal house that retains the royal title and the semblance of power, +while the real authority passes into new hands. In Athens, +the new civil office is vested in the old royal family, while the old +title along with its religious functions is transferred. The early +history of the thesmothetae is not clear, but this much is certain +that there is no adequate reason for supposing, as many historians +do, that in early times, they, with the three chief archons, constituted +a collective or collegiate magistracy. It is true Thucydides +(i. 126) states that, in the time of the Cylonian conspiracy +(? 632 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), “the nine archons were (<i>i.e.</i> collectively) the principal +officials,” but at the same time the responsibility for the action +then taken attached to the Alcmaeonidae alone, because one +of their number, Megacles, was at that time <i>the</i> archon (<i>i.e.</i> +responsibility was personal, not collective). Again, the <i>Constitution +of Athens</i> says that down to Solon’s time the archons +had no official residence, but that afterwards they used the +Thesmotheteion. It is a reasonable inference from this statement +that the thesmothetae had previously sat together apart from +the superior archons and that it was only after Solon that collegiate +responsibility began.</p> + +<p><i>Evolution of the Office</i>.—The history of the democratization of +the archonship is beset with equal difficulty. In the early days, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span> +the importance of the office (confined as it was to the highest +class) must have been immense; there was no audit, no written +law, no executive council. The popular assembly was ill-organized +and probably summoned by the archons themselves. +The only control came from the Areopagus which elected them +and would generally be favourably disposed, and from the fact +that the military and civil powers were not vested in the same +hands. Although the institution of the popular courts by Solon +had within it the germ of democratic supremacy, it is clear that +the immediate result was small; thus, in the next decade +<i>anarchia</i> was continuous and Damasias held the archonship +for more than two years in defiance of the new constitution; +the prolonged dissension in this matter shows that the office +of archon still retained its supreme importance. Gradually, +however, the archonship lost its power, especially in judicial +matters, until it retained merely the right of holding the preliminary +investigation and the formal direction of the popular +courts. Its administrative powers, save those wielded by the +polemarch (see below and cf. <span class="sc">Strategus</span>), dwindled away into +matters of routine. We know that Peisistratus ruled by controlling +the archonship, which was always held by members of +his family, and the archonship of Isagoras was clearly an +important party victory; we know further the names of three +important men who held the office between Cleisthenes’ reform +and the Persian War (Hipparchus, Themistocles (<i>q.v.</i>), Aristides) +from which we infer that the office was still the prize of party +competition. On the other hand, after 487 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the list of +archons contains no name of importance. Presumably this is +due to the growing importance of the Strategus and to the +institution of sortition (see below), which, whether as cause or +effect, is presumably by the 5th century indicative of diminished +importance. There can, on these assumptions, be no doubt +that, from the early years of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the archonship +was of practically no importance. Furthermore we find that +(probably after the Persian War) the office is thrown open to the +second class, and finally in 457 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> we meet an archon, Mnesitheides, +of the third, or Zeugite, class. Plutarch (<i>Aristides</i>, 22) +says that after the great struggle of the Persian War Aristides +threw open the office to all the citizens. But in fact the members +of the fourth class were not formally admitted even in the 4th +century (though by a fiction they were allowed to pose for the +time as Zeugites). Furthermore it is not till 457 that even a +Zeugite archon is known, according to the <i>Constitution of Athens</i> +(<i>c</i>. 26), which dates the change as five years after the death of +Ephialtes and does not connect it with Aristides.</p> + +<p><i>Sortition</i>.—The next question constitutes perhaps the most +important problem in Greek political development. At what +date was election by lot, or sortition, introduced for the archonship? +From the <i>Constitution of Athens</i> (<i>c</i>. 22) we gather that +from the fall of the Tyranny to 487 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the archons were <span class="grk" title="airetoi">αἱρετοί</span>, +not <span class="grk" title="klaerotoi">κληρωτοί</span> (<i>i.e.</i> chosen by vote, not by lot), and that in 487, +limited sortition was introduced, whereby fifty candidates were +elected by each tribe, and from these the archons and their +“secretary” were chosen by lot. But against this must be set +the statement by the same authority that this double method +was part of the Solonian reform. The solution of the dilemma +is a matter of inference. Three indications favour the former +view: (1) the “anarchia” which occurred so often between +Solon and Peisistratus shows that the office was at that time a +question of party (<i>i.e.