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top:0.7ex; left:0.4em;} + .nobo {border: thin;} + .red {color: red;} + .figure, .figcenter, .figright, .figleft + {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figdrop {padding-top: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img, .figdrop img + {border: none;} + .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p, .figdrop p + {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;} + .figure p.in, .figcenter p.in, .figright p.in, .figleft p.in , .figdrop p.in {margin: 0; text-indent: 8em;} + .figcenter p.poem {margin-left: 1em; text-align: left; text-indent: 0;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + .figright {float: right;} + .figleft, .figdrop {float: left;} + img.middle { border: none; vertical-align: middle } + /*img { border: 1px solid black;}*/ + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 3 + Atrebates to Bedlis + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34075] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage.<br /><br /> + +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h2>THE</h2> + +<h1>NEW . GRESHAM</h1> + +<h1>ENCYCLOPEDIA</h1> + +<h2>VOLUME . I . PART . 3</h2> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:19%;"> + <a href="images/image000.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image000.png" + alt="Publishers Mark" title="Publishers Mark" /></a> + </div> +<h2><i>The</i> GRESHAM . PUBLISHING<br /> +COMPANY . <i>Limited</i></h2> + +<h3>66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND<br /> +LONDON W.C.2.<br /> +1922</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<h3>VOLUME I PART 3</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead">PLATES</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Plates." title="List of Plates."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> Page</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Bacteria</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page348">348</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">MAPS IN COLOUR</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Maps in Colour." title="List of Maps in Colour."> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Australia</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page316">316</a></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>KEY TO PRONUNCIATION</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by + marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system + of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:—</p> + +<h3>VOWELS</h3> + + <p>ā, as in f<i>a</i>te, or in b<i>a</i>re.</p> + + <p>ä, as in <i>a</i>lms, Fr. <i>â</i>me, Ger. B<i>a</i>hn = á of Indian + names.</p> + + <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>, the same + sound short or medium, as in Fr. b<i>a</i>l, Ger. M<i>a</i>nn.</p> + + <p>a, as in f<i>a</i>t.</p> + + <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x3">¨</span></span>, as in + f<i>a</i>ll.</p> + + <p><i>a</i>, obscure, as in rur<i>a</i>l, similar to <i>u</i> in + b<i>u</i>t, ė in h<i>e</i>r: common in Indian names.</p> + + <p>ē, as in m<i>e</i> = <i>i</i> in mach<i>i</i>ne.</p> + + <p>e, as in m<i>e</i>t.</p> + + <p>ė, as in h<i>e</i>r.</p> + + <p>ī, as in p<i>i</i>ne, or as <i>ei</i> in Ger. m<i>ei</i>n.</p> + + <p>i, as in p<i>i</i>n, also used for the short sound corresponding to + ē, as in French and Italian words.</p> + + <p><i>eu</i>, a long sound as in Fr. j<i>eû</i>ne = Ger. long <i>ö</i>, + as in S<i>ö</i>hne, G<i>ö</i>the (Goethe).</p> + + <p>eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p<i>eu</i> = Ger. + <i>ö</i> short.</p> + + <p>ō, as in n<i>o</i>te, m<i>oa</i>n.</p> + + <p>o, as in n<i>o</i>t, s<i>o</i>ft—that is, short or medium.</p> + + <p>ö, as in m<i>o</i>ve, tw<i>o</i>.</p> + + <p>ū as in t<i>u</i>be.</p> + + <p>u, as in t<i>u</i>b: similar to ė and also to <i>a</i>.</p> + + <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x3">¨</span></span>, as in + b<i>u</i>ll.</p> + + <p>ü, as in Sc. ab<i>u</i>ne = Fr. <i>û</i> as in d<i>û</i>, Ger. + <i>ü</i> long as in gr<i>ü</i>n, B<i>ü</i>hne.</p> + + <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>, the + corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b<i>u</i>t, Ger. + M<i>ü</i>ller.</p> + + <p>oi, as in <i>oi</i>l.</p> + + <p>ou, as in p<i>ou</i>nd; or as <i>au</i> in Ger. H<i>au</i>s.</p> + +<h3>CONSONANTS</h3> + + <p>Of the <i>consonants</i>, <b>b,</b> <b>d,</b> <b>f,</b> <b>h,</b> + <b>j,</b> <b>k,</b> <b>l,</b> <b>m,</b> <b>n,</b> <b>ng,</b> <b>p,</b> + <b>sh,</b> <b>t,</b> <b>v,</b> <b>z,</b> always have their common English + sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter <b>c</b> is + not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, <b>s</b> or <b>k</b> + being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require + explanation are the following:—</p> + + <p>ch is always as in ri<i>ch</i>.</p> + + <p><i>d</i>, nearly as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is = Sp. <i>d</i> in + Ma<i>d</i>ri<i>d</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>g is always hard, as in <i>g</i>o.</p> + + <p><i>h</i> represents the guttural in Scotch lo<i>ch</i>, Ger. + na<i>ch</i>, also other similar gutturals.</p> + + <p>n<span class="x1"><span class="x3">˙</span></span>, Fr. nasal + <i>n</i> as in bo<i>n</i>.</p> + + <p>r represents both English <i>r</i>, and <i>r</i> in foreign words, + which is generally much more strongly trilled.</p> + + <p>s, always as in <i>s</i>o.</p> + + <p>th, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>in.</p> + + <p><i>th</i>, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is.</p> + + <p>w always consonantal, as in <i>w</i>e.</p> + + <p>x = ks, which are used instead.</p> + + <p>y always consonantal, as in <i>y</i>ea (Fr. <i>ligne</i> would be + re-written lēny).</p> + + <p>zh, as <i>s</i> in plea<i>s</i>ure = Fr. <i>j</i>.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 303 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303"></a>[303]</span></p> + + <p><b>Atreb´ates</b>, ancient inhabitants of that part of Gallia Belgica, + afterwards called <i>Artois</i>. A colony of them settled in Britain, in + a part of Berkshire and Oxfordshire.</p> + + <p><b>At´rek</b>, a river of Asia, forming the boundary between Persia + and the Russian Transcaspian territory, and flowing into the Caspian; + length 250 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Atreus</b> (at´rūs), in Greek mythology, a son of Pelops and + Hippodamīa, and grandson of Tantălus. Atreus was the father + of Agamemnon, according to Homer; other writers call him Agamemnon's + grandfather. He succeeded Eurystheus, his father-in-law, as King of + Mycēnæ, and in revenge for the seduction of his wife by his brother + Thyestes gave a banquet at which the latter partook of the flesh of his + own sons. Atreus was killed by Ægisthus, a son of Thyestes. The tragic + events connected with this family furnished materials to some of the + great Greek dramatists.</p> + + <p><b>Atri</b> (ancient, <b>Hadria</b>), an episcopal city in the + province of Teramo, Italy, 8 miles from the Adriatic. It has an old + (thirteenth century) Gothic cathedral, ruins of ancient Roman walls and + buildings, and a palace of the Agraviva family, who were Dukes of Atri + from 1398 to 1775. Pop. 14,043.</p> + + <p><b>At´riplex.</b> See <i>Orache</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´trium</b>, the entrance-hall and most important apartment of a + Roman house, generally ornamented with statues, pictures, and + <i>imagines</i> or ancestral likenesses, which were portrait masks in wax + kept in cases. The <i>atrium</i> formed the reception-room for visitors + and clients. It was lighted by the <i>compluvium</i>, an opening in the + roof, towards which the roof sloped so as to throw the rainwater into a + cistern in the floor called the <i>impluvium</i>.</p> + + <p>In zoology the term is applied to the large chamber or 'cloaca' into + which the intestine opens in the Tunicata.</p> + + <p><b>At´ropa</b>, the nightshade genus of plants. See + <i>Belladonna</i>.</p> + + <p><b>At´rophy</b>, a wasting of the flesh due to some interference with + the nutritive processes. It may arise from a variety of causes, such as + permanent, oppressive, and exhausting passions, organic disease, a want + of proper food or of pure air, suppurations in important organs, copious + evacuations of blood, saliva, semen, &c., and it is also sometimes + produced by poisons, for example arsenic, mercury, lead, in miners, + painters, gilders, &c. In old age the whole frame except the heart + undergoes atrophic change, and it is of frequent occurrence in infancy as + a consequence of improper, unwholesome food, exposure to cold, damp, or + impure air, &c. Single organs or parts of the body may be affected + irrespective of the general state of nutrition; thus local atrophy may be + superinduced by palsies, the pressure of tumours upon the nerves of the + limbs, or by artificial pressure, as in the feet of Chinese ladies.</p> + + <p><b>At´ropin</b>, or <b>At´ropine</b>, a crystalline alkaloid obtained + from the deadly nightshade (<i>Atrŏpa Belladonna</i>). It is very + poisonous, and produces persistent dilation of the pupil.</p> + + <p><b>At´ropos</b>, the eldest of the three Fates (the others being + Clotho and Lachĕsis), who cuts the thread of life with her + shears.</p> + + <p><b>Attaché</b> (at´a-shā), a junior member of the diplomatic + services attached to an embassy or legation.</p> + + <p><b>Attach´ment</b>, in English law, a taking of the person, goods, or + estate by virtue of a writ or precept. It is distinguished from an + <i>arrest</i> by proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ, + whereas the latter proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An + arrest lies only against the body of a man, whereas an attachment lies + often against the goods only, and sometimes against the body and goods. + It differs from a <i>distress</i> in that an attachment does not extend + to lands, while a distress cannot touch the body.—<i>Foreign + attachment</i> answers to what in Scotland is termed arrestment, by means + of which a creditor may obtain the security of the goods or other + personal property of his debtor in the hands of a third person for the + purpose of enforcing the appearance of the debtor to answer to an action, + and afterwards, upon his continued default, of obtaining the property + absolutely in satisfaction of the demand.</p> + + <p><b>Attack´</b>, the opening act of hostility by a force seeking to + dislodge an enemy from its position. It is considered more advantageous + to offer than to await attack, even in a defensive war. The historic + forms of attack are: (1) the parallel; (2) the form in which both wings + attack and the centre is kept back; (3) the form in which the centre is + pushed forward and the wings kept back; (4) the famous oblique mode, + dating at least from Epaminondas, and employed by Frederick the Great, + where one wing advances to engage, whilst the other is kept back, and + occupies the attention of the enemy by pretending an attack. Napoleon + preferred to mass heavy columns against an enemy's centre. The forms of + attack have changed with the weapons used. In the days of the pike heavy + masses were the rule, but the use of the musket led to an extended + battle-front to give effect to the fire. The advance in long and slender + lines which grew out of this has been not less famous in the annals of + British attack than the square formation in those of defence. In the + European War (1914-18) the Germans often attacked in mass-formation; but + British attacks were usually carried out by successive <i>waves</i>; one + wave secured its objective <!-- Page 304 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page304"></a>[304]</span>and consolidated it while another wave + passed through to attack a more advanced objective. Artillery preparation + became of increasingly great importance; it broke down the enemy's wire, + counteracted his artillery-fire, and made his infantry keep under cover. + In trench-to-trench attacks machine-guns and trench-mortars were of great + value, and many casualties were avoided by the skilful use of tanks in + the attack. But it is still a fundamental principle of tactics that the + infantry is the chief factor in the attack, and that no attack can be + considered overwhelmingly successful without the use of the bayonet.</p> + + <p><b>Attain´der</b>, the legal consequences of a sentence of death or + outlawry pronounced against a person for treason or felony, the person + being said to be <i>attainted</i>. It resulted in forfeiture of estate + and 'corruption of blood', rendering the party incapable of inheriting + property or transmitting it to heirs; but these results now no longer + follow. Formerly persons were often subjected to attainder by a special + Bill or Act passed in Parliament called <i>Bills of Attainder</i>, the + last being passed in 1798, in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of + the Irish rebel leaders.</p> + + <p><b>Attaint´</b>, a writ at common law against a jury for a false + verdict, finally abolished in England in 1825.</p> + + <p><b>Attale´a</b>, a genus of American palms, comprising the piassava + palm, which produces coquilla-nuts.</p> + + <p><b>Att´alus</b>, the names of three kings of ancient Pergamus (241-133 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), the last of whom bequeathed his kingdom + to the Romans. They were all patrons of art and literature.</p> + + <p><b>At´tar</b>, in the East Indies, a general term for a perfume from + flowers; in Europe generally used only of the <i>attar</i> or <i>otto of + roses</i>, an essential oil made from <i>Rosa centifolia</i>, the + hundred-leaved or cabbage-rose, <i>R. damascēna</i>, or + damask-rose, <i>R. moschāta</i>, or musk-rose, &c., 100,000 + roses yielding only 180 grains of attar. Cashmere, Shiraz, and Damascus + are celebrated for its manufacture, and there are extensive rose farms in + the valley of Kezanlik in Roumelia and at Ghazipur in Benares. The oil is + at first greenish, but afterwards it presents various tints of green, + yellow, and red. It is concrete at all ordinary temperatures, but becomes + liquid about 84° F. It consists of two substances, a hydrocarbon and an + oxygenated oil, and is frequently adulterated with the oils of rhodium, + sandal-wood, and geranium, with the addition of camphor or + spermaceti.</p> + + <p><b>At´terbury</b>, Francis, an English prelate, born in 1662, and + educated at Westminster and Oxford. In 1687 he took his degree of M.A., + and appeared as a controversialist in a defence of the character of + Luther, entitled, <i>Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther</i>, + &c. He also assisted his pupil, the Hon. Charles Boyle, in his famous + controversy with Bentley on the <i>Epistles of Phalaris</i>. Having taken + orders in 1691 he settled in London, became chaplain to William and Mary, + preacher of Bridewell, and lecturer of St. Bride's. Controversy was + congenial to him, and in 1706 he commenced one with Dr. Wake, which + lasted four years, on the rights, privileges, and powers of convocations. + For this service he received the thanks of the lower house of convocation + and the degree of Doctor of Divinity from Oxford. Soon after the + accession of Queen Anne he was made Dean of Carlisle, aided in the + defence of the famous Sacheverell, and wrote <i>A Representation of the + Present State of Religion</i>. In 1712 he was made Dean of Christ Church, + and in 1713 Bishop of Rochester and Dean of Westminster. After the death + of the queen in 1714 he distinguished himself by his opposition to George + I; and, having entered into a correspondence with the Pretender's party, + was apprehended in Aug., 1722, and committed to the Tower. Being banished + the kingdom, he settled in Paris, where he chiefly occupied himself in + study and in correspondence with men of letters. But even here, in 1725, + he was actively engaged in fomenting discontent in the Scottish + Highlands. He died in 1731, and his body was privately interred in + Westminster Abbey. His sermons and letters are marked by ease and grace; + but as a critic and a controversialist he is rather dexterous and popular + than accurate and profound.</p> + + <p><b>Attercliffe</b>, a parliamentary division of the borough of + Sheffield.</p> + + <p><b>Attic</b>, an architectural term variously used. An <i>Attic + base</i> is a peculiar kind of base, used by the ancient architects in + the Ionic order and by Palladio and some others in the Doric. An <i>Attic + story</i> is a low story in the upper part of a house rising above the + main portion of the building. In ordinary language an attic is an + apartment lighted by a window in the roof.</p> + + <p><b>At´tica</b>, a State of ancient Greece, the capital of which is + Athens. The territory was triangular in shape, with Cape Sunium (Colonna) + as its apex and the ranges of Mounts Cithæron and Parnes as its base. On + the north these ranges separated it from Bœotia; on the west it was + bounded by Megaris and the Saronic Gulf; on the east by the Ægean. Its + most marked physical divisions consisted of the highlands, midland + district, and coast district, with the two famous plains of Eleusis and + of Athens. The Cephissus and Ilissus, though small, were its chief + streams; its principal hills, Cithæron, Parnes, Hymettus, Pentelicus, and + Laurium. Its soil has probably undergone considerable deterioration, but + produced good fruit, especially <!-- Page 305 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page305"></a>[305]</span>olives and figs. These are still + cultivated, as well as the vine and cereals, but Attica is better suited + for pasture than tillage. According to tradition the earliest inhabitants + of Attica lived in a savage manner until the time of Cecrops, who came, + 1550 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, with a colony from Egypt, taught + them all the essentials of civilization, and founded Athens. One of + Cecrops' descendants founded eleven other cities in the regions round, + and there followed a period of mutual hostility. To Theseus is assigned + the honour of uniting these cities in a confederacy, with Athens as the + capital, thus forming the Attic State. After the death of Codrus, 1068 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the monarchy was abolished, and the + government vested in archons elected by the nobility, at first for life, + in 752 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> for ten years, and in 683 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> for one year only. The severe constitution of + Draco was succeeded in 594 by the milder code of Solon, the democratic + elements of which, after the brief tyranny of the Pisistratids, were + emphasized and developed by Clisthenes. He divided the people into ten + classes, and made the Senate consist of 500 persons, establishing as the + Government an oligarchy modified by popular control. Then came the + splendid era of the Persian War, which elevated Athens to the summit of + fame. Miltiades at Marathon, and Themistocles at Salamis, conquered the + Persians by land and by sea. The chief external danger being removed, the + rights of the people were enlarged; the archons and other magistrates + were chosen from all classes without distinction. The period from the + Persian War to the time of Alexander (500 to 336 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) was most remarkable for the development of the + Athenian constitution. Attica appears to have contained a territory of + nearly 850 sq. miles, with some 500,000 inhabitants, 360,000 of whom were + slaves, while the inhabitants of the city numbered 180,000. Cimon and + Pericles (444 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) raised Athens to its point + of greatest splendour, though under the latter began the Peloponnesian + War, which ended with the conquest of Athens by the Lacedæmonians. The + succeeding tyranny of the Thirty, under the protection of a Spartan + garrison, was overthrown by Thrasybulus, with a temporary partial + restoration of the power of Athens; but the battle of Cheronæa (338 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) made Attica, in common with the rest of Greece, + a dependency of Macedon. The attempts at revolt after the death of + Alexander were crushed, and in 260 B.C. Attica was still under the sway + of Antigonus Gonatas, the Macedonian king. A period of freedom under the + shelter of the Achæan League then ensued, but their support of + Mithridates led, in 146 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, to the + subjugation of the Grecian States by Rome. After the division of the + Roman Empire, Attica belonged to the Empire of the East until, in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 396, it was conquered by Alaric the Goth and the + country devastated. Attica and Bœotia now form a nome or province + of the kingdom of Greece, with a population of 407,063.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias's + Description of Greece</i>, vols. ii and v; C. Wordsworth, <i>Athens and + Attica</i>.</p> + + <p><b>At´ticus</b>, Titus Pomponius, a Roman of great wealth and culture, + born 109 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and died 32 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> On the death of his father he removed to Athens + to avoid participation in the civil war, to which his brother Sulpicius + had fallen a victim. There he so identified himself with Greek life and + literature as to receive the surname Atticus. It was his principle never + to mix in politics, and he lived undisturbed amid the strife of factions. + Sulla and the Marian party, Cæsar and Pompey, Brutus and Antony, were + alike friendly to him, and he was in favour with Augustus. Of his close + friendship with Cicero proof is given in the series of letters addressed + to him by Cicero. He married at the age of fifty-three, and had one + daughter, Pomponia, named by Cicero Atticula and Attica. He reached the + age of seventy-seven years without sickness, but, being then attacked by + an incurable disease, ended his life by voluntary starvation. He was a + type of the refined Epicurean, and an author of some contemporary repute, + though none of his works have reached us.—The name Atticus was + given to Addison by Pope, in a well-known passage (Prologue to the + <i>Satires</i>, addressed to Dr. Arbuthnot).</p> + + <p><b>At´tila</b> (in Ger. <i>Etzel</i>), the famous leader of the Huns, + was the son of Mundzuk, and the successor, in conjunction with his + brother Bleda, of his uncle Roua. The rule of the two leaders extended + over a great part of Northern Asia and Europe, and they threatened the + Eastern Empire, and twice compelled the weak Theodosius II to purchase an + inglorious peace. Attila caused his brother Bleda to be murdered (444), + and in a short time extended his dominion over all the peoples of Germany + and exacted tribute from the Eastern and Western emperors. The Vandals, + the Ostrogoths, the Gepidæ, and a part of the Franks united under his + banners, and he speedily formed a pretext for leading them against the + Empire of the East. He laid waste all the countries from the Black to the + Adriatic Sea, and in three encounters defeated the Emperor Theodosius, + but could not take Constantinople. Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece all + submitted to the invader, who destroyed seventy flourishing cities; and + Theodosius was obliged to purchase a peace. Turning to the west, the + 'scourge of God', as his defeated enemies termed him, crossed with an + immense army the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Seine, came to the Loire, + and laid siege to Orleans. The inhabitants of this city repelled the + first attack, and the united forces of the Romans under Aetius, and of + the Visigoths under <!-- Page 306 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page306"></a>[306]</span>their king, Theodoric, compelled Attila to + raise the siege. He retreated to Champagne, and waited for the enemy in + the plains of Châlons. In apparent opposition to the prophecies of the + soothsayers the ranks of the Romans and Goths were broken; but when the + victory of Attila seemed assured, the Gothic prince Thorismond, the son + of Theodoric, poured down from the neighbouring height upon the Huns, who + were defeated with great slaughter. Rather irritated than discouraged, he + sought in the following year a new opportunity to seize upon Italy, and + demanded Honoria, the sister of Valentinian III, in marriage, with half + the kingdom as a dowry. When this demand was refused he conquered and + destroyed Aquileia, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, and Bergamo, laid waste the + plains of Lombardy, and was marching on Rome when Pope Leo I went with + the Roman ambassadors to his camp and succeeded in obtaining a peace. + Attila went back to Hungary, and died on the night of his marriage with + Hilda or Ildico (453), either from the bursting of a blood-vessel or by + her hand. The description that Jordanès (or Jornandes) has left us of him + is in keeping with his Kalmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large head, a flat + nose, broad shoulders, and a short and ill-formed body; but his eyes were + brilliant, his walk stately, and his voice strong and + well-toned.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Thierry, + <i>Koenig Attila und seine Zeit</i>; E. Hutton, <i>Attila and the + Huns</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Attilly</b>, a village in France. See <i>Scarpe, Battle of + the</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Attleborough</b>, a manufacturing town of the United States, in + Massachusetts. Pop. 19,731.</p> + + <p><b>At´tock</b>, a town and fort in Rawal Pindi district, Punjab, + overhanging the Indus at the point where it is joined by the Kabul River. + It is at the head of the steam navigation of the Indus, and is connected + with Lahore by railway. It is an important post on the military road to + the frontier. Pop. 2822.</p> + + <p><b>Attor´ney</b>, a person appointed to do something for and in the + stead and name of another. An attorney may have <i>general</i> powers to + act for another; or his power may be <i>special</i>, and limited to a + particular act or acts. A special attorney is appointed by a deed called + a <i>power</i> or <i>letter of attorney</i>, specifying the acts which he + is authorized to do. An <i>attorney at law</i> is a person qualified to + appear for another before a court of law to prosecute or defend any + action on behalf of his client. The term in England was formerly applied + especially to those practising before the supreme courts of common law at + Westminster, and corresponded to the term <i>solicitor</i> used in courts + of Chancery; but this distinction was abolished in 1873, and + <i>solicitor</i> is now the regular term for all such legal agents. In + the United States the term is in common use, and is wide enough to + include what in England would be called barristers (or counsel), in + Scotland advocates, having indeed the general sense of lawyer. In America + women are admitted as attorneys.</p> + + <p><b>Attorney-General</b>, in England and Ireland, the first law-officer + and legal adviser of the Crown, acting on its behalf in its revenue and + criminal proceedings, carrying on prosecutions in crimes that have a + public character, guarding the interests of charitable endowments, and + granting patents. He is <i>ex officio</i> the leader of the bar, and, as + a member of Parliament, has charge of all Government measures on legal + questions. The Solicitor-General holds a similar position, and may act in + his place. In Scotland the Attorney-General is called Lord-Advocate. + There are also Attorneys-General in the colonies. In the United States he + is head of the Department of Justice. The individual States have also an + Attorney-General.</p> + + <p><b>Attrac´tion</b>, the tendency of all material bodies, whether + masses or particles, to approach each other, to unite, and to remain + united. Newton was the first to adopt the theory of a universal + attractive force, and to determine its laws. When bodies tend to come + together from sensible distances the tendency is termed either the + attraction of <i>gravitation</i>, <i>magnetism</i>, or + <i>electricity</i>, according to circumstances; when the attraction + operates at insensible distances it is known as <i>adhesion</i> with + respect to surfaces, as <i>cohesion</i> with respect to the particles of + a body, and as <i>affinity</i> when the particles of different bodies + tend together. It is by the attraction of gravitation that all bodies + fall to the earth when unsupported.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Newton, <i>Principia</i>; Thomson and + Tait, <i>Natural Philosophy</i>; Laplace, <i>Mécanique Céleste</i>; + Poynting, <i>The Mean Density of the Earth</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Attrek.</b> See <i>Atrek</i>.</p> + + <p><b>At´tribute</b>, in philosophy, a quality or property of a + substance, as whiteness or hardness. A substance is known to us only as a + congeries of attributes.</p> + + <p>In the fine arts an attribute is a symbol regularly accompanying and + marking out some personage. Thus the caduceus, purse, winged hat, and + sandals are attributes of Mercury, the trampled dragon that of St. + George.</p> + + <p><b>Attwood</b>, George, <span class="scac">F.R.S.</span>, an English + mathematician, born 1746, died 1807, best known by his invention, called + after him <i>Attwood's Machine</i>, for verifying the laws of falling + bodies. It consists essentially of a freely-moving pulley over which runs + a fine cord with two equal weights suspended from the ends. A small + additional weight is laid upon one of them, causing it to descend with + uniform acceleration. Means are provided by which the added weight can be + removed at any point of the descent, thus <!-- Page 307 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page307"></a>[307]</span>allowing the motion to + continue from this point onward with uniform velocity. See + <i>Gravitation</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atys</b>, or <b>Attis</b> (at'is), in classical mythology, the + shepherd lover of Cybĕle, who, having broken the vow of chastity + which he made her, castrated himself. In Asia Minor Atys seems to have + been a deity, with somewhat of the same character as Adonis. Catullus has + written a celebrated poem (Carmen 63) on the subject of Attis.</p> + + <p><b>Aubagne</b> (ō-ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-yė), a town in France, department + of Bouches-du-Rhône, with manufactures of cottons, pottery, cloth. Pop. + 8800.</p> + + <p><b>Aubaine, Droit d'</b> (drwä dō-bān). See <i>Droit + d'Aubaine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aube</b> (ōb), a north-eastern French department; area 2326 + sq. miles; pop. 227,745. The surface is undulating, and watered by the + Aube, &c. The <span class="scac">N.</span> and <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> districts are bleak and infertile, the southern + districts remarkably fertile. A large extent of ground is under forests + and vineyards, and the soil is admirable for grain, pulse, and hemp. The + chief manufactures are worsted and hosiery. Troyes is the + capital.—The River Aube, which gives name to the department, rises + in Haute-Marne, flows <span class="scac">N.W.</span>, and after a course + of 113 miles joins the Seine.</p> + + <p><b>Aubenas</b> (ōb-nä), a town of France, department Ardèche, + with a trade in coal, silk, &c. Pop. 7206.</p> + + <p><b>Auber</b> (ō-bār), Daniel François Esprit, a French + operatic composer, born 1782, at Caen, in Normandy, died at Paris 1871. + He was originally intended for a mercantile career, but devoted himself + to music, studying under Cherubini. His first great success was his opera + <i>La Bergère Châtelaine</i>, produced in 1820. In 1822 he had associated + himself with Scribe as librettist, and other operas now followed in quick + succession. Chief among them were <i>Masaniello</i> or <i>La Muette de + Portici</i> (1828), <i>Fra Diavolo</i> (1830), <i>Lestocq</i> (1834), + <i>L'Ambassadrice</i> (1836), <i>Le Domino Noir</i> (1837), <i>Les + Diamants de la Couronne</i> (1841), <i>Marco Spada</i> (1853), <i>La + Fiancée du Roi de Garbe</i> (1864). Despite his success in + <i>Masaniello</i>, his peculiar field was comic opera, in which his + charming melodies, bearing strongly the stamp of the French national + character, his uniform grace and piquancy, won him a high place.</p> + + <p><b>Aubergine</b> (ō'bėr-zhēn), the fruit of the + eggplant (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Aubervilliers</b> (ō-bār-vēl-yā), a + suburban locality of Paris, with a fort belonging to the defensive works + of the city. Pop. 37,558.</p> + + <p><b>Aubigné</b>, Merle d'. See <i>Merle d'Aubigné</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aubin</b> (ō-ban<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), a town of Southern France, department + of Aveyron, 20 miles <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of Villefranche; + mining district: coal, sulphur, alum, and iron. Pop. 9574.</p> + + <p><b>Au´brey</b>, John, <span class="scac">F.R.S.</span>, an English + antiquary, born in Wiltshire in 1625 or 1626, died about 1700. He was + educated at Oxford; collected materials for the <i>Monasticon + Anglicanum</i>, and afforded important assistance to Wood, the antiquary. + He left large collections of manuscripts, which have been used by + subsequent writers. His <i>Miscellanies</i> (London, 1696) contain much + curious information, but display credulity and superstition. His + <i>Survey of Surrey</i> was incorporated in Rawlinson's <i>Natural + History and Antiquities of the County of Surrey</i>, which was published + in 1719.</p> + + <p><b>Au´burn</b>, the name of many places in America, the chief being a + handsome city of New York State, at the north end of Owasco Lake. It is + chiefly famous for its State prison, large enough to receive 1000 + prisoners. In the town or vicinity various manufactures are carried on. + Pop. 36,142.—Another Auburn is in Maine, on the Androscoggin River, + a manufacturing town. Pop. (1920), 16,985.</p> + + <p><b>Aubusson</b> (ō-bu<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-sōn), a town of the interior of + France, department Creuse, celebrated for its carpets. Pop. 7211.</p> + + <p><b>Aubusson</b> (ō-bu<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-sōn), Pierre d', grand-master of + the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, born in 1423 of a noble French + family, served in early life against the Turks, then entered the order of + St. John, obtained a commandery, was made grand-prior, and in 1476 + succeeded the Grand-master Orsini. In 1480 the Island of Rhodes, the + head-quarters of the order, was invaded by a Turkish army of 100,000 men. + The town was besieged for two months and then assaulted, but the Turks + were obliged to retire with great loss. He died at Rhodes in 1503.</p> + + <p><b>Auch</b> (ōsh), a town in S.W. France, capital of department + Gers; the seat of an archbishop, with one of the finest Gothic cathedrals + in France; manufactures linens, leather, &c. Pop. 13,638.</p> + + <p><b>Auchenia</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>-kē'ni-a). See <i>Llama</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Auchterar´der</b>, a town, Perthshire, Scotland, with manufactures + of tweeds, tartans, &c. The opposition to the presentee to the church + of Auchterarder (1839) originated the struggle which ended in the + formation of the Free Church of Scotland. Pop. (1921), 3151.</p> + + <p><b>Auck´land</b>, a town of New Zealand, in the North Island, founded + in 1840, and situated on Waitemata Harbour, one of the finest harbours of + New Zealand, where the island is only 6 miles across, there being another + harbour (Manukau) on the opposite side of the isthmus. At dead low water + there is sufficient depth in the harbour for the largest steamers. The + working ship channel has an average depth of 36 feet, and varies in width + from 1 to 2 miles. The harbour has two good entrances, with a lighthouse; + and is defended by batteries. There are numerous wharves and jetties, and + two graving-docks, one of <!-- Page 308 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page308"></a>[308]</span>which—the Calliope Dock, opened in + 1887—is one of the largest in the whole of the Southern Seas. Its + site is picturesque, the streets are spacious, and the public + buildings—churches, educational establishments, including a + university college—are numerous and handsome. It has a large and + increasing trade, there being connection with the chief places on the + island by rail, and regular communication with the other ports of the + colony, Australia, and Fiji by steam. It was formerly the capital of the + colony. Pop. (including suburbs) 157,750.—The provincial district + of Auckland forms the northern part of North Island, with an area of + 25,364 sq. miles. Pop. 308,766. The surface is very diversified; volcanic + phenomena are common, including geysers, hot lakes, &c.; rivers are + numerous; wool, timber, kauri-gum, &c., are exported. Much gold has + been obtained in the Thames Valley and elsewhere.</p> + + <p><b>Auckland</b>, William Eden, Lord, an English statesman, born 1744; + educated at Eton and Oxford, called to the bar 1768, Under-Secretary of + State 1772, and in 1776 a lord of the Board of Trade. In 1778 he was + nominated in conjunction with Lord Howe and others to act as mediator + between Britain and the insurgent American colonies. He was afterwards + Secretary of State for Ireland, Ambassador Extraordinary to France, + Ambassador Extraordinary to the Netherlands, &c. He was raised to the + peerage in 1788, and died in 1814.</p> + + <p><b>Auckland Islands</b>, a group of islands about 180 miles S. of New + Zealand, discovered in 1806, and belonging to Britain. They are of + volcanic origin and fertile; and the largest, which is 30 miles by 15, + has two good harbours. There are no settled inhabitants.</p> + + <p><b>Auction</b> is a public sale to the party offering the best price + where the buyers bid against each other, or to the bidder who first + accepts the terms offered by the vendor where he sells by reducing his + terms until someone accepts them. The latter form is known as a <i>Dutch + Auction</i>. A sale by auction must be conducted in the most open and + public manner possible; and there must be no collusion on the part of the + buyers. Puffing, or mock bidding, to raise the value by apparent + competition, is illegal.</p> + + <p><b>Auctioneer´</b>, a person who conducts sales by auction. It is his + duty to state the conditions of sale, to declare the respective biddings, + and to terminate the sale by <i>knocking down</i> the thing sold to the + highest bidder. In Britain an auctioneer must have a licence (for which + he pays £10), renewable annually. Verbal declarations by an auctioneer + are not suffered to control the printed conditions of sale. The + Auctioneers' Institute of the United Kingdom was founded in 1886.</p> + + <p><b>Au´cuba</b>, a genus of plants, ord. Cornaceæ, one species of + which, <i>A. japoníca</i>, a laurel-like shrub with spotted leaves, a + native of Japan and China, is now common in ornamental grounds in Europe. + The flowers are diœcious and inconspicuous. For a long time only + the female plant, introduced into Britain from Japan in 1783, was + cultivated, but in 1850 the male was introduced, and the fruit, which + consists of beautiful coral-red berries, is now frequently developed, and + adds greatly to the attractiveness of the plant. <i>A. himalaica</i>, + also brought to Europe, is less hardy.</p> + + <p><b>Aude</b> (ōd), a maritime department in the S. of France; + area 2448 sq. miles, mainly covered by hills belonging to the Pyrenees or + the Cevennes, and traversed <span class="scac">W.</span> to <span + class="scac">E.</span> by a valley drained by the Aude. The loftier + districts are bleak and unproductive; the others tolerably fertile, + yielding good crops of grain. The wines, especially the white wines, are + famous; olives and other fruits are also cultivated. The manufactures are + varied; the trade is facilitated by the Canal du Midi. Carcassonne is the + capital; other towns are Narbonne and Castelnaudary. Pop. 286,552. The + River Aude rises in the Eastern Pyrenees, and, flowing nearly parallel to + the Canal du Midi, falls into the Mediterranean after a course of 130 + miles.</p> + + <p><b>Audebert</b> (ōd-bār), Jean Baptiste, French engraver + and naturalist, born in 1759, died in 1800; published <i>Histoire + Naturelle des Singes, des Makis, et des Galéopithèques</i>; <i>Histoire + des Colibris</i>, &c.; and began <i>Histoire des Grimpereaux et des + Oiseaux de Paradis</i>, finished by Desray—all finely-illustrated + works.</p> + + <p><b>Au´denshaw</b>, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles E. of + Manchester, with cotton-mills, engineering-works, &c. Pop. (1921), + 7878.</p> + + <p><b>Audiometer</b>, an instrument for the measurement of hearing, + invented by Professor D. E. Hughes, of London, in 1879.</p> + + <p><b>Au´diphone</b>, an acoustic instrument by means of which deaf + persons are enabled to hear. It consists essentially of a fan-shaped + plate of hardened caoutchouc, which is bent to a greater or less degree + by strings, and is very sensitive to sound-waves. When used, the up edge + is pressed against the upper front teeth, with the convexity outward, and + the sounds being collected are conveyed from the teeth to the auditory + nerve without passing through the external ear.</p> + + <p><b>Au´dit</b>, an examination into accounts or dealings with money or + property, along with vouchers or other documents connected therewith, + especially by proper officers, or persons appointed for the purpose. Also + the occasion of receiving the rents from the tenants on an estate.</p> + + <p><b>Au´ditor</b>, a person appointed to examine accounts, public or + private, to see whether they <!-- Page 309 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page309"></a>[309]</span>are correct and in accordance with + vouchers. In Britain the public accounts are audited by the Exchequer and + Audit Department, Somerset House, at the head of it being a comptroller + and auditor-general, and an assistant-comptroller and auditor, with a + large staff of clerks. In Scotland there is an auditor attached to the + Court of Session appointed to tax costs in litigation.</p> + + <p><b>Auditory Nerves.</b> See <i>Ear</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Audley</b>, a town (urban district) of England, in Staffordshire, + to the north-west of the district of The Potteries, with coal and iron + mines. Pop. (1921), 14,751.</p> + + <p><b>Audran</b> (ō-drän), Gerard, a celebrated French engraver, + born 1640; studied at Rome; was appointed engraver to Louis XIV; died at + Paris 1703. He engraved Le Brun's <i>Battles of Alexander</i>, two of + Raphael's cartoons, Poussin's <i>Coriolanus</i>, &c., and takes a + first place among historical engravers. Other members of the family were + successful in the same profession: Benoît, 1661-1721; Claude <i>père</i>, + 1592-1677; Claude <i>fils</i>, 1640-84; Germain, 1631-1710; Jean, + 1667-1756.</p> + + <p><b>Au´dubon</b>, John James, an American naturalist of French + extraction, born near New Orleans in 1775, was educated in France, and + studied painting under David. In 1798 he settled in Pennsylvania, but + having a great love for ornithology he set out in 1810 with his wife and + child, descended the Ohio, and for many years roamed the forests in every + direction, drawing the birds which he shot. In 1826 he came to England, + exhibited his drawings in Liverpool, Manchester, and Edinburgh, and + finally published them in an unrivalled work of double-folio size, with + 435 coloured plates of birds the size of life (<i>The Birds of + America</i>, 4 vols., 1827-39), with an accompanying text + (<i>Ornithological Biography</i>, 5 vols., 8vo, partly written by + Professor Macgillivray). On his final return to America he laboured with + Dr. Bachman on a finely-illustrated work entitled <i>The Quadrupeds of + America</i> (1843-50, 3 vols.). He died at New York in 1851.</p> + + <p><b>Auerbach</b>, a manufacturing town of Germany, in Saxony. Pop. + 2200.</p> + + <p><b>Auerbach</b> (ou'ėr-bä<i>h</i>), Berthold, a distinguished + German author of Jewish extraction, born 1812, died 1882. He abandoned + the study of Jewish theology in favour of philosophy, publishing in 1836 + his <i>Judaism and Modern Literature</i>, and a translation of the works + of Spinoza with critical biography (5 vols., 1841). His later works were + tales or novels, and his <i>Village Tales of the Black Forest</i> + (<i>Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten</i>), as well as others of his + writings, have been translated into several languages. Other works: + <i>Barfüssele</i>, <i>Joseph im Schnee</i>, <i>Edelweiss</i>, <i>Auf der + Höhe</i>, <i>Das Landhaus am Rhein</i>, <i>Waldfried</i>, + <i>Brigitta</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Auerstädt</b> (ou'ėr-stet), battle at, 14th Oct., 1806. See + <i>Jena</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Augeas</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>-jē'as), a fabulous king of Elis, in + Greece, whose stable contained 3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for + thirty years. Hercules undertook to clear away the filth in one day in + return for a tenth part of the cattle, and executed the task by turning + the River Alphēus through it. Augeas, having broken the bargain, + was deposed and slain by Hercules.</p> + + <p><b>Auger</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>'gėr), an instrument for boring + holes considerably larger than those bored by a gimlet, used by + carpenters and joiners, ship-wrights, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Augereau</b> (ōzh-rō), Pierre François Charles, Duke of + Castiglione, Marshal of France, son of a mason, born at Paris 1757. He + adopted the life of a soldier, and by 1796 had reached the rank of + general of division in the army of Italy. At Casale, Lodi, Castiglione, + and Arcole he highly distinguished himself. In 1797 he was at Paris, and + was the instrument of the <i>coup d'état</i> of the 18th of Fructidor + (4th Sept.). In 1799 he was chosen a member of the Council of Five + Hundred. He then obtained the command of the army in Holland, and fought + till the end of the campaign. In 1803 he was appointed to lead the army + collected at Bayonne against Portugal. In 1804 he was named marshal of + the empire, and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. He subsequently + took part in the battles of Jena and Eylau, held a command in Spain, and + in July, 1813, led the army in Bavaria against Saxony, taking part in the + battle of Leipzig. On Napoleon's abdication he submitted to Louis XVIII, + who named him a peer. He died 1816.</p> + + <p><b>Aughrim</b>, a village in Co. Galway, Ireland, memorable for the + decisive victory gained in the neighbourhood, 12th July, 1691, by the + forces of William of Orange, under Ginkel, over the Irish and French + troops, under St. Ruth. The total English casualties were about 1700, + while the Irish lost at least 7000 men as well as all their war material. + This battle caused the complete submission of the country.</p> + + <p><b>Augier</b> (ō-zhi-ā), Emile, noted French dramatist, + born 1820, came young to Paris, entered a lawyer's office, but + relinquished law for literature; elected an academician in 1857, in 1868 + a commander of the Legion of Honour. His first and one of his best dramas + was the comedy <i>La Ciguë</i> (1844); among his other works are + <i>L'Aventurière</i>, <i>Gabrielle</i>, <i>Paul Forestier</i>, <i>Le + Mariage d'Olympe</i>, <i>Le Gendre de M. Poirier</i>, <i>Les + Effrontés</i>, <i>Le Fils de Giboyer</i>, <i>Les Lions et les + Renards</i>, <i>Maître Guérin</i>, <i>Les Fourchambault</i>, &c. He + died in 1889.</p> + + <p><b>Augite</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>'jīt) is the commonest member of the + pyroxene group of minerals; a constituent of many igneous rocks, such as + basalt, gabbro, &c. It crystallizes in short almost rectangular <!-- + Page 310 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page310"></a>[310]</span>prisms of the monoclinic system, modifying + planes causing cross-sections to be eight-sided. Its specific gravity is + about 3.2; lustre vitreous; hardness sufficient to scratch glass; colour + usually dark. It is a silicate of calcium, magnesium, iron, and + aluminium, and alters in geological time by slow recrystallization into + hornblende, possibly with some loss of calcium. It may be imitated by the + artificial fusion of its constituents. A transparent, green, + non-aluminous variety found at Zillertal, in Tyrol, is used in + jewellery.</p> + + <p><b>Augsburg</b> (ougz'bu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>r<i>h</i>; Lat. <i>Augusta + Vindelicorum</i>), a city of Bavaria, at the junction of the Wertach and + Lech, antique in appearance, but with some fine streets, squares, and + handsome or interesting buildings, including a splendid town hall, a + lofty belfry (Perlach Tower), cathedral, with paintings by Domenichino, + Holbein, &c.; St. Ulrich's Church; the bishop's palace, where the + Augsburg Confession was presented to the Diet, afterwards a royal + residence; the Fugger Palace, or mansion of the celebrated Fugger family; + the public library; the theatre; the Academy of Arts; and the Fuggerei, a + separate quarter of the city, consisting of fifty-three small houses, + tenanted at a merely nominal rent by indigent Roman Catholics. Augsburg + was a renowned commercial centre in the Middle Ages, and is still an + important emporium of South German and Italian trade; industries: cotton + spinning and weaving, dyeing, woollen manufacture, machinery and metal + goods, books and printing, chemicals, &c. The Emperor Augustus + established a colony here about 12 B.C. In 1276 it became a free city, + and, besides being a great mart for the commerce between the north and + south of Europe, it was a great centre of German art in the Middle Ages. + It early took a conspicuous part in the Reformation. (See next article.) + In 1806 it was incorporated in Bavaria. Pop. (1919), 154,555.</p> + + <p><b>Augsburg Confession</b>, a document which was presented by the + Protestants at the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, to the Emperor Charles V and + the Diet, and being signed by the Protestant States was adopted as their + creed. Luther made the original draft; but as its style appeared too + violent it was given to Melanchthon for amendment. The original is to be + found in the imperial Austrian archives. Afterwards Melanchthon + arbitrarily altered some of the articles, and there arose a division + between those who held the original and those who held the altered + Augsburg Confession. The former is received by the Lutherans, the latter + by the German Reformed.</p> + + <p><b>Au´gurs</b>, a board or college of diviners who, amongst the + Romans, predicted future events and announced the will of the gods from + the occurrence of certain signs. These consisted of signs in the sky, + especially thunder and lightning; signs from the flight and cries of + birds; from the feeding of the sacred chickens; from the course taken or + sounds uttered by various quadrupeds or by serpents; from accidents or + occurrences, such as spilling the salt, sneezing, &c. The answers of + the augurs as well as the signs by which they were governed were called + <i>auguries</i>, but bird-predictions were properly termed + <i>auspices</i>. Nothing of consequence could be undertaken without + consulting the augurs, and by the mere utterance of the words <i>alio + die</i> ('meet on another day') they could dissolve the assembly of the + people and annul all decrees passed at the meeting.</p> + + <p><b>Au´gust</b>, the eighth month from January. It was the sixth of the + Roman year, and hence was called <i>Sextīlis</i> till the Emperor + Augustus affixed to it his own name.</p> + + <p><b>Augus´ta</b>, the name of many ancient places, as Augusta + Trevirorum, now <i>Trèves</i>; Augusta Taurinorum, now <i>Turin</i>; + Augusta Vindelicorum, now <i>Augsburg</i>; &c.</p> + + <p><b>Augusta</b> (ou-gu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>s'ta<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), or <b>Agos´ta</b>, a seaport in the + south-east of Sicily, 12 miles north of Syracuse. It exports salt, oil, + honey, &c. Pop. 17,250.</p> + + <p><b>Augus´ta</b>, capital of Maine, United States, on the River + Kennebec, which is crossed by a bridge and is navigable for small vessels + 43 miles from its mouth, while a dam enables steamboats to ply for 20 + miles farther up and furnishes immense water-power. Pop. (1920), + 14,144.</p> + + <p><b>Augusta</b>, the capital of Richmond county, Georgia, United + States, on the left bank of the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth; + well built, and connected with the river by high-level canals; an + important manufacturing centre, having cotton-mills, machine-shops, and + railroad works, &c. Pop. (1920), 52,548.</p> + + <p><b>Au´gustine</b> (Aurelius Augustinus), <b>St.</b>, a renowned father + of the Christian Church, was born at Tagaste, in Africa, in 354, his + mother Monica being a Christian, his father Patricius a pagan. His + parents sent him to Carthage to complete his education, but he + disappointed their expectations by his neglect of serious study and his + devotion to pleasure. A lost book of Cicero's, called <i>Hortensius</i>, + led him to the study of philosophy; but dissatisfied with this he went + over to the Manichæans. He was one of their disciples for nine years, but + left them, went to Rome, and thence to Milan, where he announced himself + as a teacher of rhetoric. St. Ambrose, the bishop of this city, converted + him to the faith of his boyhood, and the reading of Paul's + <i>Epistles</i> wrought an entire change in his life and character. He + retired into solitude, and prepared himself for baptism, which he + received in his thirty-third year from the hands of Ambrose. Returning to + <!-- Page 311 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page311"></a>[311]</span>Africa, he sold his estate and gave the + proceeds to the poor, retaining only enough to support him. At the desire + of the people of Hippo, Augustine became the assistant of the bishop of + that town, preached with extraordinary success, and in 395 succeeded to + the see. He entered into a warm controversy with Pelagius concerning the + doctrines of free-will, grace, and predestination, and wrote treatises + concerning them, but of his various works his <i>Confessions</i> is most + secure of immortality. He died 28th Aug., 430, while Hippo was besieged + by the Vandals. He was a man of great enthusiasm, self-devotion, zeal for + truth, and powerful intellect, and though there have been fathers of the + Church more learned, none have wielded a more powerful influence. His + doctrine of grace, which was an important contribution to Christian + thought, triumphed at last in the Reformation and evangelical religion. + His writings are partly autobiographical, as the <i>Confessions</i>, + partly polemical, homiletic, or exegetical. The greatest is the <i>City + of God</i> (<i>De Civitate Dei</i>), a vindication of + Christianity.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Joseph McCabe, + <i>St. Augustine and his Age</i>; Nourrisson, <i>La Philosophie de St. + Augustin</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Au´gustine</b>, or <b>Austin, St.</b>, the <i>Apostle of the + English</i>, first Archbishop of Canterbury, flourished at the close of + the sixth century, was sent, in 596, with forty monks by Pope Gregory I + to introduce Christianity into Saxon England, and was kindly received by + Ethelbert, King of Kent, whom he converted, baptising 10,000 of his + subjects in one day. In acknowledgment of his tact and success Augustine + received the archiepiscopal pall from the Pope, with instructions to + establish twelve sees in his province, but he could not persuade the + British bishops in Wales to unite with the new English Church. He died in + 604 or 605. Cf. Sir H. H. Howorth, <i>St. Augustine of + Canterbury</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Au´gustins</b>, or <b>Augustines</b>, members of several monastic + fraternities who follow rules framed by the great St. Augustine, or + deduced from his writings, of which the chief are the Canons Regular of + St. Augustine, or Austin Canons, and the Begging Hermits or Austin + Friars. The Austin Canons were introduced into Britain about 1100, and + had about 170 houses in England and about twenty-five in Scotland. They + took the vows of chastity and poverty, and their habit was a long black + cassock with a white rochet over it, having over that a black cloak and + hood. The Austin Friars, originally hermits, were a much more austere + body, went barefooted, and formed one of the four orders of mendicants. + An order of nuns had also the name of Augustines. Their garments, at + first black, were afterwards violet.</p> + + <p><b>Augusto´vo</b>, a town of Poland, formerly in Russia, in the + government of Suwalki, founded in 1557 by Sigismund II. Pop. 11,797. The + battle of Augustovo was fought between the Russians and the Germans + between 14th Sept and 3rd Oct., 1914.</p> + + <p><b>Augus´tulus</b>, Romulus, the last of the Western Roman emperors; + reigned for one year (475-6), when he was overthrown by Odoacer and + banished.</p> + + <p><b>Augus´tus</b>, Gaius Julius Cæsar Octavianus (originally called + Gaius Octavius), Roman emperor, was the son of Gaius Octavius and Atia, a + daughter of Julia, the sister of Julius Cæsar. He was born 63 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and died <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 14. + Octavius was at Apollonia, in Epirus, when he received news of the death + of his uncle (44 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), who had previously + adopted him as his son. He returned to Rome to claim Cæsar's property and + avenge his death, and now took, according to usage, his uncle's name with + the surname Octavianus. He was aiming secretly at the chief power, but at + first he joined the republican party, and assisted at the defeat of + Antony at Mutina. He got himself chosen consul in 43. Soon after the + second triumvirate was formed between him and Antony and Lepidus, and + this was followed by the conscription and assassination of three hundred + Senators and two thousand knights of the party opposed to the + triumvirate. Next year Octavianus and Antony defeated the republican army + under Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. The victors now divided the Roman + world between them, Octavianus getting the West, Antony the East, and + Lepidus Africa. Sextus Pompeius, who had made himself formidable at sea, + had now to be put down; and Lepidus, who had hitherto retained an + appearance of power, was deprived of all authority (36 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) and retired into private life. Antony and + Octavianus now shared the Empire between them; but while the former, in + the East, gave himself up to a life of luxury, and alienated the Romans + by his alliance with Cleopatra and his adoption of Oriental manners, + Octavianus skilfully cultivated popularity, and soon declared war + ostensibly against the Queen of Egypt. The naval victory of Actium, in + which the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra was defeated, made Octavianus + master of the world, 31 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He returned to + Rome, 29 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, celebrated a splendid triumph, + and caused the temple of Janus to be closed in token of peace being + restored. Gradually all the highest offices of State, civil and + religious, were united in his hands, and the new title of Augustus was + also assumed by him, being formally conferred by the Senate in 27 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> Great as was the power given to him, he + exercised it with wise moderation, and kept up the show of a republican + form of government. Under him successful wars were carried on in Africa + and Asia (against the Parthians), in Gaul <!-- Page 312 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page312"></a>[312]</span>and Spain, in Pannonia, + Dalmatia, &c.; but the defeat of Varus by the Germans under Arminius + with the loss of three legions, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 9, was a + great blow to him in his old age. Many useful decrees proceeded from him, + and various abuses were abolished. He gave a new form to the Senate, + employed himself in improving the morals of the people, enacted laws for + the suppression of luxury, introduced discipline into the armies, and + order into the games of the circus. He adorned Rome in such a manner that + it was said: "He found it of brick, and left it of marble". The people + erected altars to him, and, by a decree of the Senate, the month Sextilis + was called <i>Augustus</i> (our August). He was a patron of literature; + Virgil and Horace were befriended by him, and their works and those of + their contemporaries are the glory of the <i>Augustan Age</i>. His death, + which took place at Nola, plunged the Empire into the greatest grief. He + was thrice married, but had no son, and was succeeded by his stepson + Tiberius, whose mother Livia he had married after prevailing on her + husband to divorce her.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. B. + Firth, <i>Augustus Cæsar</i> (in Heroes of the Nations series); E. S. + Shuckburgh, <i>Augustus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Augustus II</b> (or <b>Frederick Augustus I</b>), Elector of Saxony + and King of Poland, second son of John George III, Elector of Saxony, was + born at Dresden in 1670, died at Warsaw 1733. He succeeded his brother in + the Electorate in 1694, and the Polish throne having become vacant, in + 1696, by the death of John Sobieski, Augustus presented himself as a + candidate for it and was successful. He joined with Peter the Great in + the war against Charles XII of Sweden, invaded Livonia, but was defeated + by Charles near Riga, and at Clissow, between Warsaw and Cracow. In 1704 + he was deposed, and two years later formally resigned the crown to + Stanislaus I, now devoting himself to his Saxon dominions. In 1709, after + the defeat of Charles at Poltava, the Poles recalled Augustus, who united + himself anew with Peter. The two monarchs, in alliance with Denmark, sent + troops into Pomerania, but the Swedish general Steinbock defeated the + allies at Gadebusch, 20th Dec., 1712. The death of Charles XII put an end + to the war, and Augustus concluded a peace with Sweden. A confederation + was now formed in Poland against the Saxon troops, but through the + mediation of Peter an arrangement was concluded by which the Saxon troops + were removed from the kingdom. Augustus now gave himself up to + voluptuousness and a life of pleasure. His Court was one of the most + splendid and polished in Europe. The Poles yielded but too readily to the + example of their king, and the last years of his reign were characterized + by boundless luxury and corruption of manners. His wife left him one son. + The Countess of Königsmark bore him the celebrated commander Marshal Saxe + (Maurice of Saxony).</p> + + <p><b>Augustus III</b> (or <b>Frederick Augustus II</b>), Elector of + Saxony and King of Poland, son of Augustus II, born at Dresden 1696, + succeeded his father as Elector in 1733, and was chosen King of Poland + through the influence of Austria and Russia. He closely followed the + example of his father, distinguishing himself by the splendour of his + feasts and the extravagance of his Court. He preferred Dresden to Warsaw, + and through his long absence from Poland the government sank into entire + inactivity. During the first Silesian war he formed a secret alliance + with Austria. The consequence was that during the second Silesian war + Frederick the Great of Prussia pushed on into Saxony, and occupied the + capital, from which Augustus fled. By the peace of Dresden, 25th Dec., + 1745, he was reinstated in the possession of Saxony. In 1756 he was + involved anew in a war against Prussia. When Frederick declined his + proposal of neutrality he left Dresden, and entered the camp at Pirna, + where 17,000 Saxon troops were assembled. Frederick surrounded the + Saxons, who were obliged to surrender, and Augustus fled to Poland. On + the threat of invasion by Russia he returned to Dresden, where he died in + 1763. His son, Frederick Christian, succeeded him as Elector of Saxony, + and Stanislaus Poniatowski as King of Poland.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:22%;"> + <a href="images/image121.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image121.jpg" + alt="Auk - Razor-bill" title="Auk - Razor-bill" /></a> + Razor-bill (<i>Alca torda</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Auk</b>, a name of certain swimming birds, family Alcidæ, including + the great auk, the little auk, the puffin, &c. The genus Alca, or + auks proper, contains only two species, the great auk (<i>Alca + impennis</i>), and the razor-bill (<i>Alca torda</i>). The great auk or + gair-fowl, a bird about 3 feet in length, used to be plentiful in + northerly regions, and also visited the British shores, but has become + extinct. Some seventy skins, about as many eggs, with bones representing + perhaps a hundred individuals, are preserved in various <!-- Page 313 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page313"></a>[313]</span>museums. + Though the largest species of the family, the wings were only 6 inches + from the carpal joint to the tip, totally useless for flight, but + employed as fins in swimming, especially under water. The tail was about + 3 inches long; the beak was high, short, and compressed; the head, neck, + and upper parts were blackish; a large spot under each eye, and most of + the under parts white. Its legs were placed so far back as to cause it to + sit nearly upright. The razor-bill is about 15 inches in length, and its + wings are sufficiently developed to be used for flight. It is found in + numbers on some parts of the British shores, as the Isle of Man.</p> + + <p><b>Aulap´olay</b>, or <b>Alleppi</b>, a seaport on the south-west + coast of Hindustan, Travancore, between the sea and a lagoon, with a safe + roadstead all the year round; exports timber, coir, coconuts, &c. + Pop. 24,918.</p> + + <p><b>Auld Lichts.</b> See <i>Presbyterianism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aulic</b> (Lat. <i>aula</i>, a court or hall), an epithet given to + a council (the <i>Reichshofrath</i>) in the old German Empire, one of the + two supreme courts of the German Empire, the other being the court of the + imperial chamber (<i>Reichskammergericht</i>). It had not only concurrent + jurisdiction with the latter court, but in many cases exclusive + jurisdiction, in all feudal processes, and in criminal affairs, over the + immediate feudatories of the Emperor and in affairs which concerned the + imperial Government.</p> + + <p><b>Au´lis</b>, in ancient Greece, a seaport in Bœotia, on the + strait called Euripus, between Bœotia and Eubœa. See + <i>Iphigenia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aullagas</b> (ou-lyä'gäs), a salt lake of Bolivia, which receives + the surplus waters of Lake Titicaca through the Rio Desaguadero, and has + only one perceptible insignificant outlet, so that what becomes of its + superfluous water is still a matter of uncertainty.</p> + + <p><b>Aulnoy</b> (ō-nwä), Countess d', French writer, born 1650, + died 1705, was the author of <i>Contes des Fées</i> (<i>Fairy Tales</i>), + many of which, such as <i>The White Cat</i>, <i>The Yellow Dwarf</i>, + &c., have been translated into English. She also wrote a number of + novels, historical memoirs, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aumale</b> (ō-mäl), a small French town, department of Seine + Inférieure, 35 miles <span class="scac">N.E</span>. of Rouen, which has + given titles to several notables in French history.—Jean d'Arcourt, + Eighth Count d'Aumale, fought at Agincourt, and defeated the English at + Gravelle (1423).—Claude II, Duc d'Aumale, one of the chief + instigators of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, was killed + 1573.—Charles de Lorraine, Duc d'Aumale, was an ardent partisan of + the League in the politico-religious French wars of the sixteenth + century.—Henri-Eugene-Philippe Louis d'Orleans, Duc d'Aumale, son + of Louis Philippe, king of the French, was born in 1822. In 1847 he + succeeded Marshal Bugeaud as Governor-General of Algeria, where he had + distinguished himself in the war against Abd-el-Kader. After the + revolution of 1848 he retired to England; but he returned to France in + 1871, and was elected a member of the Assembly; became Inspector-General + of the army in 1879, and was expelled along with the other royal princes + in 1886, but was allowed to return. Author of a <i>History of the House + of Condé</i>, &c. He died in 1897.</p> + + <p><b>Aun´gerville</b>, Richard, known as Richard de Bury (from his + birthplace Bury St. Edmund's), English statesman, bibliographer, and + correspondent of Petrarch, born 1281, died 1345. He entered the order of + Benedictine monks, and became tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterwards + Edward III. Promoted to several offices of dignity, he ultimately became + Bishop of Durham, and Lord Chancellor of England. During his frequent + embassies to the Continent he made the acquaintance of many of the + eminent men of the day. He was a diligent collector of books, and formed + a library at Oxford. Author of <i>Philobiblon</i>, printed at Cologne in + 1473; <i>Epistolœ Familiarium</i>, including letters to Petrarch, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aurangabad´</b>, a town of India, in the territory of the Nizam of + Hyderabad, 175 miles from Bombay. It contains a ruined palace of + Aurangzib and a mausoleum erected to the memory of his favourite wife. It + was formerly a considerable trading centre, but its commercial importance + decreased when Hyderabad became the capital of the Nizam. Pop. + 34,000.</p> + + <p><b>Aurangzib</b> ('ornament of the throne'), one of the greatest of + the Mogul emperors of Hindustan, born in Oct. 1618 or 1619. When he was + nine years old his weak and unfortunate father, Shah Jehan, succeeded to + the throne. Aurangzib was distinguished, when a youth, for his serious + look, his frequent prayers, his love of solitude, his profound hypocrisy, + and his deep plans. In his twentieth year he raised a body of troops by + his address and good fortune, and obtained the government of the Deccan. + He stirred up dissensions between his brothers, made use of the + assistance of one against the other, and finally shut his father up in + his harem, where he kept him prisoner. He then murdered his relatives one + after the other, and in 1659 ascended the throne. Notwithstanding the + means by which he had got possession of power, he governed with much + wisdom. Two of his sons, who endeavoured to form a party in their own + favour, he caused to be arrested and put to death by slow poison. He + carried on many wars, conquered Golconda and Bijapur, and drove out, by + degrees, the Mahrattas from their country. After his death, on 4th March, + 1707, the Mogul Empire declined.</p> + + <p><b>Aurantia´ceæ</b>, the orange tribe, a nat. ord. of <!-- Page 314 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page314"></a>[314]</span>plants, + polypetalous dicotyledons, with leaves containing a fragrant essential + oil in transparent dots, and a superior pulpy fruit, originally natives + of India; examples comprise the orange, lemon, lime, citron, and + shaddock.</p> + + <p><b>Auray</b> (ō-rā), a seaport of North-West France, + department Morbihan, with a deaf and dumb institute, and within 2 miles + of St. Anne of Auray, a famous place of pilgrimage. Pop. 6653.</p> + + <p><b>Aure´lian</b>, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, Emperor of Rome, of + humble origin, was born about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 212, rose to + the highest rank in the army, and on the death of Claudius II (270) was + chosen emperor. He delivered Italy from the barbarians (Alemanni and + Marcomanni), and conquered the famous Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. He + followed up his victories by the reformation of abuses, and the + restoration throughout the Empire of order and regularity. He lost his + life, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 275, by assassination, when heading + an expedition against the Persians.</p> + + <p><b>Aure´lius Antoni´nus</b>, Marcus, often called simply <b>Marcus + Aurelius</b>, Roman emperor and philosopher, son-in-law, adopted son, and + successor of Antoninus Pius, born <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 121, + succeeded to the throne 161, died 180. His name originally was Marcus + Annius Verus. He voluntarily shared the government with Lucius Verus, + whom Antoninus Pius had also adopted. Brought up and instructed by + Plutarch's nephew, Sextus, the orator Herodes Atticus, and L. Volusius + Mecianus, the jurist, he had become acquainted with learned men, and + formed a particular love for the Stoic philosophy. A war with Parthia + broke out in the year of his accession, and did not terminate till 166. A + confederacy of the northern tribes now threatened Italy, while a + frightful pestilence, brought from the East with the army, raged in Rome + itself. Both emperors set out in person against the rebellious tribes. In + 169 Verus died, and the sole command of the war devolved on Marcus + Aurelius, who prosecuted it with the utmost rigour, and nearly + exterminated the Marcomanni. His victory over the Quadi (174) is + connected with a famous legend. Dion Cassius tells us that the twelfth + legion of the Roman army was shut up in a defile, and reduced to great + straits for want of water, when a body of Christians enrolled in the + legion prayed for relief. Not only was rain sent, which enabled the + Romans to quench their thirst, but a fierce storm of hail beat upon the + enemy, accompanied by thunder and lightning, which so terrified them that + a complete victory was obtained, and the legion was ever after called + <i>The Thundering Legion</i> (<i>Legio Fulminatrix</i>). After this + victory the Marcomanni, the Quadi, as well as the rest of the barbarians, + sued for peace. The sedition of the Syrian governor Avidius Cassius, with + whom Faustina, the empress, was in treasonable communication, called off + the emperor from his conquests, but before he reached Asia the rebel was + assassinated. Aurelius returned to Rome, after visiting Egypt and Greece, + but soon new incursions of the Marcomanni compelled him once more to take + the field. He defeated the enemy several times, but was taken sick at + Sirmium, and died at Vindobona (Vienna) in 180. His only extant work is + the <i>Meditations</i>, written in Greek. It has been translated into + most modern languages (into English first by George Long in 1862, and by + J. Jackson in 1906). This may be regarded as a manual of practical + morality, in which wisdom, gentleness, and benevolence are combined in + the most fascinating manner. Many believe it to have been intended for + the instruction of his son Commodus. Aurelius was one of the best + emperors Rome ever saw, although his philosophy and the magnanimity of + his character did not restrain him from the persecution of the + Christians, whose religious doctrines he was led to believe were + subversive of good government, and whom he charged, therefore, with + obstinacy, the greatest social crime in the eyes of Roman authority. + Marcus Aurelius was not so much a philosopher as a seeker after + righteousness.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: P. B. Watson, + <i>M. Aurelius Antoninus</i>; Sir Samuel Dill, <i>Roman Society from Nero + to Marcus Aurelius</i>; Translations of the <i>Meditations</i> by G. H. + Kendall, and J. Jackson.</p> + + <p><b>Aurengzebe.</b> See <i>Aurangzib</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aure´ola</b>, or <b>Au´reole</b>, in paintings, an illumination + surrounding the whole figure of a holy person, as Christ, a saint, or a + martyr, intended to represent a luminous cloud or haze emanating from + him. It is generally of an oval shape, or may be nearly or quite + circular, and is of similar character with the nimbus surrounding the + heads of sacred personages.</p> + + <p><b>Au´rĕus</b>, the first gold coin which was coined at Rome, + 207 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Its value varied at different times, + from about 12<i>s.</i> to £1, 4<i>s</i>. See <i>Numismatics</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aurich</b> (ou´rē<i>h</i>), a German town, province of + Hanover. Pop. 6070.</p> + + <p><b>Au´ricle.</b> See <i>Heart</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Auric´ula</b>, a garden flower derived from the yellow + <i>Primŭla Auricŭla</i>, found native in the Swiss Alps, and + sometimes called bear's-ear from the shape of its leaves. It has for over + three centuries been an object of cultivation by florists, who have + succeeded in raising from seed a great number of beautiful varieties. Its + leaves are obovate, entire or serrated, and fleshy, varying, however, in + form in the numerous varieties. The flowers are borne on an erect umbel + and central scape with involucre. The original colours of the corolla are + yellow, purple, and <!-- Page 315 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page315"></a>[315]</span>variegated, and there is a mealy covering + on the surface. There are auricula clubs and societies in the north of + England.</p> + + <p><b>Auricular Confession.</b> See <i>Confession</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Au´rifaber</b>, the Latinized name of Johann Goldschmidt, one of + Luther's companions, born 1519, became pastor at Erfurt in 1566, died + there in 1579. He collected the unpublished MSS. of Luther, and edited + the <i>Epistolæ</i> and the <i>Table-talk</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Auriflamme.</b> See <i>Oriflamme</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Auri´ga</b>, in astronomy, the <i>Waggoner</i>, a constellation of + the northern hemisphere, containing Capella, a star of the first + magnitude. <i>Nova Aurigæ,</i> a temporary star, appeared in the + constellation in 1892.</p> + + <p><b>Aurillac</b> (ō-rē-ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k), a town of France, capital of the + department Cantal, in a valley watered by the Jordanne, about 270 miles + S. of Paris; well built, with wide streets; copper-works, paper-works, + manufactures of lace, tapestry, leather, &c. Pop. 18,036.</p> + + <p><b>Aurochs</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>'roks), a species of wild bull or buffalo, + the <i>urus</i> of Cæsar, <i>bison</i> of Pliny, the European bison, + <i>Bos</i> or <i>Bonassus Bison</i> of modern naturalists. The animal was + once abundant in Europe, but were it not for the protection afforded by + the late Emperor of Russia to a few herds which inhabit the forests of + Lithuania it would before this have been extinct.</p> + + <p><b>Auro´ra</b>, an American city, of Kane county, Illinois, on Fox + River, 40 miles W. by S. of Chicago; it has flourishing manufactures, + railway-works, and a considerable trade. Pop. (1920), 36,265.</p> + + <p><b>Auro´ra</b> (Gr. <i>Eōs</i>), in classical mythology, the + goddess of the dawn, daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios + and Selēnē (Sun and Moon). She was represented as a charming + figure, 'rosy-fingered', clad in a yellow robe, rising at dawn from the + ocean and driving her chariot through the heavens. Among the mortals + whose beauty captivated the goddess, poets mentioned Orion, + Tithōnus, and Cephălus.</p> + + <p><b>Auro´ra</b>, one of the New Hebrides Islands, S. Pacific Ocean, + about 30 miles long by 5 wide. It rises to a considerable elevation, and + is covered with a luxuriant vegetation.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image122.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image122.jpg" + alt="Aurora Borealis" title="Aurora Borealis" /></a> + Aurora Borealis + </div> + + <p><b>Auro´ra Borea´lis</b>, a luminous meteoric phenomenon appearing in + the north, most frequently in high latitudes, the corresponding + phenomenon in the southern hemisphere being called <i>Aurora + Australis</i>, and both being also called <i>Polar Light</i>, + <i>Streamers</i>, &c. The northern aurora has been far the most + observed and studied. It usually manifests itself by streams of light + ascending towards the zenith from a dusky line of cloud or haze a few + degrees above the horizon, and stretching from the north towards the west + and east, so as to form an arc with its ends on the horizon, and its + different parts and rays are constantly in motion. Sometimes it appears + in detached places; at other times it almost covers the whole sky. It + assumes many shapes and a variety of colours, from a pale red or yellow + to a deep red or blood colour; and in far northern latitudes serves to + illuminate the earth and cheer the gloom of the long winter nights. The + appearance of the aurora borealis so exactly resembles the effects of + experimental electrical phenomena that there is every reason to believe + that their causes are similar. When electricity passes through rarefied + air it exhibits a diffused luminous stream which has all the + characteristic appearances of the aurora, and hence it is highly probable + that this natural phenomenon is occasioned by the passage of electricity + through the upper regions of the atmosphere. The synchronism of auroral + display with disturbances of the magnetic needle is an ascertained fact, + and the connection between auroræ and magnetism is further evident from + the fact that the beams or coruscations <!-- Page 316 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page316"></a>[316]</span>issuing from a point in + the horizon west of north are frequently observed to run in the magnetic + meridian. What are known as magnetic storms are invariably connected with + exhibitions of the aurora, and with spontaneous galvanic currents in the + ordinary telegraph wires; and this connection is found to be so certain + that, upon remarking the display of one of the three classes of + phenomena, we can at once assert that the other two are also present. In + recent years it has been established that auroræ wax and wane in + frequency <i>pari passu</i> with sun-spots in an 11-year cycle, and that + they often manifest themselves about the time of transit of a conspicuous + spot across the sun's central meridian. Also they frequently recur at + successive intervals of about 27 days, which is the period of a solar + rotation relative to the earth. It is therefore inferred that auroræ are + largely excited by influences proceeding from the sun, and it is + suggested that they are the result of the impinging upon our upper + atmosphere of streams of electric corpuscles expelled from the solar orb, + these streams when approaching our planet being mainly directed to its + higher latitudes as a consequence of its magnetic polarity. The aurora + borealis is said to be frequently accompanied by sound, which is + variously described as resembling the rustling of pieces of silk against + each other, or the sound of wind against the flame of a candle. The + aurora of the southern hemisphere is quite a similar phenomenon to that + of the north.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: A. Angot, + <i>Les Aurores Polaires</i>; Captain H. P. Dawson, <i>Observations of the + International Polar Expeditions, 1882-3, Fort Rae</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aurungabad.</b> See <i>Aurangabad</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aurungzebe.</b> See <i>Aurangzib</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ausculta´tion</b>, a method of distinguishing the state of the + internal parts of the body, particularly of the thorax and abdomen, by + observing the sounds arising in the part either through the immediate + application of the ear to its surface (immediate auscultation), or by + applying the stethoscope to the part, and listening through it (mediate + auscultation). Auscultation may be used with more or less advantage in + all cases where morbid sounds are produced, but its general applications + are: the <i>auscultation</i> of respiration, the <i>auscultation</i> of + the voice; <i>auscultation</i> of coughs; <i>auscultation</i> of sounds + foreign to all these, but sometimes accompanying them; + <i>auscultation</i> of the actions of the heart; obstetric + <i>auscultation</i>. The parts when struck also give different sounds in + health and disease.</p> + + <p><b>Auso´nia</b>, an ancient poetical name of Italy.</p> + + <p><b>Auso´nius</b>, Decimus Magnus (<i>c.</i> <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 310-395), Roman poet, born at Burdigala + (Bordeaux). Valentinian entrusted to him the education of his son + Gratian, and appointed him afterwards quæstor and pretorian prefect. + Gratian appointed him consul in Gaul, and after this emperor's death he + lived upon an estate at Bordeaux, devoted to literary pursuits. He wrote + epigrams, idyls, eclogues, letters in verse, &c., still extant, and + was probably a Christian. He was rather a man of letters than a poet, and + his poems are devoid of inspiration.</p> + + <p><b>Aus´pices</b>, among the ancient Romans strictly omens or auguries + derived from birds, though the term was also used in a wider sense. + Nothing of importance was done without taking the auspices, which, + however, simply showed whether the enterprise was likely to result + successfully or not, without supplying any further information. + Magistrates possessed the right of taking the auspices, in which they + were usually assisted by an augur. Before a war or campaign a Roman + general always took the auspices, and hence the operations were said to + be carried out 'under his auspices'. See <i>Augur</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aus´sig</b>, a town in Bohemia, in the republic of Czecho-Slovakia, + formerly in Austria, near the junction of the Bila with the Elbe, 42 + miles <span class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Prague; has large manufactures + of woollens, chemicals, &c. The town is now known as Ousti nad Labem. + Pop. 40,000.</p> + + <p><b>Aus´ten</b>, Jane, English novelist, born 1775, at Steventon, in + Hants, of which parish her father was rector. Her principal novels are, + <i>Sense and Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice</i>, which Disraeli is said + to have read seventeen times; <i>Mansfield Park</i>; and <i>Emma</i>. Two + more were published after her death, entitled <i>Northanger Abbey</i> and + <i>Persuasion</i>, which were, however, her most early attempts. Her + novels are marked by ease, humour, and a complete knowledge of the + domestic life of the English middle classes of her time. She died in + 1817.</p> + + <p><b>Austenite</b>, a constituent of high-carbon steel (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Aus´terlitz</b>, a town with 3703 inhabitants, in Moravia, 10 miles + <span class="scac">E.</span> of Brünn, famous for the battle of 2nd Dec., + 1805, fought between the French (70,000 in number) and the allied + Austrian and Russian armies (95,000). The decisive victory of the French + led to the Peace of Pressburg between France and Austria.</p> + + <p><b>Aus´tin</b>, capital of the State of Texas, on the Colorado, about + 200 miles from its mouth, and accessible to steamboats during certain + seasons. There is a State university and other institutions, and a + splendid capitol built of red granite. Pop. (1920), 34,876.</p> + + <p><b>Austin</b>, Alfred, English poet, born at Hedingley, near Leeds, in + 1835, educated at Stonyhurst and St. Mary's College, Oscott; took the + degree of <span class="scac">B.A.</span> at London in 1853, was called to + the bar and practised, but gave up law for literature in 1861. He + published, in 1861, a <!-- Page 317 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page317"></a>[317]</span>satire called <i>The Season</i>, followed + by many poems, including <i>The Human Tragedy</i>, <i>The Golden Age</i>, + <i>Savonarola</i> (a tragedy), <i>English Lyrics</i>, <i>Fortunatus the + Pessimist</i>, <i>Lyrical Poems</i>, <i>Narrative Poems</i>, <i>Prince + Lucifer</i>, <i>Alfred the Great</i>, <i>A Tale of True Love</i>, + <i>Flodden Field</i> (a tragedy), &c. His works in prose include + <i>The Garden that I love</i>, <i>In Veronica's Garden</i>, <i>Spring and + Autumn in Ireland</i>, <i>Haunts of Ancient Peace</i>, <i>The Bridling of + Pegasus</i>, &c. He was made Poet Laureate in 1896, about four years + after the death of Tennyson. He died in 1913.</p> + + <p><b>Aus´tin,</b> John, an English writer on jurisprudence, born 1790, + died 1859. From 1826 to 1835 he filled the chair of jurisprudence at + London University. He served on several royal commissions, one of which + took him to Malta; lived for some years on the Continent, and finally + settled at Weybridge, in Surrey. His fame rests solely on his great + works: <i>The Province of Jurisprudence Determined</i>, published in + 1832; and his <i>Lectures on Jurisprudence</i>, published by his widow + between 1861 and 1863.—His wife, Sarah, one of the Taylors of + Norwich, produced translations of German works, and other books bearing + on Germany or its literature; also, <i>Considerations on National + Education</i>, &c. Born 1793, died 1867. Her daughter, Lady Duff + Gordon, translated Meinhold's <i>Mary Schweidler, the Amber Witch</i>, + and other German works.</p> + + <p><b>Austin, St.</b> See <i>Augustine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Austin Friars.</b> See <i>Augustins</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Australasia,</b> a division of the globe usually regarded as + comprehending the Islands of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New + Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, New Ireland, New + Britain, the Admiralty Islands, New Guinea, and the Arru Islands, besides + numerous other islands and island groups; estimated area, 3,400,000 sq. + miles; pop. 6,000,000. It forms one of the three portions into which some + geographers have divided Oceania, the other two being Malaysia and + Polynesia. The British territories in Australasia comprise the + Commonwealth of Australia, the Australian dependencies of Papua and + Northern Territory, New Zealand and adjacent islands, and the crown + colony of Fiji.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;"> + <a href="images/image123.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image123.jpg" + alt="Australia - political" title="Australia - political" /></a> + </div> + <p><b>Australia</b> (older name, <b>New Holland</b>), the largest island + in the world, a sea-girt continent, lying between the Indian and Pacific + Oceans, <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of Asia; between lat. 10° 39' and + 39° 11' <span class="scac">S.</span>; long. 113° 5' and 153° 16' <span + class="scac">E.</span>; greatest length, from <span + class="scac">W.</span> to <span class="scac">E.</span>, 2400 miles; + greatest breadth, from <span class="scac">N.</span> to <span + class="scac">S.</span>, 1700 to 1900 miles. It is separated from New + Guinea on the north by Torres Strait, from Tasmania on the south by Bass + Strait. It is divided into two unequal parts by the Tropic of Capricorn, + and consequently belongs partly to the South Temperate, partly to the + Torrid Zone. It is occupied by five British colonies, namely, New South + Wales, Victoria, and Queensland in the east; South Australia in the + middle, stretching from sea to sea; and Western Australia in the west, + which, with the Island of Tasmania, form the Commonwealth of Australia. + Their area and population are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Australian states and territories." title="Australian states and territories."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> Area in<br />sq. m. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> Pop. in<br />1920</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> New South Wales </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 309,432 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2,091,115</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Victoria </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 87,884 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1,528,151</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Queensland </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 670,500 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 752,245</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> South Australia </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 380,070 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 491,177</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Western Australia </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 975,920 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 330,819</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tasmania </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 26,215 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 212,847</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Northern Territory </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 523,620 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3,992</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Federal Territory </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 940 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1,972</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Perth are the chief towns. + The population of the Commonwealth of Australia was 4,895,894 in 1917 and + 5,412,318 in 1920.</p> + + <p>Although there are numerous spacious harbours on the coasts, there are + few remarkable indentations, the principal being the Gulf of Carpentaria, + on the <span class="scac">N.</span>, the Great Australian Bight, and + Spencer's Gulf, on the <span class="scac">S.</span> The chief projections + are Cape York Peninsula and Arnhem Land in the north. Parallel to the + <span class="scac">N.E.</span> coast runs the Great Barrier Reef for 1000 + miles. In great part the <span class="scac">E.</span> coast is bold and + rocky, and is fringed with many small islands. Part of the <span + class="scac">S.</span> coast is low and sandy, and part presents cliffs + of several hundred feet high. The <span class="scac">N.</span> and <span + class="scac">W.</span> coasts are generally low, with some elevations at + intervals.</p> + + <p>The interior, so far as explored, is largely composed of rocky tracts + and barren plains with little or no water. The whole continent forms an + immense plateau, highest in the east, low in the centre, and with a + narrow tract of land usually intervening between the elevated area and + the sea. The base of the table-land is granite, which forms the + surface-rock in a great part of the south-west, and is common in the + higher grounds along the east side. Secondary (cretaceous) and tertiary + rocks are largely developed in the interior. Silurian rocks occupy a + large area in South Australia, on both sides of Spencer Gulf. The + mountainous region in the south-east and east is mainly composed of + volcanic, Silurian, carbonaceous, and carboniferous rocks yielding good + coal. No active volcano is known to exist, but in the south-east there + are some craters only recently extinct. The highest and most extensive + mountain-system is a belt about 150 miles wide skirting the whole eastern + and south-eastern border of the continent, and often called, in whole or + in part, the Great Dividing Range, from forming the great water-shed of + Australia. A part of it, called the Australian Alps, in the south-east, + contains the highest summits in Australia, Mount Kosciusko (7175 feet), + Mount <!-- Page 318 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page318"></a>[318]</span>Clarke (7256 feet), and Mount Townshend + (7353 feet). West of the Dividing Range are extensive plains or downs + admirably adapted for pastoral purposes. The deserts and scrubs, which + occupy large areas of the interior, are a characteristic feature of + Australia. The former are destitute of vegetation, or are covered only + with a coarse, spiny grass that affords no sustenance to cattle or + horses; the latter are composed of a dense growth of shrubs and low + trees, often impenetrable till the traveller has cleared a track with his + axe.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:46%;"> + <a href="images/image124.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image124.jpg" + alt="Australia - Geological" title="Australia - Geological" /></a> + COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Geological + </div> + + <p>The rivers of Australia are nearly all subject to great irregularities + in volume, many of them at one time showing a channel in which there is + merely a series of pools, while at another they inundate the whole + adjacent country. The chief is the Murray, which, with its affluents the + Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Darling, drains a great part of the interior + west of the Dividing Range, and falls into the sea on the south coast + (after entering Lake Alexandrina). Its greatest tributary is the Darling, + which may even be regarded as the main stream. On the east coast are the + Hunter, Clarence, Brisbane, Fitzroy, and Burdekin; on the west, the Swan, + Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, and De Grey; on the north, the Fitzroy, + Victoria, Flinders, and Mitchell. The Australian rivers are of little + service in facilitating internal communication. Many of them lose + themselves in swamps or sandy wastes of the interior. A considerable + river of the interior is Cooper's Creek, or the Barcoo, which falls into + Lake Eyre, one of a group of lakes on the south side of the continent + having no outlet, and accordingly salt. The principal of these are Lakes + Eyre, Torrens, and Gairdner, all of which vary in size and saltness + according to the season. Another large salt lake of little depth, Lake + Amadeus, lies a little west of the centre of Australia. Various others of + less magnitude are scattered over the interior.</p> + + <p>The climate of Australia is generally hot and dry, but very healthy. + In the tropical portions there are heavy rains, and in most of the coast + districts there is a sufficiency of moisture, but in the interior the + heat and drought are extreme. Considerable portions now devoted to + pasturage are liable at times to suffer from drought. At Melbourne the + mean temperature is about 56°, at Sydney about 63°. The south-eastern + settled districts are at times subject to excessively hot winds from the + interior, which cause great discomfort, and are often followed by a + violent cold wind from the south ('southerly bursters'). In the + mountainous and more temperate parts snow-storms are common in winter + (June, July, and August).</p> + + <p>Australia is a region containing a vast quantity of mineral wealth. + Foremost come its rich and extensive deposits of gold, which, since the + precious metal was first discovered in 1851, have produced a total of + nearly £600,000,000. The greatest quantity has been obtained in Victoria, + <!-- Page 319 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page319"></a>[319]</span>but New South Wales and Queensland have + also yielded a considerable amount, and now Western Australia stands + first in respect of annual output. Australia also possesses silver, + copper, tin, lead, zinc, antimony, mercury, plumbago, &c., besides + coal (now worked to a considerable extent in New South Wales) and iron. + Various precious stones are found, as the garnet, ruby, topaz, sapphire, + and even the diamond. Of building-stone there are granite, limestone, + marble, and sandstone.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:47%;"> + <a href="images/image125.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image125.jpg" + alt="Australia - Climate" title="Australia - Climate" /></a> + COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Mean Annual Rainfall and Temperature + </div> + + <p>The Australian flora presents peculiarities which mark it off by + itself in a very decided manner. Many of its most striking features have + an unmistakable relation to the general dryness of the climate. The trees + and bushes have for the most part a scanty foliage, presenting little + surface for evaporation, or thick leathery leaves well fitted to retain + moisture. The most widely-spread types of Australian vegetation are the + various kinds of gum tree (<i>Eucalyptus</i>), the shea-oak + (<i>Casuarīna</i>), the acacia or wattle, the grass tree + (<i>Xanthorrhœa</i>), many varieties of Proteaceæ, and a great + number of ferns and tree-ferns. Of the gum tree there are found upwards + of 150 species, many of which are of great value. Individual specimens of + the 'peppermint' (<i>E. amygdalĭna</i>) have been found to measure + from 480 to 500 feet in height. As timber trees the most valuable members + of this genus are the <i>E. rostrāta</i> (or red gum), <i>E. + leucoxўlon</i>, and <i>E. margināta</i> (jarrah), the timber + of which is hard, and almost indestructible. A number of the gum trees + have deciduous bark. The wattle or acacia includes about 300 species, + some of them of considerable economic value, yielding good timber or bark + for tanning. The most beautiful and most useful is that known as the + golden wattle (<i>A. dealbāta</i>) which in spring is adorned with + rich masses of fragrant yellow blossom. Palms—of which there are + twenty-four species, all except the coco-palm peculiar to + Australia—are confined to the north and east coasts. In the + 'scrubs' already mentioned hosts of densely-intertwisted bushes occupy + extensive areas. The <i>mallee</i> scrub is formed by a species of dwarf + eucalyptus, the <i>mulga</i> scrub by a species of thorny acacia. A plant + which covers large areas in the arid regions is the <i>spinifex</i> or + porcupine grass, a hard, coarse, and excessively spiny plant, which + renders travelling difficult, wounds the feet of horses, and is utterly + uneatable by any animal. Other large tracts are occupied by herbs or + bushes of a more valuable kind, from their affording fodder. Foremost + among those stands the salt-bush (<i>Atriplex nummularia</i>, ord. + Chenopodiaceæ). Beautiful flowering plants are numerous. Australia also + possesses great numbers of turf-forming grasses, such as the + kangaroo-grass (<i>Anthistiria austrālis</i>), which survives even + a tolerably-protracted drought. The native fruit trees are few and + unimportant, and the same may be said of the plants yielding roots used + as food; but exotic fruits and vegetables may now be had in the different + colonies in great abundance and of excellent quality. The vine, the + olive, and mulberry thrive well, and quantities of wine are now produced. + The cereals of Europe and maize are extensively cultivated, and large + tracts of country, particularly in Queensland, are under the + sugar-cane.</p> + + <p>The Australian fauna is almost unique in its character. Its great + feature is the nearly total <!