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Vol. 1 Part 1, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 1 + A to Amide + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34073] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1>THE<br /> +NEW GRESHAM<br /> +ENCYCLOPEDIA</h1> + +<h2>VOLUME I</h2> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <div class="contents"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16"><i>EDITORS</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B.ès L.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>R. F. PATTERSON, M.A.(Cantab.), D.Litt.(Glasgow).</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>JOHN DOUGALL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.; Gold Medallist</p> + <p>of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>ALGAE</h3> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image001.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image001.jpg" + alt="Frontispiece: Algae" title="Frontispiece: Algae" /></a> + <p class="poem">1, The very broad Ulva. 2, Cornucopia. 3, Caulerpa + Cactoides. 4, Acetabularia Mediterranea. 5, Bladder-locks. 6, + Long-stalked Laminaria. 7, Sugared Laminaria. 8, Bladder Wrack. 9, + Serrated Wrack. 10, Gulf-weed. 11, Thalassiophyllum Clathrus. 12, + Forked Dictyota. 13, Medicinal Coralline. 14, Corallina Rubens. 15, + Delesseria Lyalii. 16, Nitophyllum Crosieri. 17, Membrane-leaved + Phyllophira. 18, Peacock's-tail Padina. 19, Banded Taonia.</p> + </div> + +<h2>THE</h2> + +<h1>NEW . GRESHAM</h1> + +<h1>ENCYCLOPEDIA</h1> + +<h2>VOLUME . I</h2> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:19%;"> + <a href="images/image000.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image000.png" + alt="Publishers Mark" title="Publishers Mark" /></a> + </div> +<h2><i>The</i> GRESHAM . PUBLISHING<br /> +COMPANY . <i>Limited</i></h2> + +<h3>66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND<br /> +LONDON W.C.2.<br /> +1922</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<h3>VOLUME I</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead">PLATES</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Plates." title="List of Plates."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> Page</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Algæ</span> (<i>Coloured</i>) </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <i>Frontispiece</i> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Aeroplane</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page44">44</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Air-ships</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page72">72</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Anatomy</span> (Human Skeleton and Muscles) </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 152</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Archæology</span> (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages) </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 220</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Architecture</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 224</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Bacteria</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 348</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">MAPS IN COLOUR</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Maps in Colour." title="List of Maps in Colour."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Africa</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page52">52</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Asia</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 274</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Australia</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 316</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I</h3> + + <p><span class="sc">Adolphe Abrahams</span>, O.B.E., B.A., M.D., late + Major, R.A.M.C.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">George E. Allan</span>, D.Sc., Lecturer in + Electricity, University of Glasgow.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">R. E. Anderson</span>, Maker of Artificial Limbs.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">F. L. Attenborough</span>, B.A., Emmanuel College, + Cambridge.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">F. F. P. Bisacre</span>, O.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., + A.M.I.C.E.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">R. M. Brown</span>, B.Sc.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Grenville A. J. Cole</span>, F.R.S., Professor of + Geology, Royal College of Science, Ireland.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Arthur O. Cooke</span>, Author of <i>A Book of + Dovecotes</i>.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">J. R. Ainsworth Davis</span>, M.A., F.C.P., former + Principal of The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Montagu Drummond</span>, M.A., Lecturer in Botany, + University of Glasgow.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Charles J. Ffoulkes</span>, B.Litt., Major, R.M.; + Curator of the Armouries, Tower of London.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">F. Morley Fletcher</span>, Director, College of Art, + Edinburgh.</p> + + <p>Rev. <span class="sc">William Fulton</span>, D.D., B.Sc., Professor of + Systematic Theology, University of Aberdeen.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">L. Haden Guest</span>, M.C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">R. N. Haygarth</span>, B.A., B.Sc., Queens' College, + Cambridge.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">W. A. Hislop</span>, M.B., late Captain, R.A.M.C.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Donald A. Mackenzie</span>, Folklorist; Author of + <i>Egyptian Myth and Legend</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Magnus Maclean</span>, M.A., D.Sc., M.Inst.E.E., + M.Inst.C.E., Editor of <i>Modern Electrical Engineering</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">W. Lockwood Marsh</span>, O.B.E., M.A., A.F.R.Ae.S., + Lieutenant-Colonel; late R.A.F.; Secretary of the Royal Aeronautical + Society.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">D. J. Mackellor</span>, B.Sc., Lecturer in Electrical + Engineering, Royal Technical College, Glasgow.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">R. F. Patterson</span>, M.A., D.Litt., formerly + Charles Oldham Shakespeare Scholar, Cambridge University.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Angelo S. Rappoport</span>, Ph.D., B. ès L.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">James Ritchie</span>, M.A., M.D., Professor of + Bacteriology, University of Edinburgh.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">W. D. Robieson</span>, M.A.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">John J. Ross</span>, M.A., F.R.A.S.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">George Smith</span>, Procurator Fiscal.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">G. Elliot Smith</span>, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor + of Anatomy, University of London.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">C. S. Stooks</span>, D.S.O., Major, Indian Army; + Instructor in Military Organization, Royal Military College, + Sandhurst.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">M. M. J. Sutherland</span>, D.Sc., F.I.C.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Thomas G. Wright</span>, LL.B., Professor of + Mercantile Law, University of Glasgow.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>KEY TO PRONUNCIATION</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by + marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system + of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:—</p> + +<h3>VOWELS</h3> + + <p>ā, as in f<i>a</i>te, or in b<i>a</i>re.</p> + + <p>ä, as in <i>a</i>lms, Fr. <i>â</i>me, Ger. B<i>a</i>hn = á of Indian + names.</p> + + <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>, the same + sound short or medium, as in Fr. b<i>a</i>l, Ger. M<i>a</i>nn.</p> + + <p>a, as in f<i>a</i>t.</p> + + <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x3">¨</span></span>, as in + f<i>a</i>ll.</p> + + <p><i>a</i>, obscure, as in rur<i>a</i>l, similar to <i>u</i> in + b<i>u</i>t, ė in h<i>e</i>r: common in Indian names.</p> + + <p>ē, as in m<i>e</i> = <i>i</i> in mach<i>i</i>ne.</p> + + <p>e, as in m<i>e</i>t.</p> + + <p>ė, as in h<i>e</i>r.</p> + + <p>ī, as in p<i>i</i>ne, or as <i>ei</i> in Ger. m<i>ei</i>n.</p> + + <p>i, as in p<i>i</i>n, also used for the short sound corresponding to + ē, as in French and Italian words.</p> + + <p><i>eu</i>, a long sound as in Fr. j<i>eû</i>ne = Ger. long <i>ö</i>, + as in S<i>ö</i>hne, G<i>ö</i>the (Goethe).</p> + + <p>eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p<i>eu</i> = Ger. + <i>ö</i> short.</p> + + <p>ō, as in n<i>o</i>te, m<i>oa</i>n.</p> + + <p>o, as in n<i>o</i>t, s<i>o</i>ft—that is, short or medium.</p> + + <p>ö, as in m<i>o</i>ve, tw<i>o</i>.</p> + + <p>ū as in t<i>u</i>be.</p> + + <p>u, as in t<i>u</i>b: similar to ė and also to <i>a</i>.</p> + + <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x3">¨</span></span>, as in + b<i>u</i>ll.</p> + + <p>ü, as in Sc. ab<i>u</i>ne = Fr. <i>û</i> as in d<i>û</i>, Ger. + <i>ü</i> long as in gr<i>ü</i>n, B<i>ü</i>hne.</p> + + <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>, the + corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b<i>u</i>t, Ger. + M<i>ü</i>ller.</p> + + <p>oi, as in <i>oi</i>l.</p> + + <p>ou, as in p<i>ou</i>nd; or as <i>au</i> in Ger. H<i>au</i>s.</p> + +<h3>CONSONANTS</h3> + + <p>Of the <i>consonants</i>, <b>b,</b> <b>d,</b> <b>f,</b> <b>h,</b> + <b>j,</b> <b>k,</b> <b>l,</b> <b>m,</b> <b>n,</b> <b>ng,</b> <b>p,</b> + <b>sh,</b> <b>t,</b> <b>v,</b> <b>z,</b> always have their common English + sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter <b>c</b> is + not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, <b>s</b> or <b>k</b> + being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require + explanation are the following:—</p> + + <p>ch is always as in ri<i>ch</i>.</p> + + <p><i>d</i>, nearly as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is = Sp. <i>d</i> in + Ma<i>d</i>ri<i>d</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>g is always hard, as in <i>g</i>o.</p> + + <p><i>h</i> represents the guttural in Scotch lo<i>ch</i>, Ger. + na<i>ch</i>, also other similar gutturals.</p> + + <p>n<span class="x1"><span class="x3">˙</span></span>, Fr. nasal + <i>n</i> as in bo<i>n</i>.</p> + + <p>r represents both English <i>r</i>, and <i>r</i> in foreign words, + which is generally much more strongly trilled.</p> + + <p>s, always as in <i>s</i>o.</p> + + <p>th, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>in.</p> + + <p><i>th</i>, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is.</p> + + <p>w always consonantal, as in <i>w</i>e.</p> + + <p>x = ks, which are used instead.</p> + + <p>y always consonantal, as in <i>y</i>ea (Fr. <i>ligne</i> would be + re-written lēny).</p> + + <p>zh, as <i>s</i> in plea<i>s</i>ure = Fr. <i>j</i>.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>[1]</span></p> + +<h1>THE NEW<br /> +GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA</h1> + +<h2>VOLUME I</h2> + + <p><b>A,</b> the first letter in many alphabets. The sound most commonly + belonging to it, as in French, Italian, German, &c., is that which is + heard in <i>father</i>, pronounced short or long. In English the letter + is made to represent at least seven sounds, as in <i>father</i>, + <i>mat</i>, <i>mate</i>, <i>mare</i>, <i>many</i>, <i>ball</i>, + <i>what</i>, besides being used in such digraphs as <i>ea</i> in + <i>heat</i>, <i>oa</i> in <i>boat</i>.—A, in music, is the sixth + note in the diatonic scale of C, and stands when in perfect tune to the + latter note in the ratio of <sup>3</sup>/<sub>5</sub> to 1. The second + string of the violin is tuned to this note.</p> + + <p><b>A 1,</b> a symbol attached to vessels of the highest class in + Lloyd's register of shipping, A referring to the hull of the vessel, 1 to + the rigging and whole equipment. When A 1 has a number prefixed, as 100 A + 1, 90 A 1, the number denotes that the vessel is built according to + certain specifications. See <i>Shipbuilding</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aa</b> (ä) (Old Ger. <i>aha</i>, water; allied to Lat. <i>aqua</i>, + water), the name of a great many streams of Central and Northern + Europe.</p> + + <p><b>Aachen</b> (ä′<i>h</i>ėn). See + <i>Aix-la-Chapelle</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aaland Islands</b>. See <i>Aland Islands</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aalborg</b> (ōl′bor<i>h</i>: 'eel-town'), a seaport of + Denmark, in Jutland, on the Liimfiord, see of a bishop, with + iron-founding, distilling, fishing, &c. Pop. 33,449.</p> + + <p><b>Aalen</b> (ä′lėn), a town of Germany in Württemberg, + which manufactures woollen and linen goods. It has important iron-works + and tanneries. Pop. 11,347.</p> + + <p><b>Aalesund</b> (ō′le-su<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>nd), seaport and fishing centre on the + west coast of Norway, on a small island. Pop. 13,858.</p> + + <p><b>Aali Pasha</b>. See <i>Ali Pasha</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aalst</b> (älst). See <i>Alost</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aar,</b> or <b>Aare</b> (är), the name of several European rivers, + of which the chief (180 miles long) is a tributary of the Rhine, next to + it and the Rhone the longest river in Switzerland. It has its origin from + the Upper and Lower Glaciers of the Aar, in the Bernese Alps, traverses + Lakes Brienz and Thun, and receives the Saane, Reuss, Limmat, &c. On + it are Interlaken, Thun, Bern, Solothurn, and Aarau, to which, as to the + canton of Aargau, it gives its name.</p> + + <p><b>Aarau</b> (ä′rou), a well-built and finely-situated town in + Switzerland, capital of canton Aargau, on the River Aar. Pop. 9536.</p> + + <p><b>Aard-vark</b> (ärd′va<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rk: earth-pig), Dutch name for a + burrowing insect-eating animal of South Africa, <i>Orycterŏpus + capensis</i>, order Edentata, resembling the ant-eater and armadillo. It + is called also <i>ground-hog</i> and <i>Cape pig</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image002.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image002.jpg" + alt="Aardwolf" title="Aardwolf" /></a> + Aardwolf (<i>Protĕles cristātus</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Aardwolf</b> (ärd′wu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>lf: earth-wolf) (<i>Protĕles + cristātus</i>), a burrowing carnivore of S. and E. Africa, allied + to the hyenas and civets. It feeds on carrion, small mammals, insects, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aare</b>. See <i>Aar</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aargau</b> (är′gou), or <b>Argovie</b> (a<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>r-go-vē), a + northern canton of Switzerland; area, 543 sq. miles; hilly, well wooded, + abundantly watered by the Aar and its tributaries, and well cultivated. + Pop. 236,860. German is almost universally spoken. Capital, Aarau. <!-- + Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page2"></a>[2]</span></p> + + <p><b>Aarhuus</b> (ōr′hös), a seaport and ancient town of + Denmark, on the east coast of Jutland. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a + good harbour, and manufactures woollens, gloves, hats, tobacco, &c. + Pop. 65,858.</p> + + <p><b>Aaron</b> (ā′ron), of the tribe of Levi, brother of + Moses. At Sinai, when the people became impatient at the long-continued + absence of Moses, he complied with their request by making a golden calf, + and thus became involved with them in the guilt of gross idolatry. The + office of high-priest, which he first filled, was made hereditary in his + family. He died at Mount Hor at the age of 123, and was succeeded by his + son Eleazer.</p> + + <p><b>Aaron's Beard</b>. See <i>Saint John's Wort</i> and + <i>Toad-flax</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aaron's Rod</b>. See <i>Golden-rod</i> and <i>Mullein</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aasen</b> (ō′zen), Ivar Andreas, Norwegian poet and + philologist, was born in 1813 and died in 1896. He wrote miscellaneous + poems and a drama, but he is chiefly known as the originator of the + patriotic movement known as the <i>Maulstroev</i>. He endeavoured to give + Norway a literary language distinct from the Danish, which has long + served as the literary and official language of the country. This he + attempted to do mainly by the help of the native dialects, which he + studied thoroughly, setting forth their grammar in special works and + embodying their vocabulary in his <i>Norsk Ordbog med Dansk + Forklaring</i> (Norse Dictionary, with Explanations in Danish, 1873), + supplemented by the <i>Norsk Ordbog</i> of Hans Ross (1890-2). Numbers of + poems, tales, &c., have been written in the language, of which Aasen + was in a sense the inventor.</p> + + <p><b>Aasvär</b> (ōs′vār), a group of small islands off + the Norwegian coast, under the Arctic Circle, where there is an important + herring-fishery.</p> + + <p><b>Ab,</b> the eleventh month of the Jewish civil, the fifth of the + ecclesiastical, year—part of July and part of August.</p> + + <p><b>Ababda,</b> or <b>Ababdeh</b> (abab′de) (<b>Gebadei</b> of + Pliny), a nomadic African race inhabiting Upper Egypt and part of Nubia, + between the Nile and the Red Sea, dark-brown in colour. Their language is + Arabic and they are Mahommedans in religion. They number about + 40,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′aca,</b> or <b>Manilla Hemp,</b> a strong fibre yielded by + the leaf-stalks of a kind of plantain (<i>Musa textĭlis</i>) which + grows in the Indian Archipelago, and is cultivated in the Philippines. + The outer fibres of the leaf-stalks are made into strong and durable + ropes, the inner into various fine fabrics.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′aco,</b> <b>Great</b> and <b>Little,</b> two islands of + the Bahamas group, (q.v.). Pop. about 4000.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/image003.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image003.jpg" + alt="Abacus for Calculations" title="Abacus for Calculations" /></a> + Abacus for Calculations + </div> + + <div class="figright" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/image004.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image004.jpg" + alt="Abacus in architecture" title="Abacus in architecture" /></a> + Norman Capital—<i>a</i>, the Abacus + </div> + + <p><b>Ab′acus,</b> a Latin term applied to an apparatus used in + elementary schools for facilitating arithmetical operations, consisting + of a number of parallel cords or wires, upon which balls or beads are + strung, the uppermost wire being appropriated to units, the next to tens, + &c.—The uppermost member or division of the capital of a + column, immediately under the architrave.</p> + + <p><b>Abad′don</b> (Heb. destruction), the name given in + <i>Rev.</i> ix. 11 as that of the angel of the bottomless pit, otherwise + called <i>Apollyon</i>. In <i>Job</i>, xxvi, 6, it designates the + underworld, or Hades.</p> + + <p><b>Abakansk′,</b> a fortified place in Siberia, near the Upper + Yenisei, founded by Peter the Great in 1707.</p> + + <p><b>Abalone</b> (ab-a-lō′ne), a name in California for a + species of ear-shell (Haliotis) that furnishes mother-of-pearl.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′ana,</b> or <b>Amanah,</b> one of the two rivers of + Damascus mentioned in the Bible (2 <i>Kings</i>, v, 12). See + <i>Barada</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aban′donment,</b> a term of marine insurance, employed to + designate the case where the party insured gives up his whole interest in + the property to the insurer, and claims as for a total loss.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: G. G. Phillimore, <i>Marine + Insurance</i>, in <i>Encyclopedia of the Laws of England</i>, vol. viii; + C. R. Tyser, <i>Law relating to Losses under a Policy of Marine + Insurance</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′ano,</b> a village of North Italy, 5 miles from Padua, + famous for its mud-baths and warm springs. It is supposed to be the + birthplace of Livy.</p> + + <p><b>Aba′rim,</b> a mountain range of Eastern Palestine, including + Nebo, on which Moses died.</p> + + <p><b>Abatement,</b> in law, has various significations. <i>Abatement of + nuisances</i> is the remedy allowed to a person injured by a public or + private nuisance, of destroying or removing it himself. A <i>plea in + abatement</i> is brought <!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page3"></a>[3]</span>forward by a defendant when he wishes to + defeat or quash a particular action on some formal or technical ground. + Abatement, in mercantile law, is an allowance, deduction, or discount + made for prompt payment or other reason.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′attis,</b> or <b>Abatis,</b> in field engineering, a mass + of trees cut down and laid with their branches turned towards the enemy + in such a way as to form a defence for troops stationed behind them.</p> + + <p><b>Abattoir</b> (ab-at-wär′). See <i>Slaughter-house</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abauzit,</b> Firmin (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-bō-zē), a French Protestant + scholar, was born in 1679 and died in 1767. He lived chiefly at Geneva, + but visited England and was highly esteemed by Newton, who considered him + not unfit to be judge between himself and Leibnitz in the quarrel as to + the invention of the integral and differential calculus. Collections of + his works were published at Geneva (1770) and at London (1773).</p> + + <p><b>Abba,</b> a Syrian word equivalent to 'father', which, being + applied in the Eastern Church to monks, superiors of monks, and other + ecclesiastics, gave rise to the word <i>abbot</i>. In the Syriac and + Coptic Churches it is given to bishops.</p> + + <p><b>Abbadie</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>b-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-dē), Antoine Thomson and Arnaud + Michel d', French travellers, born in Dublin in 1810 and 1815 + respectively. They lived for years in Abyssinia, and published valuable + works on that country: Arnaud, <i>Douze Ans dans la Haute-Éthiopie</i>; + Antoine, <i>Géodésie de la Haute-Éthiopie</i>, &c. Arnaud died in + 1893, Antoine in 1897.</p> + + <p><b>Abbas I,</b> the <i>Great</i>, Shah or King of Persia, born in + 1557, ascended the throne in 1586, at a time when the Turks and hordes of + Usbek Tartars had made great encroachments on the country. Having + defeated the Usbeks, recovered the provinces overrun by them, and reduced + a great part of Afghanistan, he made war against the Turks, and in 1605 + defeated them near Bussorah, thus getting back all the lost provinces. He + extended his rule beyond Persia proper, and at his death in 1628 his + dominions stretched from the Tigris to the Indus. He is looked upon by + the Persians as their greatest sovereign.</p> + + <p><b>Abbas II, Hilmi,</b> ex-Khedive of Egypt, was born in 1874. He is + the eldest son of Tewfik Pasha, and succeeded his father in 1892. During + his reign he adopted an unfriendly attitude towards England, but he + failed in his attempt to form an anti-British Cabinet in 1893. On 19th + Dec., 1914, the British Government issued a proclamation deposing Abbas + Hilmi and conferring the title of Sultan of Egypt upon Hussein Kamil, + eldest living prince of the family of Mohammed Ali-Hussein Kamil, who + died in 1917. See <i>Egypt</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abbas Mirza,</b> a Persian prince and soldier, was the son of the + shah Feth Ali; born 1783, died 1833; he greatly distinguished himself in + the wars against Russia.</p> + + <p><b>Abbasids,</b> or <b>Abbassides</b> (ab′as-sidz), the name of + the second Arabian dynasty which supplanted the Ommiades. It traced its + descent from Abbas (born 566, died 652), uncle of Mahomet, and gave + thirty-seven caliphs to Bagdad between 749 and 1258. Harun al Rashid was + a member of this dynasty. See <i>Caliphs</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abbate</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>b-bä′tā), the Italian term + corresponding to <i>Abbé</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abbé</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>b-ā), a French word for abbot, or + for anyone regularly wearing the clerical dress. Before the Revolution, + all who had studied theology, either with the view of becoming ordained + clergymen or merely of obtaining some ecclesiastical appointment or + benefice, were generally so designated. Marked out by their special + dress, a short, violet-coloured robe, they were seen everywhere—at + court, the ball, the theatre, and in private families, where they acted + sometimes as tutors and sometimes as confidential advisers. Others, + again, adopted the literary profession or became teachers in the higher + educational establishments.</p> + + <p><b>Abbe,</b> Cleveland, American meteorologist and astronomer, born at + New York in 1838, and educated at Harvard. He held various positions in + connection with observatories and other institutions in America, and was + for some time chief meteorologist in the United States Weather Bureau. He + wrote much on meteorology and kindred subjects. He died in 1916. His + works include: <i>The Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere</i>; + <i>Relations between Climates and Crops</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Abbeoku′ta,</b> a town of West Africa, in the Lagos Province + of S. Nigeria, on the Ogun River, and on the railway from Lagos to N. + Nigeria, 45 miles north of Lagos, consists chiefly of mud houses, + surrounded by a mud wall. Pop. 50,000 to 100,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′bess</b>. See <i>Abbey</i> and <i>Abbot</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abbeville</b> (ancient <b>Abbatis Villa</b>), a town of France, + department of the Somme, on the River Somme (which is here tidal), 108 + miles <span class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Paris. The town is first + mentioned in the ninth century, when it belonged to the Abbey of St. + Riquier. It has a Gothic church (St. Vulfran) (begun in the fifteenth + century and completed in the seventeenth), which has a magnificent west + front in the Flamboyant style. It manufactures woollens, sail-cloth, + chemicals, &c. Pop. 20,373.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′bey,</b> a monastery or religious community of the highest + class, governed by an <i>abbot</i>, assisted generally by a prior, + sub-prior, and other subordinate functionaries; or, in the case of a + female community, superintended by an <i>abbess</i>. An abbey invariably + included a church. A priory differed from an abbey only in being <!-- + Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>[4]</span>scarcely so + extensive an establishment, and was governed by a <i>prior</i>. In the + English conventual cathedral establishments, as Canterbury, Norwich, Ely, + &c., the archbishops or bishops held the abbot's place, the immediate + governor of the monastery being called a prior. Some priories sprang + originally from the more important abbeys, and remained under the + jurisdiction of the abbots; but subsequently any real distinction between + abbeys and priories was lost. The greater abbeys formed most complete and + extensive establishments, including not only the church and other + buildings devoted to the monastic life and its daily requirements, such + as the refectory or eating-room, the dormitories or sleeping-rooms, the + room for social intercourse, the school for novices, the scribes' cells, + library, &c., but also workshops, storehouses, mills, cattle and + poultry sheds, dwellings for artisans, labourers, and other servants, + infirmary, guest-house, &c. Among the most famous abbeys on the + continent of Europe were those of Cluny, Clairvaux, and Citeaux in + France; St. Galle in Switzerland, and Fulda in Germany; the most + noteworthy English abbeys were those of Westminster, St. Mary's of York, + Fountains, Kirkstall, Tintern, Rievaulx, Netley; and of Scotland, + Melrose, Paisley, and Arbroath.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:66%;"> + <a href="images/image005.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image005.jpg" + alt="Plan of Fountains Abbey" title="Plan of Fountains Abbey" /></a> + Plan of Fountains Abbey + </div> + + <p><b>Abbiategrasso</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>b-bē-ä′tā-gra<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>s-sō), a town in + the north of Italy, 15 miles <span class="scac">W.S.W.</span> of Milan. + Pop. 13,148.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′bot</b> (from the Syriac <i>abba</i>, father), the head of + an abbey (see <i>Abbey</i>), the lady of similar rank being called + <i>abbess</i> (<i>abbatissa</i>). An abbess, however, was not, like the + abbot, allowed to exercise the spiritual functions of the priesthood, + such as preaching, confessing, &c.; nor did abbesses ever succeed in + freeing themselves from the control of their diocesan bishop. In the + early age of monastic institutions (<i>circ.</i> <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 300-600) the monks were not priests, but simply + laymen who retired from the world to live in common, and the abbot was + also a layman. In the course of time the abbots were usually ordained, + and when an abbey was directly attached to a cathedral the bishop was + also the abbot, but the functions devolving on the head of a monastery + were, in this case, performed by a prior. At first the abbeys were more + remarkable for their numbers than for their magnitude, but afterwards + many of them were large and richly endowed, and the heads of such + establishments became personages of no small influence and power, more + especially after the abbots succeeded (by the eleventh century) in + freeing themselves from the jurisdiction of the bishop of their diocese. + Hence families of the highest rank might be seen eagerly striving to + obtain the titles of abbot and abbess for their members. The great object + was to obtain control over the revenues of the abbeys, and for this + purpose recourse was had to the device of holding them under a kind of + trust, or, as it was called, <i>in commendam</i>. According to the + original idea, the abbot <i>in commendam</i>, or 'commendator', was + merely a temporary trustee, who drew the whole or part of the revenues + during a vacancy, and was bound to apply them to specific purposes; but + ultimately the commendator or lay abbot in many instances held the + appointment for life, and was allowed to apply the whole or a large + portion of the revenues to his own private use. Many of the abbots vied + with the bishops and nobility in rank and dignity. In England abbots long + sat in the House of Lords, ranking next after barons. Seventeen of them + were present on 28th June, 1539, the last occasion when the abbots as a + body sat in Parliament. The Reformation introduced vast changes, not <!-- + Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"></a>[5]</span>only in + Protestant countries, where abbeys and all other monastic establishments + were generally suppressed, but even in countries which still continued + Roman Catholic; many sovereigns, whilst displaying their zeal for the + Roman Catholic Church by persecuting its opponents, did not scruple to + imitate them in the confiscation of Church property.</p> + + <p><b>Abbot</b> (or Lord) <b>of Misrule,</b> the personage who took the + chief part in the Christmas revelries of the English populace before the + Reformation. In Scotland he was called Abbot of Unreason.</p> + + <p><b>Abbot,</b> George, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in 1562 and + died in 1633. He studied at Oxford, assisted in the translation of the + Bible, was made Bishop of Lichfield in 1609, next year Bishop of London, + and in 1611 Archbishop of Canterbury. He retained the favour of James I + to the last, but after the accession of Charles I his influence at Court + was superseded by that of Laud. He published several works, chiefly + theological, and <i>A Brief Description of the Whole World</i> + (1599).</p> + + <p><b>Ab′botsford,</b> the country-seat of Sir Walter Scott, on the + south bank of the Tweed, in Roxburghshire, 3 miles from Melrose, in the + midst of picturesque scenery, forming an extensive and irregular pile in + the Scottish baronial style of architecture.—<i>Abbotsford + Club</i>, a club established at Edinburgh for printing works throwing + light on matters of history or literature connected with the writings of + Sir Walter Scott; issued 34 vols. 1835-64.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′bott,</b> Rev. Edwin, <span class="scac">D.D.</span>, + prolific writer on theological, educational, and other subjects, born in + London, 1838, was educated at the City of London School and St. John's + College, Cambridge, where he highly distinguished himself; he was head + master of the City of London School from 1865 to 1889, when he retired. + His <i>Shakespearian Grammar</i> (1870) is one of his best contributions + to English philology. Among his theological and kindred writings are: + <i>Through Nature to Christ</i>; <i>Bible Lessons</i>; <i>Cambridge + Sermons</i>; <i>Oxford Sermons</i>; the elaborate article <i>Gospels</i> + in the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> (9th edition); <i>From Letter to + Spirit</i>. Other works are: <i>Philochristus</i> and <i>Onesimus</i>, + both romances on the history of the Early Christian Church; <i>Francis + Bacon, an Account of his Life and Works</i>; <i>St. Thomas of Canterbury, + his Death and Miracles</i>; <i>The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman</i> + (a very depreciatory estimate); <i>Flatland, a Romance of Many + Dimensions</i>. He also wrote: <i>Johannine Grammar</i> (1906), <i>The + Message of the Son of Man</i> (1909), <i>The Fourfold Gospel</i> + (1913-7).</p> + + <p><b>Ab′bott,</b> Jacob, a popular American writer, especially of + entertaining and instructive books for the young. He was born in 1803 and + died in 1879. For a time he was a teacher and later a clergyman.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′bott,</b> Thomas Kingsmill, <span + class="scac">D.D.</span>, biblical scholar and writer on philosophic and + other subjects, born at Dublin, 1829, died 18th Dec., 1913. He studied + with distinction at Trinity College, and was successively professor in + Dublin University of moral philosophy, 1867-72; of biblical Greek, + 1875-88; and of Hebrew, 1879-1900; he was at one time librarian of the + College. He has written <i>Sight and Touch</i>, directed against the + Berkeleian theory of vision; <i>Elements of Logic</i>; <i>Essays, chiefly + on the Original Texts of the Old and New Testaments</i>; <i>Notes on some + Epistles of St. Paul</i>; <i>Elementary Theory of the Tides</i>; + <i>Translation of Kant's Theory of Ethics</i>; <i>Kant's Introduction to + Logic</i>; <i>Commentary on Ephesians and Colossians</i>; &c.</p> + + <p><b>Abbrevia′tions,</b> devices used in writing and printing to + save time and space, consisting usually of curtailments effected in words + and syllables by the removal of some letters, often of the whole of the + letters except the first. The following is a list of the more + important:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>A.B., <i>artium baccalaureus</i>, bachelor of arts (more commonly + B.A.); also, able-bodied seaman. Abp., archbishop. A.C., <i>ante + Christum</i>, before Christ. Ac., acre. Acc., A/c, or Acct., account. + A.D., <i>anno Domini</i>, in the year of our Lord: used also as if + equivalent to 'after Christ', or 'of the Christian era'. A.D.C., + aide-de-camp. Ad lib., <i>ad libitum</i>, at pleasure. A.D.O.S., + assistant director of ordnance stores. A.D.V.S., assistant director of + veterinary services. Æt. or Ætat. <i>ætatis</i> (<i>anno</i>), in the + year of his age. A.G., attorney-general, adjutant-general. A.H., <i>anno + Hegiræ</i>, in the year of the Hegira. A.I.A., associate of the Institute + of Actuaries. A.Inst.C.E., associate of the Institution of Civil + Engineers. A.I.Mech.E., associate of the Institute of Mechanical + Engineers. A.M., <i>ante meridiem</i>, forenoon; <i>anno mundi</i>, in + the year of the world; <i>artium magister</i>, master of arts. + A.M.I.E.E., associate member of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. + A.M.I.Mech.E., associate member of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers. + A.M.Inst.C.E., associate member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. + Anon., anonymous. A.P.D., army pay department. A.R.A., associate of Royal + Academy (London). A.R.A.M., associate of the Royal Academy of Music. + A.R.C.O., associate of the Royal College of Organists. A.R.I.B.A., + associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects. A.R.S.A., + associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. A.U.C., <i>ab urbe condita</i>, + from the building of Rome (753 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>). A.V., + authorized version; artillery volunteers.</p> + + <p>B.A., bachelor of arts. Bart, or Bt., baronet. B.C., before Christ. + B.C.L., bachelor of civil law. B.D., bachelor of divinity. B.L., bachelor + of law. B.M., bachelor of medicine. Bp., bishop. B.S., bachelor of + surgery. B.Sc., bachelor of science. B.V.M., blessed Virgin Mary.</p> + + <p>C., cap., or chap., chapter. C.A., chartered accountant. Cantab., + <i>Cantabrigiensis</i>, of Cambridge. Cantuar., <i>Cantuariensis</i>, of + Canterbury. C.B., companion of the Bath. C.B.E., commander of the British + Empire. C.C., Catholic curate; county councillor. C.D.V., <i>carte de + visite</i>. C.E., civil engineer. Cf., <i>confer</i>, compare. Ch.B., + <i>chirurgiæ baccalaureus</i>, bachelor of surgery. C.I., order of the + Crown of India. C.I.E., companion of the order of the Indian Empire. + C.J., chief justice. C.M., <i>chirurgiæ magister</i>, master in surgery; + common metre. C.M.G., companion of the order of St. Michael and St. + George. C.M.S., Church Missionary Society. Co., company or county. + C.O.D., cash on delivery. Col., colonel, colony. Coll., college. Cr., + creditor. C.S., civil service; clerk to the signet. C.S.I., companion of + the Star of India. C.T.C., Cyclists' Touring Club. Curt., current, the + present month. C.V.O., commander of the Royal Victorian Order. Cwt., + hundredweight.</p> + + <p><i>d.</i>, <i>denarius</i>, penny or pence. D.C.L., doctor of civil + law. D.C.M., Distinguished Conduct Medal. D.D., doctor of divinity. Del., + <i>delineavit</i>, drew it. D.F., defender of the <!-- Page 6 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>[6]</span>faith. D.G., <i>Dei + gratia</i>, by the grace of God. D.L., deputy lieutenant. D.Lit., + D.Litt., <i>doctor litterarum</i>, doctor of letters or literature. Do., + <i>ditto</i>, the same. D.O.M., <i>Deo Optimo Maximo</i>, to God, the + best and greatest. D.P.H., diploma in public health. D.Phil., doctor of + philosophy. Dr., doctor, also debtor. D.Sc., doctor of science. D.S.O., + Distinguished Service Order. D.V., <i>Deo volente</i>, God willing. Dwt., + pennyweight.</p> + + <p>E., east. Ebor., <i>Eboracensis</i>, of York. E.C., Established + Church. E.C.U., English Church Union. E.E., errors excepted. e.g., + <i>exempli gratia</i>, for example. Etc. or &c., <i>et cetera</i>, + and the rest.</p> + + <p>F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit's thermometer. F.A., Football Association. + F.A.S., fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F.B.A., fellow of the British + Academy. F.C., Free Church. F.C.P., fellow of the College of Preceptors. + F.C.S., fellow of the Chemical Society. F.D., <i>fidei defensor</i>, + defender of the faith. Fec., <i>fecit</i>, he made or did it. F.F.A., + fellow of the Faculty of Actuaries. F.F.P.S., fellow of the Faculty of + Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow). F.G.S., fellow of the Geological + Society. F.H.S., fellow of the Horticultural Society. F.I.A., fellow of + the Institute of Actuaries. Fl., flourished. F.L.S., fellow of the + Linnæan Society. F.M., field-marshal. F.O.B., free on board (goods + delivered). F.R.A.S., fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. F.R.C.O., + fellow of the Royal College of Organists. F.R.C.P., fellow of the Royal + College of Physicians. F.R.C.S., fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. + F.R.G.S., fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. F.R.I.B.A., fellow of + the Royal Institute of British Architects. F.R.S., fellow of the Royal + Society. F.R.S.E., fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. F.S.A., + fellow of the Society of Arts or Antiquaries. F.S.S., fellow of the + Statistical Society. Ft., foot or feet. F.Z.S., fellow of the Zoological + Society.</p> + + <p>Gal., gallon. G.B.E., (knight) grand cross of the British Empire. + G.C.B., (knight) grand cross of the Bath. G.C.I.E., (knight) grand + commander of the Indian Empire. G.C.M.G., (knight) grand cross of St. + Michael and St. George. G.C.S.I., (knight) grand commander of the Star of + India. G.C.V.O., (knight) grand cross of the Royal Victorian Order. G.R., + Georgius Rex, King George. G.R.I., Georgius Rex Imperator; George, King + and Emperor. G.P.O., general post office.</p> + + <p>H.B.M., his or her Britannic majesty. H.E.I.C.S., honourable East + India Company's service. Hhd., hogshead. H.I.H., his or her imperial + highness. H.M.I.S., his majesty's inspector of schools. H.M.S., his or + her majesty's ship. Hon., honourable. H.Q., Head-quarters. H.R.H., his + (her) royal highness. H.S.H., his (her) serene highness.</p> + + <p>Ib. or Ibid., <i>ibīdem</i>, in the same place. Id., + <i>idem</i>, the same. i.e., <i>id est</i>, that is. +I.H.S., <i>Jesus + hominum salvator</i>, Jesus the Saviour of men: originally it was <span + title="IÊS" class="grk">ΙΗΣ</span>, the first three + letters of <span title="IÊSOUS" class="grk" + >ΙΗΣΟΥΣ</span> + (<i>Iēsous</i>), Greek for <i>Jesus</i>. Incog., <i>incognito</i>, + unknown. Inf., <i>infra</i>, below. I.N.R.I., <i>Iesus Nazarenus Rex + Iudæorum</i>, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Inst., instant, or of + this month; institute. Inv., <i>invenit</i>, designed, invented. + I.O.G.T., Independent Order of Good Templars. I.O.U., I owe you. I.S.O., + Imperial Service Order.</p> + + <p>J.P., justice of the peace. Jr., junior. J.U.D., <i>juris utriusque + doctor</i>, doctor both of the civil and the canon law.</p> + + <p>K.B.E., knight commander of the British Empire. K.C., king's counsel. + K.C.B., knight commander of the Bath. K.C.M.G., knight commander of St. + Michael and St. George. K.C.I.E., knight commander of the Indian Empire. + K.C.S.I., knight commander of the Star of India. K.C.V.O., knight + commander of the Royal Victorian Order. K.G., knight of the Garter. K.P., + knight of St. Patrick. K.T., knight of the Thistle. Kt. or Knt., + knight.</p> + + <p>L., l, or £, pounds sterling. L.A., literate in arts. L.A.S., + licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society. Lat., latitude; Latin. Lb. or + lb., <i>libra</i>, a pound (weight). L.C., <i>loco citato</i>, in the + place cited. L.C.J., lord chief-justice. L.C.P., licentiate of the + College of Preceptors. Ldp., lordship. L.D.S., licentiate in dental + surgery. Litt.D., <i>litterarum doctor</i>, doctor of literature. L.L., + Low Latin. L.L.A., lady literate in arts. LL.B., <i>legum + baccalaureus</i>, bachelor of laws. LL.D., <i>legum doctor</i>, doctor of + laws (that is, the civil and the canon law). LL.M., <i>legum + magister</i>, master of laws. Lon. or long., longitude. Loq., + <i>loquitur</i>, speaks. L.R.C.P., licentiate Royal College of Physicians + (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.S., licentiate Royal College of Surgeons + (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.V.S., licentiate of the Royal College of + Veterinary Surgeons. L.S., <i>locus sigilli</i>, the place of the seal + (on documents). L.S.A., licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries. + L.S.D., <i>libræ, solidi, denarii</i>, pounds, shillings, pence.</p> + + <p>M.A., master of arts. M.B., <i>medicinæ baccalaureus</i>, bachelor of + medicine. M.B.E., member of the British Empire. M.D., <i>medicinæ + doctor</i>, doctor of medicine. M.E., mining engineer. Messrs., + messieurs, gentlemen. M.F.H., master of fox-hounds. M.Inst.C.E., member + of the Institution of Civil Engineers. M.I.E.E., member of the Institute + of Electrical Engineers. M.I.M.E., member of the Institute of Mining and + Mechanical Engineers. M.I.Mech.E., member of the Institution of + Mechanical Engineers. Mlle., mademoiselle. Mme., madame. M.P., member of + Parliament. M.R.C.S., member of the Royal College of Surgeons. + M.R.C.V.S., member of the Royal College of Veterinary surgeons. M.R.I.A., + member of the Royal Irish Academy. MS., manuscript; MSS., manuscripts. + Mus.D., <i>musicæ doctor</i>, doctor of music. M.V.O., member of the + Royal Victorian Order.</p> + + <p>N., north. N.B., <i>nota bene</i>, take notice; also North Britain, + New Brunswick. N.D., no date. Nem. con., <i>nemine contradicente</i>, no + one contradicting, unanimously. No., <i>numero</i>, number. N.P., notary + public. N.S., new style, Nova Scotia. N.S.W., New South Wales. N.T., New + Testament. N.Y., New York. N.Z., New Zealand.</p> + + <p>Ob., <i>obiit</i>, died. O.B.E., officer of the British Empire. Obs., + obsolete. Obt., obedient. O.C., officer commanding. O.H.M.S., on his + majesty's service. O.M., Order of Merit. O.P., out of print. Op. cit., + <i>opere citato</i>, in the work quoted. O.S., old style. O.T., Old + Testament. Oxon., <i>Oxoniensis</i>, of Oxford. Oz., ounce or ounces.</p> + + <p>P., page; pp., pages. Par., paragraph. P.C., privy-councillor. P.E., + Protestant Episcopal. Per cent., <i>per centum</i>, by the hundred. + Ph.D., <i>philosophiæ doctor</i>, doctor of philosophy. Pinx., + <i>pinxit</i>, painted (it). P.M., <i>post meridiem</i>, afternoon. P.O., + post office. P.O.O., post office order. P.P., parish priest. P.P.C., + <i>pour prendre congé</i>, to take leave. Prox., <i>proximo (mense)</i>, + next month. P.R.A., president of the Royal Academy. P.R.S.A., president + of the Royal Scottish Academy. P.S., postscript. P.T.O., please turn over + (the leaf).</p> + + <p>Q., question, queen. Q.E.D., <i>quod erat demonstrandum</i>, which was + to be demonstrated. Q.E.F., <i>quod erat faciendum</i>, which was to be + done. Q.M., quarter-master. Q.M.G., quarter-master-general. Qu., query. + Quant. suff., <i>quantum sufficit</i>, as much as is needful. Q.V., + <i>quod vide</i>, which see.</p> + + <p>R., <i>rex, regina</i>, king, queen. R.A., royal academician; Royal + Artillery. R.A.M., Royal Academy of Music. R.A.M.C., Royal Army Medical + Corps. R.A.O.D., Royal Army Ordnance Department. R.A.S.C., Royal Army + Service Corps. R.C., Roman Catholic. R.C.P., Royal College of Physicians. + R.C.S., Royal College of Surgeons. R.E., Royal Engineers. Rev., reverend. + R.I.P., <i>requiescat in pace</i>, may he rest in peace. R.M., Royal + Marines. R.N., Royal Navy. R.S.A., royal Scottish academician. R.S.E., + Royal Society of Edinburgh. R.S.L., Royal Society of Literature. + R.S.V.P., <i>répondez s'il vous plaît</i>, reply, if you please. Rt. + Hon., right honourable. Rt. Wpful., right worshipful. R.V., revised + version.</p> + + <p>S., south. S. or St., saint. Sc., <i>scilicet</i>, namely, viz. S.J., + Society of Jesus (Jesuits). S.P.C.A., Society for the Prevention of + Cruelty to Animals. S.P.C.C., Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to + Children. S.P.C.K., Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. S.P.G., + Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. S.P.Q.R., <i>senatus + populusque Romanus</i>, the senate and people of Rome. S.S.C., solicitor + before the supreme courts. S.S.M., Society of the Sacred Mission. St., + saint, street. S.T.D., <i>sacræ theologiæ doctor</i>, doctor of divinity. + S.T.P., <i>sacræ theologiæ professor</i>, an old-fashioned equivalent of + D.D.</p> + + <p>T.C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. T.O., telegraph office.</p> + + <p>U.F.C., United Free Church. U.K., United Kingdom. Ult., <i>ultimo</i>, + last (month). U.P., United Presbyterian. U.S., United States. U.S.A., + United States of America. U.S.N., United States Navy.</p> + + <p>V., <i>vide</i>, see; also <i>versus</i>, against. V.C., Victoria + Cross. Viz., <i>videlicet</i>, to wit, or namely. V.P., vice-president. + V.S., veterinary surgeon. W., west. W.I., West Indies. W.L.F., Women's + Liberal Federation. W.O., War Office. W.S.P.U., Women's Social and + Political Union. W.S. writer to the signet (Scotland).</p> + + <p>Xmas, Christmas.</p> + + <p>Y.M.C.A., Young Men's Christian Association. Y.W.C.A., Young Women's + Christian Association.</p> + + <p>In LL.D., LL.B., &c., the letter is doubled, according to the + Roman system, to show that the abbreviation represents a plural noun.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><b>Abd-el-Ka′der,</b> an Arab chief, born in Algeria, 1807; died + at Damascus, 1883. He was the chief opponent of the French in their <!-- + Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>[7]</span>conquest of + Algeria, but at last surrendered to them in 1847, and was imprisoned till + set at liberty by Napoleon III in 1852. He afterwards resided chiefly at + Damascus, but made various journeys, and visited the Paris exhibition of + 1867. He wrote a religious philosophical work in Arabic which has been + translated into French.</p> + + <p><b>Abde′ra,</b> an ancient Greek city on the Thracian coast, the + birthplace of Democritus (the laughing philosopher), Anaxarchus, and + Protagoras. Its inhabitants were proverbial for stupidity.</p> + + <p><b>Abdica′tion,</b> properly the voluntary, but sometimes also + the involuntary, resignation of an office or dignity, and more especially + that of sovereign power. Abdication does not necessarily require the + execution of a formal deed, but may be presumed from facts and + circumstances, as in the case of the English Revolution in 1688, when, + after long debate, it was resolved by both Houses of Parliament that King + James II, having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, + had "<i>abdicated</i> the government, and that the throne is thereby + vacant". Yet the sovereign of Great Britain cannot constitutionally + abdicate without the consent of both Houses of Parliament. The principal + abdications in recent years were: Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, 14th March, + 1917; King Constantine of Greece, 11th June, 1917; King Ferdinand of + Bulgaria, 6th Oct., 1918; Wilhelm II of Germany, 9th Nov., 1918; Karl I + of Austria, 13th Nov., 1918; and Marie Adelaide, Grand-Duchess of + Luxembourg, 15th Jan., 1919.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:13%;"> + <a href="images/image006.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image006.jpg" + alt="Abdominal Regions" title="Abdominal Regions" /></a> + Abdominal Regions. + </div> + + <p><b>Abdo′men,</b> in man, the belly, or lower cavity of the + trunk, separated from the upper cavity or thorax by the diaphragm or + midriff, and bounded below by the bones of the pelvis. It contains the + viscera belonging to the digestive and urinary systems. What are called + the <i>abdominal regions</i> will be understood from the accompanying + cut, in which 1 is the <i>epigastric</i> region, 2 the <i>umbilical</i>, + 3 the <i>pubic</i>, 4 4 the right and left <i>hypochondriac</i>, 5 5 the + right and left <i>lumbar</i>, 6 6 right and left <i>iliac</i>. The name + is given to the corresponding portion of the body in other animals. In + insects it comprises the whole body behind the thorax, usually consisting + of a series of rings. See <i>Alimentary Canal</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abdom′inal Fishes</b> (Abdomināles), a group of the + soft-finned (or malacopterous) fishes, having fins upon the abdomen, and + comprising the herring, pike, salmon, carp, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Abduc′tion,</b> a legal term, generally applied to denote the + offence of carrying off a female either forcibly or by fraudulent + representations. Such a delinquency in regard to a man is styled + <i>kidnapping</i>. There are various descriptions of abduction recognized + in criminal jurisprudence, such as that of a child, of an heiress, or of + a wife.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′dul-Az′iz,</b> Sultan of Turkey, was born in Feb., + 1830, and succeeded his brother Abdul-Mejid, in June, 1861. He concluded + treaties of commerce with France and England, both of which countries he + visited in 1867. Deposed in May, 1876, he committed suicide, or more + probably was assassinated, in June of the same year. He was succeeded by + his son Murad V. See next article.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′dul-Ham′id,</b> Sultan of Turkey, younger son of + Abdul-Mejid, born 22nd Sept., 1842, succeeded his brother Murad V, who + was deposed on proof of his insanity in 1876. At that time Turkey, which + was at war with Serbia, was compelled to agree to an armistice at the + demand of Russia. The persecution and oppression of the Christian + population of Bulgaria had roused remonstrances from other European + countries, and a congress met at Constantinople to consider a + constitution which the Porte had proclaimed. The conference was a + failure, and in April, 1877, war was declared by Russia. During the + sanguinary struggle which ensued the Turks fought with great bravery, but + they had ultimately to sue for peace. A treaty was signed at San Stefano + in Feb., 1878, but its provisions were modified by a congress of the + Great Powers which met at Berlin. The island of Cyprus was ceded to + Britain. Serbia, Rumania, and Montenegro were freed from Turkish + suzerainty altogether; Bulgaria was left in nominal dependence; whilst + Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian administration. In 1881 + Thessaly was transferred to Greece; in 1885 E. Roumelia became united to + Bulgaria. Ever since the treaty of Berlin, Abdul Hamid saw in Germany the + future friend of Turkey. He therefore entrusted Germans with the + reorganization of his army and finances. Subsequently there were + massacres of Christians, a war with Greece (1897), and troubles in Crete + and Macedonia. In April, 1909, the Sultan was deposed, and his brother, + Rashid Effendi, proclaimed sultan as Mohammed V. Abdul Hamid died in + captivity 10th Feb., 1918.</p> + + <p><b>Abd-ul-Lat′if,</b> an Arab writer and physician, was born at + Bagdad in 1161 and died there in 1231. He was patronized by the + celebrated Saladin, and published an excellent description of Egypt, + which is still extant. It was translated into English by White, Oxford, + 1800.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′dul-Mej′id Khan,</b> Sultan of Turkey, born in 1823, + succeeded his father, Mahmud II, <!-- Page 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page8"></a>[8]</span>1st July, 1839. At the time of his accession + Mehemet, Pasha of Egypt, had risen a second time against the Turkish + yoke; his son Ibrahim had inflicted a severe defeat on the Turks at Nizib + (24th June, 1839), and was advancing on Constantinople. But the + intervention of the leading European Powers checked the designs of + Mehemet Ali, and saved the Turkish empire. Abdul-Mejid was desirous of + carrying out reforms, but most of them were not enforced, or caused + bloody insurrections where attempts were made to carry them out. Owing to + disputes between the Latin and Greek Churches regarding the rights of + precedence and possession of the 'holy places' in Palestine, and to + demands made by the Tsar virtually implying the right of protectorate + over the Christian subjects of the Sultan, war broke out between Turkey + and Russia in 1853. In the following year the Porte effected an alliance + with France and England (hence the Crimean War), and later on with + Sardinia. (See <i>Crimean War</i>.) Abdul-Mejid died 25th June, 1861, and + was succeeded by his brother, Abdul-Aziz.</p> + + <p><b>Abeceda′rian,</b> a term formed from the first four letters + of the alphabet, and applied to the followers of Storch, a German + Anabaptist (1522), because they rejected all worldly knowledge, even the + learning of the alphabet.</p> + + <p><b>À Becket,</b> Thomas. See <i>Becket</i>.</p> + + <p><b>À Beck′ett,</b> Gilbert Abbott, English writer, born near + London in 1811. He studied for the bar, and became one of the original + staff of <i>Punch</i>, was long a leader-writer to the <i>Times</i> and + the <i>Morning Herald</i>, and contributed articles to the <i>Illustrated + London News</i>. He wrote <i>Comic History of England</i>, <i>Comic + History of Rome</i>, and <i>Comic Blackstone</i>, and between fifty and + sixty plays. In 1849 he was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate, + which office he retained till his death in 1856.</p> + + <p><b>Abel,</b> properly <i>Hebel</i> (Heb. breath, vapour, vanity), the + second son of Adam. He was a shepherd, and was slain by his brother Cain + from jealousy because his sacrifice was accepted while Cain's was + rejected. Several of the fathers, among others St. Chrysostom and + Augustine, regard him as a type of the new, regenerate man.</p> + + <p><b>Abel,</b> Sir Frederick Augustus, chemist, was born in London, + 1827; died 1902. Having adopted chemistry as a profession, he studied + under Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry, became professor of + chemistry at the Royal Military Academy in 1851, and was chemist to the + War Department and chemical adviser to the Government from 1854 to 1888. + He did useful work in connection with the chemistry of explosives + (especially gun-cotton), the flash-point of petroleum, &c.; was + joint-inventor of cordite along with Dewar; and was also an authority on + the manufacture of steel. He was honoured with a baronetcy, and was also + a K.C.B. and a K.C.V.O. He wrote works on gunpowder, gun-cotton, and + explosives generally, and on electricity as applied to explosive + purposes. His works include: <i>The Modern History of Gunpowder</i>; + <i>Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Abélard</b> (ab′e-lärd), or <b>Abailard,</b> Peter, a + celebrated scholastic teacher, born near Nantes, in Brittany, in 1079. He + made extraordinary progress with his studies, and, ultimately eclipsing + his teachers, he opened a school of scholastic philosophy near Paris, + which attracted crowds of students from the neighbouring city. His + success in the fiery debates which were then the fashion in the schools + made him many enemies, among whom was Guillaume de Champeaux, his former + teacher, chief of the cathedral school of Notre-Dame, and the most + advanced of the Realists. Abélard succeeded his adversary in this school + (in 1113), and under him were trained many men who afterwards rose to + eminence, among them being the future Pope Celestin II, Peter Lombard, + and Arnold of Brescia. While he was at the height of his popularity, and + in his fortieth year, he fell violently in love with Heloise—then + eighteen years of age—niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris. They + obtained a home in Fulbert's house under the pretext of teaching Heloise + philosophy, and their intercourse at length became apparent. Abélard, who + had retired to Brittany, was followed by Heloise, who there gave birth to + a son, named Astrolabius. A private marriage took place, and Heloise + returned to her uncle's house, but, refusing to make public her marriage + (as likely to spoil Abélard's career), she was subjected to severe + treatment at the hands of her uncle. To save her from this Abélard + carried her off and placed her in a convent at Argenteuil, a proceeding + which so incensed Fulbert that he hired ruffians who broke into Abélard's + chamber and subjected him to a shameful mutilation. Abélard, filled with + grief and shame, became a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise + took the veil. When time had somewhat moderated his grief, he resumed his + lectures; but trouble after trouble overtook him. His theological + writings were condemned by the Council of Soissons, and he retired to an + oratory called the Paraclete, subsequently becoming head of the abbey of + St. Gildas-de-Rhuys in Brittany. For a short time he again lectured at + Paris (1136), but his doctrines once more brought persecution on him, and + St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the most powerful man in the Church in those + days, had him condemned by the Council of Sens and afterwards by the + Pope. Abélard did not long survive this, dying at St. <!-- Page 9 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>[9]</span>Marcel, near + Chalon-sur-Saône, 21st April, 1142. Heloise, who had become abbess of the + Paraclete, had him buried there, where she herself was afterwards laid by + his side. Their ashes were removed to Paris in 1800, and in 1817 they + were finally deposited beneath a mausoleum in the cemetery of Père la + Chaise. According to John of Salisbury, Abélard is credited with the + invention of a new philosophical system, midway between Realism and + Nominalism. In Ethics, Abélard seems to have attached importance to the + psychological element in the action, rather than to the action itself. + "The intention of sinning", he maintained, "is worse than the actual + physical sin." A complete edition of his works was published by Cousin (2 + vols., Paris, 1849-59), and the letters of Abélard and Heloise have been + often published in the original and in translations. Pope's <i>Eloisa to + Abélard</i> is founded on them. Abélard's autobiography, entitled + <i>Story of my Calamities</i>, is still extant.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Charles de Rémusat, <i>Abélard</i> (2 + vols.); J. M‘Cabe, <i>Life of Abélard</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abele</b> (a-bēl′), a name of the white poplar.</p> + + <p><b>A′belite,</b> or Abe′lian, a member of a religious sect + in Africa which arose in the fourth century after Christ. They married, + but lived in continence, after the manner, as they maintained, of Abel, + and attempted to keep up the sect by adopting the children of others.</p> + + <p><b>Abelmoschus</b> (-mos′kus), a genus of tropical plants of the + mallow family. <i>A. esculentus</i>, cultivated in India, Algeria, + &c., yields edible pods and also a valuable fibre. The fruit, called + <i>okro</i> or <i>ochro</i>, is used in soups.</p> + + <p><b>Abencerrages</b> (ab-en-ser′a-jez), a powerful and + distinguished Moorish family of Granada, the chief members of which, + thirty-six in number, are said to have been massacred in the Alhambra by + the king Abu-Hassan (latter half of the fifteenth century) on account of + the attachment of his sister to one of them. There is a room in the + Alhambra which is still called 'the hall of the Abencerrages'. The legend + has furnished the subject of many poems both Arabic and Spanish (<i>Las + Guerras Civiles de Granada</i>, by Gines Perez de Hita), and formed the + basis for Chateaubriand's <i>Aventures du dernier des + Abencérages</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′en Ezra</b> (Ibn Ezra), a celebrated Jewish rabbi, born at + Toledo about 1093, travelled in pursuit of knowledge in England, France, + Italy, and Greece, and is supposed to have died in Rhodes about 1167. He + is best known as a commentator on Scripture.</p> + + <p><b>Abensberg</b> (ä′bėns-ber<i>h</i>), a village of + Bavaria, in the Danube valley, below Ingolstadt, celebrated for + Napoleon's victory over the Austrians, 20th April, 1809.</p> + + <p><b>Abeoku′ta</b>. See <i>Abbeokuta</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′er,</b> a prefix in Celtic geographical proper names + signifying the mouth or entrance of a river into the sea, or into another + stream. It is used chiefly in Wales and Scotland, having the same meaning + as <i>inver</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abera′von,</b> a municipal borough of Wales in + Glamorganshire, near the mouth of the Avon in Swansea Bay, embracing + Aberavon proper and its harbour Port Talbot. There are collieries, + ironworks, copper-works, &c. Since 1918 Aberavon gives its name to a + parliamentary division of the county. Pop. (municipal borough) (1921), + 15,370.</p> + + <p><b>Aberbroth′ock</b>. See <i>Arbroath</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abercarn′,</b> an urban district or town of England, + Monmouthshire, 10½ miles north-west of Newport, with collieries, + ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 20,123.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′ercrombie,</b> John, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, a + Scottish writer on medical and moral science, and an eminent physician, + born in Aberdeen, 1781, died at Edinburgh in 1844. He graduated at the + university of Edinburgh in 1803, and subsequently pursued his studies in + London, returning to Edinburgh in 1804, where he acquired an extensive + practice as a physician. Apart from medical treatises, he is known from + his <i>Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers</i> and his + <i>Philosophy of the Moral Feelings</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′ercrombie,</b> Patrick, a Scottish historical writer and + antiquary, born at Forfar, 1656; date of death uncertain. Educated at St. + Andrews and abroad, he took the degree of <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, + and practised as a physician in Edinburgh. In 1685 he was appointed + physician to James II. His chief work is <i>Martial Atchievements of the + Scots Nation</i>, 2 vols. folio, 1711-6.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′ercromby,</b> Sir Ralph, a British general, born in 1734 + in Clackmannanshire, Scotland. He entered the army in 1756 as cornet in + the 3rd Dragoon Guards; and he gradually passed through all the ranks of + the service until he became a major-general in 1787. He served as + lieutenant-general in Flanders, 1793-5, and was then appointed + commander-in-chief of the forces in the West Indies, where he captured + the islands of Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad, with the + settlements of Demerara and Essequibo. On his return in 1798 he was + appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland; and he afterwards held a + corresponding command in Scotland. His next and concluding service was in + the expedition to Egypt, of which he was commander-in-chief. He landed, + after a severe fight, at Aboukir, 8th March, 1801; and on the 21st of the + same month the battle of Alexandria was fought, in which Sir Ralph was + mortally wounded.</p> + + <p><b>Aberdare</b> (-dār′), a town of South Wales, <!-- Page + 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"></a>[10]</span>in + Glamorganshire, pleasantly situated at the junction of the Cynon and + Dare, 4 miles south-west of Merthyr-Tydfil, with extensive coal and iron + mines in the vicinity. It belongs to the parliamentary borough of + Merthyr-Tydfil. Pop. (1921), 55,010.</p> + + <p><b>Aberdeen′,</b> a university city and royal, municipal, and + parliamentary burgh of Scotland, capital of the county of same name, + mainly on the north bank of the Dee at its entrance into the North Sea, + and between this river and the Don, with a part also on the south bank of + the Dee, while the municipal limits include the adjacent Woodside. The + site is in places somewhat hilly. Aberdeen is one of the oldest towns in + Scotland, and was constituted a royal burgh by William the Lion in 1179. + The streets are generally spacious and regular, the houses built of fine + grayish-white granite. There are many handsome public buildings, as the + County and Municipal Buildings, Marischal College, Grammar School, + Infirmary, Arts School, Art Gallery, Music Hall Buildings, public + library, &c. The finest street, Union Street, made in 1800, is + carried over a valley by a granite bridge having an arch of 132 feet + span. The small portion of the city called Old Aberdeen, long a separate + town, consists mainly of a single street, stretching northwards to the + River Don. Its chief buildings are King's College and St. Machar's + Cathedral. Noteworthy features of the college buildings are the + crown-tower and the chapel, the latter containing some very fine old + carved woodwork. The cathedral, now used as a parish church, was + commenced about 1357. There are several bridges over the Dee and Don. + Over the latter is a fine old bridge (Brig o' Balgownie) of one arch, + erected according to some accounts by Robert Bruce. There are docks 34 + acres in area, an extensive tidal harbour and basin, and a graving-dock. + The shipping trade is extensive. The industries embrace wool, jute, + linen, combs, soap, preserved provisions, chemicals, paper, shipbuilding, + engineering, and especially the cutting and polishing of granite. The + fishing industry is of great importance. The city of Aberdeen returns two + members to Parliament. Pop. 158,969.—<i>The County of Aberdeen</i> + forms the north-eastern portion of Scotland, and is bounded on the east + and north by the North Sea. Area, 1,261,521 acres. It is divided into six + districts (Mar, Formartine, Buchan, Alford, Garioch, and Strathbogie), + and is generally hilly, there being in the south-west some of the highest + mountains in Scotland, as Ben Macdhui (4295 feet), Cairntoul (4245), + Cairngorm (4090), Lochnagar, &c. Its most valuable mineral is + granite, large quantities of which are exported. The principal rivers are + the Dee and the Don, both of which enter the sea at the town of Aberdeen. + Cereals (except wheat) and other crops succeed well, and the number of + acres under cultivation is nearly double that of any other Scottish + county. Great numbers of cattle are fattened and sent to London and the + south. On the banks of the upper Dee is situated Balmoral, a favourite + residence of Queen Victoria. Aberdeenshire and Kincardine unite in + sending three members to Parliament. Pop. 300,980.—<i>Aberdeen + University</i>, as now constituted, derives its origin from two different + foundations; one, the University and King's College (Old Aberdeen), + founded in 1494 by Bishop Elphinstone (who was bishop of Aberdeen from + 1483-1514) under the authority of a papal bull obtained at the instance + of James IV; the other, Marischal College and University (New Aberdeen), + founded in 1593 by Geo. Keith, Earl Marischal, by a charter ratified by + act of Parliament. The two foundations existed as separate universities, + both having the right of conferring degrees, till 1860, when they were + united and incorporated into one university, the University of Aberdeen. + Holding the funds of both colleges and dating as from the foundation of + King's College in 1494, the university has about 300 bursaries or + exhibitions, mostly open to public competition, and a number of money + prizes and scholarships. The classes for arts and divinity are held in + King's College, and those for law and medicine in Marischal College. + There is a full teaching staff in the faculties of arts, medicine, + science, and divinity, and two professors in that of law. There are in + all 25 professors and some 900 matriculated students. The constitution of + the university is similar to that of Edinburgh and the other Scottish + universities. The library contains over 80,000 volumes. The university + unites with those of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews in sending three + members to Parliament.</p> + + <p><b>Aberdeen′,</b> George Hamilton Gordon, Earl of, British + statesman, born 28th Jan., 1784, died 14th Dec., 1860. He began his + diplomatic life in 1801 as attaché to Lord Cornwallis's embassy to + France, which resulted in the signing of the treaty of Amiens. In 1806 he + entered Parliament as a Scottish representative peer, and in 1813 was + entrusted with a successful mission to Austria for the purpose of + inducing the emperor to join the coalition of sovereigns against + Bonaparte. In 1814 he was created a British peer, and in 1828 he became + foreign secretary in the Duke of Wellington's administration. During the + short premiership of Sir Robert Peel in 1834-5 he acted as colonial + secretary, and when Sir Robert again became premier in 1841 he took + office as Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He was a warm supporter of <!-- + Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>[11]</span>Catholic + Emancipation, and endeavoured, though without result, to bring in a + compromise bill in 1846, during the struggle which divided the + Established Church of Scotland. Quitting office with his chief in 1846, + he came, on the death of Peel in 1850, to be regarded as the leader of + the Conservative free-trade party. On the Derby ministry failing to + maintain its place, Lord Aberdeen returned to office in the end of 1852 + as head of a coalition ministry. The principal event which marked his + administration was the Crimean war; but the bad management of this + irritated the country, and the ministry resigned in 1855. This event + marks the close of Lord Aberdeen's public career. From his travels and + his acquaintance with Greece and its antiquities he was called by Byron + "the travelled thane, Athenian Aberdeen".</p> + + <p><b>Ab′erdevine</b>. See <i>Siskin</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abergaven′ny</b> (sometimes pron. ab-ėr-ge′ni, + the Roman <b>Gobannium</b>), a municipal borough and market town of + England, in Monmouthshire, situated amid delightful scenery in the + beautiful valley of the Usk. It manufactures woollens and shoes, and has + considerable trade. Pop. (1921), 9252.</p> + + <p><b>Abernethy</b> (ab-ėr-neth′i), John, an eminent English + surgeon, of somewhat eccentric habits, born in 1764 in London, a pupil of + the celebrated John Hunter. In 1787 he became assistant surgeon at St. + Bartholomew's Hospital, and shortly after lecturer on anatomy and + surgery. In 1815 he was elected principal surgeon, and under his auspices + the hospital attained a celebrity which it had never before enjoyed. He + published <i>Surgical Observations</i>; <i>The Constitutional Origin and + Treatment of Local Diseases</i>; and <i>Lectures</i>, explanatory of + Hunter's opinions of the vital processes; besides smaller essays. He died + in 1831.</p> + + <p><b>Aberra′tion,</b> in astronomy, the difference between the + true and the observed position of a heavenly body, the result of the + combined effect of the motion of light and the motion of the eye of the + observer caused by the annual or diurnal motion of the earth; or of the + motion of light and that of the body from which the light proceeds. When + the auxiliary cause is the annual revolution of the earth round the sun + it is called <i>annual aberration</i>, in consequence of which a fixed + star may appear as much as 20.4" from its true position; when the + auxiliary cause is the diurnal rotation of the earth on its axis it is + called <i>diurnal aberration</i>, which amounts at the greatest to 0.3"; + and when the auxiliary cause is the motion of the body from which the + light proceeds it is called <i>planetary aberration</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abersychan</b> (ab-ėr-sik′an), a town of Monmouthshire, + England, about 10 miles north of Newport, in a rich coal-mining district. + Pop. (1921), 27,089.</p> + + <p><b>Abertil′lery,</b> an urban district or town of England, + Monmouthshire, 16 miles north-west of Newport, with tinplate works, + coal-mines, &c. Since 1918 it gives its name to a parliamentary + division of the county. Pop. (1921), 38,805.</p> + + <p><b>Aberystwith</b> (ab-ėr-ist′with), a seaport and + fashionable watering-place of Wales, county of Cardigan, on Cardigan Bay. + The town is well built, and the surrounding country is picturesque. There + is here a University College of the University of Wales, occupying a + handsome Gothic building. Pop. (1921), 12,289.</p> + + <p><b>Abeyance,</b> in law, a legal term meaning that the title to + dignity, office, or real or personal property is not vested in anyone, + but is suspended until the right thereto is determined by the appearance + of the true owner. Under English law, when a nobleman dies leaving no + male issue, the title, if descendible to his heirs general, as in the + case of baronies by writ, is said to be in abeyance, until the king, by + his prerogative, terminates the abeyance in favour of one of the + co-heiresses. See <i>Property</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abgar,</b> title of the Syrian rulers at Edessa. The fourteenth + prince of the dynasty, a contemporary of the Roman emperor Tiberius + (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 14-37), is said to have written a letter + to our Saviour.</p> + + <p><b>Abhor′rers,</b> in English history a name given to the Court + party in 1679-80, who, on petitions being presented to Charles II praying + him to summon Parliament, signed counter-petitions expressing + <i>abhorrence</i> for those who were thus attempting to encroach on the + royal prerogative.</p> + + <p><b>A′bib,</b> the first month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, + and the seventh of the civil year, corresponding to the latter part of + March and the first of April. Also called <i>Nisan</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abies</b> (ab′i-es), a genus of trees. See <i>Fir</i> and + <i>Spruce</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′ingdon,</b> a town of England, in Berkshire, 50 miles + north-west of London, on the right bank of the Thames. It was an + important place in Anglo-Saxon times, and Offa, King of Mercia, had a + palace in it. Formerly a parliamentary borough, it now gives name to a + parliamentary division of Berks. Pop. (1921), 7167.</p> + + <p><b>Abiogenesis</b> (a-bī-o-jen′e-sis), the doctrine or + hypothesis that living matter may be produced from non-living; + spontaneous generation. See <i>Generation (Spontaneous)</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abjura′tion,</b> Oath of, an oath which by an English Act + passed in 1701 had to be taken by all holders of public offices, + clergymen, teachers, members of the universities, and lawyers, abjuring + and renouncing the exiled Stuarts: superseded in 1858 by a more + comprehensive oath, declaring allegiance to the present royal + family.