</i> elective); (2) the statement that Solon +invented sortition for the office is put as the basis of a comparison +(<span class="grk" title="othen, saemeion">ὄθεν, σημεῖον</span>) and, therefore, may fairly be regarded as a +hypothesis; (3) there is no indication that the change made in +487 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was a return to an obsolete method, and on the same +argument it is odd that Solon’s alleged system should not have +been revived at the end of the Tyranny. On the other hand +Herodotus (vi. 109) states that, in 490, before the battle of +Marathon, the polemarch was chosen by lot. If this be true, +it follows that the office of polemarch must have lost its military +importance, which was not the case, inasmuch as the polemarch +at Marathon gave the casting vote in favour of immediate battle. +Whether, therefore, Solon or Aristides was the first to introduce +sortition, it is perfectly clear that the lot was not used between +the Tyranny and 487 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and that after 487 the lot was always +used (see J.E. Sandys, <i>Constitution of Athens</i> c. 8 note 1, c. 22 § 5, +note); in fact, at a date not known the mixed system of Aristides +gave place to double sortition, in which the first nomination also +was by lot. To enter here into the theory of the lot is impossible. +It should, however, be observed that in the somewhat material +atmosphere of constitutional Athens the religious significance +of the lot had vanished; no important office in the 5th and 4th +centuries was entrusted to its decision. The real effect of +sortition was to equalize the chances of rich and poor without +civil strife. Now it is perfectly clear that it could not have been +this object which impelled Solon to introduce sortition; for in +his time the archonship was not open to the lower classes, and, +therefore, election was more democratic than sortition, whereas +later the case was reversed. It should further be mentioned that, +before the discovery of the Aristotelian <i>Constitution</i> in 1891, Grote, +C.F. Hermann, Busolt and others had maintained that the lot +was not used in Athens before the time of Cleisthenes; and in spite +of the treatise, it must be admitted that there is no satisfactory +evidence, historical or inferential, that their theory was unsound.</p> + +<p><i>Qualifications and Functions</i>.—It remains to give a brief +analysis of the qualifications and functions of the archons after +the year 487 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After election (in the time of Aristotle in the +month Anthesterion; in the 3rd century in Munychion) a short +time had to elapse before entering on office to allow of the +<i>dokimasia</i> (examination of fitness). In this the whole life of the +nominee was investigated, and each had to prove that he was +physically without flaw. Failure to pass the scrutiny involved +a certain loss of civic rights (<i>e.g.</i> that of addressing the people). +The successful candidate had to take an oath to the people +(that he would not take bribes, &c.) and to go through certain +preliminary rites. Any citizen could bring an impeachment +(<i>eisangelia</i>) against the archons. Any delinquency involved a +trial before the Heliaea. Finally an examination took place at +the end of the year of office, when each archon had to answer for +his actions with person and possessions; till then he could not +leave the country, be adopted into another family, dispose of +his property, nor receive any “crown of honour.” A similar +investigation took place with regard to the assessors (<i>paredri</i>) +whom the three senior archons chose to assist them. The archons +at the end of their year of office (some say on entering upon office) +became members of the Areopagus, which was, therefore, a body +composed of ex-archons of tried probity and wisdom. The +archons as a body retained some duties such as the appointment +of jurymen, the sortition of the <i>athlothetae</i>, &c. (but see Gilbert’s +<i>Antiquities</i>, Eng. trans., p. 251, n. 1). On entering upon office +the archon (<i>archon eponymus</i>) made proclamation by his herald +that he would not interfere with private property. His official +residence was the Prytaneum where he presided over all questions +of family, <i>e.g.</i> the protection of parents against children and +<i>vice versa</i>, protection of widows, wardship of heiresses and +orphans, divorce; in religious matters he superintended the +Dionysia, the Thargelia, the processions in honour of Zeus the +Saviour and Asclepius. The archon basileus superintended the +holy places, the mysteries, the Lampadephoria (Torch race), &c., +questions of national religion and certain cases of bloodguiltiness. +His official residence was the Stoa Basileios, and his wife, as +officially representing the wife of Dionysus, was called Basilinna. +The polemarch, who was at any rate titular commander down +to about 487 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see above; and Herod, vi. 109, <span class="grk" title="hendekatos psaephidophoros">ἑνδέκατος ψηφιδοφόρος</span>), +became in the 5th century a sort of consul who +watched over the rights of resident aliens (<i>metoeci</i>) in their +family and legal affairs. He offered sacrifices to Artemis Agrotera +and Enyalios, superintended <i>epitaphia</i> and arranged for the +annual honours paid to the tyrannicides. His official residence +was the Epilyceum (formerly called the Polemarcheion).