-- Page 320 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page320"></a>[320]</span>absence of all the forms of mammalia which + abound in the rest of the world, their place being supplied by a great + variety of marsupials—these animals being nowhere else found, + except in the opossums of America. There are about 110 kinds of + marsupials (of which the kangaroo, wombat, bandicoot, and phalangers or + opossums, are the best-known varieties), over twenty kinds of bats, a + wild dog (the dingo), and a number of rats and mice. Two extraordinary + animals, the platypus, or water-mole of the colonist (Ornithorhynchus), + and the porcupine ant-eater (Echidna) constitute the lowest order of + mammals (Monotremata), and are confined to Australia. Their young are + produced from eggs. Australia now possesses a large stock of the domestic + animals of Britain, which thrive there remarkably well. The breed of + horses is excellent. Horned cattle and sheep are largely bred, the first + attaining a great size, while the sheep improve in fleece and their flesh + in flavour. There are upwards of 650 different species of birds, the + largest being the emu, or Australian ostrich, and a species of cassowary. + Peculiar to the country are the black swan, the honey-sucker, the + lyre-bird, the brush-turkey, and other mound-building birds, the + bower-birds, &c. The parrot tribe preponderates over most other + groups of birds in the continent. There are many reptiles, the largest + being the alligator, found in some of the northern rivers. There are + upwards of sixty different species of snakes, some of which are very + venomous. Lizards, frogs, and insects are also numerous in various parts. + The seas, rivers, and lagoons abound in fish of numerous varieties, and + other aquatic animals, many of them peculiar. Whales and seals frequent + the coasts. On the northern coasts are extensive fisheries of trepang, + much visited by native traders from the Indian Archipelago. Some animals + of European origin, such as the rabbit and the sparrow, have developed + into real pests in several of the colonies.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:63%;"> + <a href="images/image126.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image126.jpg" + alt="Australia - topography" title="Australia - topography" /></a> + COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Surface Features + </div> + + <p>The natives belong to the Australian negro stock, and are sometimes + considered the lowest as regards intelligence in the whole human family, + though this is doubtful. At the census of 1891 they were believed to + number about 60,000, exclusive of those in the unexplored parts. They are + of a dark-brown or black colour, with jet-black curly but not woolly + hair, of medium size, but inferior muscular development. In the settled + parts of the continent they are inoffensive, and rapidly dying out. They + have no fixed habitations; in the summer they live almost entirely in the + open air, and in the more inclement weather they shelter themselves with + bark erections of the rudest construction. They have no cultivation and + no domestic animals. Their food consists of such animals as they can + kill, and no kind of living creature seems to be rejected, snakes, + lizards, frogs, and even insects being eaten, often half raw. They are + ignorant of the potter's art. <!-- Page 321 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page321"></a>[321]</span>In their natural condition they wear + little or no clothing. They speak a number of different languages or + dialects. The women are regarded merely as slaves, and are frequently + maltreated. They have no religion; they practise polygamy, and are said + sometimes to resort to cannibalism, but only in exceptional + circumstances. They are occasionally employed by the settlers in light + kinds of work, and as horse-breakers; but they dislike continuous + occupation, and soon give it up. The weapons of all the tribes are + generally similar, consisting of spears, shields, boomerangs, wooden + axes, clubs, and stone hatchets. Of these the boomerang is the most + singular, being an invention confined to the Australians.</p> + + <p>The five colonies, independently of each other, having declared their + desire for a federal union, the Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed. + A Convention, which sat at Adelaide in 1897-8, drafted a Constitution + Bill, and on 9th July, 1900, the British Parliament passed the Act to + constitute the Commonwealth. There is now a Governor-General and Central + or Federal Parliament, consisting of a Senate and a House of + Representatives, while each State has also (as before) a Governor, an + administration, and a Parliament of its own. Each Parliament consists of + two Houses corresponding to the British House of Lords and House of + Commons, but both Houses are elected by popular vote. Altogether the + machinery of government very much resembles that of the home country. The + aggregate annual revenue of the colonies is over £30,000,000. The public + debt on 30th June, 1917, was £372,517,623. The former militia and + volunteer units have been gradually merged into the new Citizen Army + started by the Australian Government in 1911. The Government also agreed + in the same year to furnish an Australian fleet unit, upon which King + George conferred the title of 'Royal Australian Navy'. There is no + established Church in the colonies. The denomination which numbers most + adherents is the English or Anglican Church, next to which come the Roman + Catholics, Presbyterians, and Methodists. Education is well provided for, + instruction in the primary schools being in some cases free and + compulsory, and the higher education being more and more attended to. + There are flourishing universities in Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide. + Newspapers are exceedingly numerous, and periodicals of all kinds are + abundant. There is as yet no native literature of any distinctive type, + but names of Australian writers of ability both in prose and poetry are + beginning to be known beyond their own country.</p> + + <p>Pastoral and agricultural pursuits and mining are the chief + occupations of the people, though manufactures and handicrafts also + employ large numbers. The total land area under cultivation was + calculated at 13,298,576 acres in 1919-20. For sheep-rearing and the + growth of wool the Australian colonies are unrivalled, and while the + production of gold has considerably decreased, that of wool is constantly + on the increase. The great bulk of the wool exported goes to Britain, + which receives over 300,000,000 pounds from the Australian colonies + annually (£37,256,915 in 1919-20). The commerce is rapidly extending, and + becoming every year more important to Britain, whence the colonists + derive their chief supplies of manufactured goods in return for wool, + gold, and other produce. Next to wool come gold, tin, copper, wheat, + preserved meat, and tallow, hides and skins, cotton, tobacco, sugar, and + wine as the most important items of export. The chief imports consist of + textile fabrics, haberdashery, and clothing, machinery and metal goods. + The aggregate imports in 1920 amounted to about £97,456,899 in value, the + exports to £148,564,523. There are upwards of 23,000 miles of railway in + actual use or in course of construction, and about 133,000 miles of + telegraph. In 1912 the building of the Trans-Australian railway from Port + Augusta to Kalgoorlie was commenced. The longest telegraph line is that + running northwards across the continent from Adelaide. The two chief + routes for mails between Britain and the Australian colonies are by way + of the Suez Canal, and by San Francisco across the American continent. + The coinage is the same as in the mother country. Banks and banking + offices are numerous, including post office or other savings banks for + the reception of small sums.</p> + + <p>It is doubtful when Australia was first discovered by Europeans. + Between 1531 and 1542 the Portuguese published the existence of a land + which they called Great Java, and which corresponded to Australia, and + probably the first discovery of the country was made by them early in the + sixteenth century. The first authenticated discovery is said to have been + made in 1601 by a Portuguese named Manoel Godinho de Eredia. In 1606 + Torres, a Spaniard, passed through the strait that now bears his name, + between New Guinea and Australia. Between this period and 1628 a large + portion of the coastline of Australia had been surveyed by various Dutch + navigators. In 1664 the continent was named New Holland by the Dutch + Government. In 1688 Dampier coasted along part of Australia, and about + 1700 explored a part of the <span class="scac">W.</span> and <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> coasts. In 1770 Cook carefully surveyed the + <span class="scac">E.</span> coast, named a number of localities, and + took possession of the country for Britain. He was followed by Bligh in + 1789, who carried on a series of observations on the <span + class="scac">N.E.</span> coast, adding largely to the knowledge already + obtained of this new world. Colonists had now arrived on the <!-- Page + 322 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page322"></a>[322]</span>soil, and + a penal settlement was formed (1788) at Port Jackson. In this way was + laid the foundation of the future colony of New South Wales. The Moreton + Bay district (Queensland) was settled in 1825; in 1835 the Port Phillip + district. In 1851 the latter district was erected into a separate colony + under the name of Victoria. Previous to this time the colonies both of + Western Australia and of South Australia had been founded—the + former in 1829, the latter in 1836. The latest of the colonies is + Queensland, which dates from 1859. The discovery of gold in abundance + took place in 1851 and caused an immense excitement and great influx of + immigrants. The population was then only about 350,000, and was slowly + increasing; but the discovery of the precious metal started the country + on that career of prosperity which has since been almost uninterrupted. + Convicts were long sent to Australia from the mother country, but + transportation to New South Wales practically ceased in 1840, and the + last convict vessel to W. Australia arrived in 1868. Altogether about + 70,000 convicts were landed in Australia (besides almost as many in + Tasmania).</p> + + <p>The record of interior exploration forms an interesting part of + Australian history. This has been going on since early last century, and + is as yet far from complete. There is still a large area of the continent + of which little or nothing is known, comprising especially a vast + territory belonging to Western Australia, and a portion of South + Australia. Among the men who have won fame in the field of Australian + exploration are Oxley (1817-23), who partly explored the Lachlan and + Macquarie, discovered the Brisbane, &c.; Hume and Hovell (1824), who + crossed what is now the colony of Victoria from north to south; + Cunningham (1827), who discovered the Darling Downs; Sturt (1828-9), who + examined the Macquarie, part of the Darling, and the Murrumbidgee, which + he traced to the Murray, sailing down the latter to Lake Alexandrina; in + 1844 he penetrated to near the middle of the continent from the south; + Mitchell (1831-6) made extensive explorations in New South Wales and + Victoria; M‘Millan (1839) explored and traversed Gippsland; Eyre + (1840) travelled by the coast from Adelaide to King George's Sound; + Leichhardt in 1844-5 travelled from Brisbane to Port Essington, + discovering fine tracts of territory and the numerous rivers flowing into + the Gulf of Carpentaria; in 1848 he was lost in the northern interior, in + attempting to cross Australia from east to west, and nothing further + regarding his fate has been discovered; Kennedy (1848) was killed in + exploring Cape York Peninsula; A. C. Gregory (1855-6) explored part of + North-Western Australia, and crossed from that to the Brisbane district, + an important exploring journey; M‘Douall Stuart (1859-60-2) crossed + the continent from south to north and back again nearly in the line of + the present overland telegraph; Burke, Wills, Gray, and King (1860-1) + crossed from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria, but Burke, Wills, and + Gray perished on the return journey; F. T. Gregory (1861) explored the + region of the Ashburton, Fortescue, and other rivers of North-West + Australia; Warburton (1873) travelled with camels from the centre of the + continent to the north-west coast; J. Forrest (1874) made an important + journey in Western Australia; Giles (1874-6) explored Central Western + Australia; Favenc (1878-9) travelled from Brisbane to Port Darwin; A. + Forrest (1879) explored part of Northern Australia; Mills (1883) + traversed with camels a considerable stretch of new ground in Western + Australia; Winnicke (1883-4), also with camels, explored and mapped about + 40,000 sq. miles of the unknown interior; Lindsay (1885-6) travelled + north-west from Lake Eyre, and then north-east to the Gulf of + Carpentaria. Among subsequent explorations mention may be made of + Carnegie's eight months' journeyings in W. Australia (1896-7). (See + articles on the separate colonies.)—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Wall, <i>Physical Geography of + Australia</i>; Aflalo, <i>Natural History of Australia</i>; T. A. + Coghlan, <i>A Statistical Account of the Seven Colonies of + Australasia</i> (Sydney); G. W. Rusden, <i>History of Australia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Austra´lioids</b>, one of the five groups into which Professor + Huxley classifies man, comprising the indigenous non-Aryan inhabitants of + Central and Southern India, the ancient Egyptians and their descendants, + and the modern Fellahs.</p> + + <p><b>Austria</b>, or <b>German Austria</b>, a republic formed out of the + fragments of the old Austro-Hungarian Empire. The republic was proclaimed + on 12th Nov., 1918, and the government was taken in hand by the National + Constitutional Assembly. The new republic, the frontiers of which were + provisionally defined by the treaty of St. Germain (q.v.), includes Upper + Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, and parts of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, + and Vorarlberg, some districts having been assigned to Yugo-Slavia and + Italy. German Austria now has an area of 30,716 sq. miles, and a pop. of + 6,130,197.</p> + + <p><b>Austria-Hungary</b> (in Ger. <i>Oesterreich</i>, that is, Eastern + Empire), previous to the changes resulting from the European War + (1914-18), a Central European monarchy, inhabited by several + nationalities, and consisting of the Austrian Empire, the Hungarian + monarchy, and the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina annexed by Austria + on 5th Oct., 1908. The States had together a total area of about 261,242 + sq. miles, and were bounded <span class="scac">S.</span> by Turkey, the + Adriatic, and Italy; <span class="scac">W.</span> by Switzerland, + Bavaria, and <!-- Page 323 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page323"></a>[323]</span>Saxony; <span class="scac">N.</span> by + Prussia and Russian Poland; and <span class="scac">E.</span> by Russia + and Roumania. On 12th Nov., 1918, the German-Austrian Republic was + proclaimed, and the government was taken in hand by the National + Constitutional Assembly. The account given in the following pages applies + to the countries only as they existed before the end of the European + War.</p> + + <p>The population of Austria proper in 1913 was estimated at + 29,193,293.</p> + + <p>The prevailing character of the Austrian dominions is mountainous or + hilly, the plains not occupying more than a fifth part of the whole + surface. The loftiest ranges belong to the Alps, and are found in Styria, + Salzburg, and Carinthia, the highest summits being the Ortlerspitzen + (12,814 feet) on the western boundary of Tyrol, and the Grossglockner + (12,300 feet) on the borders of Salzburg, Tyrol, and Carinthia. Another + great range is that of the Carpathians. The chief rivers are the Danube, + with its tributaries, and the Dniester. The Danube is navigable for + pretty large vessels; the tributaries also are largely navigable. The + lakes are numerous and often picturesque, the chief being Lake Balaton or + the Plattensee. The climate is exceedingly varied, but generally good. + The principal products of the north are wheat, barley, oats, and rye; in + the centre vines and maize are added; and in the south olives and various + fruits. The cereals grow to perfection, other crops being hops, tobacco, + flax, and hemp. Sheep and cattle are largely reared.—Wild deer, + wild swine, chamois, foxes, lynxes, and a species of small black bear are + found in many districts, the fox and lynx being particularly + abundant.—In mineral productions Austria is very rich, possessing, + with the exception of platinum, all the useful metals, the total annual + value of the mineral products of Austria being estimated at upwards of + £15,000,000, the principal being coal, salt, and iron.</p> + + <p>Before the European War, manufactures were in the most flourishing + condition in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lower Austria; less so in the + eastern provinces, and insignificant in Dalmatia, Bukowina, Herzegovina, + &c. Among the most important manufactures were those of machinery and + metal goods, Austria holding a high place for the manufacture of musical + and scientific instruments, gold and silver plate and jewellery; of stone + and china-ware and of glass, which is one of the oldest and most + highly-developed industries in Austria; of chemicals; of sugar from beet; + of beer, spirits, &c.; and especially the manufactures of wool, + cotton, hemp, and flax.</p> + + <p>In addition to the general import and export trade, Austria carried on + a very considerable amount of business in the transit of goods through + her territory. In 1914 the total value of imports into Austria-Hungary + was £114,716,000, of exports £83,996,000; the value of imports in 1913 + was £141,433,000, the exports £115,129,000. Among imports were cotton and + other fibres, textile goods and yarn, metals, machinery, drugs, + chemicals, oils, fats, hides, skins, &c. The chief exports were + cereals, animals, metallic goods, woven fabrics, pottery and glass + manufactures. Nearly two-thirds of the commerce are with Germany, next in + importance being the trade with Roumania, Italy, and Russia. The exports + direct to the United Kingdom in 1913 were £7,705,949; the imports of + British produce direct, £4,480,760; but these amounts do not include + indirect exports and imports through other countries. The staple exports + to the United Kingdom were corn and flour. The chief imports from it were + cotton manufactures, machinery and metals, woollen goods, fish, &c. + In 1913 the mercantile navy of Austria had a total burden of about + 471,252 tons. The principal ports were Trieste, in Austria, and Fiume, in + Hungary.</p> + + <p>None of the European States, except Russia, exhibited such a diversity + of race and language as the former dual monarchy. The Slavs—who + differ greatly, however, amongst themselves in language and + civilization—amounted to above 20,000,000, or 46 per cent of the + total population, and formed the great mass of the population of Bohemia, + Moravia, Carniola, Galicia, Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, and Northern + Hungary, and half the population of Silesia and Bukowina. The Germans, + about 9,950,266, formed almost the sole population of the archduchy of + Austria, Salzburg, the greatest portion of Styria and Carinthia, almost + the whole of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, large portions of Bohemia and Moravia, + the whole of West Silesia, &c.; and they were also numerous in + Hungary and Transylvania. The Magyars or Hungarians (10,061,549) formed + nearly half of the inhabitants of the former Kingdom of Hungary and the + connected provinces.</p> + + <p>The State religion of the former dual monarchy was the Roman Catholic. + In 1910 there were in the Austrian portion of the monarchy 22,530,000 + Roman Catholics, 3,417,000 Greek Catholics united to the Roman Church, + 689,000 non-united, 589,000 Protestants, and 1,314,000 Jews.</p> + + <p>The intellectual culture of the people was highest in the German + provinces, but in some of the other provinces the percentage of + uneducated was very high. Attendance at the elementary schools was + compulsory on all children from their sixth to the end of their + fourteenth year in most of the Austrian provinces; to at least the + twelfth year in the whole empire. There were numerous gymnasia and 'real + schools', the gymnasia being <!-- Page 324 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page324"></a>[324]</span>intended chiefly to prepare pupils for the + universities, while in the real schools a more practical end was kept in + view, and modern languages and physical science formed the groundwork of + the educational course. The technical high schools in Austria were very + important institutions, and there are many other special schools where + the students received training in mining, agriculture, industries of all + kinds, art, music, commerce, &c. In 1917 there were eight + universities maintained by the State, viz. in Vienna, Prague (2), Gratz, + Cracow, Lemberg, Innsbruck, and Czernowitz. Most of these have four + faculties—Catholic theology, law and politics, medicine, and + philosophy.</p> + + <p>Before the revolution of 1918 the ruler of the dual monarchy had the + title of emperor in his Austrian dominions, but he was only king of + Hungary. The Parliament of the Austrian division of the empire was known + as the Reichsrath, or council of the realm, consisting of an Upper House + (Herrenhaus), composed of princes of the imperial family, nobles with the + hereditary right to sit, archbishops, and life-members nominated by the + Emperor; and a Lower House (Abgeordnetenhaus) of 516 deputies elected on + the basis of universal suffrage. There were seventeen provincial Diets or + Assemblies, each provincial division having one. In the Hungarian + division of the Empire the legislature was a Parliament consisting of an + Upper House or House of Magnates and of a Lower House or House of + Representatives, the latter elected by all citizens of full age paying a + small amount in taxes, or otherwise qualified. Its powers corresponded to + those of the Austrian Parliament or Reichsrath. All matters affecting the + joint interests of the two divisions of the monarchy, such as foreign + affairs, war, and finance, were dealt with by the Parliaments of the two + States. There were three Budgets, viz. one for common affairs, one for + Austria, and one for Hungary. The Budget estimates for the former + Austrian kingdom in 1913 were £130,716,773 (the revenue balancing the + expenditure). In 1918 the estimates were: expenditure 24,321,140,000 + crowns, revenue 4,854,789 crowns. Austria's special debt in Feb., 1918, + was placed at 54,081,765,681 crowns, of which 29,274,603,300 crowns were + war debt. On 20th Nov., 1918, the Provisional Government of the Austrian + Republic passed a law adopting the Budget of 1918-9, and empowering the + Minister of Finance to make good the difference between revenue and + expenditure.</p> + + <p>Military service was compulsory and universal throughout the dual + monarchy. The old Austro-Hungarian army numbered about 820,000 men on a + peace footing.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—In 791 Charlemagne drove the Avars from the + territory between the Ens and the Raab, and united it to his empire under + the name of <i>the Eastern Mark</i> (that is, March or boundary land); + and from the establishment by him of a margraviate in this new province + the former Austrian Empire took its rise. On the invasion of Germany by + the Hungarians it became subject to them from 900 till 955, when Otho I, + by the victory of Augsburg, reunited a great part of this province to the + German Empire, which by 1043 had extended its limits to the Leitha. The + margraviate of Austria was hereditary in the family of the Counts of + Babenberg (Bamberg) from 982 till 1156, in which year the boundaries of + Austria were extended so as to include the territory above the Ens, and + the whole was created a duchy. The territory was still further increased + in 1192 by the gift of the duchy of Styria as a fief from the Emperor + Henry VI, Vienna being by this time the capital. The male line of the + House of Bamberg became extinct in 1246, and the Emperor Frederick II + declared Austria and Styria a vacant fief, the hereditary property of the + German emperors. In 1282 the Emperor Rudolph granted Austria, Styria, and + Carinthia to his two sons, Albert and Rudolph. The former became sole + ruler (duke), and since then, until 12th Nov., 1918, Austria remained + under the House of Habsburg. Albert, who was an energetic ruler, was + elected emperor in 1298, but was assassinated in 1308. The first of his + successors whom we need specially mention was Albert V, son-in-law of the + Emperor Sigismund. He assisted Sigismund in the Hussite wars, and was + elected, after his death, King of Hungary and of Bohemia, and German + emperor (1438). Ladislaus, his posthumous son, was the last of the + Austrian line proper, and its possessions devolved upon the collateral + Styrian line in 1457; since which time the House of Austria furnished an + unbroken succession of German emperors.</p> + + <p>In 1453 the Emperor Frederick III, a member of this House, had + conferred upon the country the rank of an archduchy before he himself + became ruler of all Austria. His son Maximilian I, by his marriage with + Mary, the surviving daughter of Charles the Bold, united the Netherlands + to the Austrian dominions. After the death of his father, in 1493, + Maximilian was made Emperor of Germany, and transferred to his son Philip + the government of the Netherlands. He also added to his paternal + inheritance Tyrol, with several other territories, particularly some + belonging to Bavaria, and acquired for his family new claims to Hungary + and Bohemia. The marriage of his son Philip to Joanna of Spain raised the + House of Habsburg to the throne of Spain. Philip, however, died in 1506, + and the death of Maximilian, in 1519, was followed by the union of Spain + and Austria, his grandson (the eldest son of Philip), Charles I, King of + <!-- Page 325 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page325"></a>[325]</span>Spain, being elected Emperor of Germany as + Charles V. Charles thus became the greatest monarch in Europe, but in + 1521 he ceded to his brother Ferdinand all his dominions in Germany. + Ferdinand I, by his marriage with Anna, the sister of Louis II, King of + Hungary, acquired the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, with Moravia, + Silesia, and Lusatia, the appendages of Bohemia. To oppose him the + woywode of Transylvania, John Zapolya, sought the help of the Sultan, + Soliman II, who appeared in 1529 at the gates of Vienna, but was + compelled to retreat. In 1535 a treaty was made by which John Zapolya was + allowed to retain the royal title and half of Hungary, but after his + death new disputes arose, and Ferdinand maintained the possession of + Lower Hungary only by paying Soliman the sum of 30,000 ducats annually + (1562). In 1556 Ferdinand obtained the imperial crown, when his brother + Charles laid by the sceptre for a cowl. He died in 1564, leaving his + territories to be divided amongst his three sons.</p> + + <p>Maximilian II, the eldest, succeeded his father as emperor, obtaining + Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia; Ferdinand, the second son, received Tyrol + and Lower Austria; and Charles, the youngest, obtained Styria, Carinthia, + Carniola, and Görz. Maximilian died in 1576, and was succeeded on the + imperial throne by his eldest son Rudolph II, who had already been + crowned King of Hungary in 1572, and King of Bohemia in 1575. Rudolph's + reign was distinguished by the war against Turkey and Transylvania; the + persecutions of the Protestants, who were driven from his dominions; the + cession of Hungary in 1608; and in 1611 of Bohemia and his hereditary + estates in Austria to his brother Matthias. Matthias, who succeeded + Maximilian on the imperial throne, concluded a peace with the Turks, but + was disturbed by the Protestant Bohemians, who took up arms in defence of + their religious rights, thus commencing the Thirty Years' War. After his + death in 1619 the Bohemians refused to acknowledge his successor, + Ferdinand II, until after the battle of Prague in 1620, when Bohemia had + to submit, and was deprived of the right of choosing her king. + Lutheranism was strictly forbidden in all the Austrian dominions. + Hungary, which revolted under Bethlem Gabor, Prince of Transylvania, was, + after a long struggle, subdued. During the reign of Ferdinand III + (1637-57), successor of Ferdinand II, Austria was continually the theatre + of war; Lusatia was ceded to Saxony in 1635; and Alsace to France in + 1648, when peace was restored in Germany by the Treaty of Westphalia.</p> + + <p>The Emperor Leopold I, son and successor of Ferdinand III, was + victorious through the talents of Prince Eugene in two wars with Turkey; + and Vienna was delivered by Sobieski and the Germans from the attacks of + Kara Mustapha in 1683. In 1687 he united Hungary to Transylvania, and in + 1699 restored to Hungary the country lying between the Danube and the + Theiss. It was the chief aim of Leopold to secure to Charles, his second + son, the inheritance of the Spanish monarchy, and in 1701, upon the + victory of French diplomacy in the appointment of the grandson of Louis + XIV, the War of the Spanish Succession commenced. Leopold died in 1705, + but Joseph I, his eldest son, continued the war. As he died without + children in 1711, his brother Charles was elected emperor, but was + obliged to accede in 1714 to the Peace of Utrecht, by which Austria + received the Netherlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples, and Sardinia. In 1720 + Sicily was given to Austria in exchange for Sardinia. This monarchy now + embraced over 190,000 sq. miles; but its power was weakened by new wars + with Spain and France. In the peace concluded at Vienna (1735 and 1738) + Charles VI was forced to cede Naples and Sicily to Spain and part of + Milan to the King of Sardinia; and in 1739, by the Peace of Belgrade, he + was obliged to transfer to the Porte Belgrade, Serbia, &c., partly in + order to secure the succession to his daughter, Maria Theresa, by the + Pragmatic Sanction. He died in 1740.</p> + + <p>On Maria Theresa's marriage to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine (the + dynasty henceforth being that of Habsburg-Lorraine), and her accession to + the Austrian throne, the Empire was threatened with dismemberment. + Frederick II of Prussia subdued Silesia; the Elector of Bavaria was + crowned in Lintz and Prague, and in 1742 chosen emperor under the name of + Charles VII; Hungary alone supported the heroic and beautiful queen. + Charles, however, died in 1745, and the husband of Theresa was crowned + Emperor of Germany as Francis I; but a treaty concluded in 1745 confirmed + to Frederick the possession of Silesia, and by the Peace of + Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, Austria was obliged to cede the duchies of Parma, + Piacenza, and Guastalla to Philip, Infant of Spain, and several districts + of Milan and Sardinia. To recover Silesia, Maria Theresa formed an + alliance with France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden, and entered upon the + Seven Years' War; but by the Peace of Hubertsberg, 1763, Silesia was + recognized as Prussian territory. On the death of Francis I, in 1765, + Joseph II, his eldest son, was appointed to assist his mother in the + government and elected Emperor of Germany. The partition of Poland (1772) + gave Galicia and Lodomeria to Austria, which also obtained Bukowina from + the Porte in 1777. At the death of the Empress in 1780 Austria contained + 235,000 sq. miles, with a pop. estimated at 24,000,000.</p> + + <p>The liberal home administration of the Empress <!-- Page 326 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page326"></a>[326]</span>was continued and + extended by her successor, Joseph II, who did much to further the spread + of religious tolerance, education, and the industrial arts. The Low + Countries, however, revolted, and he was unsuccessful in the war of 1788 + against the Porte. His death took place in 1790. He was succeeded by his + eldest brother, Leopold II, under whom peace was restored in the + Netherlands, and in Hungary, and also with the Porte. On the death of his + sister and her husband Louis XVI of France he formed an alliance with + Prussia, but died in 1792, before the French revolutionary war broke + out.</p> + + <p>His son, Francis II, succeeded, and was elected German Emperor, by + which time France had declared war against him as King of Hungary and + Bohemia. In 1795, in the third partition of Poland, West Galicia fell to + Austria, and by the Peace of Campo-Formio (1797) she received the largest + part of the Venetian territory as compensation for her loss of Lombardy + and the Netherlands. In 1799 Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed + the war with France until 1801, when the Peace of Lunéville was + concluded. In 1804 Francis declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria + as Francis I, and united all his States under the name of the Empire of + Austria, immediately taking up arms once more with his allies Russia and + Great Britain against France. The war of 1805 was terminated by the Peace + of Pressburg (26th Dec.), by which Francis had to cede to France the + remaining provinces of Italy, as well as to give up portions of territory + to Bavaria, Würtemberg, and Baden, receiving in return Salzburg and + Berchtesgaden. After the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine + (12th July, 1806) Francis was forced to resign his dignity as Emperor of + Germany, which had been in his family more than 500 years. A new war with + France in 1809 cost the monarchy 42,380 sq. miles of territory and + 3,500,000 subjects. Napoleon married Maria Louisa, daughter of the + Emperor, and in 1812 concluded an alliance with him against Russia. But + in 1813 Francis again declared war against France, and formed an alliance + with Britain, Prussia, and Sweden against his son-in-law. By the Congress + of Vienna (1815) Austria gained Lombardy and Venetia, and recovered, + together with Dalmatia, the hereditary territories which it had been + obliged to cede.</p> + + <p>In the troubled period following the French revolution of 1830 + insurrections took place in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States (1831-2), + but were suppressed without much difficulty; and though professedly + neutral during the Polish insurrections Austria clearly showed herself on + the side of Russia, with whom her relations became more intimate as those + between Great Britain and France grew more cordial. The death of Francis + I (1835) and accession of his son, Ferdinand I, made little change in the + Austrian system of government, and much discontent was the consequence. + In 1846 the failure of the Polish insurrection led to the incorporation + of Cracow with Austria. In Italy the declarations of Pio Nono in favour + of reform increased the difficulties of Austria, and in Hungary the + opposition under Kossuth and others assumed the form of a great + constitutional movement. In 1848, when the expulsion of Louis Philippe + shook all Europe, Metternich found it impossible any longer to guide the + helm of the State, and the Government was compelled to admit a free press + and the right of citizens to arms. Apart from the popular attitude in + Italy and in Hungary, where the Diet declared itself permanent under the + presidency of Kossuth, the insurrection made equal progress in Vienna + itself, and the royal family, no longer in safety, removed to Innsbruck. + After various ministerial changes the Emperor abdicated in favour of his + nephew, Francis Joseph; more vigorous measures were adopted; and Austria, + aided by Russia, reduced Hungary to submission.</p> + + <p>The year 1855 is memorable for the Concordat with the Pope, which put + the educational and ecclesiastical affairs of the Empire entirely into + the hands of the Papal see. In 1859 the hostile intentions of France and + Sardinia against the possessions of Austria in Italy became so evident + that she declared war by sending an army across the Ticino; but after + disastrous defeats at Magenta and Solferino she was compelled to cede + Milan and the north-west portion of Lombardy to Sardinia. In 1864 she + joined with the German States in the war against Denmark, but a dispute + about Schleswig-Holstein involved her in a war with her allies (1866), + while at the same time Italy renewed her attempts for the recovery of + Venice. The Italians were defeated at Custozza and driven back across the + Mincio; but the Prussians, victorious at Königgrätz (or Sadowa), + threatened Vienna. Peace was concluded with Prussia on 23rd Aug. and with + Italy on 3rd Oct., the result of the war being the cession of Venetia + through France to Italy and the withdrawal of Austria from all + interference in the affairs of Germany.</p> + + <p>For nearly half a century (from 1866 to 1914) the internal affairs of + Austria-Hungary gave much occupation to statesmen of the dual monarchy. + Hungarian demands for self-government were finally agreed to, and the + Empire was divided into the two parts already mentioned—Austria and + Hungary. This settlement was consummated by the coronation of the Emperor + Francis Joseph I, at Budapest, as King of Hungary, on 8th June, 1867. In + the same year the Concordat of 1855 came up for discussion, <!-- Page 327 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page327"></a>[327]</span>and measures + were passed for the re-establishment of civil marriage, the emancipation + of schools from the domination of the Church, and the placing of + different creeds on a footing of equality. The fact of the + Austro-Hungarian dominions comprising so many different nationalities + gave the central Government much trouble, both in regard to internal and + to external affairs. In regard to the 'Eastern Question', for instance, + the action of Austria was hampered by the sympathies shown by the Magyars + for their blood relations, the Turks, while the Slavs were naturally more + favourable to Russia. During the war between Russia and Turkey in 1877-8 + Austria remained neutral; but at its close it was decided at the Congress + of Berlin that Bosnia and Herzegovina should in future be administered by + Austria instead of Turkey. In 1908, taking advantage of the condition of + Turkey, Austria formally annexed these provinces. By the middle of Oct., + 1918, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy began to break up into independent + national States. Four States of some size laid claim to independence, + viz. German-Austria, Czecho-Slovakia (recognized by the Allies), Hungary, + and Yugo-Slavia. On 13th Oct., 1921, German Austria signed with Hungary + the Burgenland pact, agreeing to a plebiscite in several districts. For + recent history of Austria, see <i>Francis Joseph; European + War.</i>—Cf. S. Whitman, <i>Austria</i> (in Story of the Nations + Series); H. W. Steed, <i>The Hapsburg Monarchy.</i></p> + + <p><b>Auteuil</b> (ō-tė-yė), formerly a suburban + village of Paris, but now enclosed within the fortifications.</p> + + <p><b>Autobiog´raphy</b>, a department of literature of which, as a + definite branch or form at least, we have no very ancient examples, + though many autobiographical details are contained, for instance, in + Cicero's and Pliny's letters, while St. Augustine has left a fragmentary + autobiography in his <i>Confessions</i>. Various writers of note, without + claiming or perhaps intending to write a formal autobiography, have left + similar materials in the form of their own memoirs or reminiscences, or, + for a portion of their lives, in diaries. The chief English diarists are + Pepys and Evelyn, while Crabb Robinson is an admirable modern example. + Brief autobiographies were written by Gibbon, Hume, and Sir Walter Scott + (of his early life only), and among other writers who have given us + autobiographies or kindred works are Fanny Burney, Cobbett, Haydon, Miss + Mitford, Harriet Martineau, Leigh Hunt, Hugh Miller (in <i>My Schools and + Schoolmasters</i>), John Stuart Mill, Anthony Trollope, Sir Henry Taylor, + Miss F. P. Cobbe, Carlyle, Ruskin, Herbert Spencer, Alexander Bain, and + Alfred Russel Wallace. Lord Roberts's <i>Forty-one Years in India</i> and + General Grant's <i>Personal Memoirs</i> are most interesting + autobiographical works by men of action. One of the most famous of + autobiographies is that of the Italian Benvenuto Cellini. See + <i>Biography</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Autochrome.</b> See <i>Photography</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Autochthones</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>-tok'tho-nēz), the Greek name for + the aboriginal inhabitants of a country. See <i>Aborigines</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Au´toclave</b> (derived from the Gr. <i>autos</i>, self, and Lat. + <i>clavis</i>, key) is a strong steam-tight vessel in which hydrolysis of + liquids can be carried out, under pressure, at temperatures considerably + higher than their normal boiling-points. The vessels may be of copper, + iron, or other suitable material, are sometimes enamelled within, or may + have renewable refractory linings when used for corrosive liquids. Some + types have mechanical agitators. Used in the manufacture of candles, + coal-tar colours, &c. May be heated by high-pressure steam or in + baths of oil or molten lead. See <i>Papin</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Au´tocrat</b> (Gr. <i>autos</i>, self, <i>kratos</i>, rule), an + absolute or uncontrolled ruler; the head of a State who is not controlled + by any constitutional limitations, such as the Tsars of Russia till + 1917.</p> + + <p><b>Auto-de-fe</b> (Sp.); <b>Auto-da-fe</b> (Pg.), literally, 'act of + faith'. See <i>Inquisition</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Au´tograph,</b> a person's own handwriting; an original manuscript + or signature, as opposed to a copy. The practice of collecting autographs + or signatures originated in Germany and the Low Countries, chiefly among + members of the universities, and dates at least from the sixteenth + century. Among the earliest collections known are those of John Cotton + and Hans Sloane in the British Museum, and of Philippe de Bethune, + brother of Sully, and Loménie de Brienne at the Bibliothèque Nationale. + The most celebrated collection formed in England in recent years is that + of Alfred Morrison.</p> + + <p><b>Automatic Writing.</b> See <i>Psychical Research</i>; + <i>Spiritualism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Autom´atism,</b> the confinement of activity in men or animals + within a purely mechanical limit, resulting from injury to or partial + removal of the brain.</p> + + <p><b>Autom´aton</b> (Gr. <i>automatos</i>, spontaneous), a self-moving + machine performing actions like those of a living being, and often shaped + like one. The walking statues of Dædalus, the flying dove of Archytas, + the brazen head of Friar Bacon, the iron fly of Regiomontanus, the + door-opening figure of Albertus Magnus, the parading knights of the clock + presented to Charlemagne by Harun al Rashid, the toy carriage and + attendants constructed by Camus for Louis XIV, the flute-player, + tambour-player, and duck of Vaucanson, and the writing child of the + brothers Droz are among the more noteworthy of traditional automata. See + <i>Conjuring</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 328 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page328"></a>[328]</span></p> + + <p><b>Automobile.</b> See <i>Motor Vehicles</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Auton´omy</b>, the power of a State, institution, &c., to + legislate for itself.</p> + + <p><b>Autoph´agi</b> (-jī), birds which feed themselves as soon as + hatched.</p> + + <p><b>Au´toplasty</b>, the operation by which wounds and diseased parts + are repaired with healthy tissues taken from other parts of the same + person's body.</p> + + <p><b>Autoplate.</b> See <i>Printing</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Autop´sy</b>, literally, personal observation or inspection, + commonly restricted to post-mortem examination. See <i>Coroner</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Au´totype</b>, a species of photographic print. A thin sheet of + gelatine on paper is rendered sensitive to light by treatment with + bichromate of potash, and then exposed under an ordinary photographic + negative. The portions of gelatine affected by the light become + insoluble, the remainder of the gelatine is then washed away, and the + picture remains reproduced in the gelatine, there being slight elevations + and depressions corresponding with the distribution of light and shade. + This may be printed from, but it is more often made use of to obtain + electrotypes or other reverses, from which impressions can more easily be + taken.</p> + + <p><b>Autumn</b>, the season between summer and winter, in the northern + hemisphere often regarded as embracing August, September, and October, or + three months about that time. The beginning of the astronomical autumn is + 22nd Sept., the autumnal equinox; and the end is 21st Dec., the shortest + day. The autumn of the southern hemisphere takes place at the time of the + northern spring.</p> + + <p><b>Autun</b> (ō-tu<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n; ancient, <b>Bibracte</b>, later, + <b>Augustodunum</b>), a town, South-Eastern France, department of + Saône-et-Loire. It has two Roman gates of exquisite workmanship, the + ruins of an amphitheatre and of several temples, the cathedral of St. + Lazare, a fine Gothic structure of the twelfth century with chapels added + in the fifteenth; manufactures of carpets, woollens, cotton, velvet, + hosiery, &c. Pop. 15,498.</p> + + <p><b>Autunite</b>, a hydrous phosphate of uranium and calcium, + crystallizing in the rhombic system in yellow plates. Like other minerals + of the uranium series it shows radio-activity.</p> + + <p><b>Auvergne</b> (ō-vār-nyė), a province, Central + France, now merged into departments Cantal and Puy-de-Dôme, and an + arrondissement of Haute-Loire. The Auvergne Mountains, separating the + basins of the Allier, Cher, and Creuse from those of the Lot and + Dordogne, contain the highest points of Central France: Mount Dor, 6188 + feet; Cantal, 6093 feet, and Puy-de-Dôme, 4806 feet. The number of + extinct volcanoes and general geologic formation make the district one of + great scientific interest. The minerals include iron, copper, and lead, + and there are warm and cold mineral springs. Auvergne contributes a large + supply to the labour markets of Paris and Belgium, there being in Paris + alone some 50,000 Auvergnats.</p> + + <p><b>Auxerre</b> (ō-sār), a town, France, department of + Yonne, 110 miles S.E. of Paris. Principal edifices: a fine Gothic + cathedral, unfinished; the abbey of St. Germain, with curious crypts; and + an old episcopal palace, now the Hôtel de Prefecture; it manufactures + woollens, hats, casks, leather, earthenware, violin strings, &c.; + trade, chiefly in wood and wines, of which the best known is white + Chablis. Pop. 21,930.</p> + + <p><b>Auxom´eter</b>, an instrument to measure the magnifying powers of + an optical apparatus.</p> + + <p><b>Auxonne</b> (ō-son; ancient, <b>Aussona</b>), a town, France, + department of Côte-d'Or (Burgundy), on the Saône; a fortified place, with + some manufactures. Pop. 6300.</p> + + <p><b>A´va</b>, a town in Asia, formerly the capital of Burma, on the + Irawadi, now almost wholly in ruins.</p> + + <p><b>Ava-Ava</b>, <b>Arva</b>, <b>Kava</b>, or <b>Yava</b> + (<i>Macropiper methysticum</i>), a plant of the nat. ord. Piperaceæ + (pepper family), so called by the inhabitants of Polynesia, who make an + intoxicating drink out of it. Its leaves are chewed with betel, in + South-Eastern Asia.</p> + + <p><b>Avad´avat.</b> See <i>Amadavat</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Av´alanches</b>, large masses of snow or ice precipitated from the + mountains, and distinguished as <i>wind</i> or <i>dust avalanches</i> + when they consist of fresh-fallen snow whirled like a dust-storm into the + valleys; as <i>sliding avalanches</i> when they consist of great masses + of snow sliding down a slope by their own weight; and as <i>glacier</i> + or <i>summer avalanches</i> when ice-masses are detached by heat from the + high glaciers.</p> + + <p><b>Avâl Islands.</b> Same as <i>Bahrein Islands</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Avallon</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-va<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lōn), a town of Central France, + department Yonne. Pop. 5900.</p> + + <p><b>Av´alon</b>, a sort of fairyland or elysium mentioned in connection + with the legends of King Arthur, being his abode after disappearing from + the haunts of men: called also <i>Avilion</i>. The name is also + identified with Glastonbury; and has been given to a peninsula of + Newfoundland.</p> + + <p><b>Avan´turine</b>, or <b>Aven´turine</b>, a variety of quartz + containing glittering spangles of mica through it; also a sort of + artificial gem of similar appearance.</p> + + <p><b>Av´ars</b>, a nation, probably of Turanian origin, who at an early + period may have migrated from the region east of the Tobol in Siberia to + that about the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the Volga. A part advanced to + the Danube in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 555, and settled in Dacia. + They served in Justinian's army, aided the Lombards in destroying the + kingdom of the Gepidæ, and in the sixth century <!-- Page 329 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page329"></a>[329]</span>conquered under their + Khan Bajan the region of Pannonia. They then won Dalmatia, pressed into + Thuringia and Italy against the Franks and Lombards, and subdued the + Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as well as the Bulgarians on the Black Sea. + But they were ultimately limited to Pannonia, where they were overcome by + Charlemagne, and nearly extirpated by the Slavs of Moravia. After 827 + they disappear from history. Traces of their fortified settlements are + found, and known as Avarian rings. See <i>Lesghians</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Avatar´</b>, more properly <b>Avatara</b>, in Hindu mythology, an + incarnation of the Deity. Of the innumerable avatars the chief are the + ten incarnations of Vishnu, who appeared successively as a fish, a + tortoise, a boar, a man-lion, a dwarf, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Avatch´a</b>, a volcano and bay in Kamchatka. The volcano, which is + 9000 feet high, was last active in 1855. The town of Petropavlovsk lies + in the bay.</p> + + <p><b>Avebury</b> (āv´be-ri), a village of England, in Wiltshire, + occupying the site of a so-called Druidical temple, which originally + consisted of a large outer circle of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in + height, and about 40 feet in circumference, surrounded by a broad ditch + and lofty rampart, and enclosing two smaller circles. Few traces now + remain of the structure. On the neighbouring downs are numerous barrows + or tumuli, one of which, called Silbury Hill, rises to the height of 130 + feet, with a circumference of 2027 feet at the base, covering fully 5 + acres.</p> + + <p><b>Avebury</b>, John Lubbock, first Baron. See <i>Lubbock</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aveiro</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-vā´i-ru<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>), a coast town in Portugal, province of + Douro, with a cathedral, an active fishery, and a thriving trade. Pop. + 11,523.</p> + + <p><b>Avellino</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-vel-lē´nō), a town in + Southern Italy, capital of the province of Avellino, 29 miles east of + Naples, the seat of a bishop. Avellino nuts were celebrated under the + Romans. Pop. 24,620. Area of the province, 1165 sq. miles; pop. + 411,813.</p> + + <p><b>A´ve Mari´a</b> ('Hail, Mary'), the first two words of the angel + Gabriel's salutation (<i>Luke</i>, i, 28), and the beginning of the very + common Latin prayer to the Virgin in the Roman Catholic Church. Its lay + use was sanctioned at the end of the twelfth century, and a papal edict + of 1326 ordains the repetition of the prayer thrice each morning, noon, + and evening, the hour being indicated by sound of bells called the Ave + Maria or Angelus Domini. The prayers are counted upon the small beads of + the rosary, as the pater-nosters are upon the large ones.</p> + + <p><b>Ave´na.</b> See <i>Oat</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Av´ens</b>, the English name of two rosaceous plants of the genus + Geum. Common avens, or herb-bennet, <i>G. urbānum</i>, possesses + astringent properties, and was formerly used in medicine. The mountain + avens, <i>Dryas octopetala</i>, belongs to the same nat. ord.</p> + + <p><b>Av´entaile</b>, the movable face-guard of the helmet, through which + the wearer breathed.</p> + + <p><b>Av´entine</b>, one of the seven hills of Rome, east of the Tiber. + It was included in the city by Servius Tullius.</p> + + <p><b>Aven´turine.</b> See <i>Avanturine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Av´erage</b>, in maritime law, any charge or expense over and above + the freight of goods, and payable by their owner.—<i>General + average</i> is the sum falling to be paid by the owners of ship, cargo, + and freight, in proportion to their several interests, to make good any + loss or expense intentionally incurred for the general safety of ship and + cargo, e.g. throwing goods overboard, cutting away masts, port dues in + cases of distress, &c.—<i>Particular average</i> is the sum + falling to be paid for unavoidable loss when the general safety is not in + question, and therefore chargeable on the individual owner of the + property lost. A policy of insurance generally covers both general and + particular average, unless specially excepted.—<i>Averaging</i>, in + Stock Exchange language, denotes the operation of a speculator in + increasing transactions at a higher or lower price when the price is + moving against him, so that the average price of the whole will be higher + or lower than his original purchase or sale.</p> + + <p><b>Aver´nus</b>, a lake, now called <b>Lago d'Averno</b>, in Campania, + Italy, between the ancient Cumæ and Puteoli, about 8 miles from Naples. + It is the crater of an old volcano, and is in some places 180 feet deep. + Formerly the gloom of its forest surroundings and its mephitic + exhalations caused it to be regarded as the entrance to the infernal + regions. It was the fabled abode of the Cimmerians, and especially + dedicated to Proserpine.</p> + + <p><b>Averroes</b> (a-ver´o-es; corrupted from <b>Ibn Roshd</b>), the + most renowned Arabian philosopher, born at Cordova, in Spain, 1126, died + at Morocco 1198. His ability procured him the succession to his father's + office of chief magistrate, and the King of Morocco appointed him at the + same time cadi in the province of Mauretania. Accused of being an + infidel, he was, however, deprived of his offices, and banished to Spain; + but, being persecuted there also, he fled to Fez, where he was condemned + to recant and undergo public penance. Upon this he went back to his own + country, where the Caliph Almansur finally restored him to his dignities. + Averroes regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers, and + devoted himself so largely to the exposition of his works as to be called + among the Arabians <i>The Interpreter</i>. He wrote a compendium of + medicine, and treatises on theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, &c. + His commentaries upon <!-- Page 330 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page330"></a>[330]</span>Aristotle appeared before 1250 in a Latin + translation attributed to Michael Scott, the reputed wizard (1194-1250), + and others. Averroes was at once a philosopher, a theologian, and a + theosophist.</p> + + <p><b>Averrunca´tor</b>, a garden implement for pruning trees without a + ladder, consisting of two blades similar to stout shears, one fixed + rigidly to a long handle, and the other moved by a lever to which a cord + passing over a pulley is attached.</p> + + <p><b>Aver´sa</b>, a well-built town of Southern Italy, 7 miles <span + class="scac">N.</span> of Naples, in a beautiful vine and orange + district, the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral and various religious + institutions, and a large lunatic asylum. Andreas of Hungary, husband of + Queen Joanna I, was strangled in a convent here, 18th Sept., 1345. Pop. + 23,203.</p> + + <p><b>Avesnes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-vān), a town of France, department + Nord. Pop. 5829.</p> + + <p><b>Avesta.</b> See <i>Zendavesta</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aveyron</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-vā-rōn<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), a department occupying the southern + extremity of the central plateau of France, traversed by mountains + belonging to the Cevennes and the Cantal ranges; principal rivers: + Aveyron, Lot, and Tarn, the Lot alone being navigable. The climate is + cold, and agriculture is in a backward state, but considerable attention + is paid to sheep-breeding. It is noted for its 'Roquefort cheese'. It has + coal, iron, and copper mines, besides other minerals. Area, 3385 sq. + miles; capital, Rhodez. Pop. (1921), 332,940.</p> + + <p><b>Avezzano</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-vet-zä'nō), a town of S. Italy, + province Aquila. Pop. 11,279.</p> + + <p><b>Av´iary</b>, a building or enclosure for keeping, breeding, and + rearing birds. Aviaries appear to have been used by the Persians, Greeks, + and Romans, and are highly prized in China. In England they were in use + at least as early as 1577, when William Harrison refers to "our costlie + and curious aviaries". An aviary may be simply a kind of very large cage, + or a series of enclosures.</p> + + <p><b>Aviatik</b>, a German type of biplane. It was originally built at + Mulhausen in Alsace.</p> + + <p><b>Aviation.</b> See <i>Aeronautics</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Avicen´na</b>, or <b>Ebn-Sina</b>, an Arabian philosopher and + physician, born at Kharmaithen, in the province of Bokhara, <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 980. After practising as a physician he quitted + Bokhara at the age of twenty-two, and for a number of years led a + wandering life, settling at last at Hamadan, subsequently as vizier of + the Emir. On the death of his patron he lived in retirement at Hamadan, + but having secretly offered his services to the Sultan of Ispahan he was + imprisoned by the new Emir. Escaping, he fled to Ispahan, was received + with great honour by the Sultan, and passed there in quietness the last + fourteen years of his life, writing upon medicine, logic, metaphysics, + astronomy, and geometry. His philosophy was Aristotelianism mingled with + neo-Platonism, and his influence is most marked in Dante and the Mystics. + He died at Hamadan, in Northern Persia, 1037, leaving many writings, + mostly commentaries on Aristotle. Of his 100 treatises the best known is + the <i>Canon Medicinæ</i>, which was still in use as a textbook at + Louvain and Montpellier in the middle of the seventeenth century. His + <i>Philosophia Orientalis</i>, mentioned by Roger Bacon, is lost.</p> + + <p><b>Avie´nus</b>, Rufus Festus, a Latin descriptive poet, who + flourished about the end of the fourth century <span + class="scac">A.D.</span>, and wrote <i>Descriptio Orbis Terræ</i>, a + general description of the earth; <i>Ora Maritima</i>, an account of the + Mediterranean coasts, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Avifau´na</b>, a collective term for the birds of any region.</p> + + <p><b>Avigliano</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-vēl-yä´nō), a town of S. + Italy, province Potenza. Pop. 17,413.</p> + + <p><b>Avignon</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-vē-nyōn; ancient, + <b>Avenio</b>), an old town of S.E. France, capital of department + Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Rhone; enclosed by lofty battlemented + and turreted walls, well built, but with rather narrow streets. It is an + archbishop's see since 1475, and has a large and ancient cathedral on a + rock overlooking the town, the immense palace in which the Popes resided + (used as a barracks and prison for a long time), and other old buildings. + The industries of the city are numerous and varied, the principal being + connected with silk. The silk manufacture and the breeding of silk-worms + are the principal employments in the district. Here Petrarch lived + several years, and made the acquaintance of Laura, whose tomb is in the + Franciscan church. From 1309 to 1377 seven Popes in succession, from + Clement V to Gregory XI, resided in this city. After its purchase by Pope + Clement VI, in 1348, Avignon and its district continued, with a few + interruptions, under the rule of a vice-legate of the Pope's till 1791, + when it was formally united to the French Republic. Pop. 49,304.</p> + + <p><b>Avignon Berries.</b> See <i>French Berries</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Avila</b> (ä'vē-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a town of Spain, capital of province + of Avila, a modern division of Old Castile. It is the see of the Bishop + suffragan of Santiago, with fine cathedral. Once one of the richest towns + of Spain. Principal employment in the town, spinning; in the province, + breeding sheep and cattle. Pop., town, 12,060; province, 214,008.</p> + + <p><b>Avila</b>, Gil Gonzalez d', a Spanish antiquary and biographer, + 1577-1658; made historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of the Indies in + 1641. Most valuable works: <i>Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid</i>, + 1623, and <i>Teatro Ecclesiastico</i>, 1645-53.</p> + + <p><b>Avila y Zuñiga</b> (ä´vē-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span> ē thö-nyē´ga<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), Don Luis d', Spanish + general, diplomatist, and historian; a favourite of Charles V; born about + <!-- Page 331 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page331"></a>[331]</span>1490, died about 1560. His chief work, + printed in 1548 and translated into five languages, was on the war of + Charles V in Germany.</p> + + <p><b>Aviles</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-vē'les), a town of Northern Spain, + province Oviedo, with a good harbour. Pop. 13,660.</p> + + <p><b>Aviz</b>, an order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho, + its first king, and having as its original object the subjection of the + Moors.</p> + + <p><b>Avizan´dum</b>, in Scots law, private consideration. To make + <i>avizandum</i> is to remove a cause from the public court to the + private consideration of the judge.</p> + + <p><b>Avlo´na</b> (Ital. <i>Valona</i>), a seaport of Albania on the + Adriatic, with a considerable trade. It was occupied and made a naval and + military base by the Italians during the European War. Pop. 6500.</p> + + <p><b>Avo´ca</b>, or <b>Ovoca</b>, a river and valley in Ireland, County + Wicklow, celebrated as the scene and subject of one of Moore's <i>Irish + Melodies</i>. The river is formed by the union of the Avonbeg and + Avonmore, and below the junction receives the Aughrim, the name in Celtic + signifying 'the meeting of the waters'. After a course of about 9 miles + it falls into the sea about a mile below Arklow. The scenery here is + singularly beautiful, and attracts many visitors.</p> + + <p><b>Avoca´do-pear</b>. See <i>Alligator-pear</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Avogad´ro's Law</b>, in physics, asserts that equal volumes of + different gases at the same pressure and temperature contain an equal + number of molecules.</p> + + <p><b>Avoirdupois</b> (a-vėr'du<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>-pois; from old French, literally, 'goods + of weight'), a system of weights used for all goods except precious + metals, gems, and medicines, and in which a pound contains 16 ounces, or + 7000 grains, while a pound troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760 grains. A + hundredweight contains 112 pounds avoirdupois; a <i>cental</i> of 100 + pounds is common in America, and is a legal British weight. See + <i>Weights and Measures</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Av´ola</b>, a seaport on the east of Sicily, with a trade in + almonds, sugar, &c. Pop. 17,711.</p> + + <p><b>A´von</b>, the name of several rivers in England, of which the + principal are: 1. The Upper Avon, rising in Leicestershire, and flowing + <span class="scac">S.W.</span> into the Severn at Tewkesbury. + Stratford-on-Avon lies on this river. 2. The Lower Avon, rising in + Gloucestershire, and falling into the Severn <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> of Bristol; navigable as far as Bath. 3. In + Monmouthshire. 4. In Wiltshire and Hampshire, entering the English + Channel at Christchurch Bay. There are also streams of this name in Wales + and Scotland.</p> + + <p><b>Avonmouth</b>, a place at the mouth of the River Avon, 6 miles from + Bristol, and connected with it by rail and river, with large docks + belonging to the Bristol corporation, and forming part of the shipping + accommodation of that city.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/image127.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image127.jpg" + alt="Avoset" title="Avoset" /></a> + Avoset (<i>Recurvirostra avosetta</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Av´oset</b>, a bird about the size of a lapwing, of the genus + Recurvirostra (<i>R. avosetta</i>), family Scolopacidæ (snipes), ord. + Grallatores. The bill is long, slender, elastic, and bent upward toward + the tip, the legs long, the feet webbed, and the plumage variegated with + black and white. The bird feeds on worms and other small animals, which + it scoops up from the mud of the marshes and fens that it frequents. It + is found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; but the American species + is slightly different from the others.</p> + + <p><b>Avranches</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-vrän<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>sh; ancient, <b>Abrincæ</b>), a town, + France, department La Manche, about 3 miles from the Atlantic. It + formerly had a fine cathedral, destroyed during the first French + revolution. Manufactures: lace, thread, and candles. Pop. 7174.</p> + + <p><b>Awe</b> (a<span class="x1"><span class="x3">¨</span></span>), + a Scottish loch in Argyllshire, about 28 miles long and 2 broad, and + communicating by the Awe with Loch Etive. Ben Cruachan stands at its + northern extremity. It has many islands and beautiful scenery, and + abounds in trout, salmon, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Axe</b>, or <b>Ax</b>, a well-known tool for cutting or chipping + wood, consisting of an iron head with an arched cutting edge of steel, + which is in line with the wooden handle of the tool, and not at right + angles to it as in the adze.</p> + + <p><b>Axel</b>. See <i>Absalon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Axe-stone.</b> See <i>Jade</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Axholme Isle</b> (aks'ōm), a sort of island in <!-- Page 332 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page332"></a>[332]</span>England formed + by the Rivers Trent, Idle, and Don, in the north-west angle of + Lincolnshire, 17 miles long, 4½ broad.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;"> + <a href="images/image128.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image128.jpg" + alt="Axil" title="Axil" /></a> + Leaf and stem of Horse-chestnut, showing axil + </div> + + <p><b>Axil</b>, or <b>Axilla</b>, in botany, the angle between the upper + side of a leaf and the stem or branch from which it springs. Buds usually + appear in the axils, and flowers or flower-stalks growing in this way are + called <i>axillary</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ax´im</b>, a town of W. Africa, on the Gold Coast.</p> + + <p><b>Ax´inite</b>, a mineral, silicate of alumina, lime, &c., with + boracic acid, deriving its name from the form of the crystals, the edges + of which bear some resemblance to the edge of an axe.</p> + + <p><b>Axin´omancy</b>, an ancient method of divination by the movements + of an axe (Gr. <i>axinē</i>) balanced on a stake, or of an agate + placed on a red-hot axe. The names of suspected persons being uttered, + the movements at a particular name indicated the criminal.</p> + + <p><b>Ax´iom</b>, a universal proposition, which the understanding must + perceive to be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of the words, and + therefore called a <i>self-evident truth</i>: e.g. <i>A</i> is <i>A</i>. + In mathematics, axioms are those propositions which are assumed without + proof, as being in themselves independent of proof, and which are made + the basis of all the subsequent reasoning; as, 'The whole is greater than + its part'; 'Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to one + another'. See <i>Geometry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Axis</b>, the straight line, real or imaginary, passing through a + body or magnitude, on which it revolves, or may be supposed to revolve; + especially a straight line with regard to which the different parts of a + magnitude, or several magnitudes, are symmetrically arranged; e.g. the + <i>axis of the world</i>, the imaginary line drawn through its two + poles.</p> + + <p>In <i>botany</i> the word is also used, the stem being termed the + <i>ascending axis</i>, the root the <i>descending axis</i>.</p> + + <p>In <i>anatomy</i> the name is given to the second vertebra from the + head, that on which the <i>atlas</i> moves. See <i>Atlas</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Axis</b> (<i>Cervus axis</i>), a species of Indian deer, also known + as the Spotted Hog-deer, of a rich fawn colour, nearly black along the + back, with white spots, and under parts white. Breeds freely in many + parks in Europe.</p> + + <p><b>Ax´minster</b>, a market town, England, county Devon, on the Axe, + at one time celebrated for its woollen cloth and carpet manufactures, and + giving name to an expensive variety of carpet having a thick soft pile, + and also to a cheaper variety. Pop. (1921), 2049.</p> + + <p><b>Ax´olotl</b> (<i>Amblystŏma maculātum</i>), a curious + Mexican amphibian, not unlike a newt, from 8 to 10 inches in length, with + gills formed of three long ramified or branch-like processes floating on + each side of the neck. It reproduces by laying eggs, and was for some + time regarded as a perfect animal with permanent gills. It is said, + however, that they frequently lose their gills like the other members of + the genus, though some authorities maintain that the true axolotl never + loses its gills, and that merely confusion with <i>A. tigrīnum</i> + has led to the belief, as this species sometimes retains its branchiæ, + though usually it loses them. The axolotl is esteemed a luxury by the + Mexicans. There are a number of species of Amblystoma in North + America.</p> + + <p><b>Ax´um</b>, or <b>Aksum</b>, a town in Tigré, a division of + Abyssinia, once the capital of an important kingdom, and at one time the + great depot of the ivory trade in the Red Sea. It is the seat of an + <i>abuna</i> or Patriarch, and has a pop. of 5000. The site of the town + still exhibits many remains of its former greatness.</p> + + <p><b>Ayacucho</b> (ä-ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-kö'chō), the name of a department + of Peru, and of its capital. The department has an area of 18,185 sq. + miles; a pop. of 302,469. The town (formerly Guamanga or Huamanga) has a + cathedral and a university, and a pop. of 20,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ayala</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-yä'la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), Pedro Lopez de, Spanish historian and + poet, Chancellor of Castile in the second half of the fourteenth century, + and the author of a history of Castile from 1350 to 1396. He took an + active part in the struggle between Henry II and Pedro the Cruel, and was + taken prisoner by the English in 1367. During his English captivity he + wrote part of his chief poetical work, <i>A Book in Rhyme concerning + Court Life</i>. Died 1407.</p> + + <p><b>Ayamonte</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-mon'tā), a seaport town, Spain, + province of Huelva, 2 miles from the mouth of the Guadiana. Pop. + 6000.</p> + + <p><b>Ayass´oluk</b>. See <i>Ephesus</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/image129.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image129.jpg" + alt="Aye-aye" title="Aye-aye" /></a> + Aye-aye (<i>Cheirŏmys madagascariensis</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Aye-aye</b> (ī-ī; <i>Cheirŏmys + madagascariensis</i>), an animal of Madagascar, so called from its cry; + now referred to the lemur family. It is about the size of a hare, has + large flat ears and a bushy tail; large eyes; long sprawling fingers, the + third so slender as to appear shrivelled; colour, musk-brown, mixed with + black and grey ash; feeds on grubs, fruits, &c.; habits, nocturnal. + See <i>Primates</i>, <i>Lemurs</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ayesha</b> (a-yesh'a), daughter of Abu-Bekr and favourite wife of + Mahomet, though she bore him no child, born in 610 or 611. After his + death she opposed the succession of Ali, but was <!-- Page 333 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page333"></a>[333]</span>defeated and taken + prisoner. She died at Medina in 677 or 678 (<span + class="scac">A.H.</span> 58).</p> + + <p><b>Aylesbury</b> (ālz´be-ri), county town of Buckinghamshire, + England, with a fine old parish church; chief industries, silk-throwing, + printing, making condensed milk, and poultry-rearing for the London + market. The Aylesbury duck, also called 'white English', is famous. + Previous to 1885 it and its hundred sent two members to Parliament, and + it still gives its name to a parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), + 12,114.</p> + + <p><b>Ay´loffe,</b> Sir Joseph, an English antiquary, born about 1708, + died 1781; member of the first council of the Society of Antiquaries, a + commissioner for the preservation of State papers, the author and editor + of several works, of which the best known is his <i>Calendars of the + Auntient Charters</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aymaras</b> (ī´ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>z), an Indian race of Bolivia and Peru, + speaking a language akin to the Quichua.</p> + + <p><b>Ay´mon,</b> the surname of four brothers, Alard, Richard, Guiscard, + and Renaud, who hold a first place among the heroes of the Charlemagne + cycle of romance. Their exploits were the subject of a romance, <i>Les + Quatre Fils d'Aymon</i>, by Huon de Villeneuve, a trouvère of the + thirteenth century, and Renaud is a leading figure in Ariosto's + <i>Orlando</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ayr</b> (ār), a town of Scotland, a royal and parliamentary + burgh, and capital of Ayrshire, at the mouth of the River Ayr, on the + Firth of Clyde. It was the site of a Roman station. William the Lion + built a castle there in 1197 and constituted it a royal burgh in 1202; + and the Parliament which confirmed Robert Bruce's title to the crown sat + in Ayr. It is picturesquely situated, and has excellent public and other + buildings. Two bridges connect Ayr proper with the suburbs of Newton and + Wallacetown, a third stands farther up the river. The 'New Brig' of + Burns's 'Brigs of Ayr' (built in 1788) had to be replaced by a new + structure in 1879, while the 'Auld Brig' (built in 1252) still stands, + after being repaired. Carpets, lace goods, leather, iron goods, &c., + are manufactured. The harbour accommodation is good, and in particular + coals are largely exported. The house in which Burns was born stands + within 1½ miles of the town, and near 'Alloway's auld haunted kirk', and + a monument to him is near. Ayr unites with Ardrossan, Irvine, Prestwick, + Saltcoats, and Troon in sending a member to Parliament. Pop. + 32,986.—The county has an area of 724,523 acres. It is divided into + the districts of Carrick in the south, Kyle in the middle, and Cunningham + in the north. The surface is irregular, and a large portion of it hilly, + but much of it is fertile. The principal streams are the Ayr, Stinchar, + Girvan, Doon, Irvine, and Garnock. Coal and iron are abundant; and there + are numerous collieries and ironworks. Limestone and freestone are also + abundant. Agriculture is in a flourishing state, the principal crops + being oats, turnips, and early potatoes, while dairy husbandry is + extensively practised; the Ayrshire cows, referred to in the eighteenth + century as the Cunningham, are celebrated as milkers, and Ayrshire cheese + ('Dunlop' and 'Cheddar') has a high reputation. Woollen manufactures are + extensive, particularly carpets and bonnets; lace goods are largely made; + Kilmarnock is a centre of engineering and of dairying education. Goods + made include explosives, boots and shoes, chemicals, and leather. Chief + towns, Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Stevenston, + Maybole. Ayr and Buteshire send three members to Parliament. Pop. 267,600 + (1918).</p> + + <p><b>Ayrer</b> (ī´rer), Jacob, a German dramatist of the sixteenth + century, who almost rivalled Hans Sachs in copiousness and importance. He + was a citizen and legal official of Nuremberg, and died in 1605. His + works, published at Nuremberg in 1618, under the title <i>Opus + Theatricum</i>, include thirty comedies and tragedies and thirty-six + humorous pieces.</p> + + <p><b>Ayrton,</b> William Edward, English physicist and electrical + engineer, born in 1847. From 1873 to 1879 he was professor of natural + philosophy and telegraphy in the Imperial College of Engineering at + Tokio. In 1879 he was appointed professor of applied physics in the City + and Guilds of London Institute. He invented an ammeter, voltmeter, + &c., in conjunction with Professor Perry. He died in 1908. He + published <i>Practical Electricity</i>, and many papers on scientific + subjects.</p> + + <p><b>Aytoun</b> (ā´tun), Sir Robert, poet, born in Fifeshire, + Scotland, 1570, died 1638. After studying at St. Andrews he lived for + some time in France, whence, in 1603, he addressed a panegyric in Latin + verse to King James on his accession to the crown of England. By the <!-- + Page 334 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page334"></a>[334]</span>grateful monarch he was appointed one of + the gentlemen of the bedchamber, and private secretary to the queen, + receiving also the honour of knighthood. At a later period of his life he + was secretary to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. His poems are few + in number, but are distinguished by elegance of diction. Several of his + Latin poems are preserved in the work called <i>Delitiæ Poetarum + Scotorum</i>, published at Amsterdam in 1637 at the expense of Sir John + Scot of Scotstarvet.</p> + + <p><b>Aytoun</b>, William Edmonstoune, poet and prose writer, born at + Edinburgh in 1813, died at Blackhills, Elgin, 1865. He studied at the + University of Edinburgh, became a writer to the signet in 1835, and + passed as advocate in 1840. He issued a volume of poems in 1832, by 1836 + was a contributor to <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>, and in 1840 he + published the <i>Life and Times of Richard 1</i>. In 1848 he published a + collection of ballads entitled <i>Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers</i>, + which has proved the most popular of all his works. It was followed in + 1854 by <i>Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy</i> (intended to ridicule + certain popular writers); the <i>Bon Gaultier Ballads</i> (parodies and + other humorous pieces, in conjunction with Theodore Martin), 1855; in + 1856 the poem <i>Bothwell</i>; and in subsequent years by <i>Norman + Sinclair</i>, <i>The Glenmutchkin Railway</i>, and other stories. In 1858 + he edited a critical and annotated collection of the <i>Ballads of + Scotland</i>. A translation of the poems and ballads of Goethe was + executed by him in conjunction with Theodore Martin. In 1845 he became + professor of rhetoric and English literature in the University of + Edinburgh—a position which he held till his death. In 1852 he was + appointed Sheriff of Orkney and Shetland.</p> + + <p><b>Ayuntamiento</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-yu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>n-ta<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-mē-en´tō), the name given to + the town and village councils in Spain and Spanish America.</p> + + <p><b>Ayu´thia</b>, the ancient capital of Siam, on the Menam, now a + scene of splendid ruin.</p> + + <p><b>Aza´lea</b>, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Ericaceæ, or heaths, + remarkable for the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, and + distinguished from the rhododendrons chiefly by the flowers having five + stamens instead of ten. Many beautiful rhododendrons with deciduous + leaves are known under the name of <i>azalea</i> in gardens. The azaleas + are common in North America, and two species of these—<i>A. + viscōsa</i> and <i>A. nudiflōra</i>—are well known in + Britain. An Asiatic species, <i>A. pontica</i>, famous for the stupefying + effect which its honey is said to have produced on Xenophon's army (cf. + <i>Anabasis</i>, book iv, chap. 8), is also common in British gardens and + shrubberies; and another, <i>A. indica</i>, is a brilliant greenhouse + plant.</p> + + <p><b>Azamgarh</b>, or <b>Azimgarh</b>, a town of India, United + Provinces, capital of district of same name. Pop. 18,835.—The + district has an area of 2418 sq. miles; a pop. of 1,530,000.</p> + + <p><b>Azeglio</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>d-zel´yō), Massimo Taparelli, + Marquis d', an Italian 'admirable Crichton', artist, novelist, publicist, + statesman, and soldier, born at Turin in 1798, died 1866. After gaining + some reputation in Rome as a painter, he married the daughter of Manzoni, + and achieved success in literature by his novels <i>Ettore Fieramosca</i> + (1833) and <i>Niccolo dei Lapi</i> (1841). These embodied much of the + patriotic spirit, and in a short time he devoted himself exclusively to + fostering the national sentiment by personal action and by his writings. + Many of the reforms of Pius IX were due to him. He commanded a legion in + the Italian struggle of 1848, and was severely wounded at Vincenza. + Chosen a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies, he was, after the + battle of Novara, made president of the cabinet, and in 1859 appointed to + the military post of general and commissioner-extraordinary for the Roman + States.</p> + + <p><b>Azerbaijan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-zer-bī-jän´), a province of + North-Western Persia; area, 40,000 sq. miles; pop. estimated at + 2,000,000. It consists generally of lofty mountain ranges, some of which + rise to a height of between 12,000 and 13,000 feet. Principal rivers: the + Aras or Araxes, and the Kizil-Uzen, which enter the Caspian; smaller + streams discharge themselves within the province into the great salt lake + of Urumiyah. Agricultural products: wheat, barley, maize, fruit, cotton, + tobacco, and grapes. Horses, cattle, sheep, and camels are reared in + considerable numbers. Chief minerals: iron, lead, copper, salt, + saltpetre, and marble. Tabriz is the capital; pop. 200,000.</p> + + <p><b>Azerbaijan</b>, a new republic proclaimed in 1918, after the + Russian revolution. It consists of the former Russian province of Baku on + the coast of the Caspian Sea. In 1920 the Bolshevist party overthrew the + Government and broke off relations with the Entente. See + <i>Russia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Az´imuth</b> of a heavenly body, the arc of the horizon + comprehended between the meridian of the observer and a vertical circle + passing through the centre of the body. The azimuth and altitude give the + exact position of the body with reference to the horizon.</p> + + <p><b>Azincourt.</b> See <i>Agincourt</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Azo Compounds</b>, a class of substances which belong to the + benzene series and contain carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. All azo + compounds are highly coloured, and in some cases they are direct cotton + dyes. The simplest azo compound is <i>azobenzene</i>, the chemical + formula of which is + C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>—N = N—C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>. + It is prepared from nitrobenzene by reducing it with stannous chloride + and sodium hydroxide. Azobenzene is <!-- Page 335 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page335"></a>[335]</span>a highly-coloured + crystalline substance, but it is not a dye; it forms, however, the basis + of the dyes known as <i>azodyes</i>. The azodyes form one of the largest + groups of dyes, and derive their name from the presence of the + characteristic chemical group —N = N—, known as the + <i>azo</i> group. Azo compounds may become exceedingly complicated in + structure. They are divided into mon-azo, di-azo, tri-azo compounds + according to the number of azo groups present. The well-known dyes Congo + Red and Bismarck Brown are azo compounds of complicated structure. Azo + dyes were discovered by Griess in 1856, but as a class did not come on + the market until about 1876.</p> + + <p><b>Azof.</b> See <i>Azov</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Azo´ic.</b> See <i>Pre-Cambrian</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Azoimide</b>, or <b>Hydrazoic Acid</b>, N<sub>3</sub>H, is an acid + liquid of disagreeable odour, producing headache if inhaled. The acid + itself and its salts, with the exception of the alkali salts, are + exceedingly explosive and dangerous to handle. Lead hydrazoate, + PbN<sub>6</sub>, is one of the most stable of these salts. It is a more + powerful explosive than mercury fulminate, and has been used instead, in + the manufacture of detonators.</p> + + <p><b>Azores</b> (a-zōrz' or a-zō'res), or <b>Western + Islands</b>, a group belonging to and 900 miles west of Portugal, in the + North Atlantic Ocean. They are nine in number, and form three distinct + groups—a <span class="scac">N.W.</span>, consisting of Flores and + Corvo; a central, consisting of Terceira, São Jorge, Pico, Fayal, and + Graciosa; and a <span class="scac">S.E.</span>, consisting of São Miguel + (or St. Michael) and Santa Maria. The total area is 922 sq. miles; São + Miguel (containing the capital Ponta Delgada), Pico, and Terceira are the + largest. The islands, which are volcanic and subject to earthquakes, are + of comparatively recent origin, and are conical, lofty, precipitous, and + picturesque. The most remarkable summit is the peak of Pico, about 7600 + feet high. There are numerous hot springs. They are covered with + luxuriant vegetation, and diversified with woods, corn-fields, vineyards, + lemon and orange groves, and rich, open pastures. The mild and somewhat + humid climate, combined with the natural fertility of the soil, brings + all kinds of vegetable products rapidly to perfection, among the most + important being grain, oranges, pine-apples, bananas, potatoes, yams, + beans, coffee, and tobacco. The inhabitants are mainly of Portuguese + descent, indolent and devoid of enterprise. Principal exports: wine and + brandy, oranges, maize, beans, pineapples, cattle. The climate is + recommended as suitable for consumptive patients. The Azores were + discovered by Cabral about 1431, shortly after which date they were taken + possession of and colonized by the Portuguese. When first visited they + were uninhabited, and had scarcely any other animals except birds, + particularly hawks, to which, called in Portuguese <i>açores</i>, the + islands owe their name. Pop. 242,613 (1911).</p> + + <p><b>Az´ote</b>, a name formerly given to nitrogen; hence substances + containing nitrogen and forming part of the structure of plants and + animals are known as <i>azotized</i> bodies. Such are albumen, fibrine, + caseine, gelatine, urea, kreatine, &c. See <i>Nitrogen</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´zov</b>, or <b>Asov</b>, a town in the Russian government of + Ekaterinoslav, upon an island at the mouth of the Don, where it flows + into the Sea of Azov; formerly a place of extensive trade, but its + harbour has become almost sanded up. Pop. 31,111.</p> + + <p><b>Azov, Sea of</b> (ancient, <b>Palus Moeōtis</b>), an arm of + the Black Sea, with which it is united by the Straits of Kertch or Kaffa; + length about 170 miles, breadth about 80 miles; greatest depth not more + than 8 fathoms. The W. part, called the Putrid Sea, is separated from the + main expanse by a long sandy belt called Arabat, along which runs a + military road. The sea teems with fish. The Don and other rivers enter + it, and its waters are very fresh.</p> + + <p><b>Azpeitia</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>th-pā'i-ti-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a town of N.E. Spain, province + Guipuzcoa. Near it is the convent of Loyola, a large edifice, now a + museum. Pop. 6692.</p> + + <p><b>Az´rael.</b> See <i>As'rael</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Az´tecs</b> (from <i>Aztatl</i> (heron), and <i>Flacatl</i> (man), + 'people of the heron'), a race of people who settled in Mexico early in + the fourteenth century, ultimately extended their dominion over a large + territory, and were still extending their supremacy at the time of the + arrival of the Spaniards, by whom they were speedily subjugated. Their + political organization, termed by the Spanish writers an absolute + monarchy, consisted of a military chief exercising important, but not + unlimited, power in civil affairs, in which the council of chiefs and + periodic assemblies of the judges had also a voice. Their most celebrated + ruler was Montezuma, who was reigning when the Spaniards arrived, about + the middle of the fifteenth century. It is inferred that considerable + numbers of them lived in large communal residences, and that land was + held and cultivated upon the communal principle. Slavery and polygamy + were both legitimate, but the children of slaves were regarded as free. + Although ignorant of the horse, ox, &c., they had a considerable + knowledge of agriculture, maize and the agave being the chief produce. + Silver, lead, tin, and copper were obtained from mines, and gold from the + surface and river beds, but iron was unknown to them, their tools being + of bronze and obsidian. Metal coins were not in use. In metal-work, + feather-work, weaving, and pottery they possessed a high degree of skill. + To record events they used picture-writing, and their lunar calendars + were of unusual accuracy. Two <!-- Page 336 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page336"></a>[336]</span>special deities claimed their reverence: + Huitzilo-pochtli, the god of war, propitiated with human sacrifices; and + Quetzalcoatl, the beneficent god of light and air, with whom at first the + Aztecs were disposed to identify Cortez. Their temples, with large + terraced pyramidal bases, were in the charge of an exceedingly large + priesthood, to whom the education of the young was entrusted. As a + civilization of apparently independent origin, yet closely resembling in + many features the archaic Oriental civilizations, the Aztec civilization + is of the first interest, but in most accounts of it a large speculative + element has to be discounted.</p> + + <p><b>Az´uline</b>, or <b>Az´urine</b>, blue dyes belonging to the + coal-tar class.</p> + + <p><b>A´zure</b>, the heraldic term for the colour blue, represented in + engraving by horizontal lines.</p> + + <p><b>Az´urine</b> (<i>Leuciscus cærulĕus</i>), a fresh-water fish + of the same genus as the roach, chub, and minnow, found in some parts of + Europe, but rare in Britain; called also <i>Blue Roach</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Az´urite</b>, a blue mineral, a carbonate of copper, often + occurring in crystals. Its formula is + 2CuCO<sub>3</sub>.Cu(OH)<sub>2</sub>, and it is also called <i>Blue + Malachite</i>. Also a name of lazulite.</p> + + <p><b>Azymite.</b> See <i>Eucharist</i>.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<h2>B</h2> + + <p><b>B</b> is the second letter and the first consonant in the English + and most other alphabets. It is a mute and labial, pronounced solely by + the lips, and is distinguished from <i>p</i> by being sonant, that is, + produced by the utterance of voice as distinguished from breath.</p> + + <p><b>B</b>, in <i>music</i>, the seventh note of the model diatonic + scale or scale of C. It is called the leading note, as there is always a + feeling of suspense when it is sounded until the keynote is heard.</p> + + <p><b>Baader</b>, Franz Xaver von (fra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>nts-zä'fer fon bä'der), German + philosopher and theologian, born in Munich, 1765, died 1841. He studied + engineering, became superintendent of mines, and was ennobled for + services. He was deeply interested in the religious speculations of + Eckhart, St. Martin, and Böhme, and in 1826 was appointed professor of + philosophy and speculative theology in the University of Munich. During + the last three years of his life he was interdicted from lecturing for + opposing the interference in civil matters of the Roman Catholic + Church.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´al</b>, or <b>Bel</b>, a Semitic word, which primarily signified + lord or proprietor, and was afterwards applied to many different + divinities, or, with qualifying epithets, to the same divinity regarded + in different aspects, describing him as an occupier of some physical + object or locality, or as a possessor of some attribute. Thus in + <i>Hos.</i> ii, 16 it is applied to Jehovah himself, while + <i>Baal-berith</i> (the Covenant-lord) was the god of the Shechemites, + and <i>Baal-zebub</i> (the Fly-god) the idol of the Philistines at Ekron. + Baal was the sacred title applied to the Sun as the principal male deity + of the Phœnicians and their descendants, the Carthaginians, as well + as of the ancient Canaanitish nations, and was worshipped as the supreme + ruler and vivifier of nature. The word enters into the composition of + many Hebrew, Phœnician, and Carthaginian names of persons and + places; thus, <i>Jerubaal</i>, <i>Hasdrubal</i> (help of Baal), + <i>Hannibal</i> (grace of Baal), and <i>Baal-Hammon</i>, + <i>Baal-Thamar</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Baalbek´</b> (ancient, <b>Heliopŏlis</b>, 'city of the sun'), + a place in Syria, in a fertile valley at the foot of Antilibanus, 40 + miles from Damascus, famous for its magnificent ruins. Of these the chief + is the Temple of the Sun, built either by Antoninus Pius or by Septimius + Severus. Some of the blocks used in its construction are 60 feet long by + 12 thick; and its fifty-four columns, of which six are still standing, + were 72 feet high and 22 in circumference. Near it is a temple of + Jupiter, of smaller size though larger than the Parthenon at Athens, and + there are other structures of an elaborately ornate type. Originally a + centre of Sun-worship, it became a Roman colony under Julius Cæsar, was + garrisoned by Augustus, and acquired increasing renown under Trajan as + the seat of an oracle. Under Constantine its temples became churches, but + after being sacked by the Arabs in 748, and more completely pillaged by + Tamerlane in 1401, it sank into hopeless decay. The work of destruction + was completed by an earthquake in 1759.</p> + + <p><b>Baal-zebub.</b> See <i>Beelzebub</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baba</b>, a cape near the north-west point of Asia Minor.</p> + + <p><b>Babadagh</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-däg'), a town of Roumania, capital of + the Dobrudsha, carrying on a considerable Black Sea trade; it was + bombarded by the Russians in 1854. Pop. 10,000.</p> + + <p><b>Bab´bage</b>, Charles, English mathematician and inventor of the + calculating-machine, born 1792, died 1871. He graduated at Cambridge in + 1814, and occupied the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Cambridge for + eleven years, but delivered no lectures. As early as 1812 he conceived + the idea of calculating numerical tables by machinery, and in 1823 he + received a grant from Government for the construction of such a machine. + After a series of experiments lasting eight years, and an expenditure of + £17,000 <!-- Page 337 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page337"></a>[337]</span>(£6000 of which was sunk by himself, the + balance voted by Government), Babbage abandoned the undertaking in favour + of a much more enlarged work, an analytical engine, worked with cards + like the jacquard-loom; but the project was never completed. The + incompleted machine is now in the South Kensington Museum. Among the many + treatises he published on subjects connected with mathematics and + mechanics few can be regarded as finished performances. Babbage was + instrumental in founding the Astronomical and Statistical Societies (1820 + and 1834).</p> + + <p><b>Babbit-metal</b>, a soft metal resulting from alloying together + certain proportions of copper, tin, and zinc or antimony, used with the + view of as far as possible obviating friction in the bearings of + journals, cranks, axles, &c., invented by Isaac Babbit (1799-1862), a + goldsmith of Taunton, Massachusetts.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´bel.</b> See <i>Babylon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´bel, Tower of</b>, according to the 11th chapter of + <i>Genesis</i>, a structure in the Plain of Shinar, Mesopotamia, + commenced by the descendants of Noah subsequent to the deluge, but which + was not allowed to proceed to completion. It has commonly been identified + with the great temple of Belus, or Bel, that was one of the chief + edifices in Babylon, and the huge mound called Birs Nimrud is generally + regarded as its site, though another mound, which to this day bears the + name of Babil, has been assigned by some as its site. Babel means + literally 'gate of God'. The meaning 'confusion' assigned to it in the + Bible really belongs to a word of similar form. See <i>Babylon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bab-el-Mandeb</b> ('gate of tears', from being dangerous to small + craft), a strait, 15 miles wide, between the Indian Ocean and the Red + Sea, formed by projecting points of Arabia in Asia, and Abyssinia in + Africa. The Island of Perim is here.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´ber</b>, first Grand Mogul, the founder of the Mogul dynasty in + Hindustan, born in 1483, died 1530. He was a grandson of the great Tartar + prince, Timur or Tamerlane, and was sovereign of Cabul. He invaded + Hindustan, and in 1525 overthrew and killed Sultan Ibrahim, the last + Hindu emperor of the Pathan or Afghan race. He made many improvements, + social and political, in his empire, and left a valuable autobiography + (English translation, 1826).</p> + + <p><b>Babeuf</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-beuf), François Noel, a French political + agitator, born in 1764; started a democratic journal in Paris, called + <i>Le Tribun du Peuple, par 'Gracchus' Babeuf</i>, and wrote with great + severity against the Jacobins. After the fall of Robespierre, to which he + powerfully contributed, he openly attacked the terrorists, and advocated + the most democratic principles. He was accused of a conspiracy against + the directorial Government, condemned to death, and guillotined in 1797. + He was one of the pioneers of Socialism in France.</p> + + <p><b>Bab´ington</b>, Anthony, a Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire, born + 1561. He associated with others of his own persuasion to assassinate + Queen Elizabeth, and deliver Mary, Queen of Scots. The plot being + discovered, the conspirators were executed in 1586.</p> + + <p><b>Babiroussa.</b> See <i>Babyroussa</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bab´ism</b>, the doctrines of a Mohammedan sect whose head-quarters + is Persia, founded by Seyd Ali Mohammed in 1844. He took the name of + Bab-ed-din, 'the gate of the faith', and afterwards that of Nokteh, 'the + point', as not merely the recipient of a new divine revelation, but the + focus in which all preceding dispensations would converge. One of his + most successful disciples was a highly-gifted woman, Gurred-ul-Ayn, + 'consolation of the eyes', who perished with many others during a + persecution in 1852. The Bab himself had been executed about two years + before this, and was succeeded by a noble youth, Mirza Yahya. The sect + holds that all individual existence is an emanation from the supreme + deity, by whom it will be ultimately reabsorbed. The morality of the sect + is pure and cheerful, and it shows great advancement in the treatment of + woman. Moses, Christ, and Mohammed are acknowledged as prophets, though + only mere precursors of the Bab. A schism divided the followers of Babism + into two sects, Bahais and Ezelis. The former have carried on an active + propaganda in America.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´boo</b>, or <b>Babu</b>, a Hindu title of respect equivalent to + <i>sir</i> or <i>master</i>, usually given to wealthy and educated native + gentlemen, especially when of the mercantile class.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image130.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image130.jpg" + alt="Baboons" title="Baboons" /></a> + Family of Common Baboons (<i>Cynocephălus babouin</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Baboon´</b>, a common name applied to a division of old-world + quadrumana (apes and <!-- Page 338 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page338"></a>[338]</span>monkeys), comprehending the genera + Cynocephălus and Papio. They have elongated abrupt muzzles like a + dog, strong tusks or canine teeth, usually short tails, cheek-pouches, + small deep eyes with large eyebrows, and naked callosities on the + buttocks. Their hind and fore feet are well proportioned, so that they + run easily on all fours, but they do not maintain themselves in an + upright posture with facility. They are generally of the size of a + moderately large dog, but the largest, the mandrill, is, when erect, + nearly of the height of a man. They are almost all African, ugly, sullen, + fierce, lascivious, and gregarious, defending themselves by throwing + stones, dirt, &c. They live on fruits and roots, eggs and insects. + They include the chacma, drill, common baboon, and mandrill. The chacma + or pig-tailed baboon (<i>Cynocephălus porcarius</i>) is found in + considerable numbers in parts of the S. African colonies, where the + inhabitants wage war against them on account of the ravages they commit + in the fields and gardens. The common baboon (<i>C. babouin</i>) inhabits + a large part of Africa farther to the north. It is of a brownish-yellow + colour, while the chacma is greyish-black, or in parts black. The + hamadryas (<i>C. hamadryas</i>) of Abyssinia is characterized by long + hair, forming a sort of shoulder-cape. The black baboon (<i>C. niger</i>) + is found in Celebes.</p> + + <p><b>Babour</b> (bä´bu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>r). See <i>Baber</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bab´rius</b>, a Greek poet who flourished during the second or + third century of the Christian era, and wrote a number of Æsopian fables. + Several versions of these made during the Middle Ages have come down to + us as <i>Æsop's Fables</i>. In 1840 a manuscript containing 120 fables by + Babrius, previously unknown, was discovered on Mount Athos.</p> + + <p><b>Babuya´nes Islands</b>, a group in the Pacific Ocean, between Luzon + and Formosa, belonging to United States. Pop. 12,000.</p> + + <p><b>Baby-farming.</b> The law relating to the protection of children + and young persons has been subjected to amendment and consolidation by + the Children Act of 1908, which wholly repealed the Infant Life + Protection Act of 1897 dealing with baby-farming and infant life + protection.