—<i>Abjuration <!-- Page 12 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page12"></a>[12]</span>of the realm</i> was an oath that a person + guilty of felony, who had taken sanctuary, might take. This oath + permitted him to go into exile, and not return on pain of death, unless + by the king's permission. In ecclesiastical language the term is applied + to renunciation of heresy.</p> + + <p><b>Abkha′sia,</b> a Russian district, at the western extremity + and south of the Caucasus, between the mountains and the Black Sea. The + Abkhasians form a race distinguished from their neighbours in various + respects. At one time they were Christians, but afterwards adopted + Mahommedanism. Many of them migrated into Turkish territory in 1864 and + 1878.</p> + + <p><b>Ablaincourt</b>. See <i>Somme</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′lative,</b> a term applied to a case of nouns, adjectives, + and pronouns in Latin, Sanskrit, and some other languages; originally + given to the case in Latin because separation from (<i>ab</i>, from + <i>latus</i>, taken) was considered to be one of the chief ideas + expressed by the case.</p> + + <p><b>Abnaki,</b> a Confederacy of Algonquin tribes, formerly occupying + what is now Maine and Southern New Brunswick. Their territory, to which + they removed after 1724, is in Canada on the St. John River and at St. + Francis.</p> + + <p><b>Åbo</b> (ō′bō), a town and port in Finland, the + see of an archbishop, and the capital of Finland till 1819, when it was + supplanted by Helsingfors. Pop. (1919), 56,168.</p> + + <p><b>Abolitionists</b>. See <i>Slavery</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aboma′sum,</b> or <b>Aboma′sus,</b> the fourth stomach + of ruminating animals, next the <i>omasum</i> or third stomach.</p> + + <p><b>Abo′mey,</b> or <b>Agbo′mey,</b> the capital of the + French territory and former kingdom of Dahomey, in West Africa, in a + fertile plain, near the coast of Guinea. Pop. 11,000.</p> + + <p><b>Aborigines</b> (ab-o-rij′i-nēz), the name given in + general to the earliest known inhabitants of a country, those who are + supposed to have inhabited the land from the beginning (Lat. <i>ab + origine</i>). (The singular of the word is <i>Aboriginal</i>, or + sometimes <i>Aboriginé</i>.)</p> + + <p><b>Abortion,</b> in medicine, the expulsion of the fœtus before + it is capable of independent existence. This may take place at any period + of pregnancy before the completion of the twenty-eighth week. A child + born after that time is said to be <i>premature</i>. Abortion may be the + result of the general debility or ill-health of the mother, of a + plethoric constitution, of special affections of the uterus, of severe + exertions, sudden shocks, &c. Various medicinal substances, generally + violent emmenagogues or drastic medicines, are believed to have the + effect of provoking abortion, and are sometimes resorted to for this + purpose. Attempts to procure abortion are punishable by law in all + civilized states. When the death of the woman ensues as a result of the + attempt, the crime is murder.—The term is applied in botany to + denote the suppression by non-development of one or more of the parts of + a flower, which consists normally of four whorls—namely, calyx, + corolla, stamens, and pistil.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: + Sir W. O. Russell, <i>Crimes and Misdemeanours</i> (3 vols.); A. S. + Taylor, <i>Principles and Practice of Medical Jurisprudence</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aboukir</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-bö-kēr′; ancient + <b>Zephyrion,</b> near ruins of Canōpus), a small village on the + Egyptian coast, 10 miles east of Alexandria. In Aboukir Bay took place + the naval battle in which Nelson annihilated a French fleet on the night + of 1st and 2nd Aug., 1798, thus totally destroying the naval power of + France in the Mediterranean. Near this place, on 25th July, 1799, + Napoleon defeated the Turks under Mustapha; and on 8th March, 1801, Sir + Ralph Abercromby effected the landing of a British army against the + French.</p> + + <p><b>Abou-Simbel</b>. See <i>Ipsambul</i>.</p> + + <p><b>About</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-bö), Edmond François Valentin, a French + novelist and miscellaneous writer, born 14th Feb., 1828, died 17th Jan., + 1885. He was educated at the Lycée Charlemagne and the École Normale, + Paris; and was sent at Government expense to the French school at Athens; + on his return to Paris, he devoted himself to literature. Principal + novels: <i>Tolla</i>, <i>Le Roi des Montagnes</i>, <i>Germaine</i>, + <i>Madelon</i>, <i>Le Fellah</i>, <i>La Vieille Roche</i>, + <i>L'Infâme</i>, <i>Les Mariages de Province</i>, <i>Le Roman d'un Brave + Homme</i> (against Zola and the naturalist school), &c.; + miscellaneous works: <i>La Grèce Contemporaine</i>, <i>La Question + Romaine</i>, <i>La Prusse en 1860</i>, <i>Rome Contemporaine</i>, &c. + In 1884 he was elected a member of the Academy. About wrote in a bright, + humorous, and interesting style, and his novels have been very + popular.</p> + + <p><b>Abracadab′ra,</b> a word of Eastern origin used in + incantations. When written on paper so as to form a triangle, the first + line containing the word in full, the one below it omitting the last + letter, and so on each time until only one letter remained, and worn as + an amulet, it was supposed to be an antidote against certain + diseases.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">A B R A C A D A B R A<br /> +A B R A C A D A B R<br /> +A B R A C A D A B<br /> +A B R A C A D A<br /> +A B R A C A D<br /> +A B R A C A<br /> +A B R A C<br /> +A B R A<br /> +A B R<br /> +A B<br /> +A</p> + + <p><b>A′braham,</b> originally <b>Abram</b> (Assyrian + <i>Aburamu</i>, lofty father), the greatest of the Hebrew patriarchs, was + born at Ur in Chaldea in 2153 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> according to + Hales, in 1996 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> according <!-- Page 13 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page13"></a>[13]</span>to Ussher, while + Bunsen says he lived 2850 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He migrated, + accompanied by his wife Sarah and his nephew Lot, to Canaan, where he led + a nomadic life, which extended over 175 years. His two sons, Isaac and + Ishmael, were the progenitors of the Jews and Arabs respectively.</p> + + <p><b>Abraham,</b> Heights or Plains of. See <i>Quebec</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abraham à Santa Clara,</b> a German pulpit orator, whose real name + was Ulrich Megerle, born in 1644. As a preacher he acquired so great a + reputation that, in 1669, he was appointed court-preacher in Vienna, + where he died in 1709. His sermons are full of homely, grotesque humour, + often of coarse wit, and impartial severity towards all classes of + society. His principal work and masterpiece is <i>Judas, the + Archknave</i> (4 vols.), 1686-95.</p> + + <p><b>Abrahamites,</b> 1, A sect of Syrian Deists of the ninth century, + whose doctrines were allied to those of the Paulicians.—2, A sect + of Bohemian Deists of the late eighteenth century, who professed to be + followers of John Huss and claimed that they followed the religion of + Abraham before his circumcision. Believing in one God, they rejected the + Trinity, and accepted nothing of the Bible except the Ten Commandments + and the Lord's Prayer. Refusing to join either the Jewish or Christian + folds, they were excluded from the edict of toleration promulgated by the + Emperor Joseph II, and expelled to Transylvania in 1783. Some were + martyred, others became Roman Catholics.</p> + + <p><b>Abraham-men,</b> originally a set of vagabonds who had been + discharged from Bethlehem Hospital, London; but as many assumed, without + right, the badge worn by them, the term came to signify an impostor who + travelled about the country seeking alms, under the pretence of + lunacy.</p> + + <p><b>Abram,</b> a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 3½ miles + from Wigan; a colliery centre. Pop. (1921), 6858.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′ramis,</b> a genus of fishes. See <i>Bream</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abran′tes,</b> a fortified town of Portugal, on the right + bank of the Tagus (here navigable), 73 miles north-east of Lisbon, with + which it carries on an active trade. Pop. 8000.</p> + + <p><b>Abrantes,</b> Duke of. See <i>Junot</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abrax′as</b> (or <b>Abrasax</b>) <b>Stones,</b> the name + given to stones or gems found in Syria, Egypt, and elsewhere, cut into + almost every variety of shape, but generally having a human trunk and + arms, with a cock's head, two serpents' tails for the legs, &c., and + the mystico-theosophical word Abraxas or Abrasax in Greek characters + engraved upon them. Eventually they came to be used as charms and + amulets. Basilides (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 130) and other + gnostics gave the name of Abraxas to Almighty God, the Supreme Deity, + since the numerical value of its letters in Greek gave the sum of 365, + and they believed that 365 orders of spirits emanated from God. Not all + abraxas stones, however, are of gnostic origin, just as the name of + abraxas cannot be applied to all gnostic stones. Cf. King: <i>The + Gnostics and their Remains</i>, London, 1887.</p> + + <p><b>Abrin,</b> or <b>Abrine,</b> a poisonous substance, being the + active principle in the seeds of <i>Abrus precatorius</i> (see + <i>Abrus</i>). A minute quantity introduced into the blood is fatal to + many animals, but it is employed in ailments of the eyes, and as a remedy + for lupus and certain skin diseases.</p> + + <p><b>Abroga′tion,</b> the repealing of a law by a competent + authority.</p> + + <p><b>Abrolhos</b> (a-brole′-yoce) a group of rocky islands 50 + miles off the east coast of Brazil, the largest of which is Santa + Barbara. Another group called Abrolhos lies off the west coast of + Australia.</p> + + <p><b>Abro′ma,</b> a genus of small trees, natives of India, Java, + &c., one species of which, <i>A. augusta</i>, has a bark yielding a + strong white fibre, from which good cordage is made.</p> + + <p><b>Abrupt′,</b> in botany, terminating suddenly, as if a part + were cut short off.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′rus,</b> a genus of papilionaceous plants, order + Leguminosæ, one species of which, <i>Abrus precatorius</i>, a delicate + twining shrub, a native of the East Indies, and found also in tropical + parts of Africa and America, has round brilliant scarlet seeds, used to + make necklaces and rosaries. Its root is sweetish and mucilaginous, and + is used as a substitute for liquorice <i>(Indian liquorice</i>). The + seeds yield a strong poison.</p> + + <p><b>Abruzzi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-bru<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>t′sē), a division of Italy on + the Adriatic, between Umbria and the Marches on the north, and Apulia on + the south. It is united with Molise to form a <i>compartimento</i>, + comprising the four provinces of Aquila degli Abruzzi, Campobasso, + Chicti, and Teramo. The sea-coast of about 80 miles does not possess a + single harbour. The interior is rugged and mountainous, being traversed + throughout by the Apennines. The lower parts consist of fertile plains + and valleys, yielding corn, wine, oil, almonds, saffron, &c.; area, + 6387 sq. miles. Pop. 1,480,748.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′salon,</b> or <b>Axel,</b> a Danish prelate, statesman, + and warrior, born in 1128, died 1201. He became the intimate friend and + counsellor of his sovereign Waldemar I, who appointed him Archbishop of + Lund. He cleared the sea of the Slavonic pirates who had long infested + it, secured the independence of the kingdom by defeating a powerful fleet + of the Emperor Barbarossa, and built the castle of Axelborg, the nucleus + of Copenhagen. He ultimately became Primate of Denmark and Sweden. + Turning his thoughts to literature he caused the <i>History of + Denmark</i> to <!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page14"></a>[14]</span>be drawn up by Saxo Grammaticus and Svend + Aagesen.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′scess,</b> any collection of purulent matter or pus formed + in some tissue or organ of the body, and confined within some + circumscribed area, of varying size, but always painful and often + dangerous.</p> + + <p><b>Absenteeism,</b> a term applied to landlords who absent themselves + from their estates and live and spend their money elsewhere; in its more + extended meaning it refers to all those whose fixed residence is outside + their own country but who derive their income from sources within it. The + social, economic, political, and moral evils resulting from such a system + are considerable and hurtful to the interests of a region, the absentee + being apt to lose his interest in things and persons and the public + welfare generally. Some economists, however, have adduced arguments in + favour of it, as it may sometimes be for the good of the community that a + rich and luxurious landlord should be absent from his estate.</p> + + <p>The absenteeism of the Irish nobility, which became worse after the + Union with Great Britain and the transfer of Parliament from Dublin to + London, has been a constant source of mischief, whilst France before the + Revolution, Russia under the Tsars Alexander I and Nicholas I, and + Hungary in the eighteenth century suffered greatly from the practice. The + first statute concerning absentees was passed in the English Parliament + in 1379, and in 1729 a tax was levied on all moneys paid out of + Ireland.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′sinth,</b> French <i>Absinthe</i> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>b-san<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>t), a liqueur consisting of an alcoholic + solution strongly flavoured with an extract of several sorts of wormwood, + oil of anise, &c. When taken habitually, or in excess, its effects + are very pernicious. A favourite drink of the Parisians, it was + suppressed entirely throughout France by a law passed on 12th Feb., + 1915.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′solute,</b> in a general sense, loosed or freed from all + limitations or conditions. In politics, an <i>absolute</i> monarchy is + that form of government in which the ruler is unlimited or uncontrolled + by constitutional checks. In modern metaphysics <i>the Absolute</i> + represents the unconditioned, infinite, and self-existent.</p> + + <p><b>Absolu′tion,</b> remission of a penitent's sins in the name + of God. It is commonly maintained that down to the twelfth century the + priests used only what is called the <i>precatory</i> formula, "May God + or Christ absolve thee", which is still the form in the Greek Church; + whereas the Roman Catholic uses the expression "I absolve thee", thus + regarding the forgiveness of sins as in the power of the priest (the + <i>indicative</i> form). This theory of absolution was confirmed by the + Council of Trent. The passages of Scripture on which the Roman Catholic + Church relies in laying down its doctrine of absolution are such as + <i>Mat.</i> xvi. 19, xviii. 18; <i>John</i>, xx. 23. Among Protestants + absolution properly means a sentence by which a person who stands + excommunicated is released from that punishment.</p> + + <p><b>Absolutism,</b> a system of government in which the supreme power + is vested in a ruler not controlled or limited by any constitution or + laws. It has prevailed in Oriental countries, including Japan, until the + latter part of the nineteenth century. There are now no absolute + monarchies in Europe.</p> + + <p><b>Absor′bents,</b> the system of minute vessels by which the + nutritive elements of food and other matters are carried into the + circulation of vertebrate animals. The vessels consist of two different + sets, called respectively <i>lacteals</i> and <i>lymphatics</i>. The + former arise from the digestive tract, the latter from the tissues + generally, both joining a common trunk which ultimately enters the + blood-vessel system. Absorbents in medicine are substances such as chalk, + charcoal, &c., that absorb or suck up excessive secretion of fluid or + gas.</p> + + <p><b>Absorp′tion,</b> in physiology, one of the vital functions by + which the materials of nutrition and growth are absorbed and conveyed to + the organs of plants and animals. In vertebrate animals this is done by + the lymphatics and lacteals, in plants chiefly by the roots. See + <i>Absorbents</i>.</p> + + <p>In physics, <i>absorption of colour</i> is the phenomenon observed + when certain colours are retained or prevented from passing through + transparent bodies; thus pieces of coloured glass are almost opaque to + some parts of the spectrum, while allowing other colours to pass through + freely. In chemistry absorption is the taking up of a gas by a liquid, or + by a porous solid.</p> + + <p><b>Ab′stinence</b>. See <i>Fasting, Temperance</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abstrac′tion,</b> the operation of the mind by which it + disregards part of what is presented to its observation in order to + concentrate its attention on the remainder. It is the foundation of the + operation of generalization, by which we arrive at general conceptions. + In order, for example, to form the conception of a horse, we disregard + the colour and other peculiarities of the particular horses observed by + us, and attend only to those qualities which all horses have in common. + In rising to the conception of an animal we disregard still more + qualities, and attend only to those which all animals have in common with + one another.</p> + + <p><b>Abu</b> (a-bö′), a granitic mountain of India in Sirohi + State, Rajputána, rising precipitously from the surrounding plains, its + top forming a picturesque and varied tract 14 miles long and 2 to 4 + broad; highest point 5653 ft. It is a <!-- Page 15 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page15"></a>[15]</span>hot-weather resort of + Europeans, and is the site of two most beautiful Jain temples, built in + 1031 and 1200.</p> + + <p><b>Abu-Bekr,</b> or <b>Father of the Virgin,</b> born 570 died 634, + the father-in-law and first successor of Mahomet. His right to the + succession was unsuccessfully contested by Ali, Mahomet's son-in-law, and + a schism took place, which divided the Mahommedans into the two great + sects of Sunnites and Shiites, the former maintaining the validity of + Abu-Bekr's and the latter that of Ali's claim.</p> + + <p><b>Abukir′</b>. See <i>Aboukir</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abu Klea,</b> a group of wells, surrounded by steep, black + mountains, about 120 miles from Khartoum, in the Sudan, where, on the + 17th Jan., 1885, Sir Herbert Stewart, with 1500 men, defeated the Mahdi's + troops numbering 10,000.</p> + + <p><b>Abulfara′gius,</b> Gregory, a distinguished scholar, a Jew by + birth (hence the name of <i>Barhebræus</i>, often given him), author of + numerous works in Arabic and Syriac, was born in Armenia in 1226, died in + 1286. About 1264 he was consecrated Bishop of Gubas; he was afterwards + translated to Aleppo and was appointed primate of the Jacobite + Christians. His principal work is a <i>History of the World</i> from the + Creation to his own day, written in Syriac, with an abridged version in + Arabic, entitled <i>The Abridged History of the Dynasties</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abul′feda,</b> Arab writer, Prince of Hamah, in Syria, of the + same family as Saladin, famous as an historian and geographer, was born + at Damascus 1273, died 1331. Amid the cares of government he devoted + himself with zeal to study, drew the learned around him, and rendered his + power and wealth subservient to the cause of science. His most important + works are his <i>History of the Human Race</i> (the portion from the + birth of Mahomet to his own time being valuable), and his geography + called <i>The True Situation of Countries</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abunda,</b> a Bantu race of Angola, living on the coastlands and on + the terraces rising towards the interior, and divided into 'highlanders' + and 'lowlanders'. They speak Portuguese and Umbunda, a trade + language.</p> + + <p><b>Abushehr</b> (ä-bö-shār′). See <i>Bushire</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abu-Simbel</b>. See <i>Ibsambul</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Abu′tilon,</b> a genus of plants, order Malvaceæ, sometimes + called Indian mallows, found in the East Indies, Australia, Brazil, + Siberia, &c. Several of them yield a valuable hemp-like fibre, as + <i>A. indicum</i> and <i>A. Avicennæ</i>. The latter, now a troublesome + weed in the Middle United States, has been recommended for cultivation, + and is sometimes called American jute.</p> + + <p><b>Abut′ment,</b> the part of a bridge which receives and + resists the lateral outward thrust of an arch; the masonry, rock, or + other solid materials from which an arch springs.</p> + + <p><b>Aby′dos,</b> 1, an ancient city of Asia Minor, on the + Hellespont, at the narrowest part of the strait, opposite Sestos. + Leander, say ancient writers, swam nightly from Abydos to Sestos to see + his loved Hero—a feat in swimming accomplished also by Lord + Byron.—2, an ancient city of Upper Egypt (Egyptian Abotu), about 6 + miles west of the Nile, now represented only by ruins of temples, tombs, + &c. It was celebrated as the burial-place of the god Osiris, and its + oldest temple was dedicated to him. Here, in 1818, was discovered the + famous <i>Abydos Tablet</i>, now in the British Museum, and containing a + list of the predecessors of Rameses the Great, which was supplemented by + the discovery of a similar historical tablet in 1864. The tomb of Osiris + was discovered in 1898 by Amélinau. Cf. Flinders Petrie, <i>The Royal + Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties</i> (2 vols.), London, 1900-9.</p> + + <p><b>Abyssin′ia</b> (Ar. <i>Habesha</i>), a country of Eastern + Africa, which, with dependencies, may be said to extend from lat. 5° to + 15° <span class="scac">N.</span> and long. 35° to 42° <span + class="scac">E.</span>, having the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the <span + class="scac">W.</span>, British E. Africa on the <span + class="scac">S.</span>, and on the <span class="scac">S.E.</span> and + <span class="scac">E.</span> Somali-land and Eritrea (Italian Red Sea + coast); area, 350,000 sq. miles. Pop. over 8,000,000. The country is now + divided into 9 provinces, the principal being Harrar, Tigré, Amhara or + Gondar. Each province is governed by a ras, or prince, but Ras Michael, + the governor of Wollo and father of the deposed negus, Lij Yasu, was + crowned king on 1st June, 1914. Abyssinia proper is an elevated region, + with a general slope to the north-west. The more marked physical features + are a vast series of tablelands, of various and often of great + elevations, and numerous masses or ranges of high and rugged mountains, + dispersed over the surface in apparently the wildest confusion. Along the + deep and tremendous ravines that divide the plateaux rush innumerable + streams, which impart extraordinary fertility to the plains and valleys + below. The mountains in various parts of the country rise to 12,000 and + 13,000 feet, while some of the peaks are over 15,000 feet (Ras Dashan + being 15,160), and are always covered with snow. The principal rivers + belong to the Nile basin, the chief being the impetuous Tacazzé ('the + Terrible') in the north, and the Abai in the south, the latter being + really the upper portion of the Blue Nile. The principal lake is Lake + Tzana or Dembea (from which issues the Abai), upwards of 6000 feet above + the sea, having a length of about 45 and a breadth of 35 miles. Round + this lake lies a fertile plain, deservedly called the granary of the + country.—According to elevation there are several zones <!-- Page + 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>[16]</span>of + vegetation. Within the lowest belt, which reaches an elevation of 4800 + feet, cotton, wild indigo, acacias, ebony, baobabs, sugar-canes, coffee + trees, date palms, &c., flourish, while the larger animals are lions, + panthers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, jackals, hyenas, + bears, numerous antelopes, monkeys, and crocodiles. The middle zone, + rising to 9000 feet, produces the grains, grasses, and fruits of southern + Europe, the orange, vine, peach, apricot, the bamboo, sycamore tree, + &c. The principal grains are millet, barley, wheat, maize, and teff, + the latter a small seed, a favourite bread-stuff of the Abyssinians. Two, + and in some places three, crops are obtained in one year. All the + domestic animals of Europe, except swine, are known. There is a variety + of ox with immense horns. The highest zone, reaching to 14,000 feet, has + but little wood, and generally scanty vegetation, the hardier corn-plants + only being grown; but oxen, goats, and long-woolled sheep find abundant + pasture.—The climate is as various as the surface, but as a whole + is temperate and agreeable; in some of the valleys the heat is often + excessive, while on the mountains the weather is cold. In certain of the + lower districts malaria prevails.—The chief mineral products are + sulphur, copper, coal, and salt, the last-named serving to some extent as + money. Iron is very abundant and is manufactured into knives, hatchets, + and spears. There has been a great intermixture of races in Abyssinia. + Those who may be considered the Abyssinians proper seem to have a + blood-relationship with the Bedouin Arabs. Their complexion varies from + very dark through different shades of brown and copper to olive, and they + are usually well built. Other races are the black Gallas from the south; + the Falashas, who claim descent from Abraham and retain many Jewish + characteristics; the Agows, Gongas, &c. The great majority of the + people profess Christianity, belonging, like the Copts, to the sect of + the Monophysites. The head of the church is called the Abuna ('our + father'), and is consecrated by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. Geez + or Ethiopian is the language of their sacred books: it has long ago + ceased to be spoken. The chief spoken language is the Amharic; in it some + books have been published. Mohammedanism appears to be gaining ground in + Abyssinia. A corrupt form of Judaism is professed by the + Falashas.—The bulk of the people are devoted to agriculture and + cattle-breeding. The trade and manufactures are of small importance. A + good deal of common cotton cloth and some finer woven fabrics are + produced. Leather is prepared to some extent, silver filagree-work is + produced, and there are manufactures of common articles of iron and + brass, pottery, &c. Trade is carried on through Zeila and Djibouti + (French Ethiopian Railway was completed in 1915) on the Gulf of Aden, and + Massowa on the Red Sea (Italian), exports being hides, coffee, wax, gum, + ivory, &c., imports textile fabrics, &c. The Abyssinians were + converted to Christianity in the fourth century, by some missionaries + from Alexandria. In the sixth century the power of the sovereigns of + their kingdom, which was generally known as Ethiopia, had attained its + height; but before another had expired the Arabs had invaded the country, + and obtained a footing. For several centuries subsequently the kingdom + continued in a distracted state, being now torn by internal commotions + and now invaded by external enemies (Mahommedans and Gallas). To protect + himself from the latter the Emperor of Abyssinia applied, about the + middle of the sixteenth century, to the King of Portugal for assistance, + promising, at the same time, implicit submission to the Pope. The + solicited aid was sent, and the empire saved. The Roman Catholic priests + endeavoured to induce the emperor and his family to renounce the tenets + and rites of the Coptic Church, and to adopt those of Rome. This attempt, + however, was resisted by the ecclesiastics and the people, and ended, + after a long struggle, in the expulsion of the Catholic priests about + 1630. The kingdom gradually fell into a state of anarchy, and was broken + up into several independent States. An attempt to revive the power of the + ancient kingdom of Ethiopia was made by King Theodore about the middle of + the last century. He introduced European artisans, and went to work + wisely in many ways, but his cruelty and tyranny counteracted his politic + measures. In consequence of a slight, real or fancied, which he had + received at the hands of the British Government, he threw Consul Cameron + and a number of other British subjects into prison, in 1863, and refused + to give them up. To effect their release an army of nearly 12,000 men, + under Sir Robert (afterwards Lord) Napier, was dispatched from Bombay in + 1867. The force landed at Zoulla on the Red Sea, and marching up the + country came within sight of the hill-fortress of Magdala in April, 1868. + After being defeated in a battle, Theodore delivered up the captives and + shut himself up in Magdala, which was taken by storm on the 13th April, + Theodore being found among the slain. After the withdrawal of the + British, fighting immediately began among the chiefs of the different + provinces, but at last the country was divided between Kasa, who secured + the northern and larger portion (Tigré and Amhara) and assumed the name + of King Johannes, and Menelek, who gained possession of Shoa. Latterly + Johannes made himself supreme and in 1881 assumed the title of emperor + (<i>negus <!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page17"></a>[17]</span>negusti</i>—king of kings), having + under him the Kings of Shoa and Gojam. Debra Tabor, about 30 miles east + of Lake Dembea, was his chief residence. During the troubles in Abyssinia + the Egyptians annexed Massowa and the region adjacent, Abyssinia being + thus shut out from the sea. Afterwards the Italians gained and still hold + Massowa and the Red Sea littoral (Eritrea). Johannes fell at Metemmeh in + 1889, whilst fighting against the Mahdists, and was succeeded by Menelek + II. In 1916 Lij Yasu, who succeeded Menelek II in 1913, was deposed and + Waizeru Zauditu (born 1876) became empress.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: R. P. Skinner, <i>Abyssinia of Today</i>. + A. B. Wylde, <i>Modern Abyssinia</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image007.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image007.jpg" + alt="Acacia arabica" title="Acacia arabica" /></a> + Acacia arabica, showing leaves, flowers, and fruit + </div> + + <p><b>Aca′cia,</b> a genus of plants, nat. ord. Leguminosæ, + sub-order Mimoseæ, consisting of trees or shrubs with compound pinnate + leaves and small leaflets, growing in Africa, Arabia, the East Indies, + Australia, &c. The flowers, usually small, are arranged in spikes or + globular heads at the axils of the leaves near the extremity of the + branches. The corolla is bell- or funnel-shaped; stamens are numerous; + the fruit is a dry unjointed pod. Several of the species yield gum-arabic + and other gums; some having astringent barks and pods, used in tanning. + <i>A. Catechu</i>, an Indian species, yields the valuable astringent + called catechu; <i>A. dealbāta</i>, the wattle tree of Australia, + from 15 to 30 feet in height, is the most beautiful and useful of the + species found there. Its bark contains a large percentage of tannin, and + is exported in large quantities. Some species yield valuable timber; some + are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.</p> + + <p><b>Acad′emy,</b> an association for the promotion of literature, + science, or art; established sometimes by Government, sometimes by the + voluntary union of private individuals. The name Academy was first + applied to the philosophical school of Plato, from the place where he + used to teach, a grove or garden at Athens which was said to have + belonged originally to the hero Acadēmus. The home of Academies as + associations of learned men (not institutes for instruction), was + Hellenized Egypt and afterwards Italy of the Renaissance. The flourishing + Academies at Florence, Naples, and Rome became the models of academies in + other countries. Academies devote themselves either to the cultivation of + science generally or to the promotion of a particular branch of study, as + antiquities, language, and the fine arts. The most celebrated + institutions bearing the name of academies, and designed for the + encouragement of science, antiquities, and language respectively, are the + French Académie des Sciences (founded by Colbert in 1666), Académie des + Inscriptions (founded by Colbert in 1663), and Académie Française + (founded by Richelieu in 1635), all of which are now merged in the + National Institute. The most celebrated of the academies instituted for + the improvement of language is the Italian Accademia della Crusca, or + Furfuratorum (now the Florentine Academy), formed in 1582, and chiefly + celebrated for the compilation of an excellent dictionary of the Italian + language (<i>Vocabulario della Crusca</i>, Venice, 1612), and for the + publication of several carefully-prepared editions of ancient Italian + poets. The (Imperial) Academy of Science of St. Petersburg was projected + by Peter the Great and established by Catherine I in 1725. The Academy of + Science in Berlin was founded by Frederick I in 1700. It was opened in + 1711 and had Leibnitz as its first president. In Britain the name of + academy, in the more dignified sense of the term, is confined almost + exclusively to certain institutions for the promotion of the fine arts, + such as the Royal Academy of Arts and the Royal Scottish Academy. The + Royal Academy of Arts (usually called simply the Royal Academy) was + founded in London in 1768, "for the purpose of cultivating and improving + the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture". The number of + academicians is now limited to forty-two, among whom are two engravers. + There are also thirty associates, from whom the academicians are elected. + Of the associates five are engravers. Any person who is possessed of <!-- + Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page18"></a>[18]</span>sufficient proficiency may be admitted as a + student and receive instruction gratis, and prizes are annually bestowed + on meritorious students. The annual exhibition of the Academy is open to + all artists whose works show sufficient merit. The Royal Scottish Academy + of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture was founded in 1826 and + incorporated in 1838. It consists of thirty academicians and twenty + associates. The Royal Hibernian Academy at Dublin was incorporated in + 1823 and reorganized in 1861. It consists of thirty members and ten + associates. A British Academy for the Promotion of Historical, + Philosophical, and Philological Studies was incorporated in 1902. (See + <i>British Academy</i>.) In the United States, the American Academy of + Arts and Sciences at Boston was founded in 1780, and since then various + other societies of similar character and name have been instituted, as + the New York Academy of Sciences, the Chicago Academy of Science, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aca′dia</b> (Fr. <i>Acadie</i>), the name formerly given to + Nova Scotia. It received its first colonists from France in 1604, being + then a possession of that country, but it passed to Britain, by the Peace + of Utrecht, in 1713. In 1756, 18,000 of the French inhabitants were + forcibly removed from their homes on account of their hostility to the + British, an incident on which is based Longfellow's <i>Evangeline</i>. + Many Acadians afterwards wandered back to their old homes, and their + descendants are at present supposed to number 270,000, 100,000 of them + living in French Canada.</p> + + <p><b>Acale′pha</b> (Gr. <i>akalēphē</i>, a nettle, + from their stinging properties), a term formerly used to denote the + Medusæ, or jelly-fishes, and allied species.</p> + + <p><b>Acantha′ceæ,</b> or <b>Acanthads,</b> a nat. ord. of + dicotyledonous herbaceous plants or shrubs, with opposite leaves and + monopetalous corolla, mostly tropical; species about 1400. See + <i>Acanthus</i>.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:18%;"> + <a href="images/image008.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image008.jpg" + alt="Spines of Acanthopterygii" title="Spines of Acanthopterygii" /></a> + <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, Spines of the dorsal, anal, and ventral + fins of Acanthopterygii + </div> + + <p><b>Acanthop′teri,</b> <b>Acanthopterygii</b> (Gr. + <i>akantha</i>, a spine, <i>pterygion</i>, a fin), a group of fishes, + distinguished by the fact that at least the first rays in each fin exist + in the form of stiff spines; it includes the perch, mullet, mackerel, + gurnard, wrasse, &c.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image009.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image009.jpg" + alt="Acanthus in architecture" title="Acanthus in architecture" /></a> + Acanthus. Examples of Greek and Roman decorative treatment + </div> + + <p><b>Acanth′us,</b> a genus of herbaceous plants or shrubs, order + Acanthaceæ, mostly tropical, two species of which, <i>A. mollis</i> and + <i>A. spinōsus</i> (the bear's-breech or brankursine), are + characterized by large white flowers and deeply-indented shining leaves. + They are favourite ornamental plants in British gardens.—In + architecture the name is given to a kind of foliage decoration said to + have been suggested by this plant, and much employed in Greek, Roman, and + later styles.</p> + + <p><b>Acapul′co,</b> a seaport of Mexico, on the Pacific, with a + capacious, well-sheltered harbour; a coaling station for steamers, but + with no great trade. Pop. 5950.</p> + + <p><b>Acar′ida,</b> a division of the Arachnida, including the + mites, ticks, and water-mites. See <i>Mite</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Acarna′nia,</b> the most westerly portion of Northern Greece, + together with Ætolia now forming a nomarchy with a pop. of 188,597. The + Acarnanians of ancient times were behind the other Greeks in + civilization, living by robbery and piracy.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′arus,</b> the genus to which the mite belongs.</p> + + <p><b>Acca′dians</b> (Akkad), the primitive inhabitants of Northern + Babylonia (Akkad), who had descended from the mountainous region of Elam + on the east, and to whom the Assyrians ascribed the origin of Chaldean + civilization and writing. This race is believed to have belonged to the + Turanian family, or to have been at any rate non-Semitic. What is known + of them has been learned from the cuneiform inscriptions. See + <i>Babylonia</i> and <i>Summerians</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Accelera′tion</b> is the rate of change of the velocity of a + body under the action of a force. A body falling from a height is one of + the most common instances of acceleration.—<i>Acceleration of the + Moon</i>, the increase of the moon's mean angular velocity about the + earth, the moon now moving rather faster than in ancient times. This + phenomenon has not been fully explained, but it is known to be partly + owing to the slow process of diminution which the eccentricity of the + earth's orbit is undergoing, and from which there results a slight + diminution of the sun's influence on the moon's motions.—<i>Diurnal + acceleration of the fixed stars</i>, the apparent greater diurnal motion + <!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page19"></a>[19]</span>of + the stars than of the sun, arising from the fact that the sun's apparent + yearly motion takes place in a direction contrary to that of his apparent + daily motion. The stars thus seem each day to anticipate the sun by + nearly 3 minutes 56 seconds of mean time.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′cent,</b> a term used in several senses. In English it + commonly denotes superior stress or force of voice upon certain syllables + of words, which distinguishes them from the other syllables. Many English + words, as <i>as′pi-ra″tion</i>, have two accents, a secondary + and primary, the latter being the fuller or stronger. Some words, as + <i>in-com′pre-hen′si-bil″i-ty</i>, have two secondary + or subordinate accents. When the full accent falls on a vowel, that vowel + has its long sound, as in <i>vo′cal</i>; but when it falls on a + consonant, the preceding vowel is short, as in <i>hab′it</i>. This + kind of accent alone regulates English verse, as contrasted with Latin or + Greek verse, in which the metre depended on <i>quantity</i> or length of + syllables. In books on elocution three marks or accents are generally + made use of, the first or <i>acute</i> (´) showing when the voice + is to be raised, the second or <i>grave</i> (`), when it is to be + depressed, and the third or <i>circumflex</i> (ˆ) when the vowel is + to be uttered with an undulating sound. In some languages there is no + such distinct accent as in English (or German), and this seems to be now + the case with French.—In music, accent is the stress or emphasis + laid upon certain notes of a bar. The first note of a bar has the + strongest accent, but weaker accents are given to the first notes of + subordinate parts of the bars, as to the third, fifth, and seventh in a + bar of eight quavers.</p> + + <p><b>Accen′tor</b> (<i>Accentor modulāris</i>), or <b>Hedge + Accentor,</b> a British bird of the warbler family. See <i>Hedge + Warbler</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Accep′tance,</b> in law, the act by which a person binds + himself to pay a bill of exchange drawn upon him. (See <i>Bill</i>.) No + acceptance is valid unless made in writing on the bill, but an acceptance + may be either absolute or conditional, that is, stipulating some + alteration in the amount or date of payment, or some condition to be + fulfilled previous to payment.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′cessary,</b> or <b>Ac′cessory,</b> in law, a person + guilty of an offence by connivance or participation, either before or + after the act committed, as by command, advice, concealment, &c. An + accessary <i>before the fact</i> is one who procures or counsels another + to commit a crime, and is not present at its commission; an accessary + <i>after the fact</i> is one who, knowing a felony to have been + committed, gives assistance of any kind to the felon so as to hinder him + from being apprehended, tried, or suffering punishment. An accessary + before the fact may be tried and punished in all respects as if he were + the principal. In high treason, all who participate are regarded as + principals.</p> + + <p><b>Acciden′tals,</b> notes introduced in the course of a piece + of music in a different key from that in which the passage where they + occur is principally written. They are represented by the sign of a + sharp, flat, or natural immediately before the note which is to be raised + or lowered.</p> + + <p><b>Accipitres</b> (ak-sip′i-trēz), the name given by + Linnæus and Cuvier to the rapacious birds now usually called Raptores + (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Acclimatiza′tion,</b> the process of accustoming plants or + animals to live and propagate in a climate different from that to which + they are indigenous, or the change which the constitution of an animal or + plant undergoes under new climatic conditions, in the direction of + adaptation to those conditions. The systematic study of acclimatization + has only been entered upon in very recent times, and the little progress + that has been made in it has been more in the direction of formulating + anticipative, if not arbitrary hypotheses, than of actual discovery and + acquisition of facts. The best-known society founded, for the purpose of + naturalizing animals and plants, is the Société d'Acclimatation in Paris. + It opened the Jardin d'Acclimatation in 1860. See <i>Tropical + Hygiene</i>. The term is sometimes applied to the case of animals or + plants taking readily to a new country with a climate and other + circumstances similar to what they have left, such as European animals + and plants in America and New Zealand: but this is more properly + <i>naturalization</i> than acclimatization.—In agriculture the word + is used with reference to stock, principally sheep, 'acclimatized' to a + particular area, a special allowance being made by the landlord on + transference of the farm and stock in respect of the acclimatization of + the sheep. The value assigned to the advantages resulting from + acclimatization of stocks varies considerably. In Argyllshire, for + instance, Dumbartonshire, and the western portion of Perthshire the rates + are high, while in the south of Scotland and the north of England they + are much lower.</p> + + <p><b>Accolade</b> (ak-o-lād′; Fr., from Lat. <i>ad</i>, to, + <i>collum</i>, the neck), the ceremony used in conferring knighthood, + anciently consisting either in the embrace given by the person who + conferred the honour of knighthood or in a light blow on the neck or the + cheek, latterly consisting in the ceremony of striking the candidate with + a naked sword.</p> + + <p><b>Accol′ti,</b> Benedetto, an Italian lawyer, born at Arezzo in + Tuscany in 1415, died at Florence in 1466. He was secretary to the + Florentine republic, 1459, and author of a work on the Crusades which is + said to have furnished Tasso with matter for his <i>Jerusalem + Delivered</i>. <!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page20"></a>[20]</span></p> + + <p><b>Accommoda′tion Bill,</b> a bill of exchange drawn and + accepted to raise money on, and not given, like a genuine bill of + exchange, in payment of a debt, but merely intended to accommodate the + drawer: colloquially called a <i>wind bill</i> and a <i>kite</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Accommoda′tion Ladder,</b> a light ladder hung over the side + of a ship at the gangway to facilitate ascending from, or descending to, + boats.</p> + + <p><b>Accom′paniment,</b> in music, is that part of music which + serves for the support of the principal melody.</p> + + <p><b>Accor′dion,</b> a keyed musical wind-instrument similar to + the concertina, being in the form of a small box, containing a number of + metallic reeds fixed at one of their extremities, the sides of the box + forming a folding apparatus which acts as a bellows to supply the wind, + and thus set the reeds in vibration, and produce the notes both of melody + and harmony. The accordion was invented by Damian of Vienna in 1829.</p> + + <p><b>Accountant,</b> a person whose chief business is with accounts and + the drawing up of financial statements and balance-sheets. An accountant + is an important official in banks, railways, and certain other + institutions, and many persons carry on the business of accountant as a + distinct profession, auditing the books of merchants, joint-stock + companies, &c. There are several bodies of accountants in the United + Kingdom incorporated by royal charter, and hence specially distinguished + as 'chartered accountants' (C.A.). Since 1919 women are admitted as + members of the Society of Incorporated Accountants.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L. R. Dicksee, <i>Advanced + Accounting</i>; G. Lisle, <i>Encyclopædia of Accounting</i> (8 + vols.).</p> + + <p><b>Ac′cra,</b> a British settlement in Africa, in a swampy + situation, capital of Gold Coast, about 75 miles east of Cape Coast + Castle. Exports gold-dust, ivory, gums, palm-oil; imports cottons, + cutlery, &c. Pop. 20,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′crington,</b> a municipal borough of England, Lancashire, + 5 miles east of Blackburn, with large cotton factories, print-works and + bleaching-greens, and coal-mines. Pop. 43,610. Accrington was created a + parliamentary borough in 1918.</p> + + <p><b>Accu′mulator,</b> a name applied to a kind of electric + battery by means of which electric energy can be stored and rendered + portable. In the usual form each battery forms a cylindrical leaden + vessel, containing alternate sheets of metallic lead and minium wrapped + in felt and rolled into a spiral wetted with acidulated water. On being + charged with electricity the energy may be preserved till required for + use.</p> + + <p><b>Accu′sative Case,</b> in Latin and some other languages, the + term applied to the case which designates the object to which the action + of any verb is immediately directed, corresponding, generally speaking, + to the <i>objective</i> in English.</p> + + <p><b>Ace,</b> in aviation the name 'ace' is given to a flying-man who + has distinguished himself by bringing down a large number (sometimes + given as ten) of enemy machines. The word is used colloquially, and was + borrowed from the French Air Force during the European War.</p> + + <p><b>Aceph′ala,</b> in zoology, the headless Mollusca or those + which want a distinct head, corresponding to those that have bivalve + shells and are also called <i>Lamellibranchiata</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A′cer,</b> the genus of plants (nat. ord. Aceraceæ) to which + belongs the maple.</p> + + <p><b>Acerra</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-cher′a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a town in South Italy, 9 miles + north-east of Naples, the see of a bishop, in a fertile but unhealthy + region. Pop. 17,878.</p> + + <p><b>Acetab′ulum,</b> an anatomical term applied to any cup-like + cavity, as that of a bone to receive the protuberant end of another bone, + the cavity, for instance, that receives the end of the thigh-bone.</p> + + <p><b>Acetates</b> (as′e-tāts), salts of acetic acid. The + acetates of most commercial or manufacturing importance are those of + aluminium and iron, which are used in calico-printing; of copper, which + as verdigris is used as a colour; and of lead, best known as sugar of + lead. The acetates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium, of iron, zinc, and + lead, and the acetate of morphia, are employed in medicine.</p> + + <p><b>Acet′ic Acid,</b> an acid produced by the oxidation of common + alcohol, and of many other organic substances. Pure acetic acid has a + very sour taste and pungent smell, burns the skin, and is poisonous. From + freezing at ordinary temperatures (58° or 59°) it is known as <i>glacial + acetic acid</i>. Vinegar is simply dilute acetic acid. Acetic acid is + largely used in the arts, in medicine, and for domestic purposes. See + <i>Vinegar</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Acet′ic Ethers,</b> or <b>Acetic Esters,</b> acetates of + alcohol radicals. The common ester—ethyl acetate—is a + volatile colourless liquid, manufactured by distilling a mixture of + alcohol, oil of vitriol, and acetic acid, and used for flavouring + purposes.</p> + + <p><b>Acetone</b> (as′), a constituent of ordinary wood spirit, a + colourless volatile liquid used as a solvent, the simplest of the + <i>ketones</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Acet′ylene,</b> C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>, is a substance + composed of two elements, carbon and hydrogen, and belonging to a class + of compounds known as hydrocarbons. It is formed in the incomplete + combustion of many hydrocarbons and also of coal-gas, and may be produced + in a variety of ways, but is now made almost entirely from calcium + carbide. Acetylene has been known for a long time, but only since 1870 + has it been produced in any quantity. After the development of the + electric furnace it was found that calcium oxide, <!-- Page 21 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>[21]</span>quicklime, heated with + carbon to the high temperature possible in such a furnace, is transformed + into calcium carbide, and this compound reacts with water, generating + acetylene. A great deal of heat is developed on adding water to calcium + carbide, so that care has to be taken in generating acetylene. Various + devices are in use for bringing the two substances in contact slowly, and + for keeping the temperature low. When carbon and hydrogen combine to form + acetylene a large amount of heat is used up, so that much heat is evolved + when acetylene decomposes again, and once decomposition starts sufficient + heat is developed to decompose the whole volume of gas.</p> + + <p>Acetylene is a colourless gas slightly soluble in water and very + sparingly soluble in brine. When pure it has little or no odour, but as + ordinarily prepared it has a strong unpleasant odour due to traces of + impurities such as sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphine, &c. The gas can + be liquefied easily, and in the liquid state is highly explosive. It + burns with an exceedingly sooty flame, but if it is allowed to pass + through a very small orifice the carbon liberated becomes incandescent + and acetylene burns with an intense white flame. It is largely used as an + illuminant and for the production of great heat. As an illuminant the gas + is produced in specially-constructed generators. It is led through iron + pipes and burned from an acetylene burner, or it may be used with special + types of incandescent mantles. Acetylene readily combines with copper and + with silver to form metallic acetylides which are very explosive, hence + pipes through which acetylene is passing must not be made of brass or + copper. Acetylene mixed with air and brought in contact with an ignited + body explodes even more violently than a mixture of air and coal-gas.</p> + + <p>Large quantities of acetylene are generated and stored for + oxy-acetylene welding. Acetylene, burning in oxygen, gives an intensely + hot flame (about 2000°-3000° C.), sufficiently hot to melt iron. Although + liquid acetylene is unstable, and even the gas, under slight pressure, is + also unstable, it may be transported safely if dissolved in acetone. + Acetone dissolves a large volume of acetylene, and this solution is quite + stable and may be stored in iron cylinders and used for various purposes. + If it is to be stored it must be carefully purified from phosphine, which + is apt to cause sudden decomposition. Recently, numerous patents have + been taken out for the preparation of compounds such as acetaldehyde, + acetic acid, acetic anhydride, &c., using acetylene as + starting-point, so that many substances may be prepared from acetylene + just as many substances may be prepared from benzene.</p> + + <p><b>Achæans</b> (a-kē′anz), one of the four races into + which the ancient Greeks were divided. In early times they inhabited a + part of Northern Greece and of the Peloponnesus. They are represented by + Homer as a brave and warlike people, and so distinguished were they that + he usually calls the Greeks in general Achæans. Afterwards they settled + in the district of the Peloponnesus, called after them Achaia, and + forming a narrow belt of coast on the south side of the Gulf of Corinth. + From very early times a confederacy or league existed among the twelve + towns of this region. After the death of Alexander the Great it was + broken up, but was revived again, 280 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and + from this time grew in power till it spread over the whole Peloponnesus. + It was finally dissolved by the Romans, 147 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and after this the whole of Greece, except + Thessaly, was called Achaia or Achæa. Achaia with Elis now forms a + nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. Pop. 254,728. Cf. Freeman, <i>History + of Federal Government in Greece and Italy</i>, London, 1893.</p> + + <p><b>Achæmenidæ</b> (ak-ē-men′i-dē) a dynasty of + ancient Persian kings, being that to which the great Cyrus belonged.</p> + + <p><b>Achaia</b> (a-kā′ya). See <i>Achæans</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Achalzik</b>. See <i>Akhalzik</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Achard</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span><i>h</i>′a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rt), Franz Karl, a German chemist, born + 1753, died 1821, principally known by his invention (1789-1800) of a + process for manufacturing sugar from beetroot. In 1801 the first + beet-sugar factory ever established was started by him in Silesia.</p> + + <p><b>Achard</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-shär), Louis Amédée Eugène, born 1814, + died 1875, French journalist, novelist, and playwright. He was best known + as a novelist; wrote the novels <i>Belle Rose</i>, <i>La Chasse + royale</i>, <i>Châteaux en Espagne</i>, <i>Robe de Nessus</i>, <i>Chaînes + de fer</i>, &c. His <i>Lettres Parisiennes</i> were published in 1838 + under the pseudonym of Grimm.</p> + + <p><b>Achates</b> (a-kā′tēz), a companion of Æneas in + his wanderings subsequent to his flight from Troy. He is always + distinguished in Virgil's <i>Æneid</i> by the epithet <i>fidus</i>, + 'faithful', and has become typical of a faithful friend and + companion.</p> + + <p><b>Acheen,</b> or <b>Atchin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-chēn′) (Du. <i>Atjeh</i>), a + native State of Sumatra, with a capital of the same name, in the + north-western extremity of the island, now nominally under Dutch + administration. Though largely mountainous, it has also undulating tracts + and low fertile plains. By treaty with Britain the Dutch were prevented + from extending their territory in Sumatra by conquest; but this obstacle + being removed, in 1871 they proceeded to occupy Acheen. It was not till + 1879, however, after a great waste of blood and treasure, that they + obtained a general recognition of their authority. But they have not been + able to establish it firmly, and have had <!-- Page 22 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page22"></a>[22]</span>to put down many + determined risings, sometimes costing them losses both in men and guns. + In the seventeenth century Acheen was a powerful State, and carried on + hostilities successfully against the Portuguese, but its influence + decreased with the increase of the Dutch power. The principal exports are + rice and pepper. Area, 20,471 sq. miles; pop. 789,664.</p> + + <p><b>Achelous</b> (ak-e-lō′us) (now + <b>Aspropotămo</b>), the largest river of Greece, rising on Mount + Pindus, separating Ætolia and Acarnania, and flowing into the Ionian Sea. + In Greek legend, Achelōus, the son of Oceanus and Tethys, was the + river-god.</p> + + <p><b>Achenbach</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>′<i>h</i>en-ba<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ch), Andreas, was a + distinguished German landscape and marine painter, born in 1815, died in + 1910.</p> + + <p><b>Achenbach,</b> Oswald, born 1827, died 1905, brother of above, was + also a distinguished landscape painter. Both are of the Düsseldorf + school, and pupils of the famous painter Schadow.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:13%;"> + <a href="images/image010.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image010.jpg" + alt="Achene" title="Achene" /></a> + Achene of Buttercup (magnified) + + <p class="poem">E, Embryo. En, Endosperm. T, Testa and pericarp.</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Achene,</b> or <b>Achenium</b> (a-kēn′, + a-kē′ni-um), in botany, a small, dry carpel containing a + single seed, the pericarp of which is closely applied but separable, and + which does not open when ripe. It is either solitary, or several achenia + may be placed on a common receptacle as in the buttercup.</p> + + <p><b>Achensee,</b> a lake in Tyrol, 20 miles north-east of Innsbruck and + 3018 feet above sea-level. On its shores are beautiful villas and hotels + frequented as summer resorts.</p> + + <p><b>Acheron</b> (ak′e-ron) (modern <b>Fanarioticos</b>), the + ancient name of several rivers in Greece and Italy, all of which were + connected by legend with the lower world. The principal was a river of + Thesprotia in Epirus, which passes through Lake Acherusia and flows into + the Ionian Sea. Homer speaks of Acheron as a river of the lower world, + and late Greek writers use the name to designate the lower world.</p> + + <p><b>Acheulian,</b> a term applied by archæologists to the late stage of + Chellean civilization in the Pleistocene Age. It is named after St. + Acheul in the Somme valley, where relics of it were found. The geological + horizon, according to Professor James Geikie, is late Second Interglacial + and Third Glacial periods.</p> + + <p><b>Ach′iar,</b> or <b>At′char,</b> an Indian condiment + made of the young shoots of the bamboo pickled.</p> + + <p><b>Achievement</b> (a-chēv′ment), in heraldry, a term + applied to the shield of armorial bearings generally, or to a hatchment + (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Achill</b> (ak′il), the largest island on the Irish coast, + separated from the mainland of Mayo by a narrow sound, now bridged over. + The chief occupation is fishing. The island is mountainous, has fine + scenery, and is visited by many tourists, there being now a railway + terminus here, and many recent improvements. Pop. nearly 7000.</p> + + <p><b>Achillæ′a,</b> the milfoil genus of plants.</p> + + <p><b>Achilleion,</b> famous castle at Corfu, which used to belong to the + Empress Elizabeth of Austria. It was acquired by the ex-Kaiser William + II, who bought it from the Archduchess Giséla, wife of Prince Leopold of + Bavaria.</p> + + <p><b>Achilles</b> (a-kil′ēz), a Greek legendary hero, the + chief character in Homer's <i>Iliad</i>. His father was Peleus, ruler of + Phthia in Thessaly, his mother the sea-goddess Thetis. When only six + years of age he was able to overcome lions and bears. His guardian, + Cheiron the Centaur, having declared that Troy could not be taken without + his aid, his mother, fearing for his safety, disguised him as a girl, and + introduced him among the daughters of Lycomedes of Scyros. Her desire for + his safety made her also try to make him invulnerable when a child by + anointing him with ambrosia, and again by dipping him in the River Styx, + from which he came out proof against wounds, all but the heel, by which + she held him. His place of concealment was discovered by Odysseus + (Ulysses), and he promised his assistance to the Greeks against Troy. + Accompanied by his close friend, Patroclus, he joined the expedition with + a body of followers (Myrmidons) in fifty ships, and occupied nine years + in raids upon the towns neighbouring to Troy, after which the siege + proper commenced. On being deprived of his prize, the maiden Briseïs, by + Agamemnon, he refused to take any further part in the war, and disaster + attended the Greeks. Patroclus now persuaded Achilles to allow him to + lead the Myrmidons to battle dressed in his armour, and he having been + slain by Hector, Achilles vowed revenge on the Trojans, and forgot his + anger against the Greeks. He attacked the Trojans and drove them back to + their walls, slaying them in great numbers, chased Hector, who fled + before him three times round the walls of Troy, slew him, and dragged his + body at his chariot-wheels, but afterwards gave it up to Priam, who came + in person to beg for it. He then performed the funeral rites of + Patroclus, with which the <i>Iliad</i> closes. He was killed in a battle + at the Scæan Gate of Troy by an arrow from the bow of Paris which struck + his vulnerable heel. In discussions on the origin of the Homeric poems + the term <i>Achilleid</i> is often applied to those books (i, viii, and + xi-xxii) of the <i>Iliad</i> in which Achilles is prominent, and which + some suppose to have formed the original nucleus of the poem. See + <i>Iphigenia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Achilles' Tendon,</b> or <b>Tendon of Achilles,</b> <!-- Page 23 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>[23]</span>the strong + tendon which connects the muscles of the calf with the heel, and which + may be easily felt with the hand. The origin of the name will be + understood from the above article.</p> + + <p><b>Achilles Tatius</b> (a-kil′ēz tā′shi-us), a + Greek romance writer of the fifth century <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, + belonging to Alexandria; wrote a love story in 8 books called + <i>Leucippē and Cleitophon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Achimenes</b> (a-kim′e-nēz), a genus of tropical + American plants, with scaly underground tubers, nat. ord. Gesneraceæ, now + cultivated in European greenhouses on account of their white, blue, and + red flowers.</p> + + <p><b>Achlamydeous</b> (ak-la-mid′i-us), in botany, wanting the + floral envelopes, that is, having neither calyx nor corolla, as the + willow.</p> + + <p><b>Achor</b> (ā′kor), a disease of infants, in which the + head, the face, and often the neck and breast become incrusted with thin, + yellowish or greenish scabs, arising from minute, whitish pustules, which + discharge a viscid fluid.</p> + + <p><b>Achromat′ic</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, priv., and <i>chrōma, + chrōmatos</i>, colour), in optics, transmitting colourless light, + that is, not decomposed into the primary colours, though having passed + through a refracting medium. A single convex lens does not give an image + free from the prismatic colours, because the rays of different colour + making up white light are not equally refrangible, and thus do not all + come to a focus together, the violet, for instance, being nearest the + lens, the red farthest off. If such a lens of crown-glass, however, is + combined with a concave lens of flint-glass—the curvatures of both + being properly adjusted—as the two materials have somewhat + different optical properties, the latter will neutralize the chromatic + aberration of the former, and a satisfactory image will be produced. + Telescopes, microscopes, &c., in which the glasses are thus composed + are called <i>achromatic</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Acid</b> (Lat. <i>acidus</i>, sour), a name applied to a number of + compounds, having more or less the qualities of vinegar (itself a diluted + form of acetic acid). Their general properties are sour taste, the power + of changing vegetable blues into reds, of evolving hydrogen in presence + of magnesium, of decomposing chalk with effervescence, and of being in + various degrees neutralized by alkalies. An acid has been defined as a + compound of hydrogen, the whole or a part of which is replaceable by a + metal when this is presented in the form of a hydroxide; being + <i>monobasic</i>, <i>dibasic</i>, or <i>tribasic</i>, according to the + number of replaceable hydrogen atoms in a molecule. See + <i>Chemistry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Acierage</b> (ā′sē-ėr-āj), (Fr. + <i>acier</i>, steel), a process by which an engraved copper-plate or an + electrotype from an engraved plate of steel or copper has a film of iron + deposited over its surface by electricity in order to protect the + engraving from wear in printing. By this means an electrotype of a fine + engraving, which, if printed directly from the copper, would not yield + 500 good impressions, can be made to yield 3000 or more; and when the + film of iron becomes so worn as to reveal any part of the copper, it may + be removed and a fresh coating deposited so that 20,000 good impressions + may be got.</p> + + <p><b>Acipenser</b> (as-i-pen′sėr), the genus of + cartilaginous ganoid fishes to which the sturgeon belongs.</p> + + <p><b>Aci Reale</b> (ä′chē rā-ä′lā), a + seaport of Sicily, north-east of Catania, a well-built town, with a trade + in corn, wine, fruit, &c. Pop. 35,587.</p> + + <p><b>A′cis,</b> according to Ovid, a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, + loved by Galatea, and crushed to death by his rival the Cyclops + Polyphemus. His blood, flowing from beneath the rock which crushed him, + was changed into a river bearing his name, and renowned for the coldness + of its water. It has been identified as the Fiume di Jaci.</p> + + <p><b>Aclin′ic Line</b> (Gr. priv. <i>a, klinō</i>, to + incline), the magnetic equator, an irregular curve in the neighbourhood + of the terrestrial equator, where the magnetic needle balances itself + horizontally, having no dip. See <i>Magnetism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Acne</b> (ak′nē), a skin disease, consisting of small + hard pimples, usually on the face, caused by congestion of the follicles + of the skin.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <a href="images/image011.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image011.jpg" + alt="Acolyte" title="Acolyte" /></a> + Acolyte + </div> + + <p><b>Acolytes</b> (ak′o-līts), in the ancient Latin and + Greek Churches, persons of ecclesiastical rank next in order below the + subdeacons, whose office it was to attend the officiating priest. The + name is still retained in the Roman Church. Cf. Duchesne, <i>Christian + Worship, its Origin and Evolution</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aconcagua</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-kon-kä′gwa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a province, a river, and a mountain of + Chile. The peak of <!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page24"></a>[24]</span>Aconcagua, whose summit is just within the + Argentine Republic, rises to the height of 23,080 feet, and is probably + the highest mountain of the western hemisphere. Area of province, 5406 + sq. miles. Pop. (1919), 132,165.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′onite</b> (<i>Aconītum</i>), a genus of hardy + herbaceous plants, nat. ord. Ranunculaceæ, represented by the well-known + wolf's-bane or monk's-hood, and remarkable for their poisonous properties + and medicinal qualities, being used internally as well as externally in + rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Acon′itine,</b> an alkaloid extracted from monk's-hood and + some other species of aconite; used medicinally, though a virulent + poison.</p> + + <p><b>Aconquija</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-kon-kē′<i>h</i>a<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), a range of mountains + in the Argentine Republic; the name also of a single peak, 17,000 feet + high.</p> + + <p><b>A′corn,</b> the fruit of the different kinds of oak. The + acorn-cups of one species are brought from the Levant under the name of + <i>valonia</i>, and used in tanning.</p> + + <p><b>Acorn-shell</b>. See <i>Balanus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′orus,</b> a genus of plants, including the sweet-flag. See + <i>Sweet-flag</i> and <i>Calamus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Acos′ta,</b> Gabriel, afterwards Uriel, a Portuguese of + Jewish descent, born at Oporto in 1590, died by his own hand 1640. + Brought up a Christian, he afterwards embraced Judaism. Having gone to + Amsterdam, where he attacked the practices of the Jews, and denied the + divine mission of Moses, he suffered much persecution at the hands of the + Jews. He left an autobiography, published in 1687, under the title + <i>Exemplar Humanæ Vitæ</i>. He is the hero of a novel, <i>Die Sadducäer + von Amsterdam</i>, and of a tragedy, <i>Uriel Acosta</i>, both by + Gutzkow.</p> + + <p><b>Acotyle′dons,</b> plants not furnished with cotyledons or + seed-lobes. They include ferns, mosses, seaweeds, &c., and are also + called flowerless plants or cryptogams.</p> + + <p><b>Acousimeter,</b> or <b>Acoumeter</b> (Gr. <i>akouein</i>, to hear, + and <i>metron</i>, measure), an instrument used to determine the + acuteness of hearing. It consists of a small bar which gives a uniform + sound when struck by a hammer.</p> + + <p><b>Acoustics</b> (a-kou′stiks), the science of sound. It deals + with the production of sound, its propagation and velocity in various + media; the reflection, refraction, and interference of sound waves; the + properties of musical notes; and the general phenomena of such vibrations + of elastic bodies as affect the organ of hearing.</p> + + <p>In order that a sound may be heard, it is necessary that an + uninterrupted series of particles of elastic matter should extend from + the sounding body to our ear. Sound is propagated by a longitudinal + wave-motion in the medium (gaseous, liquid, or solid), that is, the + particles oscillate along the line in which the wave is travelling, + giving rise to regular series of condensations and rarefactions.</p> + + <p>The velocity of sound varies directly as the square root of the + elasticity, and inversely as the square root of the density, of the + medium in which it is propagated. The velocity of sound in air at 0° C. + is 330.6 metres per second, or 1085 feet per second; in water 1.49 + kilometres per second, or 0.926 mile per second; in copper 5.01 + kilometres per second, or 3.12 miles per second.</p> + + <p>The intensity of sound varies inversely as the square of the distance + from the sounding body. Recently sound-ranging instruments have been + produced by means of which the position of a gun can be determined.</p> + + <p>A note produced by a musical instrument consists of a + <i>fundamental</i> of a certain frequency, together with a number of + <i>overtones</i> of various higher frequencies and much smaller + amplitude. The <i>timbre</i> of a note depends on the overtones present, + the <i>loudness</i> depends on the amplitude of the vibrations, and the + <i>pitch</i> depends on the frequency. The musical scale consists of + eight notes, C D E F G A B C, whose frequencies are in the proportion of + the numbers 24, 27, 30, 32, 36, 40, 45 and 48. The interval between two + notes is the ratio of the frequency of the higher note to the frequency + of the lower note. In order that the intervals may be the same in all + keys, a tempered scale is used in music. (See Table, p. 25.)</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Lord Rayleigh, <i>Theory of + Sound</i>; H. Smith, <i>The Making of Sound in the Organ and + Orchestra</i>; J. W. Capstick, <i>Sound</i> (Cambridge Natural Science + Manuals); E. H. Barton, <i>Text-book of Sound</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Acqui</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k′wē), a town of Northern + Italy, 18 miles <span class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of Alessandria, a + bishop's see. It has warm sulphurous baths, which were known to the + Romans, and which still attract a great many visitors. Pop. 16,500.</p> + + <p><b>Acre,</b> a standard British measure of land, also used in the + colonies and the United States. The imperial statute acre consists of + 4840 sq. yards, divided into 4 roods. The old Scotch acre contains 6146.8 + sq. yards, the old Irish acre 7840 sq. yards.</p> + + <p><b>Acre</b> (ā′kėr) (ancient <b>Accho</b> and + <b>Ptolemais</b>), a seaport of Syria, in Northern Palestine, on the Bay + of Acre, early a place of great strength and importance. Taken from the + Saracens under Saladin in 1191 by Richard I of England and Philip of + France; bravely defended by the Turks, assisted by Sir Sidney Smith, in + 1799 against Napoleon; in 1832, taken by Ibrahim Pasha; in 1840, + bombarded by a British, Austrian, and Turkish fleet, and restored to the + Sultan of Turkey. The town was occupied by British troops under General + Allenby in September, 1918. Pop. 10,000.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"></a>[25]</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">MUSICAL INTERVALS.—See <i>Acoustics</i></p> + +<table class="allbctr" summary="Musical Intervals." title="Musical Intervals."> +<tr><td class="allb" align="center">Intervals in <br /> +Perfect Diatonic<br /> +Scale. +</td><td class="allb" align="center"> +</td><td class="allb" align="center"> +Perfect<br /> +Diatonic Scale +</td><td class="allb" align="center"> +Diatonic Scale.<br /> +on System of<br /> +Equal<br /> +Temperament.<br /> +</td><td class="allb" align="center"> +Intervals in<br /> +Tempered Scale—<br /> +Mean tone.<br /> +(2<sup><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></sup> = 1.123).<br /> +Semitone.<br /> +(2<sup><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></sup>= 1.059).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> C </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> 1 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 1.000 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> major tone </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">tone.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> D </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> = 1.125 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>2</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.123 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>10</sup>/<sub>9</sub> minor tone </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">tone.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> E </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>5</sup>/<sub>4</sub> = 1.250 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>4</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.260 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>16</sup>/<sub>15</sub> limma </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">semitone.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> F </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>4</sup>/<sub>3</sub> = 1.333 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>5</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.335 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> major tone </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">tone.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> G </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>3</sup>/<sub>2</sub> = 1.500 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>7</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.498 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>10</sup>/<sub>9</sub> minor tone </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">tone.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> A </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>5</sup>/<sub>3</sub> = 1.667 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>9</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.682 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> minor tone </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">tone.