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.-G. Gilbert, <i>Constitutional Antiquities</i> (Eng. +trans., 1895); Eduard Meyer’s <i>Geschichte des Alterthums</i>, ii. sect. 228; +A.H.J. Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional Hist.</i> (1895); +J.W. Headlam, <i>Election by Lot in Athens</i> (Camb., 1891); and +authorities quoted under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History, ancient</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>: +<i>History</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span> </p> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHPRIEST<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (Lat. <i>archipresbyter</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="archipresbyteros">ἀρχιπρεσβύτερος</span>), in +the Christian Church, originally the title of the chief of the +priests in a diocese. The office appears as early as the 4th century +as that of the priest who presided over the presbyters of +the diocese and assisted the bishop in matters of public worship, +much as the archdeacon helped him in administrative affairs. +Where, as in Germany, the dioceses were of vast extent, these +were divided into several archpresbyterates. Out of these +developed the rural deaneries, the office of archpriest being +ultimately merged in that of rural dean, with which it became +synonymous. It thus became strictly subordinate to the +jurisdiction of the archdeacon. In Rome itself, as the office of +archdeacon grew into that of cardinal-camerlengo, so that of +archpriest of St Peter’s developed into that of the cardinal-vicar. +In England from 1598 until the appointment of a vicar-apostolic +in 1623 the Roman Catholic clergy were placed by the pope +under an “archpriest” as superior of the English mission. +In the Lutheran Church in Germany the title archpriest (<i>Erzpriester</i>) +was in some cases long retained as the equivalent of +that of superintendent, sometimes also still called dean (<i>Dechant</i>), +his functions being much the same as those of the rural dean.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCHYTAS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 428-347 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), of Tarentum, Greek philosopher +and scientist of the Pythagorean school, famous as the intimate +friend of Plato, was the son of Mnesagoras or Histiaeus. Equally +distinguished in natural science, philosophy and the administration +of civic affairs, he takes a high place among the versatile savants +of the ancient Greek world. He was a man of high character +and benevolent disposition, a fine flute-player, and a generous +master to his slaves, for whose children he invented the rattle. +He took a prominent part in state affairs, and, contrary to +precedent, was seven times elected commander of the army. +Under his leadership, Tarentum fought with unvarying success +against the Messapii, Lucania and even Syracuse. After a +life of high intellectual achievement and uninterrupted public +service, he was drowned (according to a tradition suggested by +Horace, <i>Odes</i>, i. 28) on a voyage across the Adriatic, and was +buried, as we are told, at Matinum in Apulia. He is described +as the eighth leader of the Pythagorean school, and was a pupil +(not the teacher, as some have maintained) of Philolaus. In +mathematics, he was the first to draw up a methodical treatment +of mechanics with the aid of geometry; he first distinguished +harmonic progression from arithmetical and geometrical progressions. +As a geometer he is classed by Eudemus, the greatest +ancient authority, among those who “have enriched the science +with original theorems, and given it a really sound arrangement.” +He evolved an ingenious solution of the duplication of the cube, +which shows considerable knowledge of the generation of cylinders +and cones. The theory of proportion, and the study of acoustics +and music were considerably advanced by his investigations. +He was said to be the inventor of a kind of flying-machine, a +wooden pigeon balanced by a weight suspended from a pulley, +and set in motion by compressed air escaping from a valve.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +Fragments of his ethical and metaphysical writings are quoted +by Stobaeus, Simplicius and others. To portions of these +Aristotle has been supposed to have been indebted for his doctrine +of the categories and some of his chief ethical theories. +It is, however, certain that these fragments are mainly forgeries, +attributable to the eclecticism of the 1st or 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, +of which the chief characteristic was a desire to father later +doctrines on the old masters. Such fragments as seem to be +authentic are of small philosophical value. It is important to +notice that Archytas must have been famous as a philosopher, +inasmuch as Aristotle wrote a special treatise (not extant) +<i>On the Philosophy of Archytas</i>. Some positive idea of his speculations +may be derived from two of his observations: the one +in which he notices that the parts of animals and plants are in +general rounded in form, and the other dealing with the sense of +hearing, which, in virtue of its limited receptivity, he compares +with vessels, which when filled can hold no more. Two important +principles are illustrated by these thoughts, (1) that there is no +absolute distinction between the organic and the inorganic, and +(2) that the argument from final causes is no explanation of +phenomena. Archytas may be quoted as an example of Plato’s +perfect ruler, the philosopher-king, who combines practical +sagacity with high character and philosophic insight.