</p> + + <p>The Act of 1908 (Part I) deals with baby-farming, and requires that + notice shall be given to the Local Authority (in Scotland the Parish + Council) by the person undertaking for reward the nursing and maintenance + of any infant or infants under seven years of age apart from their + parents, within forty-eight hours after reception, unless the period for + which it is received be only forty-eight hours or less. The notice + requires the name, sex, date and place of birth of the child to be + stated, where it is to be kept, and from whom it is received. The Act + also provides that such a person shall notify any change in his residence + or the removal or death of the infant to the Local Authority within + forty-eight hours. In regard to all these matters the Act is + retrospective, and necessitates persons who had undertaken nursing and + maintenance of such infants before its coming into operation to comply + with its provisions within a month after the commencement thereof. But it + exempts any person who may have given the similar notice required by the + Infant Life Protection Act of 1897, although it does not exempt any + person whose duty it was to have given notice thereunder from any + liability which such a person may have incurred thereunder.</p> + + <p>A duty is imposed upon Local Authorities to inquire regarding persons + willing to undertake the nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint + infant-protection visitors of either sex in so far as it provides for + infant life protection and gives powers to such Local Authorities and + visitors for fulfilling the requirements of the Act. It is an offence for + the person undertaking the nursing to refuse to allow such visitors + access to the infant or the premises in which it is kept; and, if need + be, application may be made to the court for a warrant to enter the house + in which an infant is farmed out, and where there is reason to believe + that the Act is being contravened. It is an offence for any infant to be + kept (1) by any person from whose care an infant has been removed under + the Act or the Infant Life Protection Act, or (2) by any person convicted + of any offence under Part II of the Children Act of 1908 or the + Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904.</p> + + <p>The Local Authority may fix the number of infants under the age of + seven years which may be kept in any dwelling, and it is an offence to + keep more. Provision is also made for the removal of an infant from + overcrowded, dangerous, or insanitary premises, or from the custody of a + person unfit to take charge of the child; and an application may be made + by a visitor to a magistrate for a removal order enforceable by the + visitor or a constable. Should the infant die, notice of the fact must be + given by the person with whom it is farmed out to the Procurator-fiscal + of the district, if in Scotland, and, if in England, to the Coroner of + the district, within twenty-four hours. He shall hold an inquest unless a + certificate by a medical practitioner specifying the cause of death shall + be forwarded. Failure to give such notice is punishable under the + Act.</p> + + <p>A person nursing an infant for reward shall have no interest in the + life of the child for the purposes of life assurance. It is not + permissible for such a person or insurance company to insure the life of + such a child. To do so renders both <!-- Page 339 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page339"></a>[339]</span>the person and the + insurance company liable to prosecution.</p> + + <p>Any person knowingly or wilfully making any false statement in any + notice required to be given under the Act commits an offence under the + Act.</p> + + <p>Imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or a fine not + exceeding £25, may be imposed upon any person found guilty upon summary + conviction of an offence against Part I of the Children Act, 1908; in + addition the court may order the removal of the infant to a place of + safety. All fines are payable to the Local Authority for the purposes of + the Act.</p> + + <p>Legal guardians of an infant, as well as institutions established for + the protection and care of infants, are exempted from the provisions of + Part I of the Children Act, 1908.</p> + + <p><b>Bab´ylon</b>, the capital of Babylonia, on the left of the + Euphrates, one of the largest and most splendid cities of the ancient + world, now a scene of ruins, and earth-mounds containing them. Babylon + was a royal city sixteen hundred years before the Christian era; but the + old city was almost entirely destroyed in 683 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> A new city was built by Nebuchadnezzar nearly a + century later. This was in the form of a square, each side 15 miles long, + with walls of such immense height and thickness as to constitute one of + the wonders of the world. It contained splendid edifices, large gardens + and pleasure-grounds, especially the 'hanging-gardens', a sort of lofty + terraced structure supporting earth enough for trees to grow, and the + celebrated Tower of Babel or Temple of Belus, rising by stages to the + height of 625 feet. (See <i>Babel, Tower of</i>.) After the city was + taken by Cyrus in 538 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and Babylonia made + a Persian province, it began to decline, and had suffered severely by the + time of Alexander the Great. He intended to restore it, but was prevented + by his death, which took place here in 323 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, from which time its decay was rapid. + Interesting discoveries have been made on its site, more especially of + numerous and valuable inscriptions in the cuneiform or arrow-head + character. The modern town of Hillah is believed to represent the ancient + city, and the plain here for miles round is studded with vast mounds of + earth and brick and imposing ruins. The greatest mound is Birs Nimrud, + about 6 miles from Hillah. It rises nearly 200 feet, is crowned by a + ruined tower, and is commonly believed to be the remains of the ancient + Temple of Belus. Another great ruin-mound, called Mujellibeh, has also + been assigned as its site.</p> + + <p><b>Babylonia and Assyria.</b> These ancient seats of Mesopotamian + civilization lay across the western Asian trade-routes, Babylonia being + in the south and Assyria in the north. The area, in which they flourished + is embraced by the Rivers Tigris and Euphrates, and extends from the head + of the Persian Gulf to the frontiers of Armenia and Northern Syria, is + bordered on the east by Persia and on the west by the Syro-Arabian + desert. 'Mesopotamia' is a term borrowed by the ancient Greeks from the + Semites, and was first applied to the north-western region. There was a + Roman province of that name. The northern area of the Tigro-Euphrates + valley is partly mountainous and partly steppe land, with wide stretches + of elevated grazing-lands and fertile districts on the banks of rivers. + Assyria, derived from A-usar ('the river-bank region'), had origin in + north-eastern Mesopotamia. Its most ancient capital, Asshur (modern + Kal'at Sherkat), was situated on the western bank of the River Tigris, + between the tributaries the Upper Zab and the Lower Zab. Nineveh, the + last capital of all, lay farther north on the eastern bank of the Tigris, + and right opposite modern Mosul. The Assyrians called themselves + Asshurai, and their national god was Ashur (earlier Ashir), written + A-Shur, but confused in time with Ash-Shur, the name of the capital. The + southern area of Mesopotamia, below Bagdad, where the Tigris and + Euphrates come within 35 miles of one another, is a flat alluvial plain. + Babylonia proper is that fish-shaped region between the rivers, which + broadens out to about 100 miles and gradually narrows to the point at + Kurnah where the rivers meet and form the Shatt-el-Arab. From Kurnah to + the head of the Persian Gulf is the ancient area of Chaldea, which means + 'Sea-land'. The inhabitants called themselves Kaldu (Sea-landers) and + were known to the Hebrews as the Kasdim, and to the Greeks as the + Chaldaioi. Babylonia, and the rest of the alluvial plain, is the 'gift' + of the rivers which rise in flood each year when the snow melts on the + Armenian mountains. Both the Tigris and the Euphrates bring down enormous + quantities of sediment—indeed five times as much as does the + Egyptian Nile—and they have withal more destructive tendencies. The + accumulating silt tends to divert the flow of the rivers in the south, + and a process of land-making which began at the close of the Ice Age is + still in progress, thrusting back the head of the Persian Gulf. At one + time the Tigris and Euphrates entered the gulf by separate mouths, and + Chaldea was then a narrow fringe of steppe land, plain, and marshes. The + River Tigris is about 1146 miles long, and begins to rise early in March, + reaching its height in May, and subsiding before the end of June. The + Euphrates is a slower river, about 1780 miles in length. It begins to + rise a fortnight later than the Tigris, is longer in flood, and does not + reach its lowest level until September. As there is a drop of only <!-- + Page 340 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page340"></a>[340]</span>120 + feet between Bagdad and the sea, a distance, as the crow flies, of about + 300 miles, the ancient Babylonians did their utmost to conserve the water + which came down in such abundance and was rapidly drained away, after + doing much damage. Near Bagdad the Tigris is on a higher level than the + Euphrates, and could be run into it through a canal; farther south the + Euphrates, being on the higher level, could be run by canal into the + Tigris. The ancient engineers cut these and other canals; indeed, they + covered the whole valley with a network of them. To store the Euphrates + water for the season of drought and great heat, they formed canals which + carried the roaring flood into two depressions in the western desert + between the modern towns of Kerbela and Rama<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>di. These depressions are utilized for + the British irrigation scheme. The Babylonians did their utmost to + control the Tigris by erecting earthen dams so as to hold up as much of + the water as possible. Earthen dykes were also erected to raise its + banks. The right bank protected the farms from disastrous flooding. These + ancient irrigation works made Babylonia the greatest grain-yielding area + in the ancient world. Its vast surplus of food stimulated trade and + brought Babylonia immense wealth, while its strategic situation made it + very powerful. Its cultural influence flowed along the trade routes, + eastward across Persia and the Iranian plateau, northward through Assyria + to Armenia (ancient Urartu) and beyond, and north-westward along the + Euphrates banks into Syria and Palestine, and into Asia Minor, the land + of the Hittites, and then along the highway to Europe, called later by + the Persians 'the royal road'. The road to Egypt ran southward from North + Syria through Palestine, skirting the maritime valley by 'the way of the + Philistines'. The merchants of many nations met in the city of Babylon, + the London of the ancient western Asian world, and in the trading centres + of North Syria, including Carchemish.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image131.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image131.jpg" + alt="Assyrian Soldiers" title="Assyrian Soldiers" /></a> + Assyrian Soldiers + </div> + + <p>The earliest agriculturists and traders of Babylonia were the + Sumerians, a non-Semitic people, who built a number of cities in the + irrigated valley and founded colonies in Assyria. No trace has been found + of a Neolithic Age in Babylonia. Its civilization, so far as our + knowledge goes, began after copper was introduced. At an early period + Semites filtered into the valley. They absorbed Sumerian civilization, + and ultimately became politically predominant in the northern part of the + valley, which was called Akkad (the biblical Accad). The southern part + was then known as Sumer or Sumeria (the biblical 'Plain of Shinar'). + Akkad embraced the city States of Agade, Babylon, Borsippa, Sippar, Kish, + Opis, and Kutha. The Sumerian city States included Eridu, Ur (later 'of + the Chaldees' and the birthplace of Abraham), Lagash, Shuruppak, Erech, + Umma, and Adab. Inter-state wars resulted time and again in the formation + of confederacies which were more of political than racial character, and + the predominance of one city or another. Religious ideas were fused, and + local pantheons appear to have reflected local politics. The chief seat + of early Sumerian civilization was the city of Eridu, a name signifying + 'on the seashore'. Its site is marked by modern Abu-Shahrein on the + eastern bank of the Euphrates, and south-east of Ur, modern Mukayyar. + Eridu was originally a seaport on the Persian Gulf, from which it is now + separated by about 125 miles of land formed by river silt. The chief god + of Eridu was Ea, a name also rendered Ae and Aa, and apparently meaning + 'waters' or 'house (region) of waters'. That the term 'waters' had a + special significance for the inhabitants of a water-formed land is + evident by the fact that the Semitic equivalent of Ea is Enki, which + means 'lord of earth'. Other titles of the god were 'lord of Heaven and + Earth', 'ruler of the land', 'the deep', 'god of the abyss', and 'king of + the river'. He was withal the 'Creator', water having created Sumeria, + and Nadimmud, 'lord of everything', as the Egyptian Osiris in his + character of god of the Nile was 'Neb-er-Zer', also 'lord of everything'. + Ea had a ship with a crew including his son Marduk (Merodach or Marad, + the Ni-marad or Nimrod of legend) and In-ab, 'the pilot of Eridu'. The + ship was hailed, in religious literature, as the bringer of fertility and + joy. Evidently the beginning of Sumerian civilization had some connection + with ancient seafarers. Of special interest in this connection are the + references made by the Greek writer Berosus to Oannes, a sea-dweller who + came daily from the Persian Gulf to instruct the early <!-- Page 341 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page341"></a>[341]</span>Babylonians + how to irrigate the land, grow crops, erect houses, make laws, write, + calculate and measure, and engage in trade. Texts have been discovered + which tend to identify Oannes with the god Ea. As the early Sumerians + bore a strong physical resemblance to the ancient Egyptians, and there + were links between the early religious beliefs and customs of the two + peoples, it is suspected that they represented two branches of the same + ancient stock. Some think Sumerian civilization was founded by colonists + from Egypt, while others believe that Egyptian civilization was + stimulated by settlers from Sumeria. The question as to who first + invented ships has an important bearing in this connection. When we turn + to Sumero-Babylonian religious myths we find that some reflect local + natural phenomena. In one the Euphrates is hailed as the River (god) "who + didst create all things". Another, referring to the creation of man, says + that Marduk (earlier the god Gilimma) "tied reeds on the face of the + waters, he formed dust and poured it out beside the reeds ... he formed + mankind". Another version is that man was created from the god's blood + and bone, or, as Berosus has it, from the god's blood and earth. The + oldest Sumerian creation myth states that all things came from primeval + water. Then many deities were created by the pre-existing triad of gods, + Anu (the sky-god), Enlil ('the elder Bel', the earth-god, and 'lord of + grain'), and Ea, who was associated with the goddess Ninkharsagga. Ea had + several other wives, including Ninshar or Ninkurra, Ninella, Nintu, and + Damkina. These goddesses were ultimately all absorbed by Ishtar, the + Semitic name of the love and mother goddess. In the later Babylonian + 'Seven Tablets' version of the creation myth a conflict is introduced. + The female chaos-dragon Tiamat is slain by Marduk, the chief god of + Babylon, 'the later Bel', who cuts up her body and uses part to form the + sky and part to keep the waters in their place. After a time a deluge + took place. In the Sumerian myth a priest-king called Ziusudu (earlier + named Tatug or Uttu) corresponds both to Adam and to Noah, and builds a + large vessel, having been warned by Ea of the approaching disaster. The + Gilgamesh Epic refers to the hero as Ut-na-pishtim (or Pir-na-pishtim). + He and his wife afterwards become immortal, and they are visited on their + island by Gilgamesh (the Babylonian Hercules), when, smitten by disease, + he searches for the Plant of Life, which he finds and afterwards loses. + Ishtar, the goddess who plays a part in this epic, is also the heroine of + the poetic legend which tells of her descent to Hades in quest of Tammuz, + whose story resembles somewhat that of Adonis and has Osirian + characteristics. The Babylonian Persephone was Eresh-ki-gal with whom + Tammuz dwelt in her underworld for part of the year. Associated with her + was Nergal, chief god of Kutha, whose planet was Mars. He conquered + Hades. He and other city gods appear to have been developed from + attributes vaguely shared by the earlier triad Anu, Bel-Enlil, and Ea. + The moon-god of Ur was Sin (Sumerian Nannara), whose name clings to the + desert of Sinai. Shamash was the Semitic name of the sun-god of Sippar, + the Sumerian being Utu; Gishnu, the Light, and Ma-banda-anna, 'the boat + of heaven' (like the Egyptian Ra), and Mitra were among his other + non-Semitic names. Dagan, the god of the Euphrates, is regarded as a form + of Ea, and as probably the same deity as Dagon of the Philistines. In + later times the astrologers coloured with their doctrines the religious + beliefs of Babylonia.</p> + + <p>Among the early empire-builders of Babylonia were Lugal-zaggisi of + Sumerian Erech, who claimed to have subdued all lands from the Lower Sea + (Persian Gulf) to the Upper Sea (the Mediterranean). He flourished about + 2800 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Another was Sargon of Akkad, who + lived about a century and a half later. He must not be confused with the + much later biblical Sargon of Assyria. His son or grandson, Naram-Sin, + recorded his great trading activities and victories over his enemies, + including the Elamites, whose chief stronghold was Susa in south-western + Persia. Elam was a rival power of considerable strength. About 2200 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> it had overrun a great part of Sumeria, and + Akkad fell to the invading bands of Amorites. These Amorites founded the + Hammurabi Dynasty, of which the king of that name was sixth in + succession; Hammurabi extinguished the last sparks of Elamite power in + Sumeria, which, with Akkad, was united to form the kingdom of Babylonia, + named after Babylon, the capital. It was during this period that Abraham + migrated from Ur to Palestine. Hammurabi (<i>c.</i> 2123-2081 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) codified the ancient Sumerian laws and did much + to develop trade. The chief god of his kingdom was Marduk, 'the later + Bel', whose temple was called Esagilla. Babylon became the greatest + trading centre in Western Asia and a rival of the Egyptian Memphis. + Sumerian gradually ceased to be a spoken language, being supplanted by + Semitic, but remained, like Latin, in mediæval Europe, the language of + law, culture, and religion, while the Babylonian language became the + language of trade and diplomacy, and was used in international + correspondence by all the great Powers. The Hammurabi dynasty came to an + end about 1926 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, when the Hittites raided + Babylonia and carried off the statues of Marduk and his consort. + Kassites, assisted by Elamites, had been attacking <!-- Page 342 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page342"></a>[342]</span>Babylonia from the + east, and the Sea-landers, who were Arabians mixed with Sumerians, + established their independence. In the end the Kassites, who were + probably Aryan by race, conquered Babylonia and established a new + dynasty. Like the Trojans they were 'tamers of horses'. Their military + successes are believed to have been due to the use of the horse, which + was a rarity in Babylonia before their time, but became common as a beast + of burden as soon as the Kassite dynasty was established. Kassite + supremacy lasted for over 570 years, and during that period Babylonia was + known as Karduniash. One of its early kings brought back from Khani + (Mitanni) the statues of Marduk and his consort which had been carried + off by the Hittites. Babylonian civilization was not changed by Kassite + conquest, and its trade went on as of yore. The Kassites formed an + aristocracy like the Normans in England. During the Kassite period + Assyria was a growing power. It had origin as a Sumerian colony, but + above the relics of the Sumerians at Asshur have been found those of a + people whose kings had such non-Semitic and probably Aryan names as + Ushpia, Kikia, and Adasi. The Amorites afterwards swept into Assyria, + which they Semitized. During the Hammurabi dynasty it was subject to + Babylonian overlordship. It grew independent during the latter period of + the Kassite dynasty, and its kings formed compacts with the Kassites. + Their western neighbours were by this time the Mitannians. An Aryan + military aristocracy had formed a powerful State in north-western + Mesopotamia, where they worshipped Indra, Varuna, and Mitra, gods which + figure in the mythology of the Aryan invaders of India. Egypt, under + Thothmes III, extended her Syrian empire to the borders of Mitannia and a + friendship sprang up between the two Powers. Assyria was during the + period subject to Mitanni. The Tell-el-Amarna letters reveal the fact + that Egyptian monarchs had married princesses from Mitanni, and the + famous Akhenaton had Mitannian blood in his veins.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image132.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image132.jpg" + alt="Ashur-natsir-pal in Chariot" title="Ashur-natsir-pal in Chariot" /></a> + Ashur-natsir-pal in Chariot, hunting Lions about 884 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> From a relief in the Palace of Nimrod + </div> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;"> + <a href="images/image133.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image133.jpg" + alt="Sennacherib tablet" title="Sennacherib tablet" /></a> + Tablet recording the Wars of Sennacherib + </div> + + <p>The Hittites conquered Northern Syria and overran Mitannia when the + Egyptian Asian empire went to pieces. Assyria then became powerful and + independent again, the first great king of its new age being + Ashur-uballit, who was strong enough to interfere with Babylonia's + domestic politics. Shalmaneser I of Assyria (<i>c.</i> 1300 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) conquered the whole of the Mitanni kingdom and + extended the Assyrian empire westward across the Babylonian caravan road + to North Syria. He built a new capital at Kalah (Nimrud). His son, + Tulkulti—Nineb I—(<i>c.</i> 1275 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), conquered Babylonia and reigned over it for + seven years. In the end he was murdered by political conspirators, with + whom his son was associated. Civil war ensued, and Assyria's history is + found to be obscure for a century afterwards. In Babylon the Kassite + dynasty, under which trade flourished, came to an end as a result of an + Elamite invasion about 1185 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> A new + Babylonian dynasty then arose, and the third king, Nebuchadnezzar I, + revived the old empire and waged war against Assyria. But the future lay + with Assyria, which was organized as a military State. It did not have + Babylonia's natural resources, and could only exist as a great Power by + imposing tribute on weaker States. A standing army was the basis of its + strength. The national god was Ashur, who was symbolized by a winged + disk, an adaptation of the Egyptian winged disk of Horus. It was carried + to battle with the king, so that wherever the king was, there was the + national god of war. The heavily-bearded Assyrians were a fiercer and + more war-like people than the mild shaven Babylonians, who were ever + influenced by Sumerian modes of thought. The Assyrian temperament is + reflected in its art, which at its best is characterized by vigorous + realism and brilliant ferocity. Much of it is harsh, exaggerated, and + pompous. A sharp contrast is presented by the calmer and more idealistic + art of the Sumero-Babylonians. The records of Assyrian monarchs deal + mainly with extensive conquests. They did their utmost to set up a reign + of terror in Western Asia, and when subject States revolted the chief men + in them were flayed alive or impaled on stakes. The wholesale destruction + of trading city States and the massacres of thousands of innocents were + fit subjects for an Assyrian conqueror to boast of in his inscriptions. + Hittites, North Syrians, Babylonians, and Urartians (Armenians), were + time and again plundered and subjected. A great conqueror of the Middle + Period was Tiglath-Pileser I (<i>c.</i> 1100 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), and <!-- Page 343 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page343"></a>[343]</span>other monarchs of the same name repeated + his conquests and atrocities during the last century of Assyria's + existence. The military glory of such a monarch as Ashur-natsir-pal III + (885-860 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), whose armies swept through + western Asia like cyclones, has a lurid background of savage cruelty and + oppression. He fought for no greater cause than plunder and the + maintenance of Assyria's ability to wring tribute from the oppressed. His + son, Shalmaneser III, extended the empire but died under a cloud of + internal revolt. Subsequent rulers dominated Babylonia, and one, + Adad-nirari IV (810-782 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), married the + Babylonian princess, Sammurammat, the Semiramis of tradition. + Tiglath-Pileser IV (745-727 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) was overlord + of Babylon, and, indeed, Babylonia was more or less under Assyrian sway + for the next century. Sargon II ('Sargon the later') did his utmost to + break the national spirit in subject States by transporting whole + communities from one to another. He removed a portion of the 'ten lost + tribes' to the Median hills, and dispatched Babylonians from Kutha to + Samaria, where they made Nergal their chief god. His campaigns extended + to Phœnicia, Cilicia, and Armenia. Sennacherib, his son, defeated + Egypt and her allies in Palestine and besieged Hezekiah in Jerusalem. A + revolution in Babylonia broke out, and he swept into it and devastated + Babylon, so that Nineveh might become the chief city in Mesopotamia. But + Babylon had to be rebuilt by his son Esarhaddon, so that its dislocated + trade might be restored. Esarhaddon, recognizing that the great + commercial rival of Babylonia was Egypt, and that Egypt instigated the + Palestinian and Syrian revolts against Assyria, invaded the Nile valley + and captured and sacked Memphis. Ashur-bani-pal (668-626 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), the next Assyrian emperor, punished the + Egyptian rebels by sweeping southwards and capturing and sacking Thebes, + which is referred to as No (Nu-Amon) in the Bible (<i>Nahum</i>, iii, + 8-10): "Populous No ... Yet was she carried away ... her young children + also were dashed in pieces at the top of all the streets: and they (the + Assyrians) cast lots for her honourable men, and all her great men were + bound in chains". Egypt became for a time an Assyrian province. Elam was + similarly dealt with, the great capital Susa being treated like Thebes. + On the north and east Assyrian power was established with characteristic + Assyrian ferocity and thoroughness. The result was that the predatory + nomadic tribes of Scythians and Medes were able to sweep through the + devastated territories and strike at the very heart of the empire. + Ashur-bani-pal was the last great monarch of Assyria. In private life he + was cultured and scholarly, and his library, which contained copies of + many ancient records and literary works, is one of the sources of + Mesopotamian history. Although the Sardanapulus of Greek tradition, he + was not the actual monarch who perished when Nineveh was captured and + sacked about 606 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> by the fiery hillmen from + the east. The Assyrian military organization collapsed and Assyria ceased + to be. The factors that led to the downfall of Assyria can only be + guessed at. It may be that its many wars of conquest had left it in a + state of exhaustion. It is also possible that the new generation of the + aristocratic class that grew up in wealth and luxury was disorganized by + intrigues and corruption. After Ashur-bani-pal died, no great leader + arose, and the vast unwieldy empire suffered from internal decay. + Babylonia was the first to foster organized revolt. It was overrun by the + Chaldeans from the south, who, two years after Ashur-bani-pal's death, + set on the throne at Babylon their leader, King Nabopolassar. With him + began the Neo-Babylonian dynasty which lasted for 86 years. He had an + ambitious and capable son named Nebuchadnezzar, who set out, as soon as + Nineveh fell, to seize the western portion of the Assyrian + Empire—the Medes, with whom the Chaldeans had an agreement, being + content to retain north-eastern Mesopotamia. The Egyptians, having + overcome the Assyrian garrisons in the Nile valley, were by this time + moving northward through Palestine with the idea of re-establishing their + ancient empire in Asia. Memphis and Babylon were rival trading centres, + and the struggle that ensued was one which was to decide which should + have preeminence on the western Asian trade-routes, and especially the + 'clearing-houses' of North Syria. In 604 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> + Nebuchadnezzar met and defeated Pharaoh Necho's Egyptian army at + Carchemish. The Egyptians retreated in confusion and were pursued to + their frontier. Nabopolassar's death in Babylon caused Nebuchadnezzar to + return home and ascend the throne. Eight years later, <!-- Page 344 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page344"></a>[344]</span><span + class="figright" style="width:64%;"><a href="images/image134.jpg"><img + style="width:100%" src="images/image134.jpg" alt="Israelites before + Shalmaneser." title="Israelites before Shalmaneser." /></a>Israelites + before Shalmaneser. From the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II.</span> + however, he was back in Palestine again. Judah had been plotting with + Egypt, its ally, and the Babylonian monarch besieged and captured + Jerusalem. Thousands of Jews were carried off as captives to Babylonia. + In 587 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Egypt involved Judah in a second + revolt. Nebuchadnezzar II again captured Jerusalem. This time he + destroyed the city and carried away the greater part of the remnant of + the Jewish people to serve his artisans and agriculturists "by Babel's + streams". Babylon was triumphant as a political and trading centre, and, + during Nebuchadnezzar's long reign of 42 years, prospered greatly. Its + products and its culture were carried far and wide, and Chaldean + astrologers as well as merchants became known in Egypt and Greece. + Babylonia was the birthplace of the science of astronomy, which developed + from astrology. Nebuchadnezzar was a great builder. It is the ruins of + his Babylon that have been excavated in our own day. Although Greek + descriptions of the city have been found to be somewhat exaggerated, it + was yet made very strong and impressive. The royal palace was rebuilt, + and the Hanging Garden on its terraced platform became one of the seven + wonders of the world. Trade flourished in the capital, and a harbour was + built at the head of the Persian Gulf to promote sea traffic. In 539 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Cyrus, the Persian conqueror, having + defeated the Babylonian army, entered Babylon in state and was welcomed + by the priests, Nabo-nidus, the last king of the Neo-Babylonian empire, + having made them his enemies. The independence of Babylonia then came to + an end, but the importance of its capital as a trading centre did not + suffer sudden decline. When it was captured by Alexander the Great in 331 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> it had been much damaged in consequence of + revolts against Persia. The Macedonian conqueror resolved to make it his + capital, but his early death, and subsequent political developments, + hastened its decay. The Greeks had removed the rocks that blocked the + Tigris, which then could be navigated by vessels from the Persian Gulf. + Seleucus built the new capital of Seleucia on the right bank of the + Tigris, and the traders followed the officials to the new Babylon. In + time Ctesiphon arose on the left bank, and after the fall of the Parthian + empire it was the principal city of the province. The Moslem conquest of + Mesopotamia in the seventh century of our era brought about the rise of + Bagdad, a few miles to the north of Ctesiphon. It will be noted that all + these cities are strategically situated in the neck of land, between the + rivers, which is crossed by the caravan roads leading east and west. + During the reign of the famous Harun al Rashid (786-809) Bagdad was at + the height of its splendour. A portion of this ruler's great palace still + remains, and the tomb of Zobiede, his queen, is a prominent feature on + the outskirts of the city. Bagdad declined as a trading centre after + Vasco da Gama discovered the sea-route to India, and diverted the + merchandise previously carried to Europe across the overland routes + across Persia and through Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Bagdad afterwards + depended chiefly on the traffic caused by pilgrim caravans to and from + Mecca. The disastrous neglect of Babylonia's irrigation system occurred + under Turkish rule. Towards the close of the nineteenth century Germany + obtained concessions from the Turks and planned the Bagdad railway, so as + to reopen the ancient overland trade-route for Indo-Persian trade. + British interests in the Persian Gulf were seriously threatened by this + scheme. When war broke out in 1914, a British force landed in ancient + Chaldea and pushed northward. Bagdad, the modern Babylon, was captured in + 1917, and Mosul (Nineveh) was occupied in 1918. The Peace Treaty between + the Allied Powers and Turkey placed Mesopotamia under the protection of + Great Britain, which thus secured control of the Bagdad railway. An + extensive irrigation scheme in the <!-- Page 345 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page345"></a>[345]</span>southern alluvial + valley promises to restore ancient Babylonia to its importance as one of + the great grain-yielding areas of the world.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: R. W. Rogers, <i>History of Babylonia and + Assyria</i>; H. Winckler, <i>History of Babylonia and Assyria</i>; L. W. + King and H. R. H. Hall, <i>Egypt and Western Asia in the Light of recent + Discoveries</i>; P. S. P. Handcock, <i>The Latest Light on Bible + Lands</i>; L. W. King, <i>History of Babylon</i>; D. A. Mackenzie, + <i>Myths of Babylonia and Assyria</i>; T. G. Pinches, <i>The Religion of + Babylon and Assyria</i>; <i>The Old Testament in the Light of the Records + of Assyria and Babylonia</i>; A. H. Sayce, <i>Religions of Ancient Egypt + and Babylonia</i>; M. Jastrow, <i>Aspects of Religious Belief and + Practice in Babylonia and Assyria</i>; R. Koldeweg, <i>The Excavations of + Babylon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Babyroussa</b> (bab-i-ru<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>s´a; a Malay word signifying stag-hog), a + species of wild hog (<i>Sus</i> or <i>Porcus Babyrussa</i>), a native of + the Indian Archipelago. From the outside of the upper jaw spring two + teeth 12 inches long, curving upwards and backwards like horns, and + almost touching the forehead. The tusks of the lower jaw also appear + externally, though they are not so long as those of the upper jaw. Along + the back are some weak bristles, and on the rest of the body only a sort + of wool. These animals live in herds, feed on herbage, are sometimes + tamed, and their flesh is well flavoured.</p> + + <p><b>Bac´carat</b>, a gambling card game of French origin, played by any + number of players, or rather betters, and a banker. The latter deals two + cards to each player and two to himself, and covers the stakes of each + with an equal sum. The cards are then examined, and according to the + scores made the players take their own stake and the banker's, or the + latter takes all or a certain number of the stakes.</p> + + <p><b>Baccarat</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rä), a town of France, about 15 miles + south-east of Lunéville, department Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the River + Meurthe, with a handsome new church, and one of the largest works for + plate-glass and crystal in France. Pop. 7277.</p> + + <p><b>Bacchana´lia</b>, or <b>Dionysia</b>, feasts in honour of Bacchus + or Dionysus, characterized by licentiousness and revelry, and celebrated + in ancient Athens. In the processions were bands of Bacchantes of both + sexes, who, inspired by real or feigned intoxication, wandered about + rioting and dancing. They were clothed in fawn-skins, crowned with ivy, + and bore in their hands <i>thyrsi</i>, that is spears entwined with ivy, + or having a pine-cone stuck on the point. These feasts passed from the + Greeks to the Romans, who celebrated them with still greater + dissoluteness till the Senate abolished them, 187 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Bacchante</b> (bak-an´te), a person taking part in revels in honour + of Bacchus. See <i>Bacchanalia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bacchiglione</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k-kil´yō-nā), a river of + Northern Italy, rises in the Alps, passes through the towns of Vicenza + and Padua, and enters the Adriatic near Chioggia, after a course of about + 90 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Bacchus</b> (bak´us; in Greek, generally <i>Dionўsus</i>), + the god of wine, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Sĕmĕlē. He + first taught the cultivation of the vine and the preparation of wine. To + spread the knowledge of his invention he travelled over various countries + and received in every quarter divine honours. Drawn by lions (some say + panthers, tigers, or lynxes), he began his march, which resembled a + triumphal procession. Those who opposed him were severely punished, but + on those who received him hospitably he bestowed rewards. His love was + shared by several; but Ariadne, whom he found deserted upon Naxos, alone + was elevated to the dignity of a wife, and became a sharer of his + immortality. In art he is represented with the round, soft, and graceful + form of a maiden rather than with that of a young man. His long waving + hair is knitted behind in a knot, and wreathed with sprigs of ivy and + vine leaves. He is usually naked; sometimes he has a loose mantle hung + negligently round his shoulders; sometimes a fawn-skin hangs across his + breast. He is often accompanied by Silenus, Bacchantes, Satyrs, &c. + See <i>Bacchanalia</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: + Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>; J. E. Harrison, <i>Prolegomena + to the Study of Greek Religion</i>; Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>The Golden + Bough</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bacchylides</b> (bak-kil'i-dēz), born in the Island of Cos, + about the middle of the fifth century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the + last of the great lyric poets of Greece, a nephew of Simonides and a + contemporary of Pindar. The extant remains of his odes, hymns, pæans, + &c., were augmented in 1897 by papyrus discoveries.</p> + + <p><b>Bacciocchi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>t-chok´ē), Maria Anne Eliza + Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon, born at Ajaccio, 1777, died near Trieste, + 1820; a great patroness of literature and art. She married Captain + Bacciocchi, who in 1805 was created Prince of Lucca and Piombino. She + virtually ruled these principalities herself, and as Grand-Duchess of + Tuscany she enacted the part of a queen. She fell with the Empire.</p> + + <p><b>Baccio Delia Porta</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>ch´ō). See <i>Bartolommeo</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bach</b> (ba<i>h</i>), Johann Sebastian, one of the greatest of + German musicians, born in 1685 at Eisenach, died in 1750 at Leipzig. + Being the son of a musician he was early trained in the art, and soon + distinguished himself. In 1703 he was engaged as a player at the Court of + Weimar, and subsequently he was musical director to the Duke of + Anhalt-Köthen, and afterwards held an appointment at Leipzig. He paid a + visit to <!-- Page 346 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page346"></a>[346]</span>Potsdam on the invitation of Frederick the + Great. As a player on the harpsichord and organ he had no equal among his + contemporaries; but it was not till a century after his death that his + greatness as a composer was fully recognized. His compositions, many of + which are pieces of sacred music, show great originality. They include + pieces, vocal and instrumental, for the organ, piano, stringed and keyed + instruments; church cantatas, oratorios, masses, passion music, &c. + More than fifty musical performers have proceeded from this family. + Sebastian himself had eleven sons, all distinguished as musicians. The + most renowned were the following:—Wilhelm Friedemann, born in 1710 + at Weimar, died at Berlin in 1784. He was one of the most scientific + harmonists and most skilful organists.—Karl Philipp Emmanuel, born + in 1714 at Weimar, died in 1788 at Hamburg. He composed mostly for the + piano, and published melodies for Gellert's hymns; he also wrote <i>The + True Manner of Playing the Harpsichord</i>.—Johann Christoph + Friedrich, born at Weimar, 1732, died in 1795, a great organist, is known + also by the music he published.—Johann Christian, born in 1735 at + Leipzig, died in London, 1782, was a favourite composer and conductor + with the English public.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: P. + Spitta, <i>Johann Sebastian Bach</i>; A. Pirro, <i>L'Esthétique de Jean + Sebastian Bach</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bacharach</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span><i>h</i>´a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span><i>h</i>), a small place of 2000 + inhabitants on the Rhine, 12 miles <span class="scac">S.</span> of + Coblenz. The vicinity produces excellent wine, which was once highly + esteemed. The view from the ruins of the castle is one of the sublimest + on the Rhine.</p> + + <p><b>Bach´elor</b>, a term applied anciently to a person in the first or + probationary stage of knighthood who had not yet raised his standard in + the field. It also denotes a person who has taken the first degree in the + liberal arts and sciences, or in divinity, law, or medicine, at a college + or university; or a man of any age who has not been married.—A + <i>knight bachelor</i> is one who has been raised to the dignity of a + knight without being made a member of any of the orders of chivalry such + as the Garter, the Thistle, or the Bath.</p> + + <p><b>Bachelor's Buttons</b>, the double-flowering buttercup + (<i>Ranunculus acris</i>), with white or yellow blossoms, common in + gardens.</p> + + <p><b>Bachian</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>ch´a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n), one of the Molucca Islands, + immediately <span class="scac">S.</span> of the equator, <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> of Gilolo; area, 800 sq. miles. It is ruled by a + native sultan under the Dutch.</p> + + <p><b>Bachmut</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span><i>h</i>-möt'), a town in the Ukraine, + government of Ekaterinoslav, with a trade in cattle, tallow, &c., and + coal and rock-salt mines. Pop. 20,000.</p> + + <p><b>Bacilla´ria</b>, a genus of microscopic algæ, belonging to the + class Diatomaceæ, the siliceous remains of which abound in cretaceous, + tertiary, and more recent geological deposits.</p> + + <p><b>Bacil´lus.</b> See <i>Bacteria</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Back</b>, Admiral Sir George, eminent English Arctic discoverer, + born 1796, died 1878. He accompanied Franklin and Richardson in their + northern expeditions, and in 1833-4 headed an expedition to the Arctic + Ocean through the Hudson Bay Company's territory, on which occasion he + wintered at the Great Slave Lake, and discovered the Back or Great Fish + River.</p> + + <p><b>Backergunge.</b> See <i>Bakarganj</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Backgam´mon</b>, a game played by two persons upon a table or board + made for the purpose, with pieces or men, dice-boxes, and dice. The table + is in two parts, on which are twenty-four black and white spaces called + points. Each player has fifteen men of different colours for the purpose + of distinction. The movements of the men are made in accordance with the + numbers turned up by the dice.</p> + + <p><b>Backhaus</b>, Wilhelm, one of the greatest living pianists, born at + Leipzig in 1884. At the age of twenty-one he was appointed a professor at + the Royal College of Music, Manchester. This position, however, he soon + gave up, and since 1905 has devoted his time to concert tours.</p> + + <p><b>Backhuysen</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k´hoi-zn), Ludolf, a painter of the Dutch + school, particularly celebrated for sea pieces, born in 1631, died 1709. + His most famous picture is a sea piece which the burgomasters of + Amsterdam commissioned him to paint as a present to Louis XVI. It is + still at Paris.</p> + + <p><b>Backwarda´tion</b>, a stock exchange term signifying the rate paid + by a speculative seller of stock for the privilege of carrying over or + continuing a bargain from one fortnightly account to another, instead of + closing it on the appointed day.</p> + + <p><b>Bacninh</b>, a town of Tongking, on the Red River, fortified and + containing a French garrison, being in an important strategic position. + Pop. 7000.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´con</b>, Anthony, elder brother of the celebrated Lord + Chancellor, was born in 1558 and died in 1601. He was a skilful + politician, and much devoted to learned pursuits. He became personally + acquainted with most of the foreign literati of the day, and gained the + friendship of Henri IV of France. Francis Bacon dedicated to him the + first edition of the <i>Essays</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bacon</b>, Francis, Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans, and Lord + High Chancellor of England, was born at London in 1561, died at Highgate + in 1626. His father, Nicholas Bacon, was Keeper of the Great Seal under + Queen Elizabeth. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in + 1575 was admitted to Gray's Inn. From 1576 to 1579 he was at Paris with + Sir Amyas <!-- Page 347 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page347"></a>[347]</span>Paulet, the English ambassador. The death + of his father called him back to England, and being left in straitened + circumstances he zealously pursued the study of law, and was admitted a + barrister in 1582. In 1584 he became member of Parliament for Melcombe + Regis, and soon after drew up a <i>Letter of Advice</i> to Queen + Elizabeth, an able political memoir. In 1586 he was member for Taunton, + in 1589 for Liverpool. A year or two after he gained the Earl of Essex as + a friend and patron. Bacon's talents and his connection with the + Lord-Treasurer Burleigh, who had married his mother's sister, and his + son, Sir Robert Cecil, First Secretary of State, seemed to promise him + the highest promotion; but he had displeased the queen, and when he + applied for the attorney-generalship, and next for the + solicitor-generalship (1595), he was unsuccessful. Essex endeavoured to + indemnify him by the donation of an estate in land. Bacon, however, + forgot his obligations to his benefactor, and not only abandoned him as + soon as he had fallen into disgrace, but without being obliged took part + against him on his trial, in 1601, and was active in obtaining his + conviction. He had been chosen member for the county of Middlesex in + 1593, and for Southampton in 1597, and had long been a Queen's Counsel. + The reign of James I was more favourable to his interest. He was + assiduous in courting the king's favour, and James, who was ambitious of + being considered a patron of letters, conferred upon him in 1603 the + honour of knighthood. In 1604 he was appointed King's Counsel, with a + pension of £60; in 1606 he married; in 1607 he became Solicitor-General, + and six years after Attorney-General. Between James and his Parliament he + was anxious to produce harmony, but his efforts were without avail, and + his obsequiousness and servility gained him enmity and discredit. In 1617 + he was made Lord-Keeper of the Seal; in 1618 Lord High Chancellor of + England and Baron Verulam. In this year he lent his influence to bring a + verdict of guilty against Raleigh. In 1621 he was made Viscount St. + Albans. Soon after this his reputation received a fatal blow. A new + Parliament was formed in 1621, and the Lord Chancellor was accused before + the House of bribery, corruption, and other malpractices. It is difficult + to ascertain the full extent of his guilt; but he seems to have been + unable to justify himself, and handed in a 'confession and humble + submission', throwing himself on the mercy of the Peers. He was condemned + to pay a fine of £40,000, to be committed to the Tower during the + pleasure of the king, declared incompetent to hold any office of State, + and banished from Court for ever. The sentence, however, was never + carried out. The fine was remitted almost as soon as imposed, and he was + imprisoned for only a few days. He survived his fall a few years, during + this time occupying himself with his literary and scientific works, and + vainly hoping for political employment. In 1597 he published his + celebrated <i>Essays</i>, which immediately became very popular, were + successively enlarged and extended, and translated into Latin, French, + and Italian. The treatise on the <i>Advancement of Learning</i> appeared + in 1605; <i>The Wisdom of the Ancients</i> in 1609 (in Latin); his great + philosophical work, the <i>Novum Organum</i> (in Latin), in 1620; and the + <i>De Augmentis Scientiarum</i>, a much enlarged edition (in Latin) of + the <i>Advancement</i>, in 1623. His <i>New Atlantis</i> was written + about 1614-7; <i>Life of Henry VII</i> about 1621. Various minor + productions also proceeded from his pen. Numerous editions of his works + have been published, by far the best being that of Messrs. Spedding, + Ellis, and Heath, 1857-9 (reprinted, 1879-90). Bacon was great as a + moralist, a historian, a writer on politics, and a rhetorician; but it is + as the father of the inductive method in science, as the powerful + exponent of the principle that facts must be observed and collected + before theorizing, that he occupies the grand position he holds among the + world's great ones. His moral character, however, was not on a level with + his intellectual, self-aggrandizement being the main aim of his life. We + need do no more than allude to the preposterous attempt that has been + made to prove that Bacon was the real author of the plays attributed to + Shakespeare, an attempt that only ignorance of Bacon and Shakespeare + could uphold and tolerate.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. + Spedding, <i>Life and Letters of Francis Bacon</i>; R. W. Church, + <i>Bacon</i> (in English Men of Letters Series); Sir Sidney Lee, <i>Great + Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century</i>; J. M. Robertson, <i>Short + History of Free-thought</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bacon</b>, John, English sculptor, born 1740, died 1799. Among his + chief works are two groups for the interior of the Royal Academy; the + statue of Judge Blackstone for All Souls College, Oxford; another of + Henry VI for Eton College; the monument of Lord Chatham in Westminster + Abbey; and the statues of Dr. Johnson and Mr. Howard in St. Paul's + Cathedral.</p> + + <p><b>Bacon</b>, Sir Nicholas, father of Francis Bacon, Lord-Keeper of + the Great Seal, born 1510, died 1579. Henry VIII gave him several + lucrative offices, which he retained under Edward VI. He lived in + retirement during the reign of Mary, but Queen Elizabeth appointed him + Lord-Keeper for life. He was the intimate friend of Lord Burleigh, a + sister of whose wife he married, and by her became the father of the + great Chancellor.</p> + + <p><b>Bacon</b>, Roger, an English monk, and one of the most profound and + original thinkers of his day, was born about 1214, near Ilchester, <!-- + Page 348 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page348"></a>[348]</span>Somersetshire, died at Oxford in 1294. He + first entered the University of Oxford, and went afterwards to that of + Paris, where he is said to have distinguished himself and received the + degree of Doctor of Theology. About 1250 he returned to England, entered + the order of Franciscans and fixed his abode at Oxford; but having + incurred the suspicion of his ecclesiastical superiors, he was sent to + Paris and kept in confinement for ten years, without writing-materials, + books, or instruments. The cause seems to have been simple enough. He had + been a diligent student of the chemical, physical, and mathematical + sciences, and had made discoveries, and deduced results, which appeared + so extraordinary to the ignorant that they were believed to be works of + magic. This opinion was countenanced by the jealousy and hatred of the + monks of his fraternity. In subsequent times he was popularly classed + among those who had been in league with Satan. Having been set at + liberty, he enjoyed a brief space of quiet while Clement IV was Pope; but + in 1278 he was again thrown into prison, where he remained for at least + ten years. Of the close of his life little is known. His most important + work is his <i>Opus Majus</i>, where he discusses the relation of + philosophy to religion, and then treats of language, metaphysics, optics, + and experimental science. He was undoubtedly the earliest philosophical + experimentalist in Britain; he made signal advances in optics; was an + excellent chemist; and in all probability discovered gunpowder. He was + intimately acquainted with geography and astronomy, as appears by his + discovery of the errors of the calendar, and their causes, and by his + proposals for correcting them, in which he approached very nearly to + truth.—Cf. E. Charles, <i>Roger Bacon, sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses + doctrines</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:29%;"> + <a href="images/image135.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image135.jpg" + alt="Bacteria" title="Bacteria" /></a> + Bacteria—Forms of cells + + <p class="cenhead">1. Coccus. 2. Bacillus. 3. Spirillum (vibrio). 4. + Spirillum (spirochæte).</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Bacte´ria</b> (Gr. <i>baktērion</i>, a rod), a general term + applied to the lowest visible forms of life; other names given are + <i>germs</i> or <i>microbes</i>. They are divided into three classes: (1) + <i>cocci</i>—these are minute spheres about one twenty-five + thousandth of an inch in diameter, arranged in chains or clusters; (2) + <i>bacilli</i>—these are straight rods about the breadth of a + coccus and two to four times as long; (3) <i>spirilla</i>—here + there are two forms; one is like a bacillus, but curved (spirillum proper + or vibrio); the other is a very fine spiral thread (spirochaete) often + only half the thickness of a vibrio and two to six times as long. + Bacteria consist of protoplasm surrounded by a membrane, and many show + active movements; they all multiply asexually by splitting, and so + rapidly may the process occur that 17,000,000 organisms or more may be + formed from one bacterium in twenty-four hours. The chief part played by + bacteria in nature is to cause putrefaction. They are found on all + organic matter, and are therefore omnipresent. When grown artificially + (see <i>Bacteriology</i>) they usually require organic matter for their + food, and this they split up into simpler chemical compounds, some of + which are very poisonous to animals (toxins); they can also split up + sugars to produce various alcohols, acids, and gases. When certain of the + bacilli are starved, the living matter gathers itself up into a spore + surrounded by a very resisting membrane, and it can survive for a long + time in this condition. All ordinary bacteria, including most of those + which produce disease, can be killed by a few minutes' boiling, but the + sporing varieties (e.g. many putrefactive forms) withstand much longer + boiling—up to one and a half hours; they can also be killed by + chemical means (see <i>Disinfection</i>). Many bacteria are useful to + man, and a few give rise to disease (see <i>Germ Theory</i>).</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:62%;"> + <a href="images/image136.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image136.jpg" + alt="Bacteria" title="Bacteria" /></a> + BACTERIA + + <p class="cenhead">All the above are magnified 560 times.</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Bacteriology</b>, the branch of science which deals with the + structure and properties of bacteria. Though the existence of bacteria + had been known from the time when Leeuwenhock arranged lenses so as to + form a microscope, it was through the work of Pasteur that modern + knowledge regarding the group originated. Pasteur's discovery that yeasts + are the cause of the formation of alcohol from sugar was followed by his + showing that bacteria are responsible for other processes of a similar + character, e.g. the formation of vinegar from alcohol, the occurrence of + the rancid change in butter, &c. When he went on to prove that a + bacterium was the cause of a disease of silkworms, a stimulus was given + to the germ theory of infection, and bacteriology was thus early brought + intimately into contact with medical science. Another stimulus to + bacteriological inquiry came from the controversy on spontaneous + generation, and Pasteur was one of those who helped to establish the + principle that the new development of living things, as represented by + bacteria, out of non-living matter does not take place. This led to the + inevitable deduction that all putrefactive processes are due to bacteria. + On this Lister founded his antiseptic treatment of wounds, the practical + effects of which focused attention on the important part played by + bacteria in human affairs. The modern science of bacteriology really + dates from 1877, when Koch proved that <i>Bacillus anthracis</i> is the + cause of anthrax in <!-- Page 349 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page349"></a>[349]</span>cattle. The outstanding feature of Koch's + research was that in it, for the first time, methods were employed + whereby all extraneous organisms were excluded from the inquiry, and the + way was thus opened up for the study of the properties and effects of one + species of bacterium acting by itself. The chief aspects of his work were + as follows: (1) the determination of the temperatures at which bacteria + are killed; the knowledge of this enables investigators to render free + from living organisms their apparatus and the food materials (usually + called <i>media</i>) necessary to support bacterial life (this is called + <i>sterilization</i>); (2) the discovery that the insertion of a plug of + cotton-wool in the neck of a vessel (e.g. a flask or test-tube) before + its sterilization constitutes a sufficient filter, which prevents + bacteria in the outside air gaining access to its interior or to any food + medium placed in it for sterilization; (3) the elaboration of a series of + media capable of acting as food for all the commonly occurring bacteria; + (4) the introduction of a simple method of separating from one another + bacterial species which in nature are often growing side by side. This is + effected by making media containing a jelly (e.g. gelatine) which melts + at a relatively low temperature. The bacterial mixture is well diluted in + the melted medium, and this is poured out in a thin layer on a sterile + glass plate and allowed to set. Each individual bacterial cell can thus + multiply apart from neighbouring cells, and, it may be, in a few hours + the resulting growth (a 'colony') is visible to the naked eye. A minute + part of the colony is picked off with a heated needle and placed on a + mass of sterile medium. In this way a 'pure culture' of each species + present in the original mixture can be obtained. Koch's work was chiefly + concerned with disease bacteria, and between 1880 and 1895 many such + organisms were isolated in pure culture and their properties investigated + (see <i>Germ Theory of Disease</i>).</p> + + <p>While in the evolution of knowledge the progress of bacteriology has + been most associated with that of medicine and surgery, the science has + fundamental relations with many other human interests, and the same + methods are used in investigating such relationships. The adaptation of + these methods on a commercial scale underlies all industrial processes + concerned in the preserving of milk and in the canning and bottling of + meat and fruit (apart from the addition of chemical preservatives). Since + bacteriology came into existence, many of the most primitive domestic + procedures have been improved and placed on a scientific basis. Thus, + butter-making involves a previous souring of the milk; this is due to + bacterial action, and standard mixtures of milk-souring bacteria are now + regularly supplied by the laboratory as 'starters' of the process. It is + recognized that the disorders of milk, e.g. 'ropiness', 'blue milk', + &c., are due to certain 'wild' bacteria gaining access to the dairy. + The ripening of such cheeses as Gorgonzola and Stilton is due to bacteria + and allied organisms, and here again light has been shed on the + 'diseases' of cheese by bacteriological investigation. The pickling of + foods by salt, or vinegar, or nitre, is due to the action of these + substances as antiseptics, and a similar principle, aided by boiling, + underlies the making of jams. Again, certain kinds of bacteria which only + flourish at high temperatures are responsible for the heating of hay and + corn stacks, and for the production of ensilage. Bacteriology is also + throwing important light on factors concerned in the fertility of soils. + For example, it has been shown that the little nodules on the roots of + plants of the pea tribe are caused by bacteria; these, in growing, take + up nitrogen from the air, and form compounds which promote the growth of + the plant on which they are parasites and remain to enrich the soil when + the plant dies. In short, there is no industry, which depends on natural + putrefaction being prevented or modified so as to stop at a particular + stage, which bacteriology cannot guide towards securing the most perfect + results.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Fischer, <i>The + Structure and Functions of Bacteria</i>; Abbot, <i>Principles of + Bacteriology</i>; Muir and Ritchie, <i>Manual of Bacteriology</i>; E. R. + Stitt, <i>Practical Bacteriology</i>; P. H. Hiss and H. Zinsser, <i>A + Textbook of Bacteriology</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bactria´na</b>, or <b>Bactria</b>, a country of ancient Asia, south + of the Oxus and reaching to the west of the Hindu Kush. It is often + regarded as the original home of the Indo-European races. A + Græco-Bactrian kingdom flourished about the third century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, but its history is obscure.</p> + + <p><b>Baculi´tes</b>, a fossil genus allied to the ammonites, + characteristic of cretaceous strata, having a straight tapering shell. + See <i>Cephalopoda</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´cup</b>, a municipal borough of England, in Lancashire, 18 miles + <span class="scac">N.</span> of Manchester. The chief manufacturing + establishments are connected with cotton-spinning and power-loom weaving; + there are also ironworks, Turkey-red dyeing-works, and in the + neighbourhood numerous coal-pits and immense stone-quarries. Pop. (1921), + 21,256.</p> + + <p><b>Badagry</b>, seaport in the British province of Southern Nigeria, + West Africa, 50 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of Whydah. Pop. + about 10,000.</p> + + <p><b>Badajoz</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-<i>d</i>a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-<i>h</i>ōth´; ancient, <b>Pax + Augusta</b>), the fortified capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz, + on the left bank of the Guadiana, which is crossed by a stone bridge of + twenty-eight arches. It is a bishop's see, and has an interesting + cathedral. During the Peninsular War <!-- Page 350 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page350"></a>[350]</span>Badajoz was besieged by + Marshal Soult, and taken in March, 1811. It was twice attacked by the + English, on 5th and 29th May, 1811, and was besieged by Wellington on + 16th March, and taken 6th April, 1812. Pop. 37,600.—The province of + Badajoz has an area of 8451 sq. miles. Pop. 644,220.</p> + + <p><b>Badakshan´</b>, a territory of Central Asia, tributary to the Ameer + of Afghanistan. It has the Oxus on the north, and the Hindu Kush on the + south, and has lofty mountains and fertile valleys; the chief town is + Faizabad. The inhabitants profess Mahommedanism. Pop. 20,957.</p> + + <p><b>Badalona</b> (bä-<i>d</i>a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lō´na), a Mediterranean seaport of + Spain, 5 miles from Barcelona. Pop. 19,240.</p> + + <p><b>Baden</b> (bä´dėn), formerly a Grand-Duchy and one of the + more important States of the German Empire, situated in the <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> of Germany, to the west of Württemberg. It is + divided into four districts, Constance, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, and + Mannheim. It has an area of 5819 sq. miles, and a pop. of 2,142,833. It + is mountainous, being traversed to a considerable extent by the lofty + plateau of the Schwarzwald or Black Forest, which attains its highest + point in the Feldberg (4904 feet). The nucleus of this plateau consists + of gneiss and granite. In the north it sinks down towards the Odenwald, + which is, however, of different geological structure, being composed for + the most part of red sandstone. The whole of Baden, except a small + portion in the <span class="scac">S.E.</span>, in which the Danube takes + its rise, belongs to the basin of the Rhine, which bounds it on the south + and west. Numerous tributaries of the Rhine intersect it, the chief being + the Neckar. Lakes are numerous, and include a considerable part of the + Lake of Constance. The climate varies much. The hilly parts, especially + in the east, are cold and have a long winter, while the valley of the + Rhine enjoys the finest climate of Germany. The principal minerals worked + are coal, salt, iron, zinc, and nickel. The number of mineral springs is + remarkably great, and of these not a few are of great celebrity. The + vegetation is peculiarly rich, and there are magnificent forests. The + cereals comprise wheat, oats, barley, and rye. Potatoes, hemp, tobacco, + wine, and sugar-beet are largely produced. Several of the wines, both + white and red, rank in the first class. Baden has long been famous for + its fruits also. Of the total area 55.4 per cent is under cultivation, + 39.4 per cent under forest, and 5.2 per cent uncultivated (houses, roads, + water, &c.). The farms are mostly quite small. The manufactures are + important. Among them are textiles, tobacco and cigars, chemicals, + machinery, pottery ware, jewellery (especially at Pforzheim), wooden + clocks, confined chiefly to the districts of the Black Forest, musical + boxes and other musical toys. The capital is Karlsruhe, about 5 miles + from the Rhine; the other chief towns are Mannheim, Freiburg-im-Breisgau + (with a Roman Catholic university), Baden, and Heidelberg. Baden has warm + mineral springs, which were known and used in the time of the Romans. + Heidelberg has a university (Protestant), founded in 1386, the oldest in + Germany. The railways have a length of 1200 miles, and are all State + property. In the time of the Roman Empire southern Baden belonged to the + Roman province of Rhætia. Under the old German Empire it was a + margraviate, which in 1533 was divided into Baden-Baden and + Baden-Durlach, but reunited in 1771. The title of grand-duke was + conferred by Napoleon in 1806, and in the same year Baden was extended to + its present limits. Until 1918 the executive power was vested in the + grand-duke, the legislative in a house of legislature, consisting of an + upper and a lower chamber. The former consisted partly of hereditary + members; the latter of elected representatives of the people. In the + break-up of the German Empire in Nov., 1918, Baden was among the first + States to feel the shock of revolution. The Grand-Duke Frederick I + abdicated, and the Provisional Government, under the Socialist Herr + Jeiss, proclaimed Baden a Republic. Two-thirds of the population are + Roman Catholics, the rest Protestants.</p> + + <p><b>Baden</b> (or <b>Baden-Baden</b>, to distinguish it from other + towns of the same name; German <i>Bad</i>, a bath), a town and + watering-place, in the former Grand-Duchy of Baden, 18 miles <span + class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of Karlsruhe, built in the form of an + amphitheatre on a spur of the Black Forest, overhanging a valley, through + which runs a little stream Oosbach. Baden has been celebrated from the + remotest antiquity for its thermal baths; and it used also to be + celebrated for its gaming-saloons. It has many good buildings, and a + castle, the summer residence of the former grand-dukes. Pop. 22,066.</p> + + <p><b>Baden</b>, a town of Austria, 15 miles <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> of Vienna. It has numerous hot sulphurous + springs, used both for bathing and drinking, and much frequented. Pop. + 19,000.</p> + + <p><b>Baden</b>, a small town of Switzerland, canton Aargau, celebrated + for its hot sulphurous baths, which attract many visitors. Pop. 8318.</p> + + <p><b>Baden-Powell.</b> See <i>Powell</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Badge</b> (baj), a distinctive device, emblem, mark, honorary + decoration, or special cognizance, used originally to identify a knight + or distinguish his followers, now worn as a sign of office or licensed + employment, as a token of membership in some society, or generally as a + mark showing the relation of the wearer to any person, <!-- Page 351 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page351"></a>[351]</span>occupation, or + order. See <i>Cockade</i>, <i>Heraldry</i>, <i>Totems</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:33%;"> + <a href="images/image137.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image137.jpg" + alt="Badger" title="Badger" /></a> + Common Badger (<i>Meles vulgāris</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Badger</b> (baj´ėr), a plantigrade, carnivorous mammal, + allied both to the bears and to the weasels, of a clumsy make, with short + thick legs, and long claws on the fore-feet. The common badger (<i>Meles + vulgāris</i>) is as large as a middling-sized dog, but much lower + on the legs, with a flatter and broader body, very thick tough hide, and + long coarse hair. It inhabits the north of Europe and Asia, burrows, is + indolent and sleepy, feeds by night on vegetables, small quadrupeds, + &c. Its flesh may be eaten, and its hair is used for artists' brushes + in painting. The American badger belongs to a separate genus. <i>Badger + baiting</i>, or <i>drawing the badger</i>, is a barbarous sport, long a + favourite amusement in England, but declared illegal in the middle of + last century, and yet to some extent practised, generally as an + attraction to public-houses of the lowest sort. A badger is put in a + barrel, and one or more dogs are put in to drag him out. When this is + effected he is returned to his barrel, to be similarly assailed by a + fresh set. The badger usually makes a most determined and savage + resistance.</p> + + <p><b>Badger Dog</b>, a long-bodied, short-legged dog, with rather large + pendulous ears, usually short haired, black, and with yellow extremities; + often called by its German name <i>Dachshund</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bad´minton</b>, a game closely resembling lawn-tennis, but played + with battledore and shuttle-cock instead of ball and racket: named after + a seat of the Duke of Beaufort, in Gloucestershire.</p> + + <p><b>Badrinath</b> (-ät´), a peak of the main Himalayan range, in + Garhwál District, in the United Provinces, 23,210 feet above the sea. On + one of its shoulders, at an elevation of 10,400 feet, stands a celebrated + temple of Vishnu, which some years attracts as many as 50,000 + pilgrims.</p> + + <p><b>Baedeker</b> (bā´de-kėr), Karl, a German publisher, + born 1801, died 1859; originator of a celebrated series of guide-books + for travellers.</p> + + <p><b>Baelz's Disease</b>, an affection of the mouth characterized by + swelling of the mucous glands of the mouth and lips, leading to the + formation of small abscesses and ulcers.</p> + + <p><b>Baena</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ā´na<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a town of Spain, in Andalusia, + province of Cordova, and 24 miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> of the + city of that name. Pop. 14,730.</p> + + <p><b>Baeza</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ā´tha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>; anciently, <b>Beatia</b>), a town of + Spain, in Andalusia, 22 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of Jaen, + with 15,843 inhabitants. The principal edifices are the cathedral, the + university (now suppressed), and the old monastery of St. Philip de + Neri.</p> + + <p><b>Baffa</b> (ancient, <b>Paphos</b>), a seaport on the <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> coast of Cyprus. Pop. 1000. It occupies the site + of New Paphos, which, under the Romans, was full of beautiful temples and + other public buildings. Old Paphos stood a little to the south-east.</p> + + <p><b>Baffin</b>, William, an English navigator, born 1584, famous for + his discoveries in the Arctic regions; in 1616 he ascertained the limits + of Baffin Bay. He was killed at the siege of Ormuz, in the East Indies, + 1622.</p> + + <p><b>Baffin Bay</b>, on the <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of North + America, between Greenland and Baffin Land and other islands that lie on + the <span class="scac">N.</span> of the continent; discovered by Baffin + in 1616.</p> + + <p><b>Bafulabe</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-fu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>-lä-bā), a trading-place in French + West Africa, on the Upper Senegal, and on the railway that runs from + Kayes on the Senegal to Bammako on the Niger.</p> + + <p><b>Bagamo´yo</b>, a seaport of former German East Africa, a short + distance north-west of Dar-el-Salaam. There is no proper harbour, only a + shallow and rather exposed roadstead where ships have to anchor some + distance from the shore, yet it is the chief trading-centre of the + colony, and as the terminus of the caravan route to Tanganyika is a place + of some importance. Pop. about 25,000. See <i>European War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bagasse´</b>, the sugar-cane in its dry crushed state as delivered + from the mill, and after the main portion of its juice has been + expressed; used as fuel in the sugar factory, and called also + <i>cane-trash</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bagatelle´</b>, a game played on a long flat board covered with + cloth like a billiard-table, with spherical balls and a cue or mace. At + the end of the board are nine cups or sockets of just sufficient size to + receive the balls. These sockets are arranged in the form of a regular + octagon, with the ninth in the middle, and are numbered consecutively + from one upwards. Nine balls are used, generally one black, four white, + and four red, the distinction between white and red being made only for + the sake of variety. In the ordinary game, at starting, the black ball is + placed on a point in the longitudinal middle line of the board, a few + inches in front of the nearest <!-- Page 352 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page352"></a>[352]</span>of the sockets, and the player places one + of his eight balls on a corresponding point at the other end of the + board, and tries to strike the black ball into one of the sockets with + his own. After this his object is to place as many of his balls as + possible in the sockets. Each ball so placed counts as many as the socket + is numbered for, and the black ball always counts double. He who first + makes the number of points agreed on wins.</p> + + <p><b>Bagdad´</b>, or <b>Baghdad</b>, a city of a vilayet of same name + (54,540 sq. miles; pop. 900,000) in what was anciently Mesopotamia. The + greater part of it lies on the eastern bank of the Tigris, which is + crossed by a bridge of boats; old Bagdad, the residence of the caliphs + (now in ruins), was on the western bank of the river. The city occupies a + large area. The houses are mostly built of brick, the streets unpaved and + very narrow, and there are few buildings of any note. The palace of the + governor is spacious. Of the mosques only a few attract notice, many are + in ruins; the bazaars are large and well stocked; that of Dawd Pasha + still ranks as one of the most splendid in the world. Manufactures: + leather, silks, cottons, woollens, carpets, &c. Steamers ply on the + river between Bagdad and Bassorah, and the town exports wheat, dates, + galls, gums, mohair, carpets, &c., to Europe, the chief import being + cotton goods. The estimated population is over 200,000; of these about + 86,000 are Mahommedans, 52,000 Jews, and 7000 Christians. The city has + been frequently visited by the plague. Bagdad was founded in 762 by the + Caliph Almansur, and raised to a high degree of splendour in the ninth + century by Harun Al Rashid. It is the scene of a number of the tales of + the <i>Arabian Nights</i>. It was long the chief city of the Mahommedan + world, and at one time is said to have had two millions of inhabitants. + In the thirteenth century it was stormed by Hulaku, grandson of + Genghis-Khan, who caused the reigning caliph to be slain, and destroyed + the caliphate. It was again laid waste by Timur in 1401. For a + considerable period it was the object of contention between the Persians + and the Turks, until it was besieged and captured by Sultan Murad IV in + 1638. Since that date it remained a part of the Turkish Empire. It was + captured by the British on 11th March, 1917.</p> + + <p><b>Bagdad Railway</b>, a railway which, under arrangement with the + Turkish Government, was intended to run from Konia, which is the terminus + of the Anatolian railway system, to Bagdad, Basra (Bassorah), and the + Persian Gulf. It was built chiefly by means of funds provided by German + and French financiers, in association with the Anatolian Railway Company, + a German company. The line has been constructed continuously as far as + Kara Bunar in Cilicia. Farther on, the following sections have been + completed: Dorak to Bagtché, on the Ordana side of the Taurus Mountains; + Radjun, via Muslimié, to Jerablus, on the Euphrates, with a branch from + Muslimié to Aleppo; Jerablus to El-Abiad, and Bagdad to Samara. A branch + line has also been completed from Alexandretta to Toprak Kalé. Of the + distance from Konia to Bagdad (1509 miles), 1117 miles (with gaps) are + already working. In 1919 the railway system passed to the Allies, and in + 1920 it was announced that the line between Basra and Bagdad had been + completed.</p> + + <p><b>Bagehot</b> (bag´ot), Walter, English economist and journalist, + born at Langport, Somerset, 1826, died at the same place 1877. He studied + at Bristol, and at University College, London, and graduated as <span + class="scac">B.A.</span> and <span class="scac">M.A.</span> at the London + University (1848). He was for some time associated with his father in the + banking business at Langport, and for a number of years he acted as + London agent for the bank. He was one of the editors of the <i>National + Review</i> (1855-64), and from 1860 till his death he was editor and part + proprietor of the <i>Economist</i>. His chief works are: <i>Physics and + Politics</i>; <i>The English Constitution</i>; <i>Lombard Street</i>; and + <i>Studies, Literary, Biographic, and Economic</i>. He was a high + authority on economics, banking, and finance, and was often consulted by + public men.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image138.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image138.jpg" + alt="Baggala" title="Baggala" /></a> + Baggala + </div> + + <p><b>Bag´gala</b>, a two-masted Arab boat, generally 200-250 tons + burden, used for trading in the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Baggesen</b> (bag´e-sen), Jens, a Danish poet, who also wrote much + in German, born 1764, at Korsör, died at Hamburg, 1826. He led a rather + wandering and unsettled life, spending some time in England as well as in + France and Germany. <!-- Page 353 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page353"></a>[353]</span>He tried lyric, epic, and dramatic poetry, + but was most successful as a humorist and satirist. One of his best poems + is his famous song <i>There was a Time when I was very Little</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bagging</b> is the name of the textile material which is used in + the making of bags. Baltic hemp was the first material used for the + purpose, but now all kinds of fibres are used, though the majority of + bags are made of jute fibre. The style of the bagging used depends, + naturally, upon the requirements of the bag; for the export of raw cotton + from the United States of America we find the coarsest of all + cotton-bagging used. When intended to carry grain, spices, sugar, + &c., the bag must be made of closely-woven material. In many cases + bags to carry sugar are lined with paper.</p> + + <p><b>Baghelkand</b>, a tract of country in Central India, occupied by a + collection of native States (Rewah being the chief), under the + Governor-General's agent for Central India; area, 11,323 sq. miles. Pop. + 1,772,574.</p> + + <p><b>Bagheria</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gā´rē-a<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), a town of Sicily, + province of Palermo, 9 miles by railway from the city of Palermo. Pop. + 21,212.</p> + + <p><b>Bagimont's Roll</b>, a rent-roll of Scotland, made up in 1275 by + <i>Baiamund</i> or <i>Boiamond</i> de Vicci, vulgarly called + <i>Bagimont</i>, who was sent from Rome by the Pope, in the reign of + Alexander III, to collect the tithe of all the church livings in Scotland + for an expedition to the Holy Land. It remained the statutory valuation, + according to which the benefices were taxed, till the Reformation. A copy + of it as it existed in the reign of James V is in the Advocates' Library, + Edinburgh.</p> + + <p><b>Bagirmi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gir´mē), or <b>Baghermi</b>, a + Mohammedan Negro State in Central Africa, situated to the south-east of + Lake Tchad. It is mostly a plain; has an area of about 20,000 sq. miles, + and about 100,000 inhabitants. The people are industrious, and fairly + civilized. The country is in the French sphere of influence, but the + people are still under a native ruler.</p> + + <p><b>Bagnara</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-nyä´ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a seaport near the <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> extremity of Italy. Pop. 11,000.</p> + + <p><b>Bagnères de Bigorre</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-yār dė bē-gorr), a + watering-place, France, department Hautes-Pyrénées, on the left bank of + the Adour. It owes its chief celebrity to its sulphurous and saline + baths. The springs were known to and used by the Romans. The site is one + of the most romantic in the Pyrénées, and the town is well built and well + provided with accommodation for visitors. Pop. 8455.</p> + + <p><b>Bagnères de Luchon</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-yār dė lu-shōn), a + town, France, department Haute-Garonne, in a picturesque valley + surrounded by wooded hills, one of the principal watering-places of the + Pyrénées, having sulphurous thermal waters, beneficial in rheumatic + complaints. There is a large bathing establishment, and a large and + splendid casino building, comprising a theatre, concert and ball rooms, + &c. Resident pop. 4000.</p> + + <p><b>Bagni</b> (bän´yē), Italian for 'baths', a name in Italy for + various places which possess natural baths or thermal springs, with some + designation added to mark the particular locality. <i>Bagni di Lucca</i>, + in the province of Lucca, and about 13 miles north-east of the city of + Lucca, is one of the most frequented of these bathing-places, its waters + being recommended against gout, rheumatism, affections of the skin, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bagpipe</b>, a musical wind-instrument of very great antiquity, + having been used among the ancient Greeks, and being a favourite + instrument over Europe generally in the fifteenth century. It still + continues in use among the country people of Poland, Italy, the south of + France, and in Scotland and Ireland. Though now often regarded as the + national instrument of Scotland, especially Celtic Scotland, it is only + Scottish by adoption, being introduced into that country from England. It + consists of a leathern bag, which receives the air from the mouth, or + from bellows; and of pipes, into which the air is pressed from the bag by + the performer's elbow. In the common or Highland form, one pipe (called + the <i>chanter</i>) plays the melody; of the three others (called + <i>drones</i>) two are in unison with the lowest <i>A</i> of the chanter, + and the third and longest an octave lower, the sound being produced by + means of reeds. The chanter has eight holes, which the performer stops + and opens at pleasure, but the scale is imperfect and the tone harsh. The + Highland bagpipe is a powerful instrument, and calls for great exertion + of the lungs in order that the air may be supplied in sufficient + quantity. There are several other species of bagpipes, as the soft and + melodious Irish bagpipe, supplied with wind by a bellows, and having + several keyed drones and a keyed chanter; the old English bagpipe (now no + longer used); the Italian bagpipe, a very rude instrument, &c. The + Irish bagpipe is, musically speaking, the most perfect of + all.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir J. G. Dalyell, + <i>Musical Memoirs of Scotland</i>; E. de Bricqueville, <i>Les + Musettes</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bagration</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>g-rä´tyōn), Peter, Prince, + distinguished Russian general, descended from a noble Georgian family. He + was born in 1765, entered the Russian army in 1782, and henceforth was + constantly engaged in active service, distinguishing himself in many + actions and gradually rising in military rank. He fought in Poland, in + Italy, and against the Turks, was engaged in the battles of Austerlitz, + Eylau, and Friedland, and at last was mortally wounded at the battle of + Borodino, Sept., 1812.</p> + + <p><b>Bagshot-sand</b>, in geology, the collective name <!-- Page 354 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page354"></a>[354]</span>for a series + of sands of the Eocene age, occupying extensive tracts round Bagshot, in + Surrey, and in the New Forest, Hampshire, the whole reposing on the + London-clay; generally devoid of fossils.</p> + + <p><b>Bagster</b>, Samuel, publisher, founder of the firm of Bagster + & Sons, celebrated for their bibles, was born in 1772, and died in + 1851. He began business as a London bookseller in 1794, and soon turned + his attention to the publication of bibles, bringing out a Hebrew bible, + the <i>Septuagint</i> (Greek) version, and the English version, with + 60,000 parallel references, followed by his great polyglot bible, which + in its final form showed eight languages at the opening of the volume. + Separate versions in different languages were also brought out, with + various other aids to the study of Scripture; a polyglot <i>Book of + Common Prayer</i>, in eight languages; &c.</p> + + <p><b>Baha´dur Shah</b>, the last of the Grand Moguls of India, a + descendant of Tamerlane. In 1857, during the Indian Mutiny, the + Mahommedans, who wished to restore the Empire of the Moguls, placed him, + then a very old man, at the head of the movement in Delhi; but the city + was soon retaken by the British, and the Emperor was banished to Rangoon, + where he died in 1862.</p> + + <p><b>Baha´ma Islands</b>, or <b>Lucayos</b>, a group of islands in the + West Indies, forming a colony belonging to Britain, lying <span + class="scac">N.E.</span> of Cuba and <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of + the coast of Florida, the Gulf Stream passing between them and the + mainland. They extend a distance of upwards of 600 miles, and are said to + be twenty-nine in number, besides keys and rocks innumerable. The + principal islands are Grand Bahama, Great and Little Abaco, Andros + Islands, New Providence, Eleuthera, San Salvador, Great Exuma, Watling + Island, Long Island, Crooked Island, Acklin Island, Mariguana Island, + Grand Inagua. Of the whole group about twenty are inhabited, the most + populous being New Providence, which contains the capital, Nassau; the + largest being Andros, 100 miles long, 20 to 40 broad. They are low and + flat, and have in many parts extensive forests. Total area, 4400 sq. + miles. The soil is a thin but rich vegetable mould, and an important + product is pineapples, which form a large export (both canned and green). + Other fruits are also grown, with sisal hemp (a valuable export), cotton, + sugar, maize, yams, ground nuts, coco-nuts, &c. Sponges are obtained + in large quantity, and are at present the chief export. Total exports + about £382,140 (1919). The Bahama Islands are a very favourite winter + resort for persons suffering from lung trouble. San Salvador, or Cat + Island, is generally believed to be the same as Guanahani, the land first + touched on by Columbus (12th Oct., 1492) on his first great voyage. The + first British settlement was made on New Providence towards the close of + the seventeenth century. A number of loyal Americans settled in the + islands after the War of Independence. Pop. 55,944, including 14,000 + whites.</p> + + <p><b>Baha´walpur</b>, a town of India, capital of State of same name in + the Punjab, 2 miles from the Sutlej; surrounded by a mud wall and + containing the extensive palace of the Nawab. Pop. 18,700. The State has + an area of 15,000 sq. miles, of which 10,000 is desert, the only + cultivated lands lying along the Indus and Sutlej. Pop. 780,641.</p> + + <p><b>Bahia</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ē´a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>; formerly <b>St. Salvador</b>), a town + of Brazil, on the Bay of All Saints, State of Bahia. It consists of a + lower town, which is little more than an irregular, narrow, and dirty + street, stretching about 4 miles along the shore; and an upper town, + larger and much better built, with various outlying suburbs. The harbour + is one of the best in South America; and the export trade, chiefly in + sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, hides, piassava, and tapioca, is very + extensive. Pop. 348,000. The State, area 164,600 sq. miles, pop. + 3,013,007, has much fertile land, both along the coast and in the + interior.</p> + + <p><b>Bahia Blanca</b>, a seaport of the Argentine Republic, on a bay of + same name opening into the Atlantic, about 350 miles south-west of Buenos + Ayres; it is a rising place connected by railway with the capital, and a + terminus of other railways from the interior. It carries on a + considerable trade directly with Europe, exporting mutton, wheat, &c. + Pop. 75,000.</p> + + <p><b>Bahr</b> (bär), an Arabic word signifying sea or large river; as in + Bahr-el-Huleh, the Lake Merom in Palestine; Bahr-el-Abiad, the White + Nile, Bahr-el-Azrek, the Blue Nile, which together unite at Khartoum.</p> + + <p><b>Bahraich</b> (bä-rāch´), a flourishing town of India, in + Oudh, Faizabad division. It carries on a good local trade, and has a + shrine that attracts many Hindu and Mohammedan pilgrims. It is the seat + of an American Methodist mission. Pop. 27,304.</p> + + <p><b>Bahrein</b> (bä´rīn) <b>Islands</b>, a group of islands in + the Persian Gulf, in an indentation on the Arabian coast, since 1867 + under British protection. The principal island, usually called Bahrein, + is about 27 miles in length and 10 in breadth. It is in general very flat + and low, and the soil is not very fertile except in a few places; but + irrigation is employed and excellent dates are grown. The principal town + is Menamah or Manama; pop. 30,000. The smaller island of Moharrek, + separated by a shallow strait 2 miles wide, contains the town of + Moharrek, the present seat of government; pop. 25,000. The Bahrein + Islands are chiefly noted for their pearl-fisheries, which were known to + the ancients, and which employ in the season from 2000 to 3000 boats <!-- + Page 355 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page355"></a>[355]</span>manned by from 8 to 20 men each. Total + pop. estimated at 110,000.</p> + + <p><b>Bahr-el-Ghazal</b>, a large river of Central Africa, a western + tributary of the White Nile (or Bahr-el-Abiad). It flows through a very + swampy region, and is liable to inundations. The head of steam navigation + is Meshra-er-Rek. The river gives its name to a province of the + Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, yielding ivory, rubber, timber, &c., and suited + for cotton growing.</p> + + <p><b>Baiadeer.</b> See <i>Bayadere</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baiæ</b> (bī´ē), an ancient Roman watering-place on the + coast of Campania, 10 miles west of Naples. Many of the wealthy Romans + had country houses at Baiæ, which was a favourite resort of Horace. Ruins + of temples, baths, and villas still attract the attention of + archæologists.</p> + + <p><b>Baikal</b> (bī´ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l), a large freshwater lake in Eastern + Siberia, 360 miles long, and about 50 in extreme breadth, interspersed + with islands; in the line of the great Siberian Railway. It is surrounded + by rugged and lofty mountains; contains seals, and many fish, + particularly salmon, sturgeon, and pike. Its greatest depth is over 4000 + feet. It receives the waters of the Upper Angara, Selenga, Barguzin, + &c., and discharges its waters by the Lower Angara. It is frozen over + in winter.</p> + + <p><b>Baikie</b>, William Balfour, born in the Orkney Islands 1824, died + at Sierra Leone 1863. He joined the British navy, and was made surgeon + and naturalist of the Niger Expedition, 1854. He took the command on the + death of the senior officer, and explored the Niger for 250 miles. + Another expedition, which started in 1857, passed two years in exploring, + when the vessel was wrecked, and all the members, with the exception of + Baikie, returned to England. With none but native assistants he formed a + settlement at the confluence of the Benué and the Quorra, in which he was + ruler, teacher, and physician, and within a few years he opened the Niger + to navigation, made roads, and established a market.</p> + + <p><b>Bail</b>, the person or persons who procure the release of a + prisoner from custody by becoming surety for his appearance in court at + the proper time; also, the security given for the release of a prisoner + from custody. In the United States bail is a matter of right in all cases + where a sentence of death cannot be pronounced, and even in such a case + it may be allowed by one of the judges.</p> + + <p><b>Baildon</b>, an urban district in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, about + 5 miles north of Bradford, with worsted manufactures, chemical works, and + quarries. Pop. (1921), 6527.</p> + + <p><b>Bailen</b> (bī-len´), a town of Southern Spain, province + Jaen, with lead-mines. Pop. 8334.</p> + + <p><b>Bailey</b> (bā´li), the name given to the courts of a castle + formed by the spaces between the circuits of walls or defences which + surrounded the keep.</p> + + <p><b>Bailey</b>, or <b>Baily</b>, Nathaniel, an English lexicographer, + school teacher at Stepney, and author of several educational works. His + <i>Dictionary</i>, published in 1721, passed through a great many + editions.</p> + + <p><b>Bailey</b>, Philip James, English poet, born near Nottingham, 1816, + called to the bar 1840, died 1902. He published <i>Festus</i>, his best + work, in 1839; <i>The Mystic</i>, 1855; <i>The Age</i>, 1858; and <i>The + Universal Hymn</i>, 1867.</p> + + <p><b>Bailie</b>, or <b>Baillie</b>, a municipal officer or magistrate in + Scotland, corresponding to an <i>alderman</i> in England. The criminal + jurisdiction of the provost and bailies of royal burghs extends to + breaches of the peace, drunkenness, adulteration of articles of diet, + thefts not of an aggravated character, and other offences of a less + serious nature.</p> + + <p><b>Bailiff</b>, a civil officer or functionary, subordinate to someone + else. There are several kinds of bailiffs, whose offices widely differ, + but all agree in this, that the keeping or protection of something + belongs to them. In England the sheriff is the monarch's bailiff, and his + county is a bailiwick. The name is also applied to the chief magistrates + of some towns, to keepers of royal castles, as of Dover, to persons + having the conservation of the peace in hundreds and in some special + jurisdictions, as Westminster, and to the returning officers in the same. + But the officials commonly designated by this name are the + <i>bailiffs</i> of sheriffs, or sheriffs' officers, who execute + processes, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bailleul</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-yeul), an ancient French town, + department of Nord, near the Belgian frontier, about 19 miles west of + Lille. Much fighting took place in its vicinity during the European War, + but it was not destroyed until the campaign of 1918. Pop. 12,828.—A + village of the same name in department Orne gave its name to the Baliol + family.</p> + + <p><b>Baillie</b>, Joanna, a Scottish authoress, born at Bothwell, + Lanarkshire, in 1762, died at Hampstead, 1851. She removed in early life + to London, where her brother, Matthew Baillie, was settled as a + physician. Here in 1798 she published her first work, entitled <i>A + Series of Plays</i>, in which she attempted to delineate the stronger + passions by making each passion the subject of a tragedy and a comedy. + The series was followed up by a second volume in 1802, and a third in + 1812. A second series appeared in 1836, and a complete edition of her + whole dramatic works in 1850. She also published a volume of + miscellaneous poetry, including songs, in 1841. Her only plays performed + on the stage were a tragedy entitled the <i>Family Legend</i>, brought + out at Edinburgh under the patronage <!-- Page 356 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page356"></a>[356]</span>of Sir Walter Scott; + and <i>De Montfort</i>, brought out by John Kemble, who acted in it with + Mrs. Siddons.</p> + + <p><b>Baillie</b>, Matthew, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, physician and + anatomist, brother of the preceding, was born 1761 at Shotts, + Lanarkshire, died at Cirencester, Gloucestershire, in 1823. In 1773 he + was sent to the University of Glasgow. He afterwards studied anatomy + under his maternal uncles, John and William Hunter, and entered Oxford, + where he graduated as <span class="scac">M.D.</span> In 1783 he succeeded + his uncle as lecturer on anatomy in London, where he acquired a high + reputation as a teacher and demonstrator, having also a large practice. + In 1810 he was appointed physician to George III. His work on <i>The + Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body</i> + gave him a European reputation.</p> + + <p><b>Baillie</b>, Robert, an eminent Scottish Presbyterian clergyman, + was born at Glasgow in 1599, died 1662. Though educated and ordained as + an Episcopalian, he resisted the attempt of Archbishop Laud to introduce + his <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> into Scotland, and joined the + Presbyterian party. In 1638 he represented the presbytery of Irvine in + the General Assembly at Glasgow, which dissolved Episcopacy in Scotland. + In 1640 he was selected to go to London, with other commissioners, to + draw up the accusation against Archbishop Laud. Of this, and almost all + the other proceedings of his public life, he has left a minute account in + his letters and journals, which form a most valuable collection for the + history of his time. In 1642 he was appointed professor of divinity at + Glasgow. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, and + attended its sittings from 1643-6. After the Restoration, though made + principal of his college through Court patronage, he did not hesitate to + express his dissatisfaction with the reintroduction of Episcopacy.</p> + + <p><b>Baillie</b>, Robert, of Jerviswood, in Lanarkshire, a Scottish + patriot of the reign of Charles II. He brought himself into notice by + opposing the tyrannical measures of Archbishop Sharpe against the + Nonconformists, for which he was fined 6000 merks (or £500) and + imprisoned for four months. In 1683 he went to London in furtherance of a + scheme of emigration to South Carolina taken up by a number of Scottish + gentlemen, as being the only way of escaping the tyranny of the + Government. He became associated with Monmouth, Sydney, Russell, and the + rest of that party, and was charged with complicity in the Rye-house + plot. After a long imprisonment, during which vain attempts were made to + obtain evidence against him, he was brought before the Court of + Justiciary (23rd Dec., 1684), was found guilty, and condemned to be + executed that afternoon.</p> + + <p><b>Baillieston</b>, a town of Scotland, in Lanarkshire, a few miles + east of Glasgow, with extensive collieries, in which many of the + inhabitants are employed. Pop. 5500.