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> B </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>15</sup>/<sub>8</sub> = 1.875 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>11</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.888 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>16</sup>/<sub>15</sub> limma </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">semitone.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> C′</td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> 2 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2.000 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Tone ratios." title="Tone ratios."> +<tr><td class="nspac">Major </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> tone </td><td class="nspac" align="center">ratio </td><td class="hspcsingle">= </td><td class="nspac" align="right"> <sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="hspcsingle">= 1.125</td><td class="rightbsing"></td><td class="hspcsingle"></td> + <td class="nspac">Limma </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> tone </td><td class="nspac" align="center">ratio </td><td class="hspcsingle">= </td><td class="nspac" align="right"><sup>16</sup>/<sub>15</sub> </td><td class="hspcsingle">= 1.067</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspac">Minor </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> " </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> " </td><td class="hspcsingle">= </td><td class="nspac" align="right"><sup>10</sup>/<sub>9</sub> </td><td class="hspcsingle">= 1.111</td><td class="rightbsing"></td><td class="hspcsingle"></td> + <td class="nspac" colspan="2">Semitone </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> " </td><td class="hspcsingle">= </td><td class="nspac" align="right">2<sup><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></sup></td><td class="hspcsingle">= 1.059</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspac">Mean </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> " </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> " </td><td class="hspcsingle">= </td><td class="nspac" align="right">2<sup><sup>2</sup>/<sub>12</sub></sup></td><td class="hspcsingle">= 1.123</td><td class="rightbsing"></td><td class="hspcsingle"></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">NOTES OF PERFECT DIATONIC SCALE (<span class="sc">with their Frequencies</span>)</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Notes of Perfect Diatonic Scale." title="Notes of Perfect Diatonic Scale."> +<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">C<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">″</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 64. Ut<sub>1</sub> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> C<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">′</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">128. Ut<sub>2</sub> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> C </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">256. Ut<sub>3</sub> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> C′ </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 512. Ut<sub>4</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">D<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">″</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 72 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> D<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">′</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">144 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> D </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">288 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> D′ </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 576</td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">E<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">″</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 80 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> E<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">′</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">160 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> E </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">320 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> E′ </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 640</td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">F<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">″</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 85.3 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> F<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">′</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">170.7 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> F </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">341.3 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> F′ </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 682.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">G<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">″</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 96 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> G<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">′</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">192 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> G </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">384 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> G′ </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 768</td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">A<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">″</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">106.6 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> A<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">′</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">213.3 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> A </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">426.7 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> A′ </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 853.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">B<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">″</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">120 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> B<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">′</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">240 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> B </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">480 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> B′ </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> 960</td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> C″ </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">1024. Ut<sub>5</sub></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">PERFECT DIATONIC SCALES (<span class="sc">Transition to Key of Dominant</span>)</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Example</i>—Key of C to Key of G</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Transition to Key of Dominant." title="Transition to Key of Dominant."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" align="center">C </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> D </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> E </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> F </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> G </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> A </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> B </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> C′ </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> D′ </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> E′ </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> F′ </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> G′</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" align="center">1 </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>5</sup>/<sub>4</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>4</sup>/<sub>3</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>3</sup>/<sub>2</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>5</sup>/<sub>3</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>15</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> 2 </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>9</sup>/<sub>4</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>5</sup>/<sub>2</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>8</sup>/<sub>3</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> 3</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Key of Dominant." title="Key of Dominant."> +<tr><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center">G</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">A’</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">B</td> <td class="spacsingle" align="center">C′</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">D′</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">E′</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">F′#</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">G′</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center">1</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>5</sup>/<sub>4</sub></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>4</sup>/<sub>3</sub> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>3</sup>/<sub>2</sub> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>5</sup>/<sub>3</sub> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>15</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">2</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Novel Notes in Key of Dominant." title="Novel Notes in Key of Dominant."> +<tr><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac">A </td><td class="muspac" align="center">= <sup>10</sup>/<sub>9</sub> </td><td class="muspac">G. </td><td class="muspac">F′ </td><td class="muspac">= <sup>16</sup>/<sub>9</sub> G.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac">A’ </td><td class="muspac" align="center">= <sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="muspac">G. </td><td class="muspac">F′# </td><td class="muspac">= <sup>15</sup>/<sub>8</sub> G.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac">A’ </td><td class="muspac" align="center">= <sup>81</sup>/<sub>80</sub> </td><td class="muspac">A. </td><td class="muspac"> </td><td class="muspac">= <sup>15</sup>/<sub>8</sub> × <sup>9</sup>/<sub>16</sub> F′.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="muspac"> </td><td class="muspac" align="center"> </td><td class="muspac"> </td><td class="muspac"> </td><td class="muspac">= (1 + 1/18<sup>2</sup>/<sub>7</sub>) F′.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"></a>[26]</span></p> + + <p><b>Acri</b> (ā′krē), a town of S. Italy, province of + Cosenza. Pop. 4000.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′rita</b> (Gr. <i>akritos</i>, undistinguishable, + doubtful), a name sometimes given to the animals otherwise called + Protozoa.</p> + + <p><b>Acroceph′ali,</b> tribes of men distinguished by pyramidal or + high skulls.</p> + + <p><b>Acrocerau′nia</b> (thunder-smitten peaks) (now <b>Cape + Glossa</b> or <b>Linguetta</b>), a promontory of Western Greece, in + Epirus, running into the Adriatic.</p> + + <p><b>Acrocorin′thus,</b> a steep rock in Greece, nearly 1900 feet + high, overhanging ancient Corinth, and on which stood the acropolis or + citadel, the sacred fountain of Pirēnē being also here. This + natural fortress has proved itself of importance in the modern history of + Greece.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′rogens</b> (-jenz), lit. summit-growers, a term applied to + the ferns, mosses, and lichens (cryptogams), as growing by extension + upwards, in contradistinction to endogens and exogens.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′rolith,</b> an early form of Greek statuary in which the + head, hands, and feet only were of stone, the trunk of the figure being + of wood draped or gilded.</p> + + <p><b>Acrop′olis</b> (Gr. <i>akros</i>, high, and <i>polis</i>, a + city), the citadel or chief place of a Grecian city, usually on an + eminence commanding the town. That of Athens contained some of the finest + buildings in the world, such as the Parthenon, Erechthēum, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Acros′tic,</b> a poem of which the first or last, or certain + other, letters of the line, taken in order, form some name, motto, or + sentence. A poem of which both first and last letters are thus arranged + is called a double acrostic. In Hebrew poetry, the term is given to a + poem of which the initial letters of the lines or stanzas were made to + run over the letters of the alphabet in their order, as in <i>Psalm</i> + cxix.—Acrostics have been much used in complimentary verses, the + initial letters giving the name of the person eulogized. They were very + popular among French poets of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In + modern times Edgar Allen Poe has written quite remarkable acrostic + verses.</p> + + <p><b>Act,</b> in special senses: (1) In dramatic poetry, one of the + principal divisions of a drama, in which a definite and coherent portion + of the plot is represented; generally subdivided into smaller portions + called <i>scenes</i>. The Greek dramas were not divided into acts. The + dictum that a drama should consist of five acts was first formally laid + down by Horace, and is generally adhered to by modern dramatists in + tragedy. In comedy, especially since the time of Molière, more freedom is + allowed, and a division into two or three acts is common.—(2) + Something formally done by a legislative or judicial body; a statute or + law passed.—(3) In universities, a thesis maintained in public by a + candidate for a degree. See <i>Act of God</i>, <i>of Parliament</i>, + <i>of Settlement</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Acta Diur′na</b> (Lat., proceedings of the day), a daily + Roman newspaper which appeared under both the republic and the + empire.</p> + + <p><b>Actæ′a.</b> See <i>Baneberry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Actæ′on,</b> in Greek mythology, a great hunter, turned into + a stag by Artĕmis (Diana) for looking on her when she was bathing, + and torn to pieces by his own dogs.</p> + + <p><b>Acta Erudito′rum</b> (Lat., acts of the learned), the first + literary journal that appeared in Germany (1682-1782). It was started by + Otto Mencke, after the model of the <i>Journal des Savants</i>. Among the + contributors, the most distinguished was Leibnitz.</p> + + <p><b>Acta Sanctorum</b> (Lat., acts of the saints), a name applied to + all collections of accounts of ancient martyrs and saints, both of the + Greek and Roman Churches, more particularly to the valuable collection + begun by John Bolland, a Jesuit of Antwerp, in 1643, and which, being + continued by other divines of the same order (<i>Bollandists</i>), now + extends to sixty volumes, the lives following each other in the order of + the calendar.</p> + + <p><b>Actin′ia,</b> the genus of animals to which the typical + sea-anemones belong. See <i>Sea-anemone</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′tinism,</b> the property of those rays of light which + produce chemical changes, as in photography, in contradistinction to the + light rays and heat rays. The actinic property or force begins among the + green rays, is strongest in the violet rays, and extends a long way + beyond the visible spectrum.</p> + + <p><b>Actinium,</b> an element or elementary substance obtained in minute + quantities in connection with the study of radioactivity. It was + discovered by Debierne in 1899. In 1902 Giesel discovered another + substance which he called <i>emanium</i>, and which was considered to be + identical with <i>actinium</i>. Marckwald, however, came to the + conclusion that these two substances are not identical but closely + related to each other. See <i>Radium</i>, <i>Chemistry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Actin′olite,</b> a mineral nearly allied to hornblende.</p> + + <p><b>Actinom′eter,</b> an instrument for measuring the intensity + of the sun's actinic rays. See <i>Actinism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Actinozo′a</b> (lit. ray-animals), a class of animals + belonging to the sub-kingdom Cœlenterata, and including + sea-anemones, corals, &c., all having rayed tentacles round the + mouth.</p> + + <p><b>Action,</b> the mode of seeking redress at law for any wrong, + injury, or deprivation. Actions are divided into civil and criminal, the + former again being divided into real, personal, and mixed.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′tium</b> (now <b>La Punta</b>), a promontory on <!-- Page + 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"></a>[27]</span>the western + coast of Northern Greece, not far from the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf + (Gulf of Arta), memorable on account of the naval victory gained here by + Octavianus (afterwards the Emperor Augustus) over Antony and Cleopatra, + 2nd Sept., 31 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, in sight of their armies + encamped on the opposite shores of the Ambracian Gulf. Soon after the + beginning of the battle Cleopatra escaped with sixty Egyptian ships, and + Antony basely followed her, and fled with her to Egypt. The deserted + fleet was not overcome without making a brave resistance. Antony's land + forces soon went over to the enemy, and the Roman world fell to + Octavianus. In 1538 a victory was gained at Actium by the Turks over the + Spanish and Venetian fleets.</p> + + <p><b>Act of God,</b> a legal term defined as "a direct, violent, sudden, + and irresistible act of nature, which could not, by any reasonable cause, + have been foreseen or resisted". No one can be legally called upon to + make good loss so arising.</p> + + <p><b>Act of Parliament,</b> a law or statute proceeding from the + Parliament of the United Kingdom passed in both houses, and having + received the royal assent. Before it is passed it is a <i>Bill</i> and + not an Act. Acts are either public or private, the former affecting the + whole community, the latter only special persons and private concerns. + The whole body of public Acts constitutes the <i>statute law</i>. An Act + of Parliament can only be altered or repealed by the authority of + Parliament. Acts are usually cited in this way, "13 and 14 Vict. c. (or + chap.) 21", which means the 21st Act in succession passed in year + 13th-14th of the queen's reign (that is, 1850). Short titles, such as + "the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854", are also used. Up to the time of + Edward I Acts of Parliament were in Latin; then French was introduced, + and for some time was exclusively employed. It was not till Henry VII's + reign that all Acts were in English.</p> + + <p><b>Act of Settlement,</b> an Act passed by the English Parliament in + 1700, by which the succession to the throne of the three kingdoms, in the + event of King William and Princess (afterwards Queen) Anne dying without + issue, was settled on the Princess Sophia, electress of Hanover, and the + heirs of her body, being Protestants. The Princess Sophia was the + youngest daughter of Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, daughter of James I. By + this act George I, son of the Princess Sophia, succeeded to the crown on + the death of Queen Anne.—Another Act of Settlement was that by + which, under Cromwell's government, a new allotment was made of almost + all landed property in Ireland, in 1652.</p> + + <p><b>Act of Toleration,</b> an Act of Parliament Passed in 1689, by + which Protestant dissenters from the Church of England, on condition of + their taking the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, and repudiating the + doctrine of transubstantiation, were relieved from the restrictions under + which they had formerly lain with regard to the exercise of their + religion according to their own forms.</p> + + <p><b>Act of Uniformity,</b> an English Act passed in 1662, enjoining + upon all ministers to use the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> on pain of + forfeiture of their livings. See <i>Nonconformity</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:13%;"> + <a href="images/image012.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image012.jpg" + alt="Acton" title="Acton" /></a> + Quilted Acton of the fifteenth century + </div> + + <p><b>Acton,</b> a kind of padded or quilted vest or tunic formerly worn + under a coat of mail to save the body from bruises, or used by itself as + a defensive garment. Jackets of leather or other material plated with + mail were also so called. <i>Gambeson</i> was an equivalent term.</p> + + <p><b>Acton,</b> a name of various places in England, one of them a + western suburb of London, pop. (1921), 61,314. Since 1918 Acton gives its + name to a parliamentary division of Middlesex, returning one member to + Parliament.</p> + + <p><b>Acton,</b> John Emerich Edward Dalberg, first Baron Acton, born + 1834, died 1902, was son of Richard Acton (seventh baronet) and the + daughter of the Duc de Dalberg, afterwards wife of Earl Granville, Mr. + Gladstone's colleague. As a Roman Catholic he was educated at Oscott, and + afterwards on the Continent, partly under Döllinger, and acquired a + special taste for and profound knowledge of history. He conducted the + <i>Home and Foreign Review</i> from 1862 to 1864, and, in doing so, + showed himself a strong opponent of ultramontane pretensions. He next + edited the <i>North British Review</i>, which under him was rather + overweighted with learning, and soon came to an end. In 1869 he was + raised to the peerage. He strongly opposed the papal-infallibility + movement, and took the side of Mr. Gladstone in his attacks on + Vaticanism. In 1895 he accepted the professorship of modern history at + Cambridge, delivered lectures, and planned and undertook the editorship + of the great work on modern history, <i>The Cambridge Modern History</i>, + comprising a series of contributions by various scholars, and issued by + the university press. Except essays, letters, or articles for + periodicals, he himself wrote little. Since his death have been + published: <i>Lectures in Modern History</i> (1906); <i>The History of + Freedom and other Essays</i> (1907); <i>Lectures on the French + Revolution</i> (1910). His library of 60,000 volumes he left to Mr. (now + Lord) Morley, who handed it over to the University of Cambridge. <!-- + Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>[28]</span></p> + + <p><b>Actor,</b> one who represents some part or character on the stage. + Actresses were unknown to the Greeks and Romans in the earliest times, + men or boys always performing the female parts. They appeared under the + Roman empire, however. Charles II first encouraged the public appearance + of actresses in England; in Shakespeare's time there were none. See + <i>Drama</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C. F. + Armstrong, <i>Century of Great Actors</i>; H. Simpson, <i>Century of + Great Actresses</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Acts of the Apostles,</b> fifth of the books of the New Testament, + written in Greek and assigned to the author of the gospel of St. Luke. + Its date is probably <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 63 or 64. It embraces + a period of about thirty years, beginning immediately after the + resurrection, and extending to the second year of the imprisonment of St. + Paul in Rome. Very little information is given regarding any of the + apostles, excepting St. Peter and St. Paul, and the accounts of them are + far from being complete. It describes the gathering of the infant Church; + the fulfilment of the promise of Christ to his apostles in the descent of + the Holy Ghost; the choice of Matthias in the place of Judas, the + betrayer; the testimony of the apostles to the resurrection of Jesus in + their discourses; their preaching in Jerusalem and in Judea, and + afterwards to the Gentiles; the conversion of Paul, his preaching in Asia + Minor, Greece, and Italy, his miracles and labours.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: R. T. Knowling, <i>The Expositor's Greek + Testament</i>; J. Moffatt, <i>The Historical New Testament</i>; J. M. + Wilson, <i>Origin and Aim of the Acts of the Apostles</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ac′tuary,</b> an accountant whose business is to make the + necessary computations in regard to a basis for life assurance, + annuities, reversions, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Acu′leus,</b> in botany, a prickle, or sharp-pointed process + of the epidermis, as distinguished from a thorn or spine, which is of a + woody nature.</p> + + <p><b>Acupress′ure,</b> a means of arresting bleeding from a cut + artery introduced by Sir James Simpson in 1859, and consisting in + compressing the artery above the orifice, that is, on the side nearest + the heart, with the middle of a needle (Lat. <i>acus</i>, a needle) + introduced through the tissues.</p> + + <p><b>Acupunc′ture,</b> a surgical operation, consisting in the + insertion of needles into certain parts of the body for alleviating pain, + or for the cure of different species of rheumatism, neuralgia, eye + diseases, &c. It is easily performed, gives little pain, causes + neither bleeding nor inflammation, and seems at times of surprising + efficacy.</p> + + <p><b>Adagio</b> (It. a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-dä′jō), a musical term, + expressing a slow time, slower than <i>andante</i> and less so than + <i>largo<i>, </i>lento</i>, and <i>grave</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Adâl′,</b> a country in Africa, east of Abyssinia and + north-westward of Tajurrah Bay, inhabited by a dark-brown race of the + same name, a tribe of the Danakils, Mahommedans in religion; towns Aussa + and Tajurrah. Part of the coast here is held by the French.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′albert of Prague,</b> called the apostle of the Prussians, + son of a Bohemian nobleman named Slavnik, born about 939. His real name + was Voitech, but he assumed the name of the Archbishop Adalbert, under + whom he studied at Magdeburg. He was appointed Bishop of Prague in 983, + laboured in vain among the heathenish Bohemians, resolved to convert the + pagans of Prussia, but was murdered in the attempt (997). + <i>Boga-Rodzica</i>, a Polish war-song, is said to have been composed by + him.</p> + + <p><b>Ada′lia,</b> a seaport on the south coast of Asia Minor. Pop. + 28,000. The district of Adalia has a population of over 200,000.</p> + + <p><b>Adam</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-da<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), Adolphe Charles, a French composer, + more especially of comic operas; born 1803, died 1856. Wrote <i>Le + postillon de Longjumeau</i>, <i>Le Brasseur de Preston</i> (Brewer of + Preston), <i>La Rose de Peronne</i>, <i>Le roi d'Yvetot</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Adam,</b> Albrecht, a German painter of battles and animals, born + 1786, died 1862. Three sons of his have also distinguished themselves as + painters, especially Franz, born 1815, died 1886, among whose best + pictures are several representing scenes of the Franco-Prussian war.</p> + + <p><b>Adam,</b> Alexander, a Scottish classical scholar, born in 1741; + became in 1768 rector of the High School of Edinburgh, and died there in + 1809. Wrote <i>Principles of Latin and English Grammar</i>; <i>Roman + Antiquities</i>, a useful school-book; <i>Summary of Geography and + History</i>; <i>Classical Biography</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Adam,</b> Robert, an eminent Scottish architect, born in 1728, a + son of William Adam, architect. He resided several years in Italy, + visited Spalatro, in Dalmatia, and published a work on the ruined palace + of Diocletian there. In conjunction with his brother James he was much + employed by the English nobility and gentry in constructing modern and + embellishing ancient mansions. Among their works are the Register House + and the University Buildings, Edinburgh, and the Adelphi Buildings, + London. Robert Adam died in 1792, and was buried in Westminster Abbey; + his brother James died in 1794.</p> + + <p><b>Adam and Eve,</b> the names given in Scripture to our first + parents, an account of whom and their immediate descendants is given in + the early chapters of <i>Genesis</i>. Cain, Abel, and Seth are all their + sons that are mentioned by name; but we are told that they had other sons + as well as daughters. There are numerous Rabbinical additions to the + Scripture narrative of an extravagant character, such as the myth of Adam + having a wife before Eve, named <i>Lilith</i>, who became the mother of + giants and evil spirits. <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page29"></a>[29]</span>Other legends or inventions are contained in + the Koran.</p> + + <p><b>Adam de la Hale,</b> an early French writer and musician, born + 1235, died 1287. His <i>Jeu de Robin et de Marion</i> (first produced at + Naples), may be regarded as the first comic opera ever written. Cf. H. + Guy, <i>Bibliographie Critique du Trouvère</i>, Paris, 1900.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′amant,</b> an old name for the diamond; also used in a + vague way to imply a substance of impenetrable hardness.</p> + + <p><b>Adaman′tine Spar,</b> a name of the mineral corundum or of a + brownish variety of it.</p> + + <p><b>Adama′wa</b> (also called <b>Fumbina</b>), a region of West + Africa, between lat. 6° and 10° <span class="scac">N.</span>, and lon. + 11° and 17° <span class="scac">E.</span> Much of the surface is hilly or + mountainous, Mount Atlantika being 9000 or 10,000 feet. The principal + river is the Benue. A great part of the country is covered with thick + forests. The oil palm and bananas are staple products. Chief town Yola + (Nigeria).</p> + + <p><b>Adamello.</b> See <i>European War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′amites,</b> a religious sect dating from the second + century, probably of Gnostic origin. It was so called because both men + and women were said to appear naked in their assemblies, either to + imitate Adam in the state of innocence or to prove the control which they + possessed over their passions. Practices similar to those of the Adamites + arose several times in later ages. See <i>Beghards</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Adam′nan,</b> St., born in Ireland about 624, was elected + abbot of Iona in 679, and died there about 703 or 704. He is best known + from his <i>Life of St. Columba</i>, valuable as throwing light on the + early ecclesiastical history of Scotland. (There are editions by Reeves, + 1857; reissued with English translation 1874; and by Fowler, 1895.) His + feast is celebrated on 23rd Sept.</p> + + <p><b>Adams,</b> Charles Francis, American litterateur and statesman, was + a son of John Quincy Adams, and was born in 1807. His boyhood was spent + in Europe, partly in England; but he finished his education at Harvard, + and afterwards studied law. After serving some years in the Massachusetts + legislature he was sent to Congress in 1859. In 1861 Lincoln sent him to + England as American minister, and here he remained for seven years, + performing the arduous duties of his office with the utmost tact and + ability. Between 1874 and 1877 he edited a complete edition of his + grandfather's works in 12 vols. He was one of the arbitrators on the + <i>Alabama</i> claims. Died in 1886.</p> + + <p><b>Adams,</b> John, second president of the United States, was born at + Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts, 19th Oct., 1735. He was educated + at Harvard University, and adopted the law as a profession. His attention + was directed to politics by the question as to the right of the English + Parliament to tax the colonies, and in 1765 he published some essays + strongly opposed to the claims of the mother country. As a member of the + new American congress in 1774, 1775, and 1776 he was strenuous in his + opposition to the home Government, and in organizing the various + departments of the colonial Government. On 13th May, 1776, he seconded + the motion for a declaration of independence proposed by Lee of Virginia, + and was appointed a member of committee to draw it up. The declaration + was actually drawn up by Jefferson, but it was Adams who fought it + through Congress. In 1778 he went to France on a special mission, but + soon came back and again returned, and for nine years resided abroad as + representative of his country in France, Holland, and England. After + taking part in the peace negotiations he was appointed, in 1785, the + first ambassador of the United States to the Court of St. James. He was + recalled in 1788, and the following year elected vice-president of the + republic under Washington. In 1792 he was re-elected vice-president, and + at the following election in 1797 he became president in succession to + Washington. The commonwealth was then divided into two parties, the + Federalists, who favoured aristocratic and were suspected of monarchic + views, and the Republicans. Adams adhered to the former party, with which + his views of government had always been in accordance, but the real + leader of the party was Hamilton, with whom Adams did not agree, and who + tried to prevent his election. His term of office proved a stormy one, + which broke up and dissolved the Federalist party. His re-election in + 1801 was again opposed by the efforts of Hamilton, which ended in + effecting the return of the Republican candidate Jefferson. Thus it + happened that when Adams retired from office his influence and popularity + with both parties were at an end, and he sunk at once into the obscurity + of private life. He had the consolation, however, of living to see his + son president. He died 4th July, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the + declaration of independence, and on the same day as Jefferson. His works + have been ably edited by his grandson Charles Francis Adams.</p> + + <p><b>Adams,</b> John Couch, English astronomer, born 1819, died 1892, + studied at Cambridge, and was senior wrangler in 1843. His investigations + into the irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus led him to the + conclusion that they must be caused by another more distant planet, and + the results of his labours were communicated in September and October, + 1845, to Professor Challis and Airy the Astronomer Royal. The French + astronomer Leverrier had by this time been engaged in the same line of + research, and had come to substantially the same results, <!-- Page 30 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>[30]</span>which, being + published in 1846, led to the actual discovery of the planet Neptune by + Galle of Berlin. In 1858 Adams was professor of mathematics at Aberdeen + University, and in 1859 was appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy and + geometry at Cambridge.</p> + + <p><b>Adams,</b> John Quincy, sixth president of the United States, son + of John Adams, second president, was born 11th July, 1767. Accompanying + his father to Europe he received part of his education there, but + graduated at Harvard in 1788. Having adopted the legal profession, in + 1791 he was admitted to the bar. He now began to take an active interest + in politics, and some letters that he wrote having attracted general + attention, in 1794 Washington appointed him minister to the Hague. He + afterwards was sent to Berlin, and also on a mission to Sweden. In 1798 + he received a commission to negotiate a treaty of commerce with Sweden. + On the accession of Jefferson to the presidency in 1801 he was recalled. + The Federalist party (that of his father), which was now declining, had + sufficient influence in Massachusetts to elect him to the senate in 1803. + On an important question of foreign policy, that of embargo, he abandoned + his party, and having lost his re-election on this account, he retired to + the professorship of rhetoric at Cambridge, which he held from 1806 to + 1809. In 1809 he went as ambassador to Russia. He assisted in negotiating + the peace of 1814 with England, and was afterwards appointed resident + minister at London. Under Monroe as president he was secretary of state, + and at the expiration of Monroe's double term of office he succeeded him + in the presidency (1825). He was not very successful as president, and at + the end of his term (1829) he was not re-elected. In 1831 he was returned + to Congress by Massachusetts, and continued to represent this State till + his death, his efforts being now chiefly on behalf of the Abolitionist + party. He died 21st Feb., 1848.</p> + + <p><b>Adams,</b> Samuel, an American statesman, second cousin of + President John Adams, was born in Boston, 27th Sept., 1722, and was + educated at Harvard College. He early devoted himself to politics, and in + connection with the dispute between America and the mother country he + showed himself one of the most unwearied, efficient, and disinterested + assertors of American freedom and independence. He was one of the signers + of the declaration of 1776, which he laboured most indefatigably to bring + forward. He sat in congress eight years; from 1789-94 was + lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts; from 1794-7 governor, when he + retired from public life. He died 2nd Oct., 1803.</p> + + <p><b>Adam's Apple,</b> the popular name of the prominence seen in the + front of the throat in man, and which is formed by the portion of the + larynx known as the <i>thyroid cartilage</i>. It is much smaller and less + visible in females than in males, and is so named from the supposition + that it was caused by a piece of the forbidden fruit having stuck in + Adam's throat. In botany it is the name given to the plantain tree and + the <i>Citrus pomum</i>. It is the Heb. <i>Ethrog</i>, which, according + to Hebrew legend, was the fruit Adam and Eve ate in the garden of + Eden.</p> + + <p><b>Adam's Bridge,</b> a chain of reefs, sandbanks, and islands + stretching between India and Ceylon; so called because the Mohammedans + believe that when Adam was driven from paradise he had to pass by this + way to Ceylon (where is also Adam's Peak). The Brahmans call it the + bridge of Rama, the hero of the Indian Epic, the <i>Ramayana</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Adam's Needle,</b> a popular name of the Yucca plant.</p> + + <p><b>Adam's Peak,</b> one of the highest mountains in Ceylon, 45 miles + east-south-east of Colombo, conical, isolated, and 7420 feet high. On the + top, a rocky area of 64 feet by 45, is a hollow in the rock 5 feet long + bearing a rude resemblance to a human foot, which the Brahmans believe to + be the footprint of Siva; the Buddhists, who call it Sri-pada (sacred + footmark), that of Buddha; the Mahommedans that of Adam. The last-named + believe that Adam stood here on one foot for a thousand years, lamenting + his exclusion from Eden. Devotees of all creeds meet here and present + their offerings (chiefly rhododendron flowers) to the sacred footprint. + The ascent is very steep, and towards the summit is assisted by steps cut + and iron chains riveted in the rock.</p> + + <p><b>Adamson,</b> Patrick, a Scottish divine and Latin poet, born 15th + March, 1536, died 19th Feb., 1592. He was educated at St. Andrews, lived + some years in France, was minister of Paisley, and afterwards Archbishop + of St. Andrews, in which position he made himself very obnoxious to the + Presbyterian party. Deprived of the revenues of the see, he died in + indigence. He turned portions of the Bible into Latin verse.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′ana,</b> town and capital of Adana vilayet, Asia Minor, on + the Seihun-Irmak; served by the Bagdad Railway. The district is claimed + by Armenia. Cotton, rice, wine, and fruit are exported. Pop. (town), + 70,000; (vilayet), 1,000,000.</p> + + <p><b>Adanson</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-da<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-sōn<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), Michel, French naturalist and + traveller (of Scottish extraction), born 1727; died 1806. He lived five + years in Senegal, and wrote a natural history of this region as well as + works on botany. The baobab genus is named <i>Adansonia</i> after him. + Adanson's statue was erected in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, in + 1856.</p> + + <p><b>Adanso′nia.</b> See preceding article and <i>Baobab</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Adaptation</b> (from the Lat. <i>ad</i>, to, and + <i>aptāre</i>, to fit), the process of modification or alteration + <!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>[31]</span>of + a thing so as to change its original purpose and adapt it to other uses. + Adaptation in biology is the power and process by which an organism or + species of animals or plants changes and becomes modified, so as to suit + the conditions of its life. In other words it is the adjustment, or + favourable reaction, of the living world to its environment, the + advantageous variation of animals and plants under changed conditions. + The term now includes both that which is hereditary and that which is + acquired. The powers of lower forms of life to adapt themselves to + changes of environment are limited, and frequently, when the conditions + vary suddenly, they are either arrested in their development or die + altogether.—In literature it is the process by which an author + modifies the work of another not in its essence but in its form and + details, either in the original or in a foreign language.</p> + + <p><b>A′dar,</b> the twelfth month of the Hebrew sacred and sixth + of the civil year, answering to part of February and part of March.</p> + + <p><b>Adda</b> (ancient <b>Addua</b>), a river of North Italy, which, + descending from the Rhætian Alps, falls into Lake Como, and leaving this + joins the Po, after a course of about 170 miles. On the banks of the Adda + Napoleon won the battle of Lodi in 1796.</p> + + <p><b>Adda,</b> a species of lizard, more commonly called Skink.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′dax,</b> a species of antelope (<i>Hippotrăgus + nasomaculātus</i>) of the size of a large ass, with much of its + make. The horns of the male are about 4 feet long, beautifully twisted + into a wide-sweeping spiral of two turns and a half, with the points + directed outwards. It has tufts of hair on the forehead and throat, and + large broad hoofs. It inhabits the sandy regions of Nubia and Kordofan, + and is also found in Caffraria.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image013.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image013.jpg" + alt="Adder" title="Adder" /></a> + Adder (<i>Vipera communis</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Adder,</b> a name often applied to the common viper as well as to + other kinds of venomous serpents. See <i>Viper</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Adder-pike</b> (<i>Trachīnus vipĕra</i>), a small + species of the weever fish, called also the Lesser Weever or Sting-fish. + See <i>Weever</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Adder-stone,</b> the name given in different parts of Britain to + certain rounded perforated stones or glass beads found occasionally, and + supposed to have a kind of supernatural efficacy in curing the bites of + adders. They are believed to have been anciently used as spindle-whorls, + that is, a kind of small fly-wheels to keep up the rotatory motion of the + spindle.</p> + + <p><b>Adder's-tongue,</b> a species of British fern (<i>Ophioglossum + vulgātum</i>), whose spores are produced on a spike, supposed to + resemble a serpent's tongue.</p> + + <p><b>Adder's-wort,</b> a name of snakeweed or bistort + (<i>Polygŏnum Bistorta</i>), from its supposed virtue in curing the + bite of serpents.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′dington,</b> Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, born 1757, died + 1844. Entered Parliament, 1783, as a warm supporter of Pitt. Was elected + speaker of the House of Commons, 1789, and in 1801 invited by the king to + form an administration, chiefly signalized by the conclusion of the Peace + of Amiens. Quarrelled with Pitt, whom he bitterly attacked. Was home + secretary from 1812 till 1822, his repressive policy making him + remarkably unpopular with the nation at large. Retired from official life + in 1824.</p> + + <p><b>Addis Abe′ba,</b> or <b>Adis Abba′ba,</b> a town in the + south of Abyssinia, in Shoa, ranking as capital of the country, being + chief residence of the negus or sovereign. It stands among mountains, at + the height of 10,000 feet, and is a primitive place, but now has + telegraphic connection with Jibouti and Massawa, and since 1917 is the + terminus of the railway running inland from Jibouti by way of Harar. Pop. + 50,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′dison,</b> Rt. Hon. Christopher, <span class="scac">P.C., + M.D.,</span> Cabinet Minister. Dr. Addison was born 19th June, 1869, and + educated at Trinity College, Harrogate, and St. Bartholomew's Hospital, + London, where he was a lecturer for a time. He was elected Member of + Parliament for the Hoxton Division, Shoreditch, in 1910, and was + parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education from 1914 to 1915. From + 1916 to 1917 he was Minister of Munitions; he was President of the Local + Government Board from January to June, 1919, when he became Minister of + Health. He has written and edited several works on medical subjects.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′dison,</b> Joseph, an eminent English essayist, son of the + Rev. Lancelot Addison, afterwards Dean of Lichfield, born at Milston, + Wiltshire, 1st May, 1672, died 17th June, 1719. He was educated at the + Charterhouse, where he became acquainted with Steele, and afterwards at + Oxford. He held a fellowship from 1697 till 1711, and gained much praise + for his Latin verse. He secured as his earliest patron the poet Dryden, + who inserted some of his verses in his <i>Miscellanies</i> in 1693. A + translation of the fourth <i>Georgic</i>, with the exception of the story + of <i>Aristæus</i>, by Addison, appeared in the same collection in 1694, + and he subsequently translated for it two and <!-- Page 32 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>[32]</span>a half books of Ovid. + Dryden also prefixed his prose essay on Virgil's <i>Georgics</i> to his + own translation of that poem, which appeared in 1697. An early patron of + his was Charles Montague, afterwards Earl of Halifax; another was Lord + Somers, who procured him a pension of £300 a year to enable him to + qualify for diplomatic employments by foreign travels. He spent from the + autumn of 1699 to that of 1703 on the Continent, where he became + acquainted with Malebranche, Boileau, &c. During his residence abroad + his tragedy of <i>Cato</i> is supposed to have been written. During his + journey across Mont Cenis he wrote his <i>Letter from Italy</i>, esteemed + the best of his poems, and in Germany his <i>Dialogues on Medals</i>, + which was not published till after his death. His <i>Remarks on Several + Parts of Italy in the Years 1701-3</i> was published in 1705. His + political friends lost power on the death of William III, but <i>The + Campaign</i>, a poem on the battle of Blenheim, procured him an + appointment as a commissioner of appeal on excise. In 1706 he received an + under-secretaryship, in 1707 accompanied Halifax on a mission to Hanover, + in 1709 became secretary to the Viceroy of Ireland, and keeper of the + records. In 1708 he was elected Member of Parliament for Lostwithiel, a + seat he exchanged in 1710 for Malmesbury, which place he continued to + represent till his death. From Oct., 1709, to Jan., 1711, he contributed + 75 papers to the <i>Tatler</i>, either wholly by himself or in + conjunction with Steele, thus founding the new literary school of the + Essayists. For the <i>Spectator</i> (2nd Jan., 1711, to 6th Dec., 1712) + he wrote 274 papers, all signed by one of the four letters C., L., I., O. + His tragedy of <i>Cato</i>, produced April, 1713, ran for twenty nights, + and was translated into French, Italian, German, and Latin. His other + contributions to periodicals included 51 papers to the <i>Guardian</i> + (May to Sept., 1713), 24 papers to a revived <i>Spectator</i> conducted + by Budgell, and 2 papers to Steele's <i>Lover</i>. On the death of Queen + Anne he successively became secretary to the lords justices, secretary to + the Irish viceroy, and one of the lords commissioners of trade. He + published the <i>Freeholder</i> (23rd Dec., 1715, to 9th June, 1716), a + political <i>Spectator</i>. In August, 1716, he married the Countess of + Warwick, a marriage which did not increase his happiness. He retired from + public life, March, 1718, with a pension of £1500 a year. He formed a + close friendship with Swift, and was chief of a distinguished literary + circle. He had literary quarrels with Pope and Gay, the former of whom in + revenge wrote the satire contained in his lines on Atticus in the + <i>Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot</i>. He also had a paltry quarrel over + politics with his old friend Steele. His death took place at Holland + House, its cause being dropsy and asthma. He was buried in Westminster + Abbey. Of his style as a writer so much has been said that nothing + remains to say but to quote the dictum of Johnson: "Whoever wishes to + attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not + ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison". + He had great conversational powers, and his intimates speak in the + strongest terms of the enjoyment derived from his society, but he was + extremely reserved before strangers. His <i>Dialogues on Medals</i> and + <i>Evidences of the Christian Religion</i> were published posthumously in + Tickell's collected edition of his works.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: W. J. Courthope, <i>Addison</i> (English + Men of Letters Series); <i>Essays from the Spectator</i>, edited by Henry + Morley.</p> + + <p><b>Addison's Disease</b> (from Dr. Addison, Guy's Hospital, London, + who traced the disease to its source), a fatal disease, the seat of which + is the two glandular bodies placed one at the front of the upper part of + each kidney, and called <i>suprarenal capsules</i>. It is characterized + by anæmia or bloodlessness, extreme prostration, and the brownish or + olive-green colour of the skin. Death usually results from weakness, and + commonly takes place within a year.</p> + + <p><b>Addled Parliament,</b> a Parliament called 5th April, 1614, in + order to legalize the customs duties imposed by James I, but which, + proceeding to the redress of grievances instead of granting supply, was + dissolved, 7th June, without passing a single Bill.</p> + + <p><b>Address,</b> a document containing an expression of thanks, + congratulation, satisfaction, or dissatisfaction, &c. It is the + custom of the British Parliament to return an address to the speech + delivered by the Sovereign at the commencement of every session.</p> + + <p><b>Address,</b> Forms of. The following are the principal modes of + formally addressing titled personages or persons holding official rank in + Great Britain:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>The King or Queen.</i>—Address in writing: To the King's + (Queen's) most excellent Majesty. Say: Sire or Madam, Your Majesty.</p> + + <p><i>The Royal Family.</i>—His Royal Highness (H.R.H.) the Prince + of Wales, His Royal Highness the Duke of C——, His Royal + Highness Prince A——. A royal duke should be addressed as Sir, + not My Lord Duke; and referred to as Your Royal Highness. A princess is + addressed Her Royal Highness the Duchess of ——, Her Royal + Highness Princess A——; and personally as Madam, Your Royal + Highness.</p> + + <p><i>Duke and Ducal Family.</i>—His Grace the Duke of + ——; My Lord Duke, Your Grace. Her Grace the Duchess of + ——; Madam, Your Grace. The duke's eldest son is in law only + an esquire, but in courtesy takes a secondary title of his father, and is + addressed as if he held it by right. A younger son is addressed Lord + J—— B——; My Lord, Your Lordship; a daughter, Lady + M—— B—— (Christian and surname); Madam, Your + Ladyship. A duke's, marquis's, or earl's daughter marrying a commoner + simply changes her surname for his.</p> + + <p><i>The Lord-lieutenant of Ireland</i> is styled His Excellency, or, if + a duke, His Grace, and addressed according to his titular rank.</p> + + <p><i>Marquess.</i>—The Most Honourable the Marquess of + ——; <!-- Page 33 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page33"></a>[33]</span>My Lord Marquess, My Lord. The eldest son + has a secondary title of his father, as in the case of a duke's eldest + son; the younger sons and the daughters are all addressed as the younger + sons and daughters of a duke.</p> + + <p><i>Earl.</i>—The Right Honourable the Earl of ——; My + Lord, Your Lordship. The Right Honourable the Countess of——; + Madam, Your Ladyship. The eldest son is addressed by a secondary title of + his father; younger son, The Honourable G—— T——; + Sir; the daughter, as duke's and marquess's daughter.</p> + + <p><i>Viscount.</i>—The Right Honourable the Viscount + ——; My Lord, Your Lordship. The Right Honourable the + Viscountess ——; Madam, Your Ladyship. Son: The Honourable + A—— B—— (Christian and surname); Sir. Daughter: + The Honourable J—— C—— (Christian and surname); + Madame; if married, The Honourable Mrs. —— (married + name).</p> + + <p><i>Baron.</i>—The Right Honourable Lord ——; My Lord, + Your Lordship. The Right Honourable the Lady ——; Madam, your + Ladyship. Son: The Honourable J—— C——; Sir. + Daughter: The Honourable M—— H——; if married, The + Honourable Mrs. ——, same as viscount's daughter.</p> + + <p><i>Baronet.</i>—Sir A—— B——, Baronet; + Sir; more familiarly Dear Sir A——.</p> + + <p><i>Knight.</i>—Sir C—— D——, Kt., or + K.C.S.I., K.C.B., G.C.B., &c., according to rank. The wives of + baronets and knights are styled Lady, Lady ——.</p> + + <p><i>Archbishop.</i>—His Grace the Lord Archbishop of + ——; My Lord Archbishop; Your Grace. An archbishop is also + styled Most Reverend.</p> + + <p><i>Bishop.</i>—The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of ——; + My Lord. The wives of prelates have no special title. Bishops not + connected with the English established church may be addressed—The + Right Reverend Bishop ——; Right Reverend Sir.</p> + + <p><i>Dean.</i>—The Very Reverend; Sir; Mr. Dean.</p> + + <p>Members of the Privy Council, members and ex-members of cabinet, the + Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief + Justice and the Lords Justices, the Lord Advocate, the lords of the + treasury and admiralty, are called Right Honourable; the justices (not + being <i>lords</i> justices) are styled Honourable. Ambassadors, + governors of colonies, &c., are styled Excellency.</p> + + <p>The Lord Mayors of London, York, Dublin, &c., and the Lord Provost + of Edinburgh, are styled Right Honourable; the Lord Provost of Glasgow, + Honourable. A Mayor is addressed as Right Worshipful. Lords of Session + (Scotland) have the courtesy title of Lord, are addressed as My Lord, + Your Lordship, and also called Honourable. Sheriffs and their substitutes + are addressed in their courts in Scotland as My Lord.</p> + + <p>In the United States persons holding official rank are similarly + addressed; thus the President is styled His Excellency, as are also + governors of states and foreign ministers; the vice-president, + lieutenant-governors, senators, representatives, judges, and mayors are + styled Honourable.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><b>Adduc′tor,</b> a muscle which draws one part of the body + towards another: applied in zoology to one of the muscles which bring + together the valves of the shell of the bivalve molluscs.</p> + + <p><b>Adel′.</b> See <i>Adal.</i></p> + + <p><b>Adela,</b> born 1062, died 1137, fourth daughter of William the + Conqueror, wife of Stephen, Count of Blois and Chartres, and mother of + Stephen, King of England. She proved herself an able ruler and a generous + patroness of learning while her husband was abroad with the First + Crusade; and after his death she acted as regent for his sons.</p> + + <p><b>Adelaide</b> (ad'e-lād), the capital of South Australia, 6 + miles east from Port Adelaide (on St. Vincent Gulf), its port, with which + it is united by railway, founded in 1837, and named after the queen of + William IV. Situated on a large plain, it is built nearly in the form of + a square, with the streets at right angles, and is divided into North and + South Adelaide, separated by the river Torrens, which is crossed by + several bridges, and by means of a dam is converted into a fine sheet of + water. The public buildings comprise the Government House, the town hall, + the post and telegraph offices, the Government offices, court-houses, the + houses of legislature, the University, South Australian Institute, + &c. There is a good service of tramway cars. Adelaide is connected by + railway with Melbourne, and is the terminus of the overland telegraph to + Port Darwin. It has a large trade. Pop. (including suburbs), (1919), + 256,660.</p> + + <p><b>Adelaide,</b> daughter of George, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Meiningen, + and wife of the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV, King of England; + born 1792, died 1849; married 11th July, 1818, had two daughters, who + died in infancy. She became queen-consort on William attaining the throne + in 1830, and was for a time unpopular from being supposed to be averse to + reform. On the death of William she passed into private life, with an + allowance of £100,000 a year.</p> + + <p><b>Adelard of Bath,</b> an English philosophical writer of the twelfth + century. He travelled through Spain, the north of Africa, Greece, and + Asia Minor, and acquired from the Arabs much knowledge, which he put in + systematic shape. Chief works, <i>Perdifficiles Quæstiones Naturales</i> + and <i>De Eodem et Diverso.</i></p> + + <p><b>Adelsberg</b> (ä'dėlz-ber<i>h</i>), a small town of North + Italy, in Carniola, midway between Trieste and Laibach, remarkable for + the wonderful stalactite cave in its vicinity. The most extended of the + ramifications which compose it reaches to over 2 miles from the entrance, + at which the River Poik disappears, and is heard rushing below. The + stalactites and stalagmites are of the most varied and often beautiful + forms, and have received fanciful appellations, as they resemble columns, + statues, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Adelung</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>d'e-lu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>ng), Friedrich von, nephew of J. C. + Adelung, was a distinguished philologist. He was tutor to the Grand-duke + Nicholas, afterwards Emperor of Russia, and became president of the + Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg (now Petrograd). Born 1768, died + 1843.</p> + + <p><b>Adelung,</b> Johann Christoph, a German philologist, born 1732, + died 1806. In 1759 he was appointed professor in the Protestant academy + at Erfurt, and two years after removed to Leipzig, where he applied + himself to the works by which he made so great a name, particularly his + German dictionary, <i>Grammatisch-kritisches Wörterbuch der hochdeutschen + Mundart</i> (Leipzig, 1774-86), and his <i>Mithridates</i>, a work on + general philology. In 1787 he was appointed librarian of the public + library in Dresden—an office which he held till his death.</p> + + <p><b>A′den,</b> a seaport town and territory belonging to Britain, + on the south-west coast of Arabia, in <!-- Page 34 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>[34]</span>a dry and barren + district, the town being almost entirely closed in by an amphitheatre of + rocks, and possessing an admirable harbour. Occupying an important + military position, Aden is strongly fortified and permanently garrisoned. + It is of importance also as a coaling station for steamers, and carries + on a great amount of commerce, forming an entrepôt and place of + transhipment for goods valued at £6,000,000 a year. Its greatest drawback + is the scarcity of fresh water, which is obtained partly from wells, + partly from rock-cisterns that receive the rain, and partly by + condensation from salt water—the only unfailing means of supply. + The peninsula on which it stands somewhat resembles the rock of + Gibraltar, and could be rendered as formidable. Aden was a Roman colony, + and in the Middle Ages it was a great entrepôt of the Eastern trade. It + was acquired by Britain in 1839, after which it was attacked repeatedly + by the Arabs. With the additional territory latterly acquired, the total + British area is 75 sq. miles (or with the island of Perim, 80); while a + large tract is under British influence. Aden is attached to the Bombay + Presidency. Pop. 46,165.</p> + + <p><b>Adenanthe′ra,</b> a genus of trees and shrubs, natives of the + East Indies, nat. ord. Leguminosæ. <i>A. pavonīna</i> is one of the + largest and handsomest trees of India, and yields hard solid timber + called red sandal-wood. The bright scarlet seeds, from their equality in + weight (each=4 grains), are used by goldsmiths in the East as + weights.</p> + + <p><b>Adeni′tis</b> (Gr. <i>adēn</i>, a gland), in medicine, + inflammation of one or more of the lymphatic glands.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′enoids,</b> small growths often occurring in the back wall + of the throat in children, blocking the nostrils and commonly causing + deafness. They can be removed by a simple operation.</p> + + <p><b>Aderer′</b>. See <i>Adrar</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aderno′,</b> a town of Sicily, 18 miles <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> of Catania and about 10 miles <span + class="scac">W.S.W.</span> of Mount Etna. Pop. 25,000.</p> + + <p><b>Adessena′rian,</b> one of a sect of Christians which holds + that there is a real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but denying + that it is effected by transubstantiation.</p> + + <p><b>Adhesion,</b> the tendency of two bodies to stick together when put + in close contact, or the mutual attraction of their surfaces; + distinguished from <i>cohesion</i>, which denotes the mutual attraction + between the particles of a homogeneous body. Adhesion may exist between + two solids, between a solid and a fluid, or between two fluids. A plate + of glass or of polished metal laid on the surface of water and attached + to one arm of a balance will support much more than its own weight in the + opposite scale from the force of adhesion between the water and the + plate. From the same force arises the tendency of most liquids, when + gently poured from a jar, to run down the exterior of a vessel or along + any other surface they meet.</p> + + <p><b>Adian′tum,</b> a genus of ferns; the maiden-hair fern.</p> + + <p><b>Adiaph′orist</b> (Gr. <i>adiaphoros</i>, indifferent), a name + given in the sixteenth century to Melanchthon's party, who held some + opinions and ceremonies to be indifferent which Luther condemned as + sinful or heretical.</p> + + <p><b>Adige</b> (ä′dē-jā), Ger. <i>Etsch</i> (ancient + <b>Athĕsis</b>), a river of Northern Italy, which rises in the + Rhætian Alps, and after a south and east course of about 180 miles, + during which it passes Verona and Legnago, falls into the Adriatic, + forming a delta connected with that of the Po.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′ipocere</b> (-sēr) (Lat. <i>adeps</i>, fat, and + <i>cera</i>, wax), a substance of a light-brown colour formed by animal + matter when protected from atmospheric air, and under certain + circumstances of temperature and humidity. It was first observed by + Fourcroy, and a quantity discovered at the Cimetière des Innocents, + Paris. A similar substance is found in peat-bogs in Wales and + Ireland.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′ipose tissue,</b> the cellular tissue containing the oily + or fatty matter of the body. It underlies the skin, surrounds the large + vessels and nerves, invests the kidneys, &c., and sometimes + accumulates in large masses.</p> + + <p><b>Adiron′dack Mountains,</b> in the United States, a group + belonging to the Appalachian chain, extending from the <span + class="scac">N.E.</span> corner of the State of New York to near its + centre. The scenery is wild and grand, diversified by numerous beautiful + lakes, and the whole region is a favourite resort of sportsmen and + tourists.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′it,</b> a more or less horizontal opening, giving access + to the shaft of a mine. It is made to slope gradually from the farthest + point in the interior to the mouth, and by means of it the principal + drainage is usually carried on. See <i>Mine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′jective,</b> in grammar, a word used to denote some + quality in the noun or substantive to which it is accessory. The + adjective is indeclinable in English (but has <i>degrees</i> of + comparison), and generally precedes the noun, while in most other + European languages it follows the inflections of the substantive, and is + more commonly placed after it, though in German it precedes it, as in + English.</p> + + <p><b>Adjudica′tion,</b> in English law, is the decree of the court + in bankruptcy declaring a person bankrupt.</p> + + <p><b>Adjust′ment,</b> in marine insurance, is the settling of the + amount of the loss which the insurer is entitled under a particular + policy to recover, and if the policy is subscribed by more <!-- Page 35 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>[35]</span>than one + underwriter, of the amounts which the underwriters respectively are + liable to pay.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′jutant,</b> an officer appointed to each regiment or + battalion, whose duty is to assist the commander. He is charged with + instruction in drill, and all the interior discipline, duties, and + efficiency of the corps. He has the charge of all documents and + correspondence, and is the channel of communication for all orders.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <a href="images/image014.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image014.jpg" + alt="Adjutant-bird" title="Adjutant-bird" /></a> + Adjutant-bird (<i>Leptoptĭlus argăla</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Adjutant-bird</b> (<i>Leptoptĭlus argăla</i>), a large + grallatorial or wading bird of the stork family, native of the warmer + parts of India, where it is known as Hurgĭla or Argăla. It + stands about five feet high, has an enormous bill, nearly bare head and + neck, and a pouch hanging from the under part of the neck. It is one of + the most voracious carnivorous birds known, and in India, from its + devouring all sorts of carrion and noxious animals, is protected by law. + From underneath the wings are obtained those light downy feathers known + as <i>marabou</i> feathers, from the name of an allied species of bird + (<i>L. marabou</i>) inhabiting Western Africa, and also producing + them.</p> + + <p><b>Adjutant-general,</b> in Great Britain the second military member + of the Army Council, and styled Adjutant-general to the Forces. He is a + general officer, and at the head of his department at the War Office, + which is charged with all duties relative to personnel.—Among the + Jesuits this name was given to a select number of fathers, who resided + with the general of the order, and had each a province or country + assigned to him.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′jutators,</b> in English history, representatives elected + by the parliamentary forces in 1647 to act with the officers in + compelling Parliament to satisfy the demands of the army.</p> + + <p><b>Adler,</b> Victor, Austrian socialist leader, born in 1852. + Educated as a physician, he gave up his profession for socialist + propaganda. He visited England, and wrote a book on factory inspection in + this country. He was the founder and editor of the + <i>Arbeiter-Zeitung</i>; was a member of the Lower Austrian Diet and of + the Imperial Council in 1907. His son, Dr. Friedrich Adler, assassinated + Count Stuergkh, the Austrian premier, on 20th Oct., 1916. He died in + 1918.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′lington,</b> a straggling place in Lancashire to the + south-east of Chorley, engaged in the cotton manufacture. Pop. (1921), + 4393.</p> + + <p><b>Adme′tus,</b> in Greek mythology, King of Pheræ, in Thessaly, + and husband of Alcestis, who gave signal proof of her attachment by + consenting to die in order to prolong her husband's life. See + <i>Alcestis</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Administra′tion,</b> in politics, the executive power or + body, the ministry or cabinet.</p> + + <p><b>Admin′istrator,</b> in law, the person to whom the goods of a + man dying intestate are committed by the proper authority, and who is + bound to account for them when required.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′miral,</b> the commander-in-chief of a squadron or fleet + of ships of war, or of the entire naval force of a country, or simply a + naval officer of the highest rank. In the British navy admirals are of + four ranks—admiral of the fleet, admiral, vice-admiral, and + rear-admiral. They were also divided formerly into three classes, named + after the colours of their respective flags, admirals of the <i>red</i>, + of the <i>white</i>, and of the <i>blue</i>. In 1864, however, this + distinction was given up, and now there is one flag common to all ships + of war, namely, the white ensign divided into four quarters by the cross + of St. George, and having the union in the upper corner next the + staff.—The title <i>admiral of the fleet</i> is conferred on a few + admirals, and carries an increase of pay along with it.—A + <i>vice-admiral</i> is next in rank and command to the admiral: he + carries his flag at the foretop-gallant-mast head, while an admiral + carries his at the main. A <i>rear-admiral</i>, next in rank to the + vice-admiral, carries his flag at the mizzentop-gallant-mast + head.—<i>Lord high admiral</i>, in Great Britain, an officer who + (when this rare dignity is conferred) is at the head of the naval + administration of Great Britain. There have been few high admirals since + 1632, when the office was first put in commission. James Duke of York + (afterwards James II) held it for several years during Charles II's + reign. In the reign of William and Mary it was vested in lords + commissioners of the admiralty, and since that time it has been held for + short periods only by Prince George of Denmark (1702-8) in the time of + Queen Anne, and by William IV, then Duke of Clarence, in 1827-8.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′miralty,</b> that department of the Government of a + country that is at the head of its naval service. In Britain the board of + Admiralty now consists of the First Lord of the Admiralty and <!-- Page + 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page36"></a>[36]</span>seven other + commissioners, four of them being Sea Lords, and one a Civil Lord. The + First Lord is always a member of the cabinet, and it is he who + principally exercises the powers of the department. Under the 1912 + Admiralty Organization Scheme, the various members of the board are + responsible for special business. Several changes in Admiralty + organization were made during the European War, but after the cessation + of hostilities the system reverted to that of peace time.</p> + + <p><b>Admiralty Charts</b> are charts issued by the hydrographic + department of the Admiralty of Britain; they are prepared by specially + appointed surveyors and draughtsmen, and besides being supplied to every + ship in the fleet, are sold to the general public at prices much less + than their cost. In connection with these charts there are published + books of sailing directions, lists of lights, &c. The navigating + charts are generally on the scale of half an inch to a mile, and show all + the dangers of the coasts with sufficient distinctness to enable the + seamen to avoid them; the charts of larger size exhibit all the + intricacies of the coast.</p> + + <p><b>Admiralty Court,</b> a court which takes cognizance of civil and + criminal causes of a maritime nature, including captures made in war, and + offences committed on the high seas, and has to do with many matters + connected with maritime affairs. In England the Admiralty Court was once + held before the Lord High Admiral, and at a later period was presided + over by his deputy or the deputy of the Lords Commissioners. It now forms + a branch of the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division of the High + Court of Justice. There is a separate Irish Admiralty Court. In Scotland + Admiralty cases are now prosecuted in the Court of Session, or in the + Sheriff Court. In the United States, Admiralty cases are taken up in the + first instance by the district courts.</p> + + <p><b>Admiralty Island,</b> an island belonging to the United States off + the north-west coast of North America, 80 or 90 miles long and about 20 + broad, covered with fine timber and inhabited by Sitka Indians.</p> + + <p><b>Admiralty Islands,</b> a cluster of 40 islands, north of New + Guinea, in what was once called the Bismarck Archipelago. Discovered by + the Dutch explorer Shouten in 1616, they were in German possession from + 1884 to 12th Sept., 1914, when they were occupied by an Australian force. + They have since been in British occupation. The largest is about 60 miles + in length; the rest are much smaller. They are covered with a luxuriant + vegetation, and possess dense groves of coco-nut trees. There are + valuable pearl and other shell fisheries. Capital, Lorengau. Pop. + (native), 4000; (European), 50.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <a href="images/image015.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image015.jpg" + alt="Stipule adnated to Leaf-stalk" title="Stipule adnated to Leaf-stalk" /></a> + Stipule adnated to Leaf-stalk of Rose + </div> + + <p><b>Ad′nate,</b> in botany, applied to a part growing attached to + another and principal part by its whole length, as stipules adnated to + the leaf-stalk.</p> + + <p><b>Adobe</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-dō′bā), the Spanish + name for a brick made of loamy earth, containing about two-thirds fine + sand and one-third clayey dust, sun-dried; in common use for building in + Mexico, Texas, and Central America. Building material in ancient Egypt + and Assyria was adobe.</p> + + <p><b>Adol′phus,</b> John, 1768-1845, an able English criminal + lawyer, and author of the <i>History of England from the Accession of + George III</i> and <i>Biographical Memoirs of the French + Revolution</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Adolphus of Nassau,</b> elected Emperor of Germany, 1292. In 1298 + the college of electors transferred the crown to Albert of Austria, but, + Adolphus refusing to abdicate, a war ensued in which he fell, after a + heroic resistance, 2nd July, 1298.</p> + + <p><b>Adonai</b> (ad′o-nī), a name bestowed upon God in the + Old Testament. See <i>Jehovah</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ado′ni,</b> a town and district in Madras; pop. of former + 30,416, of latter 179,418. It is well known for excellent silk and cotton + fabrics.</p> + + <p><b>Ado′nis,</b> son of Myrrha, a mythological personage, + originally a deity of the Phœnicians, but borrowed into Greek + mythology. He was represented as being a great favourite of + Aphroditē (Venus), who accompanied him when engaged in hunting, of + which he was very fond. He received a mortal wound from the tusk of a + wild boar, and when the goddess hurried to his assistance she found him + lifeless, whereupon she caused his blood to give rise to the anemone. The + worship of Adonis, which arose in Phœnicia, was afterwards widely + spread round the Mediterranean. He is the reproductive principle, + nature's decay in winter and its revival in spring. The name Adonis is + akin to the Heb. <i>Adonai</i>, Lord. See <i>Tammuz</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ado′nis,</b> a small river rising in Lebanon and flowing to + the Mediterranean. When in flood it is tinged with a red colour, and so + is connected with the legend of Adonis.</p> + + <p><b>Ado′nis,</b> a genus of ranunculaceous plants. In the + corn-adonis or pheasant's eye (<i>A. autumnālis</i>) the petals are + bright scarlet like the blood of Adonis, from which the plant is fabled + to have sprung.</p> + + <p><b>Adoptianism,</b> the theory according to which <!-- Page 37 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>[37]</span>Christ as a man + is the adopted Son of God. Elipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, + Bishop of Urgella, asserted this double sonship in Christ, maintaining + that He was indeed the Son of God in His divine nature, but as man He was + the Son of God only by grace and adoption. 'The Man Christ' is therefore + only the adopted and not the natural Son of God. The doctrine was + vigorously opposed by Alcuin, and condemned by the councils of Ratisbon + (792) and Frankfort (794). The theory, however, found advocates during + the Middle Ages, and has given rise to theological disputes in modern + times. Adoptianism was attributed both to Abelard and Duns Scotus.</p> + + <p><b>Adop′tion,</b> the admission of a stranger by birth to the + privileges of a child. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and also some + modern nations, adoption is placed under legal regulation. In Rome the + effect of adoption was to create the legal relation of father and son, + just as if the person adopted was born of the blood of the adopter in + lawful marriage. The adopted son took the name of his adopter, and was + bound to perform his new father's religious duties. Adoption is not + recognized by the law of England and Scotland; there are legal means to + enable a person to assume the name and arms, and to inherit the property + of another. In some of the United States adoption is regulated by laws + not very dissimilar to those which prevailed among the Romans.