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Hartenstein, <i>De Arch. Tar. frag.</i> (Leipzig, 1833); O.F. +Gruppe, <i>Über d. Frag. d. Arch.</i> (1840); F. Beckmann, <i>De Pythag. +reliq.</i> (Berlin, 1844, 1850); Egger, <i>De Arch. Tar. vit., op. phil.</i>; +Ed. Zeller, <i>Phil. d. Griech.</i>; Theodor Gomperz, <i>Greek Thinkers</i>, ii. 259 +(Eng. trans. G.G. Berry, Lond., 1905); G.J. Allman, <i>Greek +Geometry from Thales to Euclid</i> (1889); Florian Cajori, <i>History of +Mathematics</i> (New York, 1894); M. Cantor, <i>Gesch. d. gr. Math.</i> +(1894 foll.). The mathematical fragments are collected by Fr. Blass, +<i>Mélanges Graux</i> (Paris, 1884). For Pythagorean mathematics see +further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pythagoras</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> If this be the proper translation of Aulus Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticae</i>, +x. 12., 9, “... simulacrum columbae e ligno ... factum; ita erat +scilicet libramentis suspensum et aura spiritus inclusa atque occulta +concitum.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aeronautics</a></span>.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCIS-SUR-AUBE,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Aube, on the left bank of +the Aube, 23 m. N. of Troyes on the Eastern railway to Châlons-sur-Marne. +Pop. (1906) 2803. Fires in 1719, 1727 and 1814 +destroyed the ancient buildings, and it is now a town built in +modern style with wide and regular streets. A château of the +18th century occupies the site of an older one in which Diana +of Poitiers, mistress of Henry II., resided. The only other +building of interest is the church, which dates from the 15th +century. In front of it there is a statue of Danton, a native +of the town. Arcis-sur-Aube has a tribunal of first instance. +Its industries include important hosiery manufactures, and it +carries on trade in grain and coal. The town communicates +with Paris by means of the Aube, which becomes navigable at +this point.</p> + +<p>A battle was fought here on the 20th and 21st of March +1814 between Napoleon and the Austro-Russian army under +Schwarzenberg (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCOLA,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a village of northern Italy, 16 m. E.S.E. of Verona, +on the Alpone stream, near its confluence with the Adige below +Verona. The village gives its name to the three days’ battle of +Arcola (15th, 16th and 17th of November 1796), in which the +French, under General Napoleon Bonaparte, defeated the Austrians +commanded by Allvintzy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCOS DE LA FRONTERA,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a town of southern Spain, in the +province of Cadiz; on the right bank of the river Guadalete, +which flows past Santa Maria into the Bay of Cadiz. Pop. (1900) +13,926. The town occupies a ridge of sandstone, washed on +three sides by the river, and commanding fine views of the lofty +peak of San Cristobál, on the east, and the fertile Guadalete +valley, celebrated in ancient Spanish ballads for its horses. At +the highest point of the ridge is a Gothic church with a fine +gateway, and a modern tower overlooking the town. The fame +of its ten bells dates from the wars between Spaniards and Moors +in which “Arcos of the Frontier” received its name. After its +capture by Alphonso the Wise of Castile (1252-1284), the town +was a Christian stronghold on the borders of Moorish territory. +Another church contains several Moorish banners, taken in +1483 at the battle of Záhara, a neighbouring village. The +ruined citadel, the theatre, and the palace of the dukes of Arcos +are the only other noteworthy buildings. Roman remains have +been found in the vicinity, and the ridge of Arcos is honeycombed +with rock-hewn chambers, said to be ancient cave-dwellings.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Galeria de Arcobricenses illustres</i> (Arcos, 1892), and <i>Riqueza +y cultura de Arcos de la Frontera</i> (Arcos, 1898); both by M. Mancheńo +y Olivares.