</p> + + <p><b>Bailly</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-yē), Jean Sylvain, French + astronomer and statesman, born at Paris 1736. After some youthful essays + in verse, he was induced by Lacaille to devote himself to astronomy, and + on the death of the latter in 1753, being admitted to the Academy of + Sciences, he published a reduction of Lacaille's observations on the + zodiacal stars. In 1764 he competed ably but unsuccessfully for the + Academy prize offered for an essay upon Jupiter's satellites, Lagrange + being his opponent; and in 1771 he published a treatise on the light + reflected by these satellites. In the meantime he had won distinction as + a man of letters by his <i>Éloges</i> on Pierre Corneille, Leibnitz, + Molière, and others; and the same qualities of style shown by these were + maintained in his <i>History of Astronomy</i> (1775-87), his most + extensive work. In 1784 the French Academy elected him a member. The + revolution drew him into public life. Paris chose him, 12th May, 1789, + first deputy of the <i>tiers-état</i>, and in the Assembly itself he was + made first president, a post occupied by him on 20th June, 1789, in the + session of the Tennis Court, when the deputies swore never to separate + till they had given France a new constitution. As Mayor of Paris his + moderation and impartial enforcement of the law failed to commend + themselves to the people, and his forcible suppression of mob violence, + 17th July, 1791, aroused a storm which led to his resignation and retreat + to Nantes. In 1793 he attempted to join Laplace at Melun, but was + recognized and sent to Paris, where he was condemned by the revolutionary + tribunal, and executed on 12th Nov.</p> + + <p><b>Bailment</b>, in law, is the delivery of a chattel or thing to a + person in trust, either for the use of the bailer or person delivering, + or for that of the bailee or person to whom it is delivered. A bailment + always supposes the subject to be delivered only for a limited time, at + the expiration of which it must be re-delivered to the bailer, the + responsibility of the bailee being dependent, in some degree, upon the + contract on which the bailment is made. Pledging and letting for hire are + species of bailment. <i>Agistment</i>, or the taking in of cattle or live + stock to feed at a rate of so much per head, is a contract of + bailment.</p> + + <p><b>Baily</b>, Edward Hodges, an English sculptor, born at Bristol + 1788, died at London 1867. He became a pupil of Flaxman in 1807, gained + the Academy Gold Medal in 1811, and was elected <span + class="scac">R.A.</span> in 1821. Principal works: <i>Eve at the + Fountain</i>, <i>Eve Listening to the Voice</i>, <i>Maternal + Affection</i>, <i>Girl Preparing for the Bath</i>, <i>The Graces</i>, + &c. The bas-reliefs on the south side of the Marble <!-- Page 357 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page357"></a>[357]</span>Arch, Hyde + Park, the statue of Nelson on the Trafalgar Square monument, and other + public works, were by him.</p> + + <p><b>Baily</b>, Francis, astronomer, born in Berkshire 1774; settled in + London as a stockbroker in 1802. While thus actively engaged he published + <i>Tables for the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases</i>, <i>The Doctrine + of Interest and Annuities</i>, <i>The Doctrine of Life Annuities and + Assurances</i>, and an epitome of universal history. On retiring from + business with an ample fortune in 1825 he turned his attention to + astronomy, became one of the founders of the Astronomical Society, + contributed to its <i>Transactions</i>, and in 1835 published a life of + Flamsteed. He died in 1844.</p> + + <p><b>Baily's Beads</b>, a phenomenon attending eclipses of the sun, the + unobscured edge of which appears discontinuous and broken immediately + before and after the moment of complete obscuration. It is classed as an + effect of irradiation, and is caused by the sun shining through the + depressions between the lunar mountains.</p> + + <p><b>Bain</b>, Alexander, Scottish philosopher and educationalist, was + born at Aberdeen in 1818. He was educated at Marischal College (then a + separate university), Aberdeen; was for some years a deputy professor in + the university; subsequently held official posts in London; and in 1860 + was appointed professor of logic and English in Aberdeen University, a + post which he held till his resignation in 1881. His most important works + are: <i>The Senses and the Intellect</i> (1855); <i>The Emotions and the + Will</i> (1859), together forming a complete exposition of the human + mind; <i>Mental and Moral Science</i> (1868); <i>Logic, Deductive and + Inductive</i> (1870); <i>Mind and Body</i> (1873); <i>Education as a + Science</i> (1879); <i>James Mill, a Biography</i> (1881); <i>John Stuart + Mill, a Criticism with Personal Recollections</i> (1882); besides an + <i>English Grammar</i>; <i>English Composition and Rhetoric</i>; an + <i>Autobiography</i>, &c. Bain was at once grammarian, rhetorician, + educationalist, and logician, but his fame rests on his contributions to + psychology. He died in 1903.</p> + + <p><b>Bainsizza Plateau.</b> See <i>European War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bairam</b> (bī´ram), the Easter of the Mohammedans, which + follows immediately after the Ramadan or Lent (a month of fasting), and + lasts three days. This feast during the course of thirty-three years + makes a complete circuit of all the months and seasons, as the Turks + reckon by lunar years. Sixty days after this first great Bairam begins + the lesser Bairam. They are the only two feasts prescribed by the + Mohammedan religion.</p> + + <p><b>Baird</b>, Sir David, a distinguished British soldier, was born in + Aberdeenshire in 1757, and entered the army 1772. Having been promoted to + a lieutenancy in 1778 he sailed for India, distinguished himself as a + captain in the war against Hyder Ali, was wounded and taken prisoner, and + confined in the fortress of Seringapatam for nearly four years. He and + his fellow-prisoners were treated with great barbarity, and many of them + died or were put to death, but at last (in 1784) all that survived were + set at liberty. In 1787 he became major, and in 1791 joined the army + under Cornwallis as lieutenant-colonel, and was appointed to the command + of a brigade in the war against Tippoo. After much hard service he was + made a colonel in 1795, went in 1797 to the Cape of Good Hope as + brigadier-general, and in 1798, on his appointment as major-general, + returned to India. In 1799 he commanded the storming party at the assault + of Seringapatam, and, in requital, was presented with the State sword of + Tippoo Saib. Being appointed in 1800 to command an expedition to Egypt, + he landed at Kosseir in June, 1801, crossed the desert, and, embarking on + the Nile, descended to Cairo, and thence to Alexandria, which he reached + a few days before it surrendered to General Hutchinson. Next year he + returned to India, but being soon after superseded by Sir Arthur + Wellesley (Wellington), he sailed for Britain, where he was knighted and + made <span class="scac">K.B.</span> With the rank of lieutenant-general + he commanded an expedition in 1805 to the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1806, + after defeating the Dutch, he received the surrender of the colony. He + commanded a division at the siege of Copenhagen, and after a short period + of service in Ireland sailed with 10,000 men for Corunna, where he formed + a junction with Sir John Moore. He commanded the first division of + Moore's army, and in the battle of Corunna lost his left arm. By the + death of Sir John Moore, Sir David succeeded to the chief command, + receiving for the fourth time the thanks of Parliament, and a baronetcy. + In 1814 he was made a general. He died in 1829.</p> + + <p><b>Baird</b>, Spencer Fullerton, American naturalist, born 1823, died + 1887. From 1850 to 1878 he was assistant secretary, and then became + secretary, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and was also chief + Government commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote much on natural + history, his chief works being <i>The Birds of North America</i> (in + conjunction with John Cassin), <i>The Mammals of North America</i>, + <i>Review of American Birds in the Smithsonian Institution</i>, and (with + Messrs. Brewer and Ridgeway) <i>History of North American Birds</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baireuth</b> (bī´roit), a well-built and pleasantly-situated + town of Bavaria, on the Red Main, 41 miles north-east of Nürnberg. The + principal edifices, besides churches, are the old and the new palace, the + opera-house, the gymnasium, and the national theatre, constructed after + the design of the composer Wagner, and opened in <!-- Page 358 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page358"></a>[358]</span>1876 with a grand + performance of his tetralogy of the <i>Nibelungen Ring</i>. Industries: + cotton-spinning, sugar-refining, musical instruments, sewing-machines, + leather, brewing, &c. There is a monument to Jean Paul F. Richter, + who died here. Pop. 34,547.</p> + + <p><b>Baius</b>, or <b>De Bay</b>, Michael, Catholic theologian, was born + 1513, in Hainaut, educated at Louvain, made professor of theology there + in 1552, and chosen a member of the Council of Trent in 1563. Leaving the + scholastic method, he founded systematic theology directly upon the Bible + and the Christian fathers, of whom he particularly followed St. + Augustine. His doctrines of original sin and of salvation by grace led to + his persecution as a heretic by the old Scotists, and the Jesuits, who + succeeded in obtaining a Papal bull in 1567, condemning the doctrines + imputed to him. Baius, however, remained in the possession of his + dignities, was appointed in 1575 Chancellor of Louvain University; and + the King of Spain even conferred upon him the office of + Inquisitor-General in the Netherlands. He died in 1589. His Augustinian + views descended to the Jansenists, while his doctrine of pure undivided + love to God formed the staple of Quietism. His system is called + <i>Baianism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baize</b>, a sort of coarse woollen fabric with a rough nap, now + generally used for linings, and mostly green or red in colour.</p> + + <p><b>Baja</b> (bä´ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a market town of Hungary, district of + Bacs, on the Danube, with a trade in grain and wine, and a large annual + hog fair. Pop. 20,361.</p> + + <p><b>Bajaderes.</b> See <i>Bayaderes</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bajazet</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-zet´), or <b>Bayezid, I</b>, Turkish + emperor, who, in 1389, having strangled his brother Jacob, succeeded his + father Murad or Amurath, who fell in the battle of Kossovo while fighting + against the Serbians. From the rapidity of his conquests he received the + name of <i>Ilderim</i>, the Lightning. In three years he overcame + Bulgaria, part of Serbia, Macedonia, Thessaly, and the States of Asia + Minor, and besieged Constantinople for ten years, defeating Sigismund and + the allied Hungarians, Poles, and French in 1395. The attack of Timur + (Tamerlane) on Natolia, in 1400, saved the Greek Empire, Bajazet being + defeated and taken prisoner by him near Ancyra, Galatia, 1402. The story + of his being carried about in a cage by Timur is improbable; but Bajazet + died, in 1409, in Timur's camp, in Caramania. His successor was Soliman + I.</p> + + <p><b>Bajazet II</b> succeeded his father, Mohammed II, Sultan of the + Turks, in 1481. He increased the Turkish Empire by conquests on the <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> and in the <span class="scac">E.</span>, took + Lepanto, Modon, and Durazzo in a war against the Venetians, and ravaged + the coasts of the Christian States on the Mediterranean, to revenge the + expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Having abdicated in favour of his + younger son Selim, he died on his way to a residence near Adrianople in + 1513. He did much for the improvement of his empire and the promotion of + the sciences.</p> + + <p><b>Bajimont's Roll.</b> See <i>Bagimonts Roll</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bajocco</b>, or <b>Baiocco</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-yok´o), was a copper coin in the Papal + States, the hundredth part of a scudo, or rather more than a halfpenny. + The name was also given in Sicily to the Neapolitan <i>grano</i>, the + hundredth part of the ducato (3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>).</p> + + <p><b>Bajus.</b> See <i>Baius</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bajza</b> (boi´za), Anton, Hungarian lyric poet, historian, and + critic, born 1804, died 1858. As contributor to and editor of various + periodicals he played an important part in the development of modern + Hungarian literature and drama. A volume of his poems, of high merit, was + published in 1835. He also translated a collection of foreign dramas, and + edited a series of historical works.</p> + + <p><b>Bakalaha´ri</b>, a Bechuana tribe inhabiting the Kalahari Desert, + S. Africa.</p> + + <p><b>Bak´arganj</b>, a maritime district and town in Eastern Bengal; + chief rivers: Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. Area, 3649 sq. miles. Pop. + 2,292,000. The town now lies in ruins. Pop. 7000.</p> + + <p><b>Bakau</b> (bä´kou), a town of Roumania, on the Bistritza. Pop. + 16,187.</p> + + <p><b>Bakchisarai</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k-chi-sa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rī´), or <b>Bagtcheserai</b> + (Bakh-chi-Sarai) (bäg-che-se-rī; Turk., 'Garden Palace'), an + ancient town of Russia, in the Crimea, picturesquely situated at the + bottom of a narrow valley, hemmed in by precipices. It contains the + palace of the ancient Crimean khans, restored by the Russian Government. + Pop. 15,000.</p> + + <p><b>Baker</b>, Sir Richard, an English historian, born in Kent in 1568, + educated at Oxford, knighted in 1603 by James I, and in 1620 appointed + High Sheriff of Oxfordshire, where he had estates. Having given security + for a debt incurred by his wife's family, he was thrown into Fleet + Prison, where, after remaining some years, he died in 1645. During his + imprisonment he wrote some devotional books and his <i>Chronicle of the + Kings of England</i>, first published in 1641, and afterwards continued + by Edward Phillips, the nephew of Milton, and others—a work of + great popularity in its day, though of no permanent value.</p> + + <p><b>Baker</b>, Sir Samuel White, a distinguished English traveller, + born in 1821. He resided some years in Ceylon; in 1861 began his African + travels, which lasted several years, in the Upper Nile regions, and + resulted, among other discoveries, in that of Albert Nyanza Lake in 1864, + and of the exit of the White Nile from it. In <!-- Page 359 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page359"></a>[359]</span>Africa he encountered + Speke and Grant after their discovery of the Victoria Nyanza. On his + return home he was received with great honour and was knighted. In 1869 + he returned to Africa as head of an expedition sent by the Khedive of + Egypt to annex and open up to trade a large part of the newly-explored + country, being raised to the dignity of pasha. He returned in 1873, + having finished his work, and was succeeded by the celebrated Gordon. His + writings include: <i>The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon</i>; <i>Eight + Years' Wanderings in Ceylon</i>; <i>The Albert Nyanza</i>; <i>The Nile + Tributaries of Abyssinia</i>; <i>Ismailia: a Narrative of the Expedition + to Central Africa</i>; <i>Cyprus as I saw it in 1879</i>; also, <i>Cast + up by the Sea</i>, a story published in 1868. He died 30th Dec., + 1893.</p> + + <p><b>Baker</b>, Thomas, antiquary, born 1656, educated at Cambridge. As + a non-juror he lost his living at Long-Newton in 1690, and was compelled + to resign his fellowship on the accession of George I, but continued to + reside at St. John's College till his death in 1740. His <i>Reflections + on Learning</i> (1709-10) went through seven editions. He left in MS. + forty-two folio volumes of an <i>Athenæ Cantabrigienses</i>, from which a + <i>History of St. John's College</i> was edited by Professor Mayor in + 1869.</p> + + <p><b>Bakewell</b>, an ancient market town, England, county of Derby, + between Buxton and Matlock, possessing a fine Gothic church, a chalybeate + spring, a cotton-mill erected by Arkwright, and a large marble-cutting + industry. Pop. 3062.</p> + + <p><b>Bakewell</b>, Robert, an English agriculturist, celebrated for his + improvements in the breeding of sheep, cattle, and horses, was born in + Leicestershire in 1725, and died in 1795. He commenced experiments in + breeding sheep, about 1755, upon his father's farm at Dishley, and for + fifty years devoted himself to the acquisition and diffusion of + information upon the subject. He was the originator of the new + Leicestershire breed of sheep, which has since been so well known, and + also of a breed of cattle very famous in their day. The demand for his + rams increased so considerably, that whereas he let them for the season + at £16 per head in 1755, by 1789 they were hired at 6000 guineas. Various + improvements in farm management were also introduced by him.</p> + + <p><b>Bakhmut.</b> See <i>Bachmut</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bakhuisen.</b> See <i>Backhuysen</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baking</b>, a term meaning 'to cook by dry heat', and primarily + applied to the baking of bread. A common application of the term is to a + mode of cooking food in a close oven, baking in this case being opposed + to roasting or broiling, in which an open fire is used. The oven should + not be too close, but ought to be properly ventilated. Baking is also + applied to the hardening of earthenware or porcelain by fire. See + <i>Bread</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baking Powder</b>, a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and tartaric + acid, usually with some flour added. The water of the dough causes the + liberation of carbonic acid, which makes the bread 'rise'.</p> + + <p><b>Bakony</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-kon´yė) <b>Wald</b>, a thickly + wooded mountain range dividing the Hungarian plains, famous for the herds + of swine fed on its mast.</p> + + <p><b>Baksheesh´</b>, an Eastern term for a present or gratuity. A demand + for baksheesh meets travellers in the East everywhere from Turkey and + Egypt to Hindustan.</p> + + <p><b>Baku</b> (bä-kö´), a Russian port on the western shore of the + Caspian, occupying part of the Peninsula of Apsheron. The naphtha or + petroleum springs of Baku have long been known; and the Field of Fire, so + called from emitting inflammable gases, has long been a place of + pilgrimage with the Guebres or Fire-worshippers. From the development of + the petroleum industry, Baku has greatly increased, and is now a large + and flourishing town. About 1500 oil-wells are in operation, producing + immense quantities of petroleum (6,448,000 tons in 1917), much of which + is led direct in pipes from the wells to the refineries in Baku, and it + is intended to lay a pipe for its conveyance all the way to the Black Sea + at Batoum, which is already connected with Baku by railway. Some of the + wells have had such an outflow of oil as to be unmanageable, and the Baku + petroleum now competes successfully with any other in the markets of the + world. Baku, formerly the station of the Caspian fleet, is strongly + fortified, and has a large shipping trade. The district of Baku lies + within the limits of the new Republic of Azerbaijan. Pop. 237,000; pop. + of the province, 1,119,600.</p> + + <p><b>Baku´nin</b>, Michael, Russian anarchist, the founder of Nihilism, + born 1814 of a rich and noble family, entered the army, but threw up his + commission after two years' service, and studied philosophy at Moscow, + with his friends Hertzen, Turgeniev, Granovski (historian), and Byelinski + (critic). Having adopted Hegel's system as the basis of a new revolution, + he went in 1841 to Berlin, and thence to Dresden, Geneva, and Paris, as + the propagandist of anarchism. Wherever he went he caused disturbance, + and after undergoing imprisonment in various States, was handed over to + Russia in 1851 by Austria, imprisoned for five years, and finally sent to + Siberia. Escaping thence through Japan, he joined Hertzen in London on + the staff of the <i>Kolokol</i>. His extreme views, however, ruined the + paper and led to a quarrel with Marx and the Internationale; and having + fallen into disrepute with his own party in Russia, he died <!-- Page 360 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page360"></a>[360]</span>suddenly and + almost alone at Berne in 1878. He demanded the entire abolition of the + State as a State, the absolute equalization of individuals, and the + extirpation of hereditary rights and of religion, his conception of the + next stage of social progress being purely negative and annihilatory.</p> + + <p><b>Bala</b>, a lake 4 miles long, and an urban district of N. Wales, + in Merionethshire. Pop. 1408.</p> + + <p><b>Balaam</b> (bā'lam), a prophet, invited by Balak, King of + Moab, to curse the Israelites, but compelled by miracle to bless them + instead (<i>Num.</i> xxii-xxiv). In another account he is represented as + aiding in the perversion of the Israelites to the worship of Baal, and as + being, therefore, slain in the Midianitish war (<i>Num.</i> xxxi; + <i>Josh.</i> xiii). He is the subject of many rabbinical fables, the + Targumists and Talmudists regarding him, as most of the fathers did, in + the light of an impious and godless man.</p> + + <p><b>Bala Beds</b>, or <b>Bala Series</b>, a deposit of Upper Ordovician + Age, named from the Bala district, North Wales, consisting of slates, + grits, sandstones, and limestones, there being two limestones separated + by sandy and slaty rocks about 1400 feet thick. They contain trilobites + of many species, and other marine fossils. The lower Bala limestone (25 + feet thick) may be traced over a large area in North Wales. See + <i>Caradoc Series</i>, <i>Ordovician System</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balachong´</b>, an Oriental condiment, composed of small fishes, or + shrimps, pounded up with salt and spices and then dried.</p> + + <p><b>Balæ´na</b>, the genus which includes the Greenland or right whale, + type of the family Balænidæ, or whale-bone whales.</p> + + <p><b>Balæ´niceps</b> ('whale-head'), a genus of wading birds belonging + to the Sudan, intermediate between the herons and storks, and + characterized by an enormous bill, broad and swollen, giving the only + known species (<i>B. rex</i>), also called shoe-bird, a peculiar + appearance. It feeds on fishes, water-snakes, carrion, &c., and makes + its nest in reeds or grass adjoining water. The bill is yellow, blotched + with dark-brown, the general colour of the plumage dusky-grey, the head, + neck, and breast slaty, the legs blackish.</p> + + <p><b>Balænop´tera.</b> See <i>Rorqual</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balagarh</b> (bä-lä-g<i>a</i>r'), town of Hindustan, in the Punjab. + Pop. 11,233.</p> + + <p><b>Balaghat´</b>, a district of India, in the Central Provinces, + Nagpur division; area, 3146 sq. miles; capital, Burha, a small place. The + surface is diversified, comprising extensive uplands as well as lowlands; + forests are extensive, and a comparatively small part of the area is + under cultivation, rice being the chief crop. Iron exists in considerable + quantities, and it is worked in a small way; gold is also worked. Pop. + 330,000, almost entirely rural.</p> + + <p><b>Balaguer</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gār'), Victor, Spanish author and + politician, important writer in the Catalonian dialect, born 1824, died + 1901. Born at Barcelona, he studied law there, and, becoming learned in + Catalonian history, was appointed archivist and soon after professor of + history. In 1869 he entered the Cortes as a Liberal; in 1872 was Minister + of Public Works; from 1886 to 1888 Colonial Minister. He wrote much both + in prose and verse, his prose comprising historical works, novels, + &c., his verse lyrics, ballads, tragedies, odes, &c. His + tragedies were partly on subjects taken from Catalonian history, partly + on subjects connected with Greek and Roman history or literature. Among + his lyrical and other poems are: <i>El Trovador de Montserrat</i>; + <i>Primavera de Ultimo Trovador Catalan</i>; <i>Poesias Completas</i> + (1874); <i>Obras Poeticas</i> (1880). <i>Don Juan de Serrallonga</i> is + the most popular of his novels. Among other works of his are: <i>Historia + Politica y Literaria de los Trovadores</i>; <i>Historia de Cataluña</i>; + <i>Los Pirineos</i>; <i>Cristobal Colon</i>; <i>Estudios Historicos y + Politicos</i>; <i>Historias y Tradiciones</i>; <i>Instituciones y Reyes + de Aragon</i>. As a poet he was imitative, reminding us of Quintana, + Zorilla, and Byron.</p> + + <p><b>Balaklava</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-klä'va), a small seaport in the Crimea, + 8 miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> Sevastopol. In the Crimean war + it was captured by the British, who used the harbour as a base of + supplies. The famous battle of Balaklava was fought some distance to the + north of the seaport, on 25th Oct., 1854. The Russians brought a force of + 25,000 men against the allies, a much larger force than they had to + encounter, and the chief incidents in the battle were as follows: The + Russians captured a series of positions occupied by the Turks in front of + the British position; a Russian cavalry charge was repulsed by the 93rd + Highlanders; a great mass of Russian cavalry was defeated by a charge of + British heavy cavalry; the British light cavalry brigade charged and took + a Russian battery, and put to flight the cavalry behind it, but were + compelled by overpowering force to retreat with heavy loss, their retreat + being covered by a brilliant charge of the French. The celebrated charge + of the light brigade, or of the 'six hundred', though a brilliant feat of + arms, was made under an erroneous interpretation of orders; that of the + heavy brigade was equally glorious, and contributed far more to the final + repulse of the enemy.</p> + + <p><b>Balako´vo</b>, a river-port of South-Eastern Russia, on the left + bank of the Volga, government of Samara, with a very important trade in + grain. Pop. 16,000.</p> + + <p><b>Balalai´ka</b>, a musical instrument of very ancient Slavonic + origin, common among the Russians and Tartars. It is a narrow, shallow + guitar with only two strings. <!-- Page 361 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page361"></a>[361]</span></p> + + <p><b>Bal´ance</b>, an instrument for determining the relative weights of + bodies. Balances are of various forms; in that most commonly used a + horizontal beam rests so as to turn easily upon a fulcrum in the middle. + From the extremities of the beam, called the centres of suspension, hang + the scales; and a slender metal pointer between them, and in front of the + fulcrum, indicates when the beam is level. The characteristics of a good + balance are: (1) that the beam should rest in a horizontal position when + the scales are either empty or loaded with equal weights; (2) that a very + small addition of weight put into either scale should cause the beam to + deviate from the level, which property is denominated the sensibility of + the balance; (3) that when the beam is deflected from the horizontal + position by inequality of the weights on the scales, it should have a + tendency speedily to restore itself and come to rest in the level, which + property is called the stability of the balance. To secure these + qualities the arms of the beam should be exactly similar, equal in weight + and length, and as long as possible; the centres of gravity and + suspension should be in one straight line, and the fulcrum immediately + above the centre of gravity; and the fulcrum and the centres of + suspension should cause as little friction as possible. The fulcrum ought + to be a knife-edge; and if the balance requires to be very delicate, the + centres of suspension ought to be knife-edges also. If the balance has no + tendency to one position more than another, when the scales are either + loaded, empty, or off altogether, it is proof that the centre of gravity + and the fulcrum coincide, and the remedy is to lower the centre of + gravity. If the beam is disturbed by a small addition of weight to either + scale, and exhibits no tendency to resume the horizontal position, we may + infer that the centre of gravity is above the fulcrum. If it requires a + considerable excess of weight to deflect the beam from the level, we may + infer either that there is too much friction at the fulcrum, or that the + centre of gravity is too low. If two weights are found to be in + equipoise, one being in each scale, and if, when that which is in one + scale is put into the other, there is no longer equilibrium, then we may + infer that the arms of the beam are of unequal lengths. For purposes of + accuracy, balances have occasionally means of raising or depressing the + centre of gravity, of regulating the length of the arms, &c., and the + whole apparatus is usually enclosed in a glass case, to prevent the heat + from expanding the arms unequally, or currents of air from disturbing the + equilibrium. A refinement in weighing is obtained by the use of the + milligram rider, a short bent wire which can be moved along a scale + engraved on the beam.</p> + + <p>Of the other forms of balance, the Roman balance, or steel-yard, + consists of a lever moving freely upon a suspended fulcrum, the shorter + arm of the lever having a scale or pan attached to it, and the longer + arm, along which slides a weight, being graduated to indicate quantities. + It is commonly used for weighing loaded carts, for luggage at railway + stations, &c. A variety of this, the Danish balance, has the weight + fixed at the end of the lever, the fulcrum being movable along the + graduated index. The spring-balance registers the weight of an article by + the extent to which it draws out or compresses a spiral spring. It is of + service where a high degree of exactness is not required, as in its + domestic use, and it also finds application in the dynamometer for + measuring horse-power of machinery. An extremely ingenious balance, used + in the Mint and the Bank of England, for weighing 'blanks' and + sovereigns, distributes them automatically into three compartments + according as they are light, heavy, or the exact weight. The Roberval + balance is a form in common use for weighing letters and + parcels.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. A. Brauer, <i>The + Construction of the Balance</i>; E. Nicholson, <i>Men and Measures: a + history of weights and measures, ancient and modern</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balance of Power</b>, a political principle which first came to be + recognized in modern Europe in the sixteenth century, though it appears + to have been also acted on by the Greeks in ancient times, in preserving + the relations between their different States. The object in maintaining + the balance of power is to secure the general independence of nations as + a whole, by preventing the aggressive attempts of individual States to + extend their territory and sway at the expense of weaker countries. The + first European monarch whose ambitious designs induced a combination of + other States to counteract them was the Emperor Charles V, similar + coalitions being formed in the end of the seventeenth century, when the + ambition of Louis XIV excited the fears of Europe, and a century later + against the exorbitant power and aggressive schemes of the first + Napoleon. Since that time we have the instance of the Crimean War, + entered into to check the ambition of Russia. Of late years there has + been a marked tendency among British politicians to decry and impugn the + principle of the balance of power, as calculated only to propagate a + system of mutual hostility, and retard the cause of progress, by the + expenditure both of money and life thus occasioned. An equilibrium + between the various Powers is, of course, essential to the very existence + of international law. The war of 1914-8 has proved to the world that in + the absence of any central authority neither treaties nor signatures + could prevent a State sufficiently powerful from ignoring <!-- Page 362 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page362"></a>[362]</span>the law and + acting solely according to its interests and ambitious designs. See + <i>Society of Nations</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: + Hume, <i>Essay on the Balance of Power</i>; Von Gentz, <i>Fragments on + the Balance of Power</i>; Professor L. Oppenheim, <i>International + Law</i>, vol. i; Vattel, <i>Le droit des gens</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balance of Trade</b>, the difference between the stated money + values of the exports and imports of a country. The balance is + erroneously said to be 'in favour' of a country when the value of the + exports is in excess of that of the imports, and 'against it' when the + imports are in excess of the exports. The phrases date from the days of + the mercantile system, the characteristic doctrine of which alleged the + desirability of regulating commerce with a view to amassing treasure by + exporting produce largely, importing little merchandise in return, and + receiving the balance in bullion. In certain conceivable political and + industrial conditions this may have had beneficial results; but its + importance was greatly overestimated, and the state of this balance came + to be regarded as an invariable criterion of the industrial condition of + a country. The false analogy of the successful merchant who gains more + than he spends became the basis of popular reasoning, the products of a + country being mistakenly identified with its exports, its consumption + with its importation. It is now generally recognized that if bullion be + exported from a country it is because it is at the time the cheapest + commodity available for export; and further, that there are certain + natural limits to its undue exportation, in that the increased scarcity + of money is attended with a fall in the money-value of other commodities, + which thus in turn become preferable objects of exportation, while + bullion flows back. The excess of the value of imports over that of + exports, which is regarded by some as an adverse and alarming symptom in + British trade, is in large part readily accounted for on the ground of + shipping receipts, insurance returns, interest on capital employed in + foreign trade, merchants' profits, and the income derived from foreign + investments.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:14%;"> + <a href="images/image139.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image139.jpg" + alt="Balanus" title="Balanus" /></a> + Group of <i>Balănus tintinnabŭlum</i> + </div> + + <p><b>Bal´anus</b> ('acorn-shells'), a genus of sessile cirripeds, family + Balanidæ, of which colonies are to be found on rocks at low water, on + timbers, crustaceans, shells of mollusca, &c. They differ from the + barnacles in having a symmetrical shell, and being destitute of a + flexible stalk. The shell consists of six plates, with an operculum of + four valves. They pass through a larval state, in which they are not + fixed, moving by means of swimming feet which disappear in the final + state. All the Balanidæ are hermaphrodite. A South American species + (<i>Balănus psittăcus</i>) is eaten on the coast of Chile, + the <i>Balănus tintinnabŭlum</i> by the Chinese. The old + Roman epicures esteemed the larger species.</p> + + <p><b>Balapur´</b>, town of India, in Akola district, Berar, with strong + fort and fine pavilion of black stone. Pop. 10,500.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´as</b>, a name used to distinguish the rose-coloured species of + ruby from the ruby proper.</p> + + <p><b>Balasor´</b>, a seaport town, Hindustan, presidency of Bengal, + province of Orissa, head-quarters of a district and subdivision bearing + the same name. It carries on a considerable traffic with Calcutta. Pop. + 21,362.</p> + + <p><b>Bala´ta</b>, a gum yielded by <i>Mimūsops Balata</i>, a tree + growing abundantly in British, French, and Dutch Guiana, Honduras and + Brazil, obtained in a milky state by 'tapping' the tree, and hardening to + a substance like leather. Used for similar purposes to india-rubber, and + in the United States chewed as a masticatory.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´aton</b>, or <b>Plattensee</b>, a lake of Hungary, 55 miles + <span class="scac">S.W.</span> of Pesth; length, 50 miles; breadth, 3 to + 10 miles; area, about 390 sq. miles. Of its thirty-two feeders the Szala + is the largest, and the lake communicates with the Danube by the Rivers + Sio and Sarviz. It abounds with a species of perch.</p> + + <p><b>Balbec.</b> See <i>Baalbek</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balbi</b>, Adrien, geographer and statistician, born at Venice in + 1782. In 1808 his first work on geography, <i>Prospetto + Politico-Geografico</i>, procured his appointment as professor of + geography in the College of San Michele at Murano, and he became in 1811 + professor of natural philosophy in the Lyceum at Fermo. In 1820 he + proceeded to Portugal, and collected there materials for his <i>Essai + Statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve</i> and <i>Variétés + Politiques et Statistiques de la Monarchie Portugaise</i>, both published + in 1822 at Paris, where he resided till 1832. He then settled in Padua, + where he died in 1848. Balbi's admirable <i>Abrégé de Géographie</i> was + written at Paris, and translated into the principal European + languages.</p> + + <p><b>Balbi</b>, Gaspāro, a Venetian dealer in precious stones, + born about the middle of the sixteenth century, who travelled first to + Aleppo and thence down the Euphrates and Tigris to the Malabar coast, + sailing finally for Pegu, where he remained for two years. His <i>Viaggio + all' Indie Orientale</i>, published on his return to Venice in 1590, + contains the earliest account of India beyond the Ganges.</p> + + <p><b>Balbo</b>, Cesāre, Italian author and statesman, born in 1789 + at Turin. After holding one or two posts under the patronage of Napoleon, + he <!-- Page 363 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page363"></a>[363]</span>devoted himself to history, publishing a + history of Italy prior to the period of Charlemagne, a compendium of + Italian history, &c. His <i>Speranze d'Italia</i> (1843), a statement + of the political condition of Italy, and of the practicable ideals to be + kept in view, gave him a wide reputation. He died in 1853.</p> + + <p><b>Balbo´a</b>, Vasco Nuñez de, one of the early Spanish adventurers + in the New World, born 1475. Having dissipated his fortune, he went to + America, and was at Darien with the expedition of Francisco de Enciso in + 1510. An insurrection placed him at the head of the colony, but rumours + of a western ocean and of the wealth of Peru led him to cross the + isthmus. On 25th Sept., 1513, he saw for the first time the Pacific, and + after annexing it to Spain, and acquiring information about Peru, + returned to Darien. Here he found himself supplanted by a new governor, + Pedrarias Davila, with much consequent grievance on the one side, and + much jealousy on the other. Balboa submitted, however, and in the + following year was appointed Viceroy of the South Sea. Davila was + apparently reconciled to him, and gave him his daughter in marriage, but + shortly after, in 1517, had him beheaded on a charge of intent to rebel. + Pizarro, who afterwards completed the discovery of Peru, served under + Balboa.</p> + + <p><b>Balbriggan</b>, a seaport and favourite watering-place, Ireland, + county of Dublin; celebrated for its hosiery. Pop. 2273.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´cony</b>, in architecture, is a gallery projecting from the + outer wall of a building, supported by columns or brackets, and + surrounded by a balustrade. Balconies were not used in Greek and Roman + buildings, and in the East the roof of the house has for centuries served + similar purposes on a larger scale. Balconies properly so styled came + into fashion in Italy in the Middle Ages, and were introduced into + Britain in the sixteenth century.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image140.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image140.jpg" + alt="Baldachin:" title="Baldachin:" /></a> + Baldachin: Church of St. Ambrogio, Milan + </div> + + <p><b>Bal´dachin</b> (-kin; It. <i>baldachino</i>), a canopy or tent-like + covering of any material, either suspended from the roof, fastened to the + wall, or supported on pillars over altars, thrones, pulpits, beds, + portals, &c. Portable baldachins of rich materials were formerly used + to shield the heads of dignitaries in processions, and are still so used + in the processions of the Roman Catholic Church, and in the East. The + enormous bronze baldachin designed by Bernini for Pope Urban VIII, and + placed over the tomb of the apostles in St. Peter's at Rome, is one of + the most famous, though surpassed in beauty by many in other European + cathedrals and churches.</p> + + <p><b>Balder</b>, or <b>Baldur</b>, a Scandinavian divinity, represented + as the son of Odin and Frigga, beautiful, wise, amiable, and beloved by + all the gods. His mother took an oath from every creature, and even from + every inanimate object, that they would not harm Balder, but omitted the + mistletoe. Balder was therefore deemed invulnerable, and the other gods + in sport flung stones and shot arrows at him without harming him. But the + evil god Loki fashioned an arrow from the mistletoe and got Balder's + blind brother Hōder to shoot it, himself guiding his aim. Balder + fell dead, pierced to the heart, to the deep grief of all the gods. He is + believed to be a personification of the brightness and beneficence of the + sun.</p> + + <p><b>Baldi</b>, Bernardino, mathematician, theologian, geographer, + historian, poet, &c., born at Urbino 1533; studied at Padua; became + abbot of Guastalla. He knew upwards of twelve languages, and is said to + have written over a hundred works, most of which remain in MS. His works + include a poem on <i>Navigation</i>, various translations and + commentaries, <i>Lives of Celebrated Mathematicians</i>, &c. He died + in 1617.</p> + + <p><b>Baldness</b>, loss of the hair, complete or partial, usually the + latter, and due to various causes. Most commonly it results as one of the + changes belonging to old age, due to wasting of the skin, hair-sacs, + &c. It may occur as a result of some acute disease, or at an + unusually early age, without any such cause. In both the latter cases it + is due to defective nourishment of the hair, owing to lessened + circulation of the blood in <!-- Page 364 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page364"></a>[364]</span>the scalp. The best treatment for + preventing loss of hair seems to consist in such measures as bathing the + head with cold water and drying it by vigorous rubbing with a rough towel + and brushing it well with a hard brush. Various stimulating lotions are + also recommended, especially those containing cantharides. But probably + in most cases senile baldness is unpreventable. When extreme scurfiness + of the scalp accompanies loss of the hair, an ointment that will clear + away the scurf will prove beneficial.</p> + + <p><b>Baldovinet´ti</b>, Alessio, Florentine artist, born 1427. Few of + his works remain except a <i>Nativity</i> in the church of the + Annunziato, and two altarpieces in the gallery of the Uffizi and the + Academy of Arts, Florence. Died 1499. His portrait by himself is in the + gallery at Bergamo.</p> + + <p><b>Baldric</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>ld´rik), a broad belt formerly worn over + the right or left shoulder diagonally across the body, often highly + decorated and enriched with gems, and used not only to sustain the sword, + dagger, or horn, but also for purposes of ornament, and as a military or + heraldic symbol.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´dung</b>, Hans, or <b>Hans Grün</b> (grün), German painter and + wood engraver, born in Swabia 1470, died in Strasburg 1552. His work, + though inferior to Dürer's, possessed many of the same characteristics, + and on this account he has been sometimes considered a pupil of the + Nuremberg master. His principal paintings are the series of panels (of + the date 1516) over the altar in Freiburg Cathedral; others of his works + are to be found at Berlin, Colmar, and Basel. His numerous and often + fantastic engravings have the monogram H and B, with a small <span + class="scac">G</span> in the centre of the H.</p> + + <p><b>Baldwin I</b>, Emperor of Constantinople, founder of the + short-lived dynasty of Latin sovereigns of the Eastern Empire, was born + in 1172, and was hereditary Count of Flanders and Hainault. His courage + and conduct in the fourth crusade led to his unanimous election as + Emperor of the East after the capture of Constantinople by the French and + Venetians in 1204. In the absence of Baldwin's brother with a large part + of the army, the Greeks rose in revolt under the instigation of + Joannices, King of Bulgaria. Baldwin marched on Adrianople, but was taken + prisoner and died in captivity, 1205. Baldwin was succeeded by his + brother Henry.—<b>Baldwin II</b>, fifth and last Latin Emperor of + Constantinople, was born 1217. During his minority John de Brienne was + regent, but on his assuming the power himself the Empire fell to pieces. + In 1261 Constantinople was taken by the forces of Michael Palæologus, and + Baldwin retired to Italy, dying in 1270.</p> + + <p><b>Baldwin I</b>, King of Jerusalem, reigned 1100-18, having assumed + the title which his elder brother, Godfrey de Bouillon, had refused. He + subdued Cæsarea, Ashdod, Tripolis, and Acre.—<b>Baldwin II</b>, his + cousin and successor, reigned from 1118-31. During his reign the + reduction of Tyre and institution of the order of Templars took + place.—<b>Baldwin III</b>, King of Jerusalem from 1143 to 1162, was + son and successor of Foulques of Anjou, and the embodiment of the best + aspects of chivalry. After defeating Noureddin in 1152, and again in + 1157, he was enabled to devote himself to the hopeless task of improving + the kingdom and establishing the Christian chivalry in the East. His + death in 1162 was almost immediately followed by the total collapse of + the kingdom.</p> + + <p><b>Baldwin</b>, James Mark, American philosopher, born in Columbia, + 12th Jan., 1861. He was educated at Princeton College, Leipzig and Berlin + Universities; was instructor of German and French at Princeton College, + 1885-7; professor of philosophy in Lake Forest University, 1887-9; + professor of psychology at Princeton University, 1893-1903. From 1903-9 + he was professor of philosophy and psychology at the Johns Hopkins + University, Baltimore. Professor Baldwin is best known by his + experimental psychology and his theories of genetic logic. He + distinguishes between genetic logic, as theory of thought, and genetic + philosophy, as theory of reality. Genetic sciences, according to Baldwin, + are psychology, sociology, ethics, &c., and his point of view he + terms 'Æsthonomical Idealism'. Among his numerous works are: <i>Handbook + of Psychology</i> (2 vols., 1891-2); <i>Mental Development in the Child + and the Race</i> (3rd edition, 1906); <i>Social and Ethical + Interpretations in Mental Development</i> (1904); <i>Thought and Things, + or Genetic Logic</i> (1906-8). He also edited the <i>Dictionary of + Philosophy and Psychology</i> (1901-9) and <i>The Psychological + Review</i> (1894-1909).</p> + + <p><b>Bâle</b> (bäl). See <i>Basel</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bale</b>, John, an English ecclesiastic, born in Suffolk in 1495, + died in 1563. Although educated a Roman Catholic, he became a Protestant, + and the intolerance of the Catholic party drove him to the Netherlands. + On the accession of Edward VI he returned to England, was presented to + the living of Bishop's Stoke, Southampton, and soon after nominated + Bishop of Ossory, in Ireland. Here, on his preaching the reformed + religion, the popular fury against him reached such a pitch that in one + tumult five of his domestics were murdered in his presence. On the + accession of Mary he lay some time concealed in Dublin, and after many + hardships found refuge in Switzerland. At her death he was appointed by + Elizabeth a prebend of Canterbury, where he died. His fame as an author + rests upon his <i>Scriptorum Illustrium Majoris <!-- Page 365 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page365"></a>[365]</span>Britanniæ + Catalogus</i>, or <i>An Account of the Lives of Eminent Writers of + Britain</i>, commencing with Japhet the son of Noah, and ending with the + year 1557. It is compiled from various writers, chiefly from the + antiquary Leland. He was also the author of nineteen miracle plays, + printed in 1558. One of his plays, <i>Kynge Johan</i>, is a link between + the old morality plays and the historical drama.</p> + + <p><b>Balear´ic Crane</b> (<i>Balearĭca pavonīna</i>), a + handsome species of crested crane inhabiting North-West Africa.</p> + + <p><b>Balear´ic Islands</b>, an archipelago of four large and eleven + small islands, south-east of Spain, including Majorca, Minorca, Iviza, + and Formentera. The popular derivation of the ancient name Baleares (Gr. + <i>ballein</i>, to throw) has reference to the repute of the inhabitants + for their skill in slinging, in which they distinguished themselves both + in the army of Hannibal and under the Romans, by whom the islands were + annexed in 123 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> After being taken by the + Vandals, under Genseric, and in the eighth century by the Moors, they + were taken by James I, King of Aragon, 1220-34, and constituted a + kingdom, which in 1343 was united to Spain. The islands now form a + Spanish province, with an area of 1935 sq. miles, and 330,167 + inhabitants. See separate articles.</p> + + <p><b>Baleen´</b>. See <i>Whale-bone</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bale-fire</b>, any great fire kindled in the open air, especially + the fire of a funeral pile, or a beacon-fire.</p> + + <p><b>Balen</b> (bä´len), Hendrik van, painter, born at Antwerp 1560, + died 1632. His works, chiefly classical, religious, and + allegorical—some of them executed in partnership with + Breughel—are to be found in most of the European galleries. He was + the first master of Van Dyck and Snyders. Three of his sons also followed + the art.</p> + + <p><b>Balfe</b> (balf), Michael William, composer, was born in Dublin, + 15th May, 1808. In his seventh year he performed in public on the violin, + and at sixteen took the part of the Wicked Huntsman in <i>Der + Freischütz</i> at Drury Lane. In 1825 he went to Italy, wrote the music + for a ballet, <i>La Pérouse</i>, for the Scala at Milan, and in the + following year sang at the Théâtre-Italien, Paris, with moderate success. + He returned to Italy, and at Palermo was given his first opera, <i>I + Rivali</i> (1829). For five years he continued singing and composing + operas for the Italian stage. In 1835 he came to England, and composed a + number of operas, amongst others <i>The Bohemian Girl</i> (1843), <i>The + Rose of Castile</i> (1857), <i>Satanella</i> (1858), and <i>The + Talisman</i> (first performed in 1874). He died 20th Oct., 1870. His + operas are melodious, and many of the airs are excellent.</p> + + <p><b>Balfour</b> (bal-för´), Sir Andrew, Bart., a Scottish botanist and + physician, born in Fifeshire in 1630. After completing his studies at St. + Andrews and London, and travelling on the Continent, he settled at + Edinburgh, where he planned, with Sir Robert Sibbald, the Royal College + of Physicians, and was elected its first president. He also laid the + foundation of a hospital in Edinburgh, which expanded into the Royal + Infirmary. He died in 1694. His familiar letters were published in + 1700.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´four</b>, Right Hon. Arthur James, First Earl of (created + 1922), son of J. M. Balfour of Whittingehame, Haddingtonshire, and of + Lady Blanche Cecil, sister of the third Marquess of Salisbury, was born + 25th July, 1848, and educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He + represented Hertford from 1874-5, East Manchester from 1885 to 1906, and + has been representative for the City of London since 1906. For a time he + was private secretary to his uncle, Lord Salisbury, under whom he was + President of the Local Government Board, and afterwards Secretary for + Scotland (1886-7), with a seat in the cabinet. He showed much firmness + and ability as Chief Secretary for Ireland during Lord Salisbury's + administration from 1887-91. He succeeded Rt. Hon. W. H. Smith as leader + of the House of Commons and First Lord of the Treasury in 1891-2, and + held the position again from 1895 till 1900, and from that year till + 1902. On the retirement of Lord Salisbury in 1902 he became Prime + Minister, a position which he retained till Dec., 1905. Under him as + Premier was passed the new English Education Act (which owed much to his + personal influence and exertions), that for London, and the new Licensing + Act, and he advocated a change of our fiscal policy, at least as far as + having recourse to retaliation, denying that he in any way favoured + protection. He became First Lord of the Admiralty in the Coalition + Government of 1915, and Foreign Secretary in 1916. He was one of the + British delegates to the Peace Conference in 1919. He is given to studies + bearing on philosophy and religion, and has published a <i>Defence of + Philosophic Doubt</i> (1879), <i>Essays and Addresses</i> (1893), <i>The + Foundations of Belief</i> (1895), <i>Economic Notes on Insular + Free-Trade</i> (1903), <i>Criticism and Beauty</i> (1909), <i>Theism and + Humanism</i> (1915), &c. He was President of the British Association + in 1904, and Gifford Lecturer, Glasgow University, 1913-4. In 1919 he was + elected to succeed Lord Rayleigh, O.M., as Chancellor of Cambridge + University.</p> + + <p><b>Balfour</b>, Francis Maitland, writer on embryology, brother of the + foregoing, born in 1851, early distinguished himself in his special + study, and in 1874, in conjunction with Dr. M. Foster, published <i>The + Elements of Embryology</i>; but the promise of his chief work, + <i>Comparative <!-- Page 366 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page366"></a>[366]</span>Embryology</i> (1880-1) was unfulfilled, + as in 1882 he was killed by a fall on Mont Blanc.</p> + + <p><b>Balfour</b>, Sir James, Scottish lawyer and politician, born about + 1522, took part in the conspiracy against Cardinal Beaton, and was + condemned with Knox to the galleys; but after his release found it to his + interest to change his opinions, and was appointed, through the favour of + Queen Mary, Lord of Session and member of the Privy Council. In 1567 he + was appointed Governor of Edinburgh Castle, but had no scruple in + surrendering it to Murray, who made him President of the Court of + Session. He was charged with a share in the murder of Darnley, and helped + to bring Regent Morton to his death. He died in 1583. <i>The Practicks of + Scots Law</i>, attributed to him, was long a textbook.</p> + + <p><b>Balfour</b>, John Hutton, a distinguished botanist, born 1808, died + 1884. He graduated at Edinburgh University in arts and in medicine; from + 1841 to 1845 was professor of botany in Glasgow University; and in the + latter year removed to Edinburgh to occupy a similar post, resigning his + chair in 1879. He wrote valuable botanical textbooks, including + <i>Elements</i>, <i>Outlines</i>, <i>Manual</i>, and <i>Class-book</i>, + besides various other works.</p> + + <p><b>Balfroosh´</b>, or <b>Barfurush´</b>, a town, Persia, province of + Mazanderan, about twelve miles from the Caspian, a great emporium of the + trade between Persia and Russia. Pop. estimated at 50,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´li</b>, an island of the Indian Archipelago east of Java, + belonging to Holland; greatest length, 85 miles, greatest breadth, 55 + miles; area, about 2160 sq. miles. It consists chiefly of a series of + volcanic mountains, of which the loftiest, Agoong (11,326 feet), became + active in 1843 after a long period of quiescence. Principal products: + rice, cocoa, coffee, indigo, cotton, &c. The people are akin to those + of Java and are mostly Brahmans in religion. It is divided into eight + provinces under native rajahs, and since 1882 has formed one colony with + Lombok, the united pop. being 1,363,000, of whom about 900,000 belong to + Bali.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´iol</b>, or <b>Balliol</b>, John de, of Barnard Castle, + Northumberland, father of King John Baliol, a great English (or Norman) + baron in the reign of Henry III, to whose cause he strongly attached + himself in his struggles with the barons. In 1263 he laid the foundation + of Balliol College, Oxford, which was completed by his widow Devorguila + or Devorgilla. She was daughter and co-heiress of Allan of Galloway, a + great baron of Scotland, by Margaret, eldest daughter of David, Earl of + Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion. It was on the strength of this + genealogy that his son John Baliol became temporary King of Scotland. He + died 1269.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´iol</b>, or <b>Balliol</b>, John, King of Scotland, born about + 1249, died 1315. On the death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway and + grandchild of Alexander III, Baliol claimed the vacant throne by virtue + of his descent from David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother to William the + Lion, King of Scotland (see above article). Robert Bruce (grandfather of + the king) opposed Baliol; but Edward I's decision was in favour of + Baliol, who did homage to him for the kingdom, 20th Nov., 1292. Irritated + by Edward's harsh exercise of authority, Baliol concluded a treaty with + France, then at war with England; but after the defeat at Dunbar he + surrendered his crown into the hands of the English monarch. He was sent + with his son to the Tower, but, by the intercession of the Pope in 1297, + obtained liberty to retire to his Norman estates, where he + died.—His son, Edward, in 1332 landed in Fife with an armed force, + and, having defeated a large army under the Regent Mar (who was killed), + got himself crowned king, but was driven out in three months.</p> + + <p><b>Balis´tidæ.</b> See <i>Trigger-fishes</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balize</b> (ba-lēz´). See <i>Belize</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´kan</b> (ancient, <b>Hæmus</b>), a rugged chain of mountains + extending from Cape Emineh, on the Black Sea, in Eastern Roumelia, + westwards to the borders of Serbia, though the name is sometimes used to + include the whole mountain system from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, the + region south of Austria and Russia, or south of the Danube and Save, + forming the Balkan Peninsula. The range, which is over 200 miles in + length, forms the water-shed between the streams flowing northward into + the Danube and those flowing southward to the Ægean, the chief of the + latter being the Maritza. The average height is not more than 5000 feet, + but the highest point, Tchat-al-dagh, is 8340 feet. In the Russo-Turkish + war of 1877-8 the Russian troops managed to cross it without great + difficulty, though they had to encounter a stubborn resistance at the + Shipka Pass, where a Turkish army of 32,000 men ultimately surrendered to + them.</p> + + <p><b>Balkan League, The.</b> After the annexation of Bosnia and + Herzegovina by Austria, in 1908, the Balkan League of Bulgaria, Serbia, + Montenegro, and Greece was formed, apparently at the instigation of the + Powers of the Triple Entente, primarily to constitute a bulwark against + Austrian aggression towards the southeast. The League, however, directed + its activities against Turkey, taking advantage of Turkish embarrassments + in Libya and of the success of an insurrection in Albania to attempt in + 1912 the overthrow of the Turkish regime in Europe. The declaration of + hostilities by the League in Oct., 1912, began the First Balkan War + (q.v.). The League was maintained during the two <!-- Page 367 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page367"></a>[367]</span>campaigns of the war, + but jealousy of Bulgarian pre-eminence led to its disruption in June, + 1913, when Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece went to war with their former + ally.</p> + + <p><b>Balkan States.</b> See <i>Bulgaria</i>, <i>Greece</i>, + <i>Roumania</i>, <i>Serbia</i>, <i>Turkey</i>, and <i>Yugo-Slavs</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balkan War, The.</b> The First Balkan War (Oct., 1912-May, 1913) + was the effort of the Balkan League (q.v.) to dismember Turkey in Europe. + Each member of the League was allotted a definite strategic object, and + each gained a considerable measure of success. Bulgaria defeated the + Turks at Kirk Kilisseh and Lule Burgas, and drove them behind the lines + of Tchataldja. The Greeks captured Salonica; the Serbians forced their + way to the sea at Durazzo. The Montenegrins invested Scutari. An + armistice in December was followed by indecisive negotiations, in which + the Great Powers took part. Renewed hostilities in the spring of 1913 + (during which the Turks lost Adrianople) came to an end with the Treaty + of London in May. Before its promises could be carried out, Serbia, + Greece, and Roumania joined to crush Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War, + alleging that her claims to conquered territory in Macedonia were + excessive. The Treaty of Bucharest (Aug., 1913) finally concluded the + war. The net results were: (1) to confine Turkey to Constantinople and + the vilayet of Adrianople; (2) to extend Bulgarian territory to the Ægean + and to increase greatly both Serbia and Montenegro; (3) to grant Salonica + to Greece; (4) to create an autonomous Albania.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. Ashmead-Bartlett, <i>With the Turks in + Thrace</i>; <i>The Balkan War Drama</i>, by a Special Correspondent; + D. J. Cassvetti, <i>Hellas and the Balkan Wars</i>; Sir J. R. L. Rankin, + <i>The Inner History of the Balkan War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balkash´</b>, or <b>Balkhash</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-<i>h</i>a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>sh´), a salt lake in Russian Central + Asia, surrounded by steppes and plains; length about 330 miles, area 8500 + sq. miles, depth nowhere more than 80 feet; formerly of much greater area + and gradually growing smaller; receives the Ili and other smaller + streams.</p> + + <p><b>Balkh</b> (bälk or bäl<i>h</i>), a city in the north of + Afghanistan, in Afghan Turkestan, at one time the emporium of the trade + between India, China, and Western Asia. It was long the centre of + Zoroastrianism, and was also an important Buddhist centre. In 1220 it was + sacked by Genghis Khan, and again by Timur in the fourteenth century. The + remains of the ancient city extend for miles. The town is now merely a + village, but a new town has been built an hour's journey north of the + old, the residence of the Afghan governor, with a pop. of about 20,000. + The district, which formed a portion of ancient Bactria, lies between the + Oxus and the Hindu-Kush, with Badakshan to the east and the desert to the + west. In the vicinity of the Oxus, where there are facilities for + irrigation, the soil is rich and productive, and there are many populous + villages.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´kis</b>, the Arabian name of the Queen of Sheba who visited + Solomon. She is the central figure of innumerable Eastern legends and + tales.</p> + + <p><b>Ball, Game of.</b> Ball-playing was practised by the ancients, and + old and young amused themselves with it. The Phæacian damsels are + represented in the <i>Odyssey</i> as playing it to the sound of music; + and Horace represents Mæcenas as amusing himself thus during a journey. + In the Greek gymnasia, the Roman baths, and in many Roman villas, a + <i>sphæristerium</i> (a place appropriated for playing ball) was to be + found; the games played being similar to those of the present day. In the + Middle Ages the sport continued to be very popular both as an indoor and + outdoor exercise, and was a favourite Court pastime until about the end + of the eighteenth century. In England football and tennis are mentioned + at an early date, and a favourite game prior to the English revolution + was one in which a <i>mall</i> or mallet was used, hence the name + <i>pall-mall</i> (It. <i>palla</i>, Lat. <i>pila</i>, a ball) for the + game and the place where it was played. The most popular modern forms are + cricket, base-ball, football, golf, lawn-tennis, fives, and polo.</p> + + <p><b>Ball</b>, John, an itinerant preacher of the fourteenth century, + excommunicated about 1367 for promulgating "errors, schisms, and scandals + against the Pope, archbishops, bishops, and clergy". He was one of the + most active promoters of the popular insurgent spirit which found vent + under Wat Tyler in 1381, and the couplet</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"When Adam delved and Eve span</p> + <p>Who was then the gentleman?"</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>is attributed to him. He was hanged, drawn, and quartered on 15th + July, 1381.</p> + + <p><b>Ball</b>, Sir Robert Stawell, astronomer, born at Dublin 1840, + educated at Chester and Trinity College, Dublin. In 1865 he was appointed + Lord Rosse's astronomer at Parsonstown, and subsequently held various + official posts, including those of Andrews professor of astronomy in the + University of Dublin and Astronomer Royal for Ireland (1874), Lowndean + professor of astronomy and geometry in the University of Cambridge and + director of the observatory (1892). He became <span + class="scac">F.R.S.</span> in 1873, and was knighted in 1886. Besides + many memoirs and articles, he published <i>The Story of the Heavens</i>, + <i>Starland</i>, <i>In Starry Realms</i>, <i>Time and Tide</i>, <i>The + Story of the Sun</i>, <i>Great Astronomers</i>, <i>The Earth's + Beginning</i>, <i>Popular Guide to the Heavens</i> (numerous plates with + <!-- Page 368 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page368"></a>[368]</span>accompanying text), <i>Natural Sources of + Power</i>, &c. He died in 1913.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´lad</b>, a term loosely applied to various poetic forms of the + song type, but in its most definite sense a poem in which a short + narrative is subjected to simple lyrical treatment. It was, as indicated + by its name, which is related to the Low Latin <i>ballare</i> and O. + French <i>baller</i>, to dance, originally a song accompanied by a dance. + The ballad, like the nursery tales and the <i>Märchen</i>, is probably + one of the earliest forms of rhythmic poetic expression, constituting a + species of epic in miniature, out of which by fusion and remoulding + larger epics were sometimes shaped. Their present form is, of course, + relatively recent. As in the folk-tales, so in the ballads of different + nations, the resemblances are sufficiently numerous and close to point to + the conclusion that they have often had their first origin in the same + primitive folk-lore or popular tales. But in any case, excepting a few + modern literary ballads of a subtler kind, they have been the popular + expression of the broad human emotions clustering about some + strongly-outlined incidents of war, love, crime, superstition, or death. + It is probable that in the Homeric poems fragments of older ballads are + embedded; but the earliest ballads, properly so called, of which we have + record were the <i>ballistea</i> or dancing-songs of the Romans, of the + kind sung in honour of the deeds of Aurelian in the Sarmatic war by a + chorus of dancing boys. In their less specialized sense of lyric + narratives, their early popularity among the Teutonic race is evidenced + by the testimony of Tacitus, of the Gothic historian Jornandes, and the + Lombard historian Paulus Diaconus; and many appear to have been written + down by order of Charlemagne and used as a means of education. Of the + ballads of this period, however, only a general conception can be formed + from their traces in conglomerates like the <i>Niebelungenlied</i>; the + more artificial productions of the Minnesingers and Meistersingers + overlying the more popular ballad until the fifteenth century, when it + sprang once more into vigorous life. A third German ballad period was + initiated by Bürger, under the inspiration of the revived interest in the + subject shown in Great Britain and the publication of the Percy + <i>Reliques</i>; and the movement was sustained by Herder, Schiller, + Goethe, Heine, Uhland, and others. The earlier German work is, however, + of inferior value to that of Scandinavia, where, though comparatively few + manuscripts have survived, and those not more than three or four + centuries old, a more perfect oral tradition has rendered it possible to + trace the original stock of the twelfth century.</p> + + <p>Of the English and Scottish ballads anterior to the thirteenth century + there are few traces beyond the indication that they were abundant, if + indeed anything can be definitely asserted of them earlier than the + fourteenth century. Among the oldest may be placed <i>The Little Gest of + Robin Hood</i>, <i>Hugh of Lincoln</i>, <i>Sir Patrick Spens</i>, and the + <i>Battle of Otterbourn</i>. In the fifteenth century specimens multiply + rapidly: ballad-making became in the reign of Henry VIII a fashionable + amusement, the king himself setting the example; and though in the reign + of Elizabeth ballads came into literary disrepute and ballad singers were + brought under the law, yet there was no apparent check upon the rate of + their production. Except perhaps in the north of England and south of + Scotland, there was, however, a marked and increasing tendency to + vulgarization as distinct from the preservation of popular qualities. The + value of the better ballads was lost sight of in the flood of dull, + rhythmless, and frequently scurrilous verse. The modern revival in + Britain dates from the publication of Allan Ramsay's <i>Evergreen</i> and + <i>Tea-table Miscellany</i> (1724-7) and of the selection <i>Reliques</i> + made by Bishop Percy from his seventeenth-century MSS. (1765), a revival + not more important for its historic interest than for the influence which + it has exercised upon all subsequent poetry.</p> + + <p>The threefold wave discernible in German, if not in British, ballad + history, is equally to be traced in Spain, which alone among the + Latinized countries of Europe has songs of equal age and merit with the + British historic ballads. The principal difference between them is, that + for the most part the Spanish romance is in trochaic, the British ballad + in iambic metre. The ballads of the Cid date from about the end of the + twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century; and then followed an + interval of more elaborate production, a revival of ballad interest in + the sixteenth century, a new declension, and finally a modern and + still-persisting enthusiasm.</p> + + <p>The French poetry of this kind never reached any high degree of + perfection, the romance, farce, and lyric flourishing at the expense of + the ballad proper. Of Italy much the same may be said, though Sicily has + supplied a great store of ballads; and nearly all the Portuguese poetry + of this kind is to be traced to a Spanish origin. The Russians have + lyrico-epic poems, of which some, in old Russian, are excellent, and the + Serbians are still in the ballad-producing stage of civilization. Modern + Greece has also its store of ballads, published in several collections. + In Greece, Russia, and elsewhere the old habit of improvising song as an + accompaniment to dance still exists.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Professor Child, <i>English and Scottish + Popular Ballads</i>; Professor Gummere, <i>The Beginnings of Poetry</i>; + Sir W. Scott, <i>Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border</i> <!-- Page 369 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page369"></a>[369]</span>(edited by + T. F. Henderson); T. F. Henderson, <i>The Ballad in Literature</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ballade</b> (bal-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>d´), the earlier and modern French + spelling of <i>ballad</i>, but now limited in its use to a distinct + verse-form introduced into English literature of late years from the + French, and chiefly used by writers of <i>vers-de-société</i>. It + consists of three stanzas of eight lines each, with an <i>envoy</i> or + closing stanza of four lines. The rhymes, which are not more than three, + follow each other in the stanzas thus: a, b, a, b; b, c, b, c, and in the + envoy, b, c, b, c; and the same line serves as a refrain to each of the + stanzas and to the envoy. There are other varieties, but this may be + regarded as the strictest, according to the precedent of Villon and + Marot.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´lantyne</b>, James, the printer of Sir Walter Scott's works, + born at Kelso 1772, died at Edinburgh 1833. Successively a solicitor and + a printer in his native town, at Scott's suggestion he removed to + Edinburgh, where the high perfection to which he had brought the art of + printing, and his connection with Scott, secured him a large trade. The + printing firm of James Ballantyne & Co. included Scott, James + Ballantyne, and his brother John (who died in 1821). For many years he + conducted the <i>Edinburgh Weekly Journal</i>. His firm was involved in + the bankruptcy of Constable & Co., by which Scott's fortunes were + wrecked, but Ballantyne was continued by the creditors' trustee in the + literary management of the printing-house. He survived Scott only about + four months.</p> + + <p><b>Ballantyne</b>, Robert Michael, writer of books for boys, born at + Edinburgh 1825, died in Rome 1894, was a nephew of James Ballantyne, the + printer of Sir Walter Scott's works. He was for some years in North + America in the service of the Hudson's Bay Company, and his experiences + there supplied him with materials for some of his earlier books, + especially <i>Hudson's Bay, or Life in the Wilds of North America</i> + (1848); <i>The Young Fur Traders</i>; and <i>Ungava, a Tale of Eskimo + Land</i>. For many years he continued to produce popular and instructive + boys' books, dealing with scenes and subjects of the most varied kind; + and he also published a volume entitled <i>Personal Reminiscences of + Book-Making</i> (1893).</p> + + <p><b>Ballarat´</b>, or <b>Ballaarat</b>, an Australian town in Victoria, + chief centre of the gold-mining industry of the colony, and next in + importance to Melbourne, from which it is distant <span + class="scac">W.N.W.</span> about 60 miles direct. It consists of two + distinct municipalities, Ballarat West and Ballarat East, separated by + the Yarrowee Creek, and has many handsome buildings, and all the + institutions of a progressive and flourishing city, including hospital, + mechanics' institute and library, free public library, Anglican and Roman + Catholic cathedrals, &c. Gold was first discovered in 1851, and the + extraordinary richness of the field soon attracted hosts of miners. The + surface diggings having been exhausted, the precious metal is now got + from greater depths, and there are mines as deep as some coal-pits, the + gold being obtained by crushing the auriferous quartz. There are also + foundries, woollen mills, flour-mills, breweries and distilleries, + &c. Pop. 42,252.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´last</b>, a term applied (1) to heavy matter, as stone, sand, + iron, or water placed in the bottom of a ship or other vessel to sink it + in the water to such a depth as to enable it to carry sufficient sail + without oversetting. (2) The sand placed in bags in the car of a balloon + to steady it and to enable the aeronaut to lighten the balloon by + throwing part of it out. (3) The material used to fill up the space + between the rails on a railway in order to make it firm and solid.</p> + + <p><b>Ball´ater</b>, a village and favourite summer resort in + Aberdeenshire, on the Dee, at the terminus of the Deeside Railway, about + 43 miles from Aberdeen, a centre from which Balmoral, Lochnagar, Braemar, + &c., are easily reached. The Pananich chalybeate springs are + adjacent. Pop. (1921), 1542.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/image141.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image141.jpg" + alt="Ball-cock" title="Ball-cock" /></a> + Ball-cock + + <p class="poem">1. Cistern with ball-cock attached: <i>a</i>, rising + main; <i>b</i>, supply to house. 2. Outside view of valve (cistern + full). 3. Piston with rubber disk. 4. Section of valve (cistern full). + 5. Section of valve with piston pulled down.</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Ball-cock</b>, a kind of self-acting stopcock opened and shut by + means of a hollow sphere or ball of metal attached to the end of a lever + connected with the cock. Such cocks are often employed to regulate the + supply of water to cisterns. The ball floats on the water in the cistern + by its buoyancy, and rises and sinks as <!-- Page 370 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page370"></a>[370]</span>the water rises and + sinks, shutting off the water in the one case and letting it on in the + other.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´lentyne</b>, or <b>Bellenden</b>, John, a Scottish poet; was a + native of Lothian, and appears to have been born towards the close of the + fifteenth century. He was in the service of James V from the king's + earliest years, and at his request he translated Boece's <i>Latin + History</i>, which had been published at Paris in 1526, the translation + being printed in 1536. As a reward he was made Archdeacon of Moray and a + canon of Ross. He was a bitter opponent of the Reformation, and is said + to have died at Rome in 1550.</p> + + <p><b>Ballet</b> (bal´ā), a species of dance, usually forming an + interlude in theatrical performances, but principally confined to opera. + Its object is to represent, by mimic movements and dances, actions, + characters, sentiments, passions, and feelings, in which several dancers + perform together. The ballet is an invention of modern times, though + pantomimic dances were not unknown to the ancients. The dances frequently + introduced into operas seldom deserve the name ballet, as they usually do + not represent any action, but are destined only to give the dancers an + opportunity of showing their skill. The modern ballet was developed and + perfected in France, and introduced into England in the eighteenth + century. From an artistic point of view, the modern ballet is often a + very low-class entertainment.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;"> + <a href="images/image142.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image142.jpg" + alt="Ball-flower" title="Ball-flower" /></a> + Ball-flower + </div> + + <p><b>Ball-flower</b>, an architectural ornament resembling a ball placed + in a circular flower, the three petals of which form a cup round it; + usually inserted in a hollow moulding, and generally characteristic of + the Decorated Gothic style of the fourteenth century.</p> + + <p><b>Ballia</b>, a town of India, in the United Provinces, on the + Ganges, the administrative head-quarters of a district of the same name. + Pop. 16,680.</p> + + <p><b>Ballina´</b>, a town and river-port, Ireland, County Mayo, on both + banks of the Moy, about 5 miles above its mouth in Killala Bay, with a + considerable local and also a little coasting and foreign trade. Pop. + 4662.</p> + + <p><b>Ballinasloe´</b> (-slō), a town, Ireland, in Galway and + Roscommon counties, 15 miles south-west of Athlone, on both sides of the + Suck, noted for its cattle fair, from 5th till 9th Oct., the most + important in Ireland. The town contains remains of a castle of + Elizabethan date. Pop. 5170.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/image143.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image143.jpg" + alt="Ballista" title="Ballista" /></a> + Ballista as used by the Romans + </div> + + <p><b>Ballis´ta</b>, a machine used in military operations by the + ancients for hurling heavy missiles, thus serving in some degree the + purpose of the modern cannon. The motive power appears to have been + obtained by the torsion of ropes, fibres, catgut, or hair. They are said + to have sometimes had an effective range of a quarter of a mile, and to + have thrown stones weighing as much as 300 lb. The ballistæ differed from + the <i>catapultæ</i>, in that the latter were used for throwing + darts.</p> + + <p><b>Ballis´tic Pendulum</b>, an apparatus for ascertaining the velocity + of military projectiles, and consequently the force of fired gunpowder. A + piece of ordnance is fired against bags of sand supported in a strong + case or frame suspended so as to swing like a pendulum. The arc through + which it vibrates is shown by an index, and the amount of vibration forms + a measure of the force or velocity of the ball.</p> + + <p><b>Ballistics</b>, the science of the motion of projectiles. + <i>Interior ballistics</i> deals with the motion of the shot while inside + the gun, and with the results of the explosion of the charge. <i>Exterior + ballistics</i> comprises a study of the trajectory or path of the + projectile in the air, and the causes which affect the shape of this + path, such as the density of the air, shape and weight of the shot, + rifling of the barrel, angle of fire and speed of the projectile. If the + air-resistance be neglected, it can be shown that the trajectory is a + <i>parabola</i>. This result, given by Galileo, is of little use in + gunnery except when taken along with a knowledge of air-resistance. + Robins, in 1742, first measured the muzzle-speed of the shot by firing + into a ballistic pendulum and noting the swing of the pendulum. + Wheatstone, in 1840, suggested measuring the speed by causing the shot to + cut successive wire screens, each of which formed part of an electric + circuit. The Boulangé chronograph is a modern development of this idea. + Rev. F. Bashforth's experiments, carried out between 1865 and 1880, form + the basis of <!-- Page 371 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page371"></a>[371]</span>our knowledge of air-resistance. He found + that the latter was proportional to the square of the diameter of the + shot, and that, although the resistance is expressible in terms of a + power of the speed, this power changes with the speed. The air-resistance + is a maximum at about the speed at which sound travels, viz. 1100 feet + per second. Artillerists employ ballistic tables based on the results + obtained by Bashforth and others, by means of which, given the kind of + projectile, its initial velocity, and angle of fire, they can calculate + the range and time of flight of the projectile. See + <i>Gunnery</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: F. Bashforth, + <i>The Motion of Projectiles</i>; J. M. Ingalls, <i>Interior + Ballistics</i>; P. Charbonnier, <i>Balistique Extérieure</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balloon-fish</b> (<i>Tetraŏdon lineātus</i>), ord. + Plectognathi, a curious tropical fish that can inflate itself so as to + resemble a balloon.</p> + + <p><b>Balloons</b>, the most elementary form of lighter-than-air + air-craft, unprovided with any means of propulsion or steering. Deriving + its power of sustentation from the gas contained in the gas-bag, the free + balloon is spherical in form. It is usually filled with coal-gas, which + has a lifting-force of 35 lb. per 1000 cu. feet. Varying in size from + 5000 to 20,000 cu. foot capacity, the gas-bag is covered with a 'net', + from which is hung the 'basket' for the accommodation of the aeronaut, or + pilot, and passengers. The spherical gas-bag has at the bottom an + elongation, known as the 'neck', which is open to the air in order that + the gas may escape as it expands during the rise into the rarefied + atmosphere of the upper air. A 'valve' is fitted at the top, which may be + opened by a cord from the basket when it is desired to allow gas to + escape in order to descend. Bags containing sand are carried in order + that ballast may be dropped when it is desired to rise. A free balloon is + completely at the mercy of the wind, and simply drifts where the wind + takes it. Balloons are usually constructed of cotton fabric, though + occasionally of gold-beater's skin, in which case they are commonly + filled with hydrogen in place of coal-gas. A 'trail-rope' is usually + carried, with which the practice of 'trailing' may be effected over open + country or the sea. This consists in allowing the end of the trail-rope + to drag on the ground. As the balloon rises it raises more of the rope + off the ground, the additional weight bringing it down again. <i>Per + contra</i>, as it falls the weight of the trail-rope is taken by the + ground and so lightens the balloon. This tends to maintain the balloon at + a uniform height. The greatest height ever attained by a balloon is + 37,000 feet, reached by Glaisher and Coxwell in Sept., 1862. Both + aeronauts nearly perished from the effects of the cold and rarefaction of + the atmosphere. In 1895 Parseval and Siegsfield, two officers of the + Prussian army, invented the 'Drachen-ballon' or 'Kite-balloon' (Fr. + <i>Saucisse</i>). This consists of a captive balloon comprising an + elongated gas-bag fitted with an automatic air-chamber, or 'ballonet', + for maintaining the pressure, and automatic stabilizers to prevent yawing + off the wind, rolling from side to side, and pitching horizontally. This + was improved upon by Captain Caquot of the French army, who in 1916 + produced an improved type, offering many advantages, which was used in + large numbers by the British, French, and American armies and navies + during the Great European War of 1914-8. See also <i>Aeronautics</i>, + <i>Air-ships</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: <i>British + Military Manual of Ballooning</i>; Rev. J. M. Bacon, <i>The Dominion of + the Air</i>; H. Coxwell, <i>My Life and Balloon Experiences</i>; J. + Glaisher, <i>Travels in the Air</i>; G. Tissandier, <i>Histoire de mes + Ascensions</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´lot, Voting by</b>, signifies literally voting by means of + little balls (called by the French <i>ballottes</i>), usually of + different colours, which are put into a box in such a manner as to enable + the voter, if he chooses, to conceal for whom or for what he gives his + suffrage. The method is adopted by most clubs in the election of their + members—a white ball indicating assent, a black ball dissent. + Hence, when an applicant is rejected, he is said to be + <i>blackballed</i>. The term voting by ballot is also applied in a + general way to any method of secret voting, as, for instance, when a + person gives his vote by means of a ticket bearing the name of the + candidate whom he wishes to support. In this sense vote by ballot is the + mode adopted in electing the members of legislative assemblies in most + countries, as well as the members of various other bodies. In ancient + Greece and Rome the ballot was in common use. In Britain it had long been + advocated in the election of members of Parliament and of municipal + corporations, but it was only introduced by an Act passed in 1872.</p> + + <p><b>Ballyme´na</b>, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 22 miles from + Belfast, with a considerable trade in linens and linen yarns, the + manufacture of which is carried on to a great extent. Pop. 11,380.</p> + + <p><b>Ballymo´ney</b>, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 38 miles <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> of Belfast; linen, chemicals, tanning, and + brewing. Pop. 3100.</p> + + <p><b>Ballyshan´non</b>, a small seaport of Ireland, County Donegal, on + the Erne, about 1 mile from the <span class="scac">S.E.</span> shore of + Donegal Bay. Pop. 2471.</p> + + <p><b>Balm</b> (bäm; <i>Melissa officinālis</i>), a plant, + belonging to the Labiatæ;, formerly in great repute for its medicinal + virtues. A native of the south of Europe, it is cultivated in English + gardens. It is a herbaceous perennial, with an <!-- Page 372 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page372"></a>[372]</span>erect branching stem + about 2 feet high. The leaves arise with the flower-stems from a thick + joint at the extremity of the stalk. The flowers are whitish; they are + produced in a round terminal umbel, and appear in June. The stems and + leaves are slightly stimulating and tonic. They contain an essential oil + of a yellowish colour and with a fragrant smell, called oil of balm.</p> + + <p><b>Balm of Gilead</b>, the exudation of a tree, <i>Balsamodendron + gileadense</i>, nat. ord. Amyridaceæ, a native of Arabia Felix, and also + obtained from the closely-allied species <i>Balsamodendron + Opobalsămum</i>. The leaves of the former tree yield when bruised a + strong aromatic scent; and the balm of Gilead of the shops, or balsam of + Mecca or of Syria, is obtained from it by making an incision in its + trunk. It has a yellowish or greenish colour, a warm, bitterish, aromatic + taste, and an acidulous fragrant smell. It is valued as an odoriferous + unguent and cosmetic by the Turks. It is frequently adulterated for + market.—The <i>balm of Gilead fir</i>, which produces a turpentine + called Canada balsam, is the <i>Abies balsamifĕra</i>, a North + American species, whose range is from Virginia to Canada. The name is + derived from <i>Jeremiah</i>, viii, 22.</p> + + <p><b>Balmain´</b>, a populous western suburb of Sydney, <span + class="scac">N.S.W.</span>, with extensive docks and various industrial + works. Pop. 33,000.</p> + + <p><b>Balmer´ino</b>, Arthur Elphinstone, Lord, a Scottish Jacobite, born + 1688, executed 1746. He took part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and + fought at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the young Pretender in 1745, he was + taken prisoner at Culloden, tried at Westminster, found guilty, and + beheaded. His title was from Balmerino in Fife.</p> + + <p><b>Balmor´al Castle</b>, a private residence of the British sovereign, + beautifully situated on the <span class="scac">S.</span> bank of the Dee, + in Aberdeenshire, 45 miles <span class="scac">W.</span> by <span + class="scac">S.</span> of Aberdeen. It stands in the midst of fine and + varied mountain scenery, is built of granite in the Scottish baronial + style, mainly in two connected blocks, and has an imposing appearance. + The estate, purchased by the Prince Consort in 1852 and bequeathed to + Queen Victoria, extends to about 40,000 acres, mostly deer forest.</p> + + <p><b>Balnaves´</b>, Henry, of Halhill, a Scottish reformer, was born at + Kirkcaldy, educated at St. Andrews, and became a lord of session and a + member of the Scottish Parliament in 1538. He was one of the + commissioners appointed in 1543 to treat of the proposed marriage between + Edward VI and Mary. In 1547 he was one of the prisoners taken in the + castle of St. Andrews and exiled to France. Recalled in 1554, he busily + engaged in the establishment of the reformed faith, assisted in revising + the <i>Book of Discipline</i>, and accompanied Murray to England in + connection with Darnley's murder. He died in 1579.</p> + + <p><b>Balrampur.</b> See <i>Bulrampur</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balsa</b>, a kind of raft or float used on the coasts and rivers of + Peru and other parts of South America for fishing, for landing goods and + passengers through a heavy surf, and for other purposes where buoyancy is + chiefly wanted. It is formed generally of two inflated seal-skins, + connected by a sort of platform on which the fisherman, passengers, or + goods are placed.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´sam</b>, the common name of succulent plants of the genus + Impatiens, family Balsaminaceæ, having beautiful irregular flowers, + cultivated in gardens and green-houses. <i>Impatiens balsamīna</i>, + native of the East Indies, is a common cultivated species. <i>I. + noli-me-tangere</i> grows wild in Britain, but is not native. See + <i>Impatiens</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balsam</b>, an aromatic, resinous substance, flowing spontaneously + or by incision from certain plants. A great variety of substances pass + under this name. But in chemistry the term is confined to such vegetable + juices as consist of resins mixed with volatile oils, and yield the + volatile oil on distillation. The resins are produced from the oils by + oxidation. A balsam is thus intermediate between a volatile oil and a + resin. It is soluble in alcohol and ether, and capable of yielding + benzoic acid. The balsams are either liquid or more or less solid; as, + for example, the balm of Gilead, and the balsams of copaiba, Peru, and + Tolu. Benzoin, dragon's-blood, and storax are not true balsams, though + sometimes called so. The balsams are used in perfumery, medicine, and the + arts. See <i>Copaiba</i>, &c.—<i>Balsam of Gilead</i> or <i>of + Mecca</i>, balm of Gilead (q.v.).—<i>Canada balsam</i>. See + <i>Canada balsam</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balsam Fir.</b> See <i>Balm of Gilead</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balsa´mo</b>, Joseph. See <i>Cagliostro, Count</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balsamoden´dron</b>, a genus of trees or bushes, ord. Amyridaceæ, + species of which yield such balsamic or resinous substances as balm of + Gilead, bdellium, myrrh, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Balta</b>, a town in the Ukraine, government of Podolia, on the + Kodema, an affluent of the Bug, 115 miles <span + class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Odessa. Pop. 18,450.</p> + + <p><b>Baltic, Battle of the.</b> See <i>Copenhagen</i>; <i>Parker, Sir + Hyde</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baltic Provinces</b>, a term commonly given to the former Russian + governments of Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Baltic Sea</b>, an inland sea or large gulf connected with the + North Sea, washing the coasts of Denmark, Germany, Russia, and Sweden; + nearly 900 miles long, extending to 200 broad; superficial extent, + together with the Gulfs of <!-- Page 373 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page373"></a>[373]</span>Bothnia and Finland, 171,743 sq. miles. + Its greatest depth is 126 fathoms; mean, 44 fathoms. A chain of islands + separates the southern part from the northern, or Gulf of Bothnia. The + water of the Baltic is colder and clearer than that of the ocean: it + contains a smaller proportion of salt, and the ice obstructs the + navigation three or four months in the year. Among the rivers that enter + it are the Neva, Dwina, Oder, Vistula, and Niemen. Islands: Samsoe, Moen, + Bornholm, Langeland, Laaland, which belong to Denmark (besides Zealand + and Funen); Gottland and Oeland, belonging to Sweden; Rügen, belonging to + Prussia; Dagoe and Oesel, belonging to Russia; and the Åland Islands. The + Sound, the Great and the Little Belt lead from the Kattegat into the + Baltic. The Baltic and North Sea were long connected by the Eider and a + canal from it to the neighbourhood of Kiel, but this has been superseded + by the great ship canal, starting from the Elbe near its mouth and ending + in Kiel Bay.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´timore</b>, a city and port in Maryland, United States, finely + situated on the <span class="scac">N.</span> side of the Patapsco, 14 + miles above Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore takes its name from Lord Baltimore, + the founder of Maryland; it was first laid out as a town in 1729; and was + erected into a city in 1797. It is well built, chiefly of brick, and is + known as the 'monumental city', from the public monuments which adorn it, + the principal being the Washington monument. Among its buildings are the + city hall, built in Renaissance style, of white marble, with a tower and + dome rising 240 feet; the Peabody Institute, containing a library, art + gallery, &c.; the Maryland Institute; the custom-house; the post + office; the United States court-house and jail, the Johns Hopkins + hospital, the Roman Catholic cathedral, &c. The chief educational + institution, now one of the most important in the States, is the Johns + Hopkins University, endowed with 3,500,000 dollars by its founder (whose + name it bears). There is a Roman Catholic archbishop with the rank of + primate, and a Protestant episcopal bishop. Industries: shipbuilding; + manufactures of iron, wool, cotton, pottery, &c.; sugar-refining, + distilling, tanning, the making of agricultural implements, canning + oysters and fruits, &c. As a flour market Baltimore is an important + centre; and it does an immense trade in exporting tobacco and other + products. The harbour is very extensive. Pop. (1920), 733,826.</p> + + <p><b>Baltimore</b>, George Calvert, Lord, born in Yorkshire about 1580, + died in London 1632. He was for some time Secretary of State to James I, + but this post he resigned in 1624 in consequence of having become a Roman + Catholic. Notwithstanding this he retained the confidence of the king, + who in 1625 raised him to the Irish peerage, his title being from + Baltimore, a fishing-village of Cork. He had previously obtained a grant + of land in Newfoundland, but as this colony was much exposed to the + attacks of the French he left it, and obtained another patent for + Maryland. He died before the charter was completed, and it was granted to + his son Cecil, who deputed the governorship to his brother Leonard + (1606-47).</p> + + <p><b>Baltimore Bird</b>, an American bird, the <i>Ictĕrus + Baltimorii</i>, family Icteridæ, nearly allied to the Sturnidæ, or + starlings. It is a migratory bird, and is known also by the names of + 'golden robin', 'hang-bird', and 'fire-bird'. It is about 7 inches long; + the head and upper parts are black, the under parts of a brilliant orange + hue. It builds a pouch-like nest, very skilfully constructed of threads + deftly interwoven, suspended from a forked branch and shaded by + overhanging leaves. It feeds on insects, caterpillars, beetles, &c. + Its song is a clear, mellow whistle.</p> + + <p><b>Baluchistan</b> (ba-lö´chi-stän), a country in Asia, the coast of + which is continuous with the north-western seaboard of India, bounded on + the north by Afghanistan, on the west by Persia, on the south by the + Arabian Sea, and on the east by Sindh. It has an area of about 135,000 + sq. miles, and a population estimated at 834,703. The general surface of + the country is rugged and mountainous, with some extensive intervals of + barren sandy deserts, and there is a general deficiency of water. Various + kinds of grain are cultivated, and there is abundance of excellent + fruits. The main body of the inhabitants are divided into two great + branches, the Baluchis and Brahuis, differing in language, figure, and + manners. The Baluchi language resembles the modern Persian, the Brahui + presents points of agreement with the Dravidian languages of India. The + Baluchis in general have tall figures, long visages, and prominent + features; the Brahuis have shorter, thicker bodies, with round faces and + rather flat features. Both races are Mahommedans, hospitable and brave. + There are also many Afghans and others in the country. The Khan of + Khelat, the nominal ruler of the whole land, in 1877 concluded a treaty + with Britain, in virtue of which he became a feudatory of India. Since + then Quetta, in the north-east, occupying an important position, and + certain portions of territory, have been absolutely annexed, and in 1887 + a separate administration was constituted, and British authority + established, under the Governor-General's agent. The area of British + Baluchistan, including tribal areas, is 54,228 sq. miles; pop. 414,412. + The country nominally under the Khan of Khelat has an area of 72,280 sq. + miles; pop. 359,086. Under British administration roads and railways have + been made, with telegraphs and a postal <!-- Page 374 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page374"></a>[374]</span>service. Wool, fruits, + &c., are exported, cottons and other goods imported, and there is a + fair transit trade.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Floyer, + <i>Unexplored Baluchistan</i>; T. Thornton, <i>Life of Sandeman</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bal´uster</b>, a small column or pilaster, of various forms and + dimensions, often adorned with mouldings, used for balustrades.</p> + + <p><b>Balustrade´</b>, a range of balusters, together with the cornice or + coping which they support, used as a parapet for bridges or the roofs of + buildings, or as a mere ornament; also serving as a fence or enclosure + for balconies, terraces, staircases, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Baluze</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lüz), Étienne, French historian and + miscellaneous writer, born 1630, died 1718. For more than thirty years he + was librarian to M. de Colbert, and was appointed professor of canon law + in the Royal College, but displeasing Louis XIV with his <i>Histoire + Générale de la Maison d'Auvergne</i>, he was thrown into prison and his + property confiscated. He recovered his liberty in 1713, but did not + regain his position. He left some 1500 MSS. in the national library of + Paris, besides forty-five printed works, including <i>Regum Francorum + Capitularia</i> (2 vols.) and <i>Miscellanea</i> (7 vols.).</p> + + <p><b>Balzac</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-za<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k), Honoré de, a celebrated French + novelist, was born at Tours in 1799, died 1850. Before completing his + twenty-fourth year he had published a number of novels under various + assumed names, but the success attending all was very indifferent; and it + was not till 1829, by the publication of <i>Le Dernier Chouan</i>, a tale + of La Vendée, and the first novel to which Balzac appended his name, that + the attention of the public was diverted to the extraordinary genius of + the author. A still greater popularity attended his <i>Physiologie de + Mariage</i>, a work full of piquant and caustic observations on human + nature. He wrote a large number of novels, all marked by a singular + knowledge of human nature and distinct delineation of character, but apt + to be marred by exaggeration. Among his best-known works are: <i>Scènes + de la Vie de Province</i>, <i>Scènes de la Vie Parisienne</i>, <i>Le Père + Goriot</i>, <i>Eugénie Grandet</i>, and <i>Le Médecin de Campagne</i>. + The publication of this last, in 1835, led to a correspondence between + Balzac and the Countess Eveline de Hanska, a Polish lady whom, after + about fifteen years, he visited and married. A collected edition of his + works, under the title <i>La Comédie Humaine</i>, was published in 45 + vols., Paris, 1856-9, and another in 1869. In 1899 appeared the first + volume of Balzac's <i>Œuvres Posthumes</i>, and in 1906 the + second.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: F. Wedmore, + <i>Balzac</i>; M. F. Sandars, <i>Balzac</i>; W. H. Helm, <i>Aspects of + Balzac</i>; Taine, <i>Essay on Balzac</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Balzac</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-za<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k), Jean Louis Guez de, French writer, + born 1594, died 1654. His writings, which had a great reputation in their + day owing to the elegance of his style, are now neglected. The most + esteemed are his <i>Familiar Letters</i>, <i>Le Prince</i>, <i>Le Socrate + Chrétien</i>, and <i>Aristippe</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bamako</b>, capital of the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger + since 1904. It is an important trade-centre and the terminus of the + Niger-Senegal railway. Pop. 8000.</p> + + <p><b>Bamba</b>, a district of the Congo, <span class="scac">W.