</p> + + <p><b>Adour</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-dör), a river of France, rising in the + Hautes Pyrenees, and falling into the sea a little below Bayonne; length + about 200 miles; partly navigable.</p> + + <p><b>Ado′wa,</b> a town of Abyssinia, in Tigré, at an elevation of + 6270 feet; the chief commercial depot on the caravan route from Massawa + to Gondar. Pop. about 4000. Here the Italians suffered a crushing defeat + at the hands of the Abyssinians, 1st March, 1896.</p> + + <p><b>Adra</b> (ä′<i>d</i>ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a seaport of Southern Spain, in + Andalusia, near the mouth of the Adra, on the Mediterranean; with marble + quarries and lead works. Pop. 9000.</p> + + <p><b>Adramit′ti</b> (ancient <b>Adramyttium</b>; Turk. + <i>Edremid</i>), a town of Turkey in Asia, near the head of the gulf of + the same name, 80 miles north of Smyrna. Pop. about 5000.</p> + + <p><b>Adrar′,</b> a district in the Western Sahara, peopled by + Berbers possessing camels, sheep, and oxen, and cultivating dates, wheat, + barley, and melons. Chief towns, Wadan and Shingit, which has + inexhaustible beds of rock-salt.</p> + + <p><b>Adren′alin,</b> or <b>Suprarenin,</b> a crystalline substance + obtained from the adrenals or suprarenal capsules of cattle and sheep, + which possesses the property of checking bleeding by its styptic or + contractive powers, and is used in medical practice, more especially in + the case of bleeding at the nose and nervous catarrh.</p> + + <p><b>Adria</b> (ä′dri-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a cathedral city of Northern Italy, + province of Rovigo, between the Po and the Adige, on the site of the + ancient town of same name, whence the Adriatic derives its appellation. + Owing to alluvial deposits the sea is now 17 miles distant. Pop. + 11,878.</p> + + <p><b>A′drian,</b> the name of six Popes. The first, a Roman, ruled + from 772-795; a contemporary and friend of Charlemagne. He expended vast + sums in rebuilding the walls and restoring the aqueducts of + Rome.—<b>Adrian II,</b> a Roman, was elected Pope in 867, at the + age of seventy-five years. He died in 872, in the midst of conflicts with + the Greek Church.—<b>Adrian III,</b> a Roman, elected 884, was Pope + for one year and four months only. He was the first Pope who changed his + name on the occasion of his exaltation.—<b>Adrian IV,</b> + originally named <b>Nicolas Breakspear,</b> the only Englishman who ever + occupied the papal chair, was born about 1100, and died 1159. He is said + to have been a native of Hertfordshire, studied in France, and became + abbot of St. Rufus in Provence, cardinal and legate to Norway. Chosen + Pope in 1154, his reign is chiefly remarkable for his almost constant + struggle for supremacy with Frederick Barbarossa, who on one occasion had + been forced to hold his stirrup, and had been crowned by him at Rome + (1155). He issued the famous bull (1158) granting the sovereignty of + Ireland, on condition of the payment of Peter's pence, to Henry + II.—<b>Adrian V,</b> previously called <b>Ottobuono Fieschi,</b> of + Genoa, settled, as legate of the Pope, the dispute between King Henry III + of England and his nobles, in favour of the former; but died a month + after his election to the papal chair (1276).—<b>Adrian VI</b> (the + last pontifice barbaro), born at Utrecht in 1459, was elected to the + papal chair, 9th Jan., 1522. He tried to reform abuses in the Church, but + opposed the zeal of Luther with reproaches and threats, and even + attempted to excite Erasmus and Zuinglius against him. Died 1523, after a + reign of one year and a half.</p> + + <p><b>A′drian,</b> a town of the United States, in Michigan, 70 + miles <span class="scac">W.S.W.</span> of Detroit. Its extensive + water-power is employed in works of various kinds. Pop. 9654.</p> + + <p><b>A′drian,</b> Publius Ælius Hadrianus. See <i>Hadrian</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Adriano′ple</b> (Turk. <i>Edreneh</i>), an important city in + the Balkans, about 135 miles <span class="scac">W.N.W.</span> from + Constantinople, on the Maritza (ancient <i>Hebrus</i>), at its junction + with the Tundja and the Arda. It has a great mosque, among the most + magnificent in the world; a palace, now in a state of decay; a grand + aqueduct, and a splendid bazaar; manufactures of silk, woollen, and + cotton stuffs, otto of roses, leather, &c., and an important <!-- + Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page38"></a>[38]</span>trade. + Adrianople received its present name from the Roman emperor Adrian + (Hadrian). In 1361 it was taken by Amurath I, and was the residence of + the Turkish sovereigns till the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. In + 1829 it was taken by the Russians, and here was then concluded the peace + of Adrianople, by which Russia received important accessions of territory + in the Caucasus and on the coast of the Black Sea. The Russians occupied + it also in 1878. Adrianople was bombarded by the Balkan allied forces in + Feb., 1913, and fell 28th March; it was recaptured by the Turks, under + Enver Bey, 20th July. Pop. 83,000.</p> + + <p><b>Adrian's</b> (or <b>Hadrian's</b>) <b>Wall</b>. See <i>Roman + Walls</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Adriat′ic Sea,</b> or <b>Gulf of Venice,</b> an arm of the + Mediterranean, stretching in a north-westerly direction from the Straits + of Otranto, between Italy and the Balkan Peninsula (Yugo-Slavia). Length, + about 480 miles; average breadth, about 100; area, about 60,000 sq. + miles. The rivers which it receives, particularly the Po, its principal + feeder, have produced, and are still producing, great geological changes + in its basin by their alluvial deposits. Hence Adria, between the Po and + the Adige, which gives the sea its name, though once a flourishing + seaport, is now 17 miles inland. An oceanographic investigation of the + Adriatic Sea took place in Feb. and March, 1911. The principal trading + ports on the Italian side are Brindisi, Bari, Ancona, Sinigaglia, and + Venice; on the east side Ragusa, Fiume, Pirano, Pola, and Trieste + (Italian).</p> + + <p><b>Adscripti Glebæ</b> (Lat., persons attached to the soil), a term + applied to a class of Roman slaves attached in perpetuity to and + transferred with the land they cultivated. Colliers and salt workers in + Scotland were in a similar position till 1775.</p> + + <p><b>Adula′ria,</b> a very pure, limpid, translucent variety of + the common felspar, called by lapidaries <i>moonstone</i>, on account of + the play of light exhibited by the arrangement of its crystalline + structure. It is found on the Alps, but the best specimens are brought + from Ceylon. It is so called from <i>Adula</i>, one of the peaks of St. + Gothard, where fine specimens are got.</p> + + <p><b>Adul′lam, Cave of,</b> a cave to which David fled when + persecuted by Saul, and whither he was followed by "every one who was in + distress, in debt, or discontented" (1 <i>Sam.</i> xxii, 1, 2).—The + name <i>Adullamites</i> was given to an English political party, + consisting of R. Lowe, Lord Elcho, and other Liberals, who opposed the + majority of their party on the Franchise Bill of 1866. The term + originated from a speech of John Bright on 13th March, 1866.</p> + + <p><b>Adultera′tion,</b> a term applied to the fraudulent mixture + of articles of commerce, foods, drugs, beverages, seeds, &c., with + inferior ingredients, and also to any accidental impurity found in a + substance. The chief objects of adulteration are to render a substance + more pleasing in appearance, to increase the weight, to make an inferior + article appear as good as the article of superior quality. Any substance + added to an article to increase its bulk, weight, colour, &c., is + spoken of as an adulterant. Milk is often adulterated with water and with + colouring-matter. Butter may be adulterated by mixing with it other fats + or by the addition of colouring-matter. Nearly every article of food can + be adulterated in some way to make it appear of finer quality. + <i>Preservatives</i> added to foods and drugs generally may be classed as + adulterants. Thus cream is preserved by adding small quantities of boric + acid. Beer sometimes contains salicylic acid added as a preservative. + Chloroform contains a small quantity of alcohol to prevent decomposition. + Methylated spirits is alcohol adulterated in several ways to render it + unfit for human consumption. Tobacco contains benzoic acid as + preservative, and sometimes saltpetre to aid burning. Many of these + adulterants are harmful, so that such added to foods and beverages must + be present only in very small quantities. Food and Drug Acts lay down the + limits of the quantities of foreign matter permitted either as + preservative or impurity. Practically every article of commerce is + adulterated in some way, and pure substances are seldom used. Cf. Walker, + <i>The Food Inspector's Encyclopædia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Adul′tery,</b> the voluntary sexual intercourse of a married + person with any other than the offender's husband or wife; when committed + between two married persons, the offence is called double, and when + between a married and single person, single adultery. The Mosaic, Greek, + and early Roman law only recognized the offence when a married woman was + the offender. By the Jewish law it was punished with death. In Greece the + laws against it were severe. By the laws of Draco and Solon adulterers, + when caught in the act, were at the mercy of the injured party. In early + Rome the punishment was left to the discretion of the husband and parents + of the adulteress. The punishment assigned by the Lex Julia, under + Augustus, was banishment or a heavy fine. Under Constantius and Constans, + adulterers were burned or sewed in sacks and thrown into the sea; under + Justinian the wife was to be scourged, lose her dower, and be shut up in + a monastery; at the expiration of two years the husband might take her + again; if he refused she was shaven and made a nun for life. By the + ancient laws of France this crime was punishable with death. In Spain + personal mutilation was frequently the punishment adopted. In several + European countries adultery is regarded as a <!-- Page 39 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>[39]</span>criminal offence, but in + none does the punishment exceed imprisonment for a short period, + accompanied by a fine. In England formerly it was punishable with fine + and imprisonment, and in Scotland it was frequently made a capital + offence. In Great Britain at the present day, however, it is punishable + only by ecclesiastical censure. The aggrieved husband, however, can + obtain damages against his wife's seducer. In England a man can obtain a + dissolution of his marriage on the ground of his wife's adultery, and a + wife can obtain a judicial separation on the ground of her husband's + adultery, or a dissolution of the marriage if the offence is coupled with + cruelty, desertion, or bigamy. In Scotland it is not necessary to prove + cruelty. In the United States the punishment of adultery has varied + materially at different times. It is, however, very seldom punished + criminally in the States. A person divorced for adultery is by the laws + of France and Scotland prohibited from intermarrying with the + co-respondent.</p> + + <p><b>Ad valo′rem</b> (Lat., according to the value), a term + applied to customs or duties levied according to the worth of the goods, + as sworn to by the owner, and not according to number, weight, measure, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Advance-note,</b> a draft on the owner of a vessel, generally for + one month's wages, given by the master to the sailors on their signing + the articles of agreement. The granting of such notes to British sailors + was made illegal by an Act passed in 1880.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′vent</b> (Lat. <i>adventus</i>, an arrival, 'the coming of + our Saviour'), the name applied to the holy season which occupies the + four or, according to the Greek Church, six weeks preceding Christmas, + and which forms the first portion of the ecclesiastical year, as observed + by the Anglican, the Roman Catholic, and the Greek Church.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′ventists,</b> a group of six American religious sects who + believe in the speedy coming of Christ, and generally practise adult + immersion. The first sect of Adventists was founded by William Miller in + 1831.—There is also a sect called <i>Seventh-day Adventists</i>, + who hold that the coming of Christ is at hand, and maintain that the + Sabbath is still the seventh day of the week.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′verb,</b> one of the parts of speech used to limit or + qualify the signification of an adjective, verb, or other adverb; as, + <i>very cold</i>, <i>naturally brave</i>, <i>much more clearly</i>, + <i>readily agreed</i>. Adverbs may be classified as follows: (1) Adverbs + of time, as, <i>now</i>, <i>then</i>, <i>never</i>, &c.; (2) of + place, as, <i>here</i>, <i>there</i>, <i>where</i>, &c.; (3) of + degree, as, <i>very</i>, <i>much</i>, <i>nearly</i>, <i>almost</i>, + &c.; (4) of affirmation, negation, or doubt, as, <i>yes</i>, + <i>no</i>, <i>certainly</i>, <i>perhaps</i>, &c.; (5) of manner, as, + <i>well</i>, <i>badly</i>, <i>clearly</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Advertis′ing.</b> Advertising on a small scale is a practice + as old as commerce; but modern advertising on a large scale cannot be + dated further back than 1785, when the <i>Times</i> was founded. The last + thirty years have witnessed a great increase in the importance of + advertisements as part of the policy of a progressive business. Much more + intelligence and vastly more money is now spent on advertising than ever + was before. America led the way, but the British are not now far behind + in the number and ingenuity of their advertisements.</p> + + <p>There are roughly speaking five distinct types of + advertisement:—</p> + + <p>(1) Press advertising, under which heading is included daily and + weekly newspapers, monthly magazines and year books, directories, + &c.</p> + + <p>(2) Mail-order advertising, which comprises form-letters, + catalogues.</p> + + <p>(3) Poster and showcard advertising. This includes large and small + posters, on hoardings, in railway stations or tubes, &c.</p> + + <p>(4) Illuminated signs either outside buildings on a large scale or in + frames of various sizes inside business premises, theatres, &c.</p> + + <p>(5) Cinema advertising—a recent development which has proved + extremely effective.</p> + + <p>Advertising to be successful must be carefully organized. A firm + wishing to advertise must first of all settle how much money it is + willing to spend on this object. A common practice is to devote a fixed + proportion of the profits—at least five per cent—to + advertising. The firm must then carefully consider the period of time + over which the expenditure agreed upon is to be spread. Occasional or + spasmodic advertising does not produce satisfactory results; advertising + must be constant and must move with the times in order to be effective. A + firm not uncommonly reviews the results of its advertising every six + months, when it also arranges its plans for future advertisements. + Mistakes in policy can thus be corrected and successful schemes can be + readopted or improved upon. Advertising on any large scale must be + handled by experts. Many thousands of pounds are wasted yearly by firms + which hand over this work to a director who has no knowledge of how to + advertise. The proper way for a firm to act, if it wishes to enter upon a + campaign of publicity, is to engage an efficient advertising staff or to + employ a reliable advertising agent. These agents in many cases obtain + their profits from the commission given to them by newspapers—this + often being about ten per cent of the cost of the space booked. In return + for this they give their advice and copy—everything, indeed, except + blocks and sketches.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Henry + Sampson, <i>A History of Advertising</i>; <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, Feb., + 1843, <i>On the Advertising System</i>. A good account of the <!-- Page + 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>[40]</span>more recent + developments of advertising is to be found in H. G. Wells's novel + <i>Tono-Bungay</i>; T. Russell, <i>Commercial Advertising</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ad vitam aut culpam</b> (Lat., for life or till a fault), a formula + often used in regard to appointments to posts or offices, intimating that + they are held for life or till the person forfeits his position by some + fault or misdeed.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′vocate</b> (Lat., <i>advocatus</i>—<i>ad</i>, to, + <i>voco</i>, to call), a lawyer authorized to plead the cause of his + clients before a court of law. It is only in Scotland that this word + seems to denote a distinct class belonging to the legal profession, the + advocates of Scotland being the pleaders before the supreme courts, and + corresponding to the <i>barristers</i> of England and Ireland. These + advocates all belong to the <i>Faculty of Advocates</i>, Edinburgh, to + whom the oral pleadings in the Court of Session are for the most part + limited, while they are also competent to plead in all the inferior + Scottish courts and in the House of Lords in cases of appeal from the + Court of Session. The supreme judges in Scotland, as well as the sheriffs + of the various counties, are always selected from among them. Candidates + for admission must undergo two separate examinations, one in general + scholarship and the other in law.—The <i>Lord-Advocate</i>, called + also the <i>King's</i> or <i>Queen's Advocate</i>, is the principal law + officer of the crown in Scotland. He is the public prosecutor of crimes + in the Supreme Court, and senior counsel for the crown in civil causes. + Being appointed by the crown, he goes out of office with the + administration to which he belongs. As public prosecutor he is assisted + by the solicitor-general and by four junior counsel called + advocates-depute. The lord-advocate and the solicitor-general, in + addition to their official duties, accept of ordinary bar practice.</p> + + <p><b>Advocates' Library,</b> the chief library in Scotland, located in + Edinburgh, and founded about 1682 by the Faculty of Advocates. It was + increased by donations and by sums granted by the Faculty from time to + time. As the donations were not confined to advocates the library was + considered a kind of public library, and it has continued to retain this + character. In 1709 it obtained, along with eight other libraries, the + right to demand a copy of every new book published in Britain, which + right it still possesses. The number of volumes is over 600,000 and MSS. + over 3200.</p> + + <p><b>Advoca′tus Diab′oli</b> (Devil's advocate), in the + Roman Catholic Church, a functionary who, when a deceased person is + proposed for canonization, brings forward and insists upon all the weak + points of the character and life of the deceased, endeavouring to show + that he is not worthy of sainthood. The first formal mention of such an + officer occurs under Pope Leo X (1513-21). The opposite side is taken by + the <i>Advocatus Dei</i> (God's advocate).</p> + + <p><b>Advow′son,</b> in English law, a right of presentation to a + vacant benefice, or, in other words, a right of nominating a person to + officiate in a vacant church. Those who have this right are styled + <i>patrons</i>. Advowsons are of three kinds—<i>presentative</i>, + <i>collative</i>, and <i>donative</i>: <i>presentative</i>, when the + patron presents his clerk to the bishop of the diocese to be instituted; + <i>collative</i>, when the bishop is the patron, and institutes or + <i>collates</i> his clerk by a single act; <i>donative</i>, when a church + is founded by the king, or any person licensed by him, without being + subject to the ordinary, so that the patron confers the benefice on his + clerk without presentation, institution, or induction. An advowson cannot + be held by either a Roman Catholic or an alien.</p> + + <p><b>Ad′ytum,</b> a secret place of retirement in the ancient + temples, esteemed the most sacred spot; the innermost sanctuary or + shrine. From this place the oracles were given, and none but the priests + were permitted to enter it. The Holy of Holies or Sanctum Sanctorum of + the Temple at Jerusalem was of a similar character.</p> + + <p><b>Adze,</b> a cutting instrument used for chipping the surface of + timber, somewhat of a mattock shape, and having a blade of steel forming + a portion of a cylindrical surface, with a cutting edge at right angles + to the length of the handle.</p> + + <p><b>Ædiles</b> (ē′dīlz), Roman magistrates who had + the supervision of the national games and spectacles; of the public + edifices, such as temples (the name comes from <i>ædes</i>, a temple); of + private buildings, of the markets, cleansing and draining the city, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Æ′dui,</b> one of the most powerful nations of Gaul, between + the Liger (Loire) and the Arar (Saône). On the arrival of Julius Cæsar in + Gaul (58 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) they were subject to Ariovistus, + but their independence was restored by Cæsar. Their chief town was + Bibracte (Mont Beuvray, near Autun).</p> + + <p><b>Ægade′an Islands,</b> a group of small islands lying off the + western extremity of Sicily, and consisting of Maritimo, Favignana, + Levanso, and Le Formiche.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:34%;"> + <a href="images/image016.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image016.jpg" + alt="Grecian Ibex" title="Grecian Ibex" /></a> + Grecian Ibex (<i>Capra ægagrus</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Ægag′rus,</b> a wild species of ibex (<i>Capra ægagrus</i>), + found in herds on the Caucasus, and many Asiatic mountains, believed to + be the original source of at least one variety of the domestic goat.</p> + + <p><b>Ægean Civilization,</b> a term applied to the pre-Hellenic + civilization of south-eastern Europe, including Crete, Greece and the + Cyclades, and the Danubian or Mid-European area. See <i>Crete</i> and + <i>Danubian Civilization</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ægean Sea</b> (ē-jē′an), that part of the + Mediterranean which washes the eastern shores of <!-- Page 41 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>[41]</span>Greece, and the western + coast of Asia Minor. See <i>Archipelago</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Æ′gilops,</b> a genus of grasses, very closely allied to + wheat, and somewhat remarkable from the alleged fact that by cultivation + one of the species becomes a kind of wheat.</p> + + <p><b>Ægina</b> (ē-jī′na), a Greek island in the Gulf + of Ægina, south of Athens, triangular in form; area about 32 sq. miles; + pop. 8500. It forms part of the nomarchy of Attica and Bœotia. + Except in the west, where the surface is more level, the island is + mountainous and unproductive. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in + trade, seafaring, and agriculture, the chief crops being almonds, olives, + and grain. The greater number of them reside in the seaport town of + Ægina. Ægina was anciently colonized by Dorians from the opposite coast + of Peloponnesus. In the latter half of the sixth century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> it had a flourishing commerce, a large navy, and + was the seat of a distinct school of art. At the battle of Salamis (480 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) the Æginetans behaved with great valour. + In 456 the island fell under the power of the Athenians, and in 431 the + Æginetans were expelled to make room for Athenian settlers, but were + afterwards restored. On a hill are the remains of a splendid temple of + Athena (Minerva), many of the columns of which are still standing. Here + was found in 1811 a considerable amount of sculpture from the pediments + (the <i>Æginetan marbles</i>), which is now at the Glyptothek at Munich, + and is prized as throwing light on the early history of Greek art. Though + in these figures there is a wonderfully exact imitation of nature, yet + there is a certain stiffness about them and an unnatural sameness of + expression in all. They should probably be assigned to the period 500-480 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Ægis</b> (ē′jis), the shield of Zeus, according to + Homer, but according to later writers and artists a metal cuirass or + breastplate, in which was set the head of the Gorgon Medusa, and with + which Athena (Minerva) is often represented as being protected. In a + figurative sense the word is used to denote some shielding or protecting + power.</p> + + <p><b>Ægle</b> (ē′glē), a genus of plants. See + <i>Bel.</i></p> + + <p><b>Ægospot′ami</b> ('goat-rivers'), a place on the Hellespont, + of some note in Greek history, the Athenian fleet being here completely + defeated in 405 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> by the Spartan Lysander, + thus ending the Peloponnesian war.</p> + + <p><b>Ælfric</b> (al′frik), Abbot, called <i>Grammaticus</i> (the + grammarian), was a celebrated English author of the eleventh century. He + became a monk of Abingdon, was afterwards connected with Winchester, and + died Abbot of Eynsham. His principal works are two books of homilies, a + <i>Treatise on the Old and New Testaments</i>, a translation and + abridgment of the first seven books of the Bible, a <i>Latin Grammar and + Glossary</i>, &c. He has been frequently confounded both with Ælfric, + Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ælfric, Archbishop of York, surnamed Putta, + who lived about the same time. There was also an Ælfric of + Malmesbury.</p> + + <p><b>Ælia′nus,</b> Claudius, often called simply <b>Ælian,</b> a + Roman author who lived about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 221, and + wrote in Greek a collection of stories and anecdotes and a natural + history of animals.</p> + + <p><b>Ælia′nus Tacticus,</b> so called to distinguish him from + Claudius Ælianus, lived at Rome, and wrote a work <i>On the Military + Tactics of the Greeks</i>, which he dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian, who + was emperor from <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 117 to 138. This book was + closely studied by soldiers of the sixteenth and seventeenth + centuries.</p> + + <p><b>Aelst</b> (älst), Belgian town, same as <b>Alost</b>.</p> + + <p><b>Æne′as,</b> the hero of Virgil's <i>Ænēid</i>, a + Trojan, who, according to Homer, was, next to Hector, the bravest of the + warriors of Troy. When that town was taken and set on fire, Æneas, + according to the narrative of Virgil, with his father, son, and wife + Creusa, fled, but the latter was lost in the confusion of the flight. + Having collected a fleet he sailed for Italy, but after numerous + adventures he was driven by a tempest to the coast of Africa, where Queen + Dido of Carthage received him kindly, and would have married him. + Jupiter, however, sent Mercury to Æneas, and commanded him to sail to + Italy. Whilst the deserted Dido ended her life on the funeral pile, Æneas + set sail with his companions, and after further adventures by land and + sea reached the <!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page42"></a>[42]</span>country of King Latinus, in Italy. The + king's daughter Lavinia was destined by an oracle to wed a stranger, this + stranger being Æneas, but was promised by her mother to Turnus, King of + the Rŭtŭli. This occasioned a war, which was ended by Æneas + slaying Turnus and marrying Lavinia. His son by Lavinia, Æneas Sylvius, + was the ancestor of the kings of Alba Longa, and of Romulus and Remus, + the founders of the city of Rome.</p> + + <p><b>Æolian Harp,</b> or <b>Æolus' Harp,</b> a musical instrument, + generally consisting of a box of thin fibrous wood (often of deal), to + which are attached from eight to fifteen fine catgut strings or wires, + stretched on low bridges at either end, and tuned in unison. Its length + is made to correspond with the size of the window or other aperture in + which it is intended to be placed. When the wind blows athwart the + strings it produces very beautiful sounds, sweetly mingling all the + harmonic tones, and swelling or diminishing according to the strength or + weakness of the blast.</p> + + <p><b>Æolians</b> (Gr. <i>Aioleis</i>), one of the four races into which + the ancient Greeks were divided, originally inhabiting the district of + Æŏlis, in Thessaly, from which they spread over other parts of + Greece. In early times they were the most numerous and powerful of the + Hellenic races, chiefly inhabiting Northern Greece and the western side + of Peloponnesus, though latterly a portion of them went to Lesbos and + Tenedos and the north-west shores of Asia Minor, where they possessed a + number of cities. Their language, the Æolian dialect, was one of the + three principal dialects of the Greek. It was cultivated for literary + purposes chiefly at Lesbos, and was the dialect in which Alcæus and + Sappho wrote.</p> + + <p><b>Æol′ipile</b> (Lat. <i>Æŏli pila</i>, the ball of + Æŏlus), a spherical vessel of metal, with a pipe of small aperture, + through which the vapour of heated water in the ball passes out with + considerable noise; or having two nozzles so placed that the steam + rushing out causes it to revolve on the principle of the Barker's mill. + It was known to the ancient Greeks.</p> + + <p><b>Æ′olus,</b> in Greek mythology, the god of the winds, which + he kept confined in a cave in the Æolian Islands, releasing them when he + wished or was commanded by the superior gods.</p> + + <p><b>Æ′on,</b> a Greek word signifying life, an age, and sometimes + eternity, but used by the Gnostics to express spirits or powers that had + emanated from the Supreme Mind before the beginning of time. They held + both Christ and the Holy Spirit to be æons; but as they denied the divine + origin of the books of Moses, they said that the spirit which had + inspired him and the prophets was not that exalted æon whom God sent + forth after the ascension of Christ, but an æon very much inferior, and + removed at a great distance from the Supreme Being.</p> + + <p><b>Æpyor′nis,</b> a genus of gigantic birds whose remains have + been found in Madagascar, where they are supposed to have lived perhaps + not longer than 200 years ago. It had three toes, and is classed with the + cursorial birds (ostrich, &c.). Its eggs measured 14 inches in + length, being about six times the bulk of those of the ostrich. The bird + which laid them may well have been the roc of Eastern tradition.</p> + + <p><b>Æ′qui,</b> an ancient people of Italy, conspicuous in the + early wars of Rome, and inhabiting the mountain district between the + upper valley of the Anio (Teverone) and Lake Fucĭnus. They were + probably akin to the Volscians, with whom they were in constant alliance. + They were defeated by Cincinnatus in 458 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, + and again by the dictator Postumius Tubertus in 428 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and were finally subdued about 304-302 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> Soon after they were admitted to Roman + citizenship.</p> + + <p><b>A′erated Bread,</b> bread which receives its sponginess or + porosity from carbonic acid supplied artificially, and not produced by + the fermentation caused by leaven or yeast.</p> + + <p><b>A′erated Waters,</b> waters impregnated with carbonic acid + gas, and forming effervescing beverages. Some mineral waters are + naturally aerated, as Vichy, Apollinaris, Rosbach, &c.; others, + especially such as are used for medicinal purposes, are frequently + aerated to render them more palatable and exhilarating. Water simply + aerated, as soda-water, or aerated and flavoured with lemon or fruit + syrups, is largely used, especially in summer, as a refreshing beverage. + There are numerous varieties of apparatus for manufacturing aerated + waters. The essential parts of an aerated-water machine are a generator + in which the gas is produced, a vessel containing the water to be + impregnated, and an apparatus for forcing the gas into the water. This + last may be effected by force-pumps or by the high pressure of the + impregnating gas itself. The quantity of gas with which the water is + charged is usually equal to a pressure of 5 atmospheres. See also + <i>Mineral Waters</i>.—Cf. W. Kirkby, <i>Evolution of Artificial + Mineral Waters</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aerial Ropeways</b> or <b>Cableways,</b> a means of transport or + carriage in which a great rope or cable, elevated above the ground on + fixed supports, is made use of in conveying from place to place materials + or articles of various kinds. Such a cable may be said to serve the + purpose of a rail, from which are suspended the carriages, buckets, or + carriers of whatever sort are employed to convey the materials dealt + with, the cable being actuated by means of a steam-engine and + winding-gear of suitable construction. Such cables are now much used in + carrying materials <!-- Page 43 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page43"></a>[43]</span>over a comparatively short space, as in + quarries, excavations for canals, docks, &c.; in the construction of + bridges, in shipbuilding, &c. Besides being employed in such + works—not to mention the coaling of a battleship at sea from a coal + transport standing by—elevated ropeways miles in length have also + been constructed between places where no roads exist, or where road + carriage is much more expensive. The greatest aerial line yet in + existence is in the Argentine Republic, being built to connect a mining + locality in the Andes, about 15,000 feet above sea-level, with a station + on the Northern Railway 11,500 feet lower down and about 22 miles off, + the line running across deep chasms and hollows, and being in places + supported on iron towers 130 feet high. The wire rope is said to have a + length of 87 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Aë′rians,</b> the followers of Aërius of Pontus, who in the + fourth century originated a small heretical sect, objecting to the + established feast-days, fasts or abstinences, the distinction between + bishops and presbyters, prayers for the dead, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aerodynam′ics,</b> a branch of physical science which treats + of the properties and motions of elastic fluids (air, gases), and of the + appliances by which these are exemplified. This subject is often + explained in connection with hydrodynamics. See also + <i>Meteorology</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aeröe,</b> or <b>Arröe</b> (är′eu-e), an island of Denmark, + in the Little Belt, 15 miles long by 5 broad, with 12,000 inhabitants. + Though hilly, it is very fertile.</p> + + <p><b>A′erolite,</b> a meteoric stone, meteorite, or shooting-star. + See <i>Meteoric Stones</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image017.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image017.jpg" + alt="Hot-air Balloon" title="Hot-air Balloon" /></a> + "Montgolfière", or Hot-air Balloon, above Furnace + </div> + + <p><b>Aeronau′tics,</b> the art or science of navigating the air, + including Aviation (see <i>Aeroplane</i> and <i>Sea-planes</i>) and + Aerostation (see <i>Balloons</i> and <i>Air-ships</i>). From the days of + the mythical exploit of Dædalus and Icarus, students of 'experimental + philosophy', or scientists, of all ages, turned their thoughts and + inventive genius to the evolution of a machine by means of which man + could fly. Most of the early schemes of which any details have survived + were based upon the observation of birds and embodied the flapping of + wings affixed to the arms or legs. Among the very early experimenters may + be mentioned the monk Oliver of Malmesbury (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1050), de Pérouse (1420), who is said to have + succeeded in flying over Lake Trasimene, and the great Leonardo da Vinci. + All these produced designs for what are known as Ornithopters, or + flapping-wing machines. There was, however, another school which believed + in the future of machines which would be themselves lighter than air. The + idea in the minds of the experimenters of this school was in the early + days the replacing of the air in brass globes by a vacuum. If the brass + were thin enough it was believed that the globe would then be + sufficiently light to rise. It was, however, not realized that under such + circumstances the globe would inevitably collapse under the pressure of + the atmosphere with no corresponding internal pressure to withstand it. + Among this 'lighter-than-air' school of experimenters were the famous + Roger Bacon (twelfth century), Robert Hooke of the Royal Society (1644), + and Francesco de Lana, a Jesuit priest (1660). It was this school which + ultimately achieved success by providing the first machine of any sort to + leave the ground and rise into the air. On 5th June, 1783, the first + balloon ascended from the village of Annonay in France. It owed its + inception to the genius of two brothers, paper-makers by trade, named + Etienne and Joseph Montgolfier. Struck by the sight of smoke ascending + from a chimney, after many failures with flapping-wing models, they + conceived the idea of filling a receptacle with smoke and seeing if it + would rise. They built a balloon or 'globe' of paper and canvas, and lit + a fire of wood and straw below the aperture in it. The balloon gradually + filled and rose into the air to a height reported to be 6000 feet, though + this is probably an exaggeration. It remained in the air for ten minutes + and landed 1½ miles away. This was the forerunner of the <!-- Page 44 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page44"></a>[44]</span>'Montgolfières', + or hot-air balloons, which are a feature of fêtes and Guy Fawkes' Day + celebrations. It was followed by the sending up of a 'Montgolfière' from + Versailles on 18th Sept. of the same year, carrying a basket containing a + sheep, a cock, and a duck. The first human beings to make an ascent were + Pilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlande, who went away from Paris on + 21st Nov., 1783. They passed right over Paris, and were in the air for + twenty-five minutes, during which time they replenished the fire + suspended in a brazier below the neck of the balloon.</p> + + <p>The real genesis of the balloon, or air-ship as we know it to-day, was + due to the discovery of hydrogen as the lightest gas, which discovery was + made in 1766 by an English chemist, Henry Cavendish. Various people claim + the credit of having been the first to call attention to the + possibilities of this gas for aerial navigation. In 1781 Dr. Joseph Black + of Edinburgh suggested to his pupils that a thin bladder filled with 'the + inflammable gas' (hydrogen) would rise into the air, but it appears + doubtful whether he ever actually made the experiment. Tiberius Cavallo + the same year, before the Royal Society, demonstrated that soap-bubbles + filled with hydrogen would rise and float in the air. The honour of + building the first hydrogen balloon belongs, however, to three + Frenchmen—the brothers Robert, and Charles, a physicist. They sent + up a hydrogen-filled balloon of varnished silk from the Champ de Mars, + Paris, on 7th Aug., 1783. One of the Roberts and Charles themselves made + the second human ascent in their balloon—the first in a hydrogen + balloon as opposed to a Montgolfière (as above)—on 1st Dec. the + same year. In 1784 the same Frenchmen constructed the first 'air-ship' or + navigable balloon to the order of the Duc de Chartres (Philippe Egalité). + The gas container of this was elongated in form, and it could be + propelled to some small extent by means of oars, and steered by a rudder. + In the same year a French military officer, named Meusnier, produced a + completely detailed design for an air-ship. This embodied the first + suggestion of screw-propellers, to be worked by man-power, and also + provided for a 'ballonet' into which air could be driven to replace + hydrogen lost owing to expansion during the ascent. Meusnier's design was + the genesis of the modern non-rigid air-ship, all the essential features + remaining. This air-ship was, however, never built.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image018.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image018.jpg" + alt="Steam-driven Air-ship" title="Steam-driven Air-ship" /></a> + Giffard's Steam-driven Air-ship + </div> + + <p>The first ascent in the British Isles was made in a Montgolfière by + James Tytler at Edinburgh, on 27th Aug., 1784, though he travelled only a + few hundred yards. He was followed by Vincent Lunardi, an Italian, who + ascended from the artillery ground in London three weeks later (Sept., + 1784), landing near Ware in Hertfordshire. The first Channel crossing by + air was made in a hydrogen balloon from Dover to Calais on 7th Jan., + 1785, by Blanchard and Dr. Jeffries.</p> + + <p>Subsequent developments in air-ships are due to the pioneer work of + Giffard (1852) (the first steam-driven air-ship), Dupuy de Lôme (1872), + the brothers Tissandier (electric propulsion) (1883), Rénard and Krebbs + (1884), Wölfert (1897), Santos Dumont (1898-1905), Zeppelin (1900), + Lebaudy (1903), Barton (English) (1905), Willows (English) (1910).</p> + + <p>In the meantime experimental work was being carried on by the + exponents of the heavier-than-air school, who soon abandoned the + flapping-wing principle and eventually evolved the modern aeroplane. The + modern aeroplane was evolved from the brain of an Englishman, Sir George + Cayley, who in 1809 contributed an article to <i>Nicholson's Journal</i> + in which he outlined the outstretched wings, vertical and horizontal + steering surfaces, screw-propeller, 'explosion' motor, and 'stream-line' + form of the modern aeroplane. In 1842 Henson and Stringfellow, both + Englishmen, constructed a steam-driven model on this principle, which is + now in the South Kensington Museum. Wenham in 1866 contributed a valuable + paper to the Royal Aeronautical Society on the subject. In 1896 + Lillienthal in Germany carried out a number of glides with rigid wings, + provided with a movable tail, fixed to his body. He was followed by + Chanute, who in America emphasized the biplane principle in his glider. + In 1896 Ader, a Frenchman, built an 'avion' which is claimed to have + risen from the ground at Satory, but this is doubtful. In 1895 a huge + steam-propelled aeroplane built by Sir Hiram Maxim burst the rails + holding it down and lifted for a few feet.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:92%;"> + <a href="images/image019.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image019.jpg" + alt="A Handley Page Biplane" title="A Handley Page Biplane" /></a> + A Handley Page Biplane, showing the principal parts + </div> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image020.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image020.jpg" + alt="Wright's Biplane Glider" title="Wright's Biplane Glider" /></a> + Wright's Biplane Glider + </div> + + <p>The real credit for the evolution of a man-carrying aeroplane is, + however, due to the American brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright of + Dayton, Ohio. Encouraged by the <!-- Page 45 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page45"></a>[45]</span>advice of Chanute, they commenced + experimenting with biplane gliders on the sand-hills at Kittyhawk. + Meeting with considerable success, they fitted a petrol motor of their + own design in 1903 and made several straight flights during the same + year. In 1904 they succeeded in making the first turn in the air. These + experiments were carried out in great secrecy, and it was not until 1908 + that their first public flights were made in France, the first taking + place in October of that year. The first aviator to fly in Europe was + Santos Dumont, who, on 12th Nov., 1906, covered 220 metres, having + previously in the same year flown for shorter distances. At this time and + during the two or three ensuing years many experiments were carried out, + and flights made, by Farman, Voisin, Esnault-Pelterie, and Blériot in + France; Wright and Curtiss in America; and Roe, Ogilvie, and + Moore-Brabazon in England. A prize of £2000 offered by MM. Deutsch de la + Meurthe and Ernest Archdeacon for the first circular flight over a + distance of 1 kilometre, returning to the point of starting, was won in + Jan., 1908, by Henry Farman.</p> + + <p>The second crossing of the Channel, and the first by a + 'heavier-than-air' machine, was effected by Louis Blériot in a machine of + his own construction with an Anzani engine from Calais to Dover on 25th + July, 1909. From that date the science of aviation (flight by + heavier-than-air machines) may be said to have begun, and progress was + merely a record of improvements. By the end of 1919 the Atlantic had been + crossed four times; once by sea-plane, once by a non-stop aeroplane + flight, and twice (outward and return) by non-stop air-ship flights. + Aeroplanes had achieved a speed of 190 miles an hour, had attained to a + height of over 34,000 feet, and had covered upwards of 1900 miles in one + non-stop flight.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: De St. Fond, + <i>Description de la Machine Aerostatique</i>; Cavallo, <i>History and + Practice of Aerostation</i>; Lunardi, <i>The First Aerial Voyage in + England</i>; Moedebeck, <i>Pocket Book of Aeronautics</i>; Santos Dumont, + <i>My Air-ships</i>; <i>The Aeronautical Classics</i> (Aeronautical + Society); G. Tissandier, <i>Histoire des Ballons</i>; A. Berget, <i>The + Conquest of the Air</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image021.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image021.jpg" + alt="altcaption" title="altcaption" /></a> + Early Types of Aeroplanes<br /> + (<i>a</i>) Wright Biplane (1908). (<i>b</i>) Blériot Monoplane + (1909).<br /> + (<i>c</i>) Santos Dumont Biplane (1906). + </div> + + <p><b>Aeroplane,</b> a flying-machine deriving its power of sustentation + from the reaction of the air driven downwards by the rapid transit of + fixed wings or 'planes' through the air. The term 'plane' for the wing of + an aeroplane is strictly a misnomer, as the word implies a flat plate, + whereas a wing is 'cambered' or curved in section from front to back. + This is due to the discovery of Lillienthal (see <i>Aeronautics</i>) that + a cambered 'aerofoil' when set at an angle to a wind current gives more + 'lift' than a flat plane. The wing of an aeroplane is normally set at an + angle horizontally (or rather at an angle to the relative wind) varying + from 0° to 4°. This angle is known as the 'angle of incidence'. As the + wing is driven through the air under the influence of the propeller, the + air meets the 'leading' or 'entering' edge and is divided into two + streams <!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page46"></a>[46]</span>along the top and bottom surfaces. It does + not, however, follow the surface closely, but in the case of the lower + stratum is deflected downwards at an angle to the surface, which results + in an upward reaction. The upper of the two streams of air is + correspondingly deflected upwards at an angle to the surface for a short + distance. This causes an 'area of discontinuity of flow', or eddy, which + results in 'negative pressure', causing an upward suction. This fact was + first discovered by Sir Hiram Maxim, though it was G. Eiffel who measured + the effects of the positive pressure on the lower surface and the + negative pressure on the upper surface, and found, contrary to all + expectation, that the latter is responsible for three-quarters of the + total lifting effect of the wing. In addition to the lift, the wings + offer resistance to progress through the air, which effect is known as + 'drag'. The ratio of lift to drag is a measure of the efficiency of a + wing-section. A well-designed wing will have a L/D ratio at an angle of + incidence of 4° of about 16, i.e. the lift effect in pounds will be 16 + times that of the drag. The fundamental equation of an aeroplane is R = + KSV<sup>2</sup>, where R = the resistance, K = a constant (usually + 0.003), S = area of surface, and V = the velocity in feet per second. + From this it will be seen that the resistance for the same area increases + as the square of the speed, which shows the importance of reducing the + resistance to the lowest possible degree if high speeds are to be + obtained. For this purpose it is necessary that the flow of air round the + component parts of the aeroplane caused by its passage should be as + little disturbed and broken up into eddies as possible. It is found that + the best theoretical shape for this purpose is a body of circular + cross-section tapering from front to rear, with the maximum cross-section + toward the <i>front</i>. The 'fineness ratio' (ratio of length to maximum + diameter) should be about 6 to 1, and the maximum cross-section situated + about one-third of the distance from the nose. Such a form will offer + only about <sup>1</sup>/<sub>20</sub> the resistance of a flat plate of + similar cross-section, and is known as a 'stream-line form'. The width of + a wing from side to side at right angles to the wind is known as the + 'span', and the breadth from front to back as the 'chord'. The ratio of + span to chord is the 'aspect ratio'. Owing to the increase in drag + resulting from low aspect ratio (large chord relative to span) the higher + the aspect ratio the more efficient the wing. This is in practice about + 6, owing to structural difficulties in constructing a wing of larger + relative span. The essential parts of an aeroplane are the wings, + fuselage (body), tail (comprising fixed vertical and horizontal surfaces + behind which are hinged movable rudders and elevators), and chassis, or + landing-carriage. The majority of modern machines are biplanes, i.e. with + one set of wings superposed on the other and connected by upright wooden + members called 'struts'. Aeroplanes with one set of wings only are called + 'monoplanes'; those with three, 'triplanes'; with four, 'quadruplanes'; + and with more than four, 'multiplanes'. Aeroplanes are also divided into + 'tractor' and 'pusher', according to whether the propeller is situated in + front or rear of the wings.</p> + + <p>When the engine is started, the revolution of the propeller causes the + aeroplane to move along the ground until such a speed is reached (usually + about 35-50 miles per hour) that it is able to support its own weight in + the air when it leaves the ground. When in the air it is made to ascend + or descend by moving the elevators, which are operated by a vertical + stick in front of the pilot through control cables or levers. Steering to + right or left is effected by the rudder, which is operated by a foot-bar + through cables or levers. Lateral balance is obtained by means of + 'ailerons' or flaps on the outer extremities of the wings. If one wing + tends to dip, the aileron on that side is depressed. This increases the + resistance of that wing and so causes it to rise. By a combination of + movements of the elevators, rudder, and ailerons almost any evolution can + be performed with a modern aeroplane. A well-designed machine will, on + cutting off the engine-power, turn its nose slightly down and + automatically assume its own 'gliding-angle' to the ground. The + gliding-angle is the ratio of descent to forward travel and is usually 1 + in 12 to 1 in 14.</p> + + <p>Speeds of 190 miles per hour have been attained and a height of 34,600 + feet reached. The greatest distance covered in one flight is the crossing + of the Atlantic—slightly more than 1900 miles—while an + aeroplane has remained in the air for 24 hours. Aeroplanes range in size + from small single-seater 'scouts' with a duration of only some three + hours, to large multiple-engined machines with a weight, fully loaded, of + from 15 to 20 tons. The essential feature of the aeroplane is, as already + stated, that it is heavier than air and therefore subject to the laws of + gravity in the event of engine failure. Its choice of a landing-ground is + then dependent upon its height at the moment and gliding-angle.</p> + + <p>Aeroplanes are normally constructed throughout of wood, though steel + is occasionally used. The wings are built of wooden 'spars', of which + there are usually two along the length of each wing, connected together + by wooden 'ribs'. The wings of a biplane are braced by the struts (see + above) and by wires. 'Landing-wires' support the weight of the wing on + the ground, while 'flying-wires' prevent them folding upwards under the + influence of the lift in flight. 'Drift-wires' are to prevent the wings + folding <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page47"></a>[47]</span>backwards under the pressure of the air in + flight. See also <i>Aeronautics</i>, <i>Sea-planes</i>.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H. Barber, <i>The Aeroplane Speaks</i>; + H. Barber, <i>Aerobatics</i>; Hamel and Turner, <i>Flying</i>; Borlase + Mathews, <i>Aviation Pocket Book</i>; Pippard and Pritchard, <i>Aeroplane + Structures</i>; Judge, <i>Design of Aeroplanes</i>; Judge, <i>Properties + of Aerofoils</i>; Loening, <i>Military Aeroplanes</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aerostatic Press,</b> a contrivance for extracting the colouring + matter from dye-woods and for similar purposes. A liquid intended to + carry with it the extract is brought into contact with the substance + containing it, and a vacuum being made by an air-pump suitably applied, + the pressure of the atmosphere forces the liquid through the intervening + mass, carrying the colour or other soluble matter with it.</p> + + <p><b>Aerostat′ics,</b> that branch of physics which treats of the + weight, pressure, and equilibrium of air and gases. See <i>Air</i>; + <i>Air-pump</i>; <i>Barometer</i>; <i>Gases, Properties of</i>; + <i>Hydrostatics</i>; <i>Meteorology</i>; &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aerotherapeutics</b> is the treatment of disease by atmospheres + artificially prepared and differing from the normal in compression or + pressure or temperature. It is divided into:</p> + + <p>1. <i>Medical atmospheres</i> artificially produced by changing the + proportions of the normal gases of the atmosphere, or by adding gases to + the atmosphere. These are applied by inhalation in various ways:</p> + + <p>(<i>a</i>) By the inhalation of gases—<i>ether</i>; + <i>chloroform</i>; <i>nitrous oxide</i> (see <i>Anæsthetics</i>). + <i>Oxygen</i> under pressure in a cylinder, with outlet applied close to + the patient's mouth and nose, is used in severe cases of pneumonia, + cardiac disease, or wherever breathing is difficult. <i>Amyl nitrate</i> + is inhaled on the breaking of the glass capsules in which it is contained + close to the patient's mouth; this treatment is used in cardiac disease + and other conditions to recover blood pressure. <i>Chlorine</i> and + <i>iodine</i> are used in cases of throat and bronchial affections by + inhaling the vapour itself for a short time, or by inhaling air strongly + impregnated with the substance.</p> + + <p>(<i>b</i>) By inhalation of substances requiring heat for + volatilization, e.g. <i>mercury</i> and <i>sulphur</i>. The patient, + enveloped in a sheet, sits on a chair, while the substance, placed in a + vessel on the floor inside the enveloping sheet near the patient, is + heated by a spirit lamp or similar method. <i>Mercury</i> is used for + chronic and syphilitic laryngitis and pharyngitis; <i>sulphur</i> for + scabies and other skin diseases.</p> + + <p>(<i>c</i>) By inhalation of steam or warm-water vapour with a drug + added. Apparatus of various kinds is used, the simplest of which is a + wide-mouthed jug filled with boiling water to which the drug has been + added. The patient takes a deep breath, drawing the vapour into his mouth + up a napkin arranged in the form of a tube. More complicated forms of + apparatus are steam-sprays and nebulizers for laryngeal and bronchial + troubles.</p> + + <p>(<i>d</i>) Cold medicated sprays and inhalations. Throat- and + nose-sprays are much used, also sprays for the administration of local + anæsthetics (ethyl chloride). Respirators are made of wire gauze with + cotton wool or a sponge; the substance is poured on and inhaled by the + patient.</p> + + <p>For (<i>c</i>) and (<i>d</i>) the following drugs are used: carbolic + acid, creosote, terebine, thymol, eucalyptol, zinc sulphate, in phthisis + and bronchial affections; and eusol, izal, lysol, &c., for + disinfection and fumigation.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Changes produced by variation in barometric pressure considered + in treatment of disease</i>:</p> + + <p>Normal barometric pressure at sea-level, 29-30 inches; at Davos (5200 + feet), 25 inches; at summit of Pike's Peak, Colorado (14,000 feet), 17½ + inches; in balloon ascent (Glaisher and Coxwell) of 29,000 feet, 9¾ + inches.</p> + + <p>The effects of high pressure are seen in divers, caisson workers, + miners. The effects of low pressure are seen in balloonists, airmen. The + effect of sudden return to normal from high pressure is seen in cases of + caisson disease (q.v.). The effects of low pressure were first applied to + the human body in 1835 by V.T. Junot. He contrived a hollow copper ball, + 4 yards in diameter, capable of containing a man, and by pumping out air + gradually, produced the effects of low pressure. This principle was then + applied by him locally by cupping-glasses similar in shape to the upper + part of a wineglass. There are two types of cupping:</p> + + <p>(<i>a</i>) In <i>wet cupping</i> an incision is made in the skin of + the part to be treated. The air inside the glass is exhausted by + introducing a lighted match, then the open end of the glass is + immediately applied to the surface of the skin.</p> + + <p>(<i>b</i>) In <i>dry cupping</i> the treatment is similarly carried + out, but no incision is made.</p> + + <p>The low pressure (partial vacuum) draws blood to the part. Cupping is + used in congestion of internal organs, e.g. lungs, kidneys.</p> + + <p>The artificial application of air to lungs at varying pressure is + carried out by inspiring rarefied air or compressed air and expiring into + rarefied air or into compressed air. Only inspiring compressed air, or + expiring into rarefied air, can be practically applied. There are many + kinds of apparatus for this. The best is the compressed-air bath (seen at + Brompton Hospital, London), consisting of three parts—the engine, + receiver, and air-chamber.</p> + + <p>The patient is placed in this air-chamber, where he remains for two + hours, during which time the pressure is usually raised from half again + to double normal. For the first half-hour the pressure is gradually + raised, and is maintained <!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page48"></a>[48]</span>at the same abnormal height for one hour; + for the last half-hour it is reduced again gradually to normal. The + patient first experiences an unpleasant sensation in the throat. This is + relieved by swallowing or by drinking water; then pain in the ear-drums; + the voice becomes shriller. These are early signs of the effects of high + pressure, and are seen to a more marked degree in cases where a man has + descended suddenly into a mine, caisson, &c. Compressed air-baths are + used in cases of asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, anæmia.</p> + + <p>Respiratory gymnastics are of value for defective breathing due to + badly formed chests or injury and disease of the lungs. There are various + forms of artificial breathing exercises and many ways of using artificial + aids, e.g. breathing into bottles connected together by tubes and partly + filled with water. The water is forced from one bottle to another by the + respiratory effort of the patient.</p> + + <p><b>Aerschot,</b> town in Belgium, province of Brabant, on the Demer, a + tributary of the Dyle. It was occupied by the Germans in Aug., 1914. Pop. + 7800.</p> + + <p><b>Æschines</b> (es′ki-nēz), a celebrated Athenian orator, + the rival and opponent of Demosthenes, was born in 389 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> and died in 314. He headed the Macedonian party + in Greece, or those in favour of an alliance with Philip, while + Demosthenes took the opposite side. Having failed in 330 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> in a prosecution against Ctesiphon for proposing + to bestow a crown of gold upon Demosthenes for his services to the State + (whence the oration of Demosthenes 'On the Crown') he left Athens, and + subsequently established a school of eloquence at Rhodes. Three of his + orations are extant. Æschines should not be confounded with his namesake, + the Athenian philosopher and intimate friend of Socrates.</p> + + <p><b>Æschylus</b> (es′ki-lus), the first in time of the three + great tragic poets of Greece, born at Eleusis, in Attica, 525 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, died in Sicily 456. Before he gained + distinction as a dramatist he had fought at the battle of Marathon (490), + as he afterwards did at Artemisium, Salamis, and Platæa. He first gained + the prize for tragedy in 484 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> <i>The + Persians</i>, the earliest of his extant pieces, formed part of a trilogy + which gained the prize in 472 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In 468 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> he was defeated by Sophocles, and then is said + to have gone to the Court of Hiero, King of Syracuse. Altogether he is + reputed to have composed ninety plays and gained thirteen triumphs. Only + seven of his tragedies are extant: <i>The Persians</i>, <i>Seven against + Thebes</i>, <i>Suppliants</i>, <i>Prometheus</i>, <i>Agamemnon</i>, + <i>Choephori</i>, and <i>Eumenides</i>, the last three forming a trilogy + on the story of Orestes, represented in 458 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> Æschylus may be called the creator of Greek + tragedy, both from the splendour of his dramatic writings and from the + scenic improvements and accessories he introduced. Till his time only one + actor had appeared on the stage at a time, and by bringing on a second he + was really the founder of dramatic dialogue. His style was grand, daring, + and full of energy, and his choruses, though difficult, are among the + noblest pieces of poetry in the world. His plays have little or no plot, + and his characters are drawn by a few powerful strokes. There are English + poetical translations of his plays by Blackie, Plumptre, Swanwick, + Campbell, Robert Browning, and Elizabeth Barrett Browning.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Bishop Copleston, <i>Æschylus</i>, in + English Classics for Modern Readers Series (Blackwood & Son); Miss J. + Case, Translation of <i>Prometheus Vinctus</i> (Dent).</p> + + <p><b>Æscula′pius</b> (Gr. <i>Asklēpios</i>), the god of + medicine among the Greeks and afterwards adopted by the Romans, usually + said to have been a son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. He was + worshipped in particular at Epidaurus, in the Peloponnesus, where a + temple with a grove was dedicated to him. The sick who visited his temple + had to spend one or more nights in the sanctuary, after which the + remedies to be used were revealed in a dream. Those who were cured + offered a sacrifice to Æsculapius, commonly a cock. He is often + represented with a large beard, holding a knotty staff, round which is + entwined a serpent, the serpent being specially his symbol. The staff and + serpent have been adopted as a badge by the Royal Army Medical Corps. + Sometimes Æsculapius is represented under the image of a serpent + only.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L. Dyer, <i>The Gods of + Greece</i>; W. H. D. Rouse, <i>Greek Votive Offerings</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Æs′culus,</b> the genus of plants to which belongs the + horse-chestnut.</p> + + <p><b>Æsir,</b> in Scandinavian mythology, the eleven chief gods, besides + Odin. They are: Thor, Balder, Ty or Tyr, Bragi, Heimdal, Hod, Vidar, + Vali, Ull, Forseti, and Loki or Lopt. See <i>Scandinavian + Mythology</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Æ′sop,</b> the Greek fabulist, is said to have been a + contemporary of Crœsus and Solon, and thus probably lived about the + middle of the sixth century (620-550) <span class="scac">B.C.</span> But + so little is known of his life that his existence has been called in + question. He is said to have been originally a slave, and to have + received his freedom from a Samian master, Iadmon. He then visited the + court of Crœsus, and is also said to have visited Pisistratus at + Athens. Finally he was sent by Crœsus to Delphi to distribute a sum + of money to each of the citizens. For some reason he refused to + distribute the money, whereupon the Delphians, enraged, threw him from a + precipice and killed him. No works of Æsop are extant, and it is doubtful + whether he wrote any. Bentley <!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page49"></a>[49]</span>inclined to the supposition that his fables + were delivered orally and perpetuated by repetition. Such fables are + spoken of both by Aristophanes and Plato. Phædrus turned into Latin verse + the Æsopian fables current in his day, with additions of his own. In + modern times several collections claiming to be Æsop's fables have been + published. Cf. J. Jacobs, <i>The Fables of Æsop</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Æsthet′ics</b> (Gr. <i>aisthētikos</i>, pertaining to + perception), the philosophy of the beautiful; the name given to the + branch of philosophy or of science which is concerned with that class of + emotions, or with those attributes, real or apparent, of objects + generally comprehended under the term <i>beauty</i>, and other related + expressions. The term æsthetics first received this application from + Baumgarten (1714-62), a German philosopher, who was the first modern + writer to deal systematically with the subject, though the beautiful had + received attention at the hands of philosophers from early times. + Socrates, according to Xenophon, regarded the beautiful as coincident + with the good, and both as resolvable into the useful. Plato, in + accordance with his idealistic theory, held the existence of an absolute + beauty, which is the ground of beauty in all things. He also asserted the + intimate union of the good, the beautiful, and the true. Aristotle + treated of the subject in much more detail than Plato, but chiefly from + the scientific or critical point of view. In his treatises on + <i>Poetics</i> and <i>Rhetoric</i> he lays down a theory of art, and + establishes principles of beauty. His philosophical views were in many + respects opposed to those of Plato. He does not admit an absolute + conception of the beautiful; but he distinguishes beauty from the good, + the useful, the fit, and the necessary. He resolves beauty into certain + elements, as order, symmetry, definiteness. A distinction of beauty, + according to him, is the absence of lust or desire in the pleasure it + excites. Beauty has no utilitarian or ethical object; the aim of art is + merely to give immediate pleasure; its essence is imitation. Plotinus + agrees with Plato, and disagrees with Aristotle, in holding that beauty + may subsist in single and simple objects, and consequently in restoring + the absolute conception of beauty. He differs from Plato and Aristotle in + raising art above nature. Baumgarten's treatment of æsthetics is + essentially Platonic. He made the division of philosophy into logic, + ethics, and æsthetics; the first dealing with knowledge, the second with + action (will and desire), the third with beauty. He limits æsthetics to + the conceptions derived from the senses, and makes them consist in + confused or obscured conceptions, in contradistinction to logical + knowledge, which consists in clear conceptions. Kant, in his <i>Critique + of the Power of Judgment</i>, defines beauty in reference to his four + categories, quantity, quality, relation, and modality. In accordance with + the subjective character of his system he denies an absolute conception + of beauty, but his detailed treatment of the subject is inconsistent with + the denial. Thus he attributes a beauty to single colours and tones, not + on any plea of complexity, but on the ground of purity. He holds also + that the highest meaning of beauty is to symbolize moral good, and + arbitrarily attaches moral characters to the seven primary colours. The + value of art is mediate, and the beauty of art is inferior to that of + nature. The treatment of beauty in the systems of Schelling and Hegel + could with difficulty be made comprehensible without a detailed reference + to the principles of these remarkable speculations. English writers on + beauty are numerous, but they rarely ascend to the heights of German + speculation. Shaftesbury adopted the notion that beauty is perceived by a + special internal sense; in which he was followed by Hutcheson, who held + that beauty existed only in the perceiving mind, and not in the object. + Numerous English writers, among whom the principal are Alison and + Jeffrey, have supported the theory that the source of beauty is to be + found in association—a theory analogous to that which places + morality in sympathy. The ability of its supporters gave this view a + temporary popularity, but its baselessness has been effectively exposed + by successive critics. Dugald Stewart attempted to show that there is no + common quality in the beautiful beyond that of producing a certain + refined pleasure; and Bain agrees with this criticism, but endeavours to + restrict the beautiful within a group of emotions chiefly excited by + association or combination of simpler elementary feelings. Herbert + Spencer has a theory of beauty which is subservient to the theory of + evolution. He makes beauty consist in the play of the higher powers of + perception and emotion, defined as an activity not directly subservient + to any processes conducive to life, but being gratifications sought for + themselves alone. He classifies æsthetic pleasures according to the + complexity of the emotions excited, or the number of powers duly + exercised; and he attributes the depth and apparent vagueness of musical + emotions to associations with vocal tones built up during vast ages. + Among numerous writers who have made valuable contributions to the + scientific discussion of æsthetics may be mentioned Winckelmann, Lessing, + Richter, the Schlegels, Gervinus, Helmholtz, Ruskin, Home, Hogarth, + Burke, Taine, and others.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: + Herbert Spencer, <i>Principles of Psychology</i>; Grant Allen, + <i>Physiological Æsthetics</i>; A. Bain, <i>Emotions and Will</i>; B. + Bosanquet, <!-- Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page50"></a>[50]</span><i>History of Æsthetics</i>; W. Knight, + <i>Philosophy of the Beautiful</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Æstiva′tion,</b> a botanical term applied to the arrangement + of the parts of a flower in the flower-bud previous to the opening of the + bud.—The term is also applied to the summer sleep of animals. See + <i>Dormant State</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Æth′eling.</b> See <i>Atheling</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Æ′ther.</b> See <i>Ether</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Æthio′pia.</b> See <i>Ethiopia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Æ′thrioscope</b> (Gr. <i>aithrios</i>, clear, cloudless), an + instrument (devised by Sir John Leslie) for measuring radiation towards a + clear sky, consisting of a metallic cup with a highly-polished interior + of paraboloid shape, in the focus of which is placed one bulb of a + differential thermometer, the other being outside. The inside bulb at + once begins to radiate heat when exposed to a clear sky, and the extent + to which this takes place is shown by the scale of the thermometer. The + æthrioscope also indicates the presence of invisible aqueous vapour in + the atmosphere, radiation being less than when the air is dry.</p> + + <p><b>Æthu′sa,</b> a genus of umbelliferous plants. See <i>Fool's + Parsley</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ætiology</b> (Gr. <i>aitia</i>, cause, and <i>logos</i>, + discourse), the theory of the physical causes of any class of phenomena, + or the science of causation. It is, however, mainly used in medicine, and + deals with the causes and origin of disease.</p> + + <p><b>Aë′tius,</b> a general of the western Roman Empire, born + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 396; murdered 454. As commander in the + reign of Valentinian III he defended the empire against the Huns, + Visigoths, Franks, Burgundians, &c., completely defeating the Huns + under Attila in a great battle at Châlons in 451. For twenty years he was + at the head of public affairs, and in the end was murdered by + Valentinian, who was jealous of his power.</p> + + <p><b>Æt′na.</b> See <i>Etna</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Æto′lia,</b> a western division of northern Greece, separated + on the west by the Achelous from Acarnania and washed by the Corinthian + Gulf on the south. The inhabitants are little heard of in Greek history + till the Peloponnesian war, at which time they were notorious among the + Greeks for the rudeness of their manners. Ætolia, in conjunction with + Acarnania, now forms a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece.</p> + + <p><b>Afanasiev,</b> Alexander Nicolaievitsh, Russian folklorist, born in + 1826. Besides numerous articles and essays he wrote several monumental + works: <i>The Ancient Slav's Poetic View of Nature</i> (3 vols., 1866-9), + <i>Russian Tales and Fables for Children</i> (3 vols., 1870), &c. He + died in 1871.</p> + + <p><b>Affida′vit,</b> a written statement of facts upon oath or + affirmation. Affidavits are generally made use of when evidence is to be + laid before a judge or a court, while evidence brought before a jury is + delivered orally. The person making the affidavit signs his name at the + bottom of it, and swears that the statements contained in it are true. + The affidavit may be sworn to in open court, or before a magistrate or + other duly qualified person; it may be made abroad before a qualified + British state official.</p> + + <p><b>Affin′ity,</b> in chemistry, the force by which unlike kinds + of matter combine so intimately that the properties of the constituents + are lost, and a compound with new properties is produced. Of the force + itself we know little or nothing. It is not the same under all + conditions, being very much modified by circumstances, especially + temperature. The usual effect of increase of temperature is to diminish + affinity and ultimately to cause the separation of a compound into its + constituents; and there is probably for every compound a temperature + above which it could not exist, but would be broken up. Where two + elements combine to form a compound, heat is almost always evolved, and + the amount evolved serves as a measure of the affinity. In order that + chemical affinity may come into play it is necessary that the substances + should be in contact, and usually one of them at least is a fluid or a + gas. The results produced by chemical combination are endlessly varied. + Colour, taste, and smell are changed, destroyed, or created; harmless + constituents produce strong poisons, strong poisons produce harmless + compounds.</p> + + <p><b>Affinity,</b> in law, is that degree of connection which subsists + between one of two married persons and the blood relations of the other. + It is no real kindred (consanguinity). A person cannot, by legal + succession, receive an inheritance from a relation by affinity; neither + does it extend to the nearest relations of husband and wife so as to + create a mutual relation between them. The degrees of affinity are + computed in the same way as those of consanguinity or blood. All legal + impediments arising from affinity cease upon the death of the husband or + wife, excepting those which relate to the marriage of the survivor.</p> + + <p><b>Affirma′tion,</b> a solemn declaration by Quakers, Moravians, + Dunkers, and others, who object to taking an oath, in confirmation of + their testimony in courts of law, or of their statements on other + occasions on which the sanction of an oath is required of other persons. + In England the form for Quakers is, 'I do solemnly, sincerely, and truly + declare and affirm'. Affirmation is generally allowed to be substituted + for an oath in all cases where a person refuses to take an oath from + conscientious motives, if the judge is satisfied that the motives are + conscientious. False affirmation is subjected to the same penalties as + perjury.</p> + + <p><b>Affreightment</b> means the contract of carriage of goods by sea, + by which the shipowner <!-- Page 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page51"></a>[51]</span>undertakes to carry goods in his ship for + hire or <i>freight</i>. Unless otherwise stipulated, the merchant or + freighter is only bound to pay the freight upon delivery of the goods at + the agreed destination. If the voyage is abandoned, the merchant may + claim his goods without any payment. The merchant must load and discharge + his cargo within the <i>lay-days</i> or stipulated time, if any; + otherwise within a reasonable time. Failure entails liability in + damages—known as <i>demurrage</i>—for undue detention of the + ship. The merchant will also be liable in damages—known as + <i>dead-freight</i>—if he fails to furnish the full cargo promised. + The shipowner has a lien on the goods for their own freight and charges, + but not for a general balance. Nor has he any lien for dead-freight or + demurrage. All such liens may be validly stipulated for in the contract. + They are purely possessory as contrasted with the so-called maritime + liens for seamen's and shipmasters' wages, which are valid without + possession. There is no lien for <i>advance freight</i>, which in + Scotland is repayable if the cargo is lost at sea or delivery otherwise + prevented, but not so in England. In Scotland, accordingly, the burden of + insuring advance freight falls upon the shipowner, in England upon the + merchant.