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCOSOLIUM<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>arcus</i>, arch, and <i>solium</i>, a sarcophagus), +an architectural term applied to an arched recess used +as a burial place in a catacomb (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCOT,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> the name of a city and two districts of British India +in the presidency of Madras. Arcot city is the principal town in +the district of North Arcot. It occupies a very prominent place +in the history of the British conquest of India, but it has now +lost its manufactures and trade and preserves only a few mosques +and tombs as traces of its former grandeur. It is a station on +the line of railway from Madras to Beypur, but has ceased to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span> +a military cantonment. The most famous episode in its history +is the capture and defence of Arcot by Clive. In the middle +of the 18th century, during the war between the rival claimants +to the throne of the Carnatic, Mahommed Ali and Chanda Sahib, +the English supported the claims of the former and the French +those of the latter. In order to divert the attention of Chanda +Sahib and his French auxiliaries from the siege of Trichinopoly, +Clive suggested an attack upon Arcot and offered to command +the expedition. His offer was accepted; but the only force +which could be spared to him was 200 Europeans and 300 native +troops to attack a fort garrisoned by 1100 men. The place, +however, was abandoned without a struggle and Clive took +possession of the fortress. The expedition produced the desired +effect; Chanda Sahib was obliged to detach a large force of +10,000 men to recapture the city, and the pressure on the English +garrison at Trichinopoly was removed. Arcot was afterwards +captured by the French; but in 1760 was retaken by Colonel +Coote after the battle of Wandiwash. It was also taken by +Hyder Ali when that invader ravaged the Carnatic in 1780, and +held by him for some time. The town of Arcot, together with +the whole of the territory of the Carnatic, passed into the hands +of the British in 1801, upon the formal resignation of the government +by the nawab, Azim-ud-daula, who received a liberal +pension.</p> + +<p>The district of North Arcot is bounded on the N. by the +districts of Cuddapah and Nellore; on the E. by the district +of Chingleput; on the S. by the districts of South Arcot and +Salem; and on the W. by the Mysore territory. The area of +North Arcot is 7386 sq. m., and the population in 1901 was +2,207,712, showing an increase of 4% in the decade. The aspect +of the country, in the eastern and southern parts, is flat and +uninteresting; but the western parts, where it runs along the +foot of the Eastern Ghats, as well as all the country northwards +from Trivellam to Tripali and the Karkambadi Pass, are mountainous, +with an agreeable diversity of scenery. The elevated +platform in the west of the district is comparatively cool, being +2000 ft. above the level of the sea, with a mean maximum of the +thermometer in the hottest weather of 88°. The hills are composed +principally of granite and syenite, and have little vegetation. +Patches of stunted jungle here and there diversify their rugged +and barren aspect; but they abound in minerals, especially +copper and iron ores. The narrow valleys between the hills +are very fertile, having a rich soil and an abundant water-supply +even in the driest seasons. The principal river in the district +is the Palar, which rises in Mysore, and flows through North +Arcot from west to east past the towns of Vellore and Arcot, into +the neighbouring district of Chingleput, eventually falling into +the sea at Sadras. Although a considerable stream in the rainy +season, and often impassable, the bed is dry or nearly so during +the rest of the year. Other smaller rivers of the district are the +Paini, which passes near Chittore and falls into the Palar, the +Sonamukhi and the Chayaur. These streams are all dry during +the hot season, but in the rains they flow freely and replenish +the numerous tanks and irrigation channels. The administrative +headquarters are at Chittore, but the largest towns are Vellore +(the military station), Tirupati (a great religious centre), and +Wallajapet and Kalahasti (the two chief places of trade).</p> + +<p>The district of South Arcot is bounded on the N. by the districts +of North Arcot and Chingleput; on the E. by the French +territory of Pondicherry and the Bay of Bengal; on the S. by +the British districts of Tanjore and Trichinopoly; and on the +W. by the British district of Salem. It contains an area of 5217 +sq. m.; and its population in 1901 was 2,349,894, showing an +increase of 9% in the decade. The aspect of the district resembles +that of other parts of the Coromandel coast. It is low and sandy +near the sea, and for the most part level till near the western +border, where ranges of hills form the boundary between this +and the neighbouring district of Salem. These ranges are in +some parts about 5000 ft. high, with solitary hills scattered about +the district. In the western tracts, dense patches of jungle +furnish covert to tigers, leopards, bears and monkeys. The +principal river is the Coleroon which forms the southern boundary +of the district, separating it from Trichinopoly. This river is +abundantly supplied with water during the greater part of the +year, and two irrigating channels distribute its waters through +the district. The other rivers are the Vellar, Pennar, and Gadalum, +all of which are used for irrigation purposes. Numerous +small irrigation channels lead off from them, by means of which +a considerable area of waste land has been brought under cultivation. +Under the East India Company, a commercial resident +was stationed at Cuddalore, and the Company’s weavers were +encouraged by many privileges. The manufacture and export +of native cloth have now been almost entirely superseded by the +introduction of European piece goods. The chief seaport of the +district of South Arcot is Cuddalore, close to the site of Fort +St David. The principal crops in both districts are rice, millet, +other food grains, oil-seeds and indigo.