</span> + coast of Africa, lying to the south of the River Ambriz. It is thickly + populated, and is rich in gold, silver, copper, salt, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bambar´ra</b>, a territory of Western Africa, on the Upper Niger, + first visited by Mungo Park, now in the French portion of the Sudan. The + country is generally very fertile, producing wheat, rice, maize, yams, + &c. The inhabitants are of negro or mixed race, and some are + Mohammedans. Excellent cotton cloth is made. The chief town is Segou. + Pop. estimated at 2,000,000. See <i>Senegal</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bam´berg</b>, a town of Germany, Bavaria, charmingly situated on + several hills, on the navigable River Regnitz, some 3 miles from its + mouth in the Main. It is the seat of a Catholic archbishop; the + cathedral, founded in 1004 (the present structure dates from 1111), is + one of the finest churches in Germany. The royal library contains 100,000 + volumes and valuable MSS. Bamberg carries on a large trade; its + industries are cotton-spinning, tobacco-manufacture, brewing, &c. + Pop. 48,063.</p> + + <p><b>Bambino</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>m-bē´nō; It., an infant), the + figure of our Saviour represented as an infant in swaddling-clothes. The + <i>Santissimo Bambino</i> in the church of Ara Cœli at Rome, a + richly-decorated figure carved in wood, is believed to be able to perform + miracles and heal the sick. According to popular belief, the painting was + miraculously done by St. Luke or by an angel. Bambinos are set up for the + adoration of the faithful in many places in Catholic countries.</p> + + <p><b>Bambocciades</b> (bam-boch-ādz´), pictures, generally + grotesque, of common, rustic, or low life, such as those of Peter Van + Laar, a Dutch painter of the seventeenth century, who on account of his + deformity was called <i>Bamboccio</i> (cripple). Teniers is the great + master of this style.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/image144.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image144.jpg" + alt="Bamboo" title="Bamboo" /></a> + Bamboo (<i>Bambusa arundinacĕa</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Bamboo´</b>, the common name of the arborescent grasses belonging + to the genus Bambūsa. There are many species, belonging to the + warmer parts of Asia, Africa, and America, and growing from a few feet to + as much as 100 feet, requiring much moisture to thrive properly. A + peculiarity of the bamboo family is that they flower on reaching a + certain age, generally about 130 years. <!-- Page 375 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page375"></a>[375]</span>The best-known species + is <i>B. arundinacĕa</i>, common in tropical and sub-tropical + regions. From the creeping underground rhizome, which is long, thick, and + jointed, spring several round jointed stalks, which send out from their + joints several shoots, the stalks also being armed at their joints with + one or two sharp rigid spines. The oval leaves, 8 or 9 inches long, are + placed on short footstalks. The flowers grow in large panicles from the + joints of the stalk. Some stems grow to 8 or 10 inches in diameter, and + are so hard and durable as to be used for building purposes. The smaller + stalks are used for walking-sticks, flutes, &c.; and indeed the plant + is used for innumerable purposes in the East Indies, China, and other + Eastern countries. Cottages are almost wholly made of it; also, bridges, + boxes, water-pipes, ladders, fences, bows and arrows, spears, baskets, + mats, paper, masts for boats, &c. The young shoots may be either + pickled or salted and eaten with rice, or candied and preserved in sugar; + the seeds of some species are also eaten. The substance called + <i>tabasheer</i> is a siliceous deposit that gathers at the internodes of + the stems. The bamboo is imported into Europe for various purposes, and + is grown in British gardens.</p> + + <p><b>Bambook´</b>, a country in Western Africa between the Falémé and + Senegal Rivers, about 140 miles in length, by 80 to 100 in breadth. It is + on the whole hilly and somewhat rugged. The valleys and plains are + remarkably fertile. The natives are Mandingoes, mostly professed + Mahommedans ruled by independent chieftains, most of whom acknowledge the + supremacy of France. Gold and ivory are exchanged for European goods.</p> + + <p><b>Bambook-butter</b>, shea-butter (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Bam´borough Castle</b>, an ancient English castle on the coast of + Northumberland, formerly with connected estate the property of the + Forsters, and forfeited to the Crown in 1715, both being purchased by + Lord Crewe, Bishop of Durham, and bequeathed by him for charitable + purposes.</p> + + <p><b>Bambu´sa.</b> See <i>Bamboo</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bam´ian</b>, a valley and pass of Afghanistan, the latter at an + elevation of 8496 feet, the only known pass over the Hindu Kush for + artillery and heavy transport. The valley is one of the chief centres of + Buddhist worship, and contains two remarkable colossal statues and other + ancient monuments.</p> + + <p><b>Bamo.</b> See <i>Bhamo</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bampton Lectures</b>, a course of lectures established in 1751 by + John Bampton, Canon of Salisbury, who bequeathed certain property to the + University of Oxford for the endowment of eight divinity lectures to be + annually delivered. The subjects prescribed are mainly connected with the + evidences of Christianity, and the lecturer must have taken the degree of + M.A. at Oxford or Cambridge. The first course of lectures was delivered + in 1780, and they have been delivered every year since, with the + exceptions of 1834, 1835, and 1841. Among the more remarkable lectures + were those by Dr. White in 1784, by Dr. Mant in 1812, by Reginald Heber + in 1815, Whately in 1822, Milman in 1827, Dr. Hampden in 1832, H.L. + Mansel in 1858, Canon Liddon in 1866, Canon Gore in 1891, J. R. + Illingworth in 1894, and W. R. Inge in 1899. A similar course of + lectures, the Hulsean, is annually delivered at Cambridge.</p> + + <p><b>Ban</b>, in political law, is equivalent to excommunication in + ecclesiastical. In Teutonic history the <i>ban</i> was an edict of + interdiction or proscription: thus, to put a prince under the ban of the + empire was to divest him of his dignities, and to interdict all + intercourse and all offices of humanity with the offender. Sometimes + whole cities have been put under the <i>ban</i>, that is, deprived of + their rights and privileges.</p> + + <p><b>Ban</b>, anciently, a title given to the military chiefs who + guarded the eastern marches of Hungary; till 1919 the title of the + Governor of Croatia and Slavonia. A province over which a ban is placed + is called <i>banat</i>, and is equivalent <!-- Page 376 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page376"></a>[376]</span>to the German term + <i>mark</i>. During the European War, Serbia occupied the banat to the + south of Hungary, and her claims to that region were disputed both by + Hungary and Roumania. The territory is bounded almost entirely by the + Danube, Theiss, and Maros Rivers, except on the east, where it is shut in + by the Transylvanian Carpathians. The banat was ultimately divided + between Yugo-Slavia and Roumania. See <i>Temesvar</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:43%;"> + <a href="images/image145.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image145.jpg" + alt="Banana" title="Banana" /></a> + Banana (<i>Musa sapientum</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Bana´na</b>, a plant of the genus Musa, nat. ord. Musaceæ, being + <i>M. sapientum</i>, while the plantain is <i>M. paradisiăca</i>. + It is originally indigenous to the East Indies, and an herbaceous plant + with an underground stem. The apparent stem, which is sometimes as high + as 30 feet, is formed of the closely-compacted sheaths of the leaves. The + leaves are 6 to 10 feet long and 1 or more broad, with a strong midrib, + from which the veins are given off at right angles; they are used for + thatch, basket-making, &c., besides yielding a useful fibre. The + spikes of the flowers grow nearly 4 feet long, in bunches, covered with + purple-coloured bracts. The fruit is 4 to 10 or 12 inches long, and 1 + inch or more in diameter; it grows in large bunches, weighing often from + 40 to 80 lb. The pulp is soft and of a luscious taste; when ripe it is + eaten raw or cooked. The banana is cultivated in tropical and + sub-tropical countries, and is the food of millions. It is estimated that + in Jamaica alone 40,000 acres are devoted to its culture. Excellent + biscuits may be made from banana meal, but it is not suitable for bread. + Vast quantities are imported by Britain and the United States. Manila + hemp is the product of a species of banana.</p> + + <p><b>Bana´na</b>, an African port, in Belgian Congo, at the mouth of the + Congo.</p> + + <p><b>Banana-bird</b>, a pretty insessorial bird (<i>Ictĕrus + leucoptĕryx</i>), a native of the West Indies and the warmer parts + of America. It is a lively bird, easily domesticated, tawny and black in + colour, with white bars upon the wings.</p> + + <p><b>Banat.</b> See <i>Ban</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´bridge</b>, a town of Ireland, County Down, 22 miles <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> of Belfast, on the Bann. The manufacture of + linen is carried on to a great extent in town and neighbourhood. Pop. + 5101.</p> + + <p><b>Banbury</b> (ban'be-ri), a town of England, in Oxfordshire, long + celebrated for its cheese, its cakes, and its ale; a parliamentary + borough till 1885, and now giving name to a parliamentary division of the + county. Pop. (municipal borough) (1921), 13,347.</p> + + <p><b>Banca</b>, an island belonging to the Dutch East Indies, between + Sumatra and Borneo; area, 4446 sq. miles; pop. 113,658, of which a + considerable proportion are Chinese. It is celebrated for its excellent + tin, of which the annual yield is above 6000 tons; but it produces + nothing else of any importance.</p> + + <p><b>Banco</b>, in commerce, a term employed to designate the money in + which the banks of some countries keep or kept their accounts, in + contradistinction to the current money of the place, which might vary in + value or consist of light and foreign coins. The term was applied to the + Hamburg bank accounts before the adoption (in 1873) of the new German + coinage. The mark <i>banco</i> had a value of 1<i>s.</i> 5½<i>d.</i>; but + there was no corresponding coin. See <i>Bank</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´croft</b>, George, American historian, born near Worcester, + Mass., 1800, died 1891. He was educated at Harvard and in Germany, where + he made the acquaintance of many literary men of note. In 1823 he + published a translation of Heeren's <i>Politics of Ancient Greece</i>, + and a small volume of poems, and was also meditating and collecting + materials for a history of the United States. Between 1834 and 1840 three + volumes of his history were published. In 1845 he was appointed Secretary + of the Navy, and effected many reforms and improvements in that + department. He was American ambassador to Britain from 1846 to 1849, when + the University of Oxford conferred on him the honorary degree of <span + class="scac">D.C.L.</span> He took the opportunity while in Europe to + perfect his collections on American history. He returned to New York in + 1849, and began to prepare for the press the fourth and fifth volumes of + his history, which appeared in 1852. The sixth appeared in 1854, the + seventh in 1858, the eighth soon after, but the ninth did not appear till + 1866. From 1867 to 1874 he was Minister Plenipotentiary at the Court of + Berlin. The tenth and last volume of his great <!-- Page 377 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page377"></a>[377]</span>work appeared in 1874. + An additional section appeared first as a separate work in 1882: + <i>History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States</i>, + and the whole came out in 6 vols. in 1884-5. He has also published many + essays in the <i>North American Review</i> and other periodicals, a + selection from which was published in 1855 under the title of + <i>Miscellanies</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´croft</b>, Richard, born in Lancashire 1544, died 1610, studied + at Cambridge, entered the Church, and rose rapidly during the reign of + Elizabeth till he obtained the see of London in 1597. James I made him + Archbishop of Canterbury on the death of Whitgift. He suppressed the + Puritans mercilessly, and they in return never ceased to abuse him.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´croft</b>, Sir Squire, English actor, born in London in 1841. + After playing in Dublin and elsewhere he made his first appearance in + London, at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, in 1865. He married Miss Marie + Effie Wilton in 1867, and was knighted in 1897. In collaboration with his + wife he has written <i>The Bancrofts: Recollections of Sixty Years</i> + (1909).</p> + + <p><b>Banda</b>, a town and district of India, in the United Provinces. + The town stands on a plain on the right bank of the Ken River, 95 miles + <span class="scac">S.W.</span> from Allahabad, and is a considerable + cotton mart. Pop. 22,000.—Area of district 2965 sq. miles. Pop. + 660,000.</p> + + <p><b>Banda Islands</b>, a group belonging to Holland, Indian + Archipelago, south of Ceram, Great Banda, the largest, being 12 miles + long by 2 broad. They are beautiful islands, of volcanic origin, yielding + quantities of nutmeg. Goenong Api, or Fire Mountain, is a cone-shaped + volcano which rises 2320 feet above the sea. Pop. 10,000.</p> + + <p><b>Bandajan´</b>, a pass over a range of the Himálaya, Kashmir State, + 14,854 feet above sea-level.</p> + + <p><b>Bandan´na</b>, a variety of silk handkerchief having a + uniformly-dyed ground, usually of bright red or blue, ornamented with + white or yellow circular, lozenge-shaped, or other simple figures + produced by discharging the groundcolour.</p> + + <p><b>Banda Oriental.</b> See <i>Uruguay</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bandel´lo</b>, Matteo, an Italian writer of <i>novelle</i> or + tales, born about 1480, died about 1562. He was, in his youth, a + Dominican monk, and having been banished from Italy as a partisan of the + French, Henry II of France gave him in 1550 the bishopric of Agen. He + left the administration of his diocese to the Bishop of Grasse, and + employed himself, at the advanced age of seventy, in the completion of + his <i>novelle</i>. He also wrote poetry, but his fame rests on his + <i>novelle</i>, which are in the style of Boccaccio's <i>Decameron</i> + and the Queen of Navarre's <i>Heptameron</i>, and have been made use of + by Shakespeare, Massinger, and Beaumont and Fletcher.</p> + + <p><b>Bande Noire.</b> See <i>French Revolution</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Band-fish</b>, the popular name of fishes of the genus + Cepŏla, from their long, flat, thin bodies. <i>C. rubescens</i>, a + very fragile creature, is sometimes cast up on British shores. Also + called <i>Snake-fish</i>, <i>Ribbon-fish</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:37%;"> + <a href="images/image146.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image146.jpg" + alt="Bandicoot" title="Bandicoot" /></a> + Pig-footed Bandicoot (<i>Chæropus castanotis</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Ban´dicoot</b> (Perameles), a genus of small Australian marsupials. + The most common species (<i>P. nasuta</i>), the long-nosed bandicoot, + measures about 1½ feet from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail. + It is not unlike an overgrown rat, and is most destructive to + farm-produce.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´dicoot Rat</b>, the <i>Mus gigantēus</i>, the largest + known species of rat, attaining the weight of 2 or 3 lb., and the length, + including the tail, of 24 to 30 inches. It is a native of India, and is + very abundant in Ceylon. Its flesh is said to be delicate and to resemble + young pork, and is a favourite article of diet with the coolies. It is + destructive upon rice-fields and gardens.</p> + + <p><b>Bandinelli</b>, Baccio, Italian sculptor, born at Florence 1493, + died there 1560. He was jealous of and strove to rival Michael Angelo. + Among his works are a <i>Hercules and Cacus</i>, <i>The Dead Body of + Christ held up by an Angel</i>, <i>Adam and Eve</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´dit</b>, It. <i>bandito</i>, originally an <i>exile</i>, + banished man, or outlaw, and hence, as persons outlawed frequently + adopted the profession of brigand or highwayman, the word came to be + synonymous with brigand, and is now applied to members of the organized + gangs which infest some districts of Italy, Sicily, Spain, Greece, and + Turkey.</p> + + <p><b>Band of Hope.</b> See <i>Temperance</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´dolier</b>, a large leathern belt or baldrick, to which were + attached a bag for balls and a number of pipes or cases of wood or metal + covered with leather, each containing a charge of gunpowder. It was worn + by ancient musketeers, and hung from the left shoulder under the right + arm with the ball bag at the lower extremity, and the pipes suspended on + either side. The name is now given to a similar belt, worn by mounted + troops, for carrying cartridges. Another form of the word is + <i>bandoleer</i>. <!-- Page 378 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page378"></a>[378]</span></p> + + <p><b>Ban´doline</b>, a gummy perfumed substance used to impart gloss and + stiffness to the hair.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´don</b>, a town, Ireland, County Cork, on both sides of the + Bandon. Pop. 3122.</p> + + <p><b>Bands</b>, a small article of clerical dress, made of linen, going + round the neck and hanging down in front for a short distance in two + pieces with square ends, supposed to be a relic of the amice.</p> + + <p><b>Baneberry</b>, or <b>Herb Christopher</b> (<i>Actæa + spicāta</i>), a European plant, ord. Ranunculaceæ, local in + England, with a spike of white flowers and black, poisonous berries. Two + American species are considered remedies for rattlesnake bite.</p> + + <p><b>Banér</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-nār´), Johan Gustafsson, a Swedish + general in the Thirty Years' War, born 1596, died 1641. He made his first + campaigns in Poland and Russia, and accompanied Gustavus Adolphus, who + held him in high esteem, to Germany. After the death of Gustavus in 1632 + he had the chief command of the Swedish army, and in 1634 invaded + Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at Wittstock, 24th Sept., 1636, and took + Torgau. He ravaged Saxony again in 1639, gained another victory at + Chemnitz, and in 1640 defeated Piccolomini. In Jan., 1641, he very nearly + took Ratisbon by surprise.</p> + + <p><b>Banff</b> (bamf), county town of Banffshire, Scotland, a seaport on + the Moray Firth at the mouth of the Deveron. It is well built, carries on + some boat-building, and has ropeworks, a brewery, &c., fishing and + shipping. Near the town are the county lunatic asylum, and Duff House, a + seat of the Duke of Fife, now public property; on the east side of the + Deveron is the town of Macduff, where an extensive fishing trade is + carried on. Banff is one of the Elgin burghs, which together return a + member to Parliament. Pop. 3517.—The county has an area of 403,053 + acres. In the south it is mountainous; but the northern part is + comparatively low and fertile; principal rivers, the Spey and Deveron; + principal mountains, Cairngorm (4095 feet) and Ben Macdhui (4296 feet), + on its southern boundary. Little wheat is raised, the principal crops + being barley, oats, turnips, and potatoes. Fishing is an important + industry; as is also the distilling of whisky. Serpentine abounds in + several places, especially at Portsoy, where it is known as 'Portsoy + marble', and Scotch topazes or cairngorm stones are found on the + mountains in the south. Banffshire returns one member to Parliament. Pop. + (1921), 57,293.</p> + + <p><b>Banff</b>, a town of N. W. Canada, at the foot of the Rocky + Mountains, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, with National Park, hot + springs, coal-mines, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bang.</b> See <i>Bhang</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bangalore´</b>, a town of Hindustan, capital of Mysore, and giving + its name to a considerable district in the east of Mysore State. The town + stands on a healthy plateau 3000 feet above sea-level, has a total area + of nearly 14 sq. miles, and is one of the pleasantest British stations in + India. In the old town stands the fort, reconstructed by Hyder Ali in + 1761, and taken by Lord Cornwallis in 1791. Under English administration + the town has greatly prospered in recent times. There are manufactures of + silks, cotton cloth, carpets, gold and silver lace, &c. Pop. + 189,485.—The Bangalore district has an area of 3070 sq. miles, of + which more than half represent cultivable land. Pop. about 760,000.</p> + + <p><b>Bangkok´</b>, or <b>Bankok</b>, the capital of the kingdom of Siam, + extending for several miles on both sides of the Menam, which falls into + the Gulf of Siam about 15 miles below. The inner city occupies an island + surrounded with walls and bastions, and contains the palace of the king + and other important buildings. The dwellings of the common people are of + wood or bamboo, often raised on piles; a large portion of the population, + however, dwell in boats or wooden houses erected on bamboo rafts moored + in the river, and forming a floating town. Temples are numerous and + lavishly decorated. Houses in the European style have been erected in + modern times, and the telegraph, telephone, gas, fire-engines, and + omnibuses introduced. A university with eight faculties has recently been + established. The trade, both inland and foreign, is very extensive, the + exports consisting chiefly of rice, sugar, silk, cotton, tobacco, pepper, + sesame, ivory, aromatic wood, cabinet woods, tin, hides, &c.; and the + imports consisting chiefly of British cotton, woollen, and other goods. + Pop. 628,675, of whom about a half are Chinese. See <i>Siam</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´gor</b>, a city of North Wales, in Carnarvonshire, + picturesquely situated near the northern entrance of the Menai Strait. It + appears to have possessed a cathedral in the sixth century, which was + destroyed by the Normans in 1071. The present cathedral—the + third—only dates from the reign of Henry VII. It has a college of + the University of Wales (founded in 1903), and a Normal College. Bangor + has risen into importance as a popular resort; its principal trade is in + the export of slates from the neighbouring quarries. Pop. (1921), + 11,032.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´gor</b>, a seaport town, Ireland, County Down, on the south + side of Belfast Lough. Principal trade: cotton, linen, and embroideries. + Pop. 7776.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´gor</b>, a port of the United States, in Maine, on the <span + class="scac">W.</span> side of Penobscot River, a flourishing and + pleasantly-situated town, and one of the largest lumber depots in the + world. The river is navigable to the town for vessels of the largest + size. Pop. (1920), 25,948. <!-- Page 379 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page379"></a>[379]</span></p> + + <p><b>Bango´rian Controversy</b>, a controversy stirred up by a sermon + preached before George I in 1717 by Dr. Hoadly, Bishop of Bangor, from + the text "My kingdom is not of this world" (<i>John</i>, xviii, 36), in + which the bishop contended in the most pronounced manner for the + spiritual nature of Christ's kingdom. The controversy was carried on with + great heat for many years, and resulted in an enormous collection of + pamphlets.</p> + + <p><b>Bangs´ring.</b> See <i>Banxring</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bangweo´lo</b>, or <b>Bangweulu, Lake</b>, in South Africa, the + southernmost of the great lake reservoirs of the Congo, heard of in 1798, + was reached by Livingstone in 1868, an oval-shaped shallow sheet of + water, said to be 150 miles in length along its greater axis, from east + to west, and about 75 miles in width, but its exact limits are uncertain. + It was first circumnavigated by Poulett Weatherley in 1896. See + <i>Congo</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´ian</b>, or <b>Ban´yan</b>, an Indian trader or merchant, one + engaged in commerce generally, but more particularly one of the great + traders of Western India, as in the seaports of Bombay, Kurrachee, + &c., who carry on a large trade by means of caravans with the + interior of Asia, and with Africa by vessels. They form a class of the + Vaisya caste, wear a peculiar dress, and are strict in the observance of + fasts and in abstaining from the use of flesh. Hence, <i>Banian days</i>, + days in which sailors in the navy had no flesh meat served out to them. + Banian days are now abolished, but the term is still applied to days of + poor fare.</p> + + <p><b>Banian Tree.</b> See <i>Banyan</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´nim</b>, John, an Irish novelist, dramatist, and poet, born in + 1798, died 1842. His chief early work was a poem, <i>The Celt's + Paradise</i> (1821). Having settled in London, he made various + contributions to magazines and to the stage; but his fame rests on his + novels, particularly the <i>O'Hara Tales</i>, in which Irish life is + admirably portrayed. In these, as in some of his other publications, his + brother, Michael Banim (born 1796, died 1874), had an important share, if + not an equal claim to praise. The two brothers have been justly called + 'the first national novelists of Ireland'.</p> + + <p><b>Banishment.</b> See <i>Exile</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´jarmassin</b>, a district and town in the south-east of Borneo, + under the government of the Dutch. The town is situated on an arm of the + Banjar, about 14 miles above its mouth, in a marshy locality, the houses + being built on piles, and many of them on rafts. Exports: pepper, + benzoin, bezoar, ratans, dragon's-blood, birds'-nests, &c.; imports: + rice, salt, sugar, opium, &c. Pop. 52,000, mostly Dyaks.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´jo</b> (a negro corruption of <i>bandore</i>; It. + <i>pandora</i>, from Lat. <i>pandura</i>, a three-stringed instrument), + the favourite musical instrument of the negroes of the Southern States of + America. It is six-stringed, has a body like a tambourine and a neck like + a guitar, and is played by stopping the strings with the fingers of the + left hand and twitching or striking them with the fingers of the right. + The upper or octave string, however, is never stopped. The banjo was + introduced into England in 1846.</p> + + <p><b>Banjoemas</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´yö-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s), a town in Java, near the centre of + the island, well built and of commercial importance; it is 22 miles from + the coast, and is the residence of a Dutch governor. Pop. 6500.</p> + + <p><b>Banking and Banks.</b> Banks are establishments for the deposit, + custody, and repayment on demand of money, and obtain the bulk of their + profits from the investment of sums thus derived and not in immediate + demand. The term is a derivative of the <i>banco</i> or bench of the + early Italian money-dealers, being analogous in its origin to the terms + <i>trapezītai</i> (<i>trapeza</i>, a bench or table) applied to the + ancient Greek money-changers, and <i>mensarii</i> (<i>mensa</i>, a table) + applied to the public bankers of Rome.</p> + + <p>In respect of constitution there is a broad division of banks into + public and private; public banks including such establishments as are + under any special state or municipal control or patronage, or whose + capital is in the form of stock or shares which are bought and sold in + the open market; private banks embracing those which are carried on by + one or more individuals without special authority or charter and under + the laws regulating ordinary trading companies. In respect of function + three kinds of banks may be discriminated: (1) banks of deposit merely, + receiving and returning money at the convenience of depositors; (2) banks + of discount or loan, borrowing money on deposit and lending it in the + discount of promissory notes, bills of exchange, and negotiable + securities; (3) banks of circulation or issue, which give currency to + promissory notes of their own, payable to bearer and serving as a medium + of exchange within the sphere of their banking operations. The more + highly-organized banks discharge all three functions, but all modern + banks unite the two first. For the successful working of a banking + establishment certain resources other than the deposits are of course + necessary, and the capital paid up by shareholders on their shares and + forming the substantial portion of their claim to public credit is held + upon a different footing from the sums received from depositors. It is + usually considered that for sound banking this capital should not be + traded with for the purpose of making gain in the same way as the moneys + deposited in the bank; and it is for the most part invested in Government + or other securities <!-- Page 380 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page380"></a>[380]</span>subject to little fluctuation in value and + readily convertible into money. But in any case prudence demands that a + <i>reserve</i> be kept sufficient to meet all probable requirements of + customers in event of commercial crises or minor panics. The reserve of + the banking department of the Bank of England is always in coin, or in + notes against which an equivalent value of coin and bullion is lying in + the issue department. In other English banks the reserve is usually kept + partly in gold and partly in Government stocks and Bank of England notes; + but it sometimes lies as a deposit in the Bank of England. The working + capital proper of a bank is constituted by moneys on deposit, for which + the bank may or may not pay interest; the advantages of security, of ease + in the transmission of payments, &c., being regarded in the cases of + banks little affected by competition as a sufficient return to the + depositor. Thus the Bank of England pays no interest on deposits, while + the contrary practice has prevailed in Scotland since 1729, where + interest is paid on deposits although not on current accounts.</p> + + <p>Of the methods of making profit upon the money of depositors, one of + the most common is to advance it in the discounting of bills of exchange + not having long periods (seldom more than three months with the Bank of + England) to run; the banker receiving the amounts of the bills from the + acceptors when the bills arrive at maturity. Loans or advances are also + often made by bankers upon exchequer bills or other Government + securities, on railway debentures or the stock of public companies of + various kinds, as well as upon goods lying in public warehouses, the + dock-warrant or certificate of ownership being transferred to the banker + in security. In the case of a well-established credit they may be + advanced upon notes of hand without other security. Money is less + commonly advanced by bankers upon mortgages on land, in which the money + loaned is almost invariably locked up for a number of years. To banks of + issue a further source of profit is open in their note circulation, + inasmuch as the bank is enabled to lend these notes, or promises to pay, + as if they were so much money and to receive interest on the loan + accordingly, as well as to make a profitable use of the money or property + that may be received in exchange for its notes, so long as the latter + remain in circulation. It is obvious, however, that this interest on its + loaned notes may not run over a very extended period, in that the person + to whom they are issued may at once return them to the bank to lie there + as a deposit and so may actually draw interest on them from the bank of + issue; or he may present them to be exchanged for coin, or by putting + them at once into circulation may ensure a certain number speedily + finding their way back through other hands or other banks to the + establishment from which he received them. A considerable number of the + notes issued will, however, be retained in circulation at the convenience + of the public as a medium of exchange; and on this circulating portion a + clear profit accrues. This rapid return of notes through other banks, + &c., in exchange for portions of the reserve of the issuing bank, is + one of the restraints upon an issue of notes in excess of the ability of + the bank to meet them. In the United Kingdom a more obvious restraint + upon an unlimited note issue, originating partly in a desire for greater + security, partly in the belief that the note augmentation of the currency + might lead to harmful economic results in its influence upon prices, is + to be found in the Bank Acts of 1844 and 1845, which impose upon banks of + issue the necessity of keeping an equivalent in gold for all notes issued + beyond a certain fixed amount. The wisdom of these legal restrictions, + which are not uniform throughout the kingdom, and the desirability of the + acquisition and control by the State of the whole business of issue, are + still matters of debate.</p> + + <p>In specific relation to his customer the banker occupies the position + of debtor to creditor, holding money which the customer may demand at any + time in whole or in part by means of a cheque payable at sight on + presentation during banking hours. For the refusal to cash a cheque from + the erroneous supposition that he has no funds of his customer's in his + hands, or for misleading statements respecting the position in which the + bank stands, the banker is legally responsible. Moreover, the law regards + him as bound to know his customer's signature, and the loss falls upon + him in event of his cashing a forged cheque. In their relations to the + community, the chief services rendered by banks are the following: By + receiving deposits of money they are the means by which the surplus + capital of one part of a country is transferred to another where it may + be advantageously employed in stimulating industry; they enable vast and + numerous money transactions to be carried on without the intervention of + coin or notes at all, thus obviating trouble, risk, and expense. The + mechanism by which the last of these benefits is secured is to be found + in perfection in the London Clearing House.</p> + + <p>The modern tendency of banks is towards amalgamation. The large + English banking institutions have absorbed many of the smaller banks. + They have also made working arrangements with Scotch and Irish banks and + with similar institutions abroad.</p> + + <p>The result of these amalgamations is to give control of immense + financial resources to a smaller number of banks. In 1918 the <!-- Page + 381 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page381"></a>[381]</span>Government + appointed a Committee to inquire into the effect of such amalgamations + and absorptions. The terms of reference were: "To consider and report to + what extent, if at all, amalgamations between banks may affect + prejudicially the interests of the industrial and mercantile community, + and whether it is desirable that legislation should be introduced to + prohibit such amalgamations or to provide safeguards under which they + might continue to be permitted"; and the Committee reported: "That + legislation be passed requiring that the prior approval of the Government + must be obtained before any amalgamations are announced or carried into + effect".</p> + + <p>In order, however, that such legislation may not have the effect of + producing secret amalgamations, the Committee decided that "all proposals + for agreements which would alter the status of a bank as regards its + separate entity and control, or for purchase by one bank of the shares of + another bank, be also submitted for the prior approval of the Government + before they are carried out".</p> + + <p>Another development is the registration of the British Overseas Bank, + Limited, with a nominal capital of £5,000,000. The principal object of + this institution is to carry on general banking business in all parts of + the world. Four banks—two English, one Scotch, and one having + connections with South America—are financially interested in the + Overseas Bank.</p> + + <p>Banking operations on a considerable scale appear to have been + conducted by the ancients, and recent excavations have proved that in the + seventh century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> banking was practised at + Bagdad by a firm of Egibi & Sons. Modern banking, however, must be + regarded as having had an independent origin in the reviving civilization + of the Middle Ages. In the twelfth century almost the whole trade of + Europe was in the hands of the Italian cities, and it was in these that + the need of bankers was first felt. The earliest public bank, that of + Venice, established in 1171 and existing down to the dissolution of the + Republic in 1797, was for some time a bank of deposit only, the + Government being responsible for the deposits, and the whole capital + being in effect a public loan. In the early periods of the operations of + this bank deposits could not be withdrawn, but the depositor had a credit + at the bank to the amount deposited, this credit being transferable to + another person in place of money payment. Subsequently deposits were + allowed to be withdrawn, the original system proving inconvenient outside + the Venetian boundaries. It is, however, less from the Bank of Venice + than from the Florentine bankers of the thirteenth and fourteenth + centuries that modern banking specially dates, the magnitude of their + operations being indicated by the fact that between 1430 and 1433, 76 + bankers of Florence issued on loan nearly 5,000,000 gold florins. The + Bank of St. George at Genoa also furnished a striking chapter in + financial history. The important Bank of Amsterdam, taken by Adam Smith + as a type of the older banks, was established in 1509, and owed its + origin to the fluctuation and uncertainty induced by the clipped and worn + currency. The object of the institution (established under guarantee of + the city) was to give a certain and unquestionable value to a bill on + Amsterdam; and for this purpose the various coins were received in + deposit at the bank at their real value in standard coin, less a small + charge for recoinage and expense of management. For the amount deposited + a credit was opened on the books of the bank, by the transfer of which + payments could be made, this so-called <i>bank money</i> being of uniform + value as representing money at the mint standard. It bore, therefore, an + <i>agio</i> or premium above the worn-coin currency, and it was legally + compulsory to make all payments of 600 guilders and upwards in bank + money. The deposits were supposed to remain in the coffers of the bank, + but they were secretly traded with in the eighteenth century till the + collapse of the bank in 1790. Banks of a similar character were + established at Nuremberg and other towns, the most important being the + Bank of Hamburg, founded in 1619. In England there was no corresponding + institution, the London merchants being in the habit of lodging their + money at the Mint in the Tower, until Charles I appropriated the whole of + it (£200,000) in 1640. Thenceforth they lodged it with the goldsmiths, + who began to do banking business in a small way, encouraging deposits by + allowing interest for their use, lending money for short periods, + discounting bills, &c. The bank-note was first invented and issued in + 1690 by the Bank of Stockholm, founded by Palmstruck in 1688, and one of + the most successful of banking establishments. About the same time the + banks of England and Scotland began to take shape, opening up a new era + in the financing of commerce and industry.</p> + + <p><i>Bank of England.</i>—The Bank of England, the most important + banking establishment in the world, was projected by William Paterson, + who was afterwards the promoter of the disastrous Darien scheme. It was + the first public bank in the United Kingdom, and was chartered in 1694 by + an Act which, among other things, secured certain recompenses to such + persons as should advance the sum of £1,500,000 towards carrying on the + war against France. Subscribers to the loan became, under the Act, + stockholders, to the amount of their respective subscriptions, <!-- Page + 382 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page382"></a>[382]</span>in the + capital stock of a corporation, denominated the <i>Governor and Company + of the Bank of England</i>. The company thus formed advanced to the + Government £1,200,000 at an interest of 8 per cent—the Government + making an additional bonus or allowance to the bank of £4000 annually for + the management of this loan (which, in fact, constituted the capital of + the bank), and for settling the interest and making transfers, &c., + among the various stockholders. This bank, like that of Venice, was thus + originally an engine of the Government, and not a mere commercial + establishment. Its capital has been added to from time to time, the + original capital of £1,200,000 having increased to £14,553,000 in 1816, + since which no further augmentation has taken place. There exists + besides, however, a variable 'rest' of over £3,000,000. The charter of + the bank was originally granted for eleven years certain, or till a + year's notice after 1st Aug., 1705. It was subsequently renewed for + various periods in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1742, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1833, and + 1844, certain conditions which the bank had to fulfil being specified at + each renewal. On this last occasion it was continued till twelve months' + notice from 1855. At the same time the issue department of the bank was + established as distinct from the general banking department, the sole + business entrusted to the former being the issue of notes. By this + arrangement the bank was authorized to issue notes to the value of + £14,000,000 upon securities specially set apart, the most important of + the securities being the sum of £11,015,100 due to the bank by the + Government, together with so much of the coin and bullion then held by + the bank as was not required by the banking department. The bank has + since been permitted to increase its issue on securities to £18,450,000, + but for every note that the issue department may issue beyond the total + sum of £18,450,000 an equivalent amount of coin or bullion must be paid + into the coffers of the bank. For its special privileges the bank has to + pay to the Government an annual sum of £180,000, and the profit derived + from the issue of notes beyond £14,000,000. The Bank of England notes are + practically equivalent to gold. They are (like all English bank-notes) of + the value of £5 and upwards, and are legal tender throughout England. + Notes once issued by the bank and returned to it are not reissued but are + destroyed—a system adopted in order to facilitate the keeping of an + account of the numbers of the notes in circulation, and so prevent + forgery. On 7th Aug., 1914, Government notes for £1, and ten shillings, + were issued convertible into gold at the Bank of England.</p> + + <p>In compliance also with the Bank Charter Act of 1844 the bank is + compelled to publish a weekly account, of which the following is a + specimen:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Weekly Account." title="Weekly Account."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"><i>Dr</i>. <span class="sc">Issue Department.</span> Week ending 11th August, 1920 <i>Cr</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Notes issued </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> £139,980,460 </td><td class="spacsingle"> Government debt </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> £11,015,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Other securities </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 7,434,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gold coin and bullion </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 121,530,460</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Silver bullion </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> —— </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;border-top : 1px solid black;"> £139,980,460 </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;border-top : 1px solid black;"> £139,980,460</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"> <i>Dr</i>. <span class="sc">Banking Department</span> <i>Cr</i>. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Capital </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> £14,553,000 </td><td class="spacsingle"> Government securities </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> £68,250,449</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Rest </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> 3,458,795 </td><td class="spacsingle"> Other securities </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 73,805,565</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Public deposits </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> 15,999,059 </td><td class="spacsingle"> Notes </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 14,452,665</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Other deposits </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> 124,018,988 </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gold and silver coin </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1,537,092</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Seven-day and other bills </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> 15,929 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;border-top : 1px solid black;"> £158,045,771 </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;border-top : 1px solid black;"> £158,045,771</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The total of the notes given out by the issue department is called the + 'issue circulation', the portion of it in the hands of the public being + the 'active circulation', and that still in the banking department being + the 'note reserve'. This 'note reserve' represents really the amount of + bullion in the issue department available for the use of the banking + department. Of the other items in the account it may be noted that the + proprietors' 'rest' is a varying surplus increased always by accumulated + profits up to 5th April and 10th Oct., when the bank dividends are paid + to the shareholders; and that the public deposits, which include sums + lodged on account of the customs, inland revenue, &c., increase + through revenue receipts until the dividend terms in January, April, + July, and October. The other or private deposits comprise those of + bankers, merchants, and other persons. An increase in these private + deposits indicates an increase of monetary ease, while a decrease informs + us that bankers, merchants, and traders have calls upon them for money. A + better indication of the demand for money is furnished, however, by the + advances on commercial securities, and it is by this and the condition of + the reserve that the bank rate of discount is regulated. When the reserve + is high and the advances moderate the discount rate is low, and it is + raised according as the reserve falls and advances are more in request, + especially during an adverse foreign exchange and drain of gold. Gold is + thus restrained from going abroad, and its influx into <!-- Page 383 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page383"></a>[383]</span>the country is + encouraged. In addition to the profit which the bank may make by ordinary + banking business, by the Bank Act of 1892 and the Revenue Act of 1906, it + receives an allowance for the management of the national debt, at the + rate of £325 per million on 500 millions, and £100 per million on all + debt above that sum. The annual sum is not to be less than £160,000. It + also derives a profit from foreign gold coin and bullion brought to it, + for which it pays £3, 17<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i>, or 1½<i>d.</i> per ounce + less than the real value.</p> + + <p>The management of the bank is in the hands of a governor, + deputy-governor, and twenty-four directors, elected by stock-holders who + have held £500 of stock for six months previous to the election. A + director is required to hold £2000, a deputy-governor £3000, and a + governor £4000 of the stock. The court or board of directors meets every + Thursday, when the weekly account is presented. The Bank of England has + branches in Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Birmingham, Leeds, Hull, + Bristol, Plymouth, and Portsmouth.</p> + + <p>The other English banks consist of numerous joint-stock and private + banks in London and the provinces, many of the provincial establishments + of both kinds having the right to issue notes. Private banks in London + with not more than six partners have never been prevented from issuing + notes, but they could not profitably compete with the Bank of England. + The maximum issues of the provincial banks are limited to a certain + amount, against which they are not compelled to hold gold in reserve, and + they have no power to issue against specie in excess of the fixed + circulation. Their actual issues are considerably below this amount. No + union can take place between a joint-stock bank and a private bank, or + between two joint-stock banks of issue, without one of them losing its + issue. Their total authorized circulation is about £2,958,900, but the + actual circulation of these banks is now only about £1,200,000, being + distributed among about eighteen private and about twenty joint-stock + banks. The notes of these banks are payable in Bank of England paper. The + greater number of joint-stock banks are of limited liability, though + their liability in respect of their notes is unlimited. Some of them have + a large number of branches. All the joint-stock banks allow interest on + money deposited with them. The total paid-up capital and reserves of the + English joint-stock banks is about £100,000,000.</p> + + <p><i>Scotland</i>.—In Scotland there are no private banks, the + only banks in that portion of the United Kingdom being eight joint-stock + banks of issue, and their branches (the Mercantile and Savings not being + banks of issue). By the Act of 1845 new banks of issue were prohibited, a + monopoly being given to such establishments (nineteen in number) as + existed in the year previous to 1st May, 1845. At the same time the issue + of each was limited to the amount of its average circulation during that + year, together with the specie held at the head office. Any bank issuing + notes in excess of this limit is supposed to hold an equivalent amount of + gold. The aggregate authorized circulation is now £2,676,350; the average + actual circulation is fully £7,000,000. The Bank of Scotland, established + by Act of Parliament in 1695, had for its original capital only £100,000, + increased to £200,000 in 1744; but it now has a capital of £1,325,000 + paid up. It remained the only bank in Scotland till the Royal Bank of + Scotland was established in 1727, with an original capital of £151,000, + which has grown to £2,000,000 paid up. The British Linen Company was + incorporated in 1746, for the purpose of promoting the linen manufacture, + but soon became a general banking company; capital, £1,250,000 paid up. + These three banks claim to be by their charters banks of limited + liability. All the other Scottish banks have been established within the + nineteenth century. They are all incorporated by royal charter or Act of + Parliament, which enables them to sue and be sued as a corporation, and + latterly they have all become banks of limited liability, except that + their liability is not to be limited in respect to their note issue. The + total paid-up capital of the Scotch banks is £9,300,000. A large number + of one-pound notes circulate in Scotland, thus tending to keep the + requirements for gold low. From allowing a moderate rate of interest on + deposit accounts (although not on current accounts) it is not uncommon + for depositors in Scottish banks to lodge their money permanently as an + investment; and the habit of keeping an account with a banker is much + more general in Scotland than in England, branch offices of the banks + being very numerous. Several of the Scotch banks have branch offices in + London, but of course they cannot issue their own notes from these + offices. The Scotch banks have enjoyed a high reputation for stability, + and though public confidence was somewhat shaken by the failure of the + Western Bank in 1857, and even more rudely by that of the City of Glasgow + Bank in 1878, their shares are generally looked upon as a safe and + remunerative investment. Their total deposits amount to fully + £107,000,000.</p> + + <p><i>Ireland.</i>—The banks in Ireland consist of one public or + national bank, the Bank of Ireland, and of sundry joint-stock and private + banks. The authorized note circulation is arranged on the same footing as + that of the Scotch banks. If any bank discontinues its issue and issues + notes of the Bank of Ireland, the circulation of <!-- Page 384 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page384"></a>[384]</span>the latter may be to an + equal amount increased. The authorized circulation is £6,354,494; the + actual circulation is sometimes a little above, sometimes a little below. + The Bank of Ireland, which was established by charter in 1783 with + similar privileges to those granted to the Bank of England, has lent the + greater portion of its capital to Government. Its capital is £2,769,230 + (or £3,000,000 Irish); it has also a rest or reserve of over £1,000,000. + The bank allows interest on deposits when lodged for a stated period.</p> + + <p><i>Banque de France.</i>—The Bank of France is second in + importance only to the Bank of England. It was established in the + beginning of the nineteenth century, at first with a capital of + 45,000,000 francs, and with the exclusive privilege in Paris of issuing + notes payable to bearer, a privilege which was extended in 1848 to cover + the whole of France. It has numerous branches in the larger towns, a + number of these having been acquired in 1848, when certain joint-stock + banks of issue were by Government decree incorporated with the Bank of + France, the capital of which was then increased to 91,250,000 francs + (£3,650,000), in 91,250 shares of 1000 francs each. In 1857 the capital + was doubled, and besides this it has a large surplus capital or rest. + Like the Bank of England, it is a bank of deposit, discount, and + circulation, and is a large creditor of the State. The Government + appoints the governor and the two deputy-governors, who are all required + to be stockholders. There is also a body of fifteen directors and three + censors, nominated by the shareholders. The value of its note circulation + in March, 1922, was 36,225,852,000 francs.</p> + + <p><i>British Colonies.</i>—With regard to the banks in British + colonies little need be said. All the more important are joint-stock + concerns, and they are carried on subject to Acts passed by the + respective colonial legislatures. Some of them have their head-quarters + in London, and have been established by English capital. In Canada the + banks are not allowed to issue notes of lower denominations than five + dollars, notes for one and two dollars and higher amounts being issued by + the Dominion Government; and the banking laws are such that there is no + possibility of holders of bank-notes being losers by them. The total + paid-up capital of the Canadian banks is about £20,000,000; their total + deposits about £135,000,000.</p> + + <p><i>United States.</i>—The more important of the banks of the + United States are what are called national banks, established in + accordance with an Act passed in 1863. Associations of this kind at + starting must invest at least a third of their paid-up capital in + Government bonds, which pay them an interest of 4 per cent more or less. + They then obtain from the Government bureau, established for the purpose, + 90 per cent of paper-money sheets, which they sign and pay out, this + constituting their note circulation. These banks pay no interest to + depositors. Besides the notes of these banks a large portion of the + currency of the United States consists of Government notes issued from + the national treasury. There are also banks chartered by the different + States and private banks.</p> + + <p><i>Savings-banks</i> are banks established for the receiving of small + sums, so as to be taken advantage of by the poorer classes, and they are + carried on entirely for the benefit of the depositors. They are of + comparatively recent origin, one of the earliest having been an + institution in which small sums were received, and interest allowed on + them, established by Mrs. Priscilla Wakefield, at Tottenham, near London, + in 1803. The first savings-bank in Scotland was formed in 1810 by the + Rev. Henry Duncan, of Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire. In 1814 the Edinburgh + savings-bank was established on the same principles, and the system soon + spread over the kingdom. The first Act relating to savings-banks was + passed in 1817. By it all deposits in savings-banks, as soon as they + reached £50, were placed in the hands of the National Debt Commissioners, + who allowed interest on them. In 1824 it was enacted that the deposits + for the first year should not exceed £50, nor those in subsequent years + £30, the total deposits being limited to £150, and interest ceasing to be + paid when accrued interest made the total £200. By the Act of 1893 the + limit of annual deposit was raised to £50, and the interest is now rather + less than 3 per cent. An Act of 1833 had provided for the purchase of + Government annuities by depositors either for life or for a term of + years; and an annuity of any amount up to £100 may now be obtained. + Depositors in savings-banks (by an Act of 1880) can also have their money + invested for them in Government stock, the banks collecting and paying + the dividends; and when accrued interest raises an account above £200 the + excess is now so invested for the depositor. The total amount invested by + one person in Government stock is not to exceed £500, nor £200 in one + year. These banks are managed by local trustees having no personal + interest in the business, and by certain paid officers. A new class of + savings-banks, namely, <i>Post Office Savings-banks</i>, was established + in Britain in connection with the money-order department of the Post + Office in 1861. Any sum not less than a shilling is received, provided + that the total amount banked does not exceed £50 in one year, or more + than £200 in all; the excess of accrued interest above this being + invested in Government stock. Interest is paid on every complete pound at + the rate of 2½ per cent. For the deposits the Government is <!-- Page 385 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page385"></a>[385]</span>responsible, + and they may be drawn from any Post Office Savings-bank in the kingdom. + These savings-banks have become very numerous, and much of the funds + formerly in the trustees' savings-banks has been transferred to them. The + total amount deposited in the old banks is now about £52,000,000, in the + new about £157,600,000. The regulations regarding the purchase of + Government stock and annuities correspond with those given above. + Savings-banks are now well known in all civilized countries, and the good + they have done is incalculable. In the United States there is an enormous + amount of money deposited in them. Post Office Savings-banks have been + proposed to be established in the States, but have not yet been so. In + Canada, Australia, and other British colonies they are established, as + well as savings-banks of several other kinds. School savings-banks are + the most recent institutions of this kind, and have had a marked effect + for good.</p> + + <p><i>Bank Holidays</i>, in England and Ireland, Good Friday, Easter + Monday, Whit Monday, first Monday in August, Christmas and following day, + or 27th (if next day is a Sunday); in Scotland, New-Year's Day, first + Monday of May and August and Christmas.</p> + + <p><b>Bankrupt</b> (from It. <i>banca rotta</i> 'bank broken' or 'bench + broken'. Dr. Johnson said that the word originated from the Italian + custom of breaking the bench of an insolvent money-changer; but + <i>rotta</i> also means 'interrupted' or 'stopped', and is here used more + in the sense of our colloquial word <i>broken</i>, and means + 'insolvent'), a person whom the law does or may take cognizance of as + unable to pay his debts. Properly it is of narrower signification than + <i>insolvent</i>, an insolvent person simply being unable to pay all his + debts. In England up till 1861 the term <i>bankrupt</i> was limited to an + insolvent trader, and such traders were on a different footing from other + insolvent persons, the latter not getting the same legal relief from + their debts. In all civilized communities laws have been passed regarding + bankruptcy. At present bankruptcy in England is regulated by the + Bankruptcy Acts of 1883 and 1890, which have as one chief feature the + intervention of the Board of Trade in the proceedings, with the object of + obtaining full official supervision and control. A bankruptcy petition + may be presented either by a creditor or a debtor. A creditor's petition + must be founded on a debt of not less than fifty pounds, due to one or + more creditors, and on an 'act of bankruptcy' committed by the debtor + within three months before the presentation of the petition. A debtor + commits an act of bankruptcy if he makes a conveyance of his property to + a trustee for the benefit of his creditors; if he makes a fraudulent + transfer of any part of his property; if, to defeat or delay his + creditors, he conceal himself either at home or abroad; if execution + issued against him has been enforced by seizure and sale of his goods + under process in an action in any court; if he files in court a + declaration of inability to pay his debts, or presents a bankruptcy + petition against himself; if a creditor has obtained a final judgment + against him for any amount and he fail to pay the judgment debt without + satisfactory reason; or if the debtor gives notice to any of his + creditors that he has suspended, or is about to suspend, payment of his + debts. In London jurisdiction in bankruptcy now rests with the High Court + of Justice, while the county courts continue to have jurisdiction in + bankruptcy outside the London district. When the court is satisfied as to + the petition, a 'receiving order' is issued to protect the debtor's + estate by constituting the official appointed by the Board of Trade + receiver of the debtor's property, and to stay the remedies of all + creditors until the meeting of creditors. The debtor must make out a full + statement of his affairs, accounting as best he can for his insolvency. + The official receiver summons the meeting of creditors, a summary of the + debtor's affairs being sent to each creditor with the notice of the + meeting, which is also advertised in the <i>London Gazette</i>. The + creditors must send to the official receiver, one day before the meeting, + sworn proofs of their claims to enable them to vote. At the meeting the + creditors (unless the debtor's proposal for a composition or scheme be + entertained) pass a resolution adjudging the debtor bankrupt, and appoint + a trustee of the bankrupt's property, with a committee of inspection + selected from their own body to superintend the administration of the + bankrupt's property by the trustee, who divides the available realized + assets amongst all creditors who have sent sworn proofs of claims. Rates, + assessments, and taxes, and all wages or salary of a clerk, servant, + labourer, or workman during four months before the date of the receiving + order not exceeding £50 are paid in priority to all other debts. The + trustee is required to give satisfactory security to the Board of Trade, + by which his accounts are audited not less than twice in each year. All + moneys received by the trustee under the bankruptcy must be paid + forthwith to an account kept at the Bank of England by the Board of + Trade, called the 'Bankruptcy Estates Account'. The debtor is bound to be + publicly examined upon oath in court, and any creditor who has tendered a + proof, or his representative, may take part in the examination. Until the + debtor has passed his public examination he cannot apply for an order of + discharge, and upon proof of misdemeanour the court refuses or <!-- Page + 386 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page386"></a>[386]</span>suspends + the discharge. A discharged bankrupt is disqualified for five years from + acting as member of Parliament, justice of peace, alderman, overseer of + the poor, county councillor, or as a member of any school, highway, or + burial board. An undischarged bankrupt obtaining credit to the extent of + £20 or upwards from any person, without informing such person of his + status, is guilty of a misdemeanour. By the Act of 1883 the creditors may + at the first meeting resolve to entertain a proposal for a composition or + scheme of arrangement of the debtor's affairs, but the composition or + scheme shall not be binding on the creditors, unless confirmed at a + second meeting by a majority in number representing three-fourths in + value of all the creditors who have proved. The composition or scheme has + then to be formally brought before the court for approval, which may be + refused. A composition or scheme may be sanctioned by the court after the + debtor's adjudication as a bankrupt, and in this case the bankruptcy is + annulled. Though imprisonment for debt has been abolished, fraudulent + bankrupts may be punished, and the conduct of prosecutions for offences + arising out of any bankruptcy proceeding falls to the public prosecutor. + The estates of persons dying insolvent may be administered according to + the law of bankruptcy. The Act of 1913 embodies suggestions of the + Bankruptcy Law Amendment Committee of 1906. Thus, the Summary + Jurisdiction Act can now be applied to offenders under the Debtors' Act. + Whereas previously conviction for such offences as failure to keep proper + accounts and concealment of debt could only be by trial before a jury, + they are punishable after summary trial before a stipendiary magistrate + or justice of the peace, the onus of proving innocence falling on the + debtor. A married woman, too, may be made bankrupt even if not trading + separately from her husband.</p> + + <p>According to Scots law bankruptcy is notorious insolvency, that is, a + public acknowledgment of inability to discharge obligations. By a + judicial proceeding, called <i>sequestration</i>, authorized by the Court + of Session or sheriff court, on the petition of the debtor himself with + the concurrence of one creditor swearing to a debt of £50, two whose + debts together amount to £70, or of any number of creditors whose debts + together amount to £100; or on the petition of a creditor or creditors to + the foregoing extent without the concurrence of the debtor, if he has + clearly shown himself to be insolvent (or a <i>notour bankrupt</i>), the + whole estates and effects of the debtor, real and personal, are legally + taken for behoof of the creditors. The debtor's estate is then made over + to a trustee chosen by the creditors, the trustee being charged to bring + the whole estate into the form of money, with certain precautions, and to + receive, investigate, and reject or admit the claims of the creditors, + subject to review of the Court of Session or sheriff court by summary + petition. The debtor, and all who can give information as to the estate, + must submit to public examination on oath before the sheriff of the + county, and the debtor may thereafter, or by petition after six, twelve, + or eighteen months from sequestration, be discharged of all debts by the + court with consent of the creditors or a number of them, or at the expiry + of two years without consent. These proceedings may be partly superseded + by 'composition' if such be assented to by a majority in number and + nine-tenths in value of creditors, or by a majority in number and + four-fifths in value of the creditors, according to the period at which + such arrangement may be proposed. They may also be terminated by a deed + of arrangement entered into between the bankrupt and a majority in number + and four-fifths in value of his creditors, approved of by the court. + Before a discharge is given there must be a report from the trustee as to + the conduct of the bankrupt, whether he has complied with the provisions + of the Act, whether his bankruptcy is culpable or not, &c. Before the + abolition of imprisonment for ordinary civil debts by Act passed in 1880, + an insolvent debtor often took advantage of a form of process by which, + on making a complete <i>cessio bonorum</i>, or surrender to his creditors + of all his property, he might obtain protection from imprisonment. Though + no person can now be imprisoned for ordinary debts, a creditor of a + <i>notour</i> bankrupt may present a petition to the sheriff, praying him + to decern that the debtor assign over all his goods for behoof of his + creditors and that a trustee be appointed; and this proceeding is still + designated a process of <i>cessio bonorum</i>. The Act of 1880 also + provides for the better punishment of fraudulent debtors in Scotland. If + the debtor's liabilities exceed £200, the sheriff may award + <i>sequestration</i> of the debtor's estate instead of <i>cessio + bonorum</i>. There is no appeal from the sheriff's decision with respect + to discharge.</p> + + <p>In Ireland there is a special code of bankruptcy contained in special + Acts, differing to some extent from the regulations prevailing both in + England and Scotland. Thus in Ireland it is not an offence for an + undischarged bankrupt to obtain credit to any amount without disclosing + the fact of his bankruptcy. All bankruptcy business comes before the + court at Dublin, Belfast, or Cork. Imprisonment for debt was abolished in + 1872.</p> + + <p>Official returns in Great Britain show a tendency towards a smaller + number of failures, but a larger amount of money is involved. <!-- Page + 387 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page387"></a>[387]</span></p> + + <p>In the different British colonies the laws regulating bankruptcy + naturally differ, and the same is the case with the individual States of + the American Union, though Congress has the power of legislating for the + whole country in regard to this, and has oftener than once done + so.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H. Goudy, <i>Treatise of + the Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland</i>; Sir R. H. J. Palgrave, + <i>Dictionary of Political Economy</i>; E. T. Baldwin, <i>The Law of + Bankruptcy and Bills of Sale</i>; Sir R. L. V. Williams, <i>The Law and + Practice of Bankruptcy</i>; R. Ringwood, <i>The Principles of + Bankruptcy</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Banks</b>, Sir Joseph, Baronet, a distinguished naturalist, born in + London 1743. After studying at Harrow and Eton he went to Oxford in 1760, + and formed there amongst his fellow-undergraduates a voluntary class in + botany, &c. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1766, and + soon after went to Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay to collect plants. In + 1768, with Dr. Solander, a Swedish gentleman, pupil of Linnæus, and then + assistant librarian at the British Museum, he accompanied Cook's + expedition as naturalist. In 1772 he visited Iceland along with Dr. + Solander, and during this voyage the Hebrides were examined, and the + columnar formation of the rocks of Staffa first made known to geologists. + In 1777 Banks was chosen President of the Royal Society, and in 1781 was + made a baronet, and in 1795 received the Order of the Bath. He wrote only + essays, papers for learned societies, and short treatises. He died in + 1820, and bequeathed his collections to the British Museum.</p> + + <p><b>Banks</b>, Thomas, an English sculptor, born in 1735, died in 1805. + He studied sculpture in the Royal Academy, where he obtained the gold + medal for a bas-relief of the <i>Rape of Proserpine</i>. In 1772 he went + to Italy, where he executed several excellent pieces, particularly + <i>Cupid tormenting a Butterfly</i>, which was afterwards purchased by + the Empress Catherine. On leaving Italy he spent two unsatisfactory years + in Russia, and then returned to England, where he was soon after made an + Academician. One of his best-known works is <i>Shakespeare attended by + Painting and Poetry</i>. Among his other works was a colossal + statue—<i>Achilles mourning the loss of Briseis</i>—in the + hall of the British Institution, and the monument of Sir Eyre Coote in + Westminster Abbey. His bust of Warren Hastings is in the National + Gallery.</p> + + <p><b>Bank´sia</b> (named after Sir Joseph Banks), a genus of Australian + shrubs and trees, order Proteaceæ, with leathery leaves generally + dark-green on the upper surface and pale below, often cultivated in + conservatories for their peculiar foliage and flowers. They are named + "honeysuckles" by the colonists, from the honey the flowers contain.</p> + + <p><b>Banks´ring.</b> See <i>Banxring</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bankura´</b>, a town of Bengal, on the Dhalkisor River, healthy and + with a considerable trade Pop. 21,000.</p> + + <p><b>Bann</b>, Upper and Lower, two rivers in the N. of Ireland, the + former rising in the mountains of Mourne, County Down, and, after flowing + 38 miles in a northerly direction, falling into Lough Neagh, the latter + being the outlet of Lough Neagh, and falling into the Atlantic Ocean 4 + miles below Coleraine, after a course of nearly 40 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´natyne Club</b>, a literary society instituted in Edinburgh + (1823) by Sir Walter Scott (its first president), David Laing (secretary + till its dissolution in 1861), Archibald Constable, and Thomas Thomson. + It started with thirty-one members, subsequently extended to 100, having + as its object the printing of rare works on Scottish history, literature, + geography, &c. It derived its name from George Bannatyne (1545-1609), + the collector of the famous MS. of early Scottish poetry.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´neret</b>, formerly, in England, a knight made on the field of + battle as a reward for bravery, with the ceremony of cutting off the + point of his pennon and making it a banner. The first banneret in England + was made by King Edward I, and the last (John Smith) by Charles I after + the battle of Edgehill in 1642.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´nock</b>, a cake made of oatmeal, barley-meal, or peasemeal + baked on an iron plate or griddle over the fire. From a supposed + resemblance the turbot is sometimes called in Scotland the + <i>Bannock-fluke</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bannockburn</b>, a village of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, 2 miles + <span class="scac">S.E.</span> Stirling, famous for the decisive battle + in which King Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated Edward II of England, on + the 24th June, 1314. It has manufactures of woollens, such as tartans, + carpets, &c.; pop. 4103.</p> + + <p><b>Banns of Marriage</b>, public notice of the intended celebration of + a marriage given either by proclamation, viva voce, by a clergyman, + session-clerk, or precentor in some religious assembly, or by posting up + written notice in some public place. Dissent of parents or guardians + renders null and void the publication of the banns of minors. In France + the banns must be published on two distinct Sundays, and the marriage + cannot take place until three days after the second publication. In + America the practice is confined to the Roman Catholics, although it is + still recognized in the statutes of some of the States.</p> + + <p><b>Bannu</b>, a district in the north-west of Hindustan, traversed by + the Indus; area, 3847 sq. miles; pop. 390,000, nearly half being + Afghans.</p> + + <p><b>Banquette</b> (bang-ket´) in fortification, the <!-- Page 388 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page388"></a>[388]</span>elevation of + earth behind a parapet, on which the garrison or defenders may stand. The + height of the parapet above the banquette is usually about 4 feet 6 + inches; the breadth of the banquette from 2½ or 3 feet to 4 or 6 feet, + according to the number of ranks to occupy it. It is frequently made + double, that is, a second is made still lower.</p> + + <p><b>Banshee´</b>, or <b>Benshi´</b>, a fairy woman believed in Ireland + and some parts of Scotland to attach herself to a particular house, and + to appear or make her presence known by wailing before the death of one + of the family.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´tam</b>, a residency occupying the whole of the <span + class="scac">W.</span> end of the Island of Java. It formed an + independent kingdom, governed by its own sultan, till 1683, and the Dutch + exercised suzerainty with brief intermission until its formal + incorporation by them at the beginning of last century. It produces rice, + coffee, sugar, cinnamon, &c. Serang is its capital. The town Bantam + was the first Dutch settlement in Java (1595), and for some time their + principal mart, though now not so prosperous.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´tam Fowl</b>, a small but spirited breed of domestic fowl, + first brought from the East Indies, supposed to derive its name from + Bantam in Java. Most of the sub-varieties have feathered legs; but these + are not to be preferred. In point of colour the black and nankeen + varieties are the best. A well-bred bantam does not weigh more than a + pound.</p> + + <p><b>Banteng´</b> (<i>Bos Banteng</i> or <i>Sondaicus</i>), a wild + species of ox, native of Java and Borneo, having a black body, slender + white legs, short sleek hair, sharp muzzle, and the back humped behind + the neck.</p> + + <p><b>Banting System</b>, a course of diet for reducing superfluous fat, + adopted and recommended in 1863 by W. Banting of London. The dietary + recommended was the use of butcher-meat principally, and abstinence from + beer, farinaceous food, and vegetables. See <i>Corpulence</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ban´try</b>, a seaport near the head of Bantry Bay, County Cork, + Ireland. Pop. 3159.—The <i>bay</i>, one of three large inlets at + the <span class="scac">S.W.</span> extremity of Ireland, affords an + unsurpassed anchorage, and is about 25 miles long by 4 to 6 broad, and + from 10 to 40 fathoms deep, with no dangerous rocks or shoals.</p> + + <p><b>Bantu</b> (bän-tö´), the ethnological name of a group of African + races below about 6° <span class="scac">N.</span> latitude, and including + the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the tribes of the Loango, Congo, &c., + but not the Hottentots.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: + Deniker, <i>Races of Man</i>; J. Roscoe, <i>The Northern Bantu</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Banu.</b> See <i>Bannu</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Banx´ring</b> (genus Tapaia), a quadruped belonging to the + Insectivora, inhabiting the Indian Archipelago, bearing some resemblance + externally to a squirrel, but having a long pointed snout.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/image147.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image147.jpg" + alt="Banyan" title="Banyan" /></a> + Banyan (<i>Ficus benghalensis</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Ban´yan</b> (<i>Ficus benghalensis</i>), a tree of India, of the + fig genus. The most peculiar feature of this tree is its method of + throwing out from the horizontal branches supports which take root as + soon as they reach the ground, enlarge into trunks, and, extending + branches in their turn, soon cover a prodigious extent of ground. A + celebrated banyan tree has been known to shelter 7000 men beneath its + shade. The wood is soft and porous, and from its white glutinous juice + bird-lime is sometimes prepared. Both juice and bark are regarded by the + Hindus as valuable medicines, and the tree itself is sacred. The banyan + tree is described by Southey in his poem <i>The Curse of Kehama</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:43%;"> + <a href="images/image148.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image148.jpg" + alt="Baobab" title="Baobab" /></a> + Baobab or Monkey-bread Tree (<i>Adansonia digitata</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Ba´obab</b> (<i>Adansonia digitāta</i>) or <b>Monkey-bread + Tree</b>, a tree belonging to the nat. ord. (or sub-ord.) Bombaceæ, and + the best-known species of its genus, which was named after the naturalist + Adanson. Though not tall, it is one of the bulkiest of trees, its trunk + sometimes measuring 30 feet in diameter, and as the profusion of leaves + <!-- Page 389 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page389"></a>[389]</span>and drooping boughs sometimes almost hides + the stem, the whole forms a hemispherical mass of verdure 140 to 150 feet + in diameter and 60 to 70 feet high. It is a native of the African + savannahs, and is cultivated in many of the warmer parts of the world. + The roots are of extraordinary length, a tree 77 feet in girth having a + tap-root 110 feet in length. The leaves are deep green, divided into five + unequal parts lanceolate in shape, and radiating from a common centre. + The flowers resemble the white poppy, having snowy petals and + violet-coloured stamens; and the fruit, which is large and of an oblong + shape, is said to taste like gingerbread, with a pleasant acid flavour. + The wood is pale-coloured, light, and contains a large store of water, + which enables the tree to withstand prolonged drought. The tree is liable + to be attacked by a fungus which, growing in the woody part, renders it + soft and pithlike. By the negroes of the west coast these trunks are + hollowed into chambers, and dead bodies are suspended in them. There they + become perfectly dry and well preserved, without further preparation or + embalming. The baobab is emollient and mucilaginous; the pulverized + leaves constitute <i>lalo</i>, which the natives mix with their daily + food.</p> + + <p><b>Bapaume</b>, a French town in the department of Pas-de-Calais. It + has been the scene of several battles. In 1793 the French were compelled + by the allied troops to abandon the place, and in the Franco-German war + one of the most closely-contested battles was fought there on 3rd Jan., + 1871. Bapaume, occupied by the Germans in the European War, was + recaptured by British troops on 29th Aug., 1918, the great battle of + Bapaume having begun on 21st Aug. Pop. (1911) 2917.</p> + + <p><b>Baph´omet</b>, the imaginary idol or symbol which the Templars were + accused of employing in their mysterious rites, and of which little is + known. The word is supposed to be a corruption of Mahomet, to whose faith + the Templars were accused of having a leaning. See <i>Gnosticism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baptism</b> (from the Gr. <i>baptizō</i>, from + <i>baptō</i>, to immerse or dip), a rite which is generally thought + to have been usual with the Jews even before Christ, being administered + to proselytes. All that can be said, however, with some certainty is that + the Jewish baptism was not of later origin than the Christian baptism. + Anyhow, from this baptism that of St. John the Baptist differed, because + he baptized Jews also as a symbol of the necessity of perfect + purification from sin. Christ himself never baptized, but directed his + disciples to administer this rite to converts (<i>Mat.</i> xxviii, 19); + and baptism, therefore, became a religious ceremony among Christians, + taking rank as a sacrament with all sects which acknowledge sacraments. + It should, however, be borne in mind that among many peoples a rite is + found which has considerable likeness to Christian baptism. In the + primitive Church the person to be baptized was dipped in a river or in a + vessel, with the words which Christ had ordered, generally adopting a new + name further to express the change. Sprinkling, or, as it was termed, + <i>clinic</i> baptism, was used only in the case of the sick who could + not leave their beds. The Greek Church and Eastern schismatics retained + the custom of immersion; but the Western Church adopted or allowed the + mode of baptism by pouring or sprinkling, since continued by most + Protestants. This practice can be traced back certainly to the third + century, before which its existence is disputed. Since the Reformation + there have been various Protestant sects called Baptists, holding that + baptism should be administered only by immersion, and to those who can + make a personal profession of faith. The Montanists in Africa baptized + even the dead, and in Roman Catholic countries the practice of baptizing + church bells—a custom of tenth-century origin—continues to + this day. Being an initiatory rite, baptism is only administered once to + the same person. The Roman and Greek Catholics consecrate the water of + baptism, but Protestants do not. The act of baptism is accompanied only + with the formula that the person is baptized in the name of the Father, + Son, and Holy Ghost; but, among most Christians, it is preceded by a + confession of faith made by the person to be baptized if an adult, and by + his parents or sponsors if he be a child. The Roman Catholic form of + baptism is far more elaborate than the Protestant. This Church teaches + that all persons not baptized are damned, and that even unbaptized + infants are not admitted into Heaven; but for those whose chief fault was + that they had not been baptized, even St. Augustine himself believed in a + species of mitigated damnation. Protestants hold that though the neglect + of the sacrament is a sin, yet the saving new birth may be found without + the performance of the rite which symbolizes it. Naming the person + baptized forms no essential part of the ceremony, but has become almost + universal, probably from the ancient custom of renaming the + catechumen.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. B. Tylor, + <i>Primitive Culture</i> (vol. ii); S. Baring-Gould, <i>Origin and + Development of Religious Belief</i>; J. E. Hanaver, <i>Baptism, Jewish + and Christian</i>; Harnack, <i>History of Dogma</i>; article + <i>Baptism</i> in <i>Encyclopedia of Ethics and Religion</i>; Corblet, + <i>Histoire du Sacrément du Baptême</i>; P. Mauro, <i>Baptism: its place + and importance in Christianity</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:44%;"> + <a href="images/image149.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image149.jpg" + alt="Baptistery" title="Baptistery" /></a> + Baptistery of S. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome + </div> + + <p><b>Bap´tistery</b>, a building or a portion of a building in which is + administered the rite of baptism. In the early Christian Church the + baptistery was <!-- Page 390 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page390"></a>[390]</span>distinct from the basilica or church, but + was situated near its west end, and was generally circular or octagonal + in form, and dome-roofed. About the end of the sixth century the + baptistery began to be absorbed into the church, the font being placed + within and not far from the western door. Some detached baptisteries + still remain in use, as those of the Lateran, Rome (the earliest in + existence), at Pisa, Parma, Ravenna, Aquileia, Siena, Florence, &c., + that of Florence being 108 feet in diameter externally, and richly + decorated. Baptisteries were dedicated to St. John the Baptist.</p> + + <p><b>Bap´tists</b>, a Protestant sect, distinguished by their opinions + respecting the mode and subjects of baptism. With regard to the mode, + they maintain the necessity of immersion, and with regard to the + subjects, they consider that baptism ought not to be administered to + children at all, nor to adults in general, but to those only who profess + repentance and faith. They are sometimes called <i>Anti-pædobaptists</i>, + to express their variance from those who defend infant baptism, and who + are called <i>Pædobaptists</i>. Apart from the special sect of that name, + Baptists are to be found equally among Calvinists and Arminians, + Trinitarians and Unitarians. The Baptists as a whole adopt the + Independent or Congregational form of church government, and their + ecclesiastical assemblies are held for the purpose of mutual stimulus and + intercourse, and not for the general government of the body, or for + interference with individual churches. The Particular Baptists of England + (so called from believing that Christ died only for the elect), the + Baptists of Scotland and Ireland, the Associated Baptists of America, and + some of the Seventh-day Baptists, are Calvinistic. The other classes, + such as the General Baptists (who believe that Christ died for all), are + Arminian, or at least not Calvinistic. Most Baptists profess to be + Trinitarians. The Free-will Baptists, the Christian Society, and most of + the General Baptists of England admit of open communion; the other bodies + decline communion with any Christians but Baptists. The Associated or + Calvinistic Baptists long ranked in the United States as the most + numerous denomination of Christians. The Seventh-day Baptists, or + Sabbatarians, observe the seventh day of the week. The Free-will Baptists + profess the doctrine of free salvation. The Anabaptists of the + Reformation period are not to be confounded with the Baptists, by whom + their principles were expressly disclaimed. The first regular Baptist + Church appears to have been formed in the reign of Elizabeth, but we may + date their first public acknowledgment as distinct from the Anabaptists + from their petition to Parliament in 1620. The year 1633 provides the + earliest record of the formation of a Particular Baptist Church in + London. In 1689 a Baptist General Assembly, held in London, formulated a + confession of thirty-two articles and a catechism. The Baptist Union, + formed in 1832, comprehends the greater number of members of the sect in + Great Britain and Ireland. In July, 1905, a world-congress of Baptists + was held in London, and the Baptist World Alliance was constituted. The + total number of members of Baptist Churches in the United Kingdom was + 405,104 in 1922, and 408,029 in 1920. There are nine colleges for + training ministers, of which the chief are: Bristol Baptist College; + Regent's Park; Rawdon, Bradford; and the Metropolitan Pastors' College. + The Regular Baptists in the United States numbered 7,504,447 members in + 1922, and nearly 6,000,000 in 1920, in addition to which there are + Anti-mission Baptists, Free-will Baptists, and Seventh-day Baptists. In + Canada there are in all about 128,730 Baptists.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H. C. Vedder, <i>A Short History of the + Baptists</i>; A. H. Newman, <i>History of the Baptist Churches in the + United States</i>; <i>The Baptist Handbook</i> (annually); <i>The + American Baptist Year-book</i> (annually); W. E. MacIntyre, <i>Baptist + Churches, 1500-1914</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar</b>, in law, the railing that encloses the place which counsel + occupy in courts of justice; hence the phrase, <i>at the bar of the + court</i>, that is, in open court. Hence also persons duly admitted as + pleaders or advocates before the courts of England are denominated + <i>barristers</i> (see <i>Barrister</i>), and the whole body of such + barristers or advocates are called the <i>bar</i>. The enclosed place + <!-- Page 391 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page391"></a>[391]</span>or dock in which persons accused of crimes + stand in court is also called the bar. Near the door of both Houses of + Parliament there is also a bar, beyond which none but the members and + clerks are admitted, and at which counsel, witnesses, offenders against + privilege, &c., are heard.</p> + + <p><b>Bar</b>, in music, is a line drawn through the stave to mark the + rhythm of small portions; the notes composing these are also called a + bar.</p> + + <p><b>Bar</b>, in heraldry, an ordinary resembling the fesse, stretching + like it horizontally across the shield but narrower.</p> + + <p><b>Bar, Confederation of.</b> See <i>Poland</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´aba</b>, the name of a great steppe in the West Siberian + governments of Tomsk, Akmolinsk, and Tobolsk.</p> + + <p><b>Barabin´zians</b>, a rude, uncultivated tribe of Tartars, living on + the banks of the River Irtish, and subsisting chiefly on the produce of + their herds and on fish supplied by the lakes of the Baraba steppe.</p> + + <p><b>Baraguey-d'Hilliers</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gā-dēl-yā),Louis, a + distinguished French general under the first Empire, born in Paris, 1764. + After serving under Custine and other generals he joined the army of + Italy, and took Bergamo and Venice, of which he became Governor. He took + part in the expedition to Egypt, served in the campaigns in Germany and + Spain, and commanded a division of the "Great Army" in the Russian + campaign of 1812. He was entrusted with the direction of the vanguard in + the retreat, but was compelled to capitulate. Napoleon ordered him to + return to France as under arrest, but, overcome with grief and fatigue, + he died at Berlin on the way, Dec., 1812.</p> + + <p><b>Baranovitchi</b>, a town in Russia, government of Minsk. A battle + was fought here between the Russians and the Germans in July, 1916. See + <i>European War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barb</b>, a horse of the Barbary breed, introduced by the Moors + into Spain, and of great speed, endurance, and docility.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:41%;"> + <a href="images/image150.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image150.jpg" + alt="Barbacan" title="Barbacan" /></a> + Barbacan. Walmgate Bar, York + </div> + + <p><b>Bar´bacan</b>, or <b>Barbican</b>, generally an advanced work + defending the entrance to a castle or fortified town, as before the gate + or drawbridge, and often of formidable size and strength.</p> + + <p><b>Barba´does</b>, or <b>Barbados</b>, the most eastern of the West + India Islands, first mentioned in 1518, and occupied by the British in + 1625. Length, 21 miles; breadth, 13; area, 106,470 acres or 166 sq, + miles, about 74,000 being under cultivation. It is divided into eleven + Church of England parishes; capital, Bridgetown. It is one of the most + densely-populated areas in the world, the population in 1917 being + estimated at 186,656, or nearly 1100 to the square mile. The climate is + very hot, though moderated by the constant trade-winds; and the island is + subject to dreadful hurricanes. The surface is broken, now without + forests, and with few streams; the highest point is 1145 feet above the + sea-level. There are few indigenous mammals or birds. The black lowland + soil gives great returns of sugar in favourable seasons. The chief + exports, besides sugar, are molasses and rum; imports: rice, salt meat, + corn, butter, flour, &c. Both exports and imports were over + £2,000,000 in 1918. Barbadoes has a considerable transit trade, being in + some measure the central mart for all the Windward Islands. It is the see + of a bishop and the head-quarters of the British forces in the West + Indies. There is a railway across the island, also tramways, telephones, + &c. The island forms a distinct government under a Governor, an + Executive and a Legislative Council of 9 members, and a House of Assembly + of 24 members. Liberal provision is made for education both by old + foundations and by annual vote.</p> + + <p><b>Barbadoes Leg</b>, a form of elephantiasis.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´bara, St.</b>, according to the legend, belonged to Nicomedia, + in Asia Minor, and was beheaded by her father for having turned + Christian, he being immediately thereafter struck dead by lightning. The + latter part of this legend caused her, probably, to be invoked in storms, + and to be considered the patron saint of artillerists.</p> + + <p><b>Barbarelli.</b> See <i>Giorgione</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barbarian</b> (Gk. <i>barbaros</i>), a name given by the Greeks, + and afterwards by the Romans, to everyone who spoke an unintelligible + language; and hence coming to connote the idea of <i>rude</i>, + <i>illiterate</i>, <i>uncivilized</i>. This word, therefore, did not + always convey the idea of something odious or savage; thus a Greek + character in <!-- Page 392 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page392"></a>[392]</span>Plautus calls Nævius a barbarous poet, + because he had not written in Greek; and Cicero terms illiterate persons + without taste 'barbarians'.</p> + + <p><b>Barbarossa</b> ('red-beard'), the name of two famous Turkish + corsairs of the sixteenth century, who ravaged the shores of the + Mediterranean, and established themselves in Algiers. The elder of the + brothers, Aruch or Horuk, was killed in 1518; the younger and more + notorious, Hayraddin, who captured Tunis, died in 1546. See <i>Frederick + Barbarossa</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´bary</b>, a general name for the most northerly portion of + Africa, extending about 2600 miles from Egypt to the Atlantic, with a + breadth varying from about 140 to 550 miles, comprising Morocco, Algeria, + Tunisia, and Libya (Tripolitania, Barqa, and Fezzan). The principal races + are: the Berbers, the original inhabitants, from whom the country takes + its name; the Arabs, who conquered an extensive portion of it during the + times of the caliphs; the Bedouins, Jews, Turks, and the French colonists + of Algeria, &c. The country, which was prosperous under the + Carthaginians, was, next to Egypt, the richest of the Roman provinces, + and the Italian States enriched themselves by their intercourse with it. + In the fifteenth century, however, it became infested with adventurers + who made the name of Barbary corsair a terror to commerce, a condition of + things finally removed by the French occupation of Algeria.</p> + + <p><b>Barbary Ape</b> (<i>Inŭus ecaudātus</i>), a species of + ape, or tailless monkey, with greenish-brown hair, of the size of a large + cat, remarkable for docility, also called the <i>magot</i>. It is common + in Barbary and other parts of Africa, and some used to live formerly on + Gibraltar Rock, being the only European monkey, though probably not + indigenous. It has been the 'showman's ape' from time immemorial.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´bastel</b>, or <b>Barbastelle</b>, a bat with hairy lips + (<i>Barbastellus commūnis</i>), a native of England.</p> + + <p><b>Barbas´tro</b>, a city, Spain, Arragon, province of Huesca, with an + interesting cathedral, and some trade and manufactures. Pop. 7202.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´bauld</b>, Anna Letitia, English poet and general writer, was + born in Leicestershire, 1743, daughter of a Presbyterian minister named + Aikin. She published a small volume of miscellaneous poems in 1772, and + in 1773, in conjunction with her brother, Dr. John Aikin, a collection of + pieces in prose. In 1774 she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld. Her + <i>Early Lessons and Hymns for Children</i>, and various essays and + poems, won considerable popularity. She edited a collection of English + novels, with critical and biographical notices; a selection from the + British essayists of the reign of Anne, and another from Richardson's + correspondence. Her last long poem, <i>Eighteen Hundred and Eleven</i>, + appeared in 1812. She died at Stoke-Newington, 1825.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´becue</b>, a word of West Indian origin, meaning a hog, or + other large animal, roasted whole. In the United States the word means a + large gathering of people in the open air, for a social or political + feast, where whole animals are roasted and eaten.</p> + + <p><b>Barbed Wire</b>, wire-rope for fencing or other purposes, having + fixed in it short bent pieces of wire with sharp projecting points, which + serve to keep animals from pressing against it. There is an Act of + Parliament (1893) to prevent the use of barbed-wire fences that form a + nuisance on a public road or path; and a person employing barbed wire for + fencing may render himself liable for damages caused by it to another + person who is legitimately using the adjoining ground. Barbed wire plays + an important part in the construction of obstacles in modern warfare. + During the European War, all systems of trenches were protected by thick + belts of wire. This wire was laid out in various different ways, two of + the best being known as the Concertina Fence and the Double-apron + Fence.</p> + + <p><b>Barbel</b> (Barbus), a genus of freshwater fishes of the carp + family, distinguished by the four fleshy filaments growing from the lips, + two at the nose and one at each corner of the mouth, forming the kind of + beard to which the genus owes its name. Of the several species the + European <i>Barbus vulgāris</i>, common in most rivers, has an + average length of from 12 to 18 inches, and in form and habits strongly + resembles the pike. Its body is elongated and rounded, olive-coloured + above and bluish on the sides, and covered with small scales. The upper + jaw, which is much longer than the lower, forms a snout, with which it + bores into the mud for worms, insects, aquatic plants, &c. It is + common in the Thames, where it gives good sport to the angler; but its + flesh is very coarse, and at the time of spawning the roe is dangerous to + eat.</p> + + <p><b>Barber</b>, one whose occupation is to shave or trim the beard, or + to cut and dress hair. The practice of surgery was formerly a part of the + craft, and by an Act of Henry VIII the Company of Barbers was + incorporated with the Company of Surgeons—the company being then + known as the Barber-surgeons—with the limitation, however, that the + surgeons were not to shave or practise 'barbery', and the barbers were to + perform no higher surgical operation than blood-letting and + tooth-drawing. This continued till the time of George II. The signs of + the old profession—the pole which the patient grasped, its spiral + decoration in imitation of the bandage, and the basin to catch the + blood—are <!-- Page 393 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page393"></a>[393]</span>still sometimes retained. The barbers' + shops, always notorious for gossip, were in some measure the news centres + of classic and mediæval times. The ancient hall in London, formerly used + by the Barber-surgeons, is still standing in Markwell Street, + Cripplegate.</p> + + <p><b>Barberini</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-be-rē´nē), a celebrated + Florentine family, which, since the pontificate of Maffeo Barberini + (Urban VIII, 1623-44), has occupied a distinguished place among the + nobility of Rome. During his reign Urban was chiefly intent on the + aggrandizement of his three nephews, of whom two were appointed + cardinals, and the third Prince of Palestrina.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:43%;"> + <a href="images/image151.