</p> + + <p>The main obligations upon the shipowner are to provide a seaworthy + vessel, carry without undue delay, and deliver the goods in the same + condition as they were shipped. Unless otherwise agreed, he is liable for + damage or loss through negligence, and if he be a common carrier, as he + frequently is, even the absence of negligence may not save him. There is + nothing in British law, however, to prevent him from contracting out of + all responsibility for the safety of goods committed to his care, and he + generally does so, either by inserting what is known as an 'exception + clause' in the document evidencing the contract, viz. the Bill of Lading, + or by giving public notice that he only accepts goods upon that footing. + In this respect the position of shipowners is more favourable than that + of railway companies and other land carriers, whose freedom of contract + is curtailed by statute.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: + T. G. Carver, <i>Carriage by Sea</i>; Sir T. E. Scrutton, <i>Contract of + Affreightment</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Affrique</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>f-rēk), St., a town of southern + France, department of Aveyron.</p> + + <p><b>Afghanistan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>f-gän′i-stän), that is, the land of + the Afghans, a country in Asia, bounded on the east by the N. W. Frontier + Province, &c., on the south by Baluchistan, on the west by the + Persian province of Khorasan, and on the north by Bukhara and Russian + Turkestan. The eastern and southern boundaries were settled in 1893, + whilst the boundary towards Persia was demarcated between March, 1903, + and May, 1905. The area may be set down at about 250,000 sq. miles. The + population is estimated at 6,000,000. Afghanistan consists chiefly of + lofty, bare, uninhabited tablelands, sandy barren plains, ranges of + snow-covered mountains, offsets of the Hindu Kush or the Himálaya, and + deep ravines and valleys. Many of the last are well watered and very + fertile, but about four-fifths of the whole surface is rocky, + mountainous, and unproductive. The surface on the north-east is covered + with lofty ranges belonging to the Hindu Kush, whose heights are often + 18,000 and sometimes reach perhaps 25,000 feet. The whole north-eastern + portion of the country has a general elevation of over 6000 feet; but + towards the south-west, in which direction the principal mountain chains + of the interior run, the general elevation declines to not more than 1600 + feet. In the interior the mountains sometimes reach the height of 15,000 + feet. Great part of the frontier towards India consists of the Suleiman + range, 12,000 feet high. There are numerous practicable avenues of + communication between Afghanistan and India, among the most extensively + used being the famous Khyber Pass, by which the River Kabul enters the + Punjab; the Gomul Pass, also leading to the Punjab; and the Bolan Pass on + the south, through which the route passes to Sind. Of the rivers the + largest is the Helmund, which flows in a south-westerly direction more + than 400 miles, till it enters the Hamoon or Seistan swamp. It receives + the Arghandab, a considerable stream. Next in importance are the Kabul in + the north-east, which drains to the Indus, and the Hari Rud in the + north-west, which, like other Afghan streams, loses itself in the sand. + The climate is extremely cold in the higher, and intensely hot in the + lower regions, yet on the whole it is salubrious. The most common trees + are the pine, oak, birch, and walnut. In the valleys fruits, in the + greatest variety and abundance, grow wild. The principal crops are wheat + (forming the staple food of the people), barley, rice, and maize. Other + crops are tobacco, sugar-cane, and cotton. The chief domestic animals are + the dromedary, the horse, ass, and mule, the ox, sheep with large fine + fleeces and enormous fat tails, and goats; of wild animals there are the + tiger, bears, leopards, wolves, jackal, hyena, foxes, &c. The chief + towns are Kabul (the capital), Kandahar, Ghuzni, and Herat. The + inhabitants belong to different races, but the Afghans proper form the + great mass of the people. They are allied in blood to the Persians, and + are divided into a number of tribes, among which the Duranis and Ghiljis + are the most important. The Afghans, claiming descent from King Saul, are + called by their own ancient chroniclers Beni-Israel. They are bold, + hardy, and warlike, fond of freedom and resolute in maintaining it, but + of a restless, turbulent temper, and much given <!-- Page 52 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page52"></a>[52]</span>to plunder. Tribal + dissensions are constantly in existence, and seldom or never do all the + Afghans pay allegiance to the nominal ruler of their country. Their + language (Pushtu) is distinct from the Persian, though it contains a + great number of Persian words, and is written, like the Persian, with the + Arabic characters. In religion they are Mahommedans of the Sunnite + sect.</p> + + <p>After having been subjugated by Alexander the Great, the country of + the Afghans fell successively under the sway, actual or nominal, of + Parthians, Seleucidæ, Persians, and Arabs. Djinghiz Khan conquered + Afghanistan in the twelfth century and Timur in the fourteenth. In 1504 + Sultan Baber took Cabul and founded the Mogul dynasty in India; + Afghanistan thus formed part of the great empire of Delhi. In 1738 the + country was conquered by the Persians under Nadir Shah. On his death in + 1747 Ahmed Shah, one of his generals, obtained the sovereignty of + Afghanistan, and became the founder of a dynasty which lasted about + eighty years. At the end of that time Dost Mohammed, the ruler of Cabul, + had acquired a preponderating influence in the country. On account of his + dealings with the Russians the British resolved to dethrone him and + restore Shah Shuja, a former ruler. In April, 1839, a British army under + Sir John Keane entered Afghanistan, occupied Cabul, and placed Shah Shuja + on the throne, a force of 8000 being left to support the new sovereign. + Sir W. Macnaghten remained as envoy at Cabul, with Sir Alexander Burnes + as assistant envoy. The Afghans soon organized a widespread insurrection, + which came to a head on 2nd Nov., 1841, when Burnes and a number of + British officers, besides women and children, were murdered, Macnaghten + being murdered not long after. The other British leaders now made a + treaty with the Afghans, at whose head was Akbar, son of Dost Mohammed, + agreeing to withdraw the forces from the country, while the Afghans were + to furnish them with provisions and escort them on their way. On 6th + Jan., 1842, the British left Cabul and began their most disastrous + retreat. The cold was intense, they had almost no food—for the + treacherous Afghans did not fulfil their promises—and day after day + they were assailed by bodies of the enemy. By the 13th 26,000 persons, + including camp-followers, women and children, were destroyed. Some were + kept as prisoners, but only one man, Dr. Brydon, reached Jelalabad, + which, as well as Kandahar, was still held by British troops. In a few + months General Pollock, with a fresh army from India, retook Cabul and + soon finished the war. Shah Shuja having been assassinated, Dost Mohammed + again obtained the throne of Cabul, and acquired extensive power in + Afghanistan. He joined with the Sikhs against the British, but afterwards + made an offensive and defensive alliance with the latter. He died in + 1863, having nominated his son Shere Ali his successor. Shere Ali entered + into friendly relations with the British, but in 1878, having repulsed a + British envoy and refused to receive a British mission (a Russian mission + being meantime at his Court), war was declared against him, and the + British troops entered Afghanistan. They met with comparatively little + resistance; the Ameer fled to Turkestan, where he soon after died; and + his son Yakoob Khan having succeeded him concluded a treaty with the + British (at Gandamak, May, 1879), in which a certain extension of the + British frontier, the control by Britain of the foreign policy of + Afghanistan, and the residence of a British envoy in Cabul, were the + chief stipulations. Not long after this settlement, the British resident + at Cabul, Sir Louis P. Cavagnari, and the other members of the mission + were treacherously attacked and slain by the Afghans, and troops had + again to be sent into the country. Cabul was again occupied, and Kandahar + and Ghazni were also relieved; while Yakoob Khan was sent to imprisonment + in India. In 1880 Abdur-Rahman, a grandson of Dost Mohammed, was + recognized by Britain as ameer of the country. He was on friendly terms + with the British during his reign, which ended with his death in 1901, + his son Habibullah being his successor. He had adopted the title of + Sirajul-Millat wa ud-din, 'Lamp of the Nation and Religion'. In a treaty + signed on 21st March, 1905, the Ameer recognized the engagements which + his father had entered into with the British Government. Encroachments by + the Russians on territory claimed by Afghanistan almost brought about a + rupture between Britain and Russia in 1885, and led to the delimitation + of the frontier of Afghanistan on the side next Russia. On 31st Aug., + 1907, an Anglo-Russian Convention relating to Afghanistan was signed. The + Russian Government recognized Afghanistan as outside the Russian sphere + of influence, whilst Great Britain undertook neither to annex nor occupy + any portion of Afghanistan. In spite of German intrigues, the Ameer + refused, in 1915, the inducements held out to him to abandon his British + ally. He was assassinated on 20th Feb., 1919, and was succeeded by his + third son Amanullah. The new Ameer sought to gain popularity with his + subjects by embarking on an unprovoked war of aggression upon India. + Hostilities broke out in May, 1919, and ended with a peace treaty signed + at Rawalpindi on 8th Aug., 1919. In 1922 the first Afghan minister was + appointed to London (instead of to Delhi).—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: MacGregor, <i>Gazetteer of + Afghanistan</i>; Malleson, <i>History of Afghanistan</i>; Forbes, <i>The + Afghan Wars</i>; Field-Marshal Earl Roberts, <!-- Page 53 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>[53]</span><i>Forty-one Years in + India</i>; J. G. Lyons, <i>Afghanistan: the Buffer State</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Afium-Kara-Hissar</b> ('opium-black-castle'), a city of Asia Minor, + 170 miles <span class="scac">E.S.E.</span> of Constantinople, with + manufactures of woollen goods, and a trade in opium (<i>afium</i>), + &c. Pop. about 20,000.</p> + + <p><b>Afrag′ola,</b> a town of Italy, about 6 miles <span + class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Naples. Pop. 23,155.</p> + + <p><b>Afra′nius,</b> Lucius, a Roman comic dramatist who flourished + about the beginning of the first century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, + and of whose writings only fragments remain.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/image022.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image022.jpg" + alt="Map of Africa" title="Map of Africa" /></a> + </div> + <p><b>Af′rica,</b> one of the three great divisions of the Old + World, and the second in extent of the five principal continents of the + globe, forming a vast peninsula joined to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. It + is of a compact form, with few important projections or indentations, and + having therefore a very small extent of coast-line (about 16,000 miles, + or much less than that of Europe) in proportion to its area. This + continent extends from 37° 21′ <span class="scac">N.</span> lat. to + 34° 51′ <span class="scac">S.</span> lat., and the extreme points, + Cape Blanco and Cape Agulhas, are nearly 5000 miles apart. From west to + east, between Cape Verde, lon. 17° 34′ <span + class="scac">W.</span>, and Cape Guardafui, lon. 51° 16′ <span + class="scac">E.</span>, the distance is about 4600 miles. The area is + estimated at 11,500,000 sq. miles, or more than three times that of + Europe. The islands belonging to Africa are not numerous, and, except + Madagascar, none of them are large. They include Madeira, the Canaries, + Cape Verde Islands, Fernando Po, Principe, São Thomé, Ascension, St. + Helena, Mauritius, Réunion, the Comoros, Socotra, &c.</p> + + <p>The interior of Africa is as yet imperfectly known, but we know enough + of the continent as a whole to be able to point to some general features + that characterize it. One of these is that almost all round it at no + great distance from the sea, and, roughly speaking, parallel with the + coast-line, we find ranges of mountains or elevated lands forming the + outer edges of interior plateaux. The most striking feature of Northern + Africa is the immense tract known as the Sahara or Great Desert, which is + enclosed on the north by the Atlas Mountains (greatest height, 12,000 to + 15,000 feet), the plateau of Barbary and that of Barqa, on the east by + the mountains along the west coast of the Red Sea, on the west by the + Atlantic Ocean, and on the south by the Sudan. The Sahara is by no means + the sea of sand it has sometimes been represented: it contains elevated + plateaux and even mountains radiating in all directions, with habitable + valleys between. A considerable nomadic population is scattered over the + habitable parts, and in the more favoured regions there are settled + communities. The Sudan, which lies to the south of the Sahara, and + separates it from the more elevated plateau of Southern Africa, forms a + belt of pastoral country across Africa, and includes the countries on the + Niger, around Lake Tchad (or Chad), and eastwards to the elevated region + of Abyssinia. Southern Africa as a whole is much more fertile and well + watered than Northern Africa, though it also has a desert tract of + considerable extent (the Kalahari Desert). This division of the continent + consists of a tableland, or series of tablelands, of considerable + elevation and great diversity of surface, exhibiting hollows filled with + great lakes, and terraces over which the rivers break in falls and + rapids, as they find their way to the low-lying coast tracts. The + mountains which enclose Southern Africa are mostly much higher on the + east than on the west, the most northerly of the former being those of + Abyssinia, with heights of 10,000 to 14,000 or 16,000 feet, while the + eastern edge of the Abyssinian plateau presents a steep unbroken line of + 7000 feet in height for many hundred miles. Farther south, and between + the great lakes and the Indian Ocean, we find Mounts Kenya and + Kilimanjaro (19,500 feet), the loftiest in Africa, covered with perpetual + snow. Of the continuation of this mountain boundary we shall only mention + the Drakenberg Mountains, which stretch to the southern extremity of the + continent, reaching, in Cathkin Peak, Natal, the height of over 10,000 + feet. Of the mountains that form the western border the highest are the + Cameroon Mountains, which rise to a height of 13,000 feet at the inner + angle of the Gulf of Guinea. The average elevation of the southern + plateau is from 3000 to 4000 feet.</p> + + <p>The Nile is the only great river of Africa which flows into the + Mediterranean. It receives its waters primarily from the great lake + Victoria Nyanza, which lies under the equator, and in its upper course is + fed by tributary streams of great size, but for the last 1200 miles of + its course it has not a single affluent. It drains an area of more than + 1,000,000 sq. miles. The Indian Ocean receives numerous rivers; but the + only great river of South Africa which enters that ocean is the Zambezi, + the fourth in size of the continent, and having in its course the + Victoria Falls, one of the greatest waterfalls in the world. In Southern + Africa also, but flowing westward and entering the Atlantic, is the + Congo, which takes its origin from a series of lakes and marshes in the + interior, is fed by great tributaries, and is the first in volume of all + the African rivers, carrying to the ocean more water than the + Mississippi. Unlike most of the African rivers, the mouth of the Congo + forms an estuary. Of the other Atlantic rivers, the Senegal, the Gambia, + and the Niger are the largest, the last being third among African + streams. <!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page54"></a>[54]</span></p> + + <p>With the exception of Lake Tchad there are no great lakes in the + northern division of Africa, whereas in the number and magnificence of + its lakes the southern division almost rivals North America. Here are the + Victoria and Albert Nyanza, Lakes Tanganyika, Nyasa, Shirwa, Bangweulu, + Moero, and other lakes. Of these the Victoria and Albert belong to the + basin of the Nile; Tanganyika, Bangweulu, and Moero to that of the Congo; + Nyasa, by its affluent the Shiré, to the Zambezi. Lake Tchad on the + borders of the northern desert region is now known to be much smaller + than was formerly believed, but varies in area according to the season. + Lake Ngami in the far south is now a mere swamp.</p> + + <p>The climate of Africa is mainly influenced by the fact that it lies + almost entirely within the tropics. In the equatorial belt, both north + and south, rain is abundant and vegetation very luxuriant, dense tropical + forests prevailing for about 10° on either side of the line. To the north + and south of the equatorial belt the rainfall diminishes, and the forest + region is succeeded by an open pastoral and agricultural country. This is + followed by the rainless regions of the Sahara on the north and the + Kalahari Desert on the south, extending beyond the tropics, and bordering + on the agricultural and pastoral countries of the north and south coasts, + which lie entirely in the temperate zone. The low coast regions of Africa + are almost everywhere unhealthy, the Atlantic coast within the tropics + being the most fatal region to Europeans.</p> + + <p>Among mineral productions may be mentioned gold, which is found in the + rivers of West Africa (hence the name Gold Coast), and in Southern + Africa, most abundantly in the Transvaal; diamonds have been found in + large numbers in recent years in the south; iron, copper, lead, tin, and + coal are also found.—Among plants are the baobab, the date-palm + (important as a food plant in the north), the doum-palm, the oil-palm, + the wax-palm, the shea-butter tree, trees yielding caoutchouc, the + papyrus, the castor-oil plant, indigo, the coffee-plant, heaths with + beautiful flowers, aloes, &c. Among cultivated plants are wheat, + maize, millet, and other grains, cotton, coffee, cassava, ground-nut, + yam, banana, tobacco, various fruits, &c. As regards both plants and + animals, Northern Africa, adjoining the Mediterranean, is distinguished + from the rest of Africa in its great agreement with Southern + Europe.—Among the most characteristic African animals are the lion, + hyena, jackal, gorilla, chimpanzee, baboon, African elephant (never + domesticated, yielding much ivory to trade), hippopotamus, rhinoceros, + giraffe, zebra, quagga, antelopes in great variety and immense + numbers.—Among birds are the ostrich, the secretary-bird or + serpent-eater, the honey-guide cuckoo, sacred ibis, guinea + fowl.—The reptiles include the crocodile, chameleon, and serpents + of various kinds, some of them very venomous. Among insects are locusts, + scorpions, the tsetse-fly whose bite is so fatal to cattle, and + white-ants.</p> + + <p>The great races of which the population of Africa mainly consists are + the Eastern Hamites (who are not a distinct race but a blend), the + Semites, the Negroes, and the Bantus. To the Semitic stock belong the + Arabs, who form a considerable portion of the population in Egypt and + along the north coast, while a portion of the inhabitants of Abyssinia is + of the same race. The Hamites are represented, according to Sergi, by the + Copts of Egypt, the Berbers, Kabyles, &c., of Northern Africa, and + the Somâli, Danâkil, &c., of East Africa. The Negro races occupy a + vast territory in the Sudan and Central Africa, while the Bantus occupy + the greater part of Southern Africa from a short distance north of the + equator, and include the Kaffirs, Bechuanas, Swahili, and allied races. + In the extreme south-west are the Hottentots and Bushmen (the latter a + dwarfish race), distinct from the other races as well as, probably, from + each other. In Madagascar there is a large Malay element. To these may be + added the Fulahs on the Niger and the Nubians on the Nile and elsewhere, + who are of a brownish colour, and are often regarded as distinct from the + other races, though sometimes classed with the Negroes. In religion a + great proportion of the inhabitants are heathens of the lowest type; + Mohammedanism numbers a large number of adherents in North Africa, and is + rapidly spreading in the Sudan; Christianity prevails only among the + Copts, the Abyssinians, and the natives of Madagascar, the last-named + having been converted in recent times. Elsewhere the missionaries seem to + have made but little progress. Over a great part of the continent + civilization is at a low ebb, yet in some parts the natives have shown + considerable skill in agriculture and various mechanical arts, as in + weaving and metal working. Of African trade two features are the caravans + that traverse great distances, and the trade in slaves that still widely + prevails, though it has been greatly restricted in recent years. Among + articles exported from Africa are palm-oil, diamonds, ivory, ostrich + feathers, wool, cotton, gold, esparto, caoutchouc, &c. The population + is estimated at 180,000,000. Of these a small number are of European + origin—French in Algeria and Morocco, British and Dutch at the + southern extremity.</p> + + <p>Great areas in Africa have been apportioned among European Powers as + protectorates or spheres of influence. Among native States still more or + less independent are Egypt, Abyssinia, Waday, Bagirmi, Liberia. To + Britain belong the Cape Province, Natal, the Orange Free State and + Transvaal, with Rhodesia, <!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page55"></a>[55]</span>&c., farther north, a region in Eastern + Africa extending from the sea to Lake Victoria and the headwaters of the + Nile, Nigeria, Gold Coast, and other tracts on the west, with Mauritius, + &c.; to France belong Algeria and Tunis, Senegambia, Zone of Morocco, + territory north of the Lower Congo, Madagascar, &c.; the Portuguese + possess Angola on the west coast and Mozambique on the east; Italy has a + territory on the Red Sea, and part of Somaliland; Spain has a part of the + coast of the Sahara; the Congo State is a colony of Belgium; Zanzibar is + merged in Kenya Colony. Germany was deprived of her possessions in Africa + during the European War, and the Peace Conference of 1919 appointed Great + Britain, France, and Belgium to act as mandatories of the League of + Nations.</p> + + <p>The name Africa was given by the Romans at first only to a small + district in the immediate neighbourhood of Carthage. The Greeks called + Africa Libya, and the Romans often used the same name. The first African + exploring expedition on record was sent by Pharaoh Necho about the end of + the seventh century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> to circumnavigate the + continent. The navigators, who were Phœnicians, were absent three + years, and according to report they accomplished their object. Fifty or a + hundred years later, Hanno, a Carthaginian, made a voyage down the west + coast and seems to have got as far as the Bight of Benin. The east coast + was probably known to the ancients as far as Mozambique and the island of + Madagascar. Of modern nations the Portuguese were the first to take in + hand the exploration of Africa. In 1433 they doubled Cape Bojador, in + 1441 reached Cape Blanco, in 1442 Cape Verde, in 1462 they discovered + Sierra Leone. In 1484 the Portuguese Diego Cam discovered the mouth of + the Congo. In 1486 Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope and + reached Algoa Bay. A few years later a Portuguese traveller visited + Abyssinia. In 1497 Vasco da Gama, who was commissioned to find a route by + sea to India, sailed round the southern extremity as far as Zanzibar, + discovering Natal on his way. The first European settlements were those + of the Portuguese in Angola and Mozambique, soon after 1500. In 1650 the + Dutch made a settlement at the Cape. In 1770 James Bruce reached the + source of the Blue Nile in Abyssinia. For the exploration of the interior + of Africa, however, little was done before the close of the eighteenth + century.</p> + + <p>Modern African exploration may be said to begin with Mungo Park, who + reached the upper course of the Niger (1795-1805). Dr. Lacerda, a + Portuguese, about the same time reached the capital of the Cazembe, in + the centre of South Africa, where he died. During 1802-6 two Portuguese + traders crossed the continent from Angola, through the Cazembe's + dominions, to the Portuguese possessions on the Zambezi. During 1822-4 + extensive explorations were made in Northern and Western Africa by + Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, who proceeded from Tripoli by Murzuq to + Lake Tchad, and explored the adjacent regions; Laing, in 1826, crossed + the desert from Tripoli to Timbuktu; Caillié, leaving Senegal, made in + 1827-8 a journey to Timbuktu, and thence through the desert to Morocco. + In 1830 Lander traced a large part of the course of the Niger downward to + its mouth, discovering its tributary the Benue. In the south Livingstone, + who was stationed as a missionary at Kolobeng, setting out from that + place in 1849 discovered Lake Ngami. In 1851 he went north again, and + came upon numerous rivers flowing north, affluents of the Zambezi. In + 1848 and 1849 Krapf and Rebmann, missionaries in East Africa, discovered + the mountains Kilimanjaro and Kenya. An expedition sent out by the + British Government started from Tripoli in 1850 to visit the Sahara and + the regions around Lake Tchad, the chiefs being Richardson, Overweg, and + Barth. The last alone returned in 1855, having carried his explorations + over 2,000,000 sq. miles of this part of Africa, hitherto almost unknown. + During 1853-6 Livingstone made an important series of explorations. He + first went north-westwards, tracing part of the Upper Zambezi, and + reached St. Paul de Loanda on the west coast in 1854. On his return + journey he followed pretty nearly the same route till he reached the + Zambezi, and proceeding down the river, and visiting its falls, called by + him the Victoria Falls, he arrived at Quelimane at its mouth on 20th May, + 1856, thus crossing the continent from sea to sea. In 1858 he resumed his + exploration of the Zambezi regions, and in various journeys visited Lakes + Shirwa and Nyasa, sailed up the Shiré to the latter lake, and established + the general features of the geography of this part of Africa, returning + to England in 1864. By this time the great lakes of equatorial Africa + were becoming known, Tanganyika and Victoria having been discovered by + Burton and Speke in 1858, and the latter having been visited by Speke and + Grant in 1862 and found to give rise to the Nile, while the Albert Nyanza + was discovered by Baker in 1864. In 1866 Livingstone entered on his last + great series of explorations, the main object of which was to settle the + position of the watersheds in the interior of the continent, and which he + carried on till his death in 1873. His most important explorations on + this occasion were west and south-west of Tanganyika, including the + discovery of Lakes Bangweulu and Moero, and part of the upper course of + the River Congo (here called Lualaba). For over two years he <!-- Page 56 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"></a>[56]</span>was lost to the + knowledge of Europe till met with by H. M. Stanley at Tanganyika in 1871. + Gerhard Rohlfs, in a succession of journeys from 1861 to 1874, traversed + the Sahara in different directions, and also crossed the continent + entirely from Tripoli to Lagos by way of Murzuq, Bornu, &c. During + 1873-5 Lieutenant Cameron, who had been sent in search of Livingstone, + surveyed Lake Tanganyika, explored the country to the west of it, and + then travelling to the south-west, finally reached Benguella on the + Atlantic coast. During 1874-7 Stanley surveyed Lakes Victoria Nyanza and + Tanganyika and explored the intervening country; then going westward to + where Livingstone had struck the Congo he followed the river down to its + mouth, thus finally settling its course and completing a remarkable and + valuable series of explorations. In 1879 Serpa Pinto completed a journey + across the continent from Benguella to Natal, and in 1881-2 Wissman and + Pogge crossed it again from St. Paul de Loanda to Zanzibar. In recent + years our knowledge of all parts of Africa has been greatly increased, + thanks to the efforts of travellers, missionaries, and commercial agents. + Steamers now ply on the Congo, and on Lakes Tanganyika, Nyasa, and + Victoria, and numerous railways ('Cape to Cairo', &c.) extend far + into the continent.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Mungo + Park, <i>Travels</i>; D. Livingstone, <i>Missionary Travels</i>; Sir + H. M. Stanley, <i>In Darkest Africa</i>; Sir H. H. Johnston, + <i>Africa</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Afridis</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-frē′diz), a tribe or clan on + the north-west frontier of India, about the Khyber Pass, who have at + various times given trouble to the British, and are included in a new + (1922) scheme of Khassadars (irregulars). In 1897-8 a campaign ('the + Tirah campaign') had to be undertaken against them, costly both in men + and money, before British authority was asserted. In 1905 the Afridis of + the force called the Khyber Rifles formed an escort for the Prince and + Princess of Wales on their visit to the famous pass, which was long in + their charge.—Cf. Holdich, <i>The Indian Borderland</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Afrikander Bund,</b> an association dating from 1880 and founded + for the purpose of consolidating Afrikander influence in South Africa. + For a time it supported the policy of Cecil Rhodes, but after 1895 + separated itself from him. After the war in 1902 the Bund was + reorganized, and identified with the South African party whose policy is + to further the federation of the South African colonies under the British + crown.</p> + + <p><b>A′ga,</b> formerly title of Turkish officers of a lower + military rank, now of men of great wealth and influence except learned + men and ecclesiastics, to whom the corresponding title of <i>effendi</i>, + meaning 'elder brother' and subsequently 'master', is given.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′ades,</b> a town of Africa, near the middle of the Sahara, + capital of the Saharan oasis of Aïr or Asben; at one time a seat of great + traffic, probably containing 60,000 inhabitants, now with a pop. of about + 7000.</p> + + <p><b>Agadir,</b> a little town on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, the + Santa Cruz May of the Spaniards. It was seized by the Portuguese in the + sixteenth century, and captured by Mulai Ahmed in 1536. It was once one + of the most important seaports of Morocco, but is now closed to commerce + and only used as a customs station, its place being taken by Mogador. In + July, 1910, the appearance of a French cruiser in the port of Agadir gave + rise to a Franco-German dispute, and in 1911 Germany sent the gunboat + <i>Panther</i>, and a few days later the <i>Berlin</i>, to Agadir for the + protection of German subjects. See <i>France</i>, <i>Germany</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agallochum</b> (a-gal′o-kum), a fragrant wood obtained from + <i>Aloexўlon Agallŏchum</i>, a leguminous tree of + Cochin-China, and <i>Aquilāria Agallŏcha</i>, a large tree + found in north-east Bengal, abounding in resin and an essential oil which + yields a perfume used as incense.</p> + + <p><b>Agal′matolite</b> (Gr. <i>agalma</i>, image), a kind of + stone, a clay-slate altered by heat and by the addition of alkalies, + which is carved into images, &c., by the Chinese.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′ama,</b> a name of several lizards allied to the iguana, + natives of both hemispheres.</p> + + <p><b>Agamem′non,</b> in Greek mythology, son of Atreus, King of + Mycenæ and Argos, brother of Menelaus, and commander of the allied Greeks + at the siege of Troy. Returning home after the fall of Troy, he was + treacherously assassinated by his wife, Clytemnestra, and her paramour, + Ægisthus, Agamemnon's cousin. He was the father of Orestes, + Iphigenīa, and Electra.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′ami.</b> See <i>Trumpeter</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agamogenesis</b> (-jen′e-sis; Gr. <i>a</i>, priv., + <i>gamos</i>, marriage, <i>genesis</i>, reproduction), the production of + young without the congress of the sexes, one of the phenomena of + alternate generation. See <i>Generation</i> and + <i>Parthenogenesis</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aganippe</b> (-nip′ē), daughter of the river-god + Parmessos, or Termessos, nymph of a fountain on Mount Helicon, in Greece, + sacred to the Muses, which had the property of inspiring with poetic fire + whoever drank of it. The name is often given to the wife of Acrisius and + mother of Danae.</p> + + <p><b>Agape</b> (ag′a-pē; Gr. <i>agapē</i>, love), in + ecclesiastical history, the love-feast or feast of charity, in use among + the primitive Christians, when a liberal contribution was made by the + rich to feed the poor. For a time the agape coincided with the + <i>eucharist</i>, which, at its origin, was clearly funerary in its + intention. "For as often as ye eat this bread and drink this cup, ye do + show the Lord's death till he come." During the first <!-- Page 57 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"></a>[57]</span>three centuries + love-feasts were held in the churches without scandal, but in after-times + they acquired a bad reputation, not undeservedly, and they were condemned + at the Council of Carthage in 397. Some modern sects, as the Wesleyans, + Sandemanians, Moravians, &c., have attempted to revive this + feast.</p> + + <p><b>Agapemone</b> (ag-a-pem′o-nē; lit. 'the abode of + love'), the name of a singular conventual establishment which has existed + at Spaxton, near Bridgewater, Somersetshire, since 1859, the originator + of it being a certain Henry James Prince, at one time a clergyman of the + Church of England, who called himself the Witness of the First + Resurrection. The life spent by the inmates appears to be a sort of + religious epicureanism. Some of the proceedings of the inmates of the + 'Abode of Love' have resulted in applications to the courts of law, where + parties formerly members of the society have returned to the world and + sought to regain their rights from Prince and his followers, and such + cases have caused some scandal. In 1902 Prince was succeeded by T. H. + Smyth-Pigott.</p> + + <p><b>A′gar-a′gar,</b> a dried seaweed of the Asiatic + Archipelago, the <i>Gracilaria lichenoides</i>, much used in the East for + soups and jellies, and also by paper and silk manufacturers.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image023.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image023.jpg" + alt="Agaricus campestris" title="Agaricus campestris" /></a> + <i>Agaricus campestris</i>, the Common Mushroom + </div> + + <p><b>Agar′ic</b> (<i>Agarĭcus</i>), a large and important + genus of fungi, characterized by having a fleshy cap or pileus, and a + number of radiating plates or gills on which are produced the naked + spores. The majority of the species are furnished with stems, but some + are attached to the objects on which they grow by their pileus. Over a + thousand species are known, and are arranged in five sections according + to whether the colour of their spores is white, pink, brown, purple, or + black. The chief British representatives are the common wild mushroom + (<i>A. campestris</i>, L.), the Horse mushroom (<i>A. arvensis</i>, + Schæff.), <i>A. elvensis</i>, B. and Br., <i>A. silvaticus</i>, Schæff., + &c. Many of the species are edible, like the common mushroom, and + supply a delicious article of food, while others are deleterious and even + poisonous.</p> + + <p><b>Agaric Mineral,</b> or <b>Mountain-meal,</b> one of the purest of + the native carbonates of lime, found chiefly in the clefts of rocks and + at the bottom of some lakes in a loose or semi-indurated form resembling + a fungus. The name is also applied to a stone of loose consistence found + in Tuscany, of which bricks may be made so light as to float in water, + and of which the ancients are supposed to have made their floating + bricks. It is a hydrated silicate of magnesium, mixed with lime, alumina, + and a small quantity of iron.</p> + + <p><b>Aga′sias,</b> a Greek sculptor of Ephesus, about 400 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, whose celebrated statue, known as the Borghese + Gladiator, representing a soldier contending with a horseman, is now in + the Louvre, Paris.</p> + + <p><b>Agassiz</b> (ag′as-ē), Louis John Rudolph, an eminent + naturalist, born 1807, died 1873, son of a Swiss Protestant clergyman at + Motiers, near the eastern extremity of the Lake of Neufchâtel. He + completed his education at Lausanne, and early developed a love of the + natural sciences. He studied medicine at Zürich, Heidelberg, and Munich. + His attention was first specially directed to ichthyology by being called + on to describe the Brazilian fishes brought to Europe from Brazil by + Martius and Spix. This work was published in 1829, and was followed in + 1830 by <i>Histoire Naturelle des Poissons d'eaux douces de l'Europe + Centrale</i> (Fresh-water Fishes of Central Europe). Directing his + attention to fossil ichthyology, five volumes of his <i>Recherches sur + les Poissons Fossiles</i> appeared between 1834 and 1844. His researches + led him to propose a new classification of fishes, which he divided into + four classes, distinguished by the characters of the skin, as ganoids, + placoids, cycloids, and ctenoids. His system has not been generally + adopted, but the names of his classes have been taken as useful terms. In + 1836 he began the study of glaciers, and in 1840 he published his + <i>Études sur les Glaciers</i>, in 1847 his <i>Système Glaciaire</i>. + From 1838 he had been professor of natural history at Neufchâtel, when in + 1846 pressing solicitations and attractive offers induced him to settle + in America, where he was connected as a teacher first with Harvard + University, Cambridge, and afterwards with Cornell University as well as + Harvard. After his arrival in America he engaged in various + investigations and explorations, and published numerous works, including: + <i>Principles of Zoology</i>, in connection with Dr. A. Gould (1848); + <i>Contributions to the Natural History of the United States</i> (4 + vols., 1857-62); <i>Zoologie Générale</i> (1854); <i>Methods of Study in + Natural History</i> (1863). In 1865-6 he made zoological excursions and + investigations in Brazil, which were productive of most valuable results. + <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page58"></a>[58]</span>Agassiz held views on many important points + in science different from those which prevailed among the scientific men + of the day, and in particular he strongly opposed the evolution theory. + Cf. <i>Letters and Recollections</i>, edited by G. R. Agassiz.</p> + + <p><b>Agassiz</b> (ag′a-sē), Mount, an extinct volcano in + Arizona, United States, 10,000 feet in height; a place of summer resort, + near the Great Cañon of the Colorado.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′ate,</b> a semi-translucent compound mineral mass formed + in the cavities of rocks by the successive deposition of various types of + silica, or by the staining of a siliceous mass thus deposited along + concentric zones. Bands or layers of various colours blended together, + the base generally being chalcedony, and this mixed with variable + proportions of jasper, amethyst, quartz, opal, heliotrope, and carnelian. + The varying manner in which these materials are arranged causes the agate + when polished to assume some characteristic appearances, and thus certain + varieties are distinguished, as the ribbon agate, the fortification + agate, the zone agate, the star agate, the moss agate, the clouded agate, + &c. In Scotland they are cut and polished under the name of Scottish + pebbles.</p> + + <p><b>Agathar′chus,</b> a Greek painter, native of Samos, the first + to paint a scene for the acting of tragedies. The view, however, that he + applied the rules of perspective to theatrical scene-painting is + doubtful. He flourished about 480 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Agath′ias,</b> a Greek poet and historian, born at Myrina, + Asia Minor, about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 530; author of an + anthology, a collection of love poems, and a history of his own times, + which is our chief authority for the period 552-8, during which time the + Byzantine army was struggling against the Goths, Vandals, and Franks.</p> + + <p><b>Agathocles</b> (a-gath′o-klēz), a Sicilian Greek, one + of the boldest adventurers of antiquity, born 361 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> By his ability and energy, and being entirely + unscrupulous, he raised himself from being a potter to being tyrant of + Syracuse and master of Sicily. Wars with the Carthaginians were the chief + events of his life. He died at the age of seventy-two.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′athon,</b> a Greek tragic poet, a friend of Euripides, and + contemporary with Socrates and Alcibiades, born about 445 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, died about 402 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> + The banquet which he gave to celebrate his first dramatic victory was + made the groundwork of Plato's <i>Symposium</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image024.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image024.jpg" + alt="Agave" title="Agave" /></a> + Agave (<i>Agave americana</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Agave</b> (a-gā′vē), a genus of plants, nat. ord. + Amaryllidaceæ (which includes the daffodil and narcissus), popularly + known as American aloes. They are generally large, and have a massive + tuft of fleshy leaves with a spiny apex. They live for many + years—ten to seventy according to treatment—before flowering. + When this takes place, the tall flowering stem springs from the centre of + the tuft of leaves, and grows very rapidly until it reaches a height of + 15, 20, or even 40 feet, bearing towards the end a large number of + flowers. The best-known species is <i>A. americāna</i>, known as + the Maguey or 'tree of wonders', introduced into Spain in 1561, and now + extensively grown in the warmer parts of this continent as well as in + Asia (India in particular). This and other species yield various + important products, the chief being the fibre obtained by maceration from + the leaves and roots, and known commercially as American aloe, pita flax, + or vegetable silk. The sap when fermented yields a beverage resembling + cider, the <i>pulque</i> beer of the Spaniards, or is distilled into an + intoxicating spirit (Mezcal or Aguardiente). The leaves are used for + feeding cattle; the fibres of the leaves are formed into thread, cord, + and ropes, and are also good material for paper-making; an extract from + the leaves is used as a substitute for soap; slices of the withered + flower-stem are used as razor-strops.</p> + + <p><b>Agde</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>gd), a seaport of southern France, + department of Hérault, with a cathedral, an ancient and remarkable + structure. The trade, chiefly coasting, is extensive. Pop. 9265.</p> + + <p><b>Age,</b> a period of time representing the whole <!-- Page 59 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>[59]</span>or a part of the + duration of any individual thing or being, but used more specifically in + a variety of senses. In law <i>age</i> is applied to the periods of life + when men and women are enabled to do that which before, for want of years + and consequently of judgment, they could not legally do. A male at twelve + years old may take the oath of allegiance; at fourteen is at years of + discretion, and therefore may choose his guardian or be an executor, + although he cannot act until of age; and at twenty-one is at his own + disposal, and may alienate and devise his lands, goods, and chattels. In + English law a male at fourteen and a female at twelve may consent or + disagree to marriage, but it cannot be celebrated without the consent of + the parents or guardians until the parties are of age. A female at + fourteen is at years of legal discretion, and may choose a guardian; at + seventeen may be an executrix; and at twenty-one may dispose of herself + and her lands. So that full age in male or female is twenty-one years, + which age is completed on the day preceding the anniversary of a person's + birth, who till that time is an infant, and so styled in law. In France + majority is attained at twenty-one, whilst the marriageable age is + eighteen for males and fifteen for females, subject to consent of parents + or guardians. In England no one can take a seat in Parliament under + twenty-one, be ordained a priest under twenty-four, nor made a bishop + under thirty. In France a seat in the Chamber of Deputies may be taken + only at twenty-five and in the Senate at forty. The law of Scotland + divides life into three periods—pupilarity, minority, and majority. + The first extends up to the time of legal puberty, that is, twelve years + for a female and fourteen for a male, when they may marry; the second + extends from this point up to twenty-one years, which is the time when + majority is attained.</p> + + <p>The term is also applied to designate the successive epochs or stages + of civilization in history or mythology. Hesiod speaks of five distinct + ages:—1. The <i>golden</i> or <i>Saturnian age</i>, a patriarchal + and peaceful age. 2. The <i>silver age</i>, licentious and wicked. 3. The + <i>brazen age</i>, violent, savage, and warlike. 4. The <i>heroic + age</i>, which seemed an approximation to a better state of things. 5. + The <i>iron age</i>, when justice and honour had left the earth. The term + is also used in such expressions as the <i>dark ages</i>, the <i>middle + ages</i>, the <i>Elizabethan age</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>The <i>Archæological Ages</i> or <i>Periods</i> are three—the + Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age, these names being given in + accordance with the materials chiefly employed for weapons, implements, + &c., during the particular period. The Stone Age of Europe has been + subdivided into two—the Palæolithic or earlier, and Neolithic or + later. The word <i>age</i> in this sense has no reference to the lapse of + time—or not necessarily so—but simply refers to the stage at + which a people has arrived in its progress towards civilization; thus + there are races still in their stone age. The Palæolithic or earlier + stone age in Europe was doubtless immensely earlier than the Neolithic, + the latter being marked by implements of much greater finish than the + former. See <i>Stone Age</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agen</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-zhan<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), one of the oldest towns in France, + capital of department Lot-et-Garonne on the Garonne, 74 miles south-east + of Bordeaux; see of a bishop; manufactures sailcloth and other articles, + and has an extensive trade. The river is here crossed by a stone bridge, + a suspension bridge, and a canal aqueduct. Pop. 23,294.</p> + + <p><b>Agenor</b> (a-jē′nor), a mythical Greek hero, King of + Phœnicia, and father of Europa and Cadmus. Also one of the bravest + among the Trojans, slain by Neoptolemus.</p> + + <p><b>A′gent,</b> a person appointed by another to act for or + perform any kind of business for him, the latter being called in relation + to the former the <i>principal</i>. Ambassadors were originally styled + diplomatic agents.—In India, it is the name for an officer to whom + political power is given to deal with native states.—<i>Army + Agent</i> is a kind of military banker, authorized by the Government to + manage the monetary affairs of a regiment. There are only a few of these + agents, and consequently each has in charge the affairs of a number of + different regiments.—<i>Crown Agents</i> are officials appointed by + the secretary of state for the colonies to act as commercial and + financial agents in this country for the different British colonies that + are not self-governing; those that are self-governing appoint their own + agents, who are designated <i>agents-general</i>.—<i>Agent</i> in + mechanics is the general force producing a movement.</p> + + <p><b>Ageratum</b> (a-jer′a-tum), a genus of composite plants of + the warmer parts of America, one species of which, <i>A. + mexicānum</i>, is a well-known flower-border annual with dense + lavender-blue heads. From it have been derived several varieties with + flowers of different colours used chiefly as bedding plants.</p> + + <p><b>Ager Publicus.</b> See <i>Agrarian Law</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agesilaus</b> (a-jes-i-lā′us), a king of Sparta, born + in 444 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and elevated to the throne after + the death of his brother Agis II. He acquired renown by his exploits + against the Persians, Thebans, and Athenians. Though a vigorous ruler, + and almost adored by his soldiers, he was of small stature and lame from + his birth. He died in Egypt in the winter of 361-360 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> His life has been written by Xenophon, Plutarch, + and Cornelius Nepos.</p> + + <p><b>Agglom′erate,</b> in geology, a collective name for masses + consisting of angular fragments ejected <!-- Page 60 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>[60]</span>from volcanoes. When a + rock mass consists largely of fragments worn and rounded by water it is + called a <i>conglomerate</i>, and such masses were originally, no doubt, + gravels and shingles on sea beaches and river channels.</p> + + <p><b>Agglu′tinate Languages,</b> languages in which the modifying + suffixes are, as it were, glued on to the root, both it and the suffixes + retaining a kind of distinctive independence and individuality, as in the + Japanese, Turkish, and other Turanian languages, and the Basque + language.</p> + + <p><b>Agg′regate,</b> a term applied in geology to rocks composed + of several different mineral constituents capable of being separated by + mechanical means, as granite, where the quartz, felspar, and mica can be + separated mechanically.—In botany it is applied to flowers composed + of many small florets having a common undivided receptacle, the anthers + being distinct and separate, the florets commonly standing on stalks, and + each having a partial calyx.</p> + + <p><b>Aggry Beads,</b> glass beads of various forms and colours, prized + by the natives of West Africa as ornaments, and as having magical and + medicinal virtues. Their origin and history are not well known. Such + beads have been found in various parts of the world, including North and + South America, and often in graves. Some authorities believe that the + oldest of them are the work of the ancient Egyptians, or the + Phœnicians, while the later are probably of Venetian origin.</p> + + <p><b>Agha,</b> see <i>Aga</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aghrim,</b> see <i>Aughrim</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agincourt</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-zhan<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-kör), a village of Northern France, + department Pas de Calais, famous for the battle of 25th Oct., 1415, + between the French and English. Henry V, King of England, eager to + conquer France, landed at Harfleur, took the place by storm, and wished + to march through Picardy to Calais, but was met by a French army under + the Constable d'Albret. The English numbered about 15,000 men, while the + French numbers are variously given as from 50,000 to 150,000. The + confined nature and softness of the ground were to the disadvantage of + the French, who were drawn up in three columns unnecessarily deep. The + English archers attacked the first division in front and in flank, and + soon threw them into disorder. The second division fled on the fall of + the Duc d'Alençon, who was struck down by Henry himself; and the third + division fled without striking a blow. Of the French 10,000 were killed, + including the Constable d'Albret, with six dukes and princes. The English + lost 1600 men killed, among them the Duke of York, Henry's uncle. After + the battle the English continued their march to Calais.</p> + + <p><b>Agio</b> (ā′ji-ō), the difference between the + real and the nominal value of money, as between paper money and actual + coin. It is used to denote both the difference between two currencies in + the same country and the variations in the currencies of different + countries. The term is derived from the It. <i>aggiungere</i>, to add, + augment, hence <i>agiotage</i>. See <i>Disagio</i> and <i>Balance of + Trade</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agira</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-jē′ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), (ancient <b>Agyrium</b>), a town of + Sicily south-west of Etna. Pop. 22,485.</p> + + <p><b>Agis</b> (ā′jis), the name of four Spartan kings, the + most important of whom was Agis IV, who succeeded to the throne in 244 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and reigned four years. He attempted a + reform of the abuses which had crept into the State—his plan + comprehending a redistribution of the land, a division of wealth, and the + cancelling of all debts. Opposed by his colleague Leonidas, advantage was + taken of his absence, in an expedition against the Ætolians, to depose + him. Agis at first took sanctuary in a temple, but he was treacherously + seized and strangled, after going through the form of a trial.</p> + + <p><b>Agistment</b> (from the Lat. <i>ad</i>, to, and Fr. <i>giste</i>, + lodging), a term designating the pasturing of horses, cattle, or sheep of + another. See <i>Bailment</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agitators,</b> an alternative form of <i>Adjutators</i>, a name + given to the representatives elected in 1647 by the different regiments + of the English parliamentary army.</p> + + <p><b>Aglaia</b> (a-glā′ya), wife of Hephaistos, in Greek + mythology, one of the three Graces, the other two being Euphrosyne and + Thalia.</p> + + <p><b>Aglossa,</b> a sub-order of anurous amphibia, the frogs, without a + tongue.</p> + + <p><b>Agnano</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-nyä′nō), until 1870 a lake + of Italy, west of Naples, occupying probably the crater of an extinct + volcano, but now drained.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′nates,</b> in the civil law, relations on the male side, + in opposition to <i>cognates</i>, relations on the female side.</p> + + <p><b>Agnello Pass,</b> see <i>European War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agnes,</b> St., a virgin martyr who, according to the story, + suffered martyrdom because she steadfastly refused to marry Sempronius, + the prefect of Rome, and adhered to her religion in spite of repeated + temptations and threats, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 303. She was + first led to the stake, but as the flames did not injure her she was + beheaded. Her festival is celebrated on 21st Jan. For superstitions + connected with St. Agnes' Eve see Keats's poem <i>The Eve of St. + Agnes</i>. Tintoret's most remarkable picture is <i>The Martyrdom of St. + Agnes</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agnes,</b> St., the most southerly of the Scilly Islands. A + lighthouse was erected here as early as 1680; another on the Wolf Rock + near the island was completed in 1858.</p> + + <p><b>Agnesi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-nyā′sē), Maria + Gaetana, a learned <!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page61"></a>[61]</span>Italian lady, born at Milan in 1718. In her + ninth year she was able to speak Latin, in her eleventh Greek; she then + studied the oriental languages, and at the age of thirteen mastered + Hebrew, besides French, Spanish, and German. She was called the 'Walking + Polyglot'. She next studied geometry, philosophy, and mathematics. She + was appointed, in 1750, professor of mathematics in the University of + Bologna, ultimately took the veil, and died in 1799. Her sister, Maria + Theresa, composed several cantatas and three operas.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:24%;"> + <a href="images/image025.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image025.jpg" + alt="Agni" title="Agni" /></a> + Agni—Moore's <i>Hindoo Pantheon</i> + </div> + + <p><b>Ag′ni,</b> the Hindu god of fire, second only to Indra, and + one of the eight guardians of the world, and especially the lord of the + south-east quarter. He is celebrated in many of the hymns of the Rig + Veda. He is often represented as of a red or flame colour, and rides on a + ram or a goat. He is still worshipped as the personification of fire, and + the friction of two sticks for procuring the temple fire is still + regarded as the symbol of Agni's miraculous rebirth.</p> + + <p><b>Agnœtæ,</b> a monophysitic sect of the sixth century.</p> + + <p><b>Agnolo,</b> Baccio d' (ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>ch′ō da<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n′yo-lō), a Florentine + wood-carver, sculptor, and architect; designed some of the finest + palaces, &c., in Florence, such as the Villa Borghese, the Palais + Bartolini, &c.; born 1460, died 1543.</p> + + <p><b>Agno′men</b> (Lat.), an additional name given by the Romans + to an individual in allusion to some quality, circumstance, or + achievement by which he was distinguished, as <i>Africanus</i> added to + P. Cornelius Scipio.</p> + + <p><b>Agnone</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-nyō′nā), a town of S. + Italy, province of Molise, famous for the excellence of its copper wares. + Pop. 6000.</p> + + <p><b>Agnostics</b> (ag-nos′tiks; Gr. <i>a</i>, not, + <i>gignōskein</i>, to know), a modern term invented by Huxley in + 1869 and applied to those who disclaim any knowledge of God, the origin + of the universe, immortality, &c. The agnostics, or adherents of this + doctrine, hold that the mind of man is limited to a knowledge of + phenomena and of what is relative, and that, therefore, the infinite, the + absolute, and the unconditioned, being beyond all experience, are + consequently beyond its range. Agnosticism is therefore the attitude of + 'solemnly suspended judgment', and cannot be identified with atheism. The + agnostics do not deny the existence of a Divine Being, but merely + maintain that we have no scientific ground for either belief or + denial.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir Leslie Stephen, + <i>An Agnostic's Apology</i>; R. Flint, <i>Agnosticism</i>; J. Ward, + <i>Naturalism and Agnosticism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agnus Castus,</b> a shrub, <i>Vitex Agnuscastus</i>, nat. ord. + Verbenaceæ, a native of the Mediterranean countries, with white flowers + and acrid, aromatic fruits. It had anciently the imagined virtue of + preserving chastity—hence the term <i>castus</i> (Lat., + chaste).</p> + + <p><b>Agnus Dei</b> (dē′ī; Lat., 'the Lamb of God'), a + term applied to Christ in <i>John</i>, i, 29, and in the Roman Catholic + liturgy a prayer beginning with the words 'Agnus Dei', generally sung + before the communion. The term is also commonly given to a medal, or more + frequently a disk of wax, round, oblong, or oval, consecrated by the + pope, stamped with the figure of a lamb supporting the banner of the + cross; supposed to possess great virtues, such as preserving those who + carry it in faith from accidents, &c. Jean Châtel, the assassin of + Henri IV, was found covered with such medals.</p> + + <p><b>Agon′ic Line</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, not, and <i>gōnia</i>, + an angle), in terrestrial magnetism a name applied to the line which + joins all the places on the earth's surface at which the needle of the + compass points due north and south, without any declination. See + <i>Magnetism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′ony Column,</b> a column in the advertising sheet of some + of the daily journals, in which disappearances, losses, mysterious + appeals and correspondence, and generally any advertising eccentricity + appear.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′ora,</b> the market-place of a Greek town, corresponding + to the Roman <i>forum</i>. The Agora of Athens is situated in a valley + partially enclosed by the Acropolis, Areopagus, Pnyx, and Museum.</p> + + <p><b>Agos′ta</b>. See <i>Augusta</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agouara</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>-ä′ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a name given to the crab-eating racoon + (<i>Procўon cancrivŏrus</i>) of S. America.</p> + + <p><b>Agoult</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gö), Marie de Flavigny, Comtesse d', a + French writer of fiction, history, politics, philosophy, and art; + daughter of Vicomte de Flavigny; born at Frankfort in 1805, died at Paris + 1876. She contributed many articles to the <i>Revue des Deux-Mondes</i>, + &c., under the pseudonym of <i>Daniel Stern</i>, and wrote <i>Lettres + Républicaines</i> (1848); <i>Histoire de la Révolution <!-- Page 62 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page62"></a>[62]</span>de 1848</i>; + <i>Esquisses Morales et Politiques</i>; <i>Trois Journées de la Vie de + Marie Stuart</i>; <i>Florence et Turin</i> (a series of artistic and + political studies); <i>Dante et Goethe</i>; dialogues, and numerous + romances, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Agouta</b> (a-gö′ta), <i>Solenŏdon paradoxus</i>, an + insectivorous mammal peculiar to Hayti, of the tanrec family, somewhat + larger than a rat. It has its tail devoid of hair and covered with + scales, its eyes small, and an elongated nose like the shrews. Another + species (<i>S. cubānus</i>) belongs to Cuba.</p> + + <p><b>Agouti</b> (a-gö′ti), the name of several rodent mammals, + forming a family by themselves, genus Dasyprocta. There are eight or nine + species, all belonging to S. America and the W. Indies. The common + agouti, or yellow-rumped cavy (<i>D. agouti</i>), is of the size of a + rabbit. It burrows in the ground or in hollow trees, lives on vegetables, + doing much injury to the sugar-cane, is as voracious as a pig, and makes + a similar grunting noise. Its flesh is white and good to eat.</p> + + <p><b>Agra</b> (ä′gra), a city of India, in the United Provinces, + on the right bank of the Jumna, 841 miles by rail from Calcutta. It is a + well-built and handsome town and has various interesting structures, + among which are the imperial palace, a mass of buildings erected by + several emperors; the Motí Masjid or Pearl Mosque (both within the old + and extensive fort); the mosque called the Jama Masjid (a cenotaph of + white marble); and, above all, the Taj Mahal, 'a dream in marble', a + mausoleum of the seventeenth century, built by the Emperor Shah Jehan + (1628-58) for his favourite queen, Mumtaz Mahal. It is made of white + marble, and is adorned throughout with exquisite mosaics. Its cost is + estimated at £800,000, and 20,000 workmen, under the direction of Austin + of Bordeaux, were engaged on it for twenty-two years. There are several + Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, a government college, and three + other colleges or high schools, besides a medical college. Agra has a + trade in grain, sugar, &c., and some manufactures, including + beautiful inlaid mosaics. It was founded in 1566 by the Emperor Akbar, + and was a residence of the emperors for over a century. Pop. 185,449. The + Agra division has an area of 10,078 sq. miles, and a pop. of + 5,007,900.</p> + + <p><b>Agraffe′,</b> a sort of ornamental buckle, clasp, or similar + fastening for holding together articles of dress, &c., often adorned + with precious stones.</p> + + <p><b>Agram,</b> or <b>Zagreb,</b> a city in Yugo-Slavia, capital of the + former Hungarian province of Croatia and Slavonia, near the River Save; + contains the residence of the ban or governor of Croatia and Slavonia, + Government buildings, cathedral (being the see of a Roman Catholic + archbishop), university, theatre, &c.; carries on an active trade, + and manufactures tobacco, leather, and linens. Pop. 79,038.</p> + + <p><b>Agra′phia</b>. See <i>Aphasia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agrarian Laws,</b> laws enacted in ancient Rome for the division of + the public lands, that is, the lands belonging to the State (<i>ager + publicus</i>). As the territory of Rome increased, the public land + increased, the land of conquered peoples being always regarded as the + property of the conqueror. The right to the use of this public land + belonged originally only to the patricians or ruling class, but + afterwards the claims of the plebeians on it were also admitted, though + they were often unfairly treated in the sharing of it. Hence arose much + discontent among the plebeians, and various remedial laws were passed + with more or less success. Indeed an equitable adjustment of the land + question between the aristocracy and the common people was never + attained.</p> + + <p><b>Agravaine,</b> Sir, one of the knights of the Round Table.</p> + + <p><b>Agreement of the People.</b> See <i>Levellers</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agric′ola,</b> Gnæus Julius, lived from <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 37 to 93, a Roman consul under the Emperor + Vespasian, and governor in Britain, the greater part of which he reduced + to the dominion of Rome; distinguished as a statesman and general. His + life, written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, gives the best + extant account of Britain in the early part of the period of the Roman + rule. He was the twelfth Roman general who had been in Britain, but was + the only one who effectually subdued the southern portion of it and + reconciled the Britons to the Roman yoke. This he did by teaching them + the arts of civilization and to settle in towns. He constructed the chain + of forts between the Forth and the Clyde, defeated Galgacus at the battle + of Mons Graupius, and sailed round the island, discovering the + Orkneys.</p> + + <p><b>Agric′ola,</b> Georg (originally Bauer, that is, peasant = + Lat. <i>agricola</i>), born in Saxony 1490, died at Chemnitz 1555, German + physician and mineralogist. Though tinged with the superstitions of his + age, he made the first successful attempt to reduce mineralogy to a + science, and introduced many improvements in the art of mining. A + complete edition of his works was published at Basel in 1550 and + 1558.</p> + + <p><b>Agricola,</b> Johann, the son of a tailor at Eisleben, was born in + 1492, and called, from his native city, <i>master of Eisleben</i> + (<i>magister Islebius</i>); one of the most active among the theologians + who propagated the doctrines of Luther. In 1537, when professor in + Wittenberg, he stirred up the Antinomian controversy with Luther and + Melanchthon. He afterwards lived at Berlin, where he died in 1566, after + a life of controversy. Besides his theological works he composed a work + explaining the common German proverbs. <!-- Page 63 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page63"></a>[63]</span></p> + + <p><b>Agricola,</b> Johann Friedrich, German musician and composer, born + near Altenburg 1720, died at Berlin 1774; pupil of Sebastian Bach; wrote + several operas, including <i>Iphigenia in Tauris</i>. He wrote under the + pseudonym of 'Olibrio'.</p> + + <p><b>Agricola,</b> Rodolphus, German scholar, born at Groningen 1443, + died at Heidelberg 1485. After travelling in France and Italy he was + appointed professor of philosophy at Heidelberg, and did good service in + transplanting the revived classical learning into Germany.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′riculture</b> is the art of cultivating the ground, more + especially with the plough and in large areas or fields, in order to + raise grain and other crops for man and beast; including the art of + preparing the soil, sowing and planting seeds, removing the crops, and + also the raising and feeding of cattle or other live stock. This art is + the basis of all other arts, and in all countries coeval with the first + dawn of civilization. At how remote a period it must have been + successfully practised in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China we have no means + of knowing, but there is sufficient evidence of agriculture having + attained considerable development many centuries before the Christian + era. Egypt was renowned as a corn country in the time of the Jewish + patriarchs, and had probably been so for centuries before. The + hieroglyphics on ancient monuments furnish records of the early + development of agriculture in Egypt and of the use of the plough and + other agricultural implements. The advanced methods of the Egyptians and + Syrians were introduced into Europe by the Saracens. Land culture also + attained a more or less considerable development in ancient China and + Hindustan. Among the ancient Greeks the implements of agriculture were + very few and simple. Hesiod, who wrote a poem on agriculture as early as + the eighth century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, mentions a plough + consisting of three parts, the share-beam, the draught-pole, and the + plough-tail, but antiquarians are not agreed as to its exact form. The + ground received three ploughings, one in autumn, another in spring, and a + third immediately before sowing the seed. Manures were applied, and the + advantage of mixing soils, as sand with clay or clay with sand, was + understood. Seed was sown by hand, and covered with a rake. Grain was + reaped with a sickle, bound in sheaves, thrashed, then winnowed by wind, + laid in chests, bins, or granaries, and taken out as wanted by the + family, to be ground. Agriculture was highly esteemed among the ancient + Romans, and very full accounts are contained in the works of Pliny, + Virgil, Cato, Varro, and Palladius. The Romans used a great many + different implements of agriculture. The plough is represented by Cato as + of two kinds, one for strong, the other for light soils. Varro mentions + one with two mould-boards, with which, he says, "when they plough, after + sowing the seed, they are said to ridge". Pliny mentions a plough with + one mould-board, and others with a coulter, of which he says there were + many kinds. Fallowing was a practice rarely deviated from by the Romans. + In most cases a fallow and a year's crop succeeded each other. Manure was + collected from various sources, and irrigation was practised on a large + scale.</p> + + <p>The Romans introduced their agricultural knowledge among the Britons, + and during the most flourishing period of the Roman occupation large + quantities of corn were exported from Britain to the Continent. During + the time that the Angles and Saxons were extending their conquests over + the country agriculture must have been greatly neglected; but afterwards + it was practised with some success among the Anglo-Saxon population, + especially, as was generally the case during the Middle Ages, on lands + belonging to the Church. Swine formed at this time a most important + portion of the live stock, finding plenty of oak and beech mast to eat. + The feudal system introduced by the Normans, though beneficial in some + respects as tending to ensure the personal security of individuals, + operated powerfully against progress in agricultural improvements. War + and the chase, the two ancient and deadliest foes of husbandry, formed + the most prominent occupations of the Norman princes and nobles. Thriving + villages and smiling fields were converted into deer forests, vexatious + imposts were laid on the farmers, and the serfs had no interest in the + cultivation of the soil. But the monks of every monastery retained such + of their lands as they could most conveniently take charge of, and these + they cultivated with great care, under their own inspection, and + frequently with their own hands. The various operations of husbandry, + such as manuring, ploughing, sowing, harrowing;, reaping, thrashing, + winnowing, &c., are incidentally mentioned by the writers of those + days; but it is impossible to collect from them a definite account of the + manner in which those operations were performed.</p> + + <p>While there is much in the writings of the old English chroniclers + concerning the tenure of land, upon which subject the <i>Domesday + Book</i> gives much enlightenment, there is a great lack of information + as to the manner in which the land was cultivated. Information began to + be recorded in the middle of the thirteenth century, but only one + treatise is known to have been written, namely, <i>La Dite de + Husbanderye</i>, an essay in Norman French by Walter de Henley. This work + was superseded by another treatise, the best of the early works on the + subject, and published in the reign of Henry VIII (in 1523) <!-- Page 64 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>[64]</span>by Sir A. + Fitzherbert, judge of the Common Pleas. It is entitled the <i>Book of + Husbandry</i>, and contains directions for draining, clearing, and + enclosing a farm, for enriching the soil, and rendering it fit for + tillage. Lime, marl, and fallowing are strongly recommended. The subject + of agriculture attained some prominence during the reign of Elizabeth. + The principal writers of that period were Tusser, Googe, and Sir Hugh + Platt. Tusser's <i>Five Hundreth Pointes of Good Husbandry</i> (first + complete edition published in 1580) conveys much useful instruction in + metre, but few works of this time contain much that is original or + valuable. The first half of the seventeenth century produced no + systematic work on agriculture, though several on different branches of + the subject. About 1645 the field cultivation of red clover was + introduced into England, the merit of this improvement being due to Sir + Richard Weston, author of a <i>Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant and + Flanders</i>, to whom also belongs the credit of first growing turnips in + England. The Dutch had devoted much attention to the improvement of + winter roots, and also to the cultivation of clover and other artificial + grasses, and the farmers and proprietors of England soon saw the + advantages to be derived from their introduction. Potatoes had been + introduced during the latter part of the sixteenth century, but were not + for long in general cultivation. A number of writers on agriculture + appeared in England during the Commonwealth, the most important works on + the subject being Blythe's <i>Improver Improved</i> and Hartlib's + <i>Legacy</i>. The former writer speaks of a rotation, or rather + alternation of crops, and well knew the use of lime, as also of other + manures. In the eighteenth century the first name of importance in + British agriculture is that of Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, who + began to drill wheat and other crops about the year 1701, and whose + <i>Horse-hoeing Husbandry</i> was published in 1731. Tull was a great + advocate of the system of sowing crops in rows or drills with an interval + between every two or three rows wide enough to allow of ploughing or + hoeing to be carried on. This enabled the ground to be cleared with crops + still growing, thus obviating the necessity for 'bare fallow' and leading + to the <i>four-course</i> or Norfolk Rotation of Charles, second Viscount + Townshend, the first agriculturist to cultivate turnips on a large scale. + After the time of Tull and Townshend no great alteration in British + agriculture took place till Robert Bakewell and others effected some + important improvements in the breeds of cattle, sheep, and swine in the + latter half of the eighteenth century. The raising and maintenance of + live stock, especially of sheep, was a characteristic of English farming + from a very early time, and for several centuries the country had almost + a monopoly in the supply of wool. To Bakewell we owe the well-known breed + of Leicester sheep. By the end of the century it was a common practice to + alternate green crops with grain crops, instead of exhausting the land + with a number of successive crops of corn. A well-known writer on + agriculture at this period, and one who did a great deal of good in + diffusing a knowledge of the subject, was Arthur Young. Scotland was for + a long time behind England in agricultural progress. Great progress was + made during the eighteenth century, however, especially in the latter + half of it, turnips being introduced as a field-crop, and new implements + such as the swing-plough and the thrashing-machine coming into general + use. The construction of good roads through the country also gave + agriculture a great impulse. During the wars caused by the French + revolution (1795-1815) the high price of agricultural produce led to an + extraordinary improvement in agriculture all over Britain. The + establishment of the institution called the National Board of Agriculture + was also of very great service to British husbandry at this period. + Though a private association, it was assisted by an annual parliamentary + grant, and prizes were given by it for the encouragement of experiments + and improvements in agriculture. It existed from 1793 to 1816.