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCTIC<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="harktos">῎Αρκτος</span>, the Bear, the northern constellation +of Ursa Major), the epithet applied to the region round the +North Pole, covering the area (both ocean and lands) where +the characteristic polar conditions of climate, &c., obtain. +The Arctic Circle is drawn at 66° 30′ N. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polar Regions</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCTINUS,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> of Miletus, one of the earliest poets of Greece +and contributors to the epic cycle. He flourished probably about +744 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Ol. 7). His poems are lost, but an idea of them can be +gained from the <i>Chrestomathy</i> written by Proclus the Neo-Platonist +of the 5th century or by a grammarian of the same name in the +time of the Antonines. The <i>Aethiopis</i> <span class="grk" title="Aithiopis">Αἰθιοπίς</span>, in five books, +was so called from the Aethiopian Memnon, who became the ally +of the Trojans after the death of Hector. As the opening shows, +it took up the narrative from the close of the <i>Iliad</i>. It begins +with the famous deeds and death of the Amazon Penthesileia, +and concludes with the death and burial of Achilles and the +dispute between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms. The title +thus only applied to part of the poem. The <i>Sack of Troy</i> (<span class="grk" title="Iliou Perois">Ίλίου Πέρσις</span>) +gives the stories of the wooden horse, Sinon, and Laocoon, +the capture of the city, and the departure of the Greeks under +the wrath of Athene at the outrage of Ajax on Cassandra. The +<i>Little Iliad</i> (<span class="grk" title="Igias mikra">Ίγιἀς μικρά</span>) of Lesches formed the transition between +the <i>Aethiopis</i> and the <i>Sack of Troy</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Kinkel, <i>Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta</i> (1877); Welcker, <i>Der +epische Cyclus</i>; Müller, <i>History of the Literature of Ancient Greece</i>; +Lang, <i>Homer and the Epic</i> (1893); Monro, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i> +(1883); T.W. Allen in <i>Classical Quarterly</i>, April 1908, pp. 82 foll.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCTURUS,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> the brightest star in the northern hemisphere, +situated in the constellation Boötes (<i>q.v.</i>) in an almost direct +line with the tail (ζ and η) of the constellation Ursa Major +(Great Bear); hence its derivation from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="arktos">ἄρκτος</span>, bear, +and <span class="grk" title="ouros">οὖρος</span>, guard. Arcturus has been supposed to be referred +to in various passages of the Hebrew Bible; the Vulgate reads +Arcturus for stars mentioned in Job ix. 9, xxxvii. 9, xxxviii. 31, +as well as Amos v. 8. Other versions, as also modern authorities, +have preferred, <i>e.g.</i>, Orion, the Pleiades, the Scorpion, the Great +Bear (of. <i>Amos</i> in the “International Critical Comment” series, and +G. Schiaparelli, <i>Astronomy in the O.T.</i>, Eng. trans., Oxford, 1905, +ch. iv.). According to one of the Greek legends about Arcas, son of +Lycaon, king of Arcadia, he was killed by his father and his flesh +was served up in a banquet to Zeus, who was indignant at the +crime and restored him to life. Subsequently Arcas, when hunting, +chanced to pursue his mother Callisto, who had been transformed +into a bear, as far as the temple of Lycaean Zeus; to +prevent the crime of matricide Zeus transported them both to +the heavens (Ovid, <i>Metam</i>. ii. 410), where Callisto became the +constellation Ursa Major, and Areas the star Arcturus (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lycaon</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Callisto</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARCUEIL,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of +Seine, on the Bičvre, 2˝ m. N.E. of Sceaux on the railway from +Paris to Limours. Pop. (1906) 8660. The town has an interesting +church dating from the 13th to the 15th century. It takes +its name from a Roman aqueduct, the <i>Arcus Juliani</i> (Arculi), +some traces of which still remain. In 1613-1624 a bridge-aqueduct +over 1300 ft. long was constructed to convey water +from the spring of Rungis some 4 m. south of Arcueil, across +the Bičvre to the Luxembourg palace in Paris. In 1868-1872 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span> +another aqueduct, still longer, was superimposed above that of +the 17th century, forming part of the system conveying water +from the river Vanne to Paris. The two together reach a height +of about 135 ft. Bleaching, and the manufacture of bottle +capsules, patent leather and other articles are carried on at +Arcueil; and there are important stone quarries.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 2, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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