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image151.jpg" + alt="Barberry" title="Barberry" /></a> + Barberry <i>(Berbĕris aristata)</i> + </div> + + <p><b>Bar´berry</b>, a genus of shrubs, nat. ord. Berberidaceæ. The + common barberry (<i>Berbĕris vulgāris</i>) has serrate, + pointed leaves (the primary ones reduced to tripartite spines), hanging + clusters of yellow flowers, and small, orange-red berries, which are + sometimes made into preserves. The inner bark and roots yield a fine + yellow dye (berberine). The shrub is a native of temperate Asia, but is + now generally diffused through Europe and N. America. In Britain it has + been almost universally banished from hedgerows, owing to its connection + with the black rust of wheat. Numerous other species inhabit Asia and + America; those of the section Mahonia have pinnate leaves. <i>B. + aristata</i> is an erect bush, with furrowed red-brown branches, and + pendulous clusters of yellow flowers; it thrives best in the south. See + <i>Irritability</i> and <i>Rust</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´berton</b>, the chief mining-centre of De Kaap gold-fields, + Transvaal, about 80 miles from Lydenburg, and 150 to 160 from Delagoa + Bay. British prisoners were confined here in the Boer War (1899-1902). + Pop. about 2000 (whites).</p> + + <p><b>Bar´bets</b> (Bucconidæ), a family of climbing birds with a thick + conical beak, having tufts of bristles at its base. Their wings are short + and their flight somewhat heavy. They have been divided into three + sub-genera: The <i>barbicans</i> (Pogonias), inhabiting India and Africa, + and feeding chiefly on fruit; the <i>barbets</i> proper (Bucco), found in + Africa and America, and nearly related to the woodpeckers; and the + <i>puff-birds</i> (Tamatia), inhabiting America, and feeding on + insects.</p> + + <p><b>Barbette</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-bet´), an elevation of earth behind the + breastwork of a fortification, from which the artillery may be fired over + the parapet instead of through an embrasure. In ships of war the name is + given to a strong breastwork of armour over which heavy guns are fired. + See <i>Fortification</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barbeyrac</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-bā-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k), Jean, an able writer on jurisprudence + and natural law, translator of Grotius and Cumberland, and translator and + annotator of Pufendorf. Born 1674; professor of law at Lausanne and + Groningen; died 1744.</p> + + <p><b>Barbican.</b> See <i>Barbacan</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barbié du Bocage</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rb-yā dü bō-käzh), Jean + Denis, a distinguished geographer, born in Paris in 1760, who laid the + foundation of his fame in 1788 by his <i>Atlas</i> to Barthélemy's + <i>Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis</i>. His maps and plans to the works of + Thucydides, Xenophon, &c., exhibit much erudition, and materially + advanced the science of ancient geography. He also prepared many modern + maps, and published various excellent dissertations. He held many + honourable posts, and died in 1825.</p> + + <p><b>Barbier</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rb-yā), Antoine Alexandre, + bibliographer (1765-1825). He was appointed keeper of the library of the + Conseil d'État in 1798; Napoleon made him his librarian in 1807; and he + was afterwards librarian to Louis XVIII. His <i>Catalogue de la + Bibliothèque du Conseil d'État</i> (1801-3), and <i>Dictionnaire des + Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes</i> (1806-9), are both valuable + works.</p> + + <p><b>Barbieri</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-bē-ā´rē), Giovanni + Francesco (otherwise known as <i>Guercino</i> (the squinter) <i>da + Cento</i>), an eminent and prolific historical painter, born near Bologna + 1590, died in 1666. His style showed the influence of Caravaggio and of + the Caracci, his best work being of the latter school. Chief work, a + <i>St. Petronilla</i> in the Capitol at Rome; but most of the large + galleries have pictures by him.</p> + + <p><b>Barbieri</b>, Paolo Antonio, a celebrated still-life and animal + painter, was a brother of Guercino; born 1596, died 1640. <!-- Page 394 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page394"></a>[394]</span></p> + + <p><b>Barbitone.</b> See <i>Veronal</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barbizon</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-bē-zōn), a French village + about 25 miles south by east of Paris, on the borders of the Forest of + Fontainebleau, and 6 miles north-west of the town of that name. It has + given its name to a French school of painters, including Corot, Millet, + Rousseau, Jules Dupré, and Daubigny.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´bour</b>, John, an ancient Scottish poet, contemporary with + Chaucer, born about 1316. By 1357 he was Archdeacon of Aberdeen, and in + the following year was appointed a commissioner to treat for the ransom + of David II. He appears as Auditor of the Exchequer more than once; he + travelled through England on several occasions, and was pensioned by + Robert II. His chief poem, <i>The Bruce</i> (Brus), written about 1375, + was first published in 1571, and the chief manuscripts of the poem are + those in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, dated 1489, and in St. John's + College, Cambridge. Of another long poem, setting forth the Trojan origin + of the Scottish kings, no MS. remains, unless a portion of two Troy books + in the Cambridge and Bodleian libraries may be ascribed to Barbour. He + has also been credited with having compiled a <i>Book of Legends of + Saints</i>, existing in a single MS. at Cambridge, and published in + 1881-2 by Horstman in his <i>Legenden Sammlung</i>. He died in 1395. He + was the father of Scottish poetry and history, and his <i>Bruce</i> is + linguistically of high value. Though wanting in the higher qualities of + poetry, it is truthful and natural, and often exhibits a high moral + dignity.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Andrew Lang, + <i>History of Scotland</i>; Irving, <i>History of Scottish + Poetry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barbuda</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-bö´da), one of the West Indies, annexed + by Britain in 1628; about 15 miles long and 8 miles wide; lying north of + Antigua; pop. 580. It is flat, fertile, and healthy. Corn, cotton, + pepper, and tobacco are the principal produce, but the island is only + partially cleared for cultivation. There is no harbour, but a + well-sheltered roadstead on the west side. It is a dependency of + Antigua.</p> + + <p><b>Barbusse</b>, Henri, a French author born at Asnières in 1874. He + served in the French army during the European War, and his descriptions + of the realities of modern warfare have made him famous. His works + include <i>Le Feu</i> and <i>Clarté</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barby</b> (bär´bē), a German town on the Elbe, in the + government of Magdeburg, with an old castle. Pop. 5202.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´ca</b>, a division of N. Africa, between the Gulf of Sidra and + Egypt, annexed by Italy in 1911-2; capital, Bengazi. It formed a portion + of the ancient Cyrenaica, and from the time of the Ptolemies was known as + Pentapolis from its five Greek cities. It became part of Tripoli, and + later a separate province under Turkish dominion. On 18th Oct., 1912, it + was formally recognized as a dependency of Italy, and forms with Tripoli + the Italian colony of Libya. The country consists of a rocky plateau. A + large portion of it is desert, but some parts, especially near the coast, + are fertile, and yield abundant crops and excellent pasture, the chief + being wheat, barley, dates, figs, and olives. Flowering shrubs, roses, + honeysuckles, &c., occur in great variety. There are hardly any + permanent streams, but the eastern portion is tolerably well watered by + rains and springs. The exports are grain and cattle, with ostrich + feathers and ivory from the interior. Next to Bengazi (pop. 35,000), the + seaport of Derna is the chief town (pop. 8000). The population probably + does not exceed 300,000. See <i>Cyrenaica</i> and <i>Tripoli</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barcarolle</b> (-rol´), a species of song sung by the + <i>barcaruoli</i>, or gondoliers, of Venice, and hence applied to a song + or melody composed in imitation. A very well-known example is to be found + in Offenbach's <i>Tales of Hoffmann</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barcellona</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-chel-ō´na<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), seaport, Sicily, province of Messina, + immediately contiguous to Pozzo di Gotto, and practically forming one + town with it. Joint pop. 26,172.</p> + + <p><b>Barcelona</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-thel-ō´na<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), next to Madrid the chief city of + Spain, capital of the province of Barcelona, and formerly capital of the + kingdom of Catalonia; finely situated on the northern portion of the + Spanish Mediterranean coast. It is divided into the upper and lower town; + the former modern, regular, stone-built, and often of an English + architectural type, the latter old, irregular, brick-built, and with + traces of Eastern influence in the architecture. The harbour is suited to + accommodate large vessels. The principal manufactures are cottons, silks, + woollens, machinery, paper, glass, chemicals, stoneware, soap; exports + manufactured goods, wine and brandy, fruit, oil, &c.; imports coals, + textile fabrics, machinery, cotton, fish, hides, silks, timber, &c. + The city contains a university, several public libraries, a museum, a + large arsenal, cannon-foundry, &c. Barcelona was, until the twelfth + century, governed by its own counts, but was afterwards united with + Arragon. In 1640, with the rest of Catalonia, it placed itself under the + French Crown; in 1652 it submitted again to the Spanish Government; in + 1697 it was taken by the French, but was restored to Spain at the Peace + of Ryswick. It has had several severe visitations of cholera and yellow + fever, and has been the scene of many serious and sanguinary revolts, as + in 1836, 1840, and 1909. Pop. 618,766.—The province has an area of + 2968 sq. miles; pop. 1,191,386 (1918). It is generally mountainous, but + well cultivated, and among the most thickly peopled in Spain. <!-- Page + 395 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page395"></a>[395]</span></p> + + <p><b>Barcelona</b>, a town of Venezuela, near the mouth of the Neveri, + which is navigable for vessels of small size, but larger vessels anchor + off the mouth of the river. Pop. 13,000.</p> + + <p><b>Barcelona Nuts</b>, hazel-nuts exported from the Barcelona district + of Spain.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´clay</b>, Alexander, a poet of the sixteenth century, most + probably a native of Scotland, born about 1475; for some years a priest + and chaplain of St. Mary Ottery, in Devonshire; afterwards a Benedictine + monk of Ely; subsequently a Franciscan, and also the holder of one or two + livings; died 1552. His principal work was a satire, entitled <i>The Shyp + of Folys of this Worlde</i>, part translation and part imitation of + Brandt's <i>Narrenschiff</i> (Ship of Fools), and printed by Pynson in + 1509. He also wrote <i>The Myrrour of Good Maners</i>, and some + <i>Egloges</i> (Eclogues), both printed by Pynson, as well as + translations, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Barclay</b>, John, poet and satirist, son of a Scottish father, + born at Pont-à-Mousson (Lorraine) in 1582, and probably educated in the + Jesuits' College there. Having settled in England, he published a Latin + politico-satirical romance, entitled <i>Euphormionis Satyricon</i>, + having as its object the exposure of the Jesuits. In 1616 he left England + for Rome, received a pension from Pope Paul V, and died in 1621. His + chief work is a singular romance in Latin, entitled <i>Argenis</i> + (Paris, 1621), thought by some to be an allegory bearing on the political + state of Europe at the period. Several seventeenth-century romances were + indebted to this work, among others Fénelon's <i>Télémaque</i> and + Calderon's <i>Argenis y Poliarco</i>. It has been translated into several + modern languages. His shorter poems appeared in the <i>Delitiæ Poetarum + Scotorum</i>,</p> + + <p><b>Barclay</b>, Robert, the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, born + in 1648 at Gordonstown, Moray, and educated at Paris, where he became a + Roman Catholic. He was recalled home by his father, whose example he + followed in becoming a Quaker. His first treatise in support of his + adopted principles, published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, under the + title of <i>Truth Cleared of Calumnies</i>, together with his subsequent + writings, did much to rectify public sentiment in regard to the Quakers. + His chief work, in Latin, <i>An Apology for the True Christian + Divinity</i>, was soon reprinted at Amsterdam, and quickly translated + into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the author himself, into + English. His fame was now widely diffused; and, in his travels with + William Penn and George Fox through England, Holland, and Germany, to + spread the opinions of the Quakers, he was received everywhere with the + highest respect. The last of his productions, <i>On the Possibility and + Necessity of an Inward and Immediate Revelation</i>, was not published in + England until 1686; from which time Barclay lived quietly with his + family. He died, after a short illness, at his own house of Ury, + Kincardineshire, in 1690. He was a friend of and had influence with James + II.</p> + + <p><b>Barclay</b>, Sir Thomas, British barrister, born in 1853. Educated + at the Universities of London, Paris, Bonn, and Jena, he was sent to + Paris in 1876 as correspondent of <i>The Times</i>. He has been greatly + instrumental in bringing about a better understanding between England and + France. He was knighted in 1904, and entered Parliament in 1910. His + works include: <i>Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy</i>; + <i>The Turco-Italian War and its Problems</i>; <i>Law and Usage of + War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barclay de Tolly</b>, Michael, Prince, a distinguished general and + field-marshal of Russia, born in 1755. His family, of Scottish origin, + had been established in Livonia since 1689. He entered the army at an + early age, served in various campaigns against the Turks, Swedes, and + Poles, and in 1811 was named Minister of War. On the invasion of Napoleon + he was transferred to the chief command of the army, and adopted a plan + of retreat; his forces did not greatly exceed 100,000 men, but the Court + became impatient, and after the capture of Smolensk by the French he was + superseded by Kutusov. Sinking all personal feeling, he asked leave to + serve under his successor, commanded the right wing at the battle of the + Moskwa, maintained his position, and covered the retreat of the rest of + the army. After the battle of Bautzen, in 1813, he was reappointed to the + chief command, which he had soon after to resign to Prince Schwarzenberg. + He forced the surrender of General Vandamme after the battle of Dresden, + took part in the decisive battle of Leipzig, and was made a field-marshal + in Paris. In 1815 he received from the emperor the title of prince, and + from Louis XVIII the badge of the Order of Military Merit. He died in + 1818.</p> + + <p><b>Bar-cochba</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-ko<i>h</i>´ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), or <b>Bar-cochebas</b>, Simon, a + Jewish impostor, who pretended to be the Messiah, raised a revolt, and + made himself master of Jerusalem about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 132, and of about fifty fortified places. Hadrian sent to Britain for + Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who gradually regained the + different forts and then took and destroyed Jerusalem. Bar-cochba retired + to a mountain fortress, and perished in the assault of it by the Romans + three years after, about 135.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´coo.</b> See <i>Cooper's Creek</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bard</b>, one of an order among the ancient Celtic tribes, whose + occupation was to compose and sing verses in honour of the heroic + achievements of princes and brave men, generally to the accompaniment of + the harp. Their verses also <!-- Page 396 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page396"></a>[396]</span>frequently embodied religious or ethical + precepts, genealogies, laws, &c. Their existence and function was + known to the Romans two centuries <span class="scac">B.C.</span>; but of + the Gallic bards only the tradition of their popularity survives. The + first Welsh bards of whom anything is extant are Taliesin, Aneurin, and + Llywarch, of the sixth century. A considerable lacuna then occurs in + their history until the order was reconstituted in the tenth century by + King Howel Dha, and again in the eleventh by Gryffith ap Conan. Edward I + is said to have hanged all the Welsh bards as promoters of sedition. Some + modern attempts have been made in Wales to revive bardism, and the + Cambrian Society was formed in 1818, for this purpose and for the + preservation of the remains of the ancient literature. The revived + Eisteddfodau, or bardic festivals, have been so far exceedingly popular. + In Ireland there were three classes of bards: those who sang of war, + religion, &c., those who chanted the laws, and those who gave + genealogies and family histories in verse. They were famous harpists. In + the Highlands of Scotland there are considerable remains of compositions + supposed to be those of their old bards still preserved.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. Jones, <i>Relics of the Welsh + Bards</i>; Walker, <i>Memoirs of the Irish Bards</i>; Dottin, <i>Manuel + de l'Antiquité Celtique</i>; John Rhys and D. Brynmor-Jones, <i>The Welsh + People</i>; D. D. Evans, <i>Ancient Bards of Britain</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bardesa´nes</b>, a Syrian Gnostic, poet, astrologer, and + philosopher, born 154 or 164 at Edessa, died 222. His system started with + the statement that from the union of God with matter sprang Christ and a + female Holy Ghost, from whom in turn sprang various existences. He + propagated his doctrines in Syrian hymns (<i>Hymn on the Soul</i>), the + first in the language. His son, Harmonius, was also an able hymn-writer. + The Bardesanists maintained themselves till the twelfth century, the + later adherents having practically adopted Manichæism.</p> + + <p><b>Bardwan´</b>, or <b>Burdwan´</b>, a division of Bengal, upon the + Hugli, comprising the six districts of Bardwan, Hugli, Howrah, Midnapur, + Bankura, and Birbhum. Area, 13,850 sq. miles; pop. 8,245,000.—The + district <i>Bardwan</i> has an area of 2697 sq. miles, and a pop. of + 1,532,500. Apart from its products, rice, grain, hemp, cotton, indigo, + &c., it has a noted coal-field of about 500 sq. miles in area, with + an annual output of about half a million tons.—The town of + <i>Bardwan</i> has a fine palace of the Maharajah and a pop. of + 35,022.</p> + + <p><b>Barebone</b>, or <b>Barbone</b>, Praise-God, the name of a + leather-seller in Fleet Street, London, who obtained a kind of lead in + the convention which Cromwell substituted for the Long Parliament, and + which was thence nicknamed the Barebone Parliament. After its dissolution + he disappeared till 1660, when he presented a petition to Parliament + against the restoration of the monarchy. In 1661 he was committed to the + Tower for some time, but his subsequent history is unknown.</p> + + <p><b>Barefooted Friars.</b> See <i>Monasticism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barége</b> (ba-rāzh´), a light, open tissue of silk and + worsted, or cotton and worsted, for women's dresses, originally + manufactured near Baréges. It is now made chiefly at + Bagnères-de-Bigorre.</p> + + <p><b>Baréges</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rāzh), a watering-place, south of + France, department Hautes-Pyrénées, about 4000 feet above the sea, + celebrated for its thermal springs, which are frequented for rheumatism, + scrofula, &c. The place is hardly inhabited except in the bathing + season, June till September.</p> + + <p><b>Baregine</b> (ba-rāzh´in; from <i>Baréges</i>), a gelatinous + product of certain algæ growing in sulphuric mineral springs, and + imparting to them the colour and odour of flesh-broth.</p> + + <p><b>Bareilly</b> (ba-rā´li), a town of Hindustan, in the United + Provinces, capital of a district of same name, on a pleasant and elevated + site. It has a fort and cantonments, a Government college, and + manufactures sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, perfumery, furniture + and upholstery. On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny the native garrison + took possession of the place, but it was retaken by Lord Clyde in May, + 1858. Pop. 129,462.—The district has an area of 1595 sq. miles; + pop. 1,089,550.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´ents</b>, William, a Dutch navigator of the end of the + sixteenth century, who, on an expedition intended to reach China by the + North-East Passage, discovered Novaya Zemlya. He wintered there in + 1596-7, and died before reaching home.</p> + + <p><b>Baret´ti</b>, Joseph, an Italian writer, born at Turin, 1719. In + 1748 he came to England, and in 1753 published in English a <i>Defence of + the Poetry of Italy against the Censures of M. Voltaire</i>. In 1760 he + brought out a useful <i>Italian and English Dictionary</i>. After an + absence of six years, during part of which he edited the <i>Frusta + Letteraria</i> (Literary Scourge) at Venice, he returned to England, and + in 1768 published an <i>Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy</i>. + Not long after, in defending himself in a street brawl, he stabbed his + assailant and was tried for murder at the Old Bailey but acquitted, + Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds, and Beauclerk giving + testimony to his good character. An <i>English and Spanish + Dictionary</i>, and various other works, followed before his death in + 1789.</p> + + <p><b>Barfleur</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-fl<i>eu</i>r), at one time the best + port on the coast of Normandy, and the reputed port from which William + the Conqueror sailed. It was destroyed in the year 1346 by Edward III. + Present pop. 1304. <!-- Page 397 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page397"></a>[397]</span></p> + + <p><b>Barfrush´</b>, or <b>Barfurush´</b>, Same as <i>Balfroosh</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bargain and Sale</b>, a legal term denoting the contract by which + lands, tenements, &c., are transferred from one person to another. + See <i>Conveyancing</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barge</b>, a term similar in origin to <i>barque</i>, but generally + used of a flat-bottomed boat of some kind, whether used for loading and + unloading vessels, or as a canal-boat, or as an ornamental boat of state + or pleasure.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/image152.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image152.jpg" + alt="Barge-board" title="Barge-board" /></a> + Barge-board or gable-end of Manor House, Bramley, Hants. + </div> + + <p><b>Barge-board</b> (perhaps a corruption of <i>verge-board</i>), in + architecture, a board generally pendent from the eaves of gables, so as + to conceal the rafters, keep out rain, &c. They are sometimes + elaborately ornamented. The portion of the roof projecting from the wall + at the gable-end, and beneath which the barge-board runs, is termed the + <i>barge-course</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barham</b> (bar'am), Rev. Richard Harris, a humorous writer, born + in 1788 at Canterbury; educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at + Brasenose, Oxford; appointed in succession curate of Ashford, curate of + Westwell, rector of Snargate in Romney Marsh, and one of the minor canons + of St. Paul's Cathedral. He published two novels, <i>Baldwin</i> and + <i>My Cousin Nicholas</i>, wrote nearly a third of the articles in + Gorton's <i>Biographical Dictionary</i>, and contributed to + <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>. In 1824 he was appointed priest in ordinary + of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards rector of St. Mary Magdalene and St. + Gregory-by-St.-Paul, London. In 1837, on the starting of <i>Bentley's + Miscellany</i>, he laid the main foundation of his literary fame by the + publication in that periodical of the <i>Ingoldsby Legends</i>. He died + in 1845.</p> + + <p><b>Barhebræ´us.</b> See <i>Abulfaragius</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bari</b> (bä'rē; ancient, <b>Barium</b>), a seaport, S. + Italy, on a small promontory of the Adriatic, capital of the province + Terra di Bari. It was a place of importance as early as the third century + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and has been thrice destroyed and + rebuilt. The present town, though poorly built for the most part, has a + large Norman castle, a fine cathedral and priory, &c. It manufactures + cotton and linen goods, hats, soap, glass, and liqueurs; has a trade in + wine, grain, almonds, oil, &c., and is now an important seaport. In + 1915 the town suffered considerably from floods. Pop. 109,218.—The + province has an area of 2048 sq. miles, and is fertile in fruit, wine, + oil, &c.; pop. 935,982.</p> + + <p><b>Bari</b>, a negro people of Africa, dwelling on both sides of the + White Nile, between lat. 3° 30' and 6° <span class="scac">N.</span> They + practise agriculture, cattle-rearing, smithwork, &c. Their country + was conquered by Baker for Egypt.</p> + + <p><b>Baril´la</b>, is the commercial name for impure sodium carbonate + imported from Spain and the Levant. At one time all sodium carbonate + required for industrial purposes was prepared from barilla obtained by + burning various marine plants (Salsola, Salicornia, and others). Only 25 + per cent of the weight of the ash contained soda, and consequently its + import was expensive and considerably added to the price of the + manufacture of glass and soap. During the Napoleonic wars the price of + barilla rose to such a height that Napoleon offered a reward for the + discovery of a process for the manufacture of sodium carbonate. A + chemist, Leblanc, in 1791 invented a new process by which sodium + carbonate could be obtained from common salt, and this entirely + superseded barilla. Plants are still grown in Southern France and Spain + to obtain soda and other substances from the ash; but almost all the + sodium carbonate of the present day is manufactured chemically.</p> + + <p><b>Baring</b>, the name of a famous English family of bankers and + financiers, statesmen and diplomats, from which has arisen the financial + house of Baring Brothers & Co., and of which members now hold four + peerages, namely, two earldoms—Northbrook and Cromer—and two + baronies—Ashburton and Revelstoke. The founder of the house was + Francis Baring (1740-1810), whose father was a cloth manufacturer near + Exeter, and grandfather pastor of the Lutheran Church at Bremen, the + family being thus of German origin. Francis Baring settled in London, + attained a high position in the mercantile and financial world, was long + a member of Parliament and a director of the East India Company, and was + made a baronet in 1793. Of his sons, one, Alexander, was created Baron + Ashburton (in 1835), and rendered important political services in + connection with the boundary treaty concluded between Britain and the + United States, and known by his title (see <i>Ashburton</i>, <i>Ashburton + Treaty</i>). His son, the second Lord Ashburton (1799-1864), held a + position of some note in politics, and his first wife, a daughter of the + sixth Earl of Sandwich, was fond of the society of both politicians and + literary men, among those who were on friendly terms with her being <!-- + Page 398 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page398"></a>[398]</span>Carlyle and Thackeray. Sir Francis + Baring's eldest son, Thomas, was father of Francis Thornhill Baring, + first Lord Northbrook (1796-1866), whose eldest son, Thomas, was created + Earl of Northbrook in 1876, and held successively a number of high + positions, among them that of Viceroy of India (1872-6) and First Lord of + the Admiralty (1880-5). (See <i>Northbrook</i>.) Another son of Sir + Francis, Henry Baring, was father of Edward Baring, the first Baron + Revelstoke (born in 1828, died in 1897), who was long one of the most + conspicuous members of the financial world of London, and was raised to + the peerage as baron in 1885. He had full management of the great house + of Baring Brothers, which under him was long most prosperous, but in 1890 + fell into temporary difficulties. Henry Baring was father also of Evelyn + Baring, Earl Cromer (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Baring-Gould</b> (bā-ring-gōld´), Sabine, English + clergyman and author, born at Exeter, 1834. Educated at Cambridge, he + held several livings in the English Church, and in 1881 became rector of + Lew Trenchard, Devon. After publishing several books on theological and + miscellaneous subjects, he distinguished himself as a novelist. Among his + works are: <i>Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas</i>; <i>Curious Myths of the + Middle Ages</i>; <i>The Origin and Development of Religious Belief</i>; + <i>Lives of the Saints</i> (in 15 vols.); <i>Village Sermons</i>; <i>The + Vicar of Morwenstowe</i> (an account of the Rev. R. S. Hawker); <i>The + Mystery of Suffering</i>; <i>History of the Church in Germany</i>; <i>The + Tragedy of the Cæsars</i>; <i>Cliff Castles and Cave Dwellings</i>; + <i>The Church Revival</i>; &c.; besides the novels <i>Mehalah</i>, + <i>John Herring</i>, <i>Richard Cable</i>, <i>The Gaverocks</i>, <i>Court + Royal</i>, <i>The Pennycomequicks</i>, &c.; and short stories or + novelettes.</p> + + <p><b>Baringo</b>, a lake in Africa, <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of + the Victoria Nyanza, about 20 miles long.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´itone</b>, or <b>Bar´ytone</b>, a male voice, the compass of + which partakes of those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not + extend so far downwards as the one, nor to an equal height with the + other. Its best tones are from the lower A of the bass clef to the lower + F in the treble.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´rium</b> (from the Gr. <i>barys</i>, heavy), the metal of which + <i>baryta</i> is the oxide; specific gravity 4; symbol Ba. It is only + found in compounds, such as the common sulphate (or <i>barytes</i>) and + carbonate, and was isolated by Davy in 1808. It is a yellow malleable + metal, which readily oxidizes, decomposes water, and fuses at a low + temperature. Its nitrate and chlorate are used in pyrotechny. Barium + salts, when brought into a non-luminous flame, burn with a + yellowish-green colour. See <i>Baryta</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/image153.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image153.jpg" + alt="Bark" title="Bark" /></a> + Magnified Section of Oak-bark. + + <p class="poem">A, Epidermis. B, Cells containing chlorophyll or + colouring matter. C, Liber or Bast. D, Cambium. E, Sapwood.</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Bark</b>, properly the <i>periderm</i>, or outer covering, of woody + stems and roots, composed of dead tissues cut off from the living parts + of the organ by one or more layers of impervious cork. It serves to + prevent loss of water, and also affords protection against animals and + fungi. The outermost bark is continually sloughed in the form of scales + (Scots Pine) or sheets (Common Birch), being regenerated from within by + the activity of the cork-cambium (<i>phellogen</i>). Bark is usually rich + in waste-products, many of which are of economic value, such as tannin, + gums, &c. Bottle-cork is the bark of the cork-oak. Bark for tanning + is obtained from oak, hemlock-spruce, species of acacia, &c. Peruvian + and Angostura barks, cinnamon, &c., are other useful barks. As + commonly used, bark denotes all the tissues external to the + <i>cambium</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bark.</b> See <i>Barque</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bark, Peruvian.</b> See <i>Cinchona</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barker</b>, Granville, playwright, was born in London in 1877. His + principal plays are: <i>The Voysey Inheritance</i> (1905), <i>Waste</i> + (1907), <i>The Madras House</i> (1910). He has published a book (in which + William Archer collaborated) called <i>A National Theatre</i>, and + another entitled <i>The Red Cross in France</i>. His revivals of + Shakespeare have introduced some new ideas of mounting and + stage-effects.</p> + + <p><b>Barker's Mill</b>, also called Scottish turbine, a hydraulic + machine on the principle of what is known as the hydraulic tourniquet. + This consists of an upright vessel free to rotate about a vertical axis, + and having at its lower end two discharging pipes projecting horizontally + on either side and bent in opposite directions at the ends, through which + the water is discharged horizontally, the direction of discharge being + mainly at right angles to a line joining the discharging <!-- Page 399 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page399"></a>[399]</span>orifice to the + axis. The backward pressures at the bends of the tubes, arising from the + two issuing jets of water, cause the apparatus to revolve in an opposite + direction to the issuing fluid. The machine was invented by a Dr. Barker + towards the end of the seventeenth century.</p> + + <p><b>Barking</b>, a town, England, county of Essex, on the Roding, 7 + miles <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of London, with some important + manufacturing works. Near it is the outfall of the sewage of a large part + of London. Pop. (1921), 35,543.</p> + + <p><b>Barkston Ash</b>, a parliamentary division of the West Riding of + Yorkshire.</p> + + <p><b>Bark-stove</b>, or <b>Bark-bed</b>, a sort of hothouse for forcing + or for growing plants that require a great heat combined with moisture, + both of which are supplied by the fermentation that sets up in a bed of + spent tanner's bark contained in a brick pit under glass.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´laam and Jos´aphat</b>, a famous mediæval spiritual romance, + which is in its main details a Christianized version of the Hindu legends + of Buddha. The story first appeared in Greek in the works of Joannes + Damascenus in the eighth century. It is, however, more probably the work + of a monk of the Sabbas monastery, near Jerusalem, and written at the + beginning of the seventh century. The compilers of the <i>Gesta + Romanorum</i>, Boccaccio, Gower, and Shakespeare have all drawn materials + from it.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Max Müller, <i>Chips + from a German Workshop</i>; J. Jacobs, <i>Barlaam and Josaphat</i>, + (There is a translation by Rev. G. R. Woodward and H. Mattingly in the + Loeb Library).</p> + + <p><b>Bar-le-duc</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-l-du<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k), a town of North-East France, capital + of department Meuse, with manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs, + leather, confectionery, &c. Pop. 17,068.</p> + + <p><b>Barlet´ta</b>, a seaport in South Italy, province of Bari, on the + Adriatic, with a fine Gothic cathedral; it has a considerable export + trade in grain, wine, almonds, &c. Pop. 44,233.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´ley</b>, the name of several cereal plants of the genus + Hordeum, ord. Gramineæ: (grasses), yielding a grain used as food and also + for making malt, from which are prepared beer, porter, and whisky. Barley + has been known and cultivated from remote antiquity, and beer was made + from it among the Egyptians. It is mentioned in <i>Exodus</i>, in + connection with the ten plagues; and it is referred to in ancient Chinese + records. Excellent barley is produced in Britain. The species principally + cultivated are <i>Hordĕum distĭchum</i>, two-rowed barley; + <i>H. vulgāre</i>, four-rowed barley; and <i>H. hexastichum</i>, + six-rowed, of which the small variety is the sacred barley of the + ancients. The varieties of the four- and six-rowed species are generally + coarser than those of the two-rowed, and adapted for a poorer soil and + more exposed situation. Some of these are called <i>bere</i> or + <i>bigg</i>. In Britain barley occupies more than 22½ per cent of the + land under corn, but in N. America the extent of it as a crop is + comparatively small, being in Canada, however, relatively greater than in + the States, and the Canadian barley is of very high quality. Barley is + better adapted for cold climates than any other grain, and some of the + coarser varieties are cultivated where no other cereal can be grown. + Russia devotes a surface of over 20,000,000 acres to barley, i.e. a + little under 11 per cent of the cereal area of the country. Germany has + 4,000,000 and France 1,800,000 acres of barley. Some species of the + genus, three of which are natives of Britain, are mere grasses. + <i>Pot</i> or <i>Scotch barley</i> is the grain deprived of the husk in a + mill. <i>Pearl barley</i> is the grain polished and rounded and deprived + of husk and pellicle. <i>Patent barley</i> is the farina obtained by + grinding pearl barley. <i>Barley-water</i>, a decoction of pearl barley, + is used in medicine as possessing emollient, diluent, and expectorant + qualities.</p> + + <p><b>Barley-sugar</b>. See <i>Confectionery</i>; <i>Sugar</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´low</b>, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist, born 1755. + After an active and changeful life as chaplain, lawyer, editor, + land-agent, lecturer, and consul, he went to Paris and acquired a + fortune. On his return to America he was appointed Minister + Plenipotentiary to France (1811), but died near Cracow in 1812 on his way + to meet Napoleon. His principal poem, <i>The Columbiad</i> (<i>The Vision + of Columbus</i>), dealing with American history from the time of + Columbus, was published in 1807.</p> + + <p><b>Barm.</b> See <i>Yeast</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´mecides</b> (-sīdz), a distinguished Persian family, + whose virtues and splendour form a favourite subject with Mahommedan + poets and historians. Two eminent members of this family were + Khaled-ben-Barmek, tutor of Haroun al Rashid, and his son Yahya, grand + vizier of Haroun. The expression <i>Barmecide Feast</i>, meaning a + visionary banquet or make-believe entertainment, originates from the + Barber's story of his Sixth Brother in the <i>Arabian Nights' + Entertainments</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´men</b>, a German city on the Wupper, in the Prussian Rhine + Province, government of Düsseldorf, and forming a continuation of the + town of Elberfeld, in the valley of Barmen. It has extensive ribbon and + other textile manufactures; also dyeworks, manufactures of chemicals, + metal wares, buttons, yarns, iron, machines, pianos, organs, soap, + &c. In 1919 Barmen was the scene of Spartacist disorders. Pop. + 169,214.</p> + + <p><b>Barmouth</b>, Welsh name <b>Abermaw</b>, a small seaport and + watering-place of Wales, in Merionethshire, at the entrance of Barmouth + Bay, a <!-- Page 400 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page400"></a>[400]</span>fine estuary. It is picturesquely + situated, and has become a favourite resort of tourists and others. Pop. + (1921), 3559.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´nabas</b>, the surname, according to <i>Acts</i>, iv, 36-7, + given by the apostles to Joseph, a fellow-labourer of St. Paul, and, like + him, ranked as an apostle. He is said to have founded at Antioch the + first Christian community, to have been first Bishop of Milan, and to + have suffered martyrdom at Cyprus. His festival is held on the 11th + June.</p> + + <p><b>Barnabas, Saint, Epistle of</b>, an epistle in twenty-one chapters + unanimously ascribed to Barnabas by early Christian writers, but without + any support of internal evidence. It was probably written about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 130 (or, according to others, between <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 70 and 79) by one who was not a Jew, and under + the influence of Alexandrian Judaistic thought. See <i>Codex</i> + (<i>Sinaiticus</i>).</p> + + <p><b>Barnabites</b>, an order of monks founded in Milan in 1530 and + named after the Milan church of St. Barnabas which was allotted them to + preach in. On their expulsion from France in 1905, the majority of the + Barnabites sought refuge in England. A few monasteries of the order still + exist in Italy, Belgium, Austria, and Spain.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/image154.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image154.jpg" + alt="Barnacles" title="Barnacles" /></a> + Barnacles hanging from timber + </div> + + <p><b>Bar´nacle</b>, the name of a family (Lepadidæ) of marine + crustaceous animals, ord. Cirripedia. They are enveloped by a mantle and + shell, composed of five principal valves and several smaller pieces, + joined together by a membrane attached to their circumference; and they + are furnished with a long, flexible, fleshy stalk or peduncle, provided + with muscles, by which they attach themselves to ships' bottoms, + submerged timber, &c. They feed on small marine animals, brought + within their reach by the water and secured by their tentacula. Some of + the larger species are edible. According to an old fable, these animals + produced barnacle geese.</p> + + <p><b>Barnacle Goose</b> (<i>Anser Bernicla</i> or <i>leucopsis</i>), a + summer visitant of the northern seas, in size rather smaller than the + common wild goose, and having the forehead and cheeks white, the upper + body and neck black. A fable asserts that the crustaceans called + barnacles changed into geese, and various theories have been framed to + account for its origin. Max Müller supposes the geese were originally + called <i>Hiberniculæ</i> or Irish geese, and that barnacle is a + corruption of this; but the resemblance of a barnacle to a goose hanging + by the head may account for it. The Brent Goose is also sometimes called + the Barnacle Goose, but the two should not be confused.</p> + + <p><b>Barnard-Castle</b>, a town, England, County Durham, giving name to + a parliamentary division of the county. There are a large thread-mill and + carpet manufactories; the Bowes Museum and Art Gallery, endowed by + private munificence, and costing over £80,000; and the Northern Counties + School, richly endowed. The castle was originally built about 1178 by + Bernard Baliol, grandfather of John Baliol. Pop. 4737.</p> + + <p><b>Barnar´do</b>, Thomas John, philanthropist, born in Ireland in + 1845, qualified as a medical practitioner, studying in London, Edinburgh, + and Paris, established his first home for neglected London children in + 1867, and for the rest of his life was engaged in the same class of work. + Up to his death in 1905 he had nearly 60,000 destitute waifs cared for + and trained in the institutions with which his name is connected, many of + the children having been sent to Canada or other colonies. The Barnardo + homes and institutions have become very numerous, being established in + various English counties as well as in London, a few being in Canada. A + naval training-school for boys is included among them. It was a rule of + the founder that no destitute child should be refused admission. The + homes have since 1899 been under a council or body <!-- Page 401 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page401"></a>[401]</span>incorporated under the + title of the National Incorporated Waifs Association, but continue to be + managed on the same lines as before. Dr. Barnardo published <i>Something + Attempted, Something Done</i>; <i>The Rescue of Waifs</i>; + &c.—Cf. J. H. Batt, <i>Dr. Barnardo, the Foster-father of + Nobody's Children</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barnaul´</b>, a town of Siberia, government of Tomsk, on the + Barnaulski, near its influx into the Obi. The town is of wood but well + built, with museum, observatory, &c. It is an important mining centre + for lead, copper, and silver, has a copper-mint, kilns, and factories. + Pop. 61,330.</p> + + <p><b>Barnave</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-näv), Antoine-Pierre-Joseph-Marie, a + distinguished French revolutionist, born 1761, died 1793. He successfully + maintained against Mirabeau the right of the National Assembly, as + against that of the king, to declare for peace or war, but afterwards + asserted the inviolability of the king's person. He was impeached, + condemned, and guillotined.</p> + + <p><b>Barnes</b>, an urban district of England, in Surrey, on the right + bank of the Thames, a short distance above London, connected with + Middlesex by Hammersmith Suspension Bridge. There is here a common of 120 + acres, one of the preserved open spaces of the metropolitan area. Pop. + (1921), 34,281.</p> + + <p><b>Barnes</b> (bärnz), Albert, theologian, born in the State of New + York, 1798. In 1825 he was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian Church of + Morristown, New Jersey, and from 1830 till his death in 1870 had charge + of the first Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. He is chiefly known by + his <i>Notes on the New Testament</i> and <i>Notes on the Old + Testament</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barnes</b>, Rt. Hon. George Nicoll, British Labour leader, born at + Dundee, in Scotland, in 1859. After working as an engineer he became + assistant secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in 1892, and + was general secretary from 1896 to 1906. He entered Parliament in 1906, + became Minister for Pensions in 1916, member of War Cabinet in 1917, and + was Minister without portfolio from 1919 to Jan., 1920. He was a British + representative at the Peace Conference in Paris.</p> + + <p><b>Barnes</b>, William, English dialect poet and philologist, born in + Dorsetshire in 1800, died 1886. Of humble birth, he first entered a + solicitor's office, then taught at a school in Dorchester, and having + taken orders became rector of Winterbourne Came in his native county and + died there. He acquired a knowledge of many languages, and published + works on Anglo-Saxon and English, as <i>An Anglo-Saxon Delectus</i>, <i>A + Philological Grammar</i> (grounded upon English), <i>Grammar and Glossary + of the Dorset Dialect</i>, &c., but is best known by his <i>Poems of + Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect</i> and <i>Poems of Rural Life in Common + English</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´net</b>, a town of England, in Herts, 11 miles from London, + where was fought in 1471 a battle between the Yorkists and Lancastrians, + resulting in the defeat of the latter and the death of Warwick, Edward IV + being thus established king. Pop. (1921), 11,772.</p> + + <p><b>Barnett</b>, John, musical composer, son of Bernhard Beer, a + German, born at Bedford 1802, died 1890. He composed music as a lad, and + his songs and ballads soon had great vogue. In 1834 his opera <i>The + Mountain Sylph</i> was produced with success, and three years after was + followed by the less successful <i>Fair Rosamond</i>. For many years + before his death he was little heard of.</p> + + <p><b>Barnett</b>, John Francis, nephew of the former, born in 1837, died + in 1916, was also a distinguished musician and teacher, author of + cantatas: <i>The Ancient Mariner</i>, <i>Paradise and the Peri</i>, + <i>The Raising of Lazarus</i>, <i>The Building of the Ship</i>, and of + various other works.</p> + + <p><b>Barneveldt</b> (bär'ne-velt), Johan van Olden, grand pensionary of + Holland during the struggle with Philip II of Spain, born in 1547. After + the assassination of William of Orange, and the conquest of the south + provinces by the Spaniards under Parma, he headed the embassy to secure + English aid. Finding, however, that the Earl of Leicester proved a worse + than useless ally, he secured the elevation of the young Maurice of + Nassau to the post of Stadtholder, at the same time by his own wise + administration doing much to restore the prosperity of the State. After + serving as ambassador to France and England, he succeeded in 1607 in + obtaining from Spain a recognition of the independence of the States, and + two years later in concluding with her the twelve years' truce. Maurice, + ambitious of absolute rule and jealous of the influence of Barneveldt, + was interested in the continuance of the war, and lost no opportunity of + hostile action against the great statesman. In this he was aided by the + strongly-marked theologic division in the State between the Gomarites + (the Calvinistic and popular party) and the Arminians, of whom Barneveldt + was a supporter. Maurice, who had thrown in his lot with the Gomarites, + encouraged the idea that the Arminians were the friends of Spain, and + procured the assembly of a synod at Dort (1618), which violently + condemned them. Barneveldt and his friends Grotius and Hoogerbeets were + arrested, and subjected to a so-called trial; and Barneveldt, to whom the + country owed its political existence and the Commons their retention of + legislative power, was beheaded on 13th May, 1619. His sons, four years + later, attempted to avenge his death; one was beheaded, the other escaped + to Spain. <!-- Page 402 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page402"></a>[402]</span></p> + + <p><b>Barnoldswick</b>, an urban district of England, West Riding of + Yorkshire, 9 miles south-west of Skipton, with cotton manufactures and + other industries. Pop. (1921), 11,951.</p> + + <p><b>Barns´ley</b>, a municipal borough of England, West Riding of + Yorkshire. Its staple industries are the manufacture of linens, iron, and + steel, and there are numerous collieries in the neighbourhood. Created a + parliamentary borough in 1918, Barnsley returns one member to Parliament. + Pop. (1921), 53,670.</p> + + <p><b>Barn´staple</b>, a county and municipal borough in England, county + of Devon, giving its name to a parliamentary division of the county on + the right bank of the Taw, where it receives the Yeo; manufactures of + lace, paper, pottery, furniture, toys and turnery, and leather. Pop. + 14,409.</p> + + <p><b>Baroach.</b> See <i>Broach</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baro´da</b>, a non-tributary State, but subordinate to the Indian + Government, situated in the north of the Bombay presidency. It consists + of a number of detached territories in the province of Guzerat, and is + generally level, fertile, and well cultivated, producing luxuriant crops + of grain, cotton, tobacco, opium, sugar-cane, and oil-seeds. There is a + famous breed of large white oxen used as draught cattle. Area, 8182 sq. + miles; pop. (1911) 2,032,798. The ruler is called the <i>Gaekwár</i>. The + dissensions of the Baroda family have more than once called for British + intervention, and in 1875 the ruling Gaekwár was tried and deposed in + connection with the charge of attempting to poison the British Resident. + Since 1908 there is a Legislative Council of 17 + members.—<i>Baroda</i>, the capital, is the third city in the + Bombay presidency. It consists of the city proper within the walls and + the suburbs without, and is largely composed of poor and crowded houses, + but has also some fine buildings, and is noted for its Hindu temples kept + up by the State. Pop. 99,345.—Cf. E. St. C. Weeden, <i>A Year with + the Gaekwár of Baroda</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barograph</b>, a kind of aneroid barometer, which, by means of + special mechanism and appliances, is made to furnish automatically a + continuous record of the successive changes in atmospheric pressure. The + paper that receives the record is made to move by clockwork while in + contact with the index pencil, which rises and falls according to + alterations of atmospheric pressure.</p> + + <p><b>Barom´eter</b>, an instrument for measuring the weight or pressure + of the atmosphere and thus determining changes in the weather, the height + of mountains, and other phenomena. It had its origin about the middle of + the seventeenth century in an experiment of Torricelli, an Italian, who + found that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end only, + and filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end in a + cup of the same fluid metal, a portion of the mercury descended into the + cup, leaving a column only about 30 inches in height in the tube. He + inferred, therefore, that the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the + mercury in the cup forced it up the tube to the height of 30 inches, and + that this was so because the weight of a column of air from the cup to + the top of the atmosphere was only equal to that of a column of mercury + of the same base and 30 inches high. Pascal confirmed the conclusion in + 1645; six years afterwards it was found by Perrier that the height of the + mercury in the Torricellian tube varied with the weather; and in 1655 + Boyle proposed to use the instrument to measure the height of + mountains.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:37%;"> + <a href="images/image155.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image155.jpg" + alt="Barometers" title="Barometers" /></a> + Common Upright Barometer; Marine Barometer + </div> + + <p>The common or <i>cistern</i> barometer, which is a modification of the + Torricellian tube, consists of a glass tube 33 inches in length and about + one-third of an inch in diameter, hermetically sealed at the top, and + having the lower end resting in a small vessel containing mercury, or + bent upwards and terminating in a glass bulb partly occupied by the + mercury and open to the atmosphere. The tube is first filled with + purified mercury, and then inverted, and there is affixed to it a scale + to mark the height of the mercurial column, which comparatively seldom + rises above 31 inches or sinks below 28 inches. In general the rising of + the mercury presages fair weather, and its falling the contrary, a great + and sudden fall being the usual presage of a <!-- Page 403 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page403"></a>[403]</span>storm. The + weather-points on the ordinary barometric scale are as follows: At 28 + inches, stormy weather; 28½, much rain or snow; 29, rain or snow; 29½, + changeable; 30, fair or frost; 30½, settled fair or frost; 31, very dry + weather or hard frost. Certain attendant signs, however, have also to be + noted: thus, when fair or foul weather follows almost immediately upon + the rise or fall of the mercury, the change is usually of short duration; + while if the change of weather be delayed for some days after the + variation in the mercury, it is usually of long continuance. The + direction of the wind has also to be taken into account.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image156.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image156.jpg" + alt="Barometers" title="Barometers" /></a> + Siphon Barometer; Wheel Barometer + </div> + + <p>The <i>siphon</i> barometer consists of a bent tube, generally of + uniform bore, having two unequal legs, the longer closed, the shorter + open. A sufficient quantity of mercury having been introduced to fill the + longer leg, the instrument is set upright, and the mercury takes such a + position that the difference of the levels in the two legs represents the + pressure of the atmosphere. In the best siphon barometers there are two + scales, one for each leg, the divisions on one being reckoned upwards, + and on the other downwards from an intermediate zero point, so that the + sum of the two readings is the difference of levels of the mercury in the + two branches.</p> + + <p>The <i>wheel</i> barometer is the one that is most commonly used for + domestic purposes. It is far from being accurate, but it is often + preferred for ordinary use on account of the greater range of its scale, + by which small differences in the height of the column of mercury are + more easily observed. It usually consists of a siphon barometer having a + float resting on the surface of the mercury in the open branch, a thread + attached to the float passing over a pulley, and having a weight as a + counterpoise to the float at its extremity. As the mercury rises and + falls the thread and weight turn the pulley, which again moves the index + of the dial.</p> + + <p>The <i>mountain</i> barometer is a portable mercurial barometer with a + tripod support and a long scale for measuring the altitude of mountains. + To prevent breakage, through the oscillations of such a heavy liquid as + mercury, it is usually carried inverted, or it is furnished with a + movable basin and a screw, by means of which the mercury may be forced up + to the top of the tube. For delicate operations, such as the measurement + of altitudes, the scale of the barometer is furnished with a nonius or + vernier, which greatly increases the minuteness and accuracy of the + scale. For the rough estimate of altitudes the following rule is + sufficient: As the sum of the heights of the mercury at the bottom and + top of the mountain is to their difference, so is 52,000 to the height to + be measured, in feet. (See also <i>Heights, Measurement of</i>.) In exact + barometric observations two corrections require to be made, one for the + depression of the mercury in the tube by capillary attraction, the other + for temperature, which increases or diminishes the bulk of the mercury. + In regard to the measurement of heights, the general rule is to subtract + the ten-thousandth part of the observed altitude for every degree of + Fahrenheit above 32°.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:38%;"> + <a href="images/image157.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image157.jpg" + alt="Aneroid Barometer" title="Aneroid Barometer" /></a> + Aneroid Barometer + </div> + + <p>In the <i>aneroid</i> barometer, as its name implies (Gr. <i>a</i>, + not, <i>nēros</i>, liquid), no fluid is employed, the action being + dependent upon the susceptibility to atmospheric pressure shown by a flat + circular metallic chamber from which the air has been partially + exhausted, and which has a flexible top and bottom of corrugated metal + plate. By an ingenious arrangement of springs and levers the depression + or elevation of the surface of the box is registered by an index on the + dial, by which means it is also greatly magnified, being given in inches + to correspond with <!-- Page 404 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page404"></a>[404]</span>the mercurial barometer. Aneroids are, + however, generally less reliable than mercurial barometers, with which + they should be frequently compared. The illustration shows an aneroid + without its case. At the centre of the partially exhausted metal chamber + is a small pillar [<span class="scac">M</span>], connected with a steel + spring [<span class="scac">R</span>]. The rise and fall of the top of the + chamber, due to changing atmospheric pressure, is transmitted by means of + the levers [<span class="scac">L</span>], and [<i>m</i>] to a metallic + axis [<i>r</i>], and this axis carries a lever [<i>t</i>], whose end is + attached to a chain [<i>s</i>], which turns a drum on whose axis the + index needle is fixed.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C. + Abbe, <i>Meteorological Apparatus</i>; Marvin, <i>Barometers and the + Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´on</b>, originally, in the feudal system, the vassal or + immediate tenant of any superior; but the term was afterwards restricted + to the king's barons, and again to the greater of these only, who + attended the Great Council, or who, at a later date, were summoned by + writ to Parliament. It was the second rank of nobility, until dukes and + marquesses were introduced and placed above the earls, and viscounts also + set above the barons, who therefore now hold the lowest rank in the + British peerage. The present barons are of three classes: (1) barons by + writ, whose ancestors have long sat in the Upper House; (2) by patent; + (3) by tenure, i.e. holding the title as annexed to land. The coronet is + a plain gold circle with six balls or 'pearls' on its edge, the cap being + of crimson velvet.</p> + + <p><b>Baron and feme</b>, a term used for husband and wife in English + law.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´onet</b>, a hereditary dignity in Great Britain and Ireland, + next in rank to the peerage, originally instituted by James I in 1611, + nominally to promote the colonization and defence of Ulster, each + baronet, on his creation, being then obliged to pay into the treasury a + sum of £1095, exclusive of fees. Baronets of Ireland were instituted in + 1620, and of Scotland in 1625, the latter being called baronets of Nova + Scotia, because their creation was originally intended to further the + colonization of Nova Scotia. But the baronets of Scotland and of England + have been baronets of Great Britain if created since 1707; since 1801 all + creations have been known as baronetcies of the United Kingdom. A baronet + has the title of 'Sir' prefixed to his Christian and surname, and his + wife is 'Lady' so-and-so. Baronets rank before all knights except Knights + of the Garter, the Thistle, and St. Patrick. They have as their badge a + 'bloody hand' (the arms of Ulster), that is, a left hand, erect and open, + cut off at the wrist, and red in colour.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Pixley, <i>History of the Baronetage</i>; + G. E. Cokayne, <i>Complete Baronetage</i>; <i>The Baronetage under 27 + Sovereigns, 1309-1910</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baro´nius</b>, or <b>Baronio</b>, Cæsar, Italian ecclesiastical + historian, born 1538; educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome; was one + of the first pupils of St. Philip of Neri, and member of the oratory + founded by him; afterwards cardinal and librarian of the Vatican Library. + He owed these dignities to the services which he rendered the Church by + his <i>Ecclesiastical Annals</i>, comprising valuable documents from the + papal archives, on which he laboured from the year 1580 until his death, + 30th June, 1607. They were continued, though with less power, by other + writers, of whom Raynaldus takes the first rank; others are Laderchi and + Theiner.</p> + + <p><b>Baron of beef</b>, two sirloins not cut asunder.</p> + + <p><b>Barons' War</b>, the war carried on for several years by Simon de + Montfort and other barons of Henry III against the king, beginning in + 1263.</p> + + <p><b>Barony</b>, a manor or landed estate under a baron, who formerly + had certain rights of jurisdiction in his barony and could hold special + courts. In Ireland baronies are still the chief subdivisions of the + counties.</p> + + <p><b>Barosma.</b> See <i>Bucku</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barot´seland</b>, a former kingdom of South Africa, now a part of + Rhodesia.</p> + + <p><b>Barouche</b> (ba-rösh'), a four-wheeled carriage with a falling top + and two inside seats in which four persons can sit, two facing two.</p> + + <p><b>Barque</b> (bärk), a three-masted vessel of which the fore-mast and + main-mast are square-rigged, but the mizzen-mast has fore-and-aft sails + only.</p> + + <p><b>Barquisimeto</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-kē-sē-mā'tō), a + city in the north of the Republic of Venezuela, capital of the State of + Lara. Pop. about 32,000.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´ra</b>, or <b>Bar</b>, a small kingdom in Africa, near the + mouth of the Gambia. The Mandingoes, who form a considerable part of the + inhabitants, are Mahommedans and the most civilized people on the Gambia. + Pop. 200,000. The coast here belongs to Britain. The chief town is + Barrinding, where the so-called king resides. See <i>Gambia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barra</b>, an island of the Outer Hebrides, west coast of Scotland, + belonging to Inverness-shire; 8 miles long and from 2 to 5 miles broad, + of irregular outline, with rocky coasts, surface hilly but furnishing + excellent pasture. On the west coast the Atlantic, beating with all its + force, has hollowed out vast caves and fissures. Large herds of cattle + and flocks of sheep are reared on the island. The coasts of this and + adjacent islands abound with fish, and fishing is an important industry. + The inhabitants, about 2500, are Roman Catholics, and speak Gaelic.</p> + + <p><b>Barra</b>, a town about 3 miles east of Naples. Pop. 12,080.</p> + + <p><b>Barracan´</b>, or <b>Barragan</b>, strictly, a thick strong stuff + made in Persia and Armenia of camel's hair, but the name has been + applied, by Byron and others, to various wool, flax, and cotton fabrics. + <!-- Page 405 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page405"></a>[405]</span></p> + + <p><b>Bar´rack</b> (Sp. <i>barraca</i>), originally a small cabin or hut + for troops, but now applied to the permanent buildings in which troops + are lodged. Despite the obvious evils of the quartering system, the + introduction of barracks by George III met with considerable opposition + in the British Parliament as dangerous to liberty, by estranging the + soldier from the citizen, and fitting him to become a tool of + despotism.</p> + + <p><b>Barrackpur</b> (-pör'), a town and military cantonment, Hindustan, + on the left bank of the Hughli, 10 miles <span class="scac">N.N.E.</span> + of Calcutta. The suburban residence of the Viceroy is in Barrackpur Park. + Pop. 31,907.</p> + + <p><b>Barracoon´</b>, a negro barrack or slave depot, formerly plentiful + on the west coast of Africa, in Cuba, Brazil, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Barracu´da</b>, a name for certain large and ferocious fishes of + the genus Sphyræna, and allied to the mullets, inhabiting southern seas, + and caught in abundance for food.</p> + + <p><b>Barrafran´ca</b>, a town of Sicily, province Caltanissetta. Pop. + 11,170.</p> + + <p><b>Barramun´da.</b> See <i>Ceratodus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barranquilla</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-kēl'ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a port of S. America, in Colombia, on + a branch of the River Magdalena, near its entrance into the Caribbean + Sea, connected by rail with the seaport Puerto Colombia. Pop. 64,543.</p> + + <p><b>Barras</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rä), Paul François Jean Nicholas, Comte + de, member of the French National Convention and of the Executive + Directory, born in Provence 1755, died 1829. After serving in the army in + India and Africa, he joined the revolutionary party and was a deputy in + the <i>tiers état</i>. He took part in the attack upon the Bastille and + upon the Tuileries, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. In the + subsequent events he displeased Robespierre, and on this account joined + the members of the committee, who foresaw danger awaiting them, and being + entrusted with the chief command of the forces of his party he made + himself master of Robespierre. On 4th Feb., 1795, he was elected + president of the Convention, and on 5th Oct., when the troops of the + sections which favoured the royal cause approached, Barras for a second + time received the chief command of the forces of the Convention. On this + occasion he employed General Bonaparte, for whom he procured the chief + command of the army of the interior, and afterwards the command of the + army in Italy. From the events of the 18th Fructidor (4th Sept., 1797) he + governed absolutely until the 13th June, 1799, when Siéyès entered the + Directory, and in alliance with Bonaparte procured his downfall in the + revolution of the 18th Brumaire (9th Nov., 1799). He afterwards resided + at Brussels, Marseilles, Rome, and Montpellier under surveillance. His + <i>Memoirs</i> (in four volumes) were published in French and in English + in 1895-6.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´ratry</b>, in commerce, any fraud committed by the master or + mariners of a ship, whereby the owners, freighters, or insurers are + injured; as by deviation from the proper course of the voyage, by the + captain, for his own private purposes; fraudulent negligence; + embezzlement of any part of the cargo, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Barratry, Common</b>, in law, the stirring up of lawsuits and + quarrels between other persons, the party guilty of this offence being + indictable as a <i>common barrator</i> or <i>barretor</i>. The commencing + of suits in the name of a fictitious plaintiff is common barratry. In old + Scots law it denotes the taking of bribes by a judge.</p> + + <p><b>Barrel</b>, a well-known variety of wooden vessel; but the term is + also used as a definite measure and weight. A barrel of beer is 36 + gallons, of flour 196 lb., of beef or pork 200 lb. The Italian + <i>barile</i> varies from 7 to 31 English gallons; the French + <i>barrique</i> of Bordeaux contains 50 English gallons = 228 French + litres.</p> + + <p><b>Barrel-organ</b>, a musical instrument usually carried by street + musicians, in which a barrel, studded with pegs or staples, when turned + round, opens a series of valves to admit air to a set of pipes, or acts + upon wire strings like those of the piano, thus producing a fixed series + of tunes.</p> + + <p><b>Barren Grounds</b>, a large tract in the North-West Territories of + Canada, extending northwards from Churchill River to the Arctic Ocean + between Great Bear and Great Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay. It largely + consists of swamps, lakes, and bare rock.</p> + + <p><b>Barrhead´</b>, a town, Scotland, Renfrewshire, on the Levern, 7 + miles <span class="scac">S.W.</span> of Glasgow; chief industries: + printing of cottons, the spinning of cotton yarn, dyeing, bleaching, iron + and brass founding, and sanitary ware. Pop. 11,387.</p> + + <p><b>Barrie</b>, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 55 miles <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> Toronto, picturesquely situated on Lake Simcoe, + a favourite summer resort. Pop. 6420.</p> + + <p><b>Barrie</b>, Sir James Matthew, a novelist and playwright, born in + 1860 at Kirriemuir, Forfarshire; studied at Edinburgh University, + graduating as <span class="scac">M.A.</span> in 1882. After working on a + Nottingham journal he was a journalist in London. His first book, + <i>Better Dead</i> (1887), a satire on London life, was followed by the + highly successful <i>Auld Licht Idylls</i> (1888), with its sequel <i>A + Window in Thrums</i> (that is, Kirriemuir) (1889). Among his novels and + tales are <i>When a Man's Single</i>, <i>My Lady Nicotine</i>, <i>The + Little Minister</i>, <i>Sentimental Tommy</i>, <i>Tommy and Grizel</i>, + <i>The Little White Bird</i>. Successful plays are <i>Peter and + Wendy</i>, <i>The Professor's Love Story</i>, <i>The Little Minister</i> + (based on the novel), <i>The <!-- Page 406 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page406"></a>[406]</span>Admirable Crichton</i>, <i>Quality + Street</i>, <i>Little Mary</i>, <i>Peter Pan</i>, <i>What Every Woman + Knows</i>, <i>Dear Brutus</i>, <i>A Kiss for Cinderella</i>, <i>Mary + Rose</i>. His plays on the whole have been even more successful than his + other works. He was created a baronet in 1913, and elected Rector of the + University of St. Andrews in 1919.—Cf. J. A. Hammerton, <i>J. M. + Barrie and his Books</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barrier Reef</b>, a coral reef, or rather series of reefs, + extending for 1260 miles off the <span class="scac">N. E.</span> coast of + Australia, at a distance from land ranging from 10 to 100 miles. In + sailing along this coast, steamers generally take the route inside the + reef, where there is a channel about 12 fathoms deep throughout, + protected by the reefs themselves; the outer channel is safer for sailing + vessels.</p> + + <p><b>Barrier Treaty</b>, the treaty (1718) by which, when the Spanish + Netherlands were ceded to Austria, the Dutch secured the right to + garrison several border fortresses of the country at the expense of + Austria, to serve as a barrier against France. It was declared void in + 1781 by Joseph II.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´rington</b>, Daines, son of Viscount Barrington, lawyer, + antiquarian, and naturalist, born 1727, died 1800. He wrote many papers + for the Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries; published some + separate works, and was a correspondent of White of Selborne, who + addressed to him a number of the letters in <i>The Natural History of + Selborne</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´rister</b>, in England or Ireland, an advocate or pleader, who + has been admitted by one of the Inns of Court, viz. the Inner Temple, + Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn, to plead at the bar. It is + they who speak before all the higher courts, being instructed in regard + to the case they have in hand by means of the <i>brief</i> which they + receive from the solicitor who may happen to engage their services, and + which has a certain fee endorsed upon it as the sum to be paid for the + barrister's services in the case. Before a student can be admitted to the + bar he must have been a member of one of those societies, and have kept + twelve terms there. The examinations, which had dwindled into mere forms, + have been revived and made more stringent. Barristers are sometimes + called <i>utter</i> or <i>outer barristers</i>, to distinguish them from + the king's counsel, who sit within the bar in the courts and are + distinguished by a silk gown. Barristers are also spoken of as + <i>counsel</i>, as in the phrase <i>opinion of counsel</i>, that is, a + written opinion on a case obtained from a barrister before whom the facts + have been laid. All judges are selected from the barristers. A barrister + cannot maintain an action for his fees, which are considered purely + honorary. A <i>revising barrister</i> is a barrister appointed to revise + the list of persons in any locality who have a vote for a member of + Parliament. The term corresponding to barrister is in Scotland + <i>advocate</i>, in the United States <i>counsellor-at-law</i>; but the + position of the latter is not quite the same.—Cf. J. R. V. + Marchant, <i>Barrister-at-law</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´ros</b>, João de, Portuguese historian, born 1496. He was + attached to the Court of King Emmanuel, who, after the publication in + 1520 of Barros' romance, <i>The Emperor Clarimond</i>, urged him to + undertake a history of the Portuguese in India, which appeared thirty-two + years later. King John III appointed Barros Governor of the Portuguese + settlements in Guinea, and General Agent for these colonies, further + presenting him in 1530 with the province of Maranham, in Brazil, for the + purpose of colonization. For his losses by the last enterprise the king + indemnified him, and he died in retirement in 1570. Besides his standard + work, the <i>Decadas</i>, a history of the Portuguese in India (a + complete edition of which appeared at Lisbon between 1778 and 1788), he + wrote a moral dialogue on compromise, and the first <i>Portuguese + Grammar</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barro´sa</b>, a village, Spain, near the <span + class="scac">S. W.</span> coast of Andalusia, near which General Graham, + when abandoned by the Spaniards, defeated a superior French force in + 1811.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´row</b>, a river in the south-east of Ireland, province + Leinster, rising on the borders of the King's and Queen's Counties, and + after a southerly course joining the Suir in forming Waterford harbour. + It is next in importance to the Shannon, and is navigable for vessels of + 200 tons for 25 miles above the sea. Its principal tributary is the + Nore.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´row</b>, Isaac, an eminent English mathematician and divine, + born in London in 1630; studied at the Charterhouse and at Trinity + College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1649. After a course + of medical studies he turned to divinity, mathematics, and astronomy, and + took his <span class="scac">M. A.</span> degree in 1652, and, failing to + obtain the Cambridge Greek professorship, went abroad. In 1659 he was + ordained; in 1660 elected Greek professor at Cambridge; in 1662 professor + of geometry in Gresham College; and in 1663 Lucasian professor of + mathematics at Cambridge, a post which he resigned to Newton in 1669. In + 1670 he was created <span class="scac">D. D.</span>, in 1672 master of + Trinity College, and in 1675 vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. He + died in 1677. His principal mathematical works (written in Latin) were: + <i>Euclidis Elementa</i> (1655); <i>Euclidis Data</i> (1657); + <i>Mathematicæ Lectiones</i> (1664-6); <i>Lectiones Opticæ</i> (1669); + <i>Lectiones Geometricæ</i> (1670); <i>Archimedis Opera</i>; <i>Apollonii + Conicorum lib. iv</i>; <i>Theodosii Spherica</i>, (1675). All his English + works, which are theological, were left in MS., and published by Dr. <!-- + Page 407 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page407"></a>[407]</span>Tillotson in 1685, the best edition being + that prepared by the Rev. A. Napier in 1859. As a mathematician Barrow + was deemed inferior only to Newton. The Latin edition of his mathematical + works was prepared by Whewell in 1860.</p> + + <p><b>Barrow</b>, Sir John, Bart., geographer and man of letters, born in + 1764 in Lancashire. At the age of sixteen he went in a whaler to + Greenland; and later on was teacher of mathematics in a school at + Greenwich. In 1792 he was sent with Lord Macartney, in his embassy to + China, to take charge of philosophical instruments for presentation to + the Chinese emperor. His account of this journey was of great value, and + not less so was the account of his travels in South Africa, whither he + went in 1797 as secretary to Macartney. In 1804 he was appointed second + secretary to the Admiralty, a post occupied by him for forty years. In + 1835 he was made a baronet; and he died in 1848, three years after his + retirement. Besides the accounts of his own travels, he published lives + of Earl Macartney, Lord Anson, and Lord Howe; <i>Voyages of Discovery and + Research within the Arctic Regions</i>; an <i>Autobiography</i> written + at the age of eighty-three, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´row-in-Fur´ness</b>, a seaport, county and parliamentary + borough of Lancashire, in the district of Furness, opposite the Island of + Walney, a town that has increased from a fishing-hamlet with 100 + inhabitants in 1848 to a town of 74,254 inhabitants in 1921. Its + prosperity is due to the mines of red hematite iron-ore which abound in + the district, and to the railway rendering its excellent natural harbour + available. It has several large docks, besides graving-docks, a floating + dock capable of receiving vessels of 3000 tons, a large timber pond, + &c. There is an extensive trade in timber, cattle, grain, and flour; + and iron-ore and pig-iron are largely shipped. It has numerous + blast-furnaces, and one of the largest Bessemer-steel works in the world. + Besides ironworks, a large business is done in shipbuilding, the making + of railway wagons and rolling-stock, ropes, sails, bricks, &c. A town + hall, erected at a cost of £60,000, was opened in 1887. Barrow-in-Furness + returns one member to Parliament.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:39%;"> + <a href="images/image158.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image158.jpg" + alt="Barrows" title="Barrows" /></a> + Barrows + </div> + + <p><b>Bar´rows</b>, mounds of earth or stones raised to mark the + resting-place of the dead, and distinguished, according to their shape, + as <i>long</i>, <i>bowl</i>, <i>bell</i>, <i>cone</i>, and <i>broad</i> + barrows. The practice of barrow-burial is of unknown antiquity and almost + universal, barrows being found all over Europe, in Northern Africa, Asia + Minor, Afghanistan, Western India, and in America. In the earliest + barrows the enclosed bodies were simply laid upon the ground, with stone + or bone implements and weapons beside them. In barrows of later date the + remains are generally enclosed in a stone cist. Frequently cremation + preceded the erection of the barrow, the ashes being enclosed in an urn + or cist. A detailed description of an ancient barrow-burial is given in + the Anglo-Saxon poem <i>Beowulf</i>.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Canon W. Greenwell, <i>British + Barrows</i>; J. Anderson, <i>Scotland in Pagan Times</i>; W. C. Borlase, + <i>The Dolmens of Ireland</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barrow Strait</b>, the connecting channel between Lancaster Sound + and Baffin's Bay on the east and the Polar Ocean on the west. Named after + Sir John Barrow.</p> + + <p><b>Barry</b>, a seaport of S. Wales, Glamorganshire, 7 miles + south-west of Cardiff, with large docks, exporting much coal. Pop. + (1921), 38,927.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´ry</b>, Sir Charles, an English architect, born in London, + 1795. After executing numerous important buildings, such as the Reform + Clubhouse, London, St. Edward's School, Birmingham, &c., he was + appointed architect of the new Houses of Parliament at Westminster, with + the execution of which he was occupied for more than twenty-four years. + He was elected a Royal Academician in 1844, was knighted in 1852, and + died suddenly in 1860.</p> + + <p><b>Barry</b>, Comtesse Du. See <i>Du Barry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barry</b>, Edward Middleton, <span class="scac">R.A.</span> + (1830-80), son of Sir Charles Barry, was also a distinguished architect, + and designed many important buildings, though he was disappointed in + regard to his plans for the Albert Memorial, National Gallery, and New + Law Courts.</p> + + <p><b>Barry</b>, James, a painter and writer on art, born at Cork, 1741; + studied abroad with the <!-- Page 408 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page408"></a>[408]</span>aid of Burke; was elected Royal + Academician on his return; and worked seven years on the paintings for + the hall of the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts. His first + picture which attracted attention was <i>St. Patrick baptizing the King + of Cashel</i>. In 1773 he published his <i>Inquiry into the Real and + Imaginary Obstructions to the Increase of the Arts in England</i>, and in + 1782 was elected professor of painting to the Academy. He was expelled in + 1797 on the ground of his authorship of the <i>Letter to the Society of + Dilettanti</i>. His chief painting was his <i>Victors at Olympia</i>. He + died in 1806.</p> + + <p><b>Barry Cornwall.</b> See <i>Procter, Bryan Waller</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´sabbas</b>, surnamed Justus, son of Alpheus, brother of James + the Less and of Judas, and one of the candidates for the apostolical + office left vacant by Judas Iscariot. According to tradition, he was + afterwards Bishop of Eleutheropolis, near Jerusalem, and suffered + martyrdom. Another Barsabbas, surnamed Judas, supposed to be the brother + of the above, is mentioned in the <i>Acts</i> as a companion of St. Paul + and Barnabas at Antioch. He is supposed to have died in Jerusalem at a + very advanced age.</p> + + <p><b>Bar-shot</b>, a double-headed shot consisting of two pieces + connected by a bar.</p> + + <p><b>Barsi</b>, a town of India, in Sholapur district, Bombay, 43 miles + north of Sholapur and 128 miles east of Poona, with a trade in cotton, + oil, &c. Pop. 21,000.</p> + + <p><b>Bar-sur-Aube</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-su<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-ōb), an ancient town, France, + department Aube, where, in 1814, a hotly-contested action was fought + between Napoleon and the Allies. Pop. 4533.</p> + + <p><b>Bart</b>, <b>Barth</b>, or <b>Baert</b> (bärt), Jean, a famous + French sailor, born at Dunkirk, 1650, the son of a poor fisherman. He + became captain of a privateer, and after some brilliant exploits was + appointed captain in the royal navy. In recognition of his further + services he was made commodore, subsequently receiving letters of + nobility. Brusque, if not vulgar, in manner, and ridiculed by the Court + for his indifference to ceremony, he made the navy of the nation + everywhere respected, and furnished some of the most striking chapters in + the romance of naval warfare. After the Peace of Ryswick he lived quietly + at Dunkirk, and died there while equipping a fleet to take part in the + War of the Spanish Succession, 1702.</p> + + <p><b>Bartas</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-tä), Guillaume de Salluste du, a French + poet, termed 'the divine' by contemporary English writers, born 1544. + Principal work, <i>La Semaine ou la Création du Monde</i>, a poem on the + creation, translated into English by Joshua Sylvester. It is said to have + had a considerable influence on Milton's <i>Paradise Lost</i>. He died of + wounds received at Ivry, 1590.</p> + + <p><b>Bartfeld</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rt´felt), an old town in Czecho-Slovakia, + formerly Hungary, county of Saros, on the Tepl, with mineral springs in + the neighbourhood. Pop. 6160, mostly Slovaks.</p> + + <p><b>Barth</b> (bärt), Heinrich, African traveller, born at Hamburg, + 1821, died in 1865. He graduated at the University of Berlin as Ph.D. in + 1844, and set out in 1845 to explore all the countries bordering on the + Mediterranean. The first volume of his <i>Wanderungen durch die + Küstenländer des Mittelmeeres</i> was published in 1849, in which year he + was invited by the British Government to join Dr. Overweg in accompanying + Richardson's expedition to Central Africa. The expedition set out from + Tripoli in Feb., 1850, and, in spite of the death both of Richardson and + Overweg, Barth did not return to Tripoli till the autumn of 1855. His + explorations, which extended over an area of about 2,000,000 sq. miles, + determined the course of the Niger and the true nature of the Sahara. The + English account of it was entitled <i>Travels and Discoveries in North + and Central Africa</i> (5 vols., 1857-8). An important work on the + African languages was left unfinished.</p> + + <p><b>Barth</b>, Jean. See <i>Bart</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Barthélemy</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-tāl-mē), Jean Jacques, + French author, born 1716. He was educated under the Jesuits, for holy + orders, but declined all offers of clerical promotion above the rank of + Abbé He gained considerable repute as a worker in philology and + archæology; and after his appointment as Director of the Royal Cabinet of + Medals, in 1753, spent some time travelling in Italy collecting medals + and antiquities. His best-known work, not inaptly characterized by + himself as an unwieldy compilation, was his <i>Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis + en Grèce</i> (1787). It was very popular and was translated into various + tongues. Though taking no part in the revolution, he was arrested on a + charge of being an aristocrat in 1793, but was set at liberty, and + subsequently offered the post of librarian of the National Library. He + died in 1795.</p> + + <p><b>Barthélmy-Saint-Hilaire</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-tāl-mē-san-tē-lār), + Jules, French scholar and statesman, born 1805, died in 1895. He was + professor of Greek and Latin philosophy in the Collège de France, but + resigned the chair after the <i>coup d'état</i> of 1852 and refused to + take the oath. He was reappointed in 1862; and in 1869 was returned to + the Corps Législatif. After the revolution he was a member of the + National Assembly; and was elected Senator for life in 1876. He published + a translation of Aristotle, and works on Buddhism, Mohammed and <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'Mohammedansim'." + >Mohammedanism</span>, the Vedas, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Barthez</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-tā), Paul Joseph, an eminent + French physician, born at Montpellier 1734, died 1806. At Montpellier he + founded a medical <!-- Page 409 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page409"></a>[409]</span>school, which acquired a reputation + throughout all Europe. Having settled in Paris, he was appointed by the + king consulting physician, and by the Duke of Orleans his first + physician. The Revolution deprived him of the greatest part of his + fortune, and drove him from Paris, but Napoleon brought him forth again, + and loaded him in his advanced age with dignities. Among his numerous + writings may be mentioned <i>Nouvelle Mécanique des Mouvements de l'Homme + et des Animaux</i>; <i>Traitement des Maladies Goutteuses</i>; + <i>Consultation de Médecine</i>, &c. His <i>Traité du Beau</i> was + published posthumously (1807).</p> + + <p><b>Bartholdi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-tol´dē), Auguste, French + sculptor, born 1834, died 1904; best known for his colossal statue of + Liberty, now overlooking the harbour of New York.</p> + + <p><b>Bartholin</b> (bär´to-lin), Kaspar, Swedish writer, born 1585, died + 1630. He studied medicine, philosophy, and theology; was made doctor of + medicine at Basel in 1610, rector of the University of Copenhagen 1618, + and professor of theology 1624. His <i>Institutiones Anatomicæ</i> was + for long a standard textbook in the universities.—His son, Thomas, + born at Copenhagen 1616, died 1680, was equally celebrated as a + philologist, naturalist, and physician. He was professor of anatomy at + Copenhagen, 1648; physician to the king, Christian V, in 1670; and + Councillor of State, 1675.—His sons, Kaspar (born 1654, died 1704) + and Thomas (born 1659, died 1690) were also highly + distinguished—the former as an anatomist, the latter as an + archæologist.</p> + + <p><b>Bartholomew, Massacre of St.</b>, the brutal slaughter of the + French Protestants, which began on 24th Aug., 1572, by secret orders from + Charles IX, at the instigation of his mother, Catherine de' Medici, and + in which, according to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, including women and + children, were murdered throughout the country. During the minority of + Charles and the regency of his mother, a long war raged in France between + the Catholics and Huguenots, the leaders of the latter being the Prince + of Condé and Admiral Coligny. In 1570 overtures were made by the Court to + the Huguenots, which resulted in a treaty of peace. This treaty blinded + the chiefs of the Huguenots, particularly Admiral Coligny, who was tired + of the civil war. The king appeared to have entirely disengaged himself + from the influence of the Guises and his mother; he invited Coligny to + his Court, and honoured him as a father. The most artful means were + employed to increase this delusion. The sister of the king was married to + the Prince de Béarn (18th Aug., 1572) in order to allure the most + distinguished Huguenots to Paris. On 22nd Aug. a shot from a window + wounded the admiral. The king hastened to visit him, and swore to punish + the author of the villainy; but on the same day he was induced by his + mother to believe that the admiral had designs on his life. "God's + death!" he exclaimed; "kill the admiral; and not only him, but all the + Huguenots; let none remain to disturb us." The following night Catherine + held the council, which fixed the execution for the night of St. + Bartholomew, 24th Aug., 1572. After the assassination of Coligny, a bell + from the tower of the royal palace at midnight gave to the assembled + companies of burghers the signal for the general massacre of the + Huguenots. The Prince of Condé and the King of Navarre saved their lives + by going to mass and pretending to embrace the Catholic religion. By the + king's orders the massacre was extended throughout the whole kingdom; and + the horrible slaughter continued for thirty days in almost all the + provinces.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Henry White, + <i>Massacre of St. Bartholomew and History of the Religious Wars</i>; + Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i> (vol. vi).</p> + + <p><b>Barthol´omew, St.</b>, the apostle, is probably the same person as + <i>Nathanael</i>, mentioned in the <i>Gospel of St. John</i> as an + upright Israelite and one of the first disciples of Jesus. He is said to + have taught Christianity in the south of Arabia, into which, according to + Eusebius, he carried the <i>Gospel of St. Matthew</i> in the Hebrew + language, and to have suffered martyrdom. The ancient Church had an + apocryphal gospel bearing his name, of which nothing has been preserved. + A festival is held in his memory on 24th Aug.</p> + + <p><b>Bartholomew, St.</b>, or <b>St. Barthélemy</b>, an island, one of + the West Indies, in the Leeward group, belonging to France, about 24 + miles in circumference. It produces some tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, + &c. Pop. 3000. The only town is Gustavia. The island, occupied by + France in 1648, was ceded to Sweden in 1784, but was again acquired by + France in 1877 at the cost of 275,000 francs.</p> + + <p><b>Bartholomew Fair</b>, a celebrated fair, established in the reign + of Henry I (1133), formerly held in West Smithfield, London, on St. + Bartholomew's Day (24th Aug., <span class="scac">O. S.</span>), but + abolished since 1855.</p> + + <p><b>Bartholomew's Hospital, St.</b>, one of the great hospitals of + London, formerly the priory of St. Bartholomew, and made a hospital by + Henry VIII in 1547. On an average over 6000 patients are annually + admitted to the hospital, while about 150,000 out-patients are treated at + its out-door dispensaries. A medical school is attached to it, attended + by more than four hundred students.</p> + + <p><b>Barthou</b>, Louis, French statesman, born at Orloron-Sainte-Marie + in 1862. He practised as an advocate until he entered the Chamber of <!-- + Page 410 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page410"></a>[410]</span>Deputies in 1889. He was a member of + several Cabinets, and was appointed Premier in March, 1913, but resigned + in December of the same year. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs in + Painlevé's Cabinet during the European War. In April, 1922, he headed the + French delegation to the Genoa Conference. His works include + <i>Mirabeau</i>; <i>Lamartine, Orateur</i>; <i>Les Amours d'un Poète</i>, + &c.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <a href="images/image159.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image159.jpg" + alt="Bartizan" title="Bartizan" /></a> + Bartizan, Micklegate Bar, York. + + <p class="cenhead"><i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, Balistraria</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Bar´tizan</b>, a small overhanging turret pierced with one or more + apertures for archers, projecting generally from the angles on the top of + a tower, or from the parapet, or elsewhere, as in a mediæval castle. The + word, probably a corruption of <i>bratticing</i>, was apparently first + used by Sir Walter Scott.</p> + + <p><b>Bart´lett</b>, William Henry, an English artist, born 1809, died, + on a voyage from Malta to Marseilles, 1854. He travelled extensively + abroad, and the illustrated works descriptive of the countries visited by + him (Switzerland, the Bosporus and the Danube, Syria and Palestine, + Egypt, Canada, United States, &c.) obtained great success with the + public, the engravings being from sketches by his own pencil.</p> + + <p><b>Bartolini</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-to-lē´nē), Lorenzo, a + celebrated Italian sculptor, born at Florence about 1778, died 1850. He + studied and worked in Paris, and was patronized by Napoleon. On the fall + of the Empire he returned to Florence, where he continued to exercise his + profession. Among his greater works may be mentioned his groups of + <i>Charity</i>, and <i>Hercules and Lichas</i>, a colossal bust of + Napoleon, and the beautiful monument in the cathedral of Lausanne, + erected in memory of Lady Stratford Canning. Bartolini ranks next to + Canova among modern Italian sculptors.</p> + + <p><b>Bartolommeo</b> (-mā´o), Fra, or <b>Baccio Della Porta</b> + (ba<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>chō´), + Italian painter, born at Florence 1475, died there 1517. He studied + painting in Florence, and acquired a more perfect knowledge of art from + the works of Leonardo da Vinci. He was an admirer and follower of + Savonarola, on whose death he took the Dominican habit, and assumed the + name of Fra Bartolommeo. He was the friend of Michael Angelo and Raphael; + painted many religious pictures, among them a <i>Saint Mark</i> and a + <i>Saint Sebastian</i>, which are greatly admired. His colouring, in + vigour and brilliancy, comes near to that of Titian and Giorgione. His + <i>Holy Family</i> is in the National Gallery, London.</p> + + <p><b>Bartolozzi</b> (-lot´sē), Francesco, a distinguished + engraver, born at Florence in 1725, or, according to others, in 1730, + died at Lisbon 1815. In Venice, in Florence, and Milan he etched several + pieces on sacred subjects, and then went to London, where he received + great encouragement. After forty years' residence in London, he went to + Lisbon on the invitation of the Prince Regent of Portugal. He became + director of the National Academy at Lisbon, where he remained till his + death.</p> + + <p><b>Bar´ton</b>, Andrew, one of Scotland's first great naval + commanders; flourished during the reign of James IV, and belonged to a + family which for two generations had produced able and successful seamen. + In 1497 he commanded the escort which accompanied Perkin Warbeck from + Scotland. After doing considerable damage to English shipping, he was + killed in an engagement with two ships which had been specially fitted + out against him (1512).</p> + + <p><b>Barton</b>, Bernard, known as the Quaker poet, born at Carlisle + 1784, died 1849. In 1806 he removed to Woodbridge, in Suffolk, where he + was long clerk in a bank. He published <i>Metrical Effusions</i> (1812); + <i>Poems by an Amateur</i> (1818); <i>Poems</i> (1820); <i>Napoleon, and + other Poems</i> (1822); <i>Poetic Vigils</i> (1824); <i>Devotional + Verses</i> (1826); <i>A New-year's Eve, and other Poems</i> (1828); + besides many contributions to the annuals and magazines. His poetry, + though deficient in force, is pleasing, fluent, and graceful. Barton is + chiefly remembered as the friend of Charles Lamb, with whom he began to + correspond in 1822.</p> + + <p><b>Barton</b>, Elizabeth, a country girl born in 1506 at Aldington, in + Kent (commonly called the Holy Maid or the Nun of Kent), who gained some + notoriety in the reign of Henry VIII. She was subject to epileptic fits, + and was persuaded by certain priests that she was a prophetess inspired + by God. Among other things she prophesied that Henry, if he persisted in + <!-- Page 411 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page411"></a>[411]</span>his purpose of divorce and second + marriage, would not be king for seven months longer, and would die a + shameful death, and be succeeded by Catherine's daughter. On arrest the + imposture was confessed, and Barton and six others were executed 5th May, + 1534.</p> + + <p><b>Barton-upon-Humber</b>, a town of England, in Lincolnshire, on the + Humber. It contains two old churches, one of which is an undoubted + specimen of Anglo-Saxon architecture. Pop. (1921), 6454.</p> + + <p><b>Bartsch</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rch), Karl Friedrich, a German scholar, + born in 1832, died in 1888, whose labours have been of immense service in + elucidating the older literature and language of his native country as + well as in the field of the Romance tongues. Among his publications were + editions of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, <i>Walther von der Vogelweide</i>, + <i>Kudrun</i>, &c.; <i>Chrestomathie de l'ancien Français</i>; + <i>Provençalisches Lesebuch</i>; translations of Burns, of Dante, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bartsia</b>, a genus of Scrophulariaceæ, green half-parasites upon + roots of grasses. Three species are British; <i>B. alpina</i> has + underground shoots, not unlike those of the allied Toothwort, with fleshy + scale-leaves bearing water-secreting glands.</p> + + <p><b>Baru</b> (ba-rö´), a woolly substance used for caulking ships, + stuffing cushions, &c., found at the base of the leaves of an East + India sago palm.</p> + + <p><b>Baruch</b> (bā´ruk; literally, 'blessed'), a Hebrew scribe, + friend and assistant to the prophet Jeremiah. At the captivity, after the + destruction of Jerusalem, Jeremiah and Baruch were permitted to remain in + Palestine, but were afterwards carried into Egypt, 588 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> His subsequent life is unknown. One of the + apocryphal books bears the name of Baruch. The Council of Trent gave it a + place in the canon, but its authenticity was not admitted either by the + ancient Jews or the early Christian fathers.</p> + + <p><b>Barwood</b>, a dyewood obtained from <i>Pterocarpus angolensis</i>, + a tall tree of West Africa. It is chiefly used for giving orange-red dyes + on cotton yarns. See <i>Camwood</i>; <i>Sandalwood</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bary´ta</b>, oxide of barium (BaO) is found in nature associated + with sulphuric acid as barium sulphate, heavy-spar or Barytes + (BaSO<sub>4</sub>), and with carbon dioxide as barium carbonate or + witherite (<span class="correction" title="Original reads 'BaCo'." + >BaCO</span><sub>3</sub>). Baryta is a heavy greyish powder of specific + gravity 4.7, obtained by burning barium in oxygen or from barium nitrate + or barium carbonate. It has a strong affinity for water, and combines + with it in the evolution of lead and the formation of barium hydroxide + (Ba(OH)<sub>2</sub>). Barium oxide is manufactured in quantity for the + preparation of barium dioxide (BaO<sub>2</sub>), from which oxygen was at + one time obtained. (See <i>Oxygen</i>.) Baryta forms white crystalline + salts with acids, which are all poisonous with the exception of barium + sulphate. Barium hydroxide is soluble in water, forming a + strongly-alkaline solution, Baryta water, which is much used in chemical + analysis. Barium sulphate is a white substance insoluble in water and in + acids, and is the source of most of the barium compounds. + Artificially-prepared barium sulphate is used as a pigment, <i>Permanent + White</i>, also in the paper industry and in vulcanizing rubber. Other + salts of barium of importance are barium chloride, barium nitrate, and + barium carbonate, used in pyrotechny and in glass manufacture.</p> + + <p><b>Barytes (American Barite)</b>, a rhombic mineral consisting of + barium sulphate (specific gravity 4.5) occurring in veins and extensive + masses as a subsequent deposit in various rocks. Colourless to brownish, + the colourless massive examples being in great demand as a substitute for + white lead in paint and for other purposes. Barytes is mined in the north + of England and in County Cork.</p> + + <p><b>Barytone.</b> See <i>Baritone</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:41%;"> + <a href="images/image160.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image160.jpg" + alt="Basaltic Columns" title="Basaltic Columns" /></a> + Basaltic Columns, Fingal's Cave, Island of Staffa + </div> + + <p><b>Basalt</b> (ba-sa<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>lt´), a well-known igneous rock occurring + in the ancient trap and the recent volcanic series of rocks, but more + abundantly in the former. It is a fine-grained, heavy, crystalline rock, + consisting of felspar, augite, and <!