</p> + + <p>Among other societies which have greatly furthered the progress of + agriculture in Britain, the chief in existence at the present day are the + Smithfield Club, inaugurated in 1798; the Royal Agricultural Society of + England, established in 1838; the Highland and Agricultural Society of + Scotland, founded in 1783; and the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, + instituted in 1841. The objects of these and similar societies are such + as the following: To encourage the introduction of improvements in + agriculture; to encourage the improvement of agricultural implements and + farm buildings; the application of chemistry to agriculture; the + destruction of insects injurious to vegetation; to promote the discovery + and adoption of new varieties of grain, or other useful vegetables; to + collect information regarding the management of woods, plantations, and + fences; to improve the education of those supported by the cultivation of + the soil; to improve the veterinary art; to improve the breeds of live + stock, &c. Shows are held, at which prizes are distributed for live + stock, implements, and farm produce.</p> + + <p>Through the efforts of the above-mentioned and other societies, the + investigations of scientific men, the general diffusion of knowledge + among all classes, and the necessity of competing with producers in + foreign countries, agriculture made <!-- Page 65 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>[65]</span>vast strides in Britain + during the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth. Among + the chief improvements we may mention deep ploughing and thorough + draining. By the introduction of new or improved implements the labour + necessary to the carrying out of agricultural operations has been greatly + diminished, and advancement in this direction has been promoted by the + necessities of the Great War. Labour-saving machinery is likely to be + used in future on an increasingly large scale. Science, too, has been + called in to act as the handmaid of art, and in its application we owe + very much to the researches conducted at the Rothamsted Experimental + Station, founded in 1834 by Lawes, who endowed the Lawes Trust in 1889. + Gilbert and he worked together from 1843 to the end of last century. It + is primarily by the investigations of the chemist and physicist that + agriculture has been put on a really scientific basis. The physiology of + plants and animals, and the complex properties of soils, have all been + investigated, and most important results obtained. Artificial manures, in + great variety to supply the elements wanted for plant growth, have come + into common use, and the free nitrogen of the air is now worked up into + various substances by which the nitrate of soda imported from South + America can be replaced. An improvement in all kinds of stock is becoming + more and more general, feeding is conducted on more scientific + principles, and improved varieties of crop-plants are created by applying + the principles of Mendel and other scientists. Much attention is also + devoted to seed-testing, and the applications of electricity to + agriculture are being developed.</p> + + <p>As a result of the new conditions, to be a thoroughly-trained and + competent agriculturist requires a special education, partly theoretical, + partly practical. In many countries there are now agricultural schools or + colleges supported by the State, and many such institutions exist in + Britain. In Scotland, the Edinburgh chair of Rural Economy was founded in + 1790; in Ireland, the Glasnevin Institution was inaugurated in 1838; and + the establishment of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, dates + from 1845. In the United States nearly all the States have now colleges, + or departments of colleges, devoted to the teaching of agriculture, and + large allotments of public land have been made for their support. There + are also numerous experimental stations. In Britain there has been a + Board of Agriculture since 1889, under a cabinet minister, which was + constituted a ministry in 1919; previously there was only a department + under a committee of the Privy Council.</p> + + <p>It is probable that on the whole the agriculture of Britain is farther + advanced than that of any other region of similar size. Wheat, barley, + and oats are the chief cereals in Britain; the chief roots are turnips + and potatoes; other crops (besides grass and clover) are beans, peas, + mangold, hops, and flax. In Europe at large the principal cereals are + wheat, oats, barley, and rye, wheat being mostly grown in the middle and + southern regions, such as France, Spain, part of Germany, Austria, + Hungary, Italy, and southern Russia, the others in the more northern + portion, while maize is grown in the warmest parts. Turnips are + comparatively little grown out of Britain, beet-root in some sense taking + their place; potatoes, however, are largely cultivated, except in the + south. In the United States maize is the chief corn crop, next to which + comes wheat, then oats; potatoes are an important crop, but turnips are + only grown to a very small extent. In Canada large quantities of wheat + are grown (more especially in Manitoba and the North-West), much is also + now produced in the Australian colonies, in India, Argentina, + &c.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: W. Fream, <i>Elements + of Agriculture</i>; C. W. Burkett, <i>Agriculture for Beginners</i>; + <i>Encyclopædia of Agriculture</i> (Gresham Publishing Company).</p> + + <p><b>Agrigentum</b> (-jen′tum) (modern <b>Girgenti</b>), an + ancient Greek city of Sicily, founded about 580 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and long one of the most important places on + the island. The town is also famous as the birthplace of the philosopher + Empedocles. Extensive ruins of splendid temples and public buildings yet + attest its ancient magnificence. See <i>Girgenti</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′rimony</b> (Agrimonia), a genus of plants, nat. ord. + Rosaceæ, consisting of slender perennial herbs found in temperate + regions. <i>A. Eupatoria</i>, or common agrimony, was formerly of much + repute as a medicine in England. Its leaves and rootstock are astringent, + and the latter yields a yellow dye. The plant is a common weed on the + borders of cornfields and on roadsides.</p> + + <p><b>Agrippa,</b> Herod. See <i>Herod Agrippa</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agrippa,</b> Marcus Vipsanius, a Roman statesman and general, the + son-in-law of Augustus; born 63 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, died 12 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He was prætor in 41 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>; consul in 37, 28, and 27; ædile in 33; and + tribune from 18 till his death. He commanded the fleet of Augustus in the + battle of Actium. To him Rome is indebted for three of her principal + aqueducts, the Pantheon, and several other works of public use and + ornament.</p> + + <p><b>Agrip′pa,</b> von Nettesheim, Cornelius Henry, born in 1486 + at Cologne, soldier, doctor, and, by common reputation, a magician. In + his youth he was secretary to the Emperor Maximilian I; he subsequently + served seven years in Italy, and was knighted. On quitting the army he + devoted himself to science, became famous as <!-- Page 66 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>[66]</span>a magician and alchemist, + and was involved in disputes with the churchmen. After an active, varied, + and eventful life he died at Grenoble in 1534 or 1535. His works were + published at Lyons in 1550.</p> + + <p><b>Agrippi′na,</b> the name of several Roman women, among whom + we may mention: 1. The youngest daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and + wife of C. Germanicus; a heroic woman, adorned with great virtues. + Tiberius, who hated her for her virtues and popularity, banished her to + the Island of Pandataria, where she starved herself to death in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 33. 2. A daughter of the last mentioned, and the + mother of Nero, by Domitius Ahenobarbus. Her third husband was her uncle, + the Emperor Claudius, whom she subsequently poisoned to secure the + government of the Empire through her son Nero. After ruling a few years + in her son's name he became tired of her ascendency, and caused her to be + assassinated (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 60).</p> + + <p><b>Agropyron,</b> a genus of grasses most of which are perennials. The + root-stalks of <i>Agropyron repens</i> (<i>Radix Graminis</i>) have + aperient and diuretic properties.</p> + + <p><b>Agrostem′ma.</b> See <i>Corncockle</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Agros′tis,</b> a genus of grasses, consisting of many + species, and valuable as pasture-grasses. The bent-grasses belong to the + genus.</p> + + <p><b>Ag′telek,</b> a village in Hungary, near the road from Pesth + to Kassa, with about 600 inhabitants, celebrated for one of the largest + and most remarkable stalactitic caverns in Europe.</p> + + <p><b>Agua</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>g′wa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), an active volcano of Central America, + in Guatemala, rising to the height of 15,000 feet. It has twice destroyed + the old city of Guatemala, in its immediate vicinity.</p> + + <p><b>Aguara</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gwä′ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>). See <i>Agouara</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aguardiente</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gwär-dē-en′te), a popular + spirituous beverage of Spain and Portugal, a kind of coarse brandy, made + from red wine, from the refuse of the grapes left in the wine-press, + &c., generally flavoured with anise; also a Mexican alcoholic drink + distilled from the fermented juice of the agave.</p> + + <p><b>Aguas Calientes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>g′wa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lē-en′tās; lit. 'warm + waters'), a town 270 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of Mexico, + capital of the State of its own name, named from the thermal springs near + it; has manufactures of cottons and a considerable trade. Pop. + 45,198.—Aguas Calientes State has an area of 2,968 sq. miles, and a + pop. of 124,500.</p> + + <p><b>Ague</b> (ā′gū), a kind of fever, which may be + followed by serious consequences, but generally is more troublesome than + dangerous. According to the length of the interval between one febrile + paroxysm and another, agues are denominated <i>quotidian</i> when they + occur once in twenty-four hours, <i>tertian</i> when they come on every + forty-eight hours, <i>quartan</i> when they visit the patient once in + seventy-two hours. Ague arises from marsh miasmata, a temperature above + 60° being, however, apparently required to produce it. To cure the + disease and prevent the recurrence, quinine and various other bitter and + astringent drugs are given with complete success in the majority of + cases.</p> + + <p><b>Ague-cake,</b> a tumour caused by enlargement and hardening of the + spleen, often the consequence of ague or intermittent fever.</p> + + <p><b>Aguesseau</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ges-ō), Henri François d', a + distinguished French jurist and statesman, born at Limoges in 1668; was + in 1690 advocate-general at Paris, and at the age of thirty-two + procureur-général of the Parliament. He risked disgrace with Louis XIV by + successfully opposing the famous papal bull <i>Unigenitus</i>. He was + made chancellor in 1717, was deprived of his office in 1718 on account of + his opposition to Law's system of finance, but had to be recalled in + 1720. In 1722 he had to retire a second time; but was recalled in 1727 by + Cardinal Fleury, and in 1737 again got the chancellorship, which he held + till 1750. He died in 1751.</p> + + <p><b>Aguilar</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gē-lär′), a town of Spain, + province of Cordova, in Andalusia, in a good wine-producing district, and + with a trade in corn and wine. Pop. 12,635.</p> + + <p><b>Aguilar</b> (a-gi-lär′), Grace, an English writer, born at + Hackney 1816, died at Frankfort 1847. Of Jewish parentage, she at first + devoted herself to Jewish subjects, such as <i>The Women of Israel</i>, + <i>The Jewish Faith</i>, &c.; but her fame rests on her novels, + <i>Home Influence</i>, <i>A Mother's Recompense</i>, <i>Home Scenes and + Heart Studies</i>, &c., most of which were published posthumously by + her mother.</p> + + <p><b>Aguilas</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gē′la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s), a flourishing seaport of Southern + Spain, province of Murcia, with copper and lead smelting works. Pop. + 15,967.</p> + + <p><b>Agulhas</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>l′ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s), Cape, a promontory, forming the most + southern extremity of Africa, about 90 miles south-east of the Cape of + Good Hope, rising to 455 feet above the sea, with a lighthouse.</p> + + <p><b>Agu′ti.</b> See <i>Agouti</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A′hab,</b> the seventh King of Israel, succeeded his father + Omri, 918-897 or 875-853 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> At the + instigation of his wife Jezebel he erected a temple to Baal, and became a + cruel persecutor of the true prophets. He was killed by an arrow at the + siege of Ramoth-Gilead. He was succeeded by his son Ahaziah.</p> + + <p><b>Ahag′gar,</b> a mountainous region of the Sahara, south of + Algeria, with some fertile valleys, inhabited by the Tuaregs.</p> + + <p><b>Ahanta.</b> See <i>Gold Coast</i>, <i>West Africa</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ahasue′rus,</b> in Scripture history, a king of Persia, + probably the same as Xerxes, the husband of Esther, to whom the + Scriptures ascribe a <!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page67"></a>[67]</span>singular deliverance of the Jews from + extirpation.—<i>Ahasuerus</i> is also a Scripture name for + Cambyses, the son of Cyrus (<i>Ezra</i>, iv, 6), and for Astyages, King + of the Medes (<i>Dan.</i> ix, 1). Ahasuerus is also the traditional name + of the wandering Jew.</p> + + <p><b>A′haz,</b> the twelfth King of Judah, succeeded his father + Jotham, 742-727 or 734-715 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Forsaking the + true religion, he gave himself up completely to idolatry, and plundered + the temple to obtain presents for Tiglath-Pileser, King of Assyria.</p> + + <p><b>Ahazi′ah.</b>—1. Son of Ahab and Jezebel, and eighth + King of Israel, died from a fall through a lattice in his palace at + Samaria after reigning two years (896, 895 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>).—2. Fifth or sixth King of Judah, and + nephew of the above. He reigned but one year, and was slain (884 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) by Jehu.</p> + + <p><b>Ahith′ophel,</b> privy-councillor to David, and confederate + and adviser of Absalom in his rebellion against his father. When Hushai's + advice prevailed, Ahithophel, despairing of success, hanged himself.</p> + + <p><b>Ahmedabad,</b> or <b>Ahmadabad</b> (ä-m<i>a</i>d-ä-bäd), a town of + India, presidency of Bombay, in district of its own name, on the left + bank of the Sábarmatí, 310 miles north of Bombay. It was founded in 1412 + by Ahmed Shah, and was converted by him into a great capital, adorned + with splendid edifices. It came finally into the hands of the British in + 1818. It is still a handsome and populous place, enclosed by a wall, with + many noteworthy buildings; manufactures of fine silk and cotton fabrics, + cloths of gold and silver, pottery, paper, enamel, mother-of-pearl, + &c. There were disturbances here in 1919. (See <i>Rowlatt Act</i>.) + Pop. 216,777.—Area of district, 3949 sq. miles; pop. 795,094.</p> + + <p><b>Ahmed Mirza,</b> Shah of Persia, born in 1898. He succeeded his + father, Mohammed Ali, when the latter was deposed on 16th July, 1909.</p> + + <p><b>Ahmednag′ar,</b> a town of India, presidency of Bombay, in + district of its own name, surrounded by an earthen wall; with + manufactures of cotton and silk cloths. Near the city is the fort, built + of stone and 1½ miles round. Pop. (including military) 42,032.—Area + of district, 6645 sq. miles; pop. 945,305.</p> + + <p><b>Ahmed Shah,</b> born 1724, died 1773, founder of the Durâni dynasty + in Afghanistan. On the assassination of Nadir he proclaimed himself shah, + and set about subduing the provinces surrounding his realm. Among his + first acts was the securing of the famed Koh-i-noor diamond, which had + fallen into the hands of his predecessor. He crossed the Indus in 1748, + and his conquests in Northern India culminated in the defeat of the + Mahrattas at Panipat (6th Jan., 1761). Affairs in his own country + necessitated his withdrawal from India, but he extended his empire vastly + in other directions far beyond the limits of modern Afghanistan. He was + succeeded by his son Timur.</p> + + <p><b>Ahriman</b> (ä′ri-man; in the Zend <i>Angromainyus</i>, + 'spirit of evil or annihilation'), according to the dualistic doctrine of + Zoroaster, the origin or the personification of evil, sovereign of the + Devas or evil spirits, lord of darkness and of death, being thus opposed + to Ormuzd (<i>Ahuramazda</i>), the spirit of good and of light.</p> + + <p><b>Ah′waz,</b> a small Persian town on the River Karun, province + of Khuzistan, at the head of river navigation, a place of some commercial + note. In the neighbourhood are the vast ruins of a city supposed to date + from the time of the Parthian Empire.</p> + + <p><b>Ai</b> (ä′ē). See <i>Sloth</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aid,</b> a subsidy paid in ancient feudal times by vassals to their + lords on certain occasions, the chief of which were: when their lord was + taken prisoner and required to be ransomed, when his eldest son was to be + made a knight, and when his eldest daughter was to be married and + required a dowry. From the Norman Conquest to the fourteenth century the + collecting of aids by the Crown was one of the forms of taxation, being + afterwards regulated by Parliament.</p> + + <p><b>Ai′dan,</b> Saint, Bishop of Lindisfarne, was originally a + monk of Iona, in which monastery Oswald I, who became king of + Northumberland in 635, had been educated. At the request of Oswald, Aidan + was sent to preach Christianity to his subjects, and established himself + in Lindisfarne as the first Bishop of Durham. He died in 651.</p> + + <p><b>Aide-de-camp</b> (ād-dė-ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), a military officer who conveys the + orders of a general to the various divisions of the army on the field of + battle, and at other times acts as his secretary and general confidential + agent.</p> + + <p><b>Aidin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-i-dēn′), or <b>Guzel + Hissar,</b> a town in Asia Minor, about 60 miles south-east of Smyrna, + with which it is connected by rail; has fine mosques and bazaars, is the + residence of a pasha, and has an extensive trade in cotton, leather, + figs, grapes, &c. Pop. 35,000.</p> + + <p><b>Aigrette′</b> (French), a term used to denote the feathery + crown attached to the seeds of various plants, such as the thistle, + dandelion, &c. (called in botany <i>pappus</i>).—It is also + applied to any head-dress in the form of a plume, whether composed of + feathers, flowers, or precious stones.</p> + + <p><b>Aigues Mortes</b> (āg mort; Lat. <i>Aquæ Mortuæ</i>, 'dead + waters'), a small town of Southern France, near the mouths of the Rhone, + department of Gard; with ancient walls and castle; near it are lagoons, + from which great quantities of salt are extracted. Pop. 4000.</p> + + <p><b>Aiguille</b> (ā′gwil; Fr., lit. a needle), a name given + in the Alps to the needle-like points or tops <!-- Page 68 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>[68]</span>of granite, gneiss, + quartz, and other crystalline rocks and mountain masses; also applied to + sharp-pointed masses of ice on glaciers and elsewhere.—It is also + the name given to a peculiarly-shaped French mountain in Isère, 6500 feet + high.</p> + + <p><b>Aigun</b> (ī-gu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>n′), a town of China, in Manchuria, + on the Amur, with a good trade. Pop. 15,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ai′kin,</b> John, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, an English + miscellaneous writer, born 1747, died 1822. He practised as physician at + Chester, Warrington (where he taught physiology and chemistry at the + Dissenters' Academy), and London; turned his attention to literature and + published various works of a miscellaneous description, some in + conjunction with his sister Mrs. Barbauld, including the popular + <i>Evenings at Home</i> (1792-5), written with the view of popularizing + scientific subjects. His <i>General Biographical Dictionary</i> (in 10 + vols.) was begun in 1799 and finished in 1815. He was editor of the + <i>Monthly Magazine</i> from 1796 till 1807.</p> + + <p><b>Ai′kin,</b> Lucy, daughter of the preceding, was born in + 1781, and died 1864. In 1810 she published <i>Poetical Epistles on + Women</i>, which was followed by a number of books for the young and a + novel <i>Lorimer</i> (1814). In 1818 appeared her <i>Memoirs of the Court + of Queen Elizabeth</i>, a very popular work. She afterwards produced + similar works on the reigns of James I (1822) and Charles I (1833), and a + <i>Life of Addison</i> (1843). In 1824 she had published the literary + remains and biography of her father. She carried on an interesting + correspondence with Dr. Channing from 1826-42, which was published in + 1874.</p> + + <p><b>Aikman,</b> William, an eminent Scottish portrait-painter, born in + Forfarshire in 1682, died in 1731. He studied at Edinburgh and in Italy, + visited Turkey, and spent the later portion of his life in London, where + he enjoyed the friendship of most of the distinguished men of Queen + Anne's time. The portrait of President Duncan Forbes (1685-1747) in the + National Gallery is attributed to him.</p> + + <p><b>Ailan′to,</b> or <b>Ailanthus</b> (meaning tree of the gods), + a tree, genus Ailantus, nat. ord. Simarubaceæ. The <i>A. + glandulōsa</i>, a large and handsome tree, with pinnate leaves 1 or + 2 feet long, is a native of China, but has been introduced into Europe + and North America. A species of silk-worm, the ailanthus silk-worm + (<i>Saturnia cynthia</i>), feeds on its leaves, and the material + produced, though wanting the fineness and gloss of mulberry silk, is + produced at less cost, and is more durable. The wood is hard, heavy, + yellowish-white, and will take a fine polish. The tree has been in + cultivation in England since 1751.</p> + + <p><b>Aileron</b>. See <i>Aeronautics</i>, <i>Aeroplane</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ail′red</b> (contracted form of <b>Ethelred</b>), a religious + and historical writer, supposed to have been born in 1097, but whether in + Scotland or in England is not known, died 1166; abbot of Rievaulx, in the + North Riding of Yorkshire. Wrote lives of Edward the Confessor and St. + Margaret, Queen of Scotland, <i>Genealogy of the Kings of England</i>, + <i>The Battle of the Standard</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Ailsa Craig,</b> a rocky islet in the Firth of Clyde, 10 miles from + the coast of Ayr, of a conical form, 1097 feet high, and about 2 miles in + circumference, precipitous on all sides except the north-east, where + alone it is accessible, frequented by innumerable sea-fowl, including + solan-geese, and covered with grass. On it is a lighthouse.</p> + + <p><b>Ailu′rus.</b> See <i>Panda</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aimard</b> (ā-mär), Gustave, French novelist, born 1818, died + 1883. He lived for ten years among the Indians of North America, and + wrote a number of stories dealing with Indian life, such as <i>Les + Trappeurs de l'Arkansas</i> (1858), <i>La Loi de Lynch</i> (1859), <i>Les + Nuits Mexicaines</i> (1863), <i>Les Bohèmes de la Mer</i> (1865), which + have been popular in English translations. His work is not unlike that of + Fenimore Cooper.</p> + + <p><b>Ain</b> (an<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), a south-eastern frontier department of + France, mountainous in the east (ridges of the Jura), flat or undulating + in the west, divided into two nearly equal parts by the River Ain, a + tributary of the Rhône; area, 2248 sq. miles; pop. (1921), 315,757. + Capital, Bourg.</p> + + <p><b>Ainger</b> (ān′jėr), Rev. Alfred, born in 1837, + died in 1904, was educated at King's College, London, and Trinity Hall, + Cambridge, took orders after gaining his degree, and in 1866 was + appointed reader of the Temple Church, London. He was made Master of the + Temple in 1893, while holding also a canonry in Bristol Cathedral, to + which he had been appointed in 1887. He was highly successful as a + preacher, but is chiefly known by his literary labours, especially those + connected with Lamb and Hood, whose works he edited. The volumes on Lamb + and on Crabbe in the 'English Men of Letters' series are by him, and he + wrote a memoir of Hood for his edition of the works. A volume of his + sermons under the title of <i>The Gospel of Human Life</i> was published + after his death in 1904. Cf. Edith Sichel, <i>Life and Letters of Canon + Ainger</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ainmiller</b> (īn′mil-er), Max Emanuel, a German artist + who may be regarded as the restorer of the art of glass-painting, born + 1807, died 1870. As inspector of the State institute of glass-painting at + Munich he raised this art to a high degree of perfection by the new or + improved processes introduced by him. Under his supervision this + establishment (which afterwards became his own) produced a vast number of + painted windows for ecclesiastical and other buildings, among the + principal being a series of <!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page69"></a>[69]</span>forty windows, containing a hundred + historical and scriptural pictures, in Glasgow Cathedral. Some of his + work is in St. Paul's Cathedral, and his finest productions are the + windows in the Cathedrals of Cologne and Regensburg.</p> + + <p><b>Ainos</b> (ī′nōz; that is, men), the native name + of an uncivilized race of people inhabiting the Japanese island of Yesso, + as also Sakhalien, and the Kurile Islands, and believed to be the + aboriginal inhabitants of Japan. They do not average over 5 feet in + height, but are strong and active. They are very hairy, wear matted + beards, and have black hair which they allow to grow till it falls over + their shoulders. Their complexion is dark brown, approaching to black. + They support themselves by hunting and fishing. There are numerous + legends relating to the Ainos. According to one of these, of Japanese + origin, they descended from the constellation of the Bear, whilst another + mentions as their ancestor a certain Okikurumi who came down from heaven. + The Ainos call themselves Ainu Utara, and the Chinese refer to them as + the Tungi (barbarians of the East). They are very superstitious, and + worship a number of gods, such as the universal god (Opitta-Kamui), the + sun (Tsup-Kamui), the bear (Isho-Kamui), &c. Cf. J. Batchelor, <i>The + Ainu and their Folklore</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ainsworth,</b> Henry, a Puritan divine and scholar, born 1571, died + 1622. He passed great part of his life in Amsterdam, being from 1610 + pastor of a 'Brownist' church there (the Brownists being forerunners of + the Independents). He was a voluminous writer, a controversialist and + commentator, and a thorough Hebrew scholar.</p> + + <p><b>Ainsworth,</b> Robert, born in Lancashire, 1660, earned his living + by keeping a private school in or near London, and died there in 1743. + Among other learned works he compiled the well-known <i>Latin and English + Dictionary</i>, first published in 1736, which passed through many + editions, but is now entirely superseded.</p> + + <p><b>Ainsworth,</b> William Francis, an English physician, geologist, + and traveller, born 1807. He was surgeon and geologist to the Euphrates + expedition under Colonel Chesney, and published <i>Researches in Assyria, + Babylonia, and Chaldæa</i> (1838); <i>Travels in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, + and Armenia</i> (1842); <i>Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand + Greeks</i> (1844), &c. Died 1896.</p> + + <p><b>Ainsworth,</b> William Harrison, an English novelist, born 1805, + died 1882. He was the son of a Manchester solicitor and intended for the + profession of law, but devoted himself to literature. He wrote + <i>Rookwood</i> (1834), <i>Jack Sheppard</i>, illustrated by Cruickshank + (1839), and about forty other novels, including <i>Guy Fawkes</i>, + <i>Tower of London</i>, <i>Windsor Castle</i>, <i>Lancashire Witches</i>, + <i>Flitch of Bacon</i>, &c. His literary models were at first Sir + Walter Scott and afterwards Victor Hugo's <i>Nôtre Dame de Paris</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ain-Tab</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-in-täb′), a town of Northern + Syria, 60 miles north of Aleppo; with manufactures of cottons, woollens, + leather, &c., and an extensive trade. There is here an American + Protestant mission. Pop. 45,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ainu.</b> See <i>Ainos</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Air,</b> the gaseous substance of which our atmosphere consists, + being a mixture mainly of about 78 per cent by volume of nitrogen and 21 + per cent of oxygen. The latter is absolutely essential to animal life, + while the purpose chiefly served by the nitrogen appears to be to dilute + the oxygen. Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen, and hence the + air dissolved in water contains about 10 per cent more oxygen than + atmospheric air. The oxygen therefore available for those animals which + breathe by gills is somewhat less diluted with nitrogen, but it is very + much diluted with water. For the various properties and phenomena + connected with air see such articles as <i>Atmosphere</i>, + <i>Aeronautics</i>, <i>Air-pump</i>, <i>Barometer</i>, <i>Combustion</i>, + <i>Respiration</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Air,</b> in music (in It. <i>aria</i>), a continuous melody, in + which some lyric subject or passion is expressed. The lyric melody of a + single voice, accompanied by instruments, is its proper form of + composition. Thus we find it in the higher order of musical works; as in + cantatas, oratorios, operas, and also independently in + concertos.—<i>Air</i> is also the name often given to the upper or + most prominent part in a concerted piece, and is thus equivalent to + <i>treble</i>, <i>soprano</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aïr,</b> or <b>Asben</b>. See <i>Asben</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aira.</b> See <i>Hair-grass</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Air Beds and Cushions,</b> often used by the sick and invalids, are + composed of india-rubber or of cloth made air-tight by a solution of + india-rubber, and when required for use filled with air, which thus + supplies the place of the usual stuffing materials. They tend to prevent + bed-sores from continuous lying in one position. They are also cheap and + easily transported, as the bed or cushion, when not in use, can be packed + in small compass, to be again inflated with air when wanted.</p> + + <p><b>Air-bladder.</b> See <i>Swimming-bladder</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Air-brake,</b> a brake operated by air pressure, usually applied to + brake, simultaneously, all the wheels of a moving train. In the + Westinghouse type, by means of an ingenious 'triple valve' carried one on + each carriage, the train pipe is made to serve the dual purpose of supply + and control. An air-pump on the engine compresses air into the main + receiver, from which it flows through a reducing valve into the train + pipe. The pressure, acting on the under side of the triple valve, moves + the valve to its extreme <!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page70"></a>[70]</span>position, thereby opening a passage to an + auxiliary receiver on the carriage and also putting the brake cylinder + into communication with the atmosphere. A spring in the brake cylinder + keeps the brakes in the 'off' position.</p> + + <p>To apply the brakes, the pressure is lowered in the train pipe. The + air pressure in the auxiliary receiver reverses the triple valve, thus + admitting air to the brake cylinder and closing the outlet to + atmosphere.</p> + + <p>To remove the brakes, air from the main receiver is passed into the + train pipe, and the triple valve is restored to the 'off' position. See + <i>Traction</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: W. W. Wood, + <i>Westinghouse Air-brake</i>; R. H. Blackhall, <i>Air-brake + Catechism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Air-cells,</b> cavities in the cellular tissue of the stems and + leaves of plants which contain air only, the juices of the plants being + contained in separate vessels. They are largest and most numerous in + aquatic plants, as in the <i>Vallisneria spirālis</i> and the + <i>Victoria regia</i>, the gigantic leaves of which latter are buoyed up + on the surface of the water by their means.—The minute cells in the + lungs of animals are also called air-cells. There are also air-cells in + the bodies of birds. They are connected with the respiratory system, and + are situated in the cavity of the thorax and abdomen, and sometimes + extend into the bones. They are most fully developed in birds of powerful + and rapid flight, such as the albatross.</p> + + <p><b>Aird,</b> Thomas, a Scottish poet and miscellaneous writer, friend + of Professor Wilson, De Quincey, and Carlyle, long editor of a newspaper + in Dumfries; born 1802, died 1876. He wrote <i>The Devil's Dream on Mount + Aksbeck</i>; <i>The Old Bachelor</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Airdrie,</b> a municipal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, in + Lanarkshire, near the Monkland Canal, 11 miles east of Glasgow, in the + centre of a rich mining district, with a large cotton-mill, foundries and + machine shops, breweries, &c., and collieries and ironworks in its + vicinity. Pop. 24,160.</p> + + <p><b>Air-engine,</b> an engine in which air heated, and so expanded, or + compressed air is used as the motive power. A great many engines of the + former kind have been invented, some of which have been found to work + pretty well where no great power is required. They may be said to be + essentially similar in construction to the steam-engine, though of course + the expansibility of air by heat is small compared with the expansion + that takes place when water is converted into steam. Engines working by + compressed air have been found very useful in mining, tunnelling, + &c., and the compressed air may be conveyed to its destination by + means of pipes. In such cases the waste air serves for ventilation and + for reducing the oppressive heat.</p> + + <p><b>Aire</b> (ār), a river of England, W. Riding of Yorkshire, + rising to the south-east of Penyghent and flowing in a south-easterly + direction to join the Ouse above Goole, having passed through Leeds on + its way; length, 70 miles. It is navigable up to Leeds, and forms an + important portion of the Aire and Calder Navigation system, which + connects Goole, Hull, &c., with Liverpool. The Calder enters the Aire + at Castleford. The district specially known as <i>Airedale</i> is the + valley of the Aire above Leeds.—A large breed of terrier, of which + there are several varieties, is known as the <i>Airedale terrier</i>, a + strongly-built animal, rather long in the legs, with a hard, close + coat.</p> + + <p><b>Aire,</b> a river of France, in the Argonne region, a tributary of + the Aisne.</p> + + <p><b>Aire-sur-l'Adour</b> (ār-su<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-dör), a small but ancient town of + France, department of Landes, the see of a bishop. Pop. 3000.</p> + + <p><b>Aire-sur-la-Lys</b> (ār-su<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lē), an old fortified town of + France, department of Pas de Calais, 10 miles south-east of St. Omer. + Pop. 5000.</p> + + <p><b>Air-gun,</b> a gun from which the bullet is propelled by means of + compressed air. Until about the middle of the nineteenth century air-guns + were made with a metal reservoir in the butt; this reservoir was charged + with air by means of a pump, and although one pumping put in enough air + for six or seven shots, the process of loading was awkward and laborious. + The well-known 'Gem' air-gun was worked by means of a spring, which + compressed the air; the great defect of this gun was that the barrel was + used as a cocking-lever, and so was apt to become bent and inaccurate. + The 'Gem' was a smooth-bore gun, and early attempts at rifled air-guns + failed, as the pellet was apt to stick in the barrel, owing to the low + velocity not allowing it to take the grooves. The 'Quackenbush' air-gun + made an attempt to get over this difficulty; its slugs were felted, and + the felt took the rifling and greatly increased the accuracy of the + weapon, but, of course, the ammunition was much more expensive than + ordinary air-gun pellets. The B.S.A. air-rifle is an excellent weapon + which has overcome all the early difficulties of construction. It has a + fixed barrel, a separate cocking-lever, and a rotating breech-plug, and + the muzzle velocity of its 16-grain pellet is 600 feet per second, which + compares not unfavourably with the 1000 feet per second of the 40-grain + bullet of a .22 long-rifle cartridge. An air-gun is a splendid weapon for + practising markmanship, as it is almost noiseless, and as its ammunition + costs little. It does not need to be elaborately cleaned, as a miniature + rifle does; an occasional oiling is all that it requires to keep it in + order, and with care it should fire an indefinite number of shots without + losing its accuracy. <!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page71"></a>[71]</span></p> + + <p><b>Airolo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-i-rō′lō), a small town + of Switzerland, canton Ticino, at the southern end of the St. Gothard + Tunnel, and the first place on this route at which Italian is spoken. + Pop. 2000.</p> + + <p><b>Air-plants,</b> or <b>Epiphytes,</b> are plants that grow upon + other plants or trees, apparently without receiving any nutriment + otherwise than from the air. The name is restricted to flowering plants + (mosses or lichens being excluded) and is suitably applied to many + species of orchids. The conditions necessary to the growth of such plants + are excessive heat and moisture, and hence their chief localities are the + damp and shady tropical forests of Africa, Asia, and America. They are + particularly abundant in Java and tropical America.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image026.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image026.jpg" + alt="Air-pump" title="Air-pump" /></a> + Fig. 1.—Air-pump (sectional view) + </div> + + <p><b>Air-pump,</b> an apparatus by means of which air or other gas may + be removed from or compressed into an enclosed space. It was invented by + Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about the year 1654, and described in 1657 + by Gaspar Schott. An ordinary suction-pump for water is on the same + principle as the air-pump; indeed, before water reaches the top of the + pipe the air has been pumped out by the same machinery which pumps the + water. An ordinary air-pump (see fig. 1) consists essentially of a + cylinder or barrel with a piston and valves. The barrel is connected to + the vessel from which the air is to be pumped. <span + class="scac">A</span> is the vessel to be exhausted, <span + class="scac">C</span> the air-pump cylinder, <span class="scac">P</span> + the piston, <span class="scac">VV</span> valves in the piston, and <span + class="scac">O</span> the connection to the vessel <span + class="scac">A</span>. When the piston moves downwards from the position + shown, it cuts off the connection with <span class="scac">A</span> by + passing over <span class="scac">O</span>. The length <span + class="scac">L</span> is made long enough so that <span + class="scac">O</span> is kept covered up during the downstroke. The air + filling the space <span class="scac">D</span> is compressed, and so lifts + the valves <span class="scac">VV</span> and passes out through them. This + goes on till the end of the downward stroke, when the volume is very + small indeed. When the upward motion begins, the valves <span + class="scac">VV</span> close, and the piston rises and creates a vacuum + in <span class="scac">D</span>. When the piston rises sufficiently to + uncover <span class="scac">O</span> (as in figure), air rushes from <span + class="scac">A</span> into the highly-exhausted space <span + class="scac">D</span> and fills it. The process is repeated indefinitely, + and <span class="scac">A</span> is gradually exhausted.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image027.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image027.jpg" + alt="Toepler and Sprengel Pumps" title="Toepler and Sprengel Pumps" /></a> + Fig. 2.—Toepler Pump Fig. + 3.—Sprengel Pump + </div> + + <p>Air-pumps for compressing air are constructed on the same principle, + but the valves act the reverse way. The bicycle pump is a well-known + example of this form of pump. In the Fleuss or Geryk pump greater + efficiency is attained by having layers of oil in the barrel and above + the piston. In nearly all pumps for producing the high vacua necessary, + e.g. for the electric glow-lamp and the X-ray tube, mercury is employed. + In one form, the Toepler pump, a reservoir containing mercury is + connected by a flexible tube to the receiver. (See fig 2. <span + class="scac">T</span> tube connecting pump to vessel to be exhausted; + <span class="scac">R</span>, reservoir, raised above <span + class="scac">A</span> to drive air in <span class="scac">B</span> and + <span class="scac">C</span> through <span class="scac">D</span> and out + into open air; <span class="scac">R</span> is then lowered, and <span + class="scac">B</span> and <span class="scac">C</span> fill with air from + receiver. Process then repeated.) By alternately lowering and raising the + reservoir, gas is first withdrawn from the receiver and then expelled + through <span class="scac">D</span>, which also acts as a barometer. The + process is repeated until the desired degree of exhaustion is reached. In + a second type, the Sprengel pump, a stream of mercury from a reservoir + situated above the vessel to be exhausted falls in drops through a narrow + vertical tube which communicates with the vessel. (See fig. 3. <span + class="scac">A</span>, reservoir; <span class="scac">B</span>, tube + leading to vessel to be exhausted; <span class="scac">C</span>, bubbles + of air carried down by mercury.) The air is entrapped between the falling + drops of mercury, <!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page72"></a>[72]</span>and is carried down and expelled with it. In + the filter-pump, water is used instead of mercury, the pump being + connected to an ordinary water-tap.</p> + + <p>A more recent form, the Gaede pump, is of the rotary type. (See fig. + 4. <span class="scac">C</span>, iron case; <span class="scac">G</span>, + glass front; <span class="scac">P</span> two-chamber porcelain drum + rotated counter-clockwise about axle <span class="scac">A</span>. As + mercury leaves chamber <span class="scac">R</span>, air enters from + receiver by tube <span class="scac">T</span> and opening <span + class="scac">B</span>. When <span class="scac">B</span> is immersed, + mercury enters and air is driven into case <span class="scac">C</span> + and removed through tube <span class="scac">S</span>.) A porcelain drum, + divided into two cells, rotates within an air-tight case more than half + filled with mercury. Each cell has an opening which, when above the + mercury surface, places the cell in communication with the receiver. When + the opening is immersed, the entrapped air passes by another channel into + the outer case, from which it is removed by another less efficient pump. + The pump will reduce the pressure within a 6-litre bulb from 10 + millimetres to .00001 millimetre of mercury in fifteen minutes. + Langmuir's pump employs the principle of the aspirator. A current of + mercury vapour passes from a mercury boiler past a tube communicating + with the apparatus to be exhausted, and sucks the air from it; the + mercury is condensed in the upper part of the pump, returns by side tubes + to the boiler and leaves the extracted air in this condenser. A less + efficient pump is employed to remove the air from the mercury condenser + as it accumulates. This pump is said to be simple and rapid in action, + and capable of exhausting an 11-litre bulb from atmospheric pressure to + .00001 millimetre in eighty seconds.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image028.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image028.jpg" + alt="Gaede Pump" title="Gaede Pump" /></a> + Fig. 4.—Gaede Pump + </div> + + <p>Air-pumps are largely used in steam engineering, both on land and at + sea, to extract the air which enters the condenser with the steam (see + <i>Condenser</i>). Several varieties of air-pumps are in use. 1. The + ordinary piston-pump (fig. 1) in which the piston extracts air by first + sucking it into the cylinder and then expelling it to the atmosphere. The + opening leading to the condenser is closed during the stroke in which the + air is expelled. Two or three cylinders are usually provided on each + air-pump set, the former type being known as a 2-throw pump and the + latter a 3-throw pump. One of the best-known makes is the <i>Edwards</i> + air-pump. Piston air-pumps are driven either by the main engine through a + suitable mechanism, or by a separate electric motor. The amount of power + required to drive them varies with the size of the set, and with large + engines of over 10,000 h.p. it is about ½ per cent or less. Vacua as high + as 29 inches (Bar. 30 inches) can be readily maintained on large plants + by this type of pump, provided the condenser is suitably designed. In + well-maintained plants bad vacua are commonly due to deficient air + extraction, which may arise from the low-pressure air-piping not being + air-tight, or from the air-pump being too small. 2. The water-ejector + type uses the momentum of a jet of water to extract the air entrained + with it. Well-known types of this plant are the ordinary barometric + jet-condenser and the <i>Leblanc</i> air-pump. In the latter type, a + rotating wheel, which carries vanes, forcibly throws sheets of water into + a pipe communicating with the condenser. The sheets of water lie across + the pipe, and the space between them is filled up with air sucked from + the condenser. This water, with the entrained air, is thrown out, against + the atmospheric pressure, by the momentum imparted to the water sheets by + the rotating wheel. Very high vacua can be obtained with the Leblanc + pump, but the power required to drive it is more than is required with a + 3-throw piston-pump. (Cp. Sprengel pump above). 3. A steam-ejector is + also used, a jet of steam taking the place of the sheets of water in the + Leblanc type. Parsons' <i>augmentor condenser</i> works on this + principle. A small jet of steam sucks the air from the main condenser and + compresses it into a small so-called augmentor condenser. The pressure in + this condenser is a little higher than the pressure in the main + condenser, but it is sufficient to enable an ordinary 3-throw pump to be + used efficiently. The steam used to extract the air is condensed in the + augmentor condenser by cold water, and the interior of the augmentor + condenser is connected to the inlet of an ordinary 3-throw pump. The + 3-throw pump is called upon to deal with the air at a slightly higher + pressure than the condenser pressure, and the vacuum in the main + condenser is improved by the drop of pressure which exists between the + augmentor condenser and the main condenser. In a well-designed plant, for + instance, a 3-throw pump might be used to maintain a vacuum of 29 inches + in the augmentor condenser, while the steam jet would provide another ½ + inch of vacuum, giving 29½ inches vacuum in the main condenser. The + <i>pressure</i> in the main condenser is thereby reduced from 1 inch Hg. + to ½ inch Hg.; a reduction of <i>one-half</i>. (Cp. Langmuir's pump + above—using a <!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page73"></a>[73]</span>mercury-vapour jet instead of a steam + jet.)—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: S. P. Thompson, <i>The + Development of the Mercurial Air-Pump</i>; E. Hausbrand, <i>Evaporating, + Condensing, and Cooling Apparatus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Air-raids.</b> Apart from various sporadic bomb-dropping attacks by + the Italians in Tripoli in 1913, the first air-raid proper was made by a + Zeppelin on Antwerp during the investiture of that city by the Germans in + 1914. Later on this new method of warfare was developed to a considerable + extent by both sides during the Great European War, both air-ships and + aeroplanes being used. Air-craft for this purpose have been likened to + long-range guns, with the advantage of greater precision, because the + target is in view, and very much longer effective range—the + Germans, for example, used to raid London, and on one occasion Edinburgh, + from bases situated in North Germany and on the Schleswig coast. + Air-raids are of great value in affecting the <i>moral</i> of the enemy + country by bringing home the effects of war in its most terrifying aspect + to the civilian population at home, and thus causing the dislocation of + traffic and diminishing the output of munitions. Their practical value is + in attacking and destroying munition-factories, army head-quarters, naval + bases, &c., in addition to such important work as the demolition of + ammunition-dumps, and cutting lines of communication behind the + front.</p> + + <p>Various protective devices against raiding aircraft have been + invented. Among these are high-angle guns, capable of throwing shells to + a height of some 30,000 feet, though possibly the most effective defence + is small high-speed aeroplanes armed with machine-guns and capable of + reaching great heights in a short space of time. For use at night, + kite-balloons (see <i>Balloons</i>) are sent up in clumps connected + together by cables. From the cables is suspended a network of steel + wires, which is invisible to the hostile air-craft, and in which they may + become entangled and so brought down. These have been raised to a height + of as much as 12,000 feet. For raiding purposes two types of + aeroplane—in addition to air-ships—have been developed. 'Day + bombers' carry out raids in daylight at heights of 12,000 to 20,000 feet + on points from 50 to 100 miles behind the lines. 'Night-bombers' are + slower machines which raid well into the enemy's territory—up to + 200 or more miles—at heights varying from 8000 to 12,000 feet. It + is usual for night-raids to be carried out by squadrons of machines + flying in formation, each machine carrying about a ton of bombs (in + 1918). Air-ships can carry 5-10 tons of bombs to places up to 1000 miles + distant from their bases.</p> + + <p>During the last months of the war, our Independent Air Force dropped + 500 tons of bombs on German objectives, and this raiding over a wide area + of industrial Germany played no small part in causing that loss of spirit + among the enemy which led eventually to their request for an armistice, + and their virtual capitulation.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">AIR-SHIPS</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:65%;"> + <a href="images/image029.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image029.jpg" + alt="Air-ships" title="Air-ships" /></a> + </div> + <p><b>Air-ships,</b> lighter-than-air craft provided with means of + propulsion and steering. The air-ship, unlike the aeroplane, is not + dependent upon its engines for its power to remain in flight, but derives + its sustentation from the hydrogen gas with which it is filled. Hydrogen, + first weighed by Henry Cavendish in 1766, is the lightest gas known, + being 14.47 times lighter than air. In the pure state it has a lifting + force of 71.155 lb. per 1000 cu. feet, but for calculation purposes is + usually assumed to contain 5 per cent of impurities, giving a 'lift' of + approximately 68 lb. per 1000 cu. feet. Hydrogen is, when mixed with air, + highly inflammable, and helium has therefore been suggested as a + substitute. This has a lift, when pure, of about 65 lb. per 1000 cu. + feet, but is only found in a few places in America and is therefore at + present too expensive to be used in quantities. The lift of any given + quantity of hydrogen depends upon the difference between its weight and + that of an equal volume of air. As the amount, and therefore weight, of + air contained in a given space varies with the barometric pressure and + temperature, the lift of hydrogen given above varies also. These figures + are based upon a temperature of 60° F. and a barometric pressure of 30 + inches. As an air-ship rises from the ground, the density, and therefore + pressure, of the air decreases, which causes the hydrogen in the envelope + to expand proportionately. Rise in temperature has the same effect. When + an air-ship ascends, the gas therefore expands, and at a certain point + would burst the envelope were valves not provided to allow some of the + gas to escape. It is important to realize that as the expansion occurs at + a rate corresponding to the decrease in density no alteration in lift + occurs so long as gas is not lost through the valves. This would continue + indefinitely if the gas-chamber were capable of stretching indefinitely, + but with the cotton-fabric used in practice a height is reached when gas + commences to escape from the automatic valves. From this moment the lift + of the air-ship begins to decrease. At a certain point this decrease will + have reached such a point that the air-ship is 'in equilibrium', i.e. she + weighs precisely the same as the volume of air she displaces. This is + known as the 'maximum height'. Up to 10,000 feet it is roughly true that + <sup>1</sup>/<sub>30</sub> of the lift is lost per 1000 foot rise.</p> + + <p>The simplest form of air-ship is the <i>non-rigid</i>, which consists + of a rubberized cotton-fabric gas-container (the 'envelope'), from which + the 'car', <!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page74"></a>[74]</span>containing engines, crew, &c., is hung + by flexible steel-wire ropes. To resist the bending moment introduced by + the weight of the car, the envelope is inflated with hydrogen under + pressure—usually about 25 mm. of water. So long as this pressure is + greater than any local compression due to bending or loading in the + fabric, the envelope will retain its shape. On coming down from a height, + owing to the loss of gas, as already explained, the pressure will be + reduced, and something must be done to restore it or the envelope will + buckle. Fabric bags, known as 'ballonets', are therefore fitted inside + the envelope, and as the air-ship descends air is forced into these bags, + which supplies the lost pressure and maintains the shape of the envelope. + The height to which a non-rigid air-ship can go, on returning from which + the ballonets will be just full of air and the pressure the same as at + starting, is known as the 'maximum ballonet height'. Ballonets are + usually equivalent in volume to rather less than a quarter of the total + volume of the air-ship—giving a maximum ballonet height of 6000 to + 7000 feet. Usually from two to three ballonets are provided, according to + the size of the air-ship. During the Great European War British non-rigid + air-ships were constructed varying in size from a capacity of 70,000 cu. + feet to 360,000 cu. feet. The former had one 75-h.p. engine, and the + latter two of 375 h.p. each. Owing to difficulties in maintaining the + shape and distributing the weight of the car over a long envelope, it is + generally considered that 500,000 cu. feet probably represents the + maximum size in which the non-rigid form of construction can be used. + Above this size the <i>semi-rigid</i> type is used. In this case the + envelope remains as in the non-rigid, but a girder or 'keel' is + introduced between the envelope and the car, the weight of which is + therefore taken by the keel and thence distributed to the envelope + instead of being taken direct from the envelope as in non-rigids. There + has been little development of non-rigids in Great Britain. The most + prominent types are the Italian 'Forlanini', 'Verduzzio', and military + air-ships. The keel, in all these examples, is not a rigid girder in the + vertical sense, as it consists of a number of sections connected together + by links. It is designed to resist compression only so long as it is held + straight by the pressure of the envelope, and is not capable of taking a + bending moment. When a size of about 1,000,000-cu.-foot-hydrogen capacity + is reached it becomes economical to use the <i>rigid</i> method of + construction. This is totally distinct from the other two types, as the + non-rigid envelope is replaced by a rigid hull of sufficient strength to + retain its shape without the assistance of any internal gas-pressure. The + hull consists of a number of longitudinal members—usually built-up + girders of 'duralumin', an aluminium alloy—connected together at + distances of 25-30 feet by a number of 'transverse frames', or rings, + forming bulkheads. The transverse frames are also of duralumin girders, + and are braced by 'radical wires' running from the joints of these + girders to a ring in the centre. Between each pair of these transverse + frames is a gas-bag containing hydrogen. The gas-bags are made of + rubberized cotton on to which is stuck 'gold-beater's skin', made from + the lining of the intestines of an ox. This is done to prevent hydrogen + leakage. This is necessary, as the fabric of the gas-bags of a rigid + air-ship is lighter and contains less rubber than the envelope of a + non-rigid.</p> + + <p>A '<span class="grk">Δ</span>'-shaped keel runs along the + interior of the ship, its weight being taken on the two bottom + longitudinal girders. The chief function of the keel is to distribute the + load of the various weights to the transverse frames of the air-ship. In + it are slung the petrol-tanks, water-ballast tanks, bombs, &c., and + living accommodation for the crew is also provided there. Along the + bottom runs a walking-way from which access is gained to the cars and + various parts of the air-ship. The cars containing the engines, + wireless-cabin, and pilot's cabin are suspended from the transverse + frames. Some of the cars, instead of being slung below the centre-line, + are slung in pairs some little way up the side of the air-ship.</p> + + <p>All air-ships are steered by means of rudders and, in the vertical + sense, elevators, in precisely the same way as aeroplanes. Up to the end + of 1919 speeds of 84 miles per hour had been reached and air-ships had + climbed to 24,000 feet. The greatest distance covered in one flight was + 4500 miles, while the longest time in the air was effected by R34 on her + voyage to America, which occupied 108 hours—4 days 8 hours. Rigid + air-ships of 2,750,000-cu.-foot capacity had been built with a length of + nearly 300 feet and a gross lift of 60 tons. See also <i>Aeronautics</i>, + <i>Balloons</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L. Sazerac + de Forges, <i>La Conquête de l'Air</i>; Santos Dumont, <i>My + Airships</i>; Hildebrandt, <i>Airships: Past and Present</i>; Major G. + Whale, <i>British Airships: Past, Present, and Future</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Airy,</b> Sir George Biddell, a distinguished English astronomer, + was born at Alnwick, 27th July, 1801, and educated at Hereford, + Colchester, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was senior wrangler + in 1823. At Cambridge he was Lucasian professor of mathematics, and + subsequently Plumian professor of astronomy and experimental philosophy, + in the latter capacity having charge of the observatory. In 1835 he was + appointed Astronomer Royal, and as such <!-- Page 75 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>[75]</span>his superintendence of + the observatory at Greenwich was able and successful. He resigned this + post with a pension in 1881. His important achievement is the discovery + of a new inequality in the motions of Venus and the earth. He wrote much + and made numerous valuable investigations on subjects connected with + astronomy, physics, and mathematics. Among separate works published by + him may be mentioned <i>Popular Astronomy</i>, <i>On Sound and + Atmospheric Vibrations</i>, <i>A Treatise on Magnetism</i>, <i>On the + Undulatory Theory of Optics</i>, <i>On Gravitation</i>. He died 2nd Jan., + 1892. He left an autobiography, published in 1896.</p> + + <p><b>Aisle</b> (īl; from Lat. <i>ala</i>, a wing), in + architecture, one of the lateral divisions of a church in the direction + of its length, separated from the central portion or nave by piers or + pillars. There may be one aisle or more on each side of the nave. The + cathedrals at Chichester, Milan, and Amiens have five aisles, Antwerp and + Paris seven, and that of Cordova nineteen aisles in all. The nave is + sometimes called the central aisle. See <i>Cathedral</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aisne</b> (ān), a north-eastern frontier department of + France; area, 2838 sq. miles. It is an undulating, well-cultivated, and + well-wooded region, chiefly watered by the Oise in the north, its + tributary the Aisne in the centre, and the Marne in the south. It + contains the important towns of St. Quentin, Laon (the capital), + Soissons, and Château Thierry. In the European War (1914-18) severe + fighting took place on the Aisne, and a great battle was fought on 12th + Sep., 1914. General Nivelle's offensive on the Aisne began in April, + 1917. Pop. (1921), 421,575.</p> + + <p><b>Aïva′lik,</b> or <b>Kidonia,</b> a seaport of Asia Minor, on + the Gulf of Adramyti, 66 miles north by west of Smyrna, carrying on an + extensive commerce in olive-oil, soap, cotton, &c. Pop. 21,000.</p> + + <p><b>Aix</b> (āks), a town of Southern France, department + Bouches-du-Rhône, on the River Arc, the seat of an archbishop. It is well + built, has an old cathedral and other interesting buildings, including a + university, a library (over 100,000 vols.), museum, &c.; manufactures + cotton and woollen goods, oil, soap, hats, flour, &c.; warm springs, + now less visited than formerly. Aix was founded in 123 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> by the Roman consul Gaius Sextius Calvinus, and + from its mineral springs was called <i>Aquæ Sextiæ</i> (Sextian Waters). + Between this town and Arles, Marius gained his great victory over the + Teutons, 102 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In the Middle Ages the counts + of Provence held their court here, to which the troubadours used to + resort. Pop. 29,836.</p> + + <p><b>Aix,</b> or <b>Aix-les-Bains</b> (āks-lā-ban<span + class="x1"><span class="x3">˙</span></span>), a finely-situated + village of France, department of Savoie, 8 miles north of Chambéry, on + the side of a fertile valley, with much-frequented hot springs known to + the Romans by the name of <i>Aquæ Gratianæ</i>, and with ruins of a Roman + triumphal arch, and of a temple of Diana. Pop. 8900.</p> + + <p><b>Aix-la-Chapelle</b> (āks-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-sha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-pel; Ger. <i>Aachen</i>), a city of + Rhenish Prussia, 38 miles west by south of Cologne, pleasantly situated + in a fine vale watered by the Wurm, formerly surrounded by ramparts, now + converted into pleasant promenades. It is well built, and though an + ancient town has now quite a modern appearance. The most important + building is the cathedral, the oldest portion of which, often called the + nave, was erected in the time of Charles the Great (Charlemagne) as the + palace chapel about 796. It is in the Byzantine style, and consists of an + octagon, surrounded by a sixteen-sided gallery and surmounted by a + cupola, in the middle being the tomb of Charlemagne. The adjoining Gothic + choir, begun in 1353 and finished in 1413, forms the other chief division + of the cathedral; it is lofty and of great elegance, and has fine painted + windows. Another noteworthy building is the Rathaus (town hall), erected + in the fourteenth century. Aix-la-Chapelle, with the adjoining + Burtscheid, which may be considered a suburb, is a place of great + commerce and manufacturing industry, the chief productions being woollen + yarns and cloths, needles, machinery, cards (for the woollen + manufacture), railway and other carriages, cigars, chemicals, silk goods, + hosiery, glass, soap, &c. A considerable portion of its importance + and prosperity arises from the influx of visitors to its sulphur and + chalybeate springs and baths.—Aix-la-Chapelle was known to the + Romans as <i>Aquisgranum</i>. It was the favourite residence of Charles + the Great, who made it the capital of all his dominions north of the + Alps, and who died here in 814. During the Middle Ages it was a free + imperial city and very flourishing. Thirty-seven German emperors and + eleven empresses have been crowned in it, and the imperial insignia were + preserved here till 1795, when they were carried to Vienna. The town was + in possession of France from 1794 to 1814. Pop. + 156,143.—<i>Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle</i>, a congress held in + 1818, by which the army of the allies in France was withdrawn after + France had paid the contribution imposed at the peace of 1815, and by + which independence was restored to France.—A <i>treaty</i> of peace + concluded at this city, 2nd May, 1668, as a result of the Triple + Alliance, put an end to the war carried on against Spain by Louis XIV in + 1667, after the death of his father-in-law, Philip IV, in support of his + claims to a great part of the Spanish Netherlands, which he urged in the + name of his queen, the infanta Maria Theresa. By this France obtained + Lille, Charleroi, Douai, Tournai, Oudenarde, &c. The <i>second + peace</i> of Aix-la-Chapelle, 18th Oct., 1748, terminated the Austrian + war of succession. <!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page76"></a>[76]</span></p> + + <p><b>Ajaccio</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>ch′ō), the capital of + Corsica, on the south-west coast of the island, on a tongue of land + projecting into the Gulf of Ajaccio, the birthplace of Napoleon and the + seat of a bishop, with coral and sardine fisheries, and a considerable + trade. There are here a cathedral, a college with library and museum, + marble statue of Napoleon, monument of the Bonaparte family, &c. + Ajaccio is connected by railway with Bastia and other places, and is + becoming a winter resort for people with weak lungs. Pop. 20,946.</p> + + <p><b>Ajan′ta,</b> a village and ravine of India, in the north-west + of the Nizam's dominions, about 50 miles north-north-east of Aurangabad. + The ravine, 4 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of the village, is + celebrated for its cave temples and monasteries, twenty-nine in number, + excavated out of a wall of almost perpendicular rock about 250 feet high. + They are all richly ornamented with sculpture, and covered with + highly-finished paintings, representing subjects of almost all kinds. The + oldest are assigned to about 200 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the most + modern to about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 600, and they may be said + to furnish a continuous record of Buddhist art during 800 years, the + faith at the latter date being practically expelled from India.</p> + + <p><b>A′jax</b> (Gr. <i>Aias</i>), the name of two Grecian chiefs + who fought against Troy, the one being son of Oĭleus, King of + Locris, surnamed the Little, the other son of Telamon, the Great or + Telamonian Ajax. The latter was from Salamis, and sailed with twelve + ships to Troy, where he is represented by Homer as the boldest and + handsomest of the Greeks, after Achilles. He had more than one combat + with Hector, against whom he was well matched. On the death of Achilles, + when his arms, which Ajax claimed, were awarded to Ulysses, he became + insane and killed himself. This is the subject of Sophocles' tragedy + <i>Ajax</i>. The other Ajax was hardly of less importance as a champion + on the Greek side in the Trojan war. At the fall of Troy he entered the + temple of Pallas Athena and seized Cassandra. He lost his life during his + homeward voyage, either by shipwreck or by a flash of lightning sent by + Athena, who was offended at the violation of her temple.</p> + + <p><b>Ajmere,</b> <b>Ajmir,</b> or <b>Ajmer,</b> a British + commissionership or province in India, Rajputána, divided into the two + districts of Ajmere and Mairwara (or Merwara); area, 2711 sq. miles. The + surface of the province, which is entirely surrounded by native States, + is hilly in the north and west, where there is a branch of the Aravali + range, but level in the south and east. The soil is partly fertile, but + there are large barren sandy plains, and there are no rivers of any + importance. There are a large number of tanks which collect the water of + small streams, and are useful for irrigation. The province suffered + severely from famine in 1899-1900, the population being reduced by 12 or + 13 per cent. Pop. 501,395.—<i>Ajmere</i>, the capital, an ancient + city, a favourite residence of the Mogul emperors, is 279 miles <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> of Delhi, at the foot of Taragarh Hill (2853 + feet), on which is a fort. It is surrounded by a wall, has well-built + streets, and possesses a Government college, as also Mayo College for + Rajput nobles, a Scottish mission, a mosque that forms one of the finest + specimens of early Mahommedan architecture extant, and an old palace of + Akbar, now the treasury. There is a trade in cotton, sugar, salt, + &c., and the town is an important station on the Rajputána railway. + Pop. 86,200.</p> + + <p><b>Ajowan′</b> (<i>Ptychōtis Ajowan</i>), an umbelliferous + plant cultivated in India, Persia, and Egypt, the seeds of which are used + in cookery and in medicine, having carminative properties. The seeds much + resemble caraway seeds, have a strong smell of thyme, and are exported in + some quantity to Europe as a source of <i>thymol</i>, now so well + known.</p> + + <p><b>Aju′ga,</b> a genus of plants belonging to the labiate + family. See <i>Bugle</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aj′utage,</b> a short tube of a tapering shape fitting into + the side of a reservoir or vessel to regulate the discharge of water from + it. Also, the nozzle of a tube for regulating the discharge of water to + form a <i>jet d'eau</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Akabah′,</b> Gulf of, an arm of the Red Sea, on the east side + of the Peninsula of Sinai, which separates it from the Gulf of Suez; + nearly 100 miles long. The village of Akabah, at the northern extremity + of the gulf, is supposed to be near the site of the <i>Ezion-geber</i> of + the Old Testament; and here also was Elath, long a place of note. Akabah + still carries on a small trade. It was captured by the Arabs in 1917.</p> + + <p><b>Akagamaseki.</b> Same as <i>Simonoseki</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Akaroid Resin,</b> a resin obtained from some of the grass-trees of + Australia, used in varnishes.</p> + + <p><b>Akassa,</b> a seaport of Southern Nigeria, on a small island nearly + opposite the chief mouth of the Niger. There are here engineering and + other works, at which ships may be repaired, belonging to the + Government.</p> + + <p><b>Ak′bar</b> (that is 'very great'), a Mogul emperor, the + greatest Asiatic prince of modern times. He was born at Amerkote, in + Sind, in 1542, succeeded his father, Humayun, a grandson of Sultan Baber, + at the age of thirteen, and governed first under the guardianship of his + minister, Beyram, but took the chief power into his own hands in 1560. He + fought with distinguished valour against his foreign foes and rebellious + subjects, conquering all his enemies, and extending the limits of the + empire farther than they had ever been before, although on his accession + they embraced only a small part of the former <!-- Page 77 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page77"></a>[77]</span>Mogul Empire. Although a + Mohammedan by birth, he abandoned Islam and founded a new religion which + he called 'Divine Faith' (<i>Diu-i-Olahi</i>). His contemporaries + bestowed upon him the title of 'Guardian of Mankind'. He was also a + generous patron of literature, and commissioned the Jesuit missionary, + Jerome Xavier, to translate the four gospels into Persian. His government + was remarkable for its mildness and tolerance towards all sects; he was + indefatigable in his attention to the internal administration of his + empire, and instituted inquiries into the population, character, and + productions of each province. The result of his statistical labours, as + well as a history of his reign, were collected by his minister, Abul + Fazl, in a work called <i>Akbar-Nameh</i> (Book of Akbar), the third part + of which, entitled <i>Ayini-Akbari</i> (Institutes of Akbar), was + published in an English translation at Calcutta (1783-6, 3 vols.), and + reprinted in London. He died in 1605. His mausoleum at Secundra, near + Agra, is a fine example of Mohammedan architecture. Cf. V. A. Smith, + <i>Akbar, The Great Mogul</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Akee′</b> (<i>Blighia sapĭda</i>), a tree of the nat. + ord. Sapindaceæ, much esteemed for its fruit. The leaves are somewhat + similar to those of the ash; the flowers are small and white, and + produced in branched spikes. The fruit is lobed and ribbed, of a dull + orange colour, and contains several large black seeds, embedded in a + succulent and slightly bitter arillus of a pale straw colour, which is + eaten when cooked. The akee is a native of Guinea, from whence it was + carried to the West Indies by Captain Bligh in 1793.</p> + + <p><b>À Kempis,</b> Thomas. See <i>Thomas à Kempis</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aken</b> (ä′ken), a Prussian town, province of Saxony, on the + left bank of the Elbe, with manufactures of tobacco, cloth, beetroot + sugar, leather, &c. Pop. 7358.</p> + + <p><b>A′kenside,</b> Mark, a poet and physician, born in 1721, at + Newcastle-upon-Tyne, died in London in 1770. He was the son of a butcher, + and was sent to the University of Edinburgh to qualify for the ministry, + but chose the study of medicine instead. After three years' residence at + Edinburgh he went to Leyden, and in 1744 became Doctor of Physic. In the + same year he published the <i>Pleasures of Imagination</i>, which he is + said to have written in Edinburgh, and which was translated into French + by Baron d'Holbach (1769). In 1746 he wrote his much-praised <i>Hymn to + the Naiads</i>. Having settled in London, he became a fellow of the Royal + Society, and was admitted into the College of Physicians. In 1759 he was + appointed first assistant and afterwards head physician to St. Thomas's + Hospital. In his later days he wrote little poetry, but published several + medical essays and observations. The place of Akenside as a poet is not + very high, though Dr. Johnson praised the blank verse of his poems, and + his somewhat cumbrous <i>Pleasures of Imagination</i> was once considered + one of the most pleasing didactic poems in our language.</p> + + <p><b>Akermann′,</b> a fortified town and seaport in Bessarabia, + near the mouth of the Dniester, with a good port. The vicinity produces + quantities of salt, and also fine grapes from which excellent wine is + made. A treaty was signed here, 6th Oct., 1826, between Russia and the + Porte, by which Moldavia, Walachia, and Serbia were released from all but + nominal dependence on Turkey. Pop. 40,000.</p> + + <p><b>Akhalzik,</b> or <b>Achalzik</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-<i>h</i>a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l′tsik), a town of Russia in Asia, + in the Trans-Caucasian government of Tiflis, 97 miles west of Tiflis, + with a citadel. It was taken by the Russians in 1828. Pop. 15,977.</p> + + <p><b>Ak-Hissar</b> ('white castle'), a town in Asia Minor, 46 miles + <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of Smyrna, occupying the site of the + ancient Thyatira, relics of which city are here abundant. Here the + Emperor Valens defeated the usurper Procopius in 366, and Murad defeated + the Prince of Aïdin in 1425. Pop. 20,000.</p> + + <p><b>Akhtyrka</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span><i>h</i>-tir′ka<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), a cathedral town of + the Ukraine, government of Kharkov, with a good trade and some + manufactures. Pop. 31,918.</p> + + <p><b>Akjermann</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k-yer-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n′). Same as <i>Akermann</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Akkad,</b> the northern portion of ancient Babylonia occupied by + the earliest Semitic invaders when the southern portion was Sumer (or + Sumeria) and occupied by non-Semites. There was also a city of the same + name, the Biblical Accad (<i>Gen.</i> x), which was prominent before 2000 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Its ruins were unearthed between 1917 and + 1919. See <i>Babylonia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Akkas,</b> a dwarfish race of Central Africa, dwelling in scattered + settlements to the north-west of Lake Albert Nyanza, about lat. 3° <span + class="scac">N.</span>, lon. 29° <span class="scac">E.