-- Page 412 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page412"></a>[412]</span>magnetic iron, and + sometimes contains a little olivine. Basalt is amorphous, columnar, + tabular, or globular. The columnar form is straight or curved, + perpendicular or inclined, sometimes nearly horizontal; the diameter of + the columns from 3 to 18 inches, sometimes with transverse hemispherical + joints, in which the convex part of one is inserted in the concavity of + another; and the height from 5 to 150 feet. The forms of the columns + generally are pentagonal, hexagonal, or octagonal. When decomposed it is + found also in round masses, either spherical or compressed and + lenticular. These rounded masses are sometimes composed of concentric + layers, with a nucleus, and sometimes of prisms radiating from a centre. + Fingal's Cave, in the Island of Staffa, furnishes a remarkable instance + of basaltic columns. The pillars of the Giant's Causeway, Ireland, + composed of this stone, and exposed to the roughest sea for ages, have + their angles as perfect as those at a distance from the waves. Basalt + often assumes curious and fantastic forms, as, for example, those masses + popularly known as 'Samson's Ribs' at Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and 'Lot' + and 'Lot's Wife' near the south coast of St. Helena.</p> + + <p><b>Baschi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s'kē), Matteo, an Italian Minorite + friar of the convent of Montefalcone, founder and first general of the + Capuchin branch of the Franciscans. He died at Venice, 1552.</p> + + <p><b>Bas´cinet</b>, or <b>Bas´net</b>, a light helmet, sometimes with, + but more frequently without, a visor, in general use for English infantry + in the reigns of Edward II and III and Richard II.</p> + + <p><b>Base</b>, in architecture, that part of a column which is between + the top of the pedestal and the bottom of the shaft; where there is no + pedestal, the part between the bottom of the column and the pavement. The + term is also applied to the lower projecting part of the wall of a room, + consisting of a plinth and its mouldings.</p> + + <p><b>Base</b>, in chemistry, a term applied to those compound substances + which unite with acids to form salts. The most important bases are oxides + of metals, and when brought in contact with acids their oxygen combines + with the hydrogen of the acid to form water. They are divided into + several sections, of which the most important are the alkalies. These + substances are the hydrates of the so-called alkaline metals, and may be + compared to water in which part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metallic + radicle. Potash, for instance, is the hydrate of the metal potassium. The + alkalies are readily soluble in water, restore the blue colour to + reddened litmus, and give a green with red cabbage, dahlia, and other + vegetable blues, and convert the yellow of turmeric into a brownish red. + Most of the bases, however, are insoluble in water, and without any + effect on vegetable colours. See <i>Alkali</i>; <i>Acids</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Base</b>, a term in tactics, signifying the original line on which + an offensive army forms; or any safe position from which an army takes + the field to invade an enemy's country; upon which it depends for its + supplies, reinforcements, &c.; to which it sends back its sick and + wounded; and upon which it would generally fall back in case of reverse + and retreat.</p> + + <p><b>Base-ball</b>, the national game of the United States of America. + It holds the position there that is held by cricket in England. It is a + scientific development of the old English game of 'rounders', and is + played by nine players a side. A diamond-shaped space of ground, 90 feet + on the side, is marked out, the corners being the 'bases'. One side takes + the field and the other sends a man to bat. When the field side takes its + place, the 'pitcher', standing inside the ground near the centre and in + front of the batsman, delivers a ball to the batsman, who stands at the + 'home base' within a certain marked space, and who tries to drive it out + of the reach of the fielders, and far enough out of the field to enable + him to run round the bases, which scores a run. If he cannot run round + all, he may stop at any one, and may be followed by another batsman. If + the ball is caught by an opponent before touching the ground when the + batsman is running, or if he is touched by the ball, he is out (also in + several other cases), and when three on his side are put out, the field + side take the bat. Nine of these innings make a game, which the highest + score wins. The bat is of a cylindrical shape, not more than 2½ inches in + diameter nor more than 42 inches long. The ball is about 9 inches in + circumference and weighs 5 - 5¼ oz. Base-ball is not a very old game, + having attained its present position only since about 1845. Many + professional players now engage in it. Attempts have been made to + introduce it into Britain and Australia, but with little + success.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: <i>Official + Base-ball Guide</i>, in the Spalding Athletic Library (annually); R. H. + Barbour, <i>The Book of School and College Sports</i>; A. G. Spalding, + <i>America's National Game</i>; W. J. Clarke and F. T. Dawson, + <i>Base-ball</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basedow</b> (bä'ze-dō), John Bernhard, German educationalist, + born in Hamburg 1723, died in 1790. After having gained considerable + experience as a teacher, especially at the gymnasium of Altona, he + published a number of works dealing with mental and moral philosophy, the + teaching of religion and morality, &c., some of which roused a great + amount of discussion. His watchword was "Everything according to nature". + In 1771 he was called to Dessau by Prince Leopold, and in 1774 took + charge of an <!-- Page 413 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page413"></a>[413]</span>educational institution in which his views + were to receive practical exemplification. This institution, which he + called the <i>Philanthropinum</i>, was a school free from sectarian bias, + and in which the pupils were to be disciplined in all + studies—physical, intellectual, and moral. This school led to the + establishment of some similar ones, though Basedow retired from it in + 1776, not having been very successful in the practical working out of his + theories. His place was taken by Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-1818). He + henceforth devoted himself to authorship, writing especially on religious + subjects. The chief feature of Basedow's system is the full development + of the faculties of the young, in pursuance of the notions of Locke and + Rousseau. His name still lives in the history of education, and his + efforts were not without result.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. C. Meyer, <i>Leben, Charakter und + Schriften Basedows</i> (2 vols., 1791-2); A. Pinloche, <i>La Réforme de + l'Education en Allemagne au dix-huitième Siècle</i>; O. H. Lang, + <i>Basedow, His Life and Work</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basel</b> (bä'zl; Fr. <i>Bâle</i>), a canton and city of + Switzerland. The canton borders on Alsace and Baden, has an area of 177 + sq. miles, and a pop. of 222,000 (1916), nearly all speaking German. It + is divided into two half-cantons, Basel city (Basel-Stadt) and Basel + country (Basel-Land). The former consists of the city and its precincts, + the remainder of the canton forming Basel-Land, the capital of which is + Liestal. The whole canton belongs to the valley of the Rhine. The soil is + generally well cultivated; and the climate in the low grounds allows of + the cultivation of the vine and other fruits.—The city of + <i>Basel</i> is 43 miles <span class="scac">N.</span> of Bern, and + consists of two parts on opposite sides of the Rhine, and communicating + by three bridges, one of them an ancient wooden structure, besides a + railway bridge. The older portions are irregularly built with narrow + streets, and are now surrounded with pleasant promenades where the old + fortifications existed. Basel has an ancient cathedral, founded 1010, + containing the tombs of Erasmus and other eminent persons; the fine + modern church of St. Elizabeth; town hall (1508); a university, founded + by Pius II in 1460; a seminary for missionaries; a bible society; a + museum containing the valuable public library, pictures, &c. The + industries include silk ribbons (8000 hands), metal articles, tanning, + paper, aniline dyes and other chemicals, brewing, &c.; and the + position of Basel, a little below where the Rhine becomes navigable and + at the terminus of the French and German railways, has made it the + emporium of a most important trade. At Basel was signed the treaty of + peace between France and Prussia, 5th April, and that between France and + Spain, 22nd July, 1795. Pop. (with suburbs), 137,000 (latest + estimate).</p> + + <p><b>Basel, Council of</b>, a celebrated œcumenical council of the + Church, convoked by Pope Martin V and his successor Eugenius IV. It was + opened 14th Dec., 1431, under the presidency of the Cardinal Legate + Juliano Cesarini of St. Angelo. The objects of its deliberations were to + extirpate heresies (that of the Hussites in particular), to unite all + Christian nations under the Catholic Church, to put a stop to wars + between Christian princes, and to reform the Church. But its first steps + towards a peaceable reconciliation with the Hussites were displeasing to + the Pope, who authorized the Cardinal Legate to dissolve the Council. + That body opposed the pretensions of the Pope, and, notwithstanding his + repeated orders to remove to Italy, continued its deliberations under the + protection of the Emperor Sigismund, of the German princes, and of + France. On the Pope continuing to issue bulls for its dissolution, the + Council commenced a formal process against him, and cited him to appear + at its bar. On his refusal to comply with this demand the Council + declared him guilty of contumacy, and, after Eugenius had opened a + counter-synod at Ferrara, decreed his suspension from the papal chair + (24th Jan., 1438). The removal of Eugenius, however, seemed so + impracticable that some prelates, who till then had been the boldest and + most influential speakers in the Council, including the Cardinal Legate + Juliano, left Basel, and went over to the party of Eugenius. The + Archbishop of Arles, Cardinal Louis Allemand, was now made first + President of the Council, and directed its proceedings with much vigour. + In May, 1439, it declared Eugenius, on account of his disobedience of its + decrees, a heretic, and formally deposed him. Excommunicated by Eugenius, + they proceeded, in a regular conclave, to elect the Duke Amadeus of Savoy + to the papal chair. Felix V—the name he adopted—was + acknowledged by only a few princes, cities, and universities. After this + the moral power of the Council declined; its last formal session was held + 16th May, 1443, though it was not technically dissolved till 7th May, + 1449, when it gave in its adhesion to Nicholas V, the successor of + Eugenius. The decrees of the Council of Basel are admitted into none of + the Roman collections, and are considered of no authority by the Roman + lawyers. They are regarded, however, as of authority in points of canon + law in France and Germany, as their regulations for the Reformation of + the Church have been adopted in the pragmatic sanctions of both + countries, and, as far as they regard clerical discipline, have been + actually enforced.</p> + + <p><b>Base-line</b>, in surveying, a straight line <!-- Page 414 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page414"></a>[414]</span>measured with the + utmost precision to form the starting-point of the triangulation of a + country or district. See <i>Geodesy</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bash.</b> See <i>Mining</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´shan</b>, the name in Scripture for a singularly rich tract of + country lying beyond the Jordan between Mount Hermon and the land of + Gilead. At the time of the Exodus it was inhabited by the Amorites, who + were overpowered by the Israelites, and the land assigned to the + half-tribe of Manasseh. The district was, and yet is, famous for its oak + forests and its cattle. Remains of ancient cities are common.</p> + + <p><b>Bashaw</b>, or <b>Basha</b>. See <i>Pasha</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bashee´ Islands</b>, a group of islands in the Chinese Sea between + Luzon and Formosa, long. 122° <span class="scac">E.</span>; lat. 20° 28´ + to 20° 55´ <span class="scac">N.</span> They were discovered by Dampier + in 1687, and belong to the United States. The largest island is Batan, + with a population of 8000.</p> + + <p><b>Bashi-Bazooks´</b>, irregular troops in the Turkish army. They are + mostly Asiatics, and have had to be disarmed several times by the regular + troops on account of the barbarities by which they have rendered + themselves infamous.</p> + + <p><b>Bash´kirs</b>, a tribe of Finno-Tartar origin, inhabiting the + Russian governments of Ufa, Orenburg, Perm, and Samara. They formerly + roamed about under their own princes in Southern Siberia, but in 1556 + they voluntarily placed themselves under the Russian sceptre. They are + nominally Mahommedans, and live by hunting, cattle-rearing, breeding of + cattle and horses, and keeping of bees. They are rude and warlike and + partially nomadic. They number about 1,000,000.—Cf. Ujfalvy, <i>Les + Bashkirs</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bashkirtsev</b>, Marie, Russian painter and authoress, born 1860, + died 1884; educated mostly outside of Russia, in France, Germany, and + Italy; became an accomplished linguist and musician, and studied art in + Paris, attaining high success, but overtaxing her system, with fatal + results. She is best known from her journal, an intimate personal record, + interesting not only as revealing her own peculiar character and + intellectual gifts, but also for notices of the notable personages with + whom she came in contact. It has been translated into various + languages—into English by Mathilde Blind (1890), who has also + published <i>A Study of Marie Bashkirtsev</i> (1892). A number of her + letters were also published in 1891.—Cf. <i>The Journal of Marie + Bashkirtsev, an Exposure and a Defence</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basic Slag</b>, the slag or refuse-matter which is got in making + basic steel, and which, from the phosphate of lime it contains, is a + valuable fertilizer. See <i>Manures (Phosphatic)</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basic Steel.</b> See <i>Steel</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basi´diomycetes</b>, one of the two sub-classes of the Eumycetes or + septate Fungi, including the bulk of the larger and more familiar + saprophytic types, such as the Mushroom, Toad-stools, Shelf-fungi, + Puff-balls, and Earth-stars, and also the important parasites known as + the Rusts. They are characterized by their principal spores being + produced externally, usually in fours, upon an organ called a + <i>basidium</i>. The basidia are arranged in a continuous layer + (hymenium), and are usually massed together upon a specialized + fruit-body, of which an ordinary mushroom is a good example. The + principal subdivisions of the group, with representative genera, are as + follows:—</p> + + <p>A. Basidia septate (Proto-Basidiomycetes).</p> + + <p>1. Family Uredineæ (Rusts). Basidia transversely septate; + teleutospores present; parasites. Puccinia, Phragmidium, Melampsora.</p> + + <p>2. Family Auricularineæ. Basidia transversely septate; no + teleutospores; saprophytes. Auricularia.</p> + + <p>3. Family Tremellineæ. Basidia longitudinally septate; saprophytes. + Tremella.</p> + + <p>B. Basidia not septate (Auto-Basidiomycetes).</p> + + <p>4. Family Exobasidiineæ. Parasites without fruit-body; basidia exposed + on surface of host. Exobasidium.</p> + + <p>5. Family Dacryomycetineæ. Fruit-body soft; hymenium on its surface; + saprophytes. Dacryomyces, Calocera.</p> + + <p>6. Group Hymenomycetes (several families). Hymenium generally on + gills, in tubes, &c.; saprophytes or, less often, parasites. Agaricus + Polyporus, Hydnum.</p> + + <p>7. Group Gastromycetes (several families). Hymenium within a closed + fruit-body, which does not open until the spores are ripe; saprophytes. + Ithyphallus, Lycoperdon.</p> + + <p>The Ustilagineæ (Smuts) are often regarded as Basidiomycetes of a low + type, but it is more probable that they are allied to the Unicellular + Chytridineæ. The Basidiomycetes are the highest members of the Fungoid + alliance; their relations to the lower groups are obscure.</p> + + <p><b>Basi´dium</b>, the characteristic spore-producing organ of the + Basidiomycetes. Typically, e.g. in the Toad-stools, it is a club-shaped + structure, produced at its free end into four slender processes, the + <i>sterigmata</i>, each of which bears a <i>basidiospore</i> at its tip. + The young basidium contains two nuclei, which later fuse; the + fusion-nucleus then undergoes two successive divisions, involving a + reduction of chromosomes, and each of the four resultant nuclei passes + through a sterigma into a basidiospore. These latter are thus seen to be + carpospores, comparable to those of Red Algæ, and to the ascospores of + Ascomycetes. The basidia of Uredineæ (Rusts) and of some other primitive + Basidiomycetes are septate, <!-- Page 415 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page415"></a>[415]</span>but otherwise agree with the type + described above. See <i>Basidiomycetes</i>; <i>Carpospore</i>; + <i>Rusts</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basil.</b> See <i>Basilius</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bas´il</b>, a labiate plant, <i>Ocĭmum basilĭcum</i>, a + native of India, much used in cookery, especially in France, and known + more particularly as sweet or common basil. Bush or lesser basil is <i>O. + minimum</i>; wild basil belongs to a different genus, being the + <i>Calamintha Clinopodium</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basil, St.</b>, called the <i>Great</i>, one of the Greek fathers, + was born in 329, and made in 370 Bishop of Cæsarea in Cappadocia, where + he died in 379. He was distinguished by his efforts for the regulation of + clerical discipline, and, above all, his endeavours for the promotion of + monastic life. The Greek Church honours him as one of its most + illustrious saints, and celebrates his festival on 1st Jan. The vows of + obedience, chastity, and poverty framed by St. Basil are essentially the + rules of all the orders of Christendom, although he is particularly the + father of the Eastern, as St. Benedict is the patriarch of the Western + orders.</p> + + <p><b>Basilan´</b>, the principal island of the Sulu Archipelago, now + belonging to the Philippines, off the S.W. extremity of Mindanao, from + which it is separated by the Strait of Basilan. It is about 30 miles in + length by 20 miles in breadth. Pop. about 8000.</p> + + <p><b>Basile´an Manuscripts</b>, two manuscripts of the Greek New + Testament now in the library of Basel. (1) A nearly complete uncial copy + of the Gospels of the eighth century; (2) a cursive copy of the whole New + Testament except the Apocalypse, tenth century.</p> + + <p><b>Basil´ian Liturgy</b>, that form for celebrating the Eucharist + drawn up towards the close of the fourth century by Basil the Great, + still used in the Greek Church.</p> + + <p><b>Basilian Monks</b>, monks who strictly follow the rules of St. + Basil, chiefly belonging to the Greek Church.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:41%;"> + <a href="images/image161.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image161.jpg" + alt="Basilica" title="Basilica" /></a> + Basilica di S'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna + </div> + + <p><b>Basil´ica</b>, originally the name applied by the Romans to their + public halls, either of justice, of exchange, or other business. The plan + of the basilica was usually a rectangle divided into aisles by rows of + columns, the middle aisle being the widest, with a semicircular apse at + the end, in which the tribunal was placed. The ground-plan of these + buildings was generally followed in the early Christian churches, which, + therefore, long retained the name of basilica, and it is still applied to + some of the churches in Rome by way of distinction, and sometimes to + other churches built in imitation of the Roman basilicas.</p> + + <p><b>Basilica´ta</b>, also called <b>Potenza</b>, an Italian province, + extending north from the Gulf of Taranto, and corresponding pretty + closely with the ancient Lucania. Area, 3855 sq. miles; pop. 489,574 + (1915).</p> + + <p><b>Basil´icon</b>, a name of several ointments, the chief ingredients + of which are wax, pitch, resin, and olive-oil.</p> + + <p><b>Basil´icon Do´ron</b> (the royal gift), the title of a book written + by King James I in 1599, containing a collection of precepts of the art + of government. It maintains the claim of the king to be sole head of the + Church. Printed at Edinburgh, 1603.</p> + + <p><b>Basil´ides</b> (dēz), one of the most famous Gnostic + teachers, a native of Alexandria, who lived under the reigns of Adrian + and Antoninus Pius about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 120-40. He was + well acquainted with Christianity, but mixed it up with the wildest + dreams of the Gnostics, peopling the earth and the air with multitudes of + <i>æons</i>. He was also greatly influenced by Platonism and + Zoroastrianism. His disciples (Basilidians) were numerous in Syria, + Egypt, Italy, and Gaul, but they are scarcely heard of after the fourth + century.</p> + + <p><b>Bas´ilisk</b>, a fabulous creature formerly believed to exist, and + variously regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard, or dragon, and sometimes + identified with the cockatrice. It inhabited the deserts of Africa, and + its breath and even its look was fatal. The name is now applied to a + genus of saurian reptiles (Basiliscus), belonging to the family + Iguanidæ;, distinguished by an elevated crest or row of scales, erectable + at pleasure, which, like the dorsal fins of some fishes, runs along the + whole length of the back and tail. The mitred or hooded basilisk (<i>B. + <!-- Page 416 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page416"></a>[416]</span>mitrātus</i>) is especially + remarkable for a membranous bag at the back of the head, of the size of a + small hen's egg, which can be inflated with air at pleasure. The other + species have such hoods also, but of a less size. To this organ they owe + their name, which recalls the basilisk of fable, though in reality they + are exceedingly harmless and lively creatures. The <i>B. amboinensis</i> + is a native of the Indian Archipelago, where it is much used for food. It + frequents trees overhanging water, into which it drops when alarmed.</p> + + <p><b>Basil´ius I</b>, a Macedonian, Emperor of the East, born <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 820, died 886. He was of obscure origin, but + having succeeded in gaining the favour of the Emperor Michael III, he + became his colleague in the Empire, 866. After the assassination of + Michael, 867, Basilius became emperor. Though he had worked his way to + the throne by a series of crimes, he proved an able and equitable + sovereign. The versatility, if not the depth, of his intellect is + strikingly displayed in his <i>Exhortations to his Son Leo</i>, which are + still extant.</p> + + <p><b>Basilius II</b>, Emperor of the East, born 958, died 1025. On the + death of his father, the Emperor Romanus the Younger, in 963, he was kept + out of the succession for twelve years by two usurpers. He began to reign + in conjunction with his brother Constantine, 975. His reign was spent in + almost perpetual warfare, his most important struggle being that which + resulted in the conquest of Bulgaria, 1018.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´sin</b>, in physical geography, the whole tract of country + drained by a river and its tributaries. The line dividing one river basin + from another is the water-shed, and by tracing the various water-sheds we + divide each country into its constituent basins. The basin of a loch or + sea consists of the basins of all the rivers which run into it.—In + geology a basin is any dipping or disposition of strata towards a common + axis or centre, due to upheaval and subsidence. It is sometimes used + almost synonymously with 'formation' to express the deposits lying in a + certain cavity or depression in older rocks. The 'Paris basin' and + 'London basin' are familiar instances.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´singstoke</b>, a town of England, county of Hants, 18 miles + <span class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Winchester. It has a good trade in + corn, malt, &c., and now gives its name to one of the parliamentary + divisions of the county. Pop. (1921), 12,718.</p> + + <p><b>Bas´kerville</b>, John, celebrated English printer and + type-founder, born in 1706, died 1775. He settled at Birmingham as a + writing-master, subsequently engaged in the manufacture of japanned + works, and in 1750 commenced printing. From his press came highly-prized + editions of ancient and modern classics, Bibles, prayer-books, &c., + all beautifully-printed works. His first work was a <i>Virgil</i>, + published in 1757, followed by his famous edition of Milton in 1758.</p> + + <p><b>Basket</b>, a vessel or utensil of wicker-work, made of interwoven + osiers or willows, rushes, twigs, grasses, &c. The process of + basket-making is very simple, and appears to be well known among the very + rudest peoples. The ancient Britons excelled in the art, and their + baskets were highly prized in Rome.—Cf. T. Okey, <i>Introduction to + the Art of Basket-making</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basking-shark</b> (<i>Selăchē maxima</i> or + <i>Cetorhīnus maximus</i>), a species of shark, so named from its + habit of basking in the sun at the surface of the water. It reaches the + length of 40 feet, and its liver yields a large quantity of oil. It + frequents the northern seas, and is known also as the sail-fish or + sun-fish.</p> + + <p><b>Basle.</b> See <i>Basel</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basoche.</b> See <i>Bazoche</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basques</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>sks), or <b>Biscayans</b> (in their own + language, <i>Euscaldunac</i>), a remarkable race of people dwelling + partly in the south-west corner of France (Basses-Pyrénées), but mostly + in the north of Spain adjacent to the Pyrenees. They are probably + descendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied Spain before the Celts. + They preserve their ancient language, former manners, and national + dances, and make admirable soldiers, especially in guerrilla warfare. + Their language is highly polysynthetic, and stands isolated from other + tongues of Europe. There are eight principal dialects, which are not only + distinguished by their pronunciation and grammatical structure, but + differ even in their vocabularies. The Basques, who number about 600,000 + (450,000 in Spain, and 150,000 in France), occupy in Spain the provinces + of Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alăva; in France parts of the departments + of the Upper and Lower Pyrenees, Ariége, and Upper Garonne. The Basques + are very religious and conservative in their religious practices. + Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier de Navarre were Basques.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Julien Vinson, <i>Les Basques et le pays + Basque</i>; <i>Le Folk-lore du pays Basque</i>; Michel, <i>Le pays + Basque, sa population, sa langue, ses mœurs, sa littérature, et sa + musique</i>; Van Eys, <i>Outlines of a Basque Grammar</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basra</b>, <b>Bassora</b>, or <b>Basrah</b>, a city in Lower + Mesopotamia, on the west bank of the Shat-el-Arab (the united stream of + the Tigris and Euphrates), about 50 miles from its mouth, and nearly 300 + miles south-east of Bagdad. It is surrounded by a wall about 10 miles in + circuit, from 20 to 25 feet thick; but much of the area enclosed is + occupied by gardens, &c. The houses are generally mean. A + considerable transit trade is carried on here between the Turkish and + Persian dominions and India, and since <!-- Page 417 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page417"></a>[417]</span>communication by + steamer has been established with Bagdad and Bombay the prosperity of the + town has greatly increased. The chief exports are: dates, camels and + horses, wool and wheat; imports: coffee, indigo, rice, tissues, &c. + The inhabitants are estimated at 80,000; but in the eighteenth century + they were said to number 150,000. The substitution of date and wheat + cultivation for that of rice has rendered the place much more healthy. + The ruins of the ancient and more famous Bassora—founded by Caliph + Omar in 636, at one time a centre of Arabic literature and learning and + regarded as 'the Athens of the East'—lie about 9 miles south-west + of the modern town. The town was occupied by the British on 22nd Nov., + 1914. The first through-train from Basra to Bagdad was run in Jan., + 1920.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/image162.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image162.jpg" + alt="Bas-relief" title="Bas-relief" /></a> + Bas-relief—Northern frieze of Parthenon + </div> + + <p><b>Bas-relief</b> (bä´rē-lēf or bas´rē-lēf) or + <b>Basso-Rilievo</b>, low-relief, a mode of sculpturing figures on a flat + surface, the figures having a very slight relief or projection from the + surface. It is distinguished from <i>haut-relief</i> + (<i>alto-rilievo</i>), or high-relief, in which the figures stand + sometimes almost entirely free from the ground. Bas-relief work has been + described as 'sculptured painting', from the capability of disposing of + groups of figures and exhibiting minor adjuncts, as in a painting. The + finest specimen of bas-relief is the frieze around the cella of the + Parthenon; large portions of it are to be seen in the British Museum.</p> + + <p><b>Bass</b> (bās; from the It. <i>basso</i>, deep, low), in + music, the lowest part in the harmony of a musical composition, whether + vocal or instrumental. According to some it is the fundamental or most + important part, while others regard the melody or highest part in that + light. Next to the melody, the bass part is the most striking, the freest + and boldest in its movements, and richest in effect.—<i>Figured + bass</i>, a bass part having the accompanying chords suggested by certain + figures written above or below the notes—the most successful system + of shorthand scoring at present in use among organists and + pianists.—<i>Fundamental bass</i>, the lowest note or root of a + chord; a bass consisting of a succession of fundamental + notes.—<i>Thorough bass</i>, the mode or art of expressing chords + by means of figures placed over or under a given bass. Figures written + over each other indicate that the notes they represent are to be sounded + simultaneously, those standing close after each other that they are to be + sounded successively. The common chord in its fundamental form is + generally left unfigured, and accidentals are indicated by using sharps, + naturals, or flats along with the figures.</p> + + <p><b>Bass</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s), the name of a number of fishes of + several genera, but originally belonging to a genus of sea-fishes + (Labrax) of the perch family, distinguished from the true perches by + having the tongue covered by small teeth and the preoperculum smooth. + <i>L. lupus</i>, the only British species, called also sea-dace, and from + <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'it'.">its</span> voracity + sea-wolf, resembles somewhat the salmon in shape, and is much esteemed + for the table, weighing about 15 lb. <i>L. lineātus</i> (<i>Roccus + lineātus</i>), or striped bass, an American species, weighing from + 25 to 30 lb., is much used for food, and is also known as rock-fish. Both + species occasionally ascend rivers, and attempts have been made to + cultivate British bass in freshwater ponds with success. Two species of + black bass (<i>Microptĕrus salmoides</i> and <i>M. dolomieu</i>), + American freshwater fishes, are excellent as food and give fine sport to + the angler. The former is often called the large-mouthed black bass, from + the size of its mouth. Both make nests and take great care of their eggs + and young. The <i>Centropristis nigricans</i>, an American sea-fish of + the perch family, and weighing 2 to 3 lb., is known as the sea-bass.</p> + + <p><b>Bass</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s), <b>The</b>, a remarkable insular + trap-rock, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, 3 miles from North + Berwick, of a circular form, about 1 mile in circumference, rising + majestically out of the sea to a height of 313 feet. It pastures a few + sheep, and is a great breeding-place of solan geese. During the + persecution of the Covenanters its castle, long since demolished, was + used as a State prison, in which several eminent Covenanters were + confined. It was held from 1691 to 1694 with great courage and + pertinacity by twenty Jacobites, who in the end capitulated on highly + honourable terms.</p> + + <p><b>Bass.</b> See <i>Basswood</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bassa´no</b>, a commercial city of North Italy, province of + Vicenza, on the Brenta, over which is a covered wooden bridge. It has + lofty old walls and an old castle, and has various industries and an + active trade. Near Bassano, 8th Sept., <!-- Page 418 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page418"></a>[418]</span>1796, Bonaparte + defeated the Austrian general Wurmser. Pop. (commune) 17,130.</p> + + <p><b>Bassa´no</b> (from his birth-place; real name <b>Giacomo da + Ponte</b>), an Italian painter, born 1510, died 1592. He painted + historical pieces, landscapes, flowers, &c., and also portraits. He + left four sons, who all became painters, Francesco being the most + distinguished.</p> + + <p><b>Bassano Dam.</b> See <i>Dams</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bas´saris.</b> See <i>Cacomistle</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bassein</b> (bas-sān'), a town in Lower Burma, province of + Pegu, on both banks of the Bassein River, one of the mouths of the + Irawadi, and navigable for the largest ships. It has considerable trade, + exporting large quantities of rice, and importing coal, salt, cottons, + &c. Pop. 37,081.—Bassein District has an area of 4127 sq. miles + and a pop. of 9598 (1911).</p> + + <p><b>Bassein</b> (bas-sān'), a town in Hindustan, 28 miles north + of Bombay. At the beginning of the eighteenth century it was a fine and + wealthy city, with over 60,000 inhabitants; it has now only about 9598 + (1911).</p> + + <p><b>Basselin</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s-lan), Olivier, an old French poet or + song-writer, born in the Val-de-Vire, Normandy, about the end of the + fourteenth century, died about 1450. His sprightly songs, famous under + the name <i>Vaux-de-Vire</i>, have given origin and name to the modern + Vaudevilles.</p> + + <p><b>Basselisse Tapestry.</b> See <i>Hautelisse</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basses-Alpes</b> (bäs-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>lp; 'Lower Alps'). See <i>Alpes</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basses-Pyrénées</b> (bäs-pē-rā-nā; '<b>Lower + Pyrenees</b>'). See <i>Pyrénées</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bass´et</b>, the name of a game at cards, formerly much played, + especially in France. It is very similar to the modern <i>faro</i>. See + <i>Lansquenet</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Basset</b>, or <b>Basset-hound</b>, a smooth-haired dog with short + crooked legs, rather large head, and large pendulous ears, thus somewhat + resembling a bloodhound and a dachshund. It is sometimes used in packs + for hunting hares, or in beating and covert work generally.</p> + + <p><b>Basseterre</b> (bäs-tār), two towns in the West + Indies.—1. Capital of the Island of St. Christopher's, at the mouth + of a small river, on the south side of the island. Trade considerable. + Pop. about 9000.—2. The capital of the Island of Guadeloupe. It has + no harbour, and the anchorage is unsheltered and exposed to a constant + swell. Pop. 8650.</p> + + <p><b>Basset-horn</b>, a musical instrument, now practically obsolete, a + sort of clarinet of enlarged dimensions, with a curved and bell-shaped + metal end. The compass extends from F below the bass staff to C on the + second ledger-line above the treble. Mozart wrote several pieces for the + basset-horn, and Beethoven employed it in his <i>Prometheus</i> + overture.</p> + + <p><b>Bassetlaw</b>, a parliamentary division of the county of + Nottingham.</p> + + <p><b>Bassia</b>, a genus of tropical trees found in the East Indies and + Australia, nat. ord., Sapotaceæ. The seeds of <i>B. butyracea</i>, the + Indian butter tree, yield a butter-like substance, which makes good soap. + <i>B. latifolia</i>, the Mahwa of Bengal, furnishes a valuable hard + timber, and has edible flowers, from which a potent spirit is distilled; + a gutta-percha is obtained from <i>B. pallida</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bassompierre</b> (bä-son-pyār), Francois de, Marshal of + France, distinguished both as a soldier and a statesman, born 1579, died + 1646. In 1602 he made his first campaign against the Duke of Savoy, and + he fought with equal distinction in the following year in the imperial + army against the Turks. In 1622 Louis XIII appointed him Marshal of + France, and became so much attached to him that Luynes, the declared + favourite, sent him on embassies to Spain, Switzerland, and England. + After his return he became an object of suspicion to Cardinal Richelieu, + and was sent to the Bastille in 1631, from which he was not released till + 1643, after the death of the cardinal. During his detention he occupied + himself with writing his memoirs, which shed much light on the events of + that time.</p> + + <p><b>Basso´on</b>, a musical wind-instrument of the reed order, blown + with a bent metal mouthpiece, and holed and keyed like the clarinet. Its + compass comprehends three octaves rising from B flat below the bass + staff. Its diameter at bottom is 3 inches, and for convenience of + carriage it is divided into two or more parts, whence its Italian name, + <i>fagotto</i>, a bundle. It serves for the bass among wood + wind-instruments, as hautboys, flutes, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bassora Gum</b>, an inferior kind of gum resembling gum-arabic.</p> + + <p><b>Bass Rock.</b> See <i>Bass</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bass Strait</b>, a channel beset with islands, which separates + Australia from Tasmania, 120 miles broad, discovered by George Bass, a + surgeon in the Royal Navy, in 1798.</p> + + <p><b>Basswood</b>, or <b>Bass</b>, the American lime tree or linden + (<i>Tilia americāna</i>), a tree common in N. America, yielding a + light, soft timber.</p> + + <p><b>Bast</b>, a term originally applied to fibrous tissue external to + the cambium; now used in two senses: (1) for Phloem (q.v.); (2) + commercially, for the fibre of the lime or linden. The manufacture of + lime-bast into mats, ropes, &c., is in Russia a considerable + industry, bast-mats for packing furniture, covering plants, &c., + being largely exported.</p> + + <p><b>Bastar´</b>, a feudatory State in Upper Godavari district, Central + Provinces of India; area, 13,062 sq. miles; pop. 433,310. Chief town, + Jagdalpur; pop. 4294. <!-- Page 419 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page419"></a>[419]</span></p> + + <p><b>Bas´tard</b>, a child begotten and born out of wedlock; an + illegitimate child. By the civil and canon laws, and by the law of + Scotland, a bastard becomes legitimate by the intermarriage of the + parents at any future time. In some of the United States, bastards can be + legitimized by subsequent marriage, in addition to which, however, the + father must also recognize the child as his. By the laws of England a + child, to be legitimate, must at least be <i>born</i> after the lawful + marriage; it does not require that the child shall be begotten in + wedlock, but it is indispensable that it should be born after marriage, + no matter how short the time, the law presuming it to be the child of the + husband. The only incapacity of a bastard is that he cannot be heir or + next of kin to any one save his own issue. In England the maintenance of + a bastard in the first instance devolves on the mother, while in Scotland + it is a joint burden upon both parents. The mother is entitled to the + custody of the child in preference to the father. See + <i>Legitimation</i>; <i>Illegitimacy</i>.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Bacquet, <i>Traité de la Bâtardise</i>; + Nicholls and Mackay, <i>History of the English Poor Law</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:12%;"> + <a href="images/image163.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image163.jpg" + alt="Bastard Bar" title="Bastard Bar" /></a> + Bastard Bar + </div> + + <p><b>Bastard Bar</b>, more correctly <i>baton sinister</i>, the heraldic + mark used to indicate illegitimate descent. It is a diminutive of the + bend sinister, of which it is one-fourth in width, couped or cut short at + the ends, so as not to touch the corners of the shield.</p> + + <p><b>Bastard Fallow.</b> See <i>Fallow Land</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bastard Saffron.</b> See <i>Safflower</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bastia</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s-tē´a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), the former capital of the Island of + Corsica, upon the <span class="scac">N.E.</span> coast, 75 miles <span + class="scac">N.E.</span> of Ajaccio, on a hill slope; badly built, with + narrow streets, a strong citadel, and an indifferent harbour; with some + manufactures, a considerable trade in hides, soap, wine, oil, pulse, + &c. Pop. 29,412.</p> + + <p><b>Bas´tian</b>, Adolf, German traveller and ethnologist, born in + 1826, died in 1905. His travels embraced various parts of Europe, the + United States, Mexico, Peru, Australia and New Zealand, Southern and + Western Africa, Egypt, Arabia, India, South-Eastern Asia, the Asiatic + Archipelago, Japan, China, Mongolia, Siberia, &c. His numerous + writings throw light on almost every subject connected with ethnology or + anthropology, as well as psychology, linguistics, non-Christian + religions, geography, &c. Some of his chief works are: <i>Die Völker + des östlichen Asien</i> (Peoples of Eastern Asia); <i>Ethnographische + Forschungen</i>; <i>Ideale Welten</i>; <i>Die Völkerkunde u. der + Völkerverkehr</i>; &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bas´tian</b>, Henry Charlton, English physician and biologist, born + at Truro in 1837, died on 17th Nov., 1915. He was educated at Falmouth + and at University College, London, where he was assistant curator in the + museum from 1860 to 1863. He obtained the degree of <span + class="scac">M.A.</span> in 1861 from the University of London, + graduating subsequently in medicine at the same university (<span + class="scac">M.B.</span> 1863, <span class="scac">M.D.</span> 1866). From + 1864 to 1866 he was a medical officer in Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic + Asylum, and in 1866 was appointed lecturer on pathology and assistant + physician in St. Mary's Hospital. In 1867 he became professor of + pathological anatomy in University College, subsequently he was also + professor of clinical medicine, and in the period 1887-95 he occupied the + chair of medicine and clinical medicine. Apart from numerous + contributions to medical and other periodicals, and to Quain's + <i>Dictionary of Medicine</i>, he published <i>The Modes of Origin of + Lowest Organisms</i> (1871); <i>The Beginnings of Life</i> (1872); + <i>Evolution and the Origin of Life</i> (1874); <i>Lectures on Paralysis + from Brain Disease</i> (1875); <i>The Brain as an Organ of Mind</i> + (1880); which has been translated into French and German; <i>The Nature + and Origin of Living Matter</i>; <i>Evolution of Life</i>; <i>Origin of + Life</i>; &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bastiat</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s-tē-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), Frédéric, French economist, advocate + of free-trade, and opponent of protection, born at Bayonne 1801, died at + Rome 1850. He became acquainted with Cobden and the English free-traders, + whose speeches he translated into French. Whilst combating protectionism, + Bastiat was also an opponent of socialism. His chief works are: + <i>Sophismes Économiques</i> (1846); <i>Propriété et Loi</i>; <i>Justice + et Fraternité</i> (1848); <i>Protectionisme et Communisme</i> (1849); + <i>Harmonies Économiques</i> (1849).</p> + + <p><b>Bastien-Lepage</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s-tyan<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-lė-päzh), Jules, French painter, + born 1848, died 1884. He studied at Paris under Cabanel, and about 1874 + began to attract some notice as a realistic painter of subjects connected + with the country and everyday life, among his first pictures of note + being <i>Song of Spring</i>, <i>Portrait of My Grandfather</i>, and + <i>The First Communion</i>. Among his most important works are <i>The + Hayfield</i>, <i>The Potato Harvest</i>, <i>Portrait of Mme Sarah + Bernhardt</i>, <i>The Beggar</i>, and <i>The Forge</i>.—Cf. Marie + Bashkirtsev, <i>Journal Intime</i>; Arnic, J. <i>Bastien-Lepage, lettres + et souvenirs</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bastille</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s-tēl´), a French name for any + strong castle provided with towers, but as a proper name the State prison + and citadel of Paris, which was built about 1370 by Charles V. It was + ultimately used chiefly for the confinement of persons of rank who had + fallen victims to the intrigues of the Court or the caprice of the + Government. (See <i>Cachet, Lettres de</i>.) The capture of the Bastille + by the Parisian mob, 14th July, 1789, was the opening act of the <!-- + Page 420 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page420"></a>[420]</span>Revolution. On that date the Bastille was + surrounded by a tumultuous mob, who first attempted to negotiate with the + Governor, Delaunay, but when these negotiations failed, began to attack + the fortress. For several hours the mob continued their siege without + being able to effect anything more than an entrance into the outer court + of the Bastille; but at last the arrival of some of the Royal Guard with + a few pieces of artillery forced the Governor to let down the second + drawbridge and admit the populace. The Governor was seized, but on the + way to the Hotel de Ville he was torn from his captors and put to death. + The next day the destruction of the Bastille commenced. Not a vestige of + it exists, but its site is marked by a column in the Place de la + Bastille.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: François Ravaisson, + <i>Les Archives de la Bastille</i>; Arnold, <i>Histoire de la + Bastille</i>; Bingham, <i>The Bastille</i>; Funck-Brentano, <i>The + Bastille</i>; M.J. de Staal, <i>La Bastille sous la Régence</i> (edited + by Funck-Brentano).</p> + + <p><b>Bastina´do</b>, an Eastern method of corporal punishment, + consisting of blows upon the soles of the feet, applied with a bamboo + cane.</p> + + <p><b>Bas´tion</b>, in fortification, a large mass of earth, faced with + sods, brick, or stones, standing out from a rampart, of which it is a + principal part. A bastion consists of two <i>flanks</i>, each commanding + and defending the adjacent <i>curtain</i>, or that portion of the wall + extending from one bastion to another, and two <i>faces</i> making with + each other an acute angle called the <i>salient angle</i>, and commanding + the outworks and ground before the fortification. The distance between + the two flanks is the <i>gorge</i>, or entrance into the bastion. The use + of the bastion is to bring every point at the foot of the rampart as much + as possible under the guns of the place.</p> + + <p><b>Bast´wick</b>, John, English physician and ecclesiastical + controversialist, born in 1593, died 1654. He settled at Colchester, but, + instead of confining himself to his profession, entered keenly into + theological controversy, and was condemned by the Star Chamber for his + books against Prelacy: <i>Elenchus Religionis Papisticæ</i>, <i>Flagellum + Pontificis</i>, and <i>The Letanie of Dr. J. Bastwick</i>. With Prynne + and Burton he was sentenced to lose his ears in the pillory, to pay a + fine of £5000, and to be imprisoned for life. He was released by the Long + Parliament, and entered London in triumph along with Prynne and Burton. + He appears to have continued his controversies with the Independents and + others to the very last.</p> + + <p><b>Basu´toland</b>, a native province and British South African + possession, situated between the Orange Free State, Natal, Griqualand + East, and the Cape Province. The Basutos belong chiefly to the great stem + of the Bechuanas, and have made greater advances in civilization than + perhaps any other South African race. In 1866 the Basutos, who had lived + under a semi-protectorate of the British since 1848, were proclaimed + British subjects, their country placed under the government of an agent, + and in 1871 it was joined to Cape Colony. In 1879 the attempted + enforcement of an Act passed for the disarmament of the native tribes + caused a revolt under the chief Moirosi, which the Cape forces were + unable to put down. When peace was restored Basutoland was separated from + Cape Colony (1884), and is now governed by a Resident Commissioner under + the High Commissioner for South Africa. Basutoland has an area of about + 11,716 sq. miles, much of it covered with grass, and there is but little + wood. The climate is pleasant. The natives keep cattle, sheep, and + horses, cultivate the ground, and export grain. The Basuto ponies, which + originally were brought from Batavia by the Dutch in the eighteenth + century, are famous. It is divided into eight districts, each under a + magistrate. Capital, Maseru. Pop. (European), 1396; (native), + 404,507.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. Widdicombe, + <i>Fourteen Years in Basutoland</i>; M. Martin, <i>Basutoland: Its + Legends and Customs</i>; Sir G. Lagden, <i>The Basutos</i>; Rev. D. F. + Ellenberger, <i>History of the Basuto</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:41%;"> + <a href="images/image164.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image164.jpg" + alt="Bats" title="Bats" /></a> + Bats Asleep + + <p class="cenhead">Left—Serotine (<i>Vespertilio serotinus</i>). + Right—Long-eared bat (<i>Plecotus auritus</i>).</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Bat</b>, one of the group of wing-handed, flying mammals, having + the fore-limb peculiarly modified so as to serve for flight, and + constituting the order Cheiroptera. Bats are animals of the twilight and + darkness, and are common in temperate and warm regions, but are most + numerous and largest in the tropics. All European bats are small, and + have a mouse-like skin. The body of the largest British species, + <i>Vespertilio noctŭla</i>, is less than that of a mouse, but its + wings stretch about 15 inches. During the day <!-- Page 421 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page421"></a>[421]</span>it remains in caverns, + in the crevices of ruins, hollow trees, and similar lurking places, and + flits out at evening in search of food, which consists of insects. + Several species of the same genus are common in North America. Many bats + are remarkable for having a singular nasal cutaneous appendage, bearing + in some cases a fancied resemblance to a horse-shoe. Bats may be + conveniently divided into two sections—the insectivorous or + carnivorous, comprising all European and most African and American + species; and the fruit-eating, belonging to tropical Asia and Australia, + with several African forms. An Australian fruit-eating bat + (<i>Pterŏpus edūlis</i>), commonly known as the kalong or + flying-fox, is the largest of all the bats; it does much mischief in + orchards. At least two species of South American bats are known to suck + the blood of other mammals, and thence are called 'vampire-bats'. All the + British bats belong to the insectivorous group, the fruit-eating and + blood-sucking bats being confined to warmer regions. There are fifteen + species on the British list, but of these three are very rare. Among the + most noteworthy forms are the greater and the lesser horse-shoe bats, in + which the ears are nearly as long as the whole body. As winter + approaches, in cold climates bats seek shelter in caverns, vaults, + ruinous and deserted buildings, and similar retreats, where they cling + together in large clusters, hanging head downwards by the feet, and + remain in a torpid condition until the returning spring recalls them to + active exertions. Bats generally bring forth two young. The parent shows + a strong degree of attachment to her offspring, and, when they are + captured, will follow them, and even submit to captivity herself rather + than forsake her charge.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:41%;"> + <a href="images/image165.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image165.jpg" + alt="Vampire-bat" title="Vampire-bat" /></a> + Vampire-bat (<i>Phyllostroma spectrum</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Bataille</b>, Henry, French poet and dramatist, born at Nîmes in + 1872. His first volume of poems, <i>La Chambre Blanche</i>, appeared in + 1895. His other works include <i>Le Beau Rivage</i>, <i>Maman + Colibri</i>, <i>La Marche Nuptiale</i>, <i>La Femme Nue</i>, <i>La Divine + Tragédie</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Batalha</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ta<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l'ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a village in Portugal, 69 miles north + of Lisbon, with a renowned convent of Dominicans, a splendid + building.</p> + + <p><b>Batan´gas</b>, a town of the Philippines, in the Island of Luzon, + capital of a province of same name, 58 miles south of Manila. Pop. + 33,131.</p> + + <p><b>Bata´tas.</b> See <i>Sweet-potato</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bat´avi.</b> See <i>Batavians</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bata´via</b>, a city and seaport of Java, on the north coast of the + island, the capital of the Dutch East Indies. It is situated on a wide, + deep bay, the principal warehouses and offices of the Europeans, the Java + Bank, the exchange, &c., being in the old town, which is built on a + low, marshy plain near the sea, intersected with canals and very + unhealthy; while the Europeans reside in a new and much healthier + quarter. Batavia has a large trade, sugar being the chief export. It was + founded by the Dutch in 1619, and attained its greatest prosperity in the + beginning of the eighteenth century. Its inhabitants are chiefly Malay, + with a considerable admixture of Chinese and a small number of Europeans. + Pop. 234,697 (1918).</p> + + <p><b>Batavian Republic.</b> See <i>Belgium</i>; <i>Netherlands.</i></p> + + <p><b>Batavians</b>, an old German nation which inhabited a part of the + present Holland, especially the island called <i>Batavia</i>, formed by + that branch of the Rhine which empties itself into the sea near Leyden, + together with the Waal and the Meuse. Tacitus asserts that they were a + branch of the Catti. They were subdued by Germanicus, and were granted + special privileges for their faithful services to the Romans, but + revolted under Vespasian. They were, however, again subdued by Trajan and + Adrian, and at the end of the third century the Salian Franks obtained + possession of the Island of Batavia.</p> + + <p><b>Batchian.</b> See <i>Bachian</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bates</b>, Henry Walter, traveller and naturalist, born at + Leicester 1825, learned the hosiery trade, but in 1847 went to the Amazon + with Russel Wallace, and remained there for eleven years studying the + natural history of the region. Returning to England, he published in 1862 + his <i>Naturalist on the River Amazons</i>, a work regarded as a classic. + He was assistant secretary to the Royal Geographical Society from 1864 + till his death in 1892. A large part of his collections is in the British + Museum.</p> + + <p><b>Bath</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>th), a city of England, in Somersetshire, + on the Avon, which is navigable for barges from Bristol; is beautifully + placed among the hills, and the houses are built of freestone, obtained + from the neighbourhood. The Abbey Church, dating from the fifteenth + century, ranks as one of the finest specimens of Perpendicular Gothic + architecture. Bath is remarkable for its medicinal waters, the four + principal springs yielding no less than 184,000 gallons of water a day; + and the baths are both handsome and <!-- Page 422 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page422"></a>[422]</span>roomy. The temperature + of the springs varies from 109° to 117° F. They contain carbonic acid, + chloride of sodium and of magnesium, sulphate of soda, carbonate and + sulphate of lime, &c. Bath was founded by the Romans, and called by + them <i>Aquæ Solis</i> (Waters of the Sun). Amongst the Roman remains + discovered there have been some fine baths. The height of its prosperity + was reached, however, in the eighteenth century, when Beau Nash was + leader of the fashion and master of its ceremonies. Since then, though it + still attracts large numbers of visitors, it has become the resort of + valetudinarians chiefly. Jointly with Wells it is the head of a diocese, + and since 1918 returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. (1921), + 68,648.</p> + + <p><b>Bath</b>, a town, United States, Maine, on the west side and at the + head of the winter navigation of the Kennebec, 12 miles from the sea. + Chief industries: shipbuilding and allied crafts. Pop. 9396.</p> + + <p><b>Bath</b>, the immersion of the body in water, or an apparatus for + this purpose.</p> + + <p><i>Ancient Baths.</i>—The use of the bath as an institution, + apart from occasional immersion in rivers or the sea, is, as might be + anticipated, an exceedingly old custom. Homer mentions the bath as one of + the first refreshments offered to a guest; thus, when Ulysses enters the + palace of Circe, a bath is prepared for him, and he is anointed after it + with costly perfumes. No representation, however, of a bath as we + understand it is given upon the Greek vases, bathers being represented + either simply washing at an elevated basin, or having water poured over + them from above. In later times, rooms, both public and private, were + built expressly for bathing, the public baths of the Greeks being mostly + connected with the gymnasia. Apparently, by an inversion of the later + practice, it was customary in the Homeric epoch to take first a cold and + then a hot bath; but the Lacedæmonians substituted the hot-air sudorific + bath, as less enervating than warm water, and in Athens at the time of + Demosthenes and Socrates the warm bath was considered by the more + rigorous to be an effeminate custom. The fullest details we have with + respect to the bathing of the ancients apply to its luxurious development + under the Romans. Their bathing establishments consisted of four main + sections: the undressing room, with an adjoining chamber in which the + bathers were anointed; a cold room with provision for a cold bath; a room + heated moderately to serve as a preparation for the highest and lowest + temperatures; and the sweating-room, at one extremity of which was a + vapour-bath and at the other an ordinary hot bath. After going through + the entire course both the Greeks and Romans made use of strigils or + scrapers, either of horn or metal, to remove perspiration, oil, and + impurities from the skin. Connected with the baths were walks, covered + race-grounds, tennis-courts, and gardens, the whole, both in the external + and internal decorations, being frequently on a palatial scale. The group + of the <i>Laocoon</i> and the <i>Farnese Hercules</i> were both found in + the ruins of Roman baths.</p> + + <p><i>Modern Baths.</i>—With respect to modern baths, that commonly + in use in Russia consists of a single hall, built of wood, in the midst + of which is a powerful metal oven, covered with heated stones, and + surrounded with broad benches, on which the bathers take their places. + Cold water is then poured upon the heated stones, and a thick, hot steam + rises, which causes the sweat to issue from the whole body. The bather is + then gently whipped with wet birch rods, rubbed with soap, and washed + with luke-warm and cold water; of the latter, some pailfuls are poured + over his head; or else he leaps, immediately after this sweating-bath, + into a river or pond, or rolls in the snow. The Turks, by their religion, + are obliged to make repeated ablutions daily, and for this purpose there + is, in every city, a public bath connected with a mosque. A favourite + bath among them, however, is a modification of the hot-air sudorific bath + of the ancients introduced under the name of 'Turkish' into other than + Mahommedan countries. A regular accompaniment of this bath, when properly + given, is the operation known as 'kneading', generally performed at the + close of the sweating process, after the final rubbing of the bather with + soap, and consisting in a systematic pressing and squeezing of the whole + body, stretching the limbs, and manipulating all the joints as well as + the fleshy and muscular parts. Public baths are now common in Europe, but + the first English public baths and wash-houses of the kind now common in + all cities were established in Liverpool and near the London docks in + 1844. In 1846 an Act was passed for their encouragement, and a series of + statutes, known as 'The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896', + followed. The establishment of cheap swimming-baths was authorized in + 1878.</p> + + <p>The principal natural warm baths in England are at Bath, in + Somersetshire (the hottest), and Buxton and Matlock, in Derbyshire. The + temperature of the Bath springs ranges from 109° to 117° F., while that + of the Buxton and Matlock waters scarcely exceeds 82°. The baths of + Harrogate, which are strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, + are also of great repute for the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases, + indurations of the glands, &c. The most celebrated natural hot baths + in Europe <!-- Page 423 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page423"></a>[423]</span>are those of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the + various Baden, in Germany; Toeplitz, in Bohemia; Bagnières, Baréges, and + Dax, in the south of France; and Spa, in Belgium. Besides the various + kinds of water-bath with or without medication or natural mineral + ingredients, there are also milk, oil, wine, earth, sand, mud, and + electric baths, smoke-baths and gas-baths; but these are as a rule only + indulged in after specific prescription.</p> + + <p>The practice of bathing as a method of cure in cases of disease falls + under the head of hydropathy; but even when it is employed simply for + pleasure or purification due regard should be paid to the physiological + condition of the bather. In many cases cold bathing should be avoided + altogether, especially by those who have any tendency to spitting of + blood or consumption, by gouty people, or by those who have any latent + visceral disease or apoplectic tendency. Wherever the bath is followed by + shivering instead of by a healthy reactionary glow, it is undesirable; + and a cold bath in the morning after any debauchery or excess in eating + or drinking on the previous evening is exceedingly imprudent. Delicate + persons and children ought not to bathe in the sea before ten or eleven + o'clock in the morning, and in no case should bathing be indulged in + after a long fast. In cold streams and rivers additional precautions + should be taken, the cold plunge, when heated or fatigued, being + frequently attended with fatal results. Even warm baths are not wholly + free from danger; apoplexy and death having been known to follow a hot + bath when entered with a full stomach. As a rule the temperature should + not exceed 105°, and they should not be too long continued. Frequent + indulgence in them has an enervating effect, though the majority of + people need as yet no renewal of Hadrian's prohibitive legislation in + this matter. See also <i>Douches</i>; <i>Thermæ</i>.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: W. A. Becker, <i>Gallus</i>; J. Farrar, + <i>Baths and Bathing</i>; W. P. Gerhard, <i>Modern Baths and Bath + Houses</i>; R. F. Fox, <i>Principles and Practice of Medical + Hydrology</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bath, Knights of the</b>, an order of England, supposed to have + been instituted by Henry IV on the day of his coronation, but allowed to + lapse after the reign of Charles II till 1725, when George I revived it + as a military order. By the book of statutes then prepared the number of + knights was limited to the sovereign and thirty-seven knights companions; + but the limits of the order were greatly extended in 1815, and again in + 1847, when it was opened to civilians. It now consists of three classes, + each subdivided into (1) military members, (2) civil members, and (3) + honorary members, consisting of foreign princes and officers. The first + class consists of Knights of the Grand Cross (<span + class="scac">G.C.B.</span>); the second of Knights Commanders (<span + class="scac">K.C.B.</span>); and the third of Companions (<span + class="scac">C.B.</span>). The Dean of Westminster is dean of the order. + In 1917 the Companions of the order were given the privileges and + precedence of Commanders, the badge being now worn round the neck. In + 1918 the statutes were amended in order to admit officers of the Royal + Air Force to the military division. The ribbon of the order is crimson; + the military badge a gold cross of eight points, with the lion of England + between the four principal angles, and having in a circle in the centre + the rose, thistle, and shamrock between three imperial crowns; motto: + <i>Tria juncta in uno</i>. Stars are worn by the two first classes, with + additional motto, <i>Ich dien</i>, for the military members only. See + <i>Knighthood</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bath-brick</b>, a preparation of siliceous earth found in the River + Parret, in Somersetshire, in the form of a solid brick, used for cleaning + knives, &c. See <i>Sand</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bath´gate</b>, a town, Scotland, Linlithgowshire, pleasantly + situated, and having in the vicinity the paraffin-works known as Young's, + a paper-mill and other works, and coal and iron-stone mines. Pop. (1921), + 8504.</p> + + <p><b>Batholite</b>, a mass of igneous rock having no visible floor, and + presumed to pass down into some region of the earth's crust where molten + rocks at one time prevailed over all others. Granite blocks, like those + of the Cairngorm Mountains in Scotland, or the long ridge of the Leinster + Chain, which have intruded into their surroundings, are regarded as + batholites the crests of which have become exposed by denudation. A + batholite in its original molten condition may exist under any large area + of volcanic activity, and the similarity of the igneous rocks sent to the + surface over broad regions of the earth, constituting what are called + 'petrographical provinces', points to the existence of very considerable + continuous rock-cauldrons in the crust.</p> + + <p><b>Bathom´eter</b>, an instrument, invented by C. Williams Siemens, + for measuring the depth of sea beneath a vessel without casting a line. + It is based upon the fact that the attraction exerted upon any given mass + of matter on the ship is less when she is afloat than ashore, because of + the less density of sea-water as compared with that of earth or rock.</p> + + <p><b>Bathonian Stage</b>, a division of the middle Jurassic series of + rocks, including the beds between the Inferior Oolite and the Oxford + Clay. The name is derived from its excellent development near Bath, in + Somersetshire, and the most important member is the Oolitic limestone + known as Bath-stone (q.v.). The Bathonian stage includes the following + beds in ascending order:—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Stonesfield Slate</i>, named from a village near <!-- Page 424 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page424"></a>[424]</span>Woodstock; a + flaggy limestone used for roofing, with remains of ferns and cycads + washed in from the Jurassic land, and of some of the earliest-known + mammals, allies of the monotremes or the marsupials. 2. The <i>Great</i> + or <i>Bath Oolite</i>, with marine fossils, and also remains of the large + reptiles known as dinosaurs. 3. <i>Bradford Clay.</i> 4. <i>Forest + Marble.</i> 5. <i>Cornbrash</i>, so called from its 'brashy' or rubbly + nature, an earthy oolite yielding fair land for corn.</p> + + <p><b>Bathori</b> (bä'to-rē), or <b>Bathory</b>, a Hungarian + family, which gave Transylvania five princes, and Poland one of its + greatest kings. The more important members were:—1. Stephen, born + in 1532, elected Prince of Transylvania in 1571, on the death of Zapolya, + and in 1575 King of Poland. He accomplished many internal reforms, + recovered the Polish territories in possession of the Czar of Moscovy, + and reigned prosperously till his death in 1586.—2. Sigismund, + nephew of Stephen, educated by the Jesuits, became Prince of Transylvania + in 1581, shook off the Ottoman yoke, and had begun to give hopes of + reigning gloriously when he resigned his dominions to the Emperor Rudolph + II, in return for two principalities in Silesia, a cardinal's hat, and a + pension. Availing himself, however, of an invitation by the + Transylvanians, he returned, and placed himself under the protection of + the Porte, but was defeated by the Imperialists in every battle, and + finally sent to Prague, where he died almost forgotten in 1613.—3. + Elizabeth, niece of Stephen, King of Poland, and wife of Count Nadasdy, + of Hungary. She is said to have bathed in the blood of 600 young girls in + the hope of renewing her youth, and to have committed other enormities. + She was afterwards seized and confined till her death in 1614.</p> + + <p><b>Bat-horse.</b> See <i>Batman</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´thos</b>, a Greek word meaning depth, now used to signify a + ludicrous sinking from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech. + First used in this sense by Pope in <i>The Art of Sinking in Poetry</i> + (<i>Scriblerus Papers</i>, 1729).</p> + + <p><b>Bath-stone</b> (also called <b>Bath-oolite</b> and + <b>Roe-stone</b>, from the small rounded grains of which it is composed), + a species of English limestone. It is extensively worked near Bath for + building purposes. When just quarried it is soft; but though it soon + becomes hard on exposure to the atmosphere, and is of handsome + appearance, it is not very durable.</p> + + <p><b>Bath´urst</b>, a British settlement on the west coast of Africa, on + the Island of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Gambia, with a trade in + gum, bees-wax, hides, ivory, gold, rice, cotton, and palm-oil. Pop. + 8000.</p> + + <p><b>Bathurst</b>, a town in the western district of New South Wales, on + the Macquarie River, with wide, well-laid-out streets at right angles, + and a central square, tanneries, railway workshops, breweries, + flour-mills, and other industries. Pop. 9200.</p> + + <p><b>Bathurst</b>, Allen Bathurst, First Earl, a distinguished statesman + in Queen Anne's reign; born 1684. He took part with Harley and St. John + in opposing the influence of Marlborough, was raised to the peerage in + 1711, impeached the promoters of the South Sea scheme, opposed the Bill + against Atterbury, and was a leading antagonist of Walpole. He was + created earl in 1772. His name is also associated with those of the + leading writers and wits of the day. Died 1775.</p> + + <p><b>Bathurst</b>, Henry Bathurst, Third Earl, son of the second earl, a + prominent Tory statesman, after whom various capes, islands, and + districts were named. Born 1762; in 1807, President of Board of Trade; in + 1809, Secretary for Foreign Affairs; and in 1812, Secretary for the + Colonies, a post held by him for sixteen years. He was also President of + the Council under Wellington, 1828-30. Died 1834.</p> + + <p><b>Bathurst Island</b>, on the North Australian coast, belonging to S. + Australia, separated from Melville Island by a narrow strait; triangular + in shape, with a wooded area of about 1000 sq. miles.—Also an + island in the Arctic Ocean discovered by Parry, <span + class="scac">E.</span> of Cornwallis and <span class="scac">W.</span> of + Melville Island, 76° <span class="scac">N.</span>, 100° <span + class="scac">W.</span></p> + + <p><b>Bathyb´ius</b> (Gr. <i>bathys</i>, deep, <i>bios</i>, life), the + name given by Huxley to what was regarded as granular slimy masses of + animal matter found covering the sea-bottom at great depths.</p> + + <p><b>Batiste</b> (ba-tēst'), a fine linen cloth made in Flanders + and Picardy, named after its inventor, Jean Baptiste of Cambrai.</p> + + <p><b>Bat´ley</b>, a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, West + Riding of York, about a mile from Dewsbury; principal manufactures: heavy + woollen cloths, such as pilot, beaver, police, army, and frieze cloths, + flushings, and blankets. Batley and Morley unite in returning one member + to Parliament. Pop. 36,151.</p> + + <p><b>Batman</b> (bat'man or bä'man; from Fr. <i>bât</i>, a pack-saddle), + in the British army, a person allowed by the Government to every company + of a regiment on foreign service. His duty is to take charge of the + cooking utensils, &c., of the company, and he has a bat-horse to + convey these utensils from place to place.</p> + + <p><b>Ba´ton</b>, a short staff or truncheon, in some cases used as an + official badge, as that of a field-marshal. The conductor of an orchestra + has a baton for the purpose of directing the performers as to time, + &c. In heraldry, what is usually called the 'bastard bar', or 'bar + sinister', is properly a baton sinister. See <i>Bastard Bar</i>. <!-- + Page 425 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page425"></a>[425]</span></p> + + <p><b>Bat´on Rouge</b> (rözh), the capital of Louisiana, United States, + on the left bank of the Mississippi, with an arsenal, barracks, military + hospital, State house, State university, &c. On 5th Aug., 1862, the + Confederates under General Breckenridge suffered a severe defeat before + it. Pop. (1920), 21,782.</p> + + <p><b>Batoum</b>, or <b>Batum</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-töm´), a port on the east coast of the + Black Sea, acquired by Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on condition that + its fortifications were dismantled and it was thrown open as a free port. + It rapidly grew to be the main outlet for Transcaucasia; its harbour was + enlarged for commercial reasons; an arsenal was built outside it; it was + connected by a military road with Kars; and finally, in July, 1886, the + Russian <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'Goverment'." + >Government</span> declared it to be a free port no longer. Its + importance as a naval and military station to Russia was unquestionably + great; it is of most importance commercially as an outlet for the mineral + oil of Baku. The water is of great depth close inshore, and the shipping + lies under protection of the overhanging cliffs of the Gouriel Mountains. + Batoum was abandoned by the Bolshevik Government in March, 1918, and + occupied by the Turks on 15th April of the same year. By the terms of the + armistice concluded with Turkey in Nov., 1918, the Allies occupied the + port, and in Nov., 1919, a military governor was appointed by the British + Government. On 9th July, 1920, Batoum was evacuated by the British, and + occupied by Georgian troops. Pop. 46,000.—The province of + <i>Batoum</i> has an area of 2693 sq. miles. Pop. 186,000.</p> + + <p><b>Batrachians</b> (ba-trā´ki-anz; Gr. <i>batrachŏs</i>, a + frog), the fourth order in Cuvier's arrangement of the class Reptilia, + comprising frogs, toads, newts, salamanders, and sirens. The term is now + sometimes employed as synonymous with amphibia, but is more usually + restricted to the order Anura or tailless amphibia. See + <i>Amphibia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Batshian.</b> See <i>Bachian</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bat´ta</b>, an allowance which military officers in India receive + in addition to their pay. It was originally given only when the officers + were on the march or in the field, but now half batta is paid when troops + are in cantonments.</p> + + <p><b>Battal´ion</b>, the tactical unit of command in infantry, supposed + to be of the maximum strength to be efficiently handled by one officer in + chief command, with others under him. In most armies it is about 1000 to + 1100 men. The former is about the strength of a battalion in the British + army, in which battalions now correspond to what were formerly regiments, + the chief commanding officer (in actual command) being the + lieutenant-colonel. See <i>Army</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Battalion of Death</b>, the legion of Russian women and girls, + belonging to all classes, organized in 1917 and commanded by the famous + revolutionary Madame Botshkalova. The battalion took part in several + engagements.</p> + + <p><b>Bat´tas</b>, or <b>Battaks</b>, a people belonging to the Malayan + race inhabiting the valleys and plateaus of the mountains that extend + longitudinally through the Island of Sumatra. They practise agriculture + and cattle-rearing, and are skillful in various handicrafts; they have + also a written literature and an alphabet of their own, their books + treating of astrology, witchcraft, medicine, war, &c. They are under + the rule of hereditary chieftains. In 1908 a Battak Institute was + established at Leyden for the study of the Battak country, people, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bat´tenberg</b>, a village in the Prussian province of + Hesse-Nassau, from which the sons (by morganatic marriage) of Prince + Alexander of Hesse, uncle of Louis, Grand-Duke of Hesse, the husband of + Princess Alice of Britain, derived their titles of princes of Battenberg. + One of them, Alexander, was Prince of Bulgaria from 1879 to 1886, and + died in 1893. Another, Prince Henry, was married to Princess Beatrice of + Great Britain in 1885, and died in 1896.</p> + + <p><b>Battenberg</b>, Prince Louis Alexander of, born 24th May, 1854, in + Graz, son of Prince Alexander of Hesse. He became a naturalized British + subject, entered the navy in 1868, and in 1884 married Princess Victoria, + eldest daughter of Princess Alice Maud, Grand-Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, + and second daughter of Queen Victoria. He became rear-admiral in 1904, + was second admiral of the Mediterranean fleet from 1906 to 1908, + commanded the Atlantic fleet from 1908 to 1910, the 3rd and 4th divisions + of the Home fleet in 1911, and was appointed Second Sea Lord in Nov., + 1911, and First Sea Lord in Dec., 1912, in succession to Sir Francis + Bridgeman. In October, 1914, however, in consequence of a campaign + against alien enemies which culminated in an attack in the <i>Globe</i> + on the First Sea Lord, he tendered his resignation to Mr. Winston + Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, on the ground that his birth + and parentage in some respects impaired his usefulness. In 1917 the king + determined that those princes of his family who were his subjects and + bore German names and titles should relinquish those titles and adopt + British surnames, and Prince Louis adopted the title of Marquess of + Milford Haven, and the surname of Mountbatten. He was the author of + <i>Men-of-war Names, their Meaning and Origin</i> (1908). He was made a + Privy Councillor in 1914, and was both a Civil and a Military Knight + Grand Cross of the Bath. He died 11th Sept., 1921.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/image166.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image166.jpg" + alt="Battering-ram" title="Battering-ram" /></a> + Roman Battering-ram + </div> + + <p><b>Battering-ram</b>, an engine for battering down the walls of + besieged places. The ancients employed two different engines of this + kind—one suspended in a frame, the other movable on <!-- Page 426 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page426"></a>[426]</span>wheels or + rollers. They consisted of a beam or spar with a massive metal head, and + were set in motion either by a direct application of manual force or by + means of cords passing over pulleys. Some are said to have been 120 feet + or more in length, and to have been worked by 100 men. One is described + as being 180 feet long, and having a head weighing 1½ tons. Smaller ones, + manned by three or four soldiers, were also frequently employed. They + were generally covered with a roof or screen for the protection of the + workers. The battering-ram is mentioned by Ezekiel (iv, 2; xxi, 22), and + the Romans learnt the use of it from the Greeks.</p> + + <p><b>Bat´tersea</b>, a municipal and parliamentary borough of London, in + Surrey, in a low situation on the south bank of the Thames, nearly + opposite Chelsea, with a fine public park extending over 185 acres. The + district is associated with the names of Pope and Bolingbroke, and with + the Wellington-Winchilsea duel. Battersea returns two members to + Parliament. Pop. (municipal borough), (1921), 167,693.</p> + + <p><b>Bat´tery</b>, (1) any number of guns grouped for action in one + place and under one control; (2) the tactical and administrative unit of + the Royal Regiment of Artillery; (3) an entrenched work constructed as a + position for guns in siege warfare.</p> + + <p>The Royal Regiment of Artillery is organized in batteries of horse, + field, heavy, siege, and mountain artillery. These differ in the weight + and type of gun with which they have to do, but the general principles of + organization are the same. (See <i>Army</i>.) Nominally a battery + consists of six guns with their attendant ammunition wagons (12) and + certain other transport. A major commands the battery, and has a captain + and three subalterns to assist him. For all purposes a battery is + permanently organized in three sections, each of two guns and four + wagons, under subaltern officers; while in action it is divided into two + parts, (<i>a</i>) the fighting battery of six guns and six wagons; + (<i>b</i>) the wagon line of the remaining wagons, under command of the + captain. The change from march formation to that necessary for firing is + termed 'coming into action'.</p> + + <p>Horse, field, and some heavy batteries are horse-drawn (six or eight + horses to a gun), while other heavy batteries and siege-guns are drawn by + mechanical transport or mounted on railway platforms. Mountain batteries + are organized for pack transport only—either mules or + carriers—all the material being specially constructed to this end. + Among combinations with the word battery come the following: <i>battery + commander</i>, the officer commanding a battery; <i>battery leader</i>, + the senior subaltern, who receives and carries out the commander's orders + in action; <i>battery-fire</i>, each gun of a battery firing in turn: as + opposed to gun-fire, where each gun fires independently. See + <i>Artillery</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Battery</b>, in criminal law, an assault by beating or wounding + another. The least touching or meddling with the person of another + against his will may be held to constitute a battery.</p> + + <p><b>Battery</b>, in electricity and galvanism, a combination of several + jars or metallic plates. See <i>Daniell's Cell</i>; <i>Electric + Battery</i>; <i>Secondary Cell</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Batthyanyi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>t-ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´yē), one of the oldest and most + celebrated Hungarian families, traceable as far back as the Magyar + invasion of Pannonia in the ninth century. Among later bearers of the + name have been—Count Casmir Batthyanyi, who was associated with + Kossuth, was Minister of Foreign Affairs in Hungary during the + insurrection of 1849, and died in Paris 1854; Count Louis Batthyanyi, + born 1809, of another branch of the family, was leader of the opposition + in the Hungarian Diet until the breaking out of the commotions of 1848, + when he took an active part in promoting the national cause; but on the + entry of Windischgrätz into Pesth he was arrested and shot, 1849.</p> + + <p><b>Battle</b>, a combat between two armies. In ancient times and the + Middle Ages the battleground was often chosen by agreement, and the + battle was a mere trial of strength, a duel <i>en gros</i>; and as the + armies of the ancients were imperfectly organized, and the combatants + fought very little at a distance, after the battle had begun + manuœvres were much more difficult, and troops almost entirely + beyond the control of the general. Under these circumstances the battle + depended almost wholly upon the previous arrangements and the valour of + the troops. In modern times, however, the finest combinations, the most + ingenious manœuvres, are rendered possible by the better + organization of the armies, and it is the skill of the general rather + than the courage of the soldier that now <!-- Page 427 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page427"></a>[427]</span>determines the event of + a battle. Battles are distinguished as <i>offensive</i> or + <i>defensive</i> on either side, but there is a natural and ready + transition from one method to the other. The purely defensive attitude is + condemned by tacticians except in cases where the only object desirable + is to maintain a position of vital consequence, the weight of precedent + being in favour of the dash and momentum of an attacking force even where + opposed to superior forces. Where the greatest generals have acted upon + the defensive, it has almost always been with the desire to develop an + opportunity to pass to the offensive, and, having discovered their + opponent's hand, to marshal against the enemy, exhausted with attack, the + whole strength of their resources. Napoleon won more than one great + victory by this method, and Wellington's reputation was largely based + upon his skill in defensive-offensive operations. Tacticians have divided + a battle into three periods, which are disposition, combat, and the + decisive moment. In some measure they require distinct qualities in a + commander, the intellect which can plot a disposition being by no means + always of the prompt judgment passing to instant action which avails + itself of the crucial moment to crush an enemy. Cooperation and mutual + support of all arms and services is essential to success in a modern + battle, which may occupy many days or even weeks and embrace a large area + of country, e.g. the battle of the Marne, the battle of the Somme. This + co-operation is ensured by the most careful and detailed arrangements + being made beforehand, such arrangements even including the rehearsal of + more important phases over ground prepared to represent the country over + which the operations will eventually take place. The modern battle may + be, and probably will be, a continuation of many + operations—<i>offensive</i> and <i>defensive</i>—carried out + by distinct and separate formations. The general scope of the operations + as a whole will be planned by the supreme commander, while the choice of + the methods to be used is left to the commander of the formations + affected. See <i>Strategy</i>; <i>Tactics</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Battle</b>, a town in Sussex, so named from the battle of Hastings + having been fought there. An abbey built by William the Norman has + disappeared, but important remains of a later building exist on the same + site; and there is an old church of great interest. Pop. (1921), + 2891.</p> + + <p><b>Battle</b> (or <b>Battel</b>), <b>Wager of</b>, an obsolete method, + according to English law, of deciding civil or criminal cases by personal + combat between the parties or their champions in presence of the court. A + woman, a priest, a peer, or a person physically incapable of fighting + could refuse such a trial. It was not abolished till 1819 (by the Statute + of 59 George III, c. 46), but had long previously been in abeyance. See + <i>Ordeal</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Battle-axe</b>, a weapon much used in war in the early part of the + Middle Ages among knights. It is a weapon which affords hardly any guard, + and the heavier the blow given with it the more the fighter is exposed; + but its use was to some extent necessitated by the resistance of iron + armour to all but heavy blows. In England and Scotland the battle-axe was + much employed, the Lochaber-axe remaining a formidable implement of + destruction in the hands of the Highlanders to a recent period.</p> + + <p><b>Battle Creek</b>, a town of the United States, in Michigan, at the + junction of the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek, with a college, and + manufactures of agricultural implements, &c. Pop. 25,267.</p> + + <p><b>Battleford</b>, a trading town of Canada, province of Saskatchewan, + at the junction of the Battle and Saskatchewan (North Fork). Pop. + 1335.</p> + + <p><b>Bat´tlement</b>, a notched or indented parapet of a fortification, + formed by a series of raised parts called <i>cops</i> or <i>merlons</i>, + separated by openings called <i>crenelles</i> or <i>embrasures</i>, the + soldier sheltering himself behind the merlon, while he fires through the + embrasure. Battlements were originally military, but were afterwards used + freely in ecclesiastical and civil buildings by way of ornament, on + parapets, cornices, tabernacle work, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Battle-piece</b>, a painting representing a battle. Some of the + greatest pieces of this kind are the <i>Battle of Constantine</i>, of + which the cartoons were drawn by Raphael, and which was executed by + Giulio Romano; Lebrun's <i>Battles of Alexander</i>; and the <i>Battles + of the Amazons</i>, by Rubens.</p> + + <p><b>Battue</b> (ba-tü´), a method of killing game by having persons to + beat a wood, copse, or other cover, and so drive the animals (pheasants, + hares, &c.) towards the spot where sportsmen are stationed to shoot + them.</p> + + <p><b>Battus</b>, legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene, in + Libya, about 650 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> There were eight rulers + of the family founded by him, bearing alternately the names Battus and + Arcesilaus.</p> + + <p><b>Batu Khan</b>, Mongol ruler of the Western conquests of his + grandfather, Genghis Khan, from 1224 to 1255. He overran Russia, Poland, + Hungary, and Dalmatia, holding Russia for ten years.</p> + + <p><b>Batum.</b> See <i>Batoum</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baudelaire</b> (bōd-lār), Charles Pierre, French poet, + born 1821. His first work of importance was a series of translations from + Poe, ranking among the most perfect translations in any literature. A + volume of poems, <i>Les Fleurs du Mal</i> (1857), established his + reputation as a <!-- Page 428 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page428"></a>[428]</span>leader of the Romanticists, though the + police thought it necessary to deodorize them. Of a higher tone were his + <i>Petits Poèmes en Prose</i>; followed in 1859 by a monograph on + Théophile Gautier, in 1860 by <i>Les Paradis Artificiels</i> (opium and + hashish studies), and in 1861 by <i>Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris</i>. He + died in 1867. The best English rendering of the <i>Fleurs du Mal</i> is + by A. Symons (1905).—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Henry + James, <i>French Poets and Novelists</i>; Asselineau, <i>Charles + Baudelaire, sa vie et son œuvre</i>; F. Gautier, <i>Charles + Baudelaire</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baudry</b> (bō-drē), Paul Jacques Aimé, a prominent + modern French painter, born in 1828, died Jan., 1886. He took the grand + prix de Rome in 1850, and exhibited many important works, of which the + better known are his <i>Charlotte Corday</i> and <i>La Perle et la + Vague</i>. The decoration of the <i>foyer</i> of the New Opera House at + Paris was entrusted to him—an enormous work, occupying a total + surface of 500 sq. metres, but admirably accomplished by him in eight + years.</p> + + <p><b>Bauer</b> (bou´er), Bruno, German philosopher, historian, and + Biblical critic of the rational school, born 1809, died 1882. Wrote + <i>Critique of the Gospel of John</i> (1840); <i>Critique of the Synoptic + Gospels</i> (1840); <i>History of the French Revolution to the Founding + of the Republic</i> (1847); <i>History of Germany during the French + Revolution and the Rule of Napoleon</i> (1846); <i>Critique of the + Gospels</i> (1850-1); <i>Critique of the Pauline Epistles</i> (1850); + <i>Philo, Strauss, Renan, and Primitive Christianity</i> (1874); + <i>Christ and the Cæsars</i> (1877), &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bauhin</b> (bō-an), Gaspard, born at Basel in 1560; in 1580 + elected to the Greek chair at Basel, and in 1589 to that of anatomy and + botany. He died in 1624. His fame rests chiefly on his <i>Pinax Theatri + Botanici</i> and <i>Theatrum Botanicum</i>. Linnæus gave his name to a + genus of plants.</p> + + <p><b>Bauhin´ia</b>, a genus of plants, ord. Leguminosæ, usually lianes, + found in the woods of hot countries, and often stretching from tree to + tree like cables. Many are showy and interesting. The bark of <i>B. + variegāta</i> is used in tanning; the bast fibres of some Indian + species are made into ropes and twine.</p> + + <p><b>Baumgarten</b> (boum´ga<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-tn), Alexander Gottlieb, a German + philosopher, born in 1714 at Berlin; in 1740 was made professor of + philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and died there in 1762. He is the + founder of æsthetics as a science, and the inventor of this name. His + ideas were first developed in his <i>De Nonnullis ad Poema + pertinentibus</i> (1735), and afterwards in the two volumes of his + uncompleted <i>Æsthetica</i>, published 1750-8.</p> + + <p><b>Baur</b> (bour), Ferdinand Christian, German theologian, founder of + the 'Tübingen School' of theologians and Hegelian thinkers, born in 1792. + The publication of his first work, <i>Symbolism and Mythology, or The + Natural Religion of Antiquity</i>, in 1824-5, led to his appointment as + professor in the evangelical faculty of Tübingen University, a position + occupied by him till his death in 1860. His chief works in the department + of the history of Christian dogma are: <i>The Christian Gnosis, or The + Christian Philosophy of Religion</i> (1835); <i>The Christian Doctrine of + the Atonement</i> (1838); <i>The Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and + the Incarnation</i> (1841-3); <i>The Compendium of and Lectures on the + History of Christian Dogmas</i> (1847, 1865). To the department of New + Testament criticism and the early history of Christianity belong the + so-called <i>Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle Paul</i> (1835); <i>Paul + the Apostle of Jesus Christ</i> (1845); <i>Critical Inquiries Concerning + the Canonic Gospels</i> (1847); <i>A History of Christian Doctrine to the + End of the Eighteenth Century</i> (1853-63). Baur's views in regard to + the Church of the earliest times and the New Testament Scriptures have + been very influential. He saw different and opposing tendencies at work + in the Church of apostolic times, and believed that the New Testament + mainly took form in the second century, the only genuine writings + previous to <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 70 being the four great + Pauline epistles and <i>Revelation</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bautzen</b> (bout´sen), or <b>Budissin</b>, a German town in + Saxony, upon a height on the right bank of the Spree, with some old and + interesting buildings. The inhabitants are mostly Lutheran, and both + Catholics and Protestants worship in the same cathedral. Chief + manufactures: woollen goods, paper, gunpowder, machines. Napoleon + defeated the united armies of the Russians and the Prussians at Bautzen + on the 21st May, 1813. Pop. 32,754.</p> + + <p><b>Bauxite</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>k´sīt), a rock resembling clay, but + consisting of hydrated aluminium oxides, with, in good examples, a silica + content of less than 2 per cent. Bauxite is mined at Les Baux in + Provence, in Arkansas, and other places, including County Antrim, where + it occurs between basaltic lavas. It is the source of commercial + aluminium, and is also used for bricks for high-temperature furnaces, and + in alum manufacture. Like laterite (q.v.), it results from tropical + conditions of weathering acting on a variety of silicate rocks.</p> + + <p><b>Bava´ria</b> (Ger. <i>Bayern</i>; Fr. <i>Bavière</i>), previous to + the changes caused by the European War (1914-8), a kingdom in the south + of Germany, the second largest State of the <i>Reich</i>, composed of two + isolated portions, the larger comprising about eleven-twelfths of the + monarchy, having Würtemberg, Baden, &c., on the west, while the + smaller portion, the Pfalz or <!-- Page 429 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page429"></a>[429]</span>Palatinate, is separated from the other by + Würtemberg and Baden, and lies west of the Rhine; total area, 30,346 sq. + miles. The main political divisions are: Upper Bavaria (pop. 1,532,065; + chief town, Munich, the capital of the country, pop. 596,467); Lower + Bavaria (724,331); Palatinate (937,085); Upper Palatinate and Regensburg + (600,284); Upper Franconia (661,862); Middle Franconia (930,868); Lower + Franconia and Aschaffenburg (710,943); Sehwaben and Neuburg (789,853); + total in (1919), 7,150,146. Next towns after Munich are Nürnberg, + Augsburg, Würzburg, and Ratisbon (Regensburg). The main portion of the + country is hilly; in the south, where it belongs to the Alps, it is + mountainous; but north of the Alps and south of the Danube, which flows + east through the country from Ulm to Passau, there is a considerable + plateau, averaging about 1600 feet above the sea-level. The south + frontier is formed by a branch of the Noric Alps, offsets from which + project far into the plateau; principal peaks: the Zugspitze, 10,394 + feet, and the Watzmann, 9470 feet. The highest summits on the Bohemian + (Austrian) frontier, belonging to the Böhmerwald Mountains, are the + Rachel, 5102 feet, and the Arber, 5185 feet. Ranges of less elevation + bordering on or belonging to the country are the Fichtelgebirge in the + north-east, the Frankenwald, Rhöngebirge, and Spessart in the north, and + the Steigerwald and Franconian Jura in the middle. The Palatinate is + traversed by the north extremity of the Vosges Mountains, the highest + peak being the Konigstuhl, 2162 feet. The greater part of the country + belongs to the basin of the Danube, which is navigable, its tributaries + on the south being the Iller, Lech, Isar, and Inn; on the north, the + Wornitz, Altmühl, Nab, and Regen. The northern portion belongs to the + basin of the Main, which receives the Regnitz and Saale, and is a + tributary of the Rhine. The Palatinate has only small streams that flow + into its boundary river the Rhine. The chief lakes of Bavaria are all on + the higher part of the south plateau; the smaller within the range of the + Alps. The Ammer-See is about 10 miles long by 2½ broad, 1736 feet above + the sea; the Würm-See or Starnberger-See, about 12 miles long by 3 broad, + 1899 feet; and Chiem-See, 9 miles long by 9 to 4 broad, 1651 feet. The + climate in general is temperate and healthy, though somewhat colder than + the other South German States; yearly average about 47° F.</p> + + <p>As regards soil, Bavaria is one of the most fertile countries in + Germany, producing the various cereals in abundance, the best hops in + Germany, fruit, wine, tobacco, &c., and having extensive forests. + Lower Franconia (the Main valley) and the Palatinate are the great + vine-growing districts. The celebrated Steinwein and Leistenwein are the + produce of the slopes of the Steinberg and Marienberg at Würzburg (on the + Main). The forests of Bavaria, chiefly fir and pine, yield a large + revenue, much timber being annually exported, together with potash, tar, + turpentine, &c. The principal mineral products are salt, coal, and + iron, some of the mining works belonging to the State. The minerals + worked include copper, quicksilver, manganese, cobalt, porcelain clay, + alabaster, graphite. Large numbers of horses and cattle are reared, as + also sheep and swine. The return of cattle in 1917 showed 272,667 horses, + 3,896,702 cattle, and 616,464 sheep. The manufactures are individually + mostly on a small scale. The principal articles manufactured are linens, + woollens, cottons, leather, paper, glass, earthen and iron ware, + jewellery, &c. The optical and mathematical instruments made are + excellent. A most important branch of industry is the brewing of beer, + for which there are upwards of 7000 establishments, producing over 300 + millions of gallons a year. The distilleries produce over 4 millions of + gallons of alcohol. A number of the people maintain themselves by the + manufacture of articles in wood, and by felling and hewing timber. The + trade of Bavaria in home produce exported and goods imported for + consumption in the country is not large. Principal exports: corn, timber, + wine, cattle, glass, hops, fruit, beer, wooden wares, &c. The chief + imports are sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, spices, dye-stuffs, silk and + silk goods, lead, &c. From its position Bavaria has a considerable + transit trade. The Konig Ludwig Canal connects the Main at Bamberg with + the Altmühl a short distance above its embouchure in the Danube, thus + establishing water communication between the North Sea and the Black Sea. + The railway system has a total mileage of 5290, mostly belonging to the + State.</p> + + <p>Education is in a less satisfactory condition than in most German + States. There are about 7500 elementary schools, at which attendance is + compulsory up to fourteen years of age. There are three universities, two + of which (Munich and Würzburg) are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlangen) + Protestant. In art Bavaria is best known as the home of the Nürnberg + school, founded about the middle of the sixteenth century by Albert + Dürer. Hans Holbein is also claimed as a Bavarian; and to these have to + be added the eminent sculptors Kraft and Vischer, both born about the + middle of the fifteenth century. The restoration of the reputation of + Bavaria in art was chiefly the work of Ludwig I, under whom the capital + became one of the most prominent seats of the fine arts in Europe. The + religion of the State is Roman Catholicism, over <!-- Page 430 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page430"></a>[430]</span>70 per cent of the + population being Roman Catholics. All citizens, whatever their creed, + possess the same civil and political rights. The dioceses of Bavaria + comprise two Roman Catholic archbishopries, Munich and Bamberg; and six + bishopries, Augsburg, Ratisbon, Eichstädt, Passau, Würzburg, and + Spires.</p> + + <p>For over a century Bavaria was a kingdom, and the crown hereditary in + the male line of the descendants of the ancient Counts of Wittelsbach. + The executive power was vested in the king, but his ministers were + responsible for his acts. The legislature consisted of two + chambers—one of senators, composed of princes of the royal family, + the great officers of the State, the two archbishops, the heads of + certain noble families, and certain members appointed by the Crown; the + other of deputies, 163 in number, elected by direct and secret vote, and + calculated at the rate of 1 for every 38,000 inhabitants. The lower + chamber was elected for six years. The Budget for each of the years 1916 + and 1917 balanced at £12,183,411; for 1918 and 1919 at £42,639,595; the + public debt on 1st July, 1917, was £128,719,000, £98,179,000 being + railway debt. The army (peace footing, 72,000) was raised by + conscription—every man being liable to serve from the 1st of + January of the year in which he completes his twentieth year. In time of + peace the army was under the command of the King of Bavaria, but in time + of war under that of the Emperor of Germany, as commander-in-chief of the + whole German army.</p> + + <p>As a result of the revolutionary movement in Nov., 1918, the Bavarian + dynasty was deposed and a republican form of government set up. The + provisional constitution, made public on 7th Jan., 1919, established a + Socialist Republic in Bavaria. The supreme power lies with the people; + the Diet consists of one chamber; the suffrage is universal; the + privileges of birth and caste are abolished. The supreme executive power + is exercised by the ministry as a whole. The Church is separated from the + State, and all religious associations have equal rights.</p> + + <p><i>History.</i>—The Bavarians take their name from the Boii, a + Celtic tribe whose territory was occupied by a confederation of Germanic + tribes, called after their predecessors Boiarii. These were made + tributary first to the Ostrogoths, and then to the Franks; and on the + death of Charlemagne his successors governed the country by lieutenants + with the title of margrave, afterwards converted (in 921) into that of + duke. In 1070 Bavaria passed to the family of the Guelphs, and in 1180 by + imperial grant to Otho, Count of Wittelsbach, founder of the dynasty + reigning until 1918. In 1623 the reigning duke was made one of the + Electors of the empire. Elector Maximilian II joined in the War of the + Spanish Succession on the side of France, and this led, after the battle + of Blenheim, 1704, to the loss of his dominions for the next ten years. + His son, Charles Albert, likewise lost his dominions for a time to + Austria, but they were all recovered again by Charles's son, Maximilian + III (1745). In the wars following the French revolution Bavaria was in a + difficult position between France and Austria, but in the end joined + Napoleon, from whom its Elector Maximilian IV received the title of king + (1805), a title afterwards confirmed by the treaties of 1814 and 1815. + King Maximilian I was succeeded by his son, Ludwig (or Louis) I, under + whom various circumstances helped to quicken a desire for political + change. Reform being refused, tumults arose in 1848, and Ludwig resigned + in favour of his son, Maximilian II, under whom certain modifications of + the constitution were carried out. At his death in 1864 he was succeeded + by Ludwig II. In the war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria, and was + compelled to cede a small portion of its territory to Prussia, and to pay + a war indemnity of £2,500,000. Soon after Bavaria entered into an + alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zollverein. In the + Franco-German War of 1870-1 the Bavarians took a prominent part, and it + was at the request of the King of Bavaria, on behalf of all the other + princes and the senates of the free cities of Germany, that the King of + Prussia agreed to accept the title of Emperor of Germany. From Jan., + 1871, to 1918 Bavaria formed part of the German Empire, and was + represented in the Bundesrath by six, and in the Reichstag by forty-eight + members. The eccentricity early displayed by Ludwig II developed to such + an extent that in June, 1886, he was placed under control, and a regency + established under Prince Luitpold (Leopold). The change was almost + immediately followed by the suicide of the king, and as Prince Otto, the + brother and heir of the late king, was insane, the regency was continued. + Prince Luitpold died on 12th Dec., 1912, and his son, Ludwig, became + regent. On 5th Nov., 1913, the prince was proclaimed king, under the name + of Ludwig III, in succession to his cousin, King Otto, who was declared + incapable of ruling. King Otto died on 12th Oct., 1916. Ludwig III + abdicated in Nov., 1918, and the Bavarian Government was taken over by a + cabinet under the leadership of Kurt Eisner. Eisner was assassinated in + Feb., 1919, and a struggle ensued between the moderate Socialists and the + extremists of the Left. The moderate party, however, returned to power in + May, 1919.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: S. Riezler, + <i>Geschichte Bayerns</i> (4 vols.); R. Piloty, <i>Die + Verfassungsgeschichte des Königreichs Bayern</i>; Götz, + <i>Geographisch-historisches Handbuch von Bayern</i>; <!-- Page 431 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page431"></a>[431]</span>M. Docberl, + <i>Entwickelungsgeschichte Bayerns</i>; C. P. Higby, <i>Religious Policy + of the Bavarian Government during the Napoleonic Period</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baxter</b>, Richard, the most eminent of the English nonconforming + divines of the seventeenth century, born in Rowton, Shropshire, 1615; + ordained in 1638; parish minister of Kidderminster in 1640. The + imposition of the oath of universal approbation of the doctrine and + discipline of the Church of England (the <i>et cætera oath</i>) detached + him from the Establishment. After the battle of Naseby he accepted the + chaplaincy of Colonel Whalley's regiment. He can scarcely be said, + however, to have separated as yet in spirit from the Establishment. He + upheld the monarchy, condemned the execution of the king and the election + of Cromwell, preached against the Covenant and against separatists and + sectaries, but his piety won him the respect of all parties. At the + Restoration he became king's chaplain, but declined the bishopric of + Hereford, and on the passage of the Act of Uniformity threw in his lot + entirely with the nonconformists. In 1685 he was arrested, refused a + hearing by Jeffreys, and imprisoned. After his release he lived in + retirement till his death in 1691. He left about 150 treatises, of which + his <i>Saints' Everlasting Rest</i>, <i>Call to the Unconverted</i>, and + <i>Reformed Pastor</i> have been the most popular.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: William Orme, <i>Life and Times of + Richard Baxter</i>; J. Stalker, <i>Lecture on Baxter</i> in <i>The + Evangelical Succession</i>; M‘Adam Muir, <i>Religious Writers of + England</i>; Currier, <i>Nine Great Preachers</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baxterians</b>, followers of Baxter in respect of his attempted + compromise between Calvinism and Arminianism. They reject the doctrine of + reprobation, admit a universal potential salvation, becoming actual in + the case of the elect, and assert the possibility of falling from grace. + The Baxterians never formed a sect or even a school, but were men of + independent minds, distinguishing between essentials and non-essentials: + in things necessary, unity; in things doubtful, liberty; in all things, + charity. The two most eminent Baxterians were Dr. Isaac Watts and Dr. + Philip Doddridge.—Cf. M‘Adam Muir, <i>Religious Writers of + England</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bay</b>, the laurel tree, noble laurel, or sweet-bay (<i>Laurus + nobĭlis</i>); but the term is loosely given to many trees and + shrubs resembling this. A fatty or fixed oil (used in veterinary + medicine) and also a volatile oil are obtained from the berries, but what + is called 'bayberry oil' is also obtained from the genus Myrica or + candleberry. In N. America the fragrant-flowered <i>Magnolia glauca</i> + is called sweet-bay, the red-bay being <i>Laurus carolinensis</i>, the + loblolly-bay <i>Gordonia lasianthus</i>. See <i>Laurel</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bay</b>, in geography, an indentation of some size into the shore + of a sea or lake, generally said to be one with a wider entrance than a + gulf.</p> + + <p><b>Bay</b>, in architecture, a term applied to a recessed division or + compartment of a building, as that marked off by buttresses or + pillars.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/image167.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image167.jpg" + alt="Nests of Baya" title="Nests of Baya" /></a> + Nests of Baya (<i>Ploceus philippīnus</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Ba´ya</b>, the weaver-bird (<i>Plocĕus + philippīnus</i>), an interesting East Indian passerine bird, + somewhat like the bullfinch. Its nest resembles a bottle, and is + suspended from the branch of a tree. The entrance is from beneath, and + there are two chambers, one for the male, the other for the female. The + baya is easily tamed, and will fetch and carry at command.</p> + + <p><b>Bayaderes</b> (bā-a-dērz´), the general European name + for the dancing and singing girls of India, some of whom are attached to + the service of the Hindu temples, while others travel about and dance at + entertainments for hire. Those in the service of the temples are + generally devoted to this profession (including that of prostitution) + from their childhood.</p> + + <p><b>Bayamo</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-yä´mō), or <b>St. Salvador</b>, a + town in the east of Cuba, near the Cauto. Pop. 18,180.</p> + + <p><b>Bayard</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-yär), Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur de, + the <i>Chevalier sans peur et sans reproche</i>, born in 1476 in Castle + Bayard, near Grenoble, in Southern France. At the age of eighteen he + accompanied Charles VIII to Italy, and in the battle of Fornovo took a + standard. At the beginning of the reign of Louis XII, in a battle near + Milan, he entered the city at the heels of the fugitives, and was taken + prisoner, but released by Ludovico Sforza without ransom. In Apulia he + killed his calumniator, Sotomayor, and afterwards defended a bridge over + the Garigliano singly against the Spaniards, <!-- Page 432 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page432"></a>[432]</span>receiving for this + exploit as a coat of arms a porcupine, with the motto <i>Vires agminis + unus habet</i> ('one has the strength of a band'). He distinguished + himself equally against the Genoese and the Venetians, and, when Julius + II declared himself against France, went to the assistance of the Duke of + Ferrara. He was severely wounded at the assault of Brescia, but returned, + as soon as cured, to the camp of Gaston de Foix, before Ravenna, and + after new exploits was again dangerously wounded in the retreat from + Pavia. In the war commenced by Ferdinand the Catholic he displayed the + same heroism, and the fatal reverses which embittered the last years of + Louis XII only added to the personal glory of Bayard. When Francis I + ascended the throne he sent Bayard into Dauphiné to open a passage over + the Alps and through Piedmont. Prosper Colonna lay in wait for him, but + was made prisoner by Bayard, who immediately after further distinguished + himself in the battle of Marignano. After his defence of Mézières against + the invading army of Charles V he was saluted in Paris as the saviour of + his country, receiving the honour paid to a prince of the blood. His + presence reduced the revolted Genoese to obedience, but failed to prevent + the expulsion of the French after the capture of Lodi. In the retreat the + safety of the army was committed to Bayard, who, however, was mortally + wounded by a stone from a blunderbuss in protecting the passage of the + Sesia. He kissed the cross of his sword, confessed to his squire, and + died, 30th April, 1524. He was buried in a church of the Minorites, at + Grenoble.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: "Le Loyal + Serviteur" (supposed to be Jacques de Mailles), <i>La très joyeuse ... + histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du bon chevalier + sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart</i> (printed in + 1527); modern edition of this work by M. J. Roman; A. de Terrebasse, + <i>Histoire de Pierre Terrail, Seigneur de Bayart</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bayazid´</b>, a ruined town in Armenia, 140 miles <span + class="scac">S.E.</span> of Erzerum, S.W. of Mount Ararat, at various + times the scene of warlike operations, and twice occupied by the Russians + in 1877. Total pop. 4000.</p> + + <p><b>Bayazid.</b> See <i>Bajazet</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bayberry.</b> See <i>Bay</i> (tree) and <i>Candleberry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bay City</b>, an American city, Michigan, on the east side of + Saginaw River, near its mouth in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron. Chief articles + of trade, lumber and salt. Pop. (1920), 47,554.</p> + + <p><b>Bayeux</b>, (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-y<i>eu</i>) an ancient town, France, + department Calvados, 16 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of Caen, + with manufactures of lace, calico, and porcelain. In its cathedral, said + to be the oldest in Normandy, the famous Bayeux tapestry was preserved + for a long time. Pop. 7638.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:84%;"> + <a href="images/image168.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image168.jpg" + alt="Bayeux Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry" /></a> + A section of the Bayeux Tapestry showing the Norman cavalry attacking + the English footmen at the Battle of Hastings + </div> + + <p><b>Bayeux Tapestry</b>, so called because it was originally found in + the cathedral of Bayeux, in the public library of which town it is still + preserved. Formerly known as the 'Toile de St. Jean', it is supposed to + have been worked by Matilda, Queen of William the Conqueror, and to have + been presented by Odo, Bishop of <!-- Page 433 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page433"></a>[433]</span>Bayeux, the + half-brother of William, to the church in which it was found. It is 231 + feet in length and 20 inches in breadth, and is divided into seventy-two + compartments, the subject of each scene being indicated by a Latin + inscription. These scenes give a pictorial history of the invasion and + conquest of England by the Normans, beginning with Harold's visit to the + Norman Court, and ending with his death at Hastings.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Bolton Corney, <i>Researches and + Conjectures on the Bayeux Tapestry</i>; Jules Comte, <i>Tapisserie de + Bayeux</i>; F. R. Fowke, <i>The Bayeux Tapestry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bay Islands</b>, an island group, Bay of Honduras, off <span + class="scac">N.</span> coast of State of Honduras, incorporated as a + British colony in 1852, and ceded to Honduras in 1856. The largest is + Ruatan, 30 miles long. Pop. about 5000.</p> + + <p><b>Bayle</b> (bāl), Pierre, French critic and miscellaneous + writer, the son of a Calvinist preacher, born at Carlat (Languedoc) in + 1647, died at Rotterdam 1706. A statue in his honour was erected at + Pamiers in 1906. He studied at Toulouse, and was employed for some time + as a private tutor at Geneva and Rouen. He went to Paris in 1674, and + soon after was appointed professor of philosophy at Sedan. Six years + after he removed to Rotterdam, where he filled a similar chair. The + appearance of a comet, in 1680, which occasioned an almost universal + alarm, induced him to publish, in 1682, his <i>Pensées Diverses sur la + Comète</i>, a work full of learning, in which he discussed various + subjects of metaphysics, morals, theology, history, and politics. It was + followed by his <i>Critique Générale de l'Histoire du Calvinisme de + Maimbourg</i>. This work excited the jealousy of his colleague, the + theologian Jurieu, and involved Bayle in many disputes. In 1684 he + undertook a periodical work, <i>Nouvelles de la République des + Lettres</i>, containing notices of new books in theology, philosophy, + history, and general literature. This publication, which lasted for three + years, added much to his reputation as a philosophical critic. In 1693 + Jurieu succeeded in inducing the magistrates of Rotterdam to remove Bayle + from his office. He now devoted all his attention to the composition of + his <i>Dictionnaire Historique et Critique</i>, which he first published + in 1696, in 2 vols. fol. It is a vast storehouse of facts, discussions, + and opinions, and though it was publicly censured by the Rotterdam + consistory for its frequent impurities, its pervading scepticism, and + tacit atheism, it long remained a favourite book both with literary men + and with men of the world. The articles in his dictionary, in themselves, + are generally of little value, and serve only as a pretext for the notes, + in which the author displays, at the same time, his learning and the + power of his logic. The best editions are that of 1740, in 4 vols. fol. + (Amsterdam and Leyden), and that in 16 vols., published in 1820-4 at + Paris.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L. A. Feuerbach, + <i>Pierre Bayle</i>; F. Brunetière, <i>Études Critiques</i> (5th series); + A. Cazes, <i>Pierre Bayle, sa vie, ses idées, son influence, son + œuvre</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bay-leaf</b>, the leaf of the sweet-bay or laurel tree (<i>Laurus + nobilis</i>). These leaves are aromatic, and are used in cookery and + confectionery. See <i>Bay</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Baylen</b> (bī-len´). Same as <i>Bailen</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bayly</b> (bā´li), Thomas Haynes, English poet, novelist, + dramatist, and miscellaneous writer, born 1797, died 1839. He was + educated at Oxford, and intended for the Church. He wrote thirty-six + pieces for the stage, most of which were successful; several novels: + <i>The Aylmers</i>, <i>A Legend of Killarney</i>, &c.; and numerous + songs. As a song-writer he was most prolific and most popular. <i>The + Soldier's Tear</i>, <i>We met—'twas in a Crowd</i>, were the best + known.</p> + + <p><b>Bay Mahogany</b>, that variety of mahogany exported from Honduras. + It is softer and less finely marked than the variety known as Spanish + mahogany, but is the largest and most abundant kind.</p> + + <p><b>Baynes</b> (bānz), Thomas Spencer, <span + class="scac">LL.D.</span>, born at Wellington, Somerset, in 1823, died + suddenly in London, 1887. He studied under Sir William Hamilton at + Edinburgh, and acted as his class assistant from 1851 to 1855. From 1857 + to 1863 he was resident in London, where he acted as examiner in logic + and mental philosophy in the University of London, and as assistant + editor of the <i>Daily News</i>. In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of + logic, rhetoric, and metaphysics in St. Andrews University, a post he + held till his death. In 1873, when he became editor of the ninth edition + of the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, his wide acquaintance with men of + letters and learning assisted him greatly in the selection of suitable + contributors. He translated the <i>Port Royal Logic</i> (see + <i>Arnauld</i>), and was a frequent contributor to the principal reviews + and literary journals.</p> + + <p><b>Bay of Islands</b>, a large, deep, and safe harbour on the <span + class="scac">N.E.</span> coast of the N. Island of New Zealand. On it is + Kororarika, the first European settlement in New Zealand.—Also a + large bay formed by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on the west coast of + Newfoundland. See <i>New Zealand</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bay´onet</b> (Fr. <i>baïonnette</i>), a straight, sharp-pointed + weapon, invented by a Frenchman (probably a native of Bayonne) in the + seventeenth century. A bayonet was originally screwed into the muzzle of + the firelock, converting it into a short pike. This system, which + practically precluded any further use of the firelock as such, was later + improved by a Scotchman, who fitted the weapon with a socket and bolt, + enabling it to <!-- Page 434 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page434"></a>[434]</span>be placed over the muzzle of the musket + instead of being screwed into it. The firelock could then be used for + both missile and shock action, according to requirements. The bayonet + replaced the pike in the English army after the revolution of 1690. The + length, shape, and weight of the bayonet have varied considerably at + different periods and in different countries; that at present in use in + the British army is a short sword-shaped weapon, 1 foot 6 inches long and + weighing about 1 pound. In war it is considered that an attack with the + bayonet or the immediate threat of one is a necessary preliminary to a + successful assault.</p> + + <p><b>Bayonne</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-yon), a well-built fortified town, the + largest in the French department Basses-Pyrénées, at the confluence of + the Nive and the Adour, about 2 miles from their mouth in the Bay of + Biscay; with a citadel commanding the harbour and city, a + cathedral—a beautiful ancient building—shipbuilding and other + industries, and a considerable trade. Among the lower class the Basque + language is spoken. Catherine de' Medici had an important interview with + the Duke of Alva in Bayonne, June, 1565, at which it is said the massacre + of St. Bartholomew was arranged. It was also the scene of the abdication + of Charles IV of Spain in favour of Napoleon (1808). In 1814 the British + forced the passage of the Nive and invested the town, from which the + French made a desperate but unsuccessful sortie. Pop. 27,886.</p> + + <p><b>Bayonne City</b>, a suburb of New York, in Hudson County, New + Jersey. Pop. 76,754.</p> + + <p><b>Bayou</b> (bā-yö´), in the southern States of North America, + a stream which flows from a lake or other stream: frequently used as + synonymous with creek or tidal channel.</p> + + <p><b>Bayreuth</b> (bī´roit). See <i>Baireuth</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bay Rum</b>, a spirit obtained by distilling the leaves of + <i>Myrica acris</i>, or other West Indian trees of the same genus. It is + used for toilet purposes, and as a liniment in rheumatic affections.</p> + + <p><b>Bay-salt</b>, a general term for coarse-grained salt, but properly + applied to salt obtained by spontaneous or natural evaporation of + sea-water in large shallow tanks or <i>bays</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:42%;"> + <a href="images/image169.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image169.jpg" + alt="Bay-window" title="Bay-window" /></a> + Bay-window at Bramhall Hall, Cheshire + </div> + + <p><b>Bay-window</b>, a window forming a recess or bay in a room, + projecting outwards, and rising from the ground or basement on a plan + rectangular, semi-octagonal, or semi-hexagonal, but always + straight-sided. One of the finest examples of bay-windows is that of the + banqueting-hall at Hampton Court. The term is, however, also often + employed to designate a <i>bow-window</i>, which more properly forms the + segment of a circle, and an <i>oriel-window</i>, which is supported on a + kind of bracket, and is usually on the first floor.</p> + + <p><b>Baza</b> (bä´tha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), an old town of Spain, Andalusia, + province of Granada, formerly a large and flourishing city. In 1810 the + French, under Marshal Soult, here defeated the Spaniards under Generals + Blake and Freire. Pop. 15,964.</p> + + <p><b>Bazaar.</b> See <i>Bazar</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bazaine</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-zān), François Achille, French + general, born 1811, died 1888. He entered the army as a private soldier + in 1831, and served in Algeria with distinction, gaining the cross of the + Legion of Honour, and rising to the rank of lieutenant. He next went to + Spain and fought in the Foreign Legion against the Carlists; and in 1839 + returned to Algeria, where he eventually held the rank of colonel (1850). + He was next engaged in the Crimean War, being at first commander of a + brigade and then general of division, leading the French troops sent to + attack the fortress of Kinburn (1855). He did good service also in the + Italian war of 1859, being actively engaged in the battle of Solferino. + His military reputation was increased by the part he took in the Mexican + expedition (1862-4), in which he led the first division under Forey, and + when this general was recalled became commander-in-chief of the French + forces in Mexico and marshal of France. His loyalty, however, to the + cause of the Emperor Maximilian was very doubtful. In 1870 he took + command of the <!-- Page 435 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page435"></a>[435]</span>army of the Rhine, or the third army + corps, in the Franco-German War, collected a very large army in the + neighbourhood of Metz, and had the intention of joining his forces with + those of MacMahon at Châlons. He found this impossible, however, + especially after Gravelotte, and was forced into Metz, where he + capitulated after a seven weeks' siege, with an army of 175,000 men. For + this act he was tried by court-martial in 1871, found guilty of treason, + and condemned to death. The sentence was commuted to twenty years' + seclusion in the Isle of St. Marguerite, from which he escaped in 1874, + and retired to Spain. He published <i>Épisodes de la Guerre de + 1870</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: La Brugère, + <i>L'Affaire Bazaine</i>; Comte d'Herisson, <i>La Légende de + Metz</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bazar´</b>, or <b>Bazaar´</b>, in the East an exchange, + market-place, or place where goods are exposed for sale, usually + consisting of small shops or stalls in a narrow street or series of + streets. These bazar-streets are frequently shaded by a light material + laid from roof to roof, and sometimes are arched over. Marts for the sale + of miscellaneous articles, chiefly fancy goods, are now to be found in + most European cities, bearing the name of <i>bazars</i>. The term bazar + is popularly applied to a sale of miscellaneous articles, mostly of fancy + work, and contributed gratuitously, in furtherance of some charitable or + other purpose.</p> + + <p><b>Bazar´jik</b>, now officially called Dobritsh (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Bazigars´</b>, a tribe of Indians dispersed throughout the whole of + Hindustan mostly in wandering tribes. They are divided into seven castes; + their chief occupation is that of jugglers, acrobats, and tumblers, in + which both males and females are equally skilful. They present many + features analogous to the gipsies of Europe, and like these each clan has + its king.</p> + + <p><b>Bazin</b>, René, French novelist, born 1853. For some time he was + professor of law in the Catholic University of Angers. His literary + reputation was established by <i>Une Tache d'Encre</i>. His other novels + include <i>La Terre qui meurt</i>, <i>De Toute son Âme</i>, <i>Les + Oberlé</i>, <i>Les Noellet</i>, <i>Davidée Birot</i>, all of which have + been translated into English by Dr. A. S. Rappoport. He has also written + <i>Questions littéraires et sociales</i>, &c. Bazin was elected a + member of the Académie Française in 1903.</p> + + <p><b>Bazoche</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-zosh´), or <b>Basoche</b> (a corruption + of <i>Basilica</i>), a brotherhood formed by the clerks of the Parliament + of Paris at the time it ceased to be the grand council of the French + king. They had a king, chancellor, and other dignitaries; and certain + privileges were granted them by Philip the Fair early in the fourteenth + century, as also by subsequent monarchs. They had an annual festival, + having as a principal feature dramatic performances in which satirical + allusions were freely made to passing events. These farces or satires + were frequently interdicted, but they had a considerable influence on the + French drama. The Bazoche took an active part in the French Revolution, + but the order was suppressed by the decree of 13th Feb., 1791.</p> + + <p><b>Bazzi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>t´sē). See <i>Sodoma</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bdellium</b> (del´i-um), an aromatic gum resin brought chiefly from + Africa and India, in pieces of different sizes and figures, externally of + a dark reddish brown, internally clear, and not unlike glue. To the taste + it is slightly bitterish and pungent; its odour is agreeable. It is used + as a perfume and a medicine, being a weak deobstruent. Indian bdellium is + the produce of <i>Balsamodendron Roxburghii</i>; African of <i>B. + africanum</i>; Egyptian bdellium is obtained from the doum palm; and + Sicilian is produced by <i>Daucus gummifer</i>, a species of the genus to + which the carrot belongs. The bdellium mentioned in <i>Gen.</i> ii, 12, + was apparently a precious stone, perhaps a pearl. See <i>Myrrh</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beaches, Raised</b>, a term applied to those long, terraced, level + pieces of land, consisting of sand and gravel, and containing marine + shells, now, it may be, a considerable distance above and away from the + sea, but bearing sufficient evidences of having been at one time + sea-beaches. In Scotland such a terrace has been traced extensively along + the coasts at about 25 feet above the present sea-level.</p> + + <p><b>Beachy Head</b>, a promontory in the south of England, on the coast + of Sussex, rising 575 feet above sea-level, with a revolving light, + visible in clear weather from a distance of 28 miles. A naval battle took + place here, 30th June, 1690, in which a French fleet under Tourville + defeated an English and Dutch combined fleet under Lord Torrington.</p> + + <p><b>Beacon</b> (bē´kon), an object visible at some distance, and + serving to notify the presence of danger; commonly applied to a + fire-signal set on a height to spread the news of hostile invasion or + other great event; and also applied to a mark or object of some kind + placed conspicuously on a coast or over a rock or shoal at sea for the + guidance of vessels, often an iron structure of considerable height.</p> + + <p><b>Beaconsfield</b> (bē´konz-fēld), a village of + Buckinghamshire, the parish church of which contains the remains of + Edmund Burke, whose seat was in the neighbourhood; while a marble + monument to the poet Waller, who owned the manor, is in the churchyard. + It gave the title of earl to the English statesman and novelist Benjamin + Disraeli. Pop. (1921), 3642.</p> + + <p><b>Beaconsfield</b>, formerly known as Du Toit's Pan, a town of Cape + Province about a mile to the east of Kimberley, of which it forms a + suburb. Pop. 20,364. <!-- Page 436 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page436"></a>[436]</span></p> + + <p><b>Beaconsfield</b>, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of, an eminent English + statesman and novelist, of Jewish extraction; eldest son of Isaac + D'Israeli, author of the <i>Curiosities of Literature</i>; born in London + in 1804, died there in 1881, buried at Hughenden. He attended for a time + a private school, and was first destined for the law, but showing a + decided taste for literature he was allowed to follow his inclination. In + 1826 he published <i>Vivian Grey</i>, his first novel; and subsequently + travelled for some time, visiting Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Syria, and + gaining experiences which were afterwards reproduced in his books. His + travels and impressions are embodied in a volume of letters addressed to + his sister and his father. In 1831 another novel, <i>The Young Duke</i>, + came from his pen. It was followed at short intervals by <i>Contarini + Fleming</i>, <i>Alroy</i>, <i>Henrietta Temple</i>, <i>Venetia</i>, + <i>The Revolutionary Epic</i> (a poem), &c. In 1832, and on two + subsequent occasions, he appeared as candidate for the representation of + High Wycombe, with a programme which included vote by ballot and + triennial parliaments, but was unsuccessful. His political opinions + gradually changed: in 1835 he unsuccessfully contested Taunton as a Tory. + In 1837 he gained an entrance to the House of Commons, being elected for + Maidstone. His first speech in the House was treated with ridicule; but + he finished with the prophetic declaration that the time would come when + they would hear him. During his first years in Parliament he was a + supporter of Peel; but when Peel pledged himself to abolish the + corn-laws, Disraeli became the leader of the protectionists. About this + time he became a leader of what was known as the 'Young England' party, + the most prominent characteristic of which was a sort of sentimental + advocacy of feudalism. This spirit showed itself in his two novels of + <i>Coningsby</i> and <i>Sybil</i>, published respectively in 1844 and + 1845. Having acquired the manor of Hughenden, in Buckinghamshire, he was + in 1847 elected for this county, and he retained his seat till raised to + the peerage nearly thirty years later. His first appointment to office + was in 1852, when he became Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby. + The following year, however, the ministry was defeated. He remained out + of office till 1858, when he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer, + and brought in a Reform Bill which wrecked the Government. During the + time the Palmerston Government was in office Disraeli led the opposition + in the Lower House with conspicuous ability and courage. In 1866 the + Liberals resigned, and Derby and Disraeli came into power, the latter + being again Chancellor of the Exchequer. They immediately brought in, and + carried, after a violent and bitter struggle, a Reform Bill on the basis + of household suffrage. In 1868 he became Premier on the resignation of + Lord Derby, but his tenure of office was short. In 1874 he again became + Prime Minister with a strong Conservative majority, and he remained in + power for six years. This period was marked by his elevation to the + peerage in 1876 as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the prominent part he + took in regard to the Eastern question and the conclusion of the Treaty + of Berlin in 1878. In 1880 Parliament was rather suddenly dissolved, and, + the new Parliament showing an overwhelming Liberal majority, he resigned + office, though he still retained the leadership of his party. Within a + few months of his death the publication of a novel called <i>Endymion</i> + (his last, <i>Lothair</i>, had been published ten years before) showed + that his intellect was still vigorous. Among others of his writings, + besides those already mentioned, are: <i>A Vindication of the English + Constitution</i> (1834); <i>Alarcos, a Tragedy</i> (1839); and <i>Lord + George Bentinck, a Political Biography</i> (1852).—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: <i>Selected Speeches of the Earl of + Beaconsfield</i> (edited by T. E. Kebbel); T. Martin, <i>Memorials of + Lord Beaconsfield</i>; the article <i>Disraeli</i>, by T. E. Kebbel, in + <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>; Sir William Fraser, <i>Disraeli + and his Day</i>; Sichel, <i>Disraeli</i>; the best work, however, is + W. F. Monypenny's <i>Life of Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield</i> + (continued by G. E. Buckle).</p> + + <p><b>Bead</b> (bēd), originally a prayer; then a small perforated + ball of gold, pearl, amber, glass, or the like, to be strung on a thread, + and used in a rosary by Roman Catholics in numbering their prayers, one + bead being passed at the end of each ejaculation or short prayer; finally + any such small ornamental body. The use of beads among pagans is of + greater antiquity than their Christian use, but there is no evidence to + show that the latter is derived from the former. Glass beads are now the + most common sort; they form a considerable item in the African + trade.—In architecture and joinery the bead is a small round + moulding. It is of frequent occurrence in architecture, particularly in + the classical styles, and is used in picture-frames and other objects + carved in wood.—<i>St. Cuthbert's Beads</i>, the popular name of + the detached and perforated joints of encrinites.</p> + + <p><b>Beadle</b> (bē´dl), an officer in a university, whose chief + business is to walk with a mace in a public procession: also, a parish + officer whose business is to punish petty offenders, and a church officer + (chiefly, although not exclusively, in Scotland) with various subordinate + duties, as waiting on the clergyman, keeping order in church, attending + meetings of vestry or session, &c. The primary meaning of the word + (from O.E. <i>beodan</i>, to offer, announce) appears to be 'herald', one + who announces or proclaims something. <!-- Page 437 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page437"></a>[437]</span></p> + + <p><b>Bead-snake</b> (<i>Elaps fulvus</i>), a beautiful snake of North + America, inhabiting cultivated grounds, especially plantations of the + sweet-potato, and burrowing in the ground. It is finely marked with + yellow, carmine, and black. Though it possesses poison-fangs it never + seems to use them.</p> + + <p><b>Beagle</b> (bē´gl), a small hound, resembling a foxhound or + harrier, and used to hunt rabbits and hares, being often kept in packs. + The beagle is smaller than the harrier, compactly built, smooth-haired, + and with pendulous ears. The smallest of them are little larger than the + lap-dog.</p> + + <p><b>Beale</b>, Lionel Smith, English physician and biologist, born in + 1828, died in 1906. He was educated at King's College School and King's + College, London, and was a professor in the medical department of the + latter institution for forty-three years, finally holding the chair of + the principles and practice of medicine. His numerous published works + treat of medical, anatomical, physiological, and biological subjects; the + microscope; various questions of morality, &c. They include <i>How to + Work with the Microscope</i>, <i>The Structure of the Tissues</i>, + <i>Protoplasm</i>, <i>Disease Germs</i>, <i>Life Theories and Religious + Thought</i>, <i>The Mystery of Life</i>, <i>Bioplasm</i>, <i>On Slight + Ailments</i>, <i>Religio Medici</i>, <i>Religio Scientiæ</i>, <i>Religio + Vitæ</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Beam</b>, a long, straight, and strong piece of wood, iron, or + steel, especially when holding an important place in some structure, and + serving for support or consolidation; often equivalent to <i>girder</i>. + In a balance it is the part from the ends of which the scales are + suspended. In a loom it is a cylindrical piece of wood on which weavers + wind the warp before weaving; also, the cylinder on which the cloth is + rolled as it is woven. In a ship, one of the strong transverse pieces + stretching across from one side to the other to support the decks and + retain the sides at their proper distance: hence a ship is said to be 'on + her beam ends' when lying over on her side. For calculations relating to + beams, see Morley's <i>Strength of Materials</i> and <i>Theory of + Structures</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beam Tree</b> (<i>Pyrus aria</i>), a tree of the same genus as the + apple, mountain-ash, and service tree found throughout Britain, having + berries that are edible when quite mellow, and yielding a hard and + fine-grained wood.</p> + + <p><b>Bean</b>, a name given to several kinds of leguminous seeds and the + plants producing them, probably originally belonging to Asia. They belong + to several genera, particularly to Vicia, garden and field bean; + Phaseŏlus, French or kidney bean; and Dolichos, tropical bean. The + common bean (<i>Vicia Faba</i>) is cultivated both in fields and gardens + as food for man and beast. Beans were believed by some of the ancients to + contain the souls of their ancestors, and Pythagoras would not eat beans + for this reason. One of the bean family still retains the name of the + Pythagorean bean. Beans were introduced by the Moors into Spain, whence + they came to France and later to England. It is possible, however, that + they were brought to Britain by the Romans. They are now largely imported + from Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and the Netherlands. There are many + varieties, as the Mazagan, the Windsor, the long-pod, &c., in + gardens, and the horse or tick bean in fields. The soil that best suits + is a good strong clay. The seed of the Windsor is fully an inch in + diameter; the horse bean is much less, often not much more than half an + inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Beans are very + nutritious, containing nearly 50 per cent of digestible carbohydrate and + 25 per cent of nitrogenous matter. The bean is an annual, from 2 to 4 + feet high. The flowers are beautiful and fragrant. The <i>kidney + bean</i>, <i>French bean</i>, or <i>haricot</i> is the <i>Phaseŏlus + vulgāris</i>, a well-known culinary vegetable. There are two + principal varieties, annual dwarfs and runners. The beans cultivated in + America and largely used as articles of food belong to the genus + Phaseŏlus. The <i>scarlet-runner bean</i> (<i>Phaseŏlus + multiflorus</i>), a native of Mexico, is cultivated on account of its + long rough pods and its scarlet flowers.</p> + + <p><b>Bean-goose</b> (<i>Anser segĕtum</i>), a species of wild + goose, a migratory bird which arrives in Britain in autumn and retires to + the north in the end of April, though some few remain to breed. Being + rather less in size than the common wild goose, it is sometimes called + the <i>small grey goose</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bean-king</b>, the person chosen king in Twelfth Night festivities + in virtue of having got the piece of cake containing the bean buried in + the cake for this purpose.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:37%;"> + <a href="images/image170.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image170.jpg" + alt="Brown or Black Bear" title="Brown or Black Bear" /></a> + Brown or Black Bear (<i>Ursus arctos</i>) + </div> + + <div class="figright" style="width:33%;"> + <a href="images/image171.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image171.jpg" + alt="Polar Bear" title="Polar Bear" /></a> + The Polar or White Bear (<i>Ursus marĭtimus</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Bear</b>, the name of several large plantigrade carnivorous mammals + of the genus Ursus. The teeth are forty-two in number, as in the dog, but + there is no carnassial or sectorial tooth, <!-- Page 438 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page438"></a>[438]</span>and the molars have a + more tubercular character than in other carnivores. The eyes have a + nictitating membrane, the nose is prominent and mobile, and the tail very + short. The true bears are about ten in number, natives chiefly of Europe, + Asia, and N. America. They generally lie dormant in their den during the + winter months. The brown or black bear of Europe is the <i>Ursus + arctos</i>. It is a native of almost all the northern parts of Europe and + Asia, and was at one time common in the British Islands. It feeds on + fruits, roots, honey, ants, and, in case of need, on mammals. It + sometimes reaches the length of 7 feet, the largest specimens being found + farthest to the north. It lives solitarily. The American black bear is + the <i>U. americānus</i>, with black shining fur, and rarely above + 5 feet in length. It is a great climber, is less dangerous than the brown + bear, and is hunted for its fur and flesh. It is very amusing in + captivity. The grizzly bear (<i>U. ferox</i> or <i>horribilis</i>) is an + inhabitant of the Rocky Mountains; it is a ferocious animal, sometimes 9 + feet in length, and has a bulky and unwieldy form, but is nevertheless + capable of great rapidity of motion. The extinct cave-bear (<i>U. + spelæus</i>) seems to have been closely akin to the grizzly. The Siberian + bear (<i>U. collāris</i>) is perhaps a variety of the brown bear. + The polar or white bear (<i>U. maritĭmus</i>) is an animal + possessed of great strength and fierceness. It lives in the polar + regions, frequents the sea, feeds on fish, seals, &c., and usually is + 7 to 8 feet in length. The Malayan or coco-nut palm bear (<i>U. + malayānus</i>) inhabits Cochin-China, Nepaul, the Sunda Islands, + &c., lives exclusively on vegetable food, and is an expert climber. + It is called also sun-bear and bruang. The Indian black bear or + sloth-bear of India and Ceylon (<i>U. labiātus</i>) is reputed to + be a fierce and dangerous animal.</p> + + <p><b>Bear</b>, or <b>Bere</b>, a species of barley (<i>Hordĕum + hexastichum</i>), having six rows in the ear, cultivated in Scotland and + the north of England.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image172.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image172.jpg" + alt="Great Bear" title="Great Bear" /></a> + The Constellation of the Great Bear. The two stars on the right are the + Pointers + </div> + + <p><b>Bear, Great</b> and <b>Little</b>, the popular names of two + constellations in the northern hemisphere. The Great Bear (<i>Ursa + Major</i>) is situated near the pole. It is remarkable for its well-known + seven stars, by two of which, called the Pointers, the pole-star is + always readily found. These seven stars are popularly called the + <i>Wagon</i>, <i>Charles's Wain</i>, or the <i>Plough</i>. The Little + Bear (<i>Ursa Minor</i>) is the constellation which contains the + pole-star. This constellation has seven stars placed together in a manner + resembling those in the Great Bear.</p> + + <p><b>Bear-baiting</b>, the sport of baiting bears with dogs, formerly + one of the established amusements, not only of the common people, but of + the nobility and even royalty itself. The places where bears were + publicly baited were called bear-gardens. Butler gives a description of + bear-baiting in his <i>Hudibras</i>. Bear-baiting was prohibited by Act + of Parliament in 1835.</p> + + <p><b>Bearberry</b> (<i>Arctostaphylos uva-ursi</i>), an evergreen shrub + of the heath family growing on the barren moors of Scotland, Northern + Europe, Siberia, and N. America. The leaves, under the name of <i>uva + ursi</i>, are used in medicine as an astringent and tonic.</p> + + <p><b>Beard</b>, the hair round the chin, on the cheeks, and the upper + lip, which is a distinction of the male sex and of manhood. It differs + from the hair on the head by its greater hardness and its form. Some + nations have hardly any, others a <!-- Page 439 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page439"></a>[439]</span>great profusion. The + latter generally consider it as a great ornament; the former pluck it + out; as, for instance, the American Indians. The beard has often been + considered as a mark of the sage and the priest. Moses forbade the Jews + to shave their beards. With the ancient Germans the cutting off another's + beard was a high offence. Even now the beard is regarded as a mark of + great dignity among many nations in the East, as the Turks. Alexander the + Great introduced shaving among the Greeks, by ordering his soldiers to + wear no beards; among the Romans it was introduced in 296 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> The custom of shaving came into use in modern + times during the reigns of Louis XIII and XIV of France, both of whom + ascended the throne without a beard. Till then fashion sanctioned divers + forms of moustaches and beards. In the reign of Henry VIII of England, + the authorities of Lincoln's Inn prohibited wearers of beards from + sitting at the great table unless they paid double commons. Taxation of + beards was introduced in the reign of Elizabeth, beards of above a + fortnight's growth being subject to a yearly tax of 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> + This impost was copied by Peter the Great in Russia. It is only in + comparatively recent times that beards and moustaches have again become + common.—Cf. Philippe, <i>Histoire philosophique, politique, et + religieuse de la barbe</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beard-moss</b> (<i>Usnea barbāta</i>), a lichen of grey + colour, forming a shaggy coat on many forest trees.</p> + + <p><b>Beardsley</b>, Aubrey Vincent, artist in black and white, born + 1872, died 1898; took up art as a profession at the age of nineteen, and + executed a large number of drawings for books and periodicals, showing + great technical skill, originality, and disregard of conventionality, + with sometimes a tendency towards the repulsive or morbid. Consumption + had marked him as its victim from the first. Collections of his drawings + were published under the titles <i>A Book of Fifty Drawings</i>, <i>The + Early Work of Aubrey Beardsley</i>, <i>The Late Work of Aubrey + Beardsley</i>, &c. <i>Under the Hill</i>, with his letters and poems, + was published in 1904. Cf. G. Derry, <i>An Aubrey Beardsley + Scrap-book</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bearer Securities.</b> See <i>Stock Exchange</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bearing</b>, the direction or point of the compass in which an + object is seen, or the situation of one object in regard to another, with + reference to the points of the compass. Thus, if from a certain situation + an object is seen in the direction of north-east, the <i>bearing</i> of + the object is said to be <span class="scac">N.E.</span> from the + situation.—<i>To take bearings</i>, to ascertain on what point of + the compass objects lie.</p> + + <p><b>Bear Lake, Great</b>, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the + North-West Territory of Canada, between about 65° and 67° 32´ <span + class="scac">N.</span> lat.; and under the 120th degree of <span + class="scac">W.</span> long.; of irregular shape; area about 14,000 sq. + miles. The water is very clear and the lake abounds in + fish.—<i>Bear Lake River</i>, the outlet at the <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> extremity of Great Bear Lake, runs <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> for 70 miles and joins the Mackenzie River.</p> + + <p><b>Béarn</b> (bā-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r), one of the provinces into which + France was formerly divided, now chiefly included in the department of + Lower Pyrénées. Pau is the chief town (pop. 35,000). There is a peculiar + and well-marked dialect—the Béarnese—spoken in this district, + which has much more affinity with Spanish than with French.</p> + + <p><b>Bear-pit</b>, a deep, open pit with perpendicular walls, built in a + zoological garden for keeping bears, and having in the centre a pole on + which they may exercise their climbing powers.</p> + + <p><b>Bear River</b>, a river of the United States, 400 miles long; rises + in the north of Utah, and flows northward into Idaho; turns abruptly + southward, re-enters Utah, and empties into Great Salt Lake.</p> + + <p><b>Bears and Bulls.</b> See <i>Stock Exchange</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bear´s-grease</b>, the fat of bears, esteemed as of great efficacy + in nourishing and promoting the growth of hair. The unguents sold under + this name, however, are in a great measure made of hog's lard or veal + fat, or a mixture of both, scented and slightly coloured.</p> + + <p><b>Beas</b>, river of India. See <i>Bias</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beat</b>, in acoustics and music, the beating or pulsation + resulting from the joint vibrations of two sounds of the same strength, + and all but in unison. Also a short shake or transient grace-note struck + immediately before the note it is intended to ornament. The word is also + used for the movement of the hand or baton, by which the rhythm of a + piece of music is indicated, and by which a conductor ensures perfect + agreement in tempo and accent on the part of the orchestra or chorus.</p> + + <p><b>Beath</b> (bēth), a populous parish of Fifeshire, Scotland, + containing the towns of Cowdenbeath, Kelty, and Hill of Beath. Pop. + 24,350, (Cowdenbeath having 7908).</p> + + <p><b>Beatification</b>, in the Roman Catholic Church, an act by which + the Pope declares a person beatified or blessed after his death. It is + the first step to canonization, that is, the raising one to the honour + and dignity of a saint. No person can be beatified till fifty years after + his or her death. All certificates or attestations of virtues and + miracles, the necessary qualifications for saintship, are examined by the + Congregation of Rites. This examination often continues for several + years; after which his Holiness decrees the beatification, and the corpse + and relics of the future saint are exposed to the veneration of all good + Christians. The present <!-- Page 440 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page440"></a>[440]</span>custom dates from a Bull of Urban VIII in + 1634, although local veneration may be traced back to the earliest + Christian ages.—In the Orthodox Eastern Church beatification is not + distinguished from canonization.</p> + + <p><b>Beating the Bounds</b>, the periodical survey or perambulation by + which the boundaries of parishes in England are preserved. It was the + custom in some places that the clergyman of the parish, with the + parochial officers and the boys of the parish school, should march to the + boundaries, where the boys were struck with willow rods. A similar + ceremony in Scotland was called <i>riding the marches</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bea´ton</b>, David, Archbishop of St. Andrews, and cardinal, born + 1494. Pope Paul III raised him to the rank of cardinal in Dec., 1538. On + the death of his uncle, Archbishop James Beaton, he succeeded him in the + see of St. Andrews in 1539. After the accession of Mary he became + Chancellor of Scotland, and distinguished himself by his zeal in + persecuting members of the Reformed party, among the rest the famous + Protestant preacher George Wishart, whose sufferings at the stake he + viewed from his window with apparent exultation. At length a conspiracy + was formed against him, and he was assassinated at his own castle of St. + Andrews, on the 29th May, 1546. His private character was marked by + pride, cruelty, and licentiousness.</p> + + <p><b>Beatrice Portinari</b> (bā-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-trē´chā + por-tē-nä´rē), the "glorious lady" of Dante, born about 1266, + died 1290; the daughter of a wealthy citizen of Florence, and wife of + Simone de Bardi. She was but eight years of age, and Dante nine, when he + met her first at the house of her father. He altogether saw her only once + or twice, and she probably knew little of him. The story of his love is + recounted in the <i>Vita Nuova</i>, which was mostly written after her + death.</p> + + <p><b>Beattie</b> (bē´ti), James, a Scottish poet and philosophical + writer, born at Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, in 1735, died at Aberdeen + 1803. He studied at Marischal College, Aberdeen, for four years, and + received the <span class="scac">M.A.</span> degree. In 1753 he was + appointed schoolmaster at Fordoun, a few miles from his native place; + from whence he obtained a mastership in the Grammar School of Aberdeen, + and ultimately was installed professor of moral philosophy and logic in + Marischal College. In 1760 he published a volume of poems, which he + subsequently endeavoured to buy up, considering them unworthy of him. In + 1765 he published a poem, <i>The Judgment of Paris</i>, and in 1770 his + celebrated <i>Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth</i>, + attacking Helvetius and Hume and advocating what was afterwards called + the doctrine of Common Sense, for which the University of Oxford + conferred on him the degree of <span class="scac">D.C.L.</span>, and + George III honoured him, when on a visit to London, with a private + conference and a pension. He next published in 1771 the first book of his + poem <i>The Minstrel</i>, and in 1774 the second; this is the only work + by which he is now remembered. In 1776 he published dissertations on + <i>Poetry and Music</i>, <i>Laughter and Ludicrous Composition</i>, + &c.; in 1783 <i>Dissertations, Moral and Critical</i>; in 1786 + <i>Evidences of the Christian Religion</i>; and in 1790-3 <i>Elements of + Moral Science</i>. His closing years were darkened by the death of his + two sons.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Margaret Forbes, + <i>Beattie and His Friends</i>; A. Mackie, <i>James Beattie, the + Minstrel: Some Unpublished Letters</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beattie</b>, William, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, Scottish + physician, poet, and miscellaneous writer, born in 1793, died at London + 1875. He was author of the standard <i>Life of Thomas Campbell</i>, whose + intimate friend he was; published several poems, including <i>John + Huss</i>, <i>The Heliotrope</i>, and <i>Polynesia</i>; wrote a series of + descriptive and historical works, beautifully illustrated by his friend + and fellow-traveller, W. H. Bartlett, on Switzerland, Scotland, &c. + He had a very extensive and lucrative medical practice.</p> + + <p><b>Beatty</b>, Admiral of the Fleet, Earl, born in 1871. He entered + the navy in 1884, became Commander in 1898, Rear-Admiral in 1910, and + Vice-Admiral in 1915. He served in the Sudan from 1896 to 1897, and in + China in 1900. In 1912 he was Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the + Admiralty, and from 1912 to 1916 commanded the First Battle Cruiser + Squadron. He distinguished himself in the battle of Jutland in 1916, and + until 1919, when he succeeded Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss (now Lord Wester + Wemyss) as First Sea Lord, he was in command of the Grand Fleet. When the + entire German High Seas Fleet left port on 31st May, 1916, and steamed up + the west coast of Denmark, it was quickly sighted by the British scouts, + so that the main British fleet immediately steamed out from its base to + engage the enemy. The British Battle Cruiser Squadron, under the command + of Earl Beatty (then Sir David) was nearer the scene than the main battle + fleet under Sir John Jellicoe (Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa since 1918). + The admiral sighted the enemy fleet north-west of the Horn Reef, and + about 3.30 in the afternoon the ships engaged. The Jutland battle lasted + only a few hours. At the end of Nov., 1916, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe was + made First Sea Lord of the Admiralty, and Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty + took over the supreme command of the Grand Fleet.</p> + + <p>He is a <span class="scac">D.S.O.</span>, an <span + class="scac">O.M.</span>, a <span class="scac">G.C.B.</span>, a <span + class="scac">G.C.V.O.</span>, and a Grand Officer of the French Legion of + Honour. He was knighted in 1914, and <!-- Page 441 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page441"></a>[441]</span>received a grant of + £100,000 in Aug., 1919, when he was created an earl. He was elected Lord + Rector of Edinburgh University in 1917.</p> + + <p><b>Beaucaire</b> (bō-kār), a small commercial city of + Southern France, department Gard, on the Rhone opposite Tarascon, with + which it communicates by a fine suspension-bridge. It is chiefly famous + for its great fair (founded in 1217), held yearly from the 21st to the + 28th July. Pop. 8488.</p> + + <p><b>Beauchamp</b> (bō-shän), Alphonse de, French historian and + publicist, born at Monăco 1767, died at Paris 1832. Under the + Directory he had the surveillance of the press, a position which supplied + him with materials for his <i>History of La Vendée</i>. He contributed to + the <i>Moniteur</i> and the <i>Gazette de France</i>. Among his chief + works are the <i>History of the Conquest of Peru</i>, the <i>History of + Brazil</i>, and the <i>Life of Louis XVIII</i>. The <i>Mémoires de + Fouché</i> is also with good reason ascribed to him.</p> + + <p><b>Beaufort</b>, (bō´fort), Henry, cardinal, natural son of John + of Gaunt and half-brother of Henry IV, King of England, born 1377, died + 1447; was made Bishop of Lincoln, whence he was translated to Winchester. + He repeatedly filled the office of Lord Chancellor, and took part in all + the most important political movements of his times.</p> + + <p><b>Beaufort Scale.</b> See <i>Wind Scale</i>; <i>Navigation</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beaufort West</b>, a town of Cape Province, capital of the division + of that name, 339 miles by railway north-east of Cape Town, well built + and well supplied with water, though in a district with a small rainfall, + and chiefly yielding wool. It is a popular health resort. Pop. 4530.</p> + + <p><b>Beaugency</b> (bō-zha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-sē), an ancient town, France, + department Loiret, on the Loire, of some historical interest. General + Chanzy was defeated there by the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg, 7th-8th Dec., + 1870. Pop. 3532.</p> + + <p><b>Beauharnais</b> (bō-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-nā), Alexandre, Viscount, was + born in 1760 in Martinique. He married Joséphine Tascher de la Pagerie, + who was afterwards the wife of Napoleon. At the breaking out of the + French Revolution he was chosen a member of the National Assembly, of + which he was for some time president. In 1792 he was general of the army + of the Rhine. He was falsely accused of having promoted the surrender of + Mainz, and was sentenced to death 23rd July, 1794.</p> + + <p><b>Beauharnais</b>, Eugène de, Duke of Leuchtenberg, Prince of + Eichstädt, and Viceroy of Italy during the reign of Napoleon, was born + 1781, died at Munich 1824. He was the son of Alexandre Beauharnais and + Joséphine, afterwards wife of Napoleon and Empress of France. After his + father's death he joined Hoche in La Vendée, and subsequently studied for + a time in Paris. He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798, rose rapidly + in the army, was appointed Viceroy of Italy in 1805, and married a + daughter of the King of Bavaria in 1806. He administered the government + of Italy with great prudence and moderation, and was much beloved by his + subjects. In the Russian campaign he commanded the third <i>corps + d'armée</i>, and greatly distinguished himself. To him and to Ney France + was mainly indebted for the preservation of the remains of her army + during the retreat from Moscow. After the battle of Lützen of 2nd May, + 1813, where, by surrounding the right wing of the enemy, he decided the + fate of the day, he went to Italy, which he defended against the + Austrians until the deposition of Napoleon. After the fall of Napoleon he + concluded an armistice, by which he delivered Lombardy and all Upper + Italy to the Austrians. He then went immediately to Paris, and thence to + his father-in-law at Munich, where he afterwards resided.—His + sister, Hortense Eugénie, Queen of Holland, was born in 1783, died in + 1837. She became Queen of Holland by marrying Louis Bonaparte, and after + Louis's abdication of the throne she lived apart from him. She wrote + several excellent songs, and composed some deservedly popular airs, among + others the well-known <i>Partant pour la Syrie</i>. Napoleon III was her + third and youngest son.</p> + + <p><b>Beauly</b> (bū´li), a small seaport of Scotland, + Inverness-shire, near the mouth of the River Beauly, which enters the + Beauly Firth, a sea loch branching off from Inverness Firth, with + interesting ruins of an old priory. Pop. 882.</p> + + <p><b>Beaumarchais</b> (bō-mär-shā), Pierre Augustin Caron + de, a French wit and dramatist, was born at Paris in 1732, died 1799. He + was the son of a watchmaker named Caron, whose trade he practised for a + time. He early gave striking proofs of his mechanical and also of his + musical talents; attained proficiency as a player on the guitar and harp, + and was appointed harp-master to the daughters of Louis XV. By a rich + marriage (after which he added 'de Beaumarchais' to his name) he laid the + foundation of the immense wealth which he afterwards accumulated by his + speculations, and which was also increased by a second marriage. In the + meantime he occupied himself with literature, and published two + dramas—<i>Eugénie</i> in 1767 and <i>Les Deux Amis</i> in 1770. He + first really distinguished himself by his <i>Mémoires</i> (Paris, 1774), + or statements in connection with a lawsuit, which by their wit, satire, + and liveliness entertained all France. The <i>Barber of Seville</i> + (1775) and the <i>Marriage of Figaro</i> (1784) have given him a + permanent reputation. His last work was <i>Mes Six Époques</i>, in which + he <!-- Page 442 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page442"></a>[442]</span>relates the dangers to which he was + exposed in the revolution. He lost about a million livres by his edition + of the works of Voltaire (1785), and still more at the end of 1792 by his + attempt to provide the French army with 60,000 muskets. He was a singular + instance of versatility of talent, being at once an artist, politician, + projector, merchant, and dramatist.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L. de Loménie, <i>Beaumarchais et son + temps</i> (English translation by H. S. Edwards); Gudin de la + Brenellerie, <i>Histoire de Beaumarchais</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beaumaris</b> (bō-ma´ris), a seaport town, North Wales, Isle + of Anglesey, on the Menai Strait. It is a favourite watering-place, and + contains the remains of a castle built by Edward I about 1295. Pop. + (1921), 1839.</p> + + <p><b>Beaumont</b>, a city of the United States, in Eastern Texas, in a + region rich in cotton, timber, and petroleum, and an important railway + centre. Pop. 28,851.</p> + + <p><b>Beaumont</b> (bō´mont), Francis, and <b>Fletcher</b>, John, + two eminent English dramatic writers, contemporaries of Shakespeare, and + the most famous of literary partners. The former, son of a common-pleas + judge, was born at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 1584, died in 1616, + and was buried in Westminster Abbey. At the age of sixteen he published a + translation, in verse, of Ovid's <i>Fable of Salmacis and + Hermaphroditus</i>, and before nineteen became the friend of Ben Jonson. + With Fletcher also he was early on terms of friendship. He married + Ursula, daughter of Henry Isley of Sundridge, in Kent, by whom he left + two daughters.—<i>John Fletcher</i> was born at Rye, Sussex, in + 1579. His father was successively Dean of Peterborough, Bishop of + Bristol, Worcester, and London. <i>The Woman Hater</i>, produced in + 1606-7, is the earliest work known to exist in which he had a hand. It + does not appear that he was ever married. He died in London of the + plague, Aug., 1625, and was buried at St. Saviour's, Southwark. The + friendship of Beaumont and Fletcher, like their literary partnership, was + singularly close; they lived in the same house, and are said to have even + had their clothes in common. The works that pass under their names + consist of over fifty plays, a masque, and some minor poems. It is + believed that all the minor poems except one were written by Beaumont. + After the death of Beaumont, Fletcher continued to write plays alone or + with other dramatists. It is now difficult, if not indeed impossible, to + determine with certainty the respective shares of the two poets in the + plays passing under their names. According to the testimony of some of + their contemporaries, Beaumont possessed the deeper and more thoughtful + genius, Fletcher the gayer and more idyllic. <i>Four Plays in One</i>, + <i>Wit at Several Weapons</i>, <i>Thierry and Theodoret</i>, <i>Maid's + Tragedy</i>, <i>Philaster</i>, <i>King and no King</i>, <i>Knight of the + Burning Pestle</i>, <i>Cupid's Revenge</i>, <i>Little French Lawyer</i>, + <i>Scornful Lady</i>, <i>Coxcomb</i>, and <i>Laws of Candy</i> have been + assigned to Beaumont and Fletcher conjointly. To Beaumont + alone—<i>The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn</i>. To + Fletcher alone—<i>The Faithful Shepherdess</i>, <i>Woman Hater</i>, + <i>Loyal Subject</i>, <i>Mad Lover</i>, <i>Valentinian</i>, <i>Double + Marriage</i>, <i>Humorous Lieutenant</i>, <i>Island Princess</i>, + <i>Pilgrim</i>, <i>Wild-goose Chase</i>, <i>Spanish Curate</i>, + <i>Beggar's Bush</i>, <i>Rule a Wife and Have a Wife</i>, <i>Fair Maid of + the Inn</i>, &c. To Fletcher and Rowley—<i>Queen of + Corinth</i>, <i>Maid of the Mill</i>, and <i>Bloody Brother</i>. To + Fletcher and Massinger—<i>False One</i> and <i>Very Woman</i>. To + Fletcher and Shirley—<i>Noble Gentleman</i>, <i>Night-walker</i>, + and <i>Love's Pilgrimage</i>. To Fletcher and Shakespeare—<i>Two + Noble Kinsmen</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: G. C. + Macaulay, <i>Francis Beaumont, a Critical Study</i>; Sir A. W. Ward, + <i>History of English Dramatic Literature</i> (vol. ii).</p> + + <p><b>Beaumont</b>, Sir George, born of an ancient family in + Leicestershire in 1753, died 1827. He possessed considerable skill as a + landscape-painter, but was noted more especially as a munificent patron + of the arts. The establishment of the National Gallery was mainly owing + to his exertions. He was a friend of Wordsworth, who dedicated to him the + 1815 edition of his Poems.</p> + + <p><b>Beaumont</b>, Sir John, born 1582, died 1627, brother of Francis + Beaumont the dramatist; was author of <i>Bosworth Field</i>, an + historical poem, and various sacred and other poems. A poem in eight + books, called <i>The Crown of Thorns</i>, has been lost.</p> + + <p><b>Beaumont</b>, Joseph, <span class="scac">D.D.</span>, born 1615, + died 1699; descended from an old Leicestershire family. In 1663 he became + master of Peterhouse, Cambridge. He wrote <i>Psyche, or Love's + Mystery</i>, a poem once very popular, and an attack on Henry More's + <i>Mystery of Godliness</i>, for which he received the thanks of the + university.</p> + + <p><b>Beaumont</b>, William, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, an American + surgeon, born 1785, died 1853. His experiments on digestion with the + Canadian St. Martin, who lived for years after receiving a gunshot wound + in the stomach which left an aperture of about two inches in diameter, + were of great importance to physiological science.</p> + + <p><b>Beaumont-Hamel</b>, village of France, department Somme, the scene + of fierce fighting in 1918. See <i>Somme, Battles of the</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beaune</b> (bōn), a town, France, department Côte d'Or, 23 + miles <span class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of Dijon, well built, with + handsome church, public library, museum, &c., and a trade in the fine + Burgundy and other wines of the district. Pop. 13,409. <!-- Page 443 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page443"></a>[443]</span></p> + + <p><b>Beaune</b> (bōn), Florimond, a distinguished mathematician + and friend of Descartes, born at Blois 1601, died at the same place 1652. + He may be regarded as the originator of the integral calculus.</p> + + <p><b>Beauregard</b> (bō´rė-ga<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rd), Pierre Gustavus Toutant, a general + of the Confederate troops in the American Civil War, born in 1818 near + New Orleans. He studied at the military academy, West Point, and left it + as artillery lieutenant in 1838. He served in the Mexican War, and on the + outbreak of the Civil War joined the Confederates. He commanded at the + bombardment of Fort Sumter, gained the battle of Bull Run, lost that of + Shiloh, assisted in the defence of Charleston, and aided Lee in that of + Richmond. He was the author of <i>Principles and Maxims of the Art of + War</i> (1863). He died in 1893.</p> + + <p><b>Beausobre</b> (bō-sō-br), Isaac, born in 1659 at Niort, + in France, died at Berlin 1738. In 1683 he became Protestant minister of + Chatillon-sur-Indre, but was compelled by persecution to go into exile in + 1685. In 1694 he became minister to French Protestants at Berlin. He + enjoyed much of the favour both of Frederick William I and of the Crown + Prince, afterwards Frederick the Great, and died in 1738. His most + remarkable work is the <i>Histoire Critique de Manichée et du + Manichéisme</i> (1734).</p> + + <p><b>Beauvais</b> (bō-vā; ancient, <i>Bellovacum</i>), a + town, France, capital of the department of Oise, at the confluence of the + Avelon with the Thérain, 43 miles north of Paris, poorly built, but with + some fine edifices, the choir of the uncompleted cathedral being one of + the finest specimens of Gothic architecture in France. In 1472 Beauvais + resisted an army of 80,000 Burgundians under Charles the Bold. On this + occasion the women particularly distinguished themselves, and one of + them, Jeanne Lainé, called La Hachette, seeing a soldier planting a + standard on the wall, seized it and hurled him to the ground. The banner + is preserved in the town hall, and an annual procession of young girls + commemorates the deed. Manufactures: tapestry and carpets, trimmings, + woollen cloth, cottons, &c. Pop. 20,250.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image173.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image173.jpg" + alt="Beavers" title="Beavers" /></a> + Beavers (<i>Castor fiber</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Beaver</b>, the largest rodent quadruped now existing in the + northern hemisphere, about 2 feet in length exclusive of the tail, genus + Castor (<i>C. fiber</i>), is now found in considerable numbers only in + North America, living in colonies, but occurring solitary in Central + Europe and Asia. It has short ears, a blunt nose, small fore-feet, large + webbed hind-feet, with a flat ovate tail covered with scales on its upper + surface. It is valued for its fur, which used to be largely employed in + the manufacture of hats, but for which silk is now for the most part + substituted, and for an odoriferous secretion named castor, at one time + in high repute, and still largely used in some parts of the world as an + antispasmodic medicine. The food of the beaver consists of the bark of + trees, leaves, roots, and berries. Their favourite haunts are rivers and + lakes which are bordered by forests. In winter they live in houses, which + are 3 to 4 feet high, are built on the water's edge, and, being + substantial structures with the entrance under water, afford them + protection from wolves and other wild animals. These dwellings are called + beaver 'lodges', and accommodate a single family. They also live in + burrows. They can gnaw through large trees with their strong teeth, this + being done partly to obtain food, partly to get materials for houses or + dam-building. When they find a stream not sufficiently deep for their + purpose, they throw across it a dam constructed with great ingenuity of + wood, stones, and mud. Beavers were fairly numerous in Britain in very + early times, at least in Scotland and Wales. Their existence has been + recorded in Wales till the thirteenth century, and in Scotland to a later + date, but they are now extinct in Britain. A colony was some years ago + introduced into the Island of Bute, but they died out again.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Harting, <i>British Animals Extinct + within Historic Times</i>; E. A. Mills, <i>In Beaver World</i>; A. A. R. + Dugmore, <i>The Romance of the Beaver</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beaver</b> (from Fr. <i>baviére</i>, a child's bib, from + <i>bave</i>, saliva), the movable face-guard of a helmet, so fitted on as + to be raised and lowered at pleasure.</p> + + <p><b>Beaver Falls</b>, a town of the United States, Pennsylvania, on + Beaver River, 30 miles north-west of Pittsburg, in the coal and + natural-gas region. Pop. 12,191.</p> + + <p><b>Beaver-rat</b> (<i>Hydromys chrysogaster</i>), a <!-- Page 444 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page444"></a>[444]</span>Tasmanian + rodent quadruped, inhabiting the banks both of salt and fresh waters. + They are admirable swimmers and divers, and exceedingly shy.</p> + + <p><b>Bebee´ru.</b> See <i>Greenheart</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bebel</b> (bā´bl), Ferdinand August, German Socialist, born + in 1840, died in 1913. He became a master turner in Leipzig, was elected + to the Reichstag or Diet of the new German Empire in 1871, in which he + was prominent until his death. He opposed the leadership of Prussia in + Germany and the establishment of the empire, and showed himself + favourable to the Paris Commune and the International. Found guilty of + treasonable practices, he was condemned to two years' imprisonment in a + fortress in 1872, with six months' ordinary imprisonment for insulting + the Kaiser. His influence kept on increasing as leader of the Social + Democrats in Germany and in the German Parliament, where he spoke + strongly against militarism and the emperor's naval policy. His works + include <i>Die Frau und der Socialismus</i> (Woman and Socialism), in + which he went so far as to attack marriage as an institution; <i>Die + Socialdemokratic und das allgemeine wahlrecht</i>; <i>Für Volkswehr gegen + Militarismus</i>; <i>Aus meinem Leben</i>; &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bec</b>, a celebrated abbey of France, in Normandy, near Brionne, + founded in the eleventh century, now represented only by some ruins. + Lanfranc and Anselm were both connected with this abbey.</p> + + <p><b>Beccafi´co</b>, a European bird (<i>Sylvia hortensis</i>), the + garden-warbler. These birds are much esteemed as dainties in the autumn, + when they have fattened on figs and grapes.</p> + + <p><b>Beccafu´mi</b>, Domen´ico, Italian painter, born near Sienna in the + latter half of the fifteenth century, enriched the churches of Sienna + with many noble frescoes and other paintings. He drew and coloured well, + and possessed strong inventive powers. He died at Sienna in 1551, and was + buried in its cathedral.</p> + + <p><b>Beccaria</b> (bek-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rē´a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di, Italian + economist and writer on penal laws, born 1738, died 1794. He is + principally known from his treatise, <i>On Crimes and Punishments</i>, + which was speedily translated into various languages, and to which many + of the reforms in the penal codes of the principal European nations are + traceable. He became professor of political economy at Milan, where he + died.</p> + + <p><b>Beccaria</b> (bek-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rē´a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), Giovanni Battista, an Italian natural + philosopher, born 1716, died 1781; was appointed professor of + experimental physics at Turin, 1748; author of a treatise on <i>Natural + and Artificial Electricity</i>, <i>Letters on Electricity</i>, &c. He + contributed several articles to the <i>Transactions of the Royal Society + of London</i>, and was commissioned in 1759 to measure an arc of the + meridian in the neighbourhood of Turin.</p> + + <p><b>Beccles</b> (bek´lz), a municipal borough in Suffolk, England, 33 + miles <span class="scac">N.N.E.</span> from Ipswich, on the right bank of + the Waveney; has a fine church of the fourteenth century, and a good + trade coastwise. Pop. (1921), 7077.</p> + + <p><b>Becelære</b>, town of Belgium, province of West Flanders. It was + the scene of fighting in the third battle of Ypres (1917), and in the + battle of Flanders (1918).</p> + + <p><b>Becerra</b> (be-ther´a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), Gaspar, Spanish painter and sculptor, + born 1520, died 1570. He studied under Michel Angelo at Rome, and is + credited with the chief share in the establishment of the fine arts in + Spain.</p> + + <p><b>Beche</b> (bāsh), Sir Henry de Ia, an English geologist, born + 1796, died 1855. He founded the geological survey of Great Britain, which + was soon undertaken by the Government, De la Beche being appointed + director-general. He also founded the Jermyn Street Museum of Economic or + Practical Geology, and the School of Mines. His principal works are: + <i>Geology of Jamaica</i>, <i>Classification of European Rocks</i>, + <i>Geological Manual</i>, <i>Researches in Theoretical Geology</i>, + <i>Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Bêche-de-Mer</b> (bāsh-dē-mār). See + <i>Trepang</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Becher</b> (be<i>h</i>´er), Johann Joachim, German chemist, born in + 1625 or 1635, died in London 1682. He became a professor at Mainz; was + elected a member of the Imperial Council at Vienna, 1660, but fell into + disgrace and subsequently resided in various parts of Germany, Holland, + Italy, Sweden, and Great Britain. His chief work, <i>Physica + Subterranea</i>, containing many of the fanciful theories of the + alchemists, was published in 1669, and enlarged in 1681. Among his other + works are <i>Laboratorium portabile</i> and <i>Alphabetum + minerale</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bechstein</b> (be<i>h</i>´stīn), Johann Matthäus, German + naturalist, born in 1757, died in 1822. He wrote a popular <i>Natural + History of Germany</i>, and various works on forestry, in which subject + his labours were highly valuable. In Britain he is best known by a + treatise on cage birds.</p> + + <p><b>Bechuanas</b>, or <b>Betchuanas</b> (bech-wan´az), a widely-spread + race of people inhabiting the central region of South Africa north of + Cape Province. They belong to the great Kaffir stem, and are divided into + tribal sections. They live chiefly by husbandry and cattle-rearing, and + they work with some skill in iron, copper, ivory, and skins. They were + led to seek British protection owing to the encroachments of the Boers. + The southern portion of their territory was first placed under British + protection in 1885, and subsequently the whole Bechuana country up to the + Zambezi was annexed. In 1895 the <!-- Page 445 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page445"></a>[445]</span>southern portion (then + a Crown colony) was united to the Cape Colony; the remainder is still a + protectorate partly under native chiefs. The head-quarters of the British + administration are at Mafeking in the Cape Province. Bechuanaland + Protectorate comprises the territory lying between the Molopo River on + the south and the Zambezi on the north, and extending from the Transvaal + Province and Matabeleland on the east to South-West Africa; area, 275,000 + sq. miles; pop. 125,350, of whom about 1700 are Europeans. It is + generally flat or slightly undulating, and is essentially a grass + country, the grasses being nutritious and standing drought well. Surface + water is scarce, but there is underground water, besides swampy lakes + such as Ngami. Some parts are wooded and well watered. Gold, coal, and + copper have been found. There is railway connection both with south and + north.—Cf. G. W. Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beck Case, The</b>, a celebrated case of mistaken identity, which + involved a grave miscarriage of justice. Adolf Beck, a Swede, had been + sentenced in 1890 to seven years' penal servitude for a series of mean + frauds committed against some women, and in 1904 he was again convicted + and sentenced for a similar offence. Soon after his second trial a Jew + named John Smith, who had been convicted of fraudulency in 1877, was + arrested for similar frauds committed while Beck was in custody. The + resemblance between the two men was remarkable, and it was eventually + discovered that Beck was entirely innocent. He received two King's + pardons, and the sum of £5000 from the Home Office as compensation. A + commission which considered the case drew attention in its report to the + carelessness of the police in identifying Beck with Smith, though the + latter was a Jew; and stated that further legal training was desirable + for the subordinate officials in the Home Office. Beck died in poverty in + 1909. Cf. J. Kempster, <i>Perversion of Justice as exhibited in the Beck + Case</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beckenham</b>, a suburban locality on the south of London, in West + Kent, now forming an urban district, lying south of Sydenham. Pop. + 33,350.</p> + + <p><b>Beck´er</b>, Wilhelm Adolf, German archæologist, born at Dresden + 1796, died at Meissen 1846. In 1828 he became a teacher at Meissen, in + 1837 was appointed extraordinary professor of classical archæology at + Leipzig, and in 1842 ordinary professor. Best-known works: <i>Gallus, or + Roman Scenes of the Time of Augustus</i>; and <i>Charicles, or + Illustrations of the Life of the Ancient Greeks</i>, which wonderfully + reproduce the social life of old Rome and Greece.</p> + + <p><b>Beck´et</b>, Thomas (the form À Becket is also common), Archbishop + of Canterbury, born in London 1117 or 1119, assassinated in Canterbury + Cathedral, 29th Dec., 1170. He was educated at Oxford and Paris, and was + sent, by the favour of Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, to study civil + law at Bologna in Italy, and on his return made Archdeacon of Canterbury + and Provost of Beverley. In 1158 Henry II appointed him High Chancellor + and preceptor to his son, Prince Henry—the first instance after the + Conquest of a high office being filled by a native Englishman. At this + period he was a complete courtier, conforming in every respect to the + humour of the king. He was, in fact, the king's prime companion, held + splendid levees, and courted popular applause. On the death of Theobald, + 1162, he was consecrated archbishop, when he affected an extraordinary + austerity of character, and appeared as a zealous champion of the Church + against the aggressions of the king, whose policy was to have the clergy + in subordination to the civil power. Becket was forced to assent to the + Constitutions of Clarendon, but a series of bitter conflicts with the + king followed, ending in Becket's flight to France, when he appealed to + the Pope, by whom he was supported. After much negotiation a sort of + reconciliation took place in 1170, and Becket returned to England, + resumed his office, and renewed his defiance of the royal authority. A + rash hint from the king induced four barons, Reginald Fitz-Urse, William + de Tracy, Hugh de Morville, and Richard Breto, to go to Canterbury and + murder the archbishop while at vespers in the cathedral. He was canonized + in 1172 by Pope Alexander III, and the splendid shrine erected at + Canterbury for his remains was, for three centuries, a favourite place of + pilgrimage.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. C. Robertson + and J. B. Sheppard, <i>Materials for the History of Archbishop Becket</i> + (Rolls Series); Canon Morris, <i>Life and Martyrdom of St. Thomas + Becket</i>; Lhuillier, <i>Saint Thomas de Cantorbéry</i>; Abbott, <i>St. + Thomas of Canterbury, His Death and His Miracles</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beckett</b>, Gilbert Abbot À. See <i>À Beckett</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beck´ford</b>, William, an English writer famous in his time for + his immense wealth and his eccentricities. He was born at Fonthill, his + father's estate in Wiltshire, in 1759. In 1770 the death of his father + left him in the possession of £1,000,000 of money, and an income of + £100,000 a year. He travelled much, and for some time lived in Portugal. + He expended an enormous sum in building and rebuilding Fonthill Abbey, + near Salisbury, which he filled with rare and expensive works of art. + Here he lived in seclusion for twenty years. In 1822 the abbey and + greater part of its contents were sold, and he retired to Bath, where, + with a much-diminished fortune, but one amply sufficient, he <!-- Page + 446 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page446"></a>[446]</span>lived till + 1844. His literary fame rests upon his Eastern tale <i>The History of the + Caliph Vathek</i>, which he wrote in French, and a translation of which + by the Rev. Samuel Henley appeared at London in 1786. The tale is still + much read, and was highly commended by Lord Byron. He had two daughters, + one of whom became Duchess of Hamilton, and brought his valuable library + to this family.—<i>William Beckford</i>, his father, a London + merchant and West Indian proprietor, was famous for a spirited speech + made to George III when Lord Mayor of London.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Cyrus Redding, <i>Memoir</i>; R. Garnett, + <i>Vathek</i> (with a critical essay); Melville, <i>The Life and Letters + of William Beckford of Fonthill</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beckmann</b>, Johann, German writer on the industrial arts and + agriculture, born 1739, died 1811. He was for a short time professor of + physics and natural history at Petrograd, and afterwards for almost + forty-five years professor of philosophy and economy in Göttingen. His + <i>History of Inventions</i> is well known in the English translation of + it. This work entitled the author to be regarded as the founder of + scientific technology.</p> + + <p><b>Beckx</b> (beks), Pierre Jean, general of the order of Jesuits, + born near Louvain, Belgium, 1795, died 1887. The success of the Jesuits, + especially in non-Catholic countries, was greatly due to his tact and + energy.</p> + + <p><b>Becquerel</b> (bek-rel), Antoine César, French physicist, born + 1788, died 1878. He served as an officer of engineers, and retired in + 1815, after which he devoted himself to the study of electricity, + especially electro-chemistry. In 1837 he was awarded the Copley medal of + the Royal Society of London. He refuted the 'theory of contact' by which + Volta explained the action of his pile or battery. Becquerel may be + considered one of the creators of electro-chemistry.—His son, + Alexandre Edmond (1820-91), was associated with him in much of his work. + He was the author of a work <i>La Lumière, ses causes et ses effets</i> + (1867-8).</p> + + <p><b>Becquerel Rays</b> (bek-rel), the rays given out by radium and + other 'radioactive' substances, so named from their discoverer, the + French physicist, Henri Becquerel (born 1852, died 1908), son of + Alexandre Edmond Becquerel. They were first detected in 1896, as + proceeding from uranium salts; and it is only by uranium, thorium, + radium, and one or two other elements that they are emitted, these bodies + giving them out spontaneously and without any apparent loss of + radioactive power or change of any kind. The Becquerel rays are + invisible, and only known by their effects, which are of various kinds: + thus, like the Röntgen rays, they blacken a photographic plate, even + after passing through glass or other intervening substances; they cause a + number of different substances to give out a fluorescent light, and they + render air a conductor of electricity. Like the Röntgen rays, they act + strongly on the human skin. They consist of a mixture of <span + class="grk">α</span>-, <span class="grk">β</span>-, and <span + class="grk">γ</span>-rays. See <i>Radio-activity</i>; + <i>Radium</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Becse</b> (bech´e), <b>Old</b>, a town of Hungary, 48 miles <span + class="scac">S.</span> of Szegedin, on the right bank of the Theiss. Pop. + 19,000.—<b>New Becse</b>, a market-town on the left bank of the + Theiss, 5 miles <span class="scac">E.</span> of Old Becse. Pop. 7725, or, + with the immediately adjoining village of Franyova, about 15,000. Both + towns carry on an extensive trade in grain.</p> + + <p><b>Becskerek</b> (bech´ke-rek), two towns of South + Hungary.—<i>Great Becskerek</i>, now in Yugo-Slavia, is on the + Bega, 45 miles <span class="scac">N.</span> of Belgrade, with which it + communicates by the Bega Canal. Trade in cattle and agricultural produce. + Pop. 26,407.—<i>Little Becskerek</i>, now belonging to Roumania, is + 11 miles by railway from Temesvar. Pop. 3660.</p> + + <p><b>Bed, Bedstead</b>, an article of furniture to sleep or rest on. The + term <i>bed</i> properly is applied to a large flat bag filled with + feathers, down, wool, or other soft material, and also to a mattress + supported on spiral springs or form of elastic chains or wirework which + is raised from the ground on a bedstead. The term, however, sometimes + includes the bedstead or frame for supporting the bed. The forms of beds + are necessarily very various—every period and country having its + own form of bed. Air-beds and water-beds are much used by invalids.</p> + + <p><b>Bed</b>, in geology, a layer or stratum, usually a stratum of + considerable thickness.</p> + + <p><b>Beda.</b> See <i>Bede</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bédarieux</b> (bā-där-i-<i>eu</i>), a thriving town, Southern + France, department Hérault, situated on the Orb. Pop. 6186.</p> + + <p><b>Bed-bug.</b> See <i>Bug</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bed-chamber, Lords of the</b>, officers of the royal household of + Britain under the Groom of the Stole. They are twelve in number, and wait + a week each in turn. In the case of a queen regnant these posts are + occupied by ladies, called <i>Ladies of the Bed-chamber</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Beddoes</b> (bed´ōz), Thomas, physician and author, born + 1760; educated at Oxford, London, and Edinburgh. After taking his + doctor's degree, and visiting Paris, he was appointed professor of + chemistry at Oxford. There he published some excellent chemical + treatises, and essays upon such subjects as the calculus, sea-scurvy, + consumption, catarrh, and fever. His expressed sympathy with the French + revolutionists led to his retirement from his professorship in 1792, soon + after which he published his <i>Observations on the Nature of + Demonstrative <!-- Page 447 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page447"></a>[447]</span>Evidence</i>, and the exceedingly popular + <i>History of Isaac Jenkins</i>. In 1794 he married a sister of Maria + Edgeworth; and in 1798, with the pecuniary aid of Wedgwood, opened a + pneumatic institution for curing phthisical and other diseases by + inhalation of gases. It speedily became an ordinary hospital, but was + noteworthy as connected with the discovery of the properties of nitrous + oxide, and as having been superintended by the young Humphry Davy. + Beddoes' essays <i>On Consumption</i> (1779) and <i>On Fever</i> (1807), + and his <i>Hygeia</i> (3 vols., 1807) had a high contemporary repute. He + died in 1808.</p> + + <p><b>Beddoes</b>, Thomas Lovell, poet, son of above, born 1803, died + 1849; published <i>The Bride's Tragedy</i> while a student at Oxford, + studied medicine, and lived long abroad. His work was largely + fragmentary, but his posthumous <i>Death's Jest-book, or The Fool's + Tragedy</i> (1850), received the high praise of such judges as Landor and + Browning. His <i>Poems</i>, with memoir, appeared in 1851.</p> + + <p><b>Bede</b>, <b>Beda</b>, or <b>Bæda</b>, known as the Venerable, + English historian and theologian, born in 672 or 673 in the neighbourhood + of Monkwearmouth, County Durham; educated at St. Peter's Monastery, + Wearmouth; took deacon's orders in his nineteenth year at St. Paul's + Monastery, Jarrow, and was ordained priest at thirty by John of Beverley, + Bishop of Hexham. His life was spent in studious seclusion, the chief + events in it being the production of homilies, hymns, lives of saints, + commentaries, and works in history, chronology, grammar, &c. He was + the most learned Englishman of his day, and in some sense the father of + English history, his most important work being his <i>Historia + Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i> (or <i>Ecclesiastical History of + England</i>), afterwards translated by King Alfred into Anglo-Saxon. + Besides his familiarity with Latin, he knew Greek and had some + acquaintance with Hebrew. Most of his writings were on scriptural and + ecclesiastical subjects, but he also wrote on chronology, physical + science, grammar, &c., and had considerable ability in the writing of + Latin verse. He died in 735, an interesting record of his closing days + being preserved in a letter by his pupil Cuthbert. His body was after a + lapse of time removed from Jarrow church to Durham, but of the shrine + which formerly enclosed them only the Latin inscription remains, ending + with the verse—'Hac sunt in fossa Bedæ venerabilis ossa'. On 13th + Nov., 1899, Leo XIII decreed that the feast of the Venerable Bede should + be celebrated in the Church on 27th May. An edition of the whole works of + Bede (12 vols.), with an English translation, was prepared by Dr. Giles + (1843-4).—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Gehle. <i>De Bedæ + Venerabilis Vita et Scriptis</i>; Browne, <i>The Venerable Bede</i>; C. + Plummer's introduction to his edition of the <i>Historia + Ecclesiastica</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bedeguar</b>, or <b>Bedegar</b> (bed´e-gär), a spongy excrescence + or gall, sometimes termed sweet-brier sponge, found on various species of + roses, and produced by several insects as receptacles for their eggs, + especially by the <i>Cynips rosæ</i>, It was once thought to be a + diuretic and vermifuge.</p> + + <p><b>Bedell´</b>, William, a celebrated Irish bishop, born in Essex in + 1570. In 1604 he went to Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton, and + remained eight years. After holding the living of Horingsheath from + 1615-27, he became Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1629 Bishop + of Kilmore and Ardagh, though he resigned the latter of the united sees + in 1630. He set himself to reform abuses and promote the spread of + Protestantism, procured the translation of the Old Testament into Irish, + and by his tact and wisdom conciliated the adherents of both creeds. He + underwent a brief imprisonment on the breaking out of the rebellion in + 1641, and died in the year following. His biography was written by Bishop + Burnet.</p> + + <p><b>Be´der Ware.</b> See <i>Bidery</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bed´ford</b>, a municipal and, until 1918, a parliamentary borough, + England, county town of Bedfordshire, on the Ouse. The chief buildings + are the law courts, a range of public schools, a large infirmary, county + jail, &c., and the churches. The town is rich in charities and + educational institutions, the most prominent being the Bedford Charity, + embracing grammar and other schools, and richly endowed. There is an + extensive manufactory of agricultural implements; lace is also made, and + there is a good trade. John Bunyan was born at Elstow, a village near the + town, and it was at Bedford that he lived, preached, and was imprisoned. + Bedford gives its name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop. + 40,247.—<i>Bedfordshire</i> or <i>Beds</i>, the county, is bounded + by Northampton, Bucks, Herts, Cambridge, and Huntingdon; area, 302,942 + acres, of which 260,000 are under tillage or in permanent pasture. Chalk + hills, forming a portion of the Chilterns, cross it on the south; north + of this is a belt of sand; the soil of the vale of Bedford, consisting + mostly of clay and loam, is very fertile; and the meadows on the Ouse, + Ivel, and other streams furnish rich pasturage. Two-thirds of the soil is + under tillage. Besides the usual cereal and other crops, culinary + vegetables are extensively cultivated for the London market. Principal + manufactures: agricultural implements, and straw-plait for hats, which is + made up principally at Dunstable and Luton. The county returns three + members to Parliament <!-- Page 448 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page448"></a>[448]</span>(divisions: Bedford, Luton, Midlands). + Pop. (1921), 206,478.</p> + + <p><b>Bedford</b>, John, Duke of, one of the younger sons of Henry IV, + King of England; famous as a statesman and a warrior. He defeated the + French fleet in 1416, commanded an expedition to Scotland in 1417, and + was lieutenant of England during the absence of Henry V in France. On the + king's death he became Regent of France, and for several years his policy + was as successful as it was able and vigorous, the victory of Verneuil in + 1424 attesting his generalship. The greatest stain on his memory is his + execution of the Maid of Orleans (Joan of Arc) in 1431. He died in 1435 + at Rouen, and was buried in the cathedral of that city.</p> + + <p><b>Bedford Level</b>, a large tract of marshy land in England, of + about 400,000 acres total area, comprising 63,000 in Norfolk, 30,000 in + Suffolk, 50,000 in Huntingdon, the Peterborough fen in Northampton, the + Holland district in Lincolnshire, and most of the Isle of Ely in + Cambridge. It derives its name from Francis, Earl of Bedford, who in 1634 + made an agreement with Charles I for the drainage of the Level, in + consideration of receiving 95,000 acres of the reclaimed land. A great + part of the Level is under cultivation, and produces grain, flax, and + cole-seed; the remainder yields a winter harvest of wild-fowl for the + London market. See <i>Fenland</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bedfordshire Regiment, The</b>, raised in 1688 on the approach of + the Prince of Orange, suffered severely at Blenheim, and distinguished + itself in a marked manner at the siege of Lille. In 1797 it went to + Scotland and there recruited 1000 'parish boys' under sixteen years old, + who later made excellent soldiers. The regiment shared in the Chitral and + South African (1900-2) campaigns; on going to the front in 1914, + sustained heavy losses at Givenchy, and distinguished itself at Ypres and + the Aisne.</p> + + <p><b>Bedivere</b>, the last knight of the Round Table (q.v.). See + <i>Morte d'Arthur</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Bed´lam</b>, a corruption of Bethlehem (Hospital), the name of a + religious house in London, converted, after the general suppression by + Henry VIII, into a hospital for lunatics. The original Bedlam stood in + Bishopsgate Street; its modern successor in St. George's Fields was + opened in 1815, having been built on the site of the notorious tavern + called 'The Dog and the Duck'. The lunatics were at one time treated as + little better than wild beasts, and hence Bedlam came to be typical of + any scene of wild confusion. The average number of patients is about + 300.</p> + + <p><b>Bed´lington</b>, a town and urban district of England, in + Northumberland, near the mouth of the Blyth, and not far from the seaport + of Blyth, with collieries, ironworks, &c. Pop. 25,440.</p> + + <p><b>Bedlington Terrier</b>, an English Dog, deriving its name from + Bedlington, in Northumberland, having first become well known as a + favourite among the miners of that place. It is a dog of moderate size, + head rather long, with a light, silky tuft on top, ears hanging close to + the cheeks, legs moderately long and strong, tail tapering to the point, + which is almost bare; colour, dark blue, blue and tan, liver, liver and + tan, sandy, or sandy and tan; courageous, intelligent, and generally + useful.</p> + + <p><b>Bedlis.</b> See <i>Betlis</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Printed and bound in Great Britain</i></p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 +Part 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. 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