</span> Their + height averages about 4½ feet; they are of a brownish or coffee colour; + head large, jaws projecting (or prognathous), ears large, hands small. + They are timid and suspicious, and live almost entirely by the chase, + being exceedingly skilful with the bow and arrow. They were first seen by + the traveller G. A. Schweinfurth in 1870.</p> + + <p><b>Akmolinsk′,</b> a Russian province in Central Asia, largely + consisting of steppes and wastes; the chief rivers are the Ishim and + Sari-Su; and it contains the larger part of Lake Balkash. Capital, Omsk. + Area, about 225,070 sq. miles. Pop. 1,523,700.—<i>Akmolinsk</i> is + a place of some importance for its caravan trade. Pop. 11,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ako′la,</b> a town of India, in Berar, the residence of the + commissioner of Berar, on the River Morna, <!-- Page 78 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page78"></a>[78]</span>150 miles W. by S. of + Nagpur; with walls and a fort, and some trade in cotton. Pop. 29,289.</p> + + <p><b>Ak′ron,</b> a town of the United States, in Ohio, 100 miles + <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of Columbus, on an elevated site. Being + furnished with ample water-power by the Little Cuyahoga, it possesses + large flour-mills, woollen factories, manufactures of iron goods, &c. + In the vicinity extensive beds of mineral paint are worked. Pop. (1920), + 208,435.</p> + + <p><b>Aksu′</b> ('white water'), a town of Eastern or Chinese + Turkestan, 300 miles from Kashgar, in the valley of the Aksu. It is an + important centre of trade between Russia, China, and Tartary, and has + manufactures of cotton cloth, leather, and metal goods. Formerly the + residence of the kings of Kashgar and Yarkand. Pop. 30,000.</p> + + <p><b>Akyab′,</b> a seaport of Lower Burmah, capital of the + province of Arracan, at the mouth of the River Kuladan or Akyab, of + recent upgrowth, well built, possessing a good harbour, and carrying on + an important trade, its chief exports being rice and petroleum. Pop. + 35,680.</p> + + <p><b>Al,</b> the article in the Arabic language. It appears in English + words derived from the Arabic, such as Algebra, Alchemy, Alcove.</p> + + <p><b>Alabama</b> (al-a-ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>′ma), one of the United States, + bounded by Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and + Mississippi; area, 51,998 sq. miles. The southern part, bordering on the + Gulf of Mexico and Florida, is low and level, and wooded largely with + pine, hence known as the 'pine-woods region'; the middle is hilly, with + some tracts of level sand or prairies; the north is broken and + mountainous. The State is intersected by the Rivers Alabama, Tombigbee, + Mobile, Coosa, Tallapoosa, Tennessee, &c., some of them navigable for + several hundred miles. The soil is various, being in some places, + particularly in the south, sandy and barren, but in most parts is + fertile, especially in the river valleys and in the centre, where there + is a very fertile tract known as the 'cotton belt'. The climate in + general is warm, and in the lowlying lands skirting the rivers is rather + unhealthy. In the more elevated parts it is healthy and agreeable, the + winters being mild and the summers tempered by breezes from the Gulf of + Mexico. The staple production is cotton, especially in the middle and + south, where rice and sugar are also grown; in the north the cereals + (above all maize) are the principal crops. Alabama possesses extensive + beds of iron ore and coal, with marble, granite, and other minerals; and + coal and iron mining, and the smelting and working of iron, are now + important industries. The manufacture of cotton goods is extensively + carried on. The foreign trade is concentrated in Mobile, whence cotton is + the principal export. The State sends eight representatives to Congress. + Its principal towns are Montgomery, the seat of government, and Mobile, + the chief port. There is a State university at Tuscaloosa, a university + connected with the Methodist Episcopal body, several State normal + colleges, besides professional schools, &c., in the principal towns. + Alabama became a State in 1819. It was one of the slave States. Pop. + (1920), 2,348,174.</p> + + <p><b>Alabama,</b> a river of the United States, in the State of Alabama, + formed by the junction of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa. After a course of + 300 miles it joins the Tombigbee and assumes the name of the Mobile.</p> + + <p><b>Alabama,</b> The, a ship built at Birkenhead to act as a privateer + in the service of the Confederate States of North America during the + civil war begun in 1861. She was a wooden screw steamer with two engines + of 350 h.p. each, 1040 tons burden, and carried eight 32-pounders. Before + she was launched her destination was made known to the British + Government, but owing to some legal formalities the orders given for her + detention did not reach Liverpool till the day after she had left that + port (29th July, 1862). She received her armament and stores at the + Azores, and entered on her destructive career, capturing and burning + merchant vessels, till she was sunk in a fight with the Federal war + steamer <i>Kearsarge</i>, off Cherbourg, 19th June, 1864. As early as the + winter of 1862 the United States Government declared that they held + themselves entitled at a suitable period to demand full compensation from + Britain for the damages inflicted on American property by the + <i>Alabama</i> and several other cruisers that had been built, supplied, + or recruited in British ports or waters. After a long series of + negotiations it was agreed to submit the final settlement of the question + to a court of arbitration, consisting of representatives of Britain and + the United States, and of three other members, appointed by the King of + Italy, the President of Switzerland, and the Emperor of Brazil. This + court met at Geneva, 17th Dec., 1871, and a claim for indirect damages to + American commerce having been abandoned by the United States Government, + the decree was given in Sept., 1872, that Britain was liable to the + United States in damages to the amount of 15,500,000 dollars (about + £3,229,200). After all awards were made to private claimants about + 8,000,000 dollars still remain unclaimed.</p> + + <p><b>Alabandite,</b> or <b>Manganblende,</b> a black submetallic + mineral.</p> + + <p><b>Alabas′ter,</b> a name applied to a granular variety of + gypsum or hydrated sulphate of lime. It was much used by the ancients for + the manufacture of ointment and perfume boxes, vases, and the like. It + has a fine granular texture, is usually of a pure white colour, and is so + soft that it can be scratched with the nail. It is found in <!-- Page 79 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page79"></a>[79]</span>many parts of + Europe; in great abundance and of peculiarly excellent quality in + Tuscany. From the finer and more compact kinds, vases, clock-stands, + statuettes, and other ornamental articles are made, and from inferior + kinds the cement known as plaster of Paris. A variety of carbonate of + lime, closely resembling alabaster in appearance, is used for similar + purposes under the name of <i>Oriental alabaster</i>. It is usually + stalagmitic or stalactitic in origin and is often of a yellowish colour. + It may be distinguished from true alabaster by being too hard to be + scratched with the nail.</p> + + <p><b>Alac′taga</b> (<i>Alactăga jacŭlus</i>), a rodent + mammal, closely allied to the jerboa, but somewhat larger in size, with a + still longer tail. Its range extends from the Crimea and the steppes of + the Don across Central Asia to the Chinese frontier.</p> + + <p><b>Aladdin,</b> son of Mustafa, a poor tailor of China. A magician, + who pretended to be his uncle, gave him a magic ring and sent him to + fetch 'the wonderful lamp' from a cave. Aladdin secured the lamp, but + refused to give it to the magician, who shut him in the cave. Aladdin was + rescued by the Genie of the Ring, and by means of the Genie of the Lamp + acquired great wealth, built a magnificent palace, and married the + Sultan's daughter. Afterwards the magician got possession of the lamp, + and caused the palace to be transported into Africa. Aladdin was + arrested, but was again saved by the Genie of the Ring. He poisoned the + magician, recovered the lamp, and by its means restored his palace to its + original site.</p> + + <p><b>Alago′as,</b> a maritime State of Brazil; area, 22,577 sq. + miles; pop. 946,617.—<i>Alagoas</i>, the former capital of the + province, is situated on the south side of an arm of the sea, about 20 + miles distant from Maceio, to which the seat of government was + transferred in 1839. Pop. about 4000.</p> + + <p><b>Alais</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lā), a town of Southern France, + department of Gard, 87 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of + Marseilles, with coal, iron, and lead mines, which are actively worked, + and chalybeate springs, which have many visitors during the autumn + months. The treaty of Alais, signed on 28th June, 1629, ended the + Huguenot wars in France. Pop. 29,800.</p> + + <p><b>Alajuela</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-<i>h</i>u-ā′la<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), a town of Central + America, in the State of Costa Rica. Pop. 12,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ala-Kul,</b> a lake in Russian Central Asia, near the borders of + Mongolia, in lat. 46° <span class="scac">N.</span> lon. 81° 40′ + <span class="scac">E.</span>; area, 660 sq. miles.</p> + + <p><b>Alamanni.</b> See <i>Alemanni</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alaman′ni,</b> Luigi, an Italian poet, of noble family, born + at Florence in 1495. Suspected of conspiring against the life of Cardinal + Giulio de' Medici, who then governed Florence in the name of Pope Leo X, + he fled to Venice, and when the cardinal ascended the papal chair under + the name of Clement VII he took refuge in France, where he henceforth + lived, being employed by Francis I and Henry II in several important + negotiations. He died in 1556. His principal works are a didactic poem, + <i>La Coltivazione</i>, a splendid imitation of Virgil's <i>Georgics</i> + (1546); a comedy entitled <i>Flora</i>; two epics, <i>Girone il + Cortese</i> (1548) and <i>L'Avarchide</i>, an imitation of the + <i>Iliad</i> (1570); and a collection of eclogues, satires, psalms, + &c., partly in blank verse, the invention of which is contested with + him by Trissino, a contemporary.</p> + + <p><b>Al′amo,</b> a fort in Bexar county, Texas, United States, + celebrated for the resistance its occupants (140 Texans) made to a + Mexican force of 4000 from 23rd Feb. to 6th March, 1836. At the latter + date only six Texans remained alive, and on their surrendering they were + slaughtered by the Mexicans.</p> + + <p><b>Al′amos,</b> a town of Mexico, State of Sonora, the capital + of a mining district. Pop. 12,000.</p> + + <p><b>Åland</b> (o′land) <b>Islands,</b> a numerous group of + islands and islets, about eighty of which are inhabited, formerly in + Russia, situated in the Baltic Sea, near the mouth of the Gulf of + Finland; area, 468 sq. miles. The principal island, Åland, distant about + 30 miles from the Swedish coast, is 18 miles long and about 14 broad. The + fortress of Bomarsund, here situated, was destroyed by an Anglo-French + force in Aug., 1854. The inhabitants, who are of Swedish extraction, + employ themselves mostly in fishing. The islands were ceded by Sweden to + Russia in 1809, and proclaimed a province of Finland in 1918. A + referendum of the inhabitants, taken in Dec., 1918, decided in favour of + union with Sweden, but on 22nd Oct., 1921, an agreement for the + neutralization of the islands was signed at Genoa. Pop. 18,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ala′ni,</b> or <b>Alans,</b> one of the warlike tribes which + migrated from Asia westward at the time of the decline of the Roman + Empire. They are first met with in the region of the Caucasus, where + Pompey fought with them. From this centre they spread over the south of + modern Russia to the confines of the Roman Empire. About the middle of + the fifth century they joined the Vandals, among whom they became lost to + history.</p> + + <p><b>Alarcon′ Y Mendo′za,</b> Don Juan Ruiz de, one of the + most distinguished dramatic poets of Spain, born in Mexico about the end + of the sixteenth or the beginning of the seventeenth century. He came to + Europe about 1622, and in 1628 he published a volume containing eight + comedies, and in 1634 another containing twelve. One of them, called + <i>La Verdad Sospechosa</i> (The Truth Suspected), published in 1630 in a + collection bearing the name of Lope de Vega, furnished Corneille with the + groundwork and greater part of the substance of his <i>Menteur</i>. Hence + <!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page80"></a>[80]</span>Corneille's declaration in the preface to + that play that he had borrowed the subject from Lope de Vega. His + <i>Tejedor de Segovia</i> (Weaver of Segovia) and <i>Las Paredes Oyen</i> + (Walls have Ears) are still performed on the Spanish stage. He died in + 1639.</p> + + <p><b>Al′aric I,</b> King of the Visigoths, was born about the + middle of the fourth century, probably in 370, and is first mentioned in + history in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 394, when Theodosius the Great + gave him the command of his Gothic auxiliaries. The dissensions between + Arcadius and Honorius, the sons of Theodosius, inspired Alaric with the + intention of attacking the Roman Empire. In 396 he ravaged Greece, from + which he was driven by the Roman general Stilicho, but made a masterly + retreat to Illyria, of which Arcadius, frightened at his successes, + appointed him governor. In 400 he invaded Italy, but was defeated by + Stilicho at Pollentia (403), and induced to transfer his services from + Arcadius to Honorius on condition of receiving 4000 lb. of gold. Honorius + having failed to fulfil this condition, Alaric made a second invasion of + Italy, during which he besieged Rome three times. The first time (408) + the city was saved by paying a heavy ransom; the second (409) it + capitulated, and Honorius was deposed, but shortly afterwards restored. + His sanction of a treacherous attack on the forces of Alaric brought + about the third siege, and the city was taken 24th Aug., 410, and sacked + for six days, Alaric, however, doing everything in his power to restrain + the violence of his followers. He quitted Rome with the intention of + reducing Sicily and Africa, but died at Cosenza in 410. Legend has it + that he was buried beneath the river-bed of the Busenzo, the course of + which was temporarily turned aside for the purpose.</p> + + <p><b>Al′aric II,</b> King of the Visigoths from <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 484 to 507. At the beginning of his reign the + dominions of the Visigoths were at their greatest extent, embracing + three-fourths of the modern Spain and all Western Gaul to the south of + the Loire. His unwarlike character induced Clovis, King of the Franks, to + invade the kingdom of the Visigoths. In a battle near Poitiers (507) + Alaric was slain and his army completely defeated. The <i>Breviarium + Alaricianum</i>, a code of laws derived exclusively from Roman sources, + was compiled by a body of Roman jurists at the command of this King + Alaric.</p> + + <p><b>Alarm,</b> in military language, a signal, given by beat of drum, + bugle-call, or firing of a gun, to warn a camp or garrison of a surprise + intended or actually made by the enemy. A place, called the + <i>alarm-post</i>, is generally appointed at which the troops are to + assemble when an alarm is given.—<i>Alarm</i> is also the name + given to several contrivances in which electricity is made use of, as a + <i>fire-alarm</i>, by which intelligence is at once conveyed to the + proper quarter when a fire breaks out; a <i>burglar-alarm</i>, an + arrangement of wires and a battery in a house intended to set a bell or + bells ringing should a burglar attempt to gain entrance.</p> + + <p><b>Alarm-clock,</b> one which can be set so as to ring loudly at a + certain hour to wake from sleep or excite attention.</p> + + <p><b>Ala-Shehr</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-shār′) (ancient + <b>Philadelphia</b>), a town in Asia Minor, 100 miles east of Smyrna, + famous as the seat of one of the first Christian churches, and still + having a vast number of interesting remains of antiquity, consisting of + fragments of beautiful columns, sarcophagi, fountains, &c. It is a + place of some importance, carrying on a thriving trade, chiefly with + Smyrna, to which runs a railway. Pop. 15,000.</p> + + <p><b>Alas′ka,</b> a territory belonging to the United States, + comprising all that portion of the north-west of North America which lies + west of the 141st meridian of west longitude, together with an irregular + strip of coast-land (and the adjacent islands), extending south to lat. + 54° 40′ <span class="scac">N.</span>, and lying between Canada and + the Pacific (the boundary being adjusted in 1903); total area, about + 590,884 sq. miles. The chief river is the Yukon, a great stream, now + navigated in summer for most of its course. The principal mountains + (among which are several volcanoes) are Mounts M‘Kinley (20,470 + feet) and Wrangell (17,400 feet). The climate of the interior is very + severe in winter, but in summer the heat is intense; on the Pacific coast + it is mild but moist. Alaska produces excellent timber. Numbers of + fur-bearing animals abound, such as the fur-seal, sea-otter, beaver, fox, + mink, marten, &c.; and the fur trade has long been valuable. The + coasts and rivers swarm with fish, and salmon and cod are caught and + exported. Gold is now mined in several localities, especially Cape Nome, + where a town has sprung up. The aboriginal inhabitants consist of + Esquimaux and Indians. Alaska, called Russian America until 1867, was + sold to the United States for 7,200,000 dollars, the acquisition being + ratified by Congress on 20th June, 1867. It has a legislative assembly + consisting of eight senators and sixteen representatives, and the + legislature meets biennially since 1913. The capital was formerly Sitka, + on Baranoff Island, but is now Juneau, on Gastineau Channel. Pop. 64,356, + latest estimate being 75,000.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: + A. W. Greely, <i>Handbook of Alaska</i>; J. Muir, <i>Travels in + Alaska</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alaskite,</b> an igneous rock consisting of quartz and felspar. See + <i>Granite</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alas′sio,</b> a seaport of North Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa, + a winter resort of people from England. Pop. 5000.</p> + + <p><b>Alastor,</b> in Greek mythology, is a surname of <!-- Page 81 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>[81]</span>Zeus (cf. Lat. + Jupiter <i>Vindex</i>) describing him as the avenger of evil deeds. The + name or epithet is also used to designate any deity or demon who avenges + wrongs committed by men. <i>Alastor</i> is the title of a poem by + Shelley.</p> + + <p><b>Alatau</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-tou′), the name of three + considerable mountain ranges of Central Asia, on the Russian and Chinese + frontiers.</p> + + <p><b>Alatyr</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-tir′), a town in Russia, + government Simbirsk, at the confluence of the Alatyr with the Sura, with + a considerable trade. Pop. 11,000.</p> + + <p><b>Alau′da,</b> a genus of insessorial birds, which includes the + larks. See <i>Lark</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A′lava,</b> a hilly province in the north of Spain, one of + the three Basque provinces; area, 1175 sq. miles; covered by branches of + the Pyrenees, the mountains being clothed with oak, chestnut, and other + timber, and the valleys yielding grain, vegetables, and abundance of + fruits. There are iron and copper mines, and inexhaustible salt springs. + Capital, Vittoria. Pop. 97,692.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:14%;"> + <a href="images/image030.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image030.jpg" + alt="Alb" title="Alb" /></a> + A, Alb with its Apparels <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and Girdle <i>c</i>; B, + Amice; C, Stole + </div> + + <p><b>Alb</b> (from Lat. <i>albus</i>, white), a clerical vestment of the + Catholic Church worn by priests while officiating in the more solemn + functions of divine service. It is a long robe of white linen reaching to + the feet, bound round the waist by a cincture, and fitting more closely + to the body than the surplice. It is now little used except during Mass. + After the Reformation the <i>alb</i> was not used in the Church of + England, but since the ritualistic revival in the nineteenth century it + has again been introduced into a number of churches.</p> + + <p><b>Alba,</b> the name of several towns in ancient Italy, the most + celebrated of which was Alba Longa, a city of Latium, according to + tradition built by Ascanius, the son of Æneas, 300 years before the + foundation of Rome, at one time the most powerful city of Latium. It + ultimately fell under the dominion of Rome, when the town was destroyed, + it is said. In later times its site became covered with villas of wealthy + Romans.</p> + + <p><b>Alba</b> (anciently <b>Alba Pompeia</b>), a town of Northern Italy, + about 30 miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of Turin, is the see of a + bishop, has a cathedral, bishop's palace, church with fresco paintings by + Perugino, &c. Pop. 6872.</p> + + <p><b>Alba,</b> Duke of. See <i>Alva</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Albacete</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-thā′tā), a town in + Southern Spain, capital of the province of the same name, 106 miles <span + class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Cartagena, with a considerable trade, both + direct and transit, and manufactures of knives, daggers, &c. Pop. + 24,805.—The province has an area of 5737 sq. miles, and a pop. of + 273,380.</p> + + <p><b>Alba Longa.</b> See <i>Alba</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alban,</b> St., the earliest British martyr, flourished in the + third century, and was, it is said, converted from Paganism by a + confessor whom he had saved from his persecutors. He refused to sacrifice + to the gods, and was executed outside the city of Verulamium (St. Albans) + in 285 or 305.</p> + + <p><b>Albani</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-bä′nē), Francesco, a famous + Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1578, died in 1660. He studied with + Guido Reni under the Flemish painter Calvaert and the Caracci. It is said + that his second wife, Doralice Fioraventi, bore him twelve children of + such beauty that they served him as models for his paintings. Among the + best known of his compositions are <i>The Sleeping Venus</i>, <i>Diana in + the Bath</i>, <i>Danaë Reclining</i>, <i>Galatea on the Sea</i>, + <i>Europa on the Bull</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alba′ni,</b> Madame, maiden name Marie Louise Emma Cecile + Lajeunesse, famous singer, was born near Montreal in 1852, was trained at + home by her father, and studied also in Paris and Milan. She made her + first public appearance in Europe at Messina, in Bellini's <i>La + Sonnambula</i>, and in 1872 sang in the Royal Italian Opera in London. + Since then she has attained the position of one of the world's foremost + singers, both in opera and oratorio. In 1878 she was married to Mr. + Ernest Gye, the operatic manager. She adopted the professional name of + Albani from Albany, in the United States, where as a girl she sang in the + Roman Catholic cathedral. In 1911 she published her memoirs under the + title of <i>Forty Years of Song</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alba′nia,</b> an extensive region stretching along the coast + of the Adriatic for about 290 miles, and having a breadth varying from + about 90 to about 50 miles. The boundary on the east is formed by a range + of mountains, and the country is composed of at least nine ridges of + hills, of which six are in Lower or Southern Albania (ancient Epirus) and + the remainder in Central and Upper or Northern Albania. There are no + large rivers, and in summer many of the streams are completely dry. The + Drin or Drino is the largest. The most beautiful lake is that of Ochrida, + 20 miles long, 8 broad at the widest part. The Lake of Scutari, in Upper + Albania, is the largest. Among trees Albania has many species of oak, the + poplar, hazel, plane, chestnut, cypress, and laurel. The vine flourishes, + together with the orange, almond, fig, mulberry, and citron; <!-- Page 82 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>[82]</span>maize, wheat, + and barley are cultivated. Its fauna comprises bears, wolves, and + chamois; sheep, goats, horses, asses, and mules are plentiful. The chief + exports are live stock, wool, hides, timber, oil, salt-fish, cheese, and + tobacco. The chief ports are Prevesa, Valona, and Durazzo. The + population, about 850,000, consists chiefly of Albanians or Arnauts, or, + as they call themselves, Skupetars, i.e. inhabitants of the mountains (by + the Turks they are called Arnauts, by the Greeks Arbanites, and by the + Serbs Arbanasi). They are spread along the coasts of the Adriatic and + Ionian Seas. History and legend afford little or no record of the arrival + of the Albanian race in the Balkan Peninsula. It may, however, be safely + asserted that the Albanians are the direct descendants of the earliest + Aryan immigrants, who were represented in historical times by the kindred + Illyrians, Macedonians, and Epirots. The majority live in Albania, the + rest in Montenegro, Greece, Southern Italy, Sicily, Bessarabia, and Asia + Minor. As regards religion they are either Christians or Mohammedans. + They are divided into several tribes, among whom the Suliotes are partly + of Greek origin. The Albanian language is a branch of the Indo-European + languages, and related to the long-ago extinct language of the + Messapians. The language consists of numerous dialects, which may be + divided into those of the Tosks in the south and the Gheggas in the + north. Though their country became a province of the Turkish dominions in + 1431, they maintained for centuries a certain degree of independence, + which the Porte never found it possible to overcome. On 28th Nov., 1912, + the complete independence of Albania was proclaimed at Valona, a + provisional government was founded under Ismail Kemal Bey, and Albanian + autonomy was agreed to at the Ambassadorial Conference in London on 20th + Dec. On 21st Feb., 1914, the crown was offered to Prince William of Wied, + who arrived at Durazzo on 7th March. The prince was supported and advised + by an International Commission of Control, but he left the country at the + outbreak of hostilities in 1914. Attempts made by Essad Pasha to + establish a military government failed, and the country was overrun by + the Austrians, who captured Durazzo on 28th Feb., 1916. On 3rd June, + 1917, the general in charge of the Italian forces proclaimed Albania an + independent country, and a provisional government was set up at Durazzo. + Albanian independence was recognized by the Powers and Albania admitted + to the League of Nations in Dec., 1920.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H. F. Tozer, <i>Researches in the + Highlands of Turkey</i>; W. Peacock, <i>Albania, The Foundling + State</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alba′no,</b> a city and lake in Italy, the former about 15 + miles south-east of Rome, and on the west border of the lake, amid + beautiful scenery. An ancient tomb in the Etruscan style was for a long + time looked upon as the sepulchre of the Horatii and Curiatii. Here are + also the ruins of the villas of Pompey and Domitian. Pop. 8000.—The + lake, situated immediately beneath the Alban Hill, is of an oval form, 6 + miles in circumference, surrounded by steep banks of volcanic tufa 300 or + 400 feet high, and discharges its superfluous waters by an artificial + tunnel at least 2000 years old.</p> + + <p><b>Albans,</b> St. See <i>St. Albans</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′bany,</b> the original Celtic name probably at first + applied to the whole of Britain, but afterwards restricted to the + Highlands of Scotland. It gave the title of duke formerly to a prince of + the blood-royal of Scotland. The first duke was Robert Stuart + (1345-1420), son of Robert II by his mistress Elizabeth Mure, and brother + of Robert III. He was virtual ruler of the kingdom during the latter + years of his brother's reign, and acted as regent for his nephew James I + (kept a prisoner in England) till his own death. Another nephew, David, + Duke of Rothesay, is said to have been starved to death in Falkland + Castle at his instigation. His son Murdoch, second duke, succeeded him as + regent, and was put to death by James for maladministration. The third + duke was Alexander, second son of James II and brother of James III. A + large part of his life was passed in France. His son John was the fourth + who bore the title. He was regent of Scotland during the minority of + James V (1515-23).</p> + + <p><b>Al′bany,</b> a city of the United States, capital of the + State of New York on the west bank of the Hudson, 132 miles north of New + York city, from and to which steamboats run daily. The Erie Canal and the + numerous railway lines centring here from all directions greatly + contribute to the growth and prosperity of the city, which carries on an + extensive trade. It is a great mart for timber, and has foundries, + breweries, tanneries, &c. Albany was settled by the Dutch between + 1610 and 1614, and the older houses are in the Dutch style, with the + gable-ends to the streets. There is a university, an observatory, and a + State library with 90,000 volumes. The principal public buildings are the + capitol or State-house, which cost about £5,000,000, and the State-hall + for the public offices, a State arsenal, and numerous churches. Pop. + (1920), 113,344.</p> + + <p><b>Al′bany,</b> Louisa Maria Caroline, Countess of, a princess + of the Stolberg-Gedern family, was born in 1753, and married, in 1772, + the pretender, Charles Edward Stuart, after which event she bore the + above title. To escape from the ill-treatment of her husband she retired, + in 1780, to the house of her brother-in-law at Rome, <!-- Page 83 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"></a>[83]</span>where she met + the poet Alfieri, whose mistress she became. After the death of Alfieri + in 1793 she opened her famous political and literary salon frequented by + the Duchess of Devonshire, the Duchess of Hamilton, Cardinal Consalvi, + Samuel Rogers, Thomas Moore, Lamartine, and Chateaubriand. She died at + Florence in 1824, where she was buried at the Church of Sta Croce, by the + side of Alfieri, whom she is supposed to have married secretly.</p> + + <p><b>Alba′ta,</b> a name sometimes given to German silver.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:54%;"> + <a href="images/image031.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image031.jpg" + alt="Wandering Albatross" title="Wandering Albatross" /></a> + Wandering Albatross (<i>Diomēdea exŭlans</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Al′batross,</b> a large marine swimming bird of several + species, of which the wandering albatross (<i>Diomedēa + exŭlans</i>) is the best known. The bill is straight and strong, + the upper mandible hooked at the point and the lower one truncated; there + are three webbed toes on each foot. The upper part of the body is of a + greyish brown, and the belly white. It is the largest sea-bird known, + some measuring 17½ feet from tip to tip of their expanded wings. They + abound at the Cape of Good Hope and in other parts of the southern seas, + and in Behring's Straits, and have been known to accompany ships for + whole days without ever resting on the waves. From this habit the bird is + regarded with feelings of attachment and superstitious awe by sailors, it + being reckoned unlucky to kill one. Coleridge has availed himself of this + feeling in his <i>Ancient Mariner</i>. The albatross is met with at great + distances from the land, settling down on the waves at night to sleep. It + is exceedingly voracious, whenever food is abundant, gorging to such a + degree as to be unable to fly or swim. It feeds on fish, carrion, + fish-spawn, oceanic mollusca, and other small marine animals. Its cry is + harsh and disagreeable. Its nest is a heap of earth; its eggs are larger + than those of a goose.</p> + + <p><b>Albatross,</b> a name applied to a certain type of German + aeroplanes, much used for scouting purposes during the European War.</p> + + <p><b>Albay</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-bī′), a province, town, + bay, and volcano in the south-east part of the Island of Luzon, one of + the Philippines. The province is mountainous but fertile; the town + regularly built, with a pop. of 34,000; the bay capacious, secure, and + almost landlocked; and the volcano, which is always in activity, forms a + conspicuous landmark.</p> + + <p><b>Albemarle,</b> Duke of. See <i>Monk, George</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′bendorf,</b> a village in Prussia, province of Silesia, 50 + miles <span class="scac">S.W.</span> of Breslau, remarkable for the + pilgrimages made to its church, chapels, statues, &c. Pop. 1800.</p> + + <p><b>Alberoni,</b> Cardinal Giulio (jū′li-o a<span + class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-bā-rō′nē), born + in 1664 in North Italy, and educated for the Church. In his youth he + laboured as a gardener, but thanks to the protection of the Duc de + Vendôme, whose secretary he became, and afterwards of the Duc de Parma, + he rose to high position. The latter sent him as his minister to Madrid, + where he gained the affection of Philip V. He rose by cunning and + intrigue to the position of Prime Minister, became a cardinal, was + all-powerful in Spain after the year 1715, and endeavoured to restore it + to its ancient splendour. In pursuance of this object he invaded Sardinia + and Sicily, and indeed entertained the idea of stirring up a general war + in Europe. The alliance of France and England, however, rendered his + schemes abortive, and led to his dismissal and exile in 1720. He wandered + about a long time under false names, but on the accession of Pope + Innocent XIII he was restored to all the rights and honours of a + cardinal. He died in 1752, and was buried at Piacenza.</p> + + <p><b>Albert,</b> Prince, Albert Francis Augustus Charles Emmanuel, + Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Prince Consort of England, second son of + Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg, was born at the Rosenau, a castle near + Coburg, on 26th Aug., 1819. In 1837 he entered the University of Bonn, + where he devoted himself to the studies of political and natural science, + history, philosophy, &c., as well as to those of music and painting. + On leaving the university he made a tour through the chief cities of + Italy with <!-- Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page84"></a>[84]</span>Baron Stockmar. On 10th Feb., 1840, he + married his cousin, Queen Victoria of England. Leopold I, King of the + Belgians and uncle of Queen Victoria, was greatly instrumental in + bringing about the marriage. An allowance of £30,000 a year was settled + upon the prince, who was naturalized by Act of Parliament, received the + title of Royal Highness by patent, was made a field-marshal, a Knight of + the Garter, of the Bath, &c. Other honours were subsequently bestowed + upon him, the chief of which was the title of Prince Consort (1857). His + foreign birth at first caused him to be regarded with some suspicion, but + his unfailing tact and genuine ability were not long in gaining their due + recognition. He always carefully abstained from party politics, but his + knowledge of the politics of his adopted country, both domestic and + foreign, was profound and accurate, and must often have been of service + to the queen and her advisers. He always took a deep and active interest + in the welfare of the people in general. His services to the cause of + science and art were very important; he presided over the commission + appointed in 1841 to consider the best means of rebuilding the Houses of + Parliament, and the great exhibition of 1851 owed much of its success to + his activity, knowledge, and judgment. The amendment of the Articles of + War in 1844 which ultimately put an end to duelling was due to his + suggestion. Cambridge University conferred upon him the degree of <span + class="scac">LL.D.</span>, and in 1847 he was elected Chancellor. He + presided and delivered the inaugural address at the meeting of the + British Association at Aberdeen in 1859. He died of typhoid fever on 14th + Dec., 1861, after a short illness. A collection of his speeches and + addresses was published in 1862. A biography of the prince by Sir + Theodore Martin was published in 5 volumes, London, 1875-80.</p> + + <p><b>Albert,</b> first Duke of Prussia, and last grand-master of the + Teutonic Order, was born in 1490; died in 1568. In 1511 he was chosen by + the Teutonic knights grand-master of their order. Being nephew of + Sigismund, King of Poland, the knights hoped by his means to be freed + from the feudal superiority of Poland, and placed under the protection of + the empire. This superiority, however, Sigismund refused to surrender, + and war broke out between uncle and nephew. He subsequently became + reconciled to his uncle, and obtained his investiture as hereditary Duke + of Prussia under the Polish Crown, the territorial rights of the Teutonic + Order being thus set aside. The latter years of his reign were spent in + organizing the government and promoting the prosperity of his duchy; he + founded schools and churches, established a ducal library, and opened the + University of Königsberg in 1543.</p> + + <p><b>Al′bert I,</b> Duke of Austria, and afterwards Emperor of + Germany, son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, was born in 1248. On the death of + his father in 1292 he claimed the Empire, but his arrogant conduct drove + the electors to choose Adolphus of Nassau emperor. Adolphus, after a + reign of six years, having lost the regard of all the princes of the + Empire, Albert was elected to succeed him. A battle ensued near Göllheim, + in which Adolphus was slain by his adversary, who was elected and + crowned. Pope Boniface VIII, however, refused to acknowledge him as + emperor, and ordered the electoral princes to renounce their allegiance + to him. On the other hand, Albert formed an alliance with Philip le Bel + of France, and offered so determined and successful a resistance to the + papal authority that Boniface was induced to withdraw his opposition, on + condition that Albert would break with his French ally. During the + subsequent years of his reign the Emperor was engaged in unsuccessful + wars with Holland, Hungary, Bohemia, and other States. His measures still + further to strengthen his authority over the Swiss Forest Cantons of + Unterwalden, Schwyz, and Uri drove the inhabitants into open revolt in + Jan. 1308. While on his way to crush the Swiss he was assassinated, at + Windisch in May, 1308, by his nephew John, Duke of Suabia, called + afterwards the Parricide, whose inheritance he had seized upon.</p> + + <p><b>Albert I,</b> King of the Belgians, born on 8th April, 1875, at + Brussels. He is the son of Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders (died 17th + Nov., 1905), and of Princess Marie of Hohenzollern (born 17th Nov., + 1845). After the death of his cousin, the Duke of Brabant, and of his + father in 1905, Prince Albert became heir apparent. In 1906 he became + member of the Belgian Senate and in 1907 was appointed by his uncle, + Leopold II, Lieutenant-General. On 2nd Oct., 1900, he married Princess + Elizabeth, daughter of Duke Charles Theodor of Bavaria; there are three + children. He ascended the Belgian throne in Nov., 1909, after the death + of his uncle Leopold II.</p> + + <p><b>Albert Edward,</b> or simply <b>Edward,</b> one of the equatorial + lakes of Africa, otherwise known as <i>Muta Nzige</i> (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Albert Hall,</b> an amphitheatre in the Italian Renaissance style + in Kensington, London, built during 1867-71 for concerts and assemblies. + It can seat 9000 people, and its organ, which has nearly 9000 pipes, is + one of the largest in the world.</p> + + <p><b>Albert Memorial,</b> the monument erected in Kensington Gardens, + London, in memory of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. It is the + work of Sir Gilbert Scott, and its style is Victorian Gothic.</p> + + <p><b>Albert Nyan′za,</b> a lake of Africa, one of the <!-- Page 85 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>[85]</span>headwaters of + the Nile, lying (approximately) between lat. 2° 30′ and 1° + 10′ <span class="scac">N.</span>, and with its north-east extremity + in about lon. 28° <span class="scac">E.</span>; general direction from + north-east to south-west, surface about 2500 feet above sea-level. It is + surrounded by precipitous cliffs, and bounded on the west and south-west + by great ranges of mountains. It abounds with fish, and its shores are + infested with crocodiles and hippopotami. It receives the Victoria Nile + from the Victoria Nyanza, and the White Nile issues from its northern + extremity.</p> + + <p><b>Albert-Bapaume.</b> Along the great trunk road from Albert to + Bapaume and on either side of it, fierce fighting took place during the + Somme offensive of 1916, marked by the stages La Boiselle, Pozières and + Le Sars. When, in Feb., 1917, the Germans began the great retreat, the + fortified village of Pys on the left of the road was seized at a rush. On + the 26th the village of Warlencourt fell, and two days later Thilley + village 1½ miles from Bapaume, was taken. The British troops, avoiding + direct assaults, gradually encircled the town, forcing the Germans to + withdraw. It was entered on 17th March.</p> + + <p><b>Alberta,</b> a province of Canada, established on 1st Sept., 1905, + and comprising the former territory of Alberta and the part of the former + territory of Athabasca lying west of the meridian 110°, and having the + new province of Saskatchewan on the east, British Columbia on the west, + the United States on the south, and Mackenzie territory on the north; + area, 255,285 sq. miles. A large part of the area on the west is occupied + by the Rocky Mountains, which are shared in common with Alberta and + British Columbia, and consist mostly of a series of more or less parallel + ridges. One or two of the loftier summits are in the province, others on + the boundary. There is much valuable timber in this district. The general + slope of the surface is from west to east and north-east. The province is + intersected by numerous rivers and streams that have their sources in the + Rockies, some of them, such as the Peace River and the Athabasca, sending + their waters to the Arctic Ocean, while the others, such as the North and + South Saskatchewan and their tributaries, belong to the Hudson Bay basin. + In the extreme south are one or two small tributaries of the Missouri. + There are a number of lakes, the largest being the Lesser Slave Lake and + Lake Athabasca (partly in this province). Notwithstanding the number of + the streams, there are districts, especially in the south, where + agriculture cannot be successfully carried on without irrigation. Farther + to the north there are areas highly suitable for agriculture, and timber + is also abundant. Cattle ranching is successfully carried on in the + south, but tillage, with and even without irrigation, is also carried on, + fine crops of wheat being grown. The most valuable mineral is coal, which + is found at various places, but is chiefly mined in the south at + Lethbridge, and farther north in the Banff district. Here there are hot + springs and grand scenery, and a large tract of land has been set apart + as a national park. Near Edmonton, the capital, coal is found on the bank + of the North Saskatchewan, and is readily worked. Iron, petroleum, and + other minerals are found. The climate is very warm in summer, and in + winter less severe and prolonged than might be supposed. The warm + <i>chinook</i> winds from the Pacific often blow in winter, and speedily + melt the snow. The province is crossed in the south by the Canadian + Pacific Railway, running by way of Calgary and Banff, and crossing the + Rockies. From Calgary one branch runs north to Edmonton, another runs + south to M‘Leod, where other lines make a connection with the + States railroads and British Columbia. Edmonton, being also on the + Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific, is bound to become a great + centre of trade and provincial development. It and Calgary are the chief + towns. The population in 1911 was returned at 374,663, the latest + estimate being nearly 500,000.</p> + + <p><b>Albertite,</b> an asphaltic hydrocarbon compound, a soft black + material, obtained in Canada.</p> + + <p><b>Alber′tus Magnus,</b> or <b>Albert the Great,</b> Count of + Bollstädt, a distinguished German scholar of the thirteenth century, born + in 1193, or 1205, studied at Padua, became a monk of the Dominican order, + teaching in the schools of Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where + Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. In 1245 he went to Paris and publicly + expounded the doctrines of Aristotle, notwithstanding the prohibition of + the Church. He is called Doctor Universalis, for he was one of the most + proficient scholars of his day, second only to Roger Bacon in his + knowledge of nature. He became rector of the school of Cologne in 1249; + in 1254 he was made provincial of his order in Germany; and in 1260 he + received from Pope Alexander IV the appointment of Bishop of Ratisbon. In + 1263 he retired to his convent at Cologne, where he composed many works, + especially commentaries on Aristotle. He died in 1280. Owing to his + profound knowledge he did not escape the imputation of using magical arts + and trafficking with the Evil One.</p> + + <p><b>Al′bi.</b> See <i>Alby</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Albigenses</b> (al-bi-jen′sēz), a neo-Manichæan sect + which spread widely in the south of France and elsewhere about the + twelfth century, and which differed in doctrine and practice from the + Roman Catholic Church, by which they were subjected to severe + persecution. They are said to have been so named from Albi, on the banks + of the Tarn, a tributary of the Garonne, where, <!-- Page 86 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>[86]</span>and about Toulouse, + Narbonne, &c., they were numerous. They were also known as Catharists + (q.v.) and their doctrines were similar to those of several other + religious sects such as the Gnostics, Manichæans, and Bogomils. Among the + principal doctrines of the Albigenses was the belief in the existence of + two principles, good and evil, the creators of the spiritual and material + worlds. Since all matter is under the control of the evil principle, + maintained the Albigenses, all flesh is evil. The extinction of bodily + life, therefore, the deliverance of the soul from the prison-house of the + body, should be the aim of man. Suicide by means of starvation was + consequently highly meritorious. It is admitted even by Catholic writers + (see <i>Catholic Encyclopædia</i>, vol. i, p. 268) that the Albigenses + were principally antisacerdotal and opposed to the Roman Church on + account of the scandalous life led by the Catholic clergy. A crusade was + begun against them, and Count Raymond VI of Toulouse for tolerating them, + in 1209, the army of the cross being called together by Pope Innocent + III. The war was carried on with a cruelty which reflected deep disgrace + upon the Catholic Church. Béziers, the capital of Raymond's nephew Roger, + was taken by storm, and 20,000 of the inhabitants, without distinction of + creed, were put to the sword. Simon de Montfort, the military leader of + the crusade, was equally severe towards other places in the territory of + Raymond and his allies. After the death of Raymond VI, in 1222, his son, + Raymond VII, was obliged, notwithstanding his readiness to do penance, to + defend his inheritance against the papal legates and Louis VIII of + France. When hundreds of thousands had fallen on both sides, a peace was + made in 1229, by which Raymond was obliged to cede Narbonne with other + territories to Louis IX, and make his son-in-law, a brother of Louis, his + heir. The heretics were now delivered up to the proselytizing zeal of the + Dominicans, and to the courts of the Inquisition, by which means it was + brought about that the Albigenses disappeared after the middle of the + thirteenth century. Cf. C. Schmidt, <i>Histoire et doctrine de la Secte + des Cathares ou Albigeois</i> (2 vols.)</p> + + <p><b>Albinos</b> (al-bī′nōz), the name given to those + persons from whose skin, hair, and eyes, in consequence of some defect in + their organization, the dark colouring matter is absent. The skin of + albinos, therefore, whether they belong to the white, Indian, or negro + races, is of a uniform pale milky colour, their hair is white, while the + iris of their eyes is pale rose colour, and the pupil intensely red, the + absence of the dark pigment allowing the multitude of blood-vessels in + these parts of the eye to be seen. For the same reason their eyes are not + well suited to endure the bright light of day, and they see best in shade + or by moonlight. The peculiarity of <i>albinism</i> or <i>leucopathy</i> + is hereditary and not confined to the human race, having been observed + also in horses, rabbits, rats, mice, &c., birds (white crows or + blackbirds are not particularly uncommon), and fishes. Albinos are not of + necessity lacking in mental vigour or capacity. Cf. Karl Pearson, <i>A + Monograph on Albinism in Man</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′bion</b> (Celtic <i>Albainn</i>), the earliest name by + which the island of Great Britain was known, employed already by writers + of the sixth century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, who speak not of + Britannia but of the land of the Albiones, and in poetry still used for + Great Britain. It is connected with Lat. <i>albus</i>, white, on account, + perhaps, of the chalk cliffs of Dover. The same word as <i>Albany</i>, + <i>Albyn</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′bite,</b> or <b>Soda-felspar,</b> a mineral, a kind of + felspar, usually of a white colour, to which property it owes its name + (Lat. <i>albus</i>, white), but occasionally bluish, greyish, greenish, + or reddish white.</p> + + <p><b>Albizzia</b> (al-bit′si-a), a genus of leguminous trees and + shrubs, allied to the genus Acacia, with doubly-pinnate leaves and white, + yellow, or red flowers often in globular heads, and broad, straight, flat + pods. They number over fifty species, and inhabit tropical and + subtropical Asia, Africa, and Australia. <i>A. lophanta</i>, a native of + south-western Australia, has a bark that contains tannin. <i>A. + Lebbek</i>, a native of Asia and Africa, yields valuable timber, and in + Egypt is much cultivated as a shade tree. <i>A. Julibrissin</i>, a tree + with rose-red flowers, is found in Asia and Africa, and has been + introduced into Southern Europe.</p> + + <p><b>Al′boin,</b> King of the Lombards, succeeded his father + Audoin in 561, and reigned in Noricum and Pannonia. Narses, the general + of Justinian, sought his alliance, and received his aid, in the war + against Totila, King of the Ostrogoths. Alboin afterwards (in 568) + undertook the conquest of Italy, where Narses, who had subjected this + country to Justinian, offended by an ungrateful Court, sought an avenger + in Alboin, and offered him his co-operation. After a victorious career in + Italy he was slain at Verona, in 573 or 574, by an assassin, instigated + by his wife Rosamond, whose hatred he had incurred by sending her, in one + of his fits of intoxication, a cup wrought from the skull of her father, + and forcing her to drink from it.</p> + + <p><b>Alborak,</b> in Mohammedan mythology, the animal said to have been + brought by the angel Gabriel to carry Mohammed to the seventh heaven. It + had the face of a man, the body of a horse, the wings of an eagle, and + spoke with a human voice.</p> + + <p><b>Albrecht</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l′bre<i>h</i>t), the German form of + <i>Albert</i> (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Albrechtsberger</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l′bre<i>h</i>ts-ber-gėr), + Johann Georg, a German composer and writer on music; <!-- Page 87 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>[87]</span>a teacher of + Beethoven, Moscheles, &c. Born 1736, died 1809.</p> + + <p><b>Albret,</b> Jeanne d' (zha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n da<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-brā), Queen of Navarre, wife of + Antoine de Bourbon and mother of Henri IV of France, a zealous supporter + of the reformed religion, which she established in her kingdom; born + 1528, died (probably poisoned) 1572, shortly before the massacre of St. + Bartholomew.</p> + + <p><b>Albuera</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-bu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>-ā′ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a village of Spain, in Estremadura, 12 + miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> of Badajoz. A battle was fought + here, 16th May, 1811, between the army of Marshal Beresford (30,000) and + that of Marshal Soult (25,000), when the latter was obliged to retreat to + Seville, leaving Badajoz to fall into the hands of the allies.</p> + + <p><b>Albu′go,</b> an affection of the eye, consisting of a white + opacity in the cornea; called also <i>leucoma</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′bum,</b> in ancient Rome a board painted white, on which + edicts and public notices were inscribed in black. It is now a name + generally given to a blank book for the reception of pieces of poetry, + autographs, engravings, photographs, &c. In law it is applied to rent + paid in silver (white money).</p> + + <p><b>Albu′men,</b> or <b>Albumin</b> (Lat., from <i>albus</i>, + white), a substance, or rather group of substances, so named from the + Latin for the white of an egg, which is one of its most abundant known + forms. It may be taken as the type of the protein compounds or the + nitrogenous class of food-stuffs. One variety enters largely into the + composition of the animal fluids and solids, is coagulable by heat at and + above 160°, and is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, + with a little sulphur. It abounds in the serum of the blood, the vitreous + and crystalline humours of the eye, the fluid of dropsy, the substance + called coagulable lymph, in nutritive matters, the juice of flesh, + &c. The blood contains about 7 per cent of albumen. Another variety, + called vegetable albumen, exists in most vegetable juices and many seeds, + and has nearly the same composition and properties as egg albumen. When + albumen coagulates in any fluid it readily encloses any substances that + may be suspended in the fluid. Hence it is used to clarify syrupy + liquors. In cookery, white of eggs is employed for clarifying, but in + large operations, like sugar-refining, the serum of blood is used. From + its being coagulable by various salts, and especially by corrosive + sublimate, with which it forms an insoluble compound, white of egg is a + convenient antidote in cases of poisoning by that substance. With lime it + forms a cement to mend broken ware.</p> + + <p>In botany the name albumen is given to the farinaceous matter which + surrounds the embryo, the term in this case having no reference to + chemical composition. It constitutes the meat of the coco-nut, the flour + or meal of cereals, the roasted part of coffee, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Albuminu′ria,</b> a condition in which the urine contains + albumen, evidencing a diseased state of the kidneys.</p> + + <p><b>Albuñol</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-bu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>-nyol′), a seaport of Southern + Spain, province Granada, on the Mediterranean. Pop. 7451.</p> + + <p><b>Albuquerque</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-bu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>-kerk′ā), Affonso de, surnamed + 'the Great', an eminent Portuguese admiral, born 1453, died in 1515. + Portugal having subjected to its power a large part of the western coast + of Africa, and begun to extend its sway in the East Indies, Albuquerque + was appointed viceroy of the Portuguese acquisitions in this quarter, and + arrived in 1503 with a fleet on the coast of Malabar. His career here was + extremely successful, he having extended the Portuguese power over + Malabar, Ceylon, the Sunda Islands, and the Peninsula of Malacca, and + made the Portuguese name respected by all the nations and princes of + India. Notwithstanding his services and his virtues, he was unjustly + superseded in his commands by his personal enemy Lopez Soarez, and so + severely did he feel the ingratitude of his sovereign, King Emanuel, that + he died a few days after receiving the intelligence. His famous letter to + the king was discovered and published in 1542 by J. M. de Fonseca. The + first volume of his letters was published in 1884 by the Royal Academy of + Lisbon.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image032.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image032.jpg" + alt="Alburnum" title="Alburnum" /></a> + Alburnum<br /> + <i>a a</i>, Alburnum or sapwood. <i>b b</i>, Heart-wood. <i>c</i>, + Pith. <i>d</i>, Bark + </div> + + <p><b>Albur′num,</b> the soft white substance which, in trees, is + found between the liber or inner bark and the wood, and, in progress of + time acquiring solidity, becomes itself the wood. A new layer of wood, or + rather of alburnum, is added annually to the tree in every part just + under the bark.</p> + + <p><b>Albury</b> (al′ber-i), a rising town of New South Wales on + the borders of Victoria, on the right bank of the Murray, 190 miles + north-east of <!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page88"></a>[88]</span>Melbourne, in a good agricultural and + wine-producing district. Pop. 6750.</p> + + <p><b>Alby,</b> or <b>Albi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l′bē), an old town of + southern France, department of Tarn, 42 miles north-east of Toulouse, on + the Tarn, in an extensive plain. It has a cathedral, a Gothic structure, + begun in 1282. It manufactures linens, cottons, leather, &c. Alby is + said to have given the Albigenses their name. Pop. 18,262.</p> + + <p><b>Alcæ′us,</b> one of the greatest Grecian lyric poets, was + born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, and flourished there at the close of the + seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>; but of his life little is known. A strong manly + enthusiasm for freedom and justice pervades his lyrics, of which only a + few fragments are left. He wrote in the Æolic dialect, and was the + inventor of a metre that bears his name (Alcaics), which Horace has + employed in many of his odes.</p> + + <p><b>Alcala′ de Guadaira</b> (gwa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-dī′ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>; 'the castle of Guadaira'), a town of + southern Spain, on the Guadaira, 7 miles east of Seville, chiefly + celebrated for its manufacture of bread, with which it supplies a large + part of the population of Seville. Pop. 8930.</p> + + <p><b>Alcala′ de Henares</b> (en-ä′res), a beautiful city of + Spain, 16 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of Madrid, 1 mile from + the Henares. It has an imposing appearance when seen from some distance, + but on nearer inspection is found to be in a state of decay. There was + formerly a university here, at one time attended by 10,000 students; but + in 1836 it was removed with its library to Madrid. Cervantes was born + here. Pop. 11,728.</p> + + <p><b>Alcala′ la Real</b> (rā-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l′), a town of Spain, 18 miles + south-east of Jaen, with a fine abbey and some trade. It was captured in + 1340 by Alphonso XI of Leon, from whence it derives the epithet Real + ('Royal'). Pop. 15,901.</p> + + <p><b>Alcalde</b> (Sp.; a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-dā), or <b>Alcaide</b> (Port.; + al-kī′dā; Ar. <i>alqadi</i> (Cadi), the judge, not to + be confused with <i>alcaide</i>, the governor of a fortress), the name of + a magistrate in the Spanish and Portuguese towns, to whom the + administration of justice and the regulation of the police is committed. + His office nearly corresponds to that of justice of the peace. The name + and the office are of Moorish origin.</p> + + <p><b>Al′camo,</b> a city in the west of Sicily, 2½ miles south of + the Gulf of Castellamare, near the site of the ancient Segesta, the ruins + of which, including a well-preserved Doric temple and a theatre, as well + as the remains of Moorish occupation, are still to be found here. The + district is celebrated for its wine. Pop. 32,200.</p> + + <p><b>Alcañiz</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-yēth′), a town of + north-eastern Spain (Aragon). Pop. 8750.</p> + + <p><b>Alcan′tara</b> (Ar., 'the bridge'), an ancient town and + frontier fortress of Spain, on the Tagus, on a rocky acclivity, and + enclosed by ancient walls. Pop. 3224.—<i>Order of Alcantara</i>, an + ancient Spanish order of knighthood instituted for defence against the + Moors in 1156, and made a military religious order in 1197.</p> + + <p><b>Alcarraza</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-rä′tha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a vessel made of a kind of porous, + unglazed pottery, used in Spain to hold drinking-water, which, oozing + slightly through the vessel, is kept cool by the evaporation that takes + place at the surface. Similar vessels have been long used in Egypt and + elsewhere.</p> + + <p><b>Alcazar de San Juan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-kä′tha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r dā sa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-<i>h</i>wän), a town of Spain, province + of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), with manufactures of soap, saltpetre, + gunpowder, chocolate, &c. Pop. 13,645.</p> + + <p><b>Alce′do.</b> See <i>Kingfisher</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alces′tis,</b> in Greek mythology, wife of Admetus, King of + Thessaly. Her husband was ill, and, according to an oracle, would die + unless someone made a vow to meet death in his stead. This was secretly + done by Alcestis, and Admetus recovered. After her decease Hercules + brought her back from the infernal regions.</p> + + <p><b>Al′chemy,</b> or <b>Alchymy,</b> the art which in former + times occupied the place of and paved the way for the modern science of + chemistry (as astrology did for astronomy), but whose aims were not + scientific, being confined solely to the discovery of the means of + indefinitely prolonging human life, and of transmuting the baser metals + into gold and silver. Among the alchemists it was generally thought + necessary to find a substance which, containing the original principle of + all matter, should possess the power of dissolving all substances into + their elements. This general solvent, or <i>menstruum universale</i>, + which at the same time was to possess the power of removing all the seeds + of disease out of the human body and renewing life, was called the + <i>philosophers' stone</i>, <i>lapis philosophorum</i>, and its pretended + possessors were known as <i>adepts</i>. Alchemy flourished chiefly in the + Middle Ages, though how old such notions might be as those by which the + alchemists were inspired it is difficult to say. There are many stories + about the mystic origin of alchemy. The art is said to have been taught + by the fallen angels, by Isis, or by Miriam, sister of Moses, or by John + the Baptist. According to Suidas, Egypt was the home of alchemy, and the + mythical Hermes Trismegistus of pre-Christian times was said to have left + behind him many books of magical and alchemical learning, and after him + alchemy received the name of the <i>hermetic art</i>. At a later period + chemistry and alchemy were cultivated among the Arabians, and by them the + pursuit was introduced into Europe. Many of the monks devoted themselves + to alchemy, although they were afterwards prohibited from studying it by + the popes. Thus Albertus Magnus is said to have been the author <!-- Page + 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page89"></a>[89]</span>of a work + <i>De Alchimia</i>, and several treatises on the subject are attributed + to Thomas Aquinas. But even Pope John XXII is said to have worked at the + science at Avignon. Raymond Lully, or Lullius, a famous alchemist of the + thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, is said to have changed for King + Edward I a mass of 50,000 lb. of quicksilver into gold, of which the + first rose-nobles were coined. Among other alchemists may be mentioned + John Cremer, Abbot of Westminster (1327-77), Nicholas Flamel (1330-80), + Basilius Valentinus, Isaac of Holland, and Paracelsus (1493-1541). With + the growth of chemistry, the recognition of the chemical elements as + forming a large number of distinct substances, and the conception of the + fixed unalterable nature of the atoms, attempts to transform the base + metals into gold were largely abandoned as being unscientific. But the + most modern view of matter, namely, that the atoms of all elements are + composed of numerous electrons, favours the idea of the transmutability + of elements, and the production of helium from radium (see these + articles) by Ramsay shows the possibility of this + transmutation.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Pattison-Muir, + <i>Alchemy, or the Beginnings of Chemistry</i> (Hodder & Stoughton: + Useful Knowledge Series); H. S. Redgrove, <i>Alchemy, Ancient and + Modern</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alcibi′ades</b> (-dēz), a famous Athenian statesman and + general of high family and of great abilities, but of no principle, was + born at Athens in the 82nd Olympiad, 450 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, + being the son of Cleinias, and a relative of Pericles, who also was his + guardian. In youth he was remarkable for the beauty of his person, no + less than for the dissoluteness of his manners. He came under the + influence of Socrates, but little permanent effect was produced on his + character by the precepts of the sage. He acquired great popularity by + his liberality in providing for the amusements of the people, and after + the death of Cleon attained a political ascendancy which left him no + rival but Nicias. Thus he played an important part in the long-continued + Peloponnesian war. In 415 he advocated the expedition against Sicily, and + was chosen one of the leaders, but before the expedition sailed he was + charged with profaning and divulging the Eleusinian mysteries, and + mutilating the busts of Hermes, which were set up in public all through + Athens. Rather than stand his trial he went over to Sparta, divulged the + plans of the Athenians, and assisted the Spartans to defeat them. + Sentence of death and confiscation was pronounced against him at Athens, + and he was cursed by the ministers of religion. He soon left Sparta and + took refuge with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, ingratiating himself by + his affectation of Persian manners, as he had previously done at Sparta + by a similar affectation of Spartan simplicity. He now began to intrigue + for his return to Athens, offering to bring Tissaphernes over to the + Athenian alliance, and after a while he was recalled and his banishment + cancelled. He, however, remained abroad for some years in command of the + Athenian forces, gained several victories, and took Chalcedon and + Byzantium. In 407 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he returned to Athens, + but in 406, the fleet which he commanded having suffered a severe defeat, + he was deprived of his command. He once more went over to the Persians, + taking refuge with the satrap Pharnabazus of Phrygia, and here he was + assassinated in 404 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> The authorities for + his life are Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos.</p> + + <p><b>Alcinous</b> (al-sin′o-us), King of the Phæacians. See + <i>Ulysses</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alcira</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-thē′ra<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), a town of Spain, + province of Valencia, on the Jucar, founded by the Carthaginians. Fruits, + rice, &c., are grown. Pop. 22,050.</p> + + <p><b>Alc′man,</b> the chief lyric poet of Sparta, a Lydian by + birth, flourished between 671 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> and 631, and + wrote (in the Doric dialect) love songs, hymns, pæans, &c., of which + only fragments remain.</p> + + <p><b>Alcme′na</b>. See <i>Amphitryon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alco,</b> a small variety of dog, with a small head and large + pendulous ears, found wild in Mexico and Peru, and also domesticated.</p> + + <p><b>Alcobaça</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-kō-bä′sa<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), a small town of + Portugal, 50 miles north of Lisbon, celebrated for a magnificent + Cistercian monastery founded in 1148 by Don Alphonso I, and completed in + 1222. It contains the tombs of Alphonso II, Alphonso III, Pedro I and his + wife Ines de Castro.</p> + + <p><b>Al′cohol,</b> or <b>Ethyl Alcohol,</b> + C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O, is a substance obtained by allowing the + juice of the grape to undergo a change known as fermentation. It is only + in modern times that alcohol has been isolated and its properties + examined. Alcohol is now prepared in enormous quantities, both for + industrial purposes and for the preparation of alcoholic beverages, from + substances rich in sugar or in starch. Potatoes and maize form the main + source of alcohol. These are treated with steam under pressure in + specially-constructed tanks to extract starchy materials. The starch so + liberated is then fermented by means of a substance diastase. This + treatment transforms sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The + solution is then filtered to remove all insoluble matter, proteids, + &c., and from this solid residue, cattle-feeding cakes are made. This + treatment yields a solution containing 9-10 per cent alcohol. The + solution is fractionally distilled, using a special form of distilling + column. The most volatile part of the distillate, first runnings, + contains acetaldehyde, the second fraction contains the bulk of the + alcohol and <!-- Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page90"></a>[90]</span>some water, and the least volatile portion, + last runnings, fusel oil and higher alcohols. By this means a liquid + containing 80-95 per cent alcohol, rectified spirits, is obtained. For + preparation of beverages, fusel oil must be carefully separated from + alcohol, as fusel oil has an injurious effect physiologically. The + removal of the last traces of water from alcohol is very troublesome. It + is repeatedly distilled over quicklime or freshly-ignited potassium + carbonate, giving an alcohol containing 98-99 per cent alcohol. The small + quantity of water still contained is removed by leaving it in contact + with metallic calcium. An alcohol containing more than 96 per cent + alcohol is known as <i>absolute</i>. Pure alcohol is a colourless + poisonous liquid boiling at 78° C., possessing a strong odour and a + burning taste. It is inflammable and mixes with water in all proportions + and has a specific gravity 0.80625 at 0° C. Very low temperatures convert + it into a glassy solid, melting at -117° C., hence it may be used in + thermometers for low-temperature measurements. Alcohol burns with a + non-luminous flame and gives out great heat; it is used, therefore, in + various types of lamps for heating purposes. It is also used as a fuel + for motors and is a very valuable solvent for many substances such as + resin, oils, colouring-matter, varnishes, and ethereal essences. The + so-called 'solid alcohol' can be obtained by dissolving 30 to 40 parts of + collodion in 100 parts of alcohol, a solid which separates and burns like + alcohol, leaving no residue. Alcohol is the important constituent of all + alcoholic beverages and it is due to its presence that wine, whisky, + &c., have a stimulating and intoxicating effect on the nervous + system. Beverages such as beer, wine, cider, &c., are prepared by + direct fermentation of sugars obtained in fruit juices in the case of + wine and cider and from barley in the case of beer. These contain varying + amounts of alcohol, thus wine may contain from 8 to 10 per cent of + alcohol, whilst beer contains 3 to 5 per cent. Whisky, brandy, &c., + contain more alcohol, 50-70 per cent, and for the preparation of these + the alcohol used must be distilled and purified after fermentation. The + alcohol content of an aqueous solution may be deduced from a + determination of the specific gravity of the solution or directly by the + Alcoholometer. This gives percentage by volume. The amount of alcohol + present in any alcoholic beverage cannot be obtained directly, but if + ⅓ of the liquid be distilled and the distillate made up to the + original volume, then the alcohol may be determined by the Alcoholometer. + The name alcohol is applied generally in chemistry to a large group of + substances, containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which have chemical + properties analogous to those of ethyl alcohol.</p> + + <p><b>Al′coholism,</b> a morbid condition of the body (especially + of the nervous system) brought on by the immoderate use of alcoholic + liquors.</p> + + <p><b>Alcoholom′eter,</b> an instrument constructed on the + principle of the hydrometer, to determine from the specific gravity of + spirituous liquors the percentage of alcohol they contain, the scale + marking directly the required proportion. If the liquor contain anything + besides water and alcohol, previous distillation is necessary.</p> + + <p><b>Alco′ran</b>. See <i>Koran</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′cott, Louisa May,</b> a distinguished American authoress, + born in 1833. She wrote a number of books chiefly intended for the young: + <i>Little Women</i> (1867), <i>An Old-fashioned Girl</i> (1869), + <i>Little Men</i> (1871), <i>Jack and Jill</i> (1880), &c. Died in + 1888.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image033.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image033.jpg" + alt="Alcove" title="Alcove" /></a> + Alcove. French; late sixteenth century + </div> + + <p><b>Al′cove,</b> a recess in a room, usually separated from the + rest of the room by columns, a balustrade, or by curtains, and often + containing a bed or seats.</p> + + <p><b>Alcoy′,</b> a town of Spain, in Valencia, 24 miles north by + west of Alicante, in a richly-cultivated district. There is a Roman + bridge over the river, and the town has a very picturesque appearance; + its chief manufactures are paper and woollen goods. On the 22nd of April + an annual feast is celebrated by the inhabitants of the town + commemorating a victory over the Moors in 1257. Pop. 33,896.</p> + + <p><b>Alcudia,</b> Duke of. See <i>Godoy</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alcuin</b> (alk′win; in his native tongue <i>Ealhwine</i>), a + learned Englishman, the confidant, instructor, and adviser of Charles the + Great (Charlemagne). He was born at York in 735, and was educated at York + School, of which he subsequently was head master. Alcuin having gone to + Rome, Charlemagne became acquainted with <!-- Page 91 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page91"></a>[91]</span>him at Parma, invited him + in 782 to his Court, and made use of his services in his endeavours to + civilize his subjects. To secure the benefit of his instructions, + Charlemagne established at his Court a school, called <i>Schola + Palatina</i>, or the Palace School. In the royal academy Alcuin was + called <i>Flaccus Albinus</i>. Most of the schools in France were either + founded or improved by him; thus he founded the school in the abbey of + St. Martin of Tours, in 796, after the plan of the school in York. Alcuin + left the Court in 801, and retired to the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, + but kept up a constant correspondence with Charles to his death in 804. + He left works on theology, philosophy, rhetoric, also poems and letters, + all of which have been published. His letters, 232 of which were + addressed to Charlemagne, form the most important part of his work. As a + philosopher, Alcuin, though lacking in originality, exercised a + considerable influence over his contemporaries. The expression of + 'scholasticism' is attributed to him.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C. J. B. Gaskoin, <i>Alcuin, His Life and + his Work</i>, J. B. Mullinger, <i>The Schools of Charles the + Great</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alcyona′ria,</b> cœlenterate animals forming a great + division of the class Actinozoa (see <i>Sea-anemone</i>). These animals + are nearly all composite, and the individual polyps have mostly eight + tentacles. They include the organ-pipe corals, sea-pens, fan-corals, + &c., as also the red coral of commerce. The polyps resemble those of + the genus Alcyonium in structure, and in the number and arrangement of + the tentacles. See <i>Alcyonium</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alcyo′nium,</b> a genus of cœlenterate animals, one + familiar species of which, dredged around the British coasts—<i>A. + digitātum</i>—is named 'Dead-Men's Fingers', or 'Cow's Paps', + from its lobed or digitate appearance. It grows attached to stones, + shells, and other objects. It consists of a mass of little polyps, each + polyp possessing eight little fringed tentacles disposed around a central + mouth. The Alcyonium forms the type of the <i>Alcyonaria</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′dan,</b> a river of Eastern Siberia, a tributary of the + Lena, 1200 miles in length. The Aldan Mountains run along parallel to it + on the left for 400 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Aldeb′aran,</b> a star of the first magnitude, forming the + eye of the constellation Taurus or the Bull, the brightest of the five + stars known to the Greeks as the Hyades. Spectrum analysis has shown it + to contain antimony, bismuth, iron, mercury, hydrogen, sodium, calcium, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aldeburgh</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>ld′bu-ru), a municipal borough of + England, on the coast of Suffolk, more important formerly than it is now, + having suffered from encroachments of the sea. The poet Crabbe was born + there in 1754. Pop. 2892.</p> + + <p><b>Al′dehyde,</b> in chemistry, the generic name given to the + compounds of alcohol intermediate between the alcohols and the acids. + Common aldehyde (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O) is derived from spirit of + wine by oxidation, and is a colourless, limpid, volatile, and inflammable + liquid, with a peculiar ethereal odour, which is suffocating when strong; + specific gravity, 0.79. Atmospheric oxygen converts it into acetic acid. + It decomposes oxide of silver, depositing a brilliant film of metallic + silver; hence it is used in silvering curved glass surfaces.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:29%;"> + <a href="images/image034.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image034.jpg" + alt="Alder" title="Alder" /></a> + Common Alder (<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Alder</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>l′dėr; Alnus), a genus of + plants of the sub-ord. Betulaceæ (Birch), (nat. ord. Amentaceæ). Fourteen + species are known as small trees or shrubs indigenous to temperate and + colder regions of the globe; eight of these are found in Central and + Western Europe. The only species indigenous to Britain is the common + alder (<i>Alnus glutinōsa</i>), a tree growing in wet situations in + Europe, Asia, and the United States. Its wood, light and soft and of a + reddish colour, is used for a variety of purposes, and is well adapted + for work which is to be kept constantly in water. Alder is still largely + used in gunpowder manufacture, and the roots and knots furnish a + beautifully-veined wood well suited for cabinet work; it is used for + cigar-boxes in East Prussia and West Russia. The bark is used in tanning + and leather-dressing, and by fishermen for staining their nets. This and + the young twigs are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield different + shades of yellow and red. With the addition of copperas it yields a black + dye.</p> + + <p><b>Alderley Edge,</b> a town of England, Cheshire, about 8 miles + south-west of Stockport. Pop. (1921), 3072. <!-- Page 92 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>[92]</span></p> + + <p><b>Al′derman</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>l′dėr-; Anglo-Saxon + <i>ealdorman</i>, from <i>ealdor</i>, older, and <i>man</i>), among the + Anglo-Saxons a person of a rank equivalent to that of an earl or count, + the governor of a shire or county, and member of the <i>witena-gemót</i> + or great council of the nation. Aldermen played an important rôle already + before the Constitution of Egbert, but reached their highest power during + the reign of Alfred the Great, who had married the daughter of an + alderman. Aldermen, at present, are officers associated with the mayor of + a city for the administration of the municipal government in England and + the United States.</p> + + <p><b>Al′derney</b> (Fr. <i>Aurigny</i>), an island belonging to + Britain, off the coast of Normandy, 10 miles due west of Cape La Hogue, + and 60 from the nearest point of England, the most northerly of the + Channel Islands, between 3 and 4 miles long, and about 1¼ broad. The + coast is bold and rocky; the interior is fertile. About a third of the + island is occupied by grass lands; and the Alderney cows, a small-sized + but handsome breed, are famous for the richness of their milk. The + climate is mild and healthy. A judge, with six 'jurats', chosen by the + people for life, and twelve 'douzainiers', representatives of the people, + form a kind of local legislature. The French language still prevails + among the inhabitants, but all understand and many speak English. The + <i>Race of Alderney</i> is the strait between the coast of France and + this island. Pop. 2561.</p> + + <p><b>Aldershot</b> (äl′dėr-), a town and military station in + England, the latter having given rise to the former. The 'camp' was + originated in 1854 by the purchase by Government of a tract of moorland + known as Aldershot Heath, on the confines of Surrey, Hampshire, and + Berkshire. The object was to accustom both officers and soldiers to act + more readily when drawn up in brigades and divisions, their practice + having been limited for the most part, since the termination of the + French war, to the movements of battalions and companies. It was also + deemed advisable to accustom the army to camp life, and to exercise the + men in all the evolutions and movements which they might be required to + perform when brought into actual contact with the enemy. The + accommodation provided for the army, officers as well as men, consisted + at first of wooden huts; but these have been superseded by brick + barracks, and altogether the money expended on the camp has amounted to + over £3,000,000. The men are exercised in marching, skirmishing, and + similar field operations, which are carried on during the summer months + with great activity; they are also instructed in the camp in cooking and + other duties. The troops at Aldershot in summer include a number of + Territorials, Senior and Junior O.T.C., &c. The town is in the + neighbourhood of the barracks, immediately beyond the Government ground, + and in Hampshire. It contains several churches, and has schools, + newspapers, literary institutes, music-halls &c. Aldershot gives its + name to a parliamentary division of Hants. Pop. (1921), 28,756.</p> + + <p><b>Ald′helm,</b> an Anglo-Saxon scholar and prelate, Abbot of + Malmesbury and Bishop of Sherborne, born 640 (?), died 709. He was a + great fosterer of learning and builder of churches, and has left Latin + writings on theological subjects.</p> + + <p><b>Al′dine Editions,</b> the name given to the works which + proceeded from the press of Aldus Manutius and his family at Venice + (1494-1592), Rome (1562-70), and Bologna. (See <i>Manutius</i>.) + Recommended by their value, as well as by a splendid exterior, they have + gained the respect of scholars and the attention of book-collectors. Many + of them are the first printed editions (<i>editiones principes</i>) of + Greek and Latin classics. Others are texts of the modern Italian authors. + These editions are of importance in the history of printing. The editions + printed by Aldus Manutius the Elder are, however, much more valuable than + those issued by his descendants. Among the former are the first edition + of the works of Aristotle in 5 vols., and the works of Virgil, Horace, + and Petrarch. Aldus had nine kinds of Greek type, and no one before him + printed so much and so beautifully in this language. Of the Latin + character he procured fourteen kinds of type.</p> + + <p><b>Aldobrandi′ni,</b> the name of a Florentine family, + subsequently of princely rank (now extinct), which produced one Pope + (Clement VIII) and several cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and men of + learning.—<i>Aldobrandini Marriage</i>, one of the most beautiful + ancient fresco paintings, belonging probably to the time of Augustus, + discovered in 1606 on Mount Aquilinus at the very spot where once were + the gardens of Mæcenas, and acquired by Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of + Clement VIII, now in the Vatican. It represents a marriage scene in which + ten persons are portrayed. There is a beautiful copy of this fresco by + Poussin in the Galleria Doria at Rome.</p> + + <p><b>Al′dred,</b> or <b>Ealdred,</b> Anglo-Saxon prelate, Bishop + of Worcester and Archbishop of York, born 1000(?), died 1069. He improved + the discipline of the Church and built several monastic churches. On the + death of Edward the Confessor he is said to have crowned Harold. Having + submitted to the Conqueror, whose esteem he enjoyed and whose power he + made subservient to the views of the Church, he also crowned him as well + as Matilda.</p> + + <p><b>Ald′rich,</b> Henry, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; born in + 1647, died in 1710; distinguished as a philosopher, an architect, and as + a musician. <!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page93"></a>[93]</span>His <i>Compendium of Logic</i> was a + textbook till long past the middle of last century. He adapted many of + the works of the older musicians, such as Palestrina and Carissimi, to + the liturgy of the Church of England, and composed many services and + anthems, some of which are still heard in English cathedrals.</p> + + <p><b>Aldrich,</b> Thomas Bailey, the most conspicuous American poet of + his generation. Born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on 11th Nov., 1836; + died at Boston in March, 1907. He edited <i>Every Saturday</i> in Boston + from 1865 to 1874, and the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> from 1881 to 1890. He + was a poet of some skill, the chief characteristic of his lyrics being + refinement and finish. Some of his short stories have been rarely + surpassed by other American writers. Among his volumes of verse are: + <i>The Ballad of Babie Bell</i> (1856); <i>Cloth of Gold</i> (1874); + <i>Lyrics and Sonnets</i> (1880); <i>Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book</i> + (1881); <i>Unguarded Gates and other Poems</i> (1895), &c. His prose + works include: <i>Story of a Bad Boy</i> (1870); <i>Marjorie Daw and + other People</i> (1873); <i>The Stillwater Tragedy</i> (1880); <i>Two + Bites of a Cherry</i> (1893).</p> + + <p><b>Aldrovan′di,</b> Ulysses, a distinguished Italian naturalist; + born 1522, died 1607. He was professor at Bologna, and established + botanical gardens and a museum of natural history there; wrote a work on + natural history in 14 vols. His <i>Antidotarii Bononiensis epitome</i> + (1574) has served as a model for all Pharmacopœias published in + later years.</p> + + <p><b>Ale</b> and <b>Beer,</b> well-known and extensively-used fermented + liquors, the principle of which is extracted from several sorts of grain + but most commonly from barley, after it has undergone the process termed + malting. Beer is a more general term than ale, being often used for any + kind of fermented malt liquor, including porter, though it is also used + in a more special signification. See <i>Brewing</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aleardi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lā-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r′dē), <b>Aleardo,</b> a + distinguished Italian lyrical and political poet and patriot, born 1812, + died 1878; he was a member of the Italian board of higher education and a + senator. His best work is his poem <i>Il Monte Circello</i> (1844).</p> + + <p><b>Ale-conner,</b> formerly an officer in England appointed to assay + ale and beer, and to take care that they were good and wholesome, and + sold at a proper price. The duty of the ale-conners of London was to + inspect the measures used in public-houses, to prevent frauds in selling + liquors. Four of these were chosen annually by the liverymen, in common + hall, on Mid-summer's Day.</p> + + <p><b>Ale-cost.</b> See <i>Costmary</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alec′to,</b> in Greek mythology, one of the Furies + (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Aleman</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-le-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n′), Mateo, a Spanish novelist, + born about the middle of the sixteenth century, died in 1610. His fame + rests on his <i>Life and Adventures of the Rogue Guzman de Alfarache</i> + (translated into French in 1600 and into English in 1623), one of the + best of the <i>picaresque</i> or rogue novels, which give such a lively + picture of the shady classes of society in Spain during the sixteenth and + seventeenth centuries. The hero becomes in succession stable-boy, beggar, + porter, thief, man of fashion, soldier, valet, merchant, student, robber, + galley-slave, and lastly his own biographer.</p> + + <p><b>Aleman′ni,</b> or <b>Alamanni,</b> a confederacy of several + German tribes which, at the commencement of the third century after + Christ, lived near the Roman territory, and came then and subsequently + into conflict with the imperial troops. Caracalla first fought with them + in 213, but did not conquer them; Severus was likewise unsuccessful. + About 250 they began to cross the Rhine westwards, and in 255 they + overran Gaul along with the Franks. In 259 a body of them was defeated in + Italy at Milan, and in the following year they were driven out of Gaul by + Postumus. But the Alemanni did not desist from their incursions, + notwithstanding the numerous defeats they suffered at the hands of the + Roman troops. In the fourth century they crossed the Rhine and ravaged + Gaul, but were severely defeated by the Emperor Julian and driven back. + Subsequently they occupied a considerable territory on both sides of the + Rhine; but at last Clovis broke their power in 496 and deprived them of a + large portion of their possessions. Part of their territory was formed + into a duchy called Alemannia or Swabia, this name being derived from + Suevi or Swabians, the name which they gave themselves. It is from the + Alemanni that the French have derived their names for Germans and Germany + in general, namely, <i>Allemands</i> and <i>Allemagne</i>, though + strictly speaking only the modern Swabians and northern Swiss are the + proper descendants of that ancient race.</p> + + <p><b>Alembert</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-bār), Jean le Rond d', a French + mathematician and philosopher, born in Paris, 16th Nov., 1717, and died + there 29th Oct., 1783. He was the illegitimate son of Madame de Tencin + and Chevalier Destouches, and was exposed at the Church of St. Jean le + Rond (hence his name) soon after birth. He was brought up by the wife of + a poor glazier, and with her he lived for more than forty years. His + parents never publicly acknowledged him, but his father settled upon him + an income of 1200 livres. He showed much quickness in learning, entered + the College Mazarin at the age of twelve, and studied mathematics with + enthusiasm and success, but received little encouragement from his + teachers. Having left college he studied law and became an advocate, but + did not practise, and long <!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page94"></a>[94]</span>continued to occupy himself with + mathematics, in which he made immense advances by his own efforts, often + arriving at results that other mathematicians had previously arrived at + unknown to him. A pamphlet on the motion of solid bodies in a fluid, and + another on the integral calculus, which he laid before the Academy of + Sciences in 1739 and 1740, showed him in so favourable a light that the + Academy received him in 1741 into the number of its members. He soon + after published his famous work on dynamics, <i>Traité de Dynamique</i> + (1743) and another work dealing with fluids, <i>Traité des Fluides</i>. + His <i>Réflexion sur la cause générale des vents</i> was also a work that + added to D'Alembert's reputation. He also took a part in the + investigations which completed the discoveries of Newton respecting the + motion of the heavenly bodies, and published at intervals various + important astronomical dissertations—on the perturbations of the + planets, for instance, and on the precession of the equinoxes—as + well as on other subjects. He also took part, with Diderot and others, in + the celebrated <i>Encyclopédie</i> in 33 vols., for which he wrote the + <i>Discours Préliminaire</i>, as well as many philosophical and almost + all the mathematical articles. Literature, history, and philosophy also + received attention from him, and his <i>Éléments de Philosophie</i> + (1759), in which he agrees with the theories of Condillac and Locke, was + a work of much value. His great philosophical aim seems to have been the + idea of secularizing morality upon a rational basis. Among his + miscellaneous works are <i>Mélanges de Philosophie, d'Histoire, et de + Littérature</i>; <i>Traduction de quelques Morceaux choisis de + Tacite</i>; <i>Sur la Destruction des Jésuites</i>; <i>Histoire des + Membres de l'Académie Française</i>; <i>Éléments de Musique théorique et + pratique</i>. He received an invitation from the Russian empress + Catherine II to go to St. Petersburg (now Petrograd) as tutor to her son, + a very large sum being offered; and Frederick the Great invited him to + settle in Berlin, but in vain. From Frederick, however, he accepted a + pension, and he also paid a visit to Berlin. There was an intimate + friendship between him and Voltaire. He never married, but he was on + terms of the closest friendship with Madame L'Espinasse, and they + occupied the same house for a number of years. He was held in high esteem + by David Hume, who left him a legacy of £200.</p> + + <p><b>Alem′bic,</b> a simple apparatus sometimes used by chemists + for distillation, and consisting of three main parts, body, head, and + receiver. The <i>cucurbit</i>, or body, contains the substance to be + distilled, and is usually somewhat like a bottle, bulging below and + narrowing towards the top; the <i>head</i>, of a globular form, with a + flat under-ring, fits on to the neck of the cucurbit, condenses the + vapour from the heated liquid, and receives the distilled liquid on the + ring enclosing the neck of the lower vessel, and thus causes it to find + egress by a discharging-pipe into the third section, called the + <i>receiver</i>. See <i>Distillation</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alemtejo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lān<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-tā′zhō; 'beyond the + Tagus'), the largest province of Portugal, and the most southern except + Algarve; area, 9219 sq. miles; pop. 478,584. The capital is Evora. It has + about 30 miles of coast, but no good harbour and no navigable river. + Large areas are devoted to pasturage, and the cultivated portions are + comparatively limited, though in the east there are fertile valleys where + grain, fruits, &c., are cultivated. There are valuable cork forests + in this portion also. Excellent horses are reared. Copper and iron mines + are worked; but on the whole this province is in a backward condition, + and is the most thinly inhabited in the country.</p> + + <p><b>Alençon</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-sōn<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), a town of France, capital of + department Orne, and formerly of the Duchy of Alençon, on the right bank + of the Sarthe, 105 miles west by south of Paris; well built; has a fine + Gothic church (fifteenth century) and interesting remains of the old + castle of the ducs d'Alençon. Alençon was long famed for its point-lace, + called 'point d'Alençon', an industry established at the instigation of + Colbert in 1673 but now much fallen off; it has cotton and flax spinning + and weaving, &c. Fine rock-crystal, yielding the so-called 'diamants + d'Alençon', is found in the neighbouring granite quarries. Alençon is + mentioned as a city for the first time in 717. Pop. + 16,590.—<i>Alençon</i>, originally a county, later a dukedom, + became united with the crown in 1221, and was given by Louis XI as an + appanage to his fifth son, with whom the branch of the Alençon-Valois + commenced. The first duke of the name lost his life at the battle of + Agincourt in 1415; another, called Charles IV, married the celebrated + Margaret of Valois, sister of Francis I. He commanded the left wing of + the French army at the battle of Pavia, where, instead of supporting the + king at a critical moment, he fled at the head of his troops, the + consequence of which was the loss of the battle and the capture of the + king.</p> + + <p><b>Alep′po,</b> a city in North Syria, on the River Koik, in a + fine plain 60 miles south-east of Alexandretta, which is its port, and + 129 miles <span class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Damascus. It has a + circumference of about 7 miles, and consists of the old town and numerous + suburbs. Its appearance at a distance is striking, and the houses are + well built of stone. On a hill stands the citadel, and at its foot the + governor's palace. Previous to 1822 Aleppo contained about 100 mosques, + but in that year an earthquake laid the greater part of them in ruins, + and destroyed nearly the whole city. The aqueduct built by the Romans is + the oldest monument of <!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page95"></a>[95]</span>the town. Among the chief attractions of + Aleppo are its gardens, in which the pistachio-nut is extensively + cultivated. The branch railway to Hamah from the Beyrout-Damascus line + has been continued to Aleppo. Formerly the city was a great centre of + trade and manufactures, but the earthquake and other causes have combined + greatly to lessen its prosperity. It has still a trade, however, in the + products of the country, such as wool, cotton, silk, wax, skins, soap, + tobacco, &c., and imports a certain quantity of European + manufactures.—Aleppo was a place of considerable importance in very + remote times. By the Greeks and Romans it was called <i>Berœa</i>. + It was conquered by the Arabs in 638, and its original name + <i>Chalybon</i> was then turned into <i>Haleb</i>, whence the Italian + form <i>Aleppo</i>. The town was occupied by British troops on 27th Oct., + 1918. Its population, 200,000 at the beginning of last century, is now + estimated at over 250,000. The language generally spoken is Arabic. The + vilayet of Aleppo has a pop. of 1,500,000.</p> + + <p><b>Alesh′ki,</b> a town of Southern Russia, government Taurida. + Pop. 8915.</p> + + <p><b>Ale′sia,</b> a town and fortress of ancient Gaul, at which in + 52 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Julius Cæsar inflicted a crushing + defeat on the Gauls under Vercingetorix. It is now represented by the + village of Alise, department Côte d'Or, near which Napoleon III erected a + colossal statue of Vercingetorix in 1865.</p> + + <p><b>Alessan′dria,</b> a town and fortress in North Italy, capital + of the province of the same name, in a marshy country, near the junction + of the Bormida and the Tanaro. It was built in 1168 by the Cremonese and + Milanese, and was named in honour of Pope Alexander III, who made it a + bishop's see. It has a cathedral, important manufactures of linen, + woollen, and silk goods, and an active trade. It ranks as one of the + first fortresses of Europe, the fortifications including a surrounding + wall and bastions, and a strong citadel on the opposite side of the + Tanaro, connected by a bridge with the town. Pop. (with suburbs) + 78,159.</p> + + <p><b>Ales′si,</b> Galeazzo, a distinguished Italian architect, + born at Perugia, 1512, died there in 1572. Many palaces, villas, and + churches were erected after his designs, and at the request of Philip II + of Spain he drew a plan for the Escurial.</p> + + <p><b>Aletsch′-glacier,</b> the greatest glacier in Switzerland, + canton Valais, a prolongation of the immense mass of glaciers connected + with the Jungfrau, the Aletschhorn (14,000 feet), and other peaks; about + 15 miles long.</p> + + <p><b>Aleurites,</b> a tree belonging to the nat. ord. Euphorbiaceæ, is + found in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. <i>Aleurites + triloba</i>, the 'candleberry tree', is cultivated in the Moluccan + Islands for its fruit. The oil extracted from its seeds is valuable both + for food and light.</p> + + <p><b>Aleurom′eter,</b> an instrument for indicating the + bread-making qualities of wheaten flour. The indications depend upon the + expansion of the gluten contained in a given quantity of flour when freed + of its starch by pulverization and repeated washings with water.</p> + + <p><b>Aleu′tian Islands,</b> a chain of about eighty small islands + belonging to the United States, separating the Sea of Kamchatka from the + northern part of the Pacific Ocean, and extending nearly 1000 miles from + east to west between lon. 172° <span class="scac">E.</span> and 163° + <span class="scac">W.</span>; total area, 6391 sq. miles; pop. 1220. They + are of volcanic formation, and in a number of them there are volcanoes + still in activity. Their general appearance is dismal and barren, yet + grassy valleys capable of supporting cattle throughout the year are met + with, and potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables are successfully + cultivated. They afford also an abundance of valuable fur and of fish. + The natives belong to the same stock with those of Kamchatka.</p> + + <p><b>Ale′wife</b> (corruption of the Indian name), the + <i>Alōsa tyrannus</i>, a fish of the same genus as the shad, + growing to the length of 12 inches, and caught in great quantities in the + mouths of the rivers of New England, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, + being salted and exported.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/image035.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image035.jpg" + alt="Coin of Alexander the Great" title="Coin of Alexander the Great" /></a> + Coin of Alexander the Great + </div> + + <p><b>Alexander,</b> surnamed <b>the Great,</b> was the son of Philip of + Macedon and his queen Olympias, and was born at Pella, 356 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> In youth he had Aristotle as instructor, and he + early displayed uncommon abilities. The victory of Chæronea in 338, which + brought Greece entirely under Macedonia, was mainly decided by his + efforts. Philip having been assassinated, 336 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, Alexander, not yet twenty years of age, + ascended the throne. His father had been preparing an expedition against + the Persians, and Alexander determined to carry it out; but before doing + so he had to chastise the barbarian tribes on the frontiers of Macedon as + well as quell a rising in Greece, in which he took and destroyed Thebes, + put 6000 of the inhabitants to the sword, and carried 30,000 into + captivity. Leaving Antipater to govern in his stead in Europe, and being + confirmed as commander-in-chief of the Greek forces in the general + assembly of the Greeks, he crossed over the Hellespont into Asia, in the + spring of 334, with 30,000 foot and 5000 horse. His first encounter with + the Persian forces (assisted by Greek mercenaries) was at the small river + Granīcus, where he gained a complete victory. Most of the cities of + Asia Minor now opened their gates to the victor, and Alexander restored + democracy in all the Greek cities. In passing through Gordium he cut the + Gordian knot, on which it was believed the fate <!-- Page 96 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page96"></a>[96]</span>of Asia depended, and + then conquered Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, and Cappadocia. A + sickness, caused by bathing in the Cydnus (333 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), checked his progress; but scarcely was he + restored to health when he continued his advance, and this same year + defeated the Persian emperor Darius and his army of 500,000 or 600,000 + men (including 50,000 Greek mercenaries) near Issus (inner angle of the + Gulf of Alexandretta). Darius fled towards the interior of his dominions, + leaving his family and treasures to fall into the hands of the conqueror. + Alexander did not pursue Darius, but proceeded southwards, and secured + all the towns along the Mediterranean Sea, though he only got possession + of Tyre (taken 332 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) after besieging it for + seven months. Palestine and Egypt now fell before him, and in the latter + he founded Alexandria, which became one of the first cities of ancient + times. Hence he went through the desert of Libya, to consult the oracle + of Zeus Ammon, and it was said that the god recognized him as his son. On + his return Alexander marched against Darius, who had collected an immense + army in Assyria, and rejected the proposals of his rival for peace. A + battle was fought at Gaugamela, about 50 miles from Arbela, 331 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and notwithstanding the immense numerical + superiority of his enemy, Alexander (who had but 40,000 men and 7000 + horse) gained a complete victory. Babylon and Susa opened their gates to + the conqueror, who marched towards Persepolis, the capital of Persia, and + entered it in triumph. He now seems for a time to have lost his + self-command. He gave himself up to arrogance and dissipation, and is + said in a fit of intoxication to have set fire to the palace of + Persepolis, one of the wonders of the world. Rousing himself up, however, + he set out in pursuit of Darius, who, having lost his throne, was kept + prisoner by Bessus, satrap of Bactriana. Bessus, on seeing himself + closely pursued, caused Darius to be assassinated (330 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>). Continuing his progress he subdued Bessus, and + advanced to the Jaxartes, the extreme eastern limit of the empire, but + did not fully subdue the whole of this region till 328, some fortresses + holding out with great tenacity. In one of these he took prisoner the + beautiful Roxana, daughter of Oxyartes, a nobleman of Sogdiana, and + having fallen in love with her he married her. Meantime disaffection had + once or twice manifested itself among his Macedonian followers and had + been cruelly punished; and he had also, to his lasting remorse, killed + his faithful friend Cleitus in a fit of drunken rage. Alexander now + formed the idea of conquering India, then scarcely known even by name. He + passed the Indus (326 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), marched towards + the Hydaspes (Jhelum), at the passage of which he conquered a king named + Porus in a fierce battle, and advanced victoriously through the + north-west of India, and intended to proceed as far as the Ganges, when + the murmurs of his army compelled him to return. On the Hydaspes he built + a fleet, in which he sent a part of his army down the river, while the + rest proceeded along the banks. By the Hydaspes he reached the Acesines + (Chenab), and thus the Indus, down which he sailed to the sea. Nearchus, + his admiral, sailed hence to the Persian Gulf, while Alexander directed + his march by land to Babylon, losing a great part of his troops in the + desert through which he had to pass. In Susa he married Statira, the + eldest daughter of Darius, and rewarded those of his Macedonians who had + married Persian women, because it was his intention to unite the two + nations as closely as possible. At Opis, on the Tigris, a mutiny arose + among his Macedonians (in 324), who thought he showed too much favour to + the Asiatics; by firmness and policy he succeeded in quelling this + rising, and sent home 10,000 veterans with rich rewards. Soon after, his + favourite, Hephæstion, died at Ecbatana, and Alexander's grief was + unbounded. The favourite was royally buried at Babylon, and here + Alexander was engaged in extensive plans for the future, when he became + suddenly sick, after a banquet, and died in a few days (323 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), in his thirty-third year, after a reign of + twelve years and eight months. His body was after a time conveyed to + Egypt with great splendour by his general Ptolemy. He left behind him an + immense empire, which was divided among his chief generals, and became + the scene of continual wars. The reign of Alexander constitutes an + important period in the history of humanity. His career was not merely a + series of empty conquests, but was attended with the most important + results. The language, and much of the civilization of Greece, followed + in his track; large additions were made to the sciences of geography, + natural history, &c.; a road was opened to India; and the products of + the farthest east were introduced into Europe. Greek kingdoms, under his + generals and their successors, continued to exist in Asia for + centuries.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: B. I. Wheeler, + <i>Alexander the Great</i> (Heroes of the Nations Series: Putnam); Grote, + <i>History of Greece</i>; Holm, <i>History of Greece</i>; Dodge, + <i>Alexander</i> (Great Captains Series).</p> + + <p><b>Alexander,</b> the name of eight popes, the <!-- Page 97 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page97"></a>[97]</span>earliest of whom, + <b>Alexander I,</b> is said to have reigned from 108 to 119. <b>Alexander + III,</b> elected 1159, died 1181, exercised his authority with great + vigour against Henry II when the latter was accused of the assassination + of Thomas Becket. The most famous (or infamous) is <b>Alexander VI</b> + (Borgia), who was born at Valencia, in Spain, in 1431, and died in 1503. + When he was only twenty-five years of age his uncle, Pope Calixtus III, + made him a cardinal, and shortly afterwards appointed him to the + dignified and lucrative office of vice-chancellor. By bribery he prepared + his way to the papal throne, which he attained in 1492, after the death + of Innocent VIII. Both the authority and revenues of the popes being at + this time much impaired, he set himself to reduce the power of the + Italian princes, and seize upon their possessions for the benefit of his + own family. To effect this end he is said not to have scrupled to use the + vilest means, including poison and assassination. His policy, foreign as + well as domestic, was faithless and base, and his private life was + stained by immorality. He understood how to extract immense sums of money + from all Christian countries under various pretexts. He sold indulgences, + and set aside, in favour of himself, the wills of several cardinals. His + excesses roused against him the powerful eloquence of Savonarola, who, by + pen and pulpit, urged his deposition, but had to meet his death at the + stake in 1498. Not long after his election Alexander had the honour of + deciding the dispute between the kings of Portugal and Castile concerning + their respective claims to the foreign countries recently discovered. It + must, however, be admitted that Pope Alexander, whilst striking the + wealthy and powerful, interested himself in the welfare of the people, + and that he was a patron of arts and letters. His son, Cesare Borgia, and + his daughter, Lucrezia, are equally notorious with himself.</p> + + <p><b>Alexander,</b> the name of three Scottish kings. <b>Alexander + I,</b> a son of Malcolm III, Canmore, and Margaret of England, succeeded + his brother Edgar in 1107, and governed with great ability till his death + in 1124. He was a great benefactor of the Church, and a firm vindicator + of the national independence.—<b>Alexander II</b> was born in 1198, + and succeeded his father, William the Lion, in 1214. He was a wise and + energetic prince, and Scotland prospered greatly under him, though + disturbed by the Norsemen, by the restlessness of some of the Celtic + chiefs, and by the attempts of Henry III of England to make Alexander do + homage to him. He helped Robert FitzWilliam to capture London and compel + King John to sign Magna Charta. Alexander married Henry's sister, Joan, + in 1221, who lived till 1238. In 1244 war with England almost broke out, + but was fortunately averted. Alexander died in 1248 at Kerrera, an island + opposite Oban, when on an expedition in which he hoped to wrest the + Hebrides from Norway. He was succeeded by his son, <b>Alexander III,</b> + a boy of eight, who in 1251 married Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry + III of England. Like his father, he was eager to bring the Hebrides under + his sway, and this he was enabled to accomplish in a few years after the + defeat of the Norse King Haco at Largs, in 1263. The mainland and islands + of Scotland were now under one sovereign, though Orkney and Shetland + still belonged to Norway. Alexander was strenuous in asserting the + independence both of the Scottish kingdom and the Scottish Church against + England. He died in 1285 by the falling of his horse while he was riding + in the dark between Burntisland and Kinghorn. He left as his heiress + Margaret, the Maid of Norway, daughter of Eric of Norway, and of + Alexander's daughter, Margaret. Under him Scotland enjoyed greater + prosperity than for generations afterwards.</p> + + <p><b>Alexander I,</b> Emperor of Russia, son of Paul I and Maria, + daughter of Prince Eugene of Würtemberg, was born in 1777, and died in + 1825. On the assassination of his father, in 1801, Alexander ascended the + throne, and one of his first acts was to conclude peace with Britain, + against which his predecessor had declared war. In 1803 he offered his + services as mediator between England and France, and two years later a + convention was entered into between Russia, England, Austria, and Sweden + for the purpose of resisting the encroachments of France on the + territories of independent States. He was present at the battle of + Austerlitz (1805), when the combined armies of Russia and Austria were + defeated by Napoleon. In the succeeding campaign the Russians were again + beaten at Eylau (8th Feb., 1807) and Friedland (14th June), the result of + which was an interview between Alexander and Napoleon, and the treaty at + Tilsit. The Russian emperor now for a time identified himself with the + Napoleonic schemes, and soon obtained possession of Finland and an + extended territory on the Danube. The French alliance, however, he found + to be too oppressive, and his having separated himself from Napoleon led + to the disastrous French invasion of 1812. In 1813 he published a + manifesto which served as the basis of the coalition of the other + European powers against France, which was followed by the capture of + Paris (in 1814), the abdication of Napoleon and the restoration of the + Bourbons, and the utter overthrow of Napoleon the following year. After + Waterloo, Alexander, accompanied by the Emperor of Austria and the King + of Prussia, made his second entrance into Paris, where they concluded the + treaty known as the <!-- Page 98 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page98"></a>[98]</span>Holy Alliance. The remaining part of his + reign was chiefly taken up with measures of internal reform, including + the gradual abolition of serfdom, and the promotion of education, + agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, as well as literature and the + fine arts.</p> + + <p><b>Alexander II,</b> Emperor of Russia, was born 29th April, 1818, and + succeeded his father Nicholas in 1855, before the end of the Crimean war. + After peace was concluded, the new emperor set about effecting reforms in + the empire, the greatest of all being the emancipation of the serfs in + 1861, a measure which gave freedom, on certain conditions, to 50,000,000 + of human beings who were previously in a state little removed from that + of slavery. Under him, too, representative assemblies in the provinces + were introduced, and he also did much to improve education, and to + reorganize the judicial system. During his reign the Russian dominions in + Central Asia were extended, a piece of territory south of the Caucasus, + formerly belonging to Turkey, was acquired, and a part of Bessarabia + restored to Russia. The latter additions resulted from the Russo-Turkish + war of 1877-8. He was killed by an explosive missile flung at him by a + Nihilist in a street in St. Petersburg (now Petrograd), 13th March, 1881. + He was succeeded by his son, Alexander III. His only daughter was married + to the Duke of Edinburgh.</p> + + <p><b>Alexander III,</b> Emperor of Russia, son of Alexander II, born in + 1845, became heir to the throne on the death of his eldest brother, + Nicholas (1865). In 1863 he married Princess Dagmar of Denmark; he + succeeded to the throne in 1881, on the assassination of his father, + being crowned in Moscow in 1883. He gave up the reforms begun by his + father, and ruled in the old autocratic fashion, restricting the + liberties of Finland and the Baltic Provinces, and encouraging + persecution of the Jews. He spent much time in the closely-guarded castle + of Gatchina, to be safe from Nihilistic attempts, several of which he + narrowly escaped. He endeavoured to put down corruption and underhand + dealing among the bureaucracy, and in his own habits gave an example of + simplicity and economy. While showing himself suspicious of Germany and + Austria-Hungary, he entered on friendly relations with France. He began + to suffer from disease of the kidneys in 1893, and died at Livadia on 1st + Nov., 1894. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicholas II.</p> + + <p><b>Alexander I,</b> King of Serbia, born in 1876. He was the son of + King Milan, and on the abdication of his father in 1889 was proclaimed + king under a regency. He married Madame Draga Mashin, a widow, who was + much older than himself. Both were assassinated on 11th June, 1903.</p> + + <p><b>Alexander of Hales.</b> See <i>Hales, Alexander de.</i></p> + + <p><b>Alexander,</b> Boyd, British explorer and naturalist, born in 1873. + He led many expeditions for research and exploration to the Cape Verde + Islands, the Zambesi River, and various parts of the world. He also + discovered many new birds when he ascended the Mount St. Isabel. In 1908 + he received the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. He was + murdered by natives in May, 1910, while exploring the French Congo. He + wrote <i>From the Niger to the Nile</i> (1907), &c. <i>Boyd + Alexander's Last Journey</i> was published in 1912.</p> + + <p><b>Alexander Nevskoi,</b> a Russian hero and saint, son of the + Grand-Duke Jaroslav, born in 1219, died in 1263. He fought valiantly + against assaults of the Mongols, the Danes, Swedes, and Knights of the + Teutonic Order. He gained the name of <i>Nevskoi</i> in 1240, for a + splendid victory, on the Neva, over the Swedes. The gratitude of his + countrymen commemorated the hero in popular songs, and raised him to the + dignity of a saint. Peter the Great built a splendid monastery at St. + Petersburg (Petrograd) in his honour, and in memory of him established + the Order of Alexander Nevskoi.</p> + + <p><b>Alexander Seve′rus,</b> a Roman emperor, born in 208, died + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 235. He was raised to the imperial dignity + in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 222 by the prætorian guards, after they + had put his cousin the Emperor Heliogabalus to death. He governed ably + both in peace and war; and also occupied himself in poetry, philosophy, + and literature. He was very tolerant in religious matters, and although + not professing Christianity intended to erect a temple to Christ, but was + prevented by the pagan priests from carrying out this plan. In 232 he + defeated the Persians under Artaxerxes, who wished to drive the Romans + from Asia. When on an expedition into Gaul, to repress an incursion of + the Germans, he was murdered with his mother in an insurrection of his + troops, headed by the brutal Maximin, who succeeded him as emperor.</p> + + <p><b>Alexanders</b> (<i>Smyrnium Olusātrum</i>), an umbelliferous + biennial plant, a native of the Mediterranean region, but found in Great + Britain and Ireland. It was formerly cultivated for its leaf-stalks, + which, having a pleasant aromatic flavour, were blanched and used instead + of celery—a vegetable that has taken its place.</p> + + <p><b>Alexandra,</b> the queen mother, widow of Edward VII, daughter of + Christian IX, King of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen on 1st Dec., 1844, + and was married on 10th March, 1863, being Princess of Wales up to the + death of Queen Victoria and the accession of King Edward in Jan., 1901. + She was highly popular from the first in the country of her husband, as + she constantly showed an interest in all <!-- Page 99 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page99"></a>[99]</span>benevolent causes. She + has been the mother of six children, one of whom died in infancy, while + the eldest, Edward, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, died in 1892 at the + age of twenty-eight. Cf. S. A. Tooley, <i>Queen Alexandra</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alexandret′ta,</b> or <b>Iskanderoon</b> (ancient + <b>Alexandria ad Issum</b>), a small seaport in Asia Minor, on the Gulf + of Iskanderoon, the port of Aleppo and Northern Syria. Named after + Alexander the Great, and founded in memory of the battle of Issus. In + 1832 Mehemet Ali won a victory over the Turks near Alexandretta. There is + a large export and import trade. It was occupied by British and French + troops in Nov., 1918. Pop. 10,000.</p> + + <p><b>Alexan′dria,</b> an ancient city and seaport in Egypt, at the + north-west angle of the Nile delta, on a ridge of land between the sea + and Lake Mareotis. Ancient Alexandria was founded by, and named in honour + of, Alexander the Great, in 332 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and was + long a great and splendid city, the centre of commerce between the east + and west, as well as of Greek learning and civilization, with a + population at one time of perhaps 1,000,000. It was especially celebrated + for its great library, and also for its famous lighthouse, one of the + wonders of the world, standing upon the little island of Pharos, which + was connected with the city by a mole. Under Roman rule it was the second + city of the empire, and when Constantinople became the capital of the + East it still remained the chief centre of trade; but it received a blow + from which it never recovered when captured by Amru, general of Caliph + Omar, in 641, after a siege of fourteen months. Its ruin was finally + completed by the building of Cairo (969) and the discovery of the passage + to India by the Cape of Good Hope (1498) which opened up a new route for + the Asiatic trade. See <i>Alexandrian Library</i>, <i>Alexandrian + School</i>.—Modern Alexandria stands partly on what was formerly + the island of Pharos, partly on the peninsula which now connects it with + the mainland and which was formed by the accumulation of soil, and partly + on the mainland. The streets in the Turkish quarter are narrow, dirty, + and irregular; in the foreign quarter they are regular and wide, and it + is here that the finest houses are situated. Here also are the principal + shops and hotels, banks, offices of companies, &c.; this part of the + city being supplied with gas, and with water brought by the Mahmudieh + Canal from the western branch of the Nile. Alexandria is connected by + railway with Cairo, Rosetta, and Suez. A little to the south of the city + are the catacombs, which now serve as a quarry. Another relic of + antiquity is Pompey's Pillar, 98 feet 9 inches high. Alexandria has two + ports, on the east and west respectively of the isthmus of the Pharos + peninsula, the latter having a breakwater over 3000 yards in length, with + fine quays and suitable railway and other accommodation. The trade of + Alexandria is large and varied, the exports being cotton, beans, pease, + rice, wheat, &c.; the imports chiefly manufactured goods, machinery, + timber, and coal. The origin of its more recent career of prosperity it + owes to Mohammed Ali. In 1882 the insurrection of Arabi Pasha and the + massacre of Europeans led to the intervention of the British, and the + bombardment of the forts by the British fleet in July. The administrative + district has an area of 19 sq. miles; pop. 444,617 (or 23,401 per square + mile).</p> + + <p><b>Alexandria,</b> a town and port of the United States, in Virginia, + on the right bank of the Potomac (which is of sufficient depth for large + vessels), 7 miles south of Washington, carries on a considerable trade, + chiefly in flour. Pop. (1920), 18,060.</p> + + <p><b>Alexandria,</b> a town of Scotland, in Dumbartonshire, on the + Leven, 4 miles north of Dumbarton, with extensive cotton-printing and + bleaching works. Pop. 9850.</p> + + <p><b>Alexandria,</b> a town of the Ukraine, in the former Russian + government of Kherson, on a tributary of the Dnieper. Pop. 10,521.</p> + + <p><b>Alexandrian Library,</b> the largest and most famous of all the + ancient collections of books, founded by Ptolemy Soter (died 283 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), King of Egypt, and greatly enlarged by + succeeding Ptolemies. The first librarian was Zenodotus (234 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>). At its most flourishing period it is said to + have numbered 700,000 volumes, accommodated in two different buildings, + one of them being the Serapeion, or temple of Jupiter Serapis. The other + collection was burned during Julius Cæsar's siege of the city, but the + Serapeion library existed to the time of the Emperor Theodosius the + Great, when, at the general destruction of the heathen temples, the + splendid temple of Jupiter Serapis was gutted (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 391) by a fanatical crowd of Christians, and its + literary treasures destroyed or scattered. A library was again + accumulated, but was burned by the Arabs when they captured the city + under the caliph Omar in 641. Amru, the captain of the caliph's army, + would have been willing to spare the library, but Omar is said to have + disposed of the matter in the famous words: "If these writings of the + Greeks agree with the Koran they are useless, and need not be preserved; + if they disagree they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed". This + story, however, which rests solely on the authority of Abulfaragius, a + writer who lived six centuries later, is now generally discredited.</p> + + <p><b>Alexandrian School</b> or <b>Age,</b> the school or period of Greek + literature and learning that existed at Alexandria in Egypt during the + three <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page100"></a>[100]</span>hundred years that the rule of the + Ptolemies lasted (323-30 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), and continued + under the Roman supremacy. Ptolemy Soter founded the famous library of + Alexandria (see above) and his son, Philadelphus, established a kind of + academy of sciences and arts. Many scholars and men of genius were thus + attracted to Alexandria, and a period of literary activity set in, which + made Alexandria for long the focus and centre of Greek culture and + intellectual effort. It must be admitted, however, that originality was + not a characteristic of the Alexandrian age, which was stronger in + criticism, grammar, and science than in pure literature. Among the + grammarians and critics were Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristophanes, + Aristarchus, and Zoilus, proverbial as a captious critic. Their merit is + to have collected, edited, and preserved the existing monuments of Greek + literature. To the poets belong Apollonius, Lycophron, Aratus, Nicander, + Euphorion, Callimachus, Theocritus, Philetas, &c. Among those who + pursued mathematics, physics, and astronomy was Euclid, the father of + scientific geometry; Archimedes, great in physics and mechanics; + Apollonius of Perga, whose work on conic sections still exists; + Nicomachus, the first scientific arithmetician; and (under the Romans) + the astronomer and geographer Ptolemy. Alexandria also was distinguished + in philosophical speculation, and it was here that the New Platonic + school was established by Ammonius of Alexandria (about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 193), whose disciples were Plotinus and Origen. + Being for the most part Orientals, formed by the study of Greek learning, + the writings of the New Platonists are strikingly characterized—for + example, those of Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus, Iamblicus, + Porphyrius—by a mixture of Asiatic and European elements. The + connection of Neo-Platonism with Alexandria is, however, less than is + commonly supposed.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Mahaffy, + <i>Greek Life and Thought from the Age of Alexander to the Roman + Empire</i>; Kingsley, <i>Alexandria and her Schools</i>; Vacherot, + <i>Histoire critique de l'école d'Alexandrie</i> (3 vols.).</p> + + <p><b>Alexandrian Version.</b> See <i>Codex Alexandrinus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alexandrine,</b> in prosody, the name given, from an old French + poem on Alexander the Great, to a species of verse, which consists of six + iambic feet, or twelve syllables, the pause being, in correct + Alexandrines, always on the sixth syllable; for example, the second of + the following verses:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A needless Alexandrine ends the song,</p> + <p>That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In English Drayton's <i>Polyolbion</i> is written in this measure, and + the concluding line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In France + the verse fell into disuse during the early part of the sixteenth + century, but was again revived by Jean Antoine de Baïf, one of the poets + of the Pléiade. Jodelle introduced the verse into the drama, and Ronsard + made it very popular. French epics and dramas being confined to this + verse, it is therefore called the <i>heroic</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alexandro′pol,</b> formerly a Russian town and fortress in + the Transcaucasian government of Erivan, near the highway from Erivan to + Kars; now belonging to Armenia; it has silk manufactories. Pop. + 48,938.</p> + + <p><b>Alexan′drov,</b> a town of Russia, government of Vladimir, + with a famous convent, in the church of which are interred two sisters of + Peter the Great; manufactures of steel and cotton goods. Pop. 7179.</p> + + <p><b>Alex′isbad,</b> a bathing-place of Germany, Anhalt, in the + Harz Mountains, with two mineral springs strongly impregnated with + iron.</p> + + <p><b>Alex′is Mikhai′lovitsh</b> (son of Michael), second + Russian Tsar of the line of Romanov, born in 1629, succeeded his father + Mikhail Feodorovitsh in 1645, and died in 1676. He did much for the + internal administration and for the enlargement of the empire; + reconquered Little Russia from Poland, and carried his authority to the + extreme east of Siberia. He was father of sixteen children, the most + famous of them being Peter the Great and his sister Sophia.</p> + + <p><b>Alexis Petro′vitsh,</b> eldest son of Peter the Great and + Eudoxia Lopukhina, repudiated in 1698, was born in Moscow, 1690, and died + in 1718. He opposed the innovations introduced by his father, who on this + account disinherited him by a ukase in 1718, and when he discovered that + Alexis was paving the way to succeed to the crown he had his son tried + and condemned to death. A few days afterwards Alexis died, after having + received twenty-five strokes with the knout, leaving a son, afterwards + the Emperor Peter II.</p> + + <p><b>Alex′ius Comne′nus,</b> Byzantine Emperor, was born in + 1048, and died in 1118. He was a nephew of Isaac the first emperor of the + Comneni, and attained the throne in 1081, at a time when the Empire was + menaced from various sides, especially by the Turks and the Normans. From + these dangers he managed to extricate himself by policy or warlike + measures, and maintained his position till the age of seventy, during a + reign of thirty-seven years. His daughter Anna wrote a life of him + (<i>The Alexiad</i>), which is one continuous eulogy, but all the Latin + historians are very severe on him.</p> + + <p><b>Al′fa.</b> See <i>Esparto</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alfal′fa,</b> generally known in Britain as lucerne, a + prolific forage plant largely grown in California, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Alfara′bi,</b> an eminent Arabian scholar of the <!-- Page + 101 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page101"></a>[101]</span>tenth + century; died at Damascus in 950; wrote on Aristotelian philosophy, and + compiled a kind of encyclopedia.</p> + + <p><b>Al′fenid,</b> an alloy of nickel plated with silver, used for + spoons, forks, candlesticks, tea services, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Alfieri</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-fē-ā′rē), + Vittorio, Count, Italian poet, was born at Asti in 1749, and died in + 1803. After extensive European travels he began to write, and his first + play, <i>Cleopatra</i> (1775), being received with general applause he + determined to devote all his efforts to attaining a position among + writers of dramatic poetry. At Florence he became intimate with the + Countess of Albany, wife of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, and on the + death of the prince she lived with him as his mistress. This connection + he believed to have served to stimulate and elevate his poetic powers. He + died at Florence and was buried in the church of Santa Croce, between + Macchiavelli and Michael Angelo, where a beautiful monument by Canova + covers his remains. He wrote twenty-one tragedies and six comedies. His + theatrical work has been rightly styled a creation of his pride as much + as of his genius; he endeavoured to turn the theatre into a platform and + was constantly preaching from the stage. Anxious to use his characters as + exponents of his theories, and to make them <i>talk</i>, he often forgot + to make them <i>act</i>. Alfieri himself admitted that he was writing + with a view to "teaching men how to become free, strong, generous, and + passionate for real virtue", but such an attitude is opposed to true art. + His tragedies are full of lofty and patriotic sentiments, but the + language is stiff and without poetic grace, and the plots poor. + Nevertheless he is considered the first tragic writer of Italy, and has + served as a model for his successors. Alfieri composed also an epic, + lyrics, satires, and poetical translations from the ancient classics. He + left an interesting autobiography. The best edition of his works is that + published at Pisa (1805-13) in 22 vols.</p> + + <p><b>Alfon′so</b>. See <i>Alphonso</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′ford,</b> Henry, <span class="scac">D.D.</span>, Dean of + Canterbury, an English poet, scholar, and miscellaneous writer, was born + in London in 1810. After attending various schools he entered Trinity + College, Cambridge, in 1827, graduated <span class="scac">B.A.</span> in + 1832, was elected fellow in 1834, and next year became vicar of + Wymeswold, Leicestershire. In 1842 he was appointed examiner in logic and + moral philosophy to the University of London, and held the appointment + till 1857. He early began the great work of his life, his edition of the + Greek Testament with commentary, which occupied him for twenty years, the + first volumes being published in 1849, the fourth and last in 1861. In + 1853 he was transferred to Quebec Chapel, London, and in 1857 was + appointed Dean of Canterbury. He was the first editor of the + <i>Contemporary Review</i> (1866-70). He died in 1871. Among other works + he wrote <i>Chapters on the Poets of Ancient Greece</i>, <i>Sermons</i>, + <i>Psalms and Hymns</i>, <i>Homilies on the Acts of the Apostles</i>, + <i>Letters from Abroad</i>, <i>Poetical Works</i>, <i>Plea for the + Queen's English</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′fred</b> (or <b>Æl′fred</b>) <b>the Great,</b> King + of England, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 849, his father being Ethelwulf, son of Egbert, + King of the West Saxons. He succeeded his brother Ethelred in 872, at a + time when the Danes, or Northmen, had extended their conquests widely + over the country, and they had completely overrun the kingdom of the West + Saxons by 878. Alfred was obliged to flee in disguise. At length he + gathered a small force, and having fortified himself on the Isle of + Athelney, formed by the confluence of the Rivers Parret and Tone, amid + the marshes of Somerset, he was able to make frequent sallies against the + enemy. It was during his abode here that he went, according to legend, + disguised as a harper into the camp of King Guthrum (or Guthorm), and, + having ascertained that the Danes felt themselves secure, hastened back + to his troops, led them against the enemy, and gained such a decided + victory that fourteen days afterwards the Danes begged for peace. This + battle took place in May, 878, near Edington, in Wiltshire. Alfred + allowed the Danes who were already in the country to remain, on condition + that they gave hostages, took a solemn oath to quit Wessex, and embraced + Christianity. Their king, Guthrum, was baptized, with thirty of his + followers, and ever afterward remained faithful to Alfred. They received + that portion of the east of England now occupied by the counties of + Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge, as a place of residence. The few years + of tranquillity (886-93) which followed were employed by Alfred in + rebuilding the towns that had suffered most during the war, particularly + London; in training his people in arms and no less in agriculture; in + improving the navy; in systematizing the laws and internal + administration; and in literary labours and the advancement of learning. + He caused many manuscripts to be translated from Latin, and himself + translated several works into Anglo-Saxon, such as the <i>Psalms</i>, + <i>Æsop's Fables</i>, <i>Boethius on the Consolation of Philosophy</i>, + the <i>History of Orosius</i>, <i>Bede's Ecclesiastical History</i>, + &c. He also drew up several original works in Anglo-Saxon. These + peaceful labours were interrupted, about 894, by an invasion of the + Northmen, who, after a struggle of three years, were finally driven out. + Alfred died in 901. He had married, in 868, Alswith or Ealhswith, the + daughter of a Mercian nobleman, and left two sons: Edward, who succeeded + him, and <!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page102"></a>[102]</span>Ethelwerd, who died in 922.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Plummer, <i>Life and Times of Alfred the + Great</i>; A. Bowker, <i>Alfred the Great, Chapters on his Life and + Times</i>; B. A. Lees, <i>Alfred the Great</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Algæ</b> (al′jē), a nat. ord. of cryptogamic or + thallogenous plants, found for the most part in the sea and fresh water, + or on the surface of damp walls, rocks, the bark of trees, and in similar + moist situations. They are either some shade of bluish-green, green, + brown, or red colour. The higher forms have stems bearing leaf-like + expansions, and they are often attached to the rocks by roots, which, + however, do not derive nutriment from the rocks. A stem, however, is most + frequently absent. The plants are nourished through their whole surface + by the medium in which they live. They vary in size from the microscopic + diatoms to forms whose stems resemble those of forest trees, and whose + fronds rival the leaves of the palm. They are entirely composed of + cellular tissue, and many are edible and nutritious, as carrageen or + Irish-moss, dulse, &c. Kelp, iodine, and bromine are products of + various species. The Algæ are also valuable as manure. They are often + divided into five orders: Diatomaceæ, Confervaceæ, Fucaceæ, Ceramiaceæ, + and Characeæ.</p> + + <p><b>Algar′di,</b> Alessandro, one of the chief Italian sculptors + of the seventeenth century; born 1602, died 1654. He lived and worked + chiefly at Rome; executed the tomb of Leo XI in St. Peter's, a bronze + statue of Innocent X, and a marble relief with life-size figures over the + altar of St. Leo there.</p> + + <p><b>Algaro′ba-bean.</b> See <i>Carob Tree</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′garot,</b> a violently purgative and emetic white powder, + precipitated from chloride of antimony in water; it was used in medicine + by the physician Victor Algarotus in the sixteenth century.</p> + + <p><b>Algarot′ti,</b> Francesco, Count, born in 1712, died in 1764, + an Italian writer on science, the fine arts, &c. He lived for some + years in France and for a long time in Germany, Frederick the Great of + Prussia having made him chamberlain and count. He wrote <i>Neutonianismo + per le donne</i>; <i>Saggi sopra le belle arti</i>, his principal work on + art; poems, letters, &c. Algarotti's works published at Venice in 17 + vols. (1791-4) and illustrated by Tesi and Novelli are a + <i>chef-d'œuvre</i> of typography. Frederick the Great erected at + Pisa a monument to his memory.</p> + + <p><b>Algarve</b> (al-ga<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r′vā, meaning the land + situated in the west), a maritime province of Portugal occupying the + southern portion of the country, mountainous but with some fertile + tracts. The title King of Algarve was held by the Kings of Portugal. + Area, 1937 sq. miles; pop. 274,122.</p> + + <p><b>Algau</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l′gou), a name for the + south-western portion of Bavaria and the adjacent parts of Würtemberg and + Tyrol, intersected by the Algau Alps. The Algau breed of cattle is one of + the best in Germany.</p> + + <p><b>Algazzali</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-ga<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>z-ä′lē), Abu Hamed Mohammed, + an Arabian philosopher, Persian by birth; born 1058, died 1111. He was a + most prolific author; an opponent of the prevailing Aristotelian + philosophy of the day, and wrote against it the <i>Destruction of the + Philosophers</i>, answered by Averroes in his <i>Destruction of the + Destruction</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′gebra</b> (from the Arabic <i>al</i>, definite article, + and <i>jabbara</i>, to make equal), a kind of generalized arithmetic, in + which numbers or quantities and operations, often also the results of + operations, are represented by symbols. Thus the expression <i>xy</i> + + <i>cz</i> + <i>dy</i><sup>2</sup> denotes that a number represented by + <i>x</i> is to be multiplied by a number represented by <i>y</i>, a + number <i>c</i> multiplied by a number <i>z</i>, a number <i>d</i> by a + number <i>y</i> multiplied by itself (or squared), and the sum taken of + these three products. So the <i>equation</i> (as it is called) + <i>x<sup>2</sup></i> - 7<i>x</i> + 12 = 0 expresses the fact that if a + certain number <i>x</i> is multiplied by itself, and this result made + less by seven times the number and greater by twelve, the result is 0. In + this case <i>x</i> must either be 3 or 4 to produce the given result; but + such an equation (or formula) as (<i>a</i> + <i>b</i>)(<i>a</i> - + <i>b</i>) = <i>a</i><sup>2</sup> - <i>b</i><sup>2</sup> is always true + whatever values may be assigned to <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>. Algebra is an + invaluable instrument in intricate calculations of all kinds, and enables + operations to be performed and results obtained that by arithmetic would + be impossible, and its scope is still being extended.</p> + + <p>The beginnings of algebraic method are to be found in Diophantus, a + Greek of the fourth century of our era, but it was the Arabians that + introduced algebra to Europe, and from them it received its name. The + first Arabian treatise on algebra was published in the reign of the great + Caliph Al Mamun (813-33) by Mohammed Ben Musa. Italian merchants were the + first algebraists in Europe, and in 1202 Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa, who + had travelled and studied in the East, published a work treating of + algebra as then understood in the Arabian school. From this time to the + discovery of printing considerable attention was given to algebra, and + the work of Ben Musa and another Arabian treatise, called the <i>Rule of + Algebra</i>, were translated into Italian. The first printed work + treating on algebra (also on arithmetic, &c.) appeared at Venice in + 1494, the author being a monk called Luca Pacioli da Bergo, a Minorite + friar. Rapid progress now began to be made, and among the names of those + to whom advances are to be attributed are Tartaglia and Geronimo Cardano. + About the middle of the sixteenth century the German Stifel introduced + the signs +, -, √, and Robert Recorde the sign =. The last-named + wrote the first English work on algebra in 1557. François <!-- Page 103 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>[103]</span>Vieta, a + French mathematician (1540-1603), first adopted the method which has led + to so great an extension of modern algebra, by being the first who used + general symbols for known quantities as well as for unknown. It was he + also who first made the application of algebra to geometry. Albert + Girard, a Flemish mathematician in the seventeenth century, extended the + theory of equations by the introduction of imaginary quantities. The + Englishman Harriot, early in the seventeenth century, discovered negative + roots, and established the equality between the number of roots and the + units in the degree of the equation. He also invented the signs < >, + and Oughtred that of ×. Descartes, though not the first to apply algebra + to geometry, has, by the extent and importance of his applications, + commonly acquired the credit of being so. The same discoveries have also + been attributed to him as to Harriot, and their respective claims have + caused much controversy. He obtained by means of algebra the definition + and description of curves. Since his time algebra has been applied so + widely in geometry and higher mathematics that we need only mention the + names of Fermat, Wallis, Newton, Leibnitz, De Moivre, MacLaurin, Taylor, + Euler, D'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Fourier, Poisson, Gauss, Horner, De + Morgan, Sylvester, Cayley. Boole, Jevons, and others have applied the + algebraic method not only to formal logic but to political + economy.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Chrystal, + <i>Algebra</i> (2 vols.); Hobson, <i>Trigonometry</i>; Hardy, <i>Pure + Mathematics</i>; Whittaker and Watson, <i>Modern Analysis</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Algeciras</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-<i>h</i>e-thē′ra<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>s) (perhaps Portus Albus + of the Romans), a seaport of Spain, on the west side of the Bay of + Gibraltar, a well-built town carrying on a brisk coasting trade. It was + the first conquest of the Arabs in Spain (711), and was held by them till + 1344, when it was taken by Alphonso XI of Castile after a long siege. + Near it, in 1801, Admiral Sir James Saumarez defeated a Franco-Spanish + fleet. Differences between France and Germany regarding Morocco led to a + conference of European Powers here from 16th Jan.-7th April, 1906. Pop. + 15,800.</p> + + <p><b>Alge′ria,</b> a French dependency in N. Africa, having on the + north the Mediterranean, on the east Tunis, on the west Morocco, and on + the south the Desert of Sahara; area, 122,878 sq. miles, or including the + Algerian Sahara 343,500. The country is divided into three + departments—Algiers, Oran, and Constantine. The coastline is about + 550 miles in length, steep and rocky, and though the indentations are + numerous, the harbours are much exposed to the north wind. The country is + traversed by the Atlas Mountains, two chains of which—the Great + Atlas, bordering on the Sahara, and the Little, or Maritime Atlas, + between it and the sea—run parallel to the coast, the former + attaining a height of 7000 feet. The intervals are filled with lower + ranges, and numerous transverse ranges connect the principal ones and run + from them to the coast, forming elevated tablelands and enclosed valleys. + The rivers are numerous, but many of them are mere torrents rising in the + mountains near the coast. The Shelif is much the largest. Some of the + rivers are largely used for irrigation, and artesian wells have been sunk + in some places for the same purpose. There are, both on the coast and in + the interior, extensive salt lakes or marshes (<i>Shotts</i>), which dry + up to a great extent in summer. The country bordering on the coast, + called the <i>Tell</i>, is generally hilly, with fertile valleys; in some + places a flat and fertile plain extends between the hills and the sea. In + the east there are <i>Shotts</i> that sink below the sea-level, and into + these it has been proposed to introduce the waters of the Mediterranean. + The climate varies considerably according to elevation and local + peculiarities. There are three seasons: winter from November to February, + spring from March to June, and summer from July to October. The summer is + very hot and dry. In many parts of the coast the temperature is moderate + and the climate so healthy that Algeria is now a winter resort for + invalids.</p> + + <p>The chief products of cultivation are wheat, barley, and oats, + tobacco, cotton, wine, silk, and dates. Early vegetables, especially + potatoes and pease, are exported to France and England. A fibre called + <i>alfa</i>, a variety of esparto, which grows wild on the high plateaux, + is exported in large quantities. Cork is also exported. There are + valuable forests, in which grow various sorts of pines and oaks, ash, + cedar, myrtle, pistachio-nut, mastic, carob, &c. The Australian + <i>Eucalyptus globŭlus</i> (a gum tree) has been successfully + introduced. Agriculture often suffers much from the ravages of locusts. + Among wild animals are the lion, panther, hyena, and jackal; the domestic + quadrupeds include the horse, the mule, cattle, sheep, and pigs + (introduced by the French). Algeria possesses valuable minerals, + including iron, copper, lead, sulphur, zinc, antimony, marble (white and + red), phosphate, and lithographic stone.</p> + + <p>The trade of Algeria has greatly increased under French rule, France, + Spain, and England being the countries with which it is principally + carried on, and three-fourths of the whole being with France. The exports + (besides those mentioned above) are olive-oil, raw hides, wood, wool, + tobacco, oranges, &c.; the imports, manufactured goods, wines, + spirits, coffee, &c. The manufacturing industries are unimportant, + and include morocco leather, carpets, muslins, and silks. French money, + weights, and measures are <!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page104"></a>[104]</span>generally used. The chief towns are + Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Bona, and Tlemsen. There are about 2800 miles + of railways opened; there is also a considerable network of telegraph + lines.</p> + + <p>The two principal native races inhabiting Algeria are Arabs and + Berbers. The former are mostly nomads, dwelling in tents and wandering + from place to place, though a large number of them are settled in the + Tell, where they carry on agriculture and have formed numerous villages. + The Berbers, here called Kabyles, are the original inhabitants of the + territory and still form a considerable part of the population. They + speak the Berber language, but use Arabic characters in writing. The Jews + form a small but influential part of the population. Various other races + also exist. Except the Jews, all the native races are Mahommedans. There + are now a considerable number of French and other colonists, provision + being made for granting them concessions of land on certain conditions. + There are over 260,000 colonists of French origin in Algeria, and over + 200,000 colonists natives of other European countries (chiefly Spaniards + and Italians). Algeria is governed by a governor-general, who is assisted + by a council appointed by the French Government. The settled portion of + the country, in the three departments of Algiers, Constantine, and Oran, + is treated much as if it were a part of France, and each department sends + two deputies and one senator to the French chambers. The rest of the + territory is under military rule. The colony costs France a considerable + sum every year. Pop. of Algeria proper in 1911, 5,523,449; of the + Algerian Sahara, 40,379.</p> + + <p>The country now called Algeria was known to the Romans as Numidia. It + flourished greatly under their rule, and early received the Christian + religion. It was conquered by the Vandals in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 430-1, and recovered by Belisarius for the + Byzantine Empire in 533-4. About the middle of the seventh century it was + overrun by the Saracens. The town of Algiers was founded about 935 by + Yussef Ibn Zeiri, and the country was subsequently ruled by his + successors and the dynasties of the Almoravides and Almohades. After the + overthrow of the latter, about 1269, it broke up into a number of small + independent territories. The Moors and Jews, who were driven out of Spain + by Ferdinand and Isabella at the end of the fifteenth century, settled in + large numbers in Algeria, and revenged themselves on their persecutors by + the practice of piracy. On this account various expeditions were made by + Spain against Algeria, and by 1510 the greater part of the country was + made tributary. A few years later the Algerians invited to their + assistance the Turkish pirate Horush (or Haruj) Barbarossa, who made + himself Sultan of Algiers in 1516, but was not long in being taken by the + Spaniards and beheaded. His brother and successor put Algiers under the + protection of Turkey (about 1520), and organized the system of piracy + which was long the terror of European commerce, and was never wholly + suppressed till the French occupation. Henceforth the country belonged to + the Turkish Empire, though from 1710 the connection was little more than + nominal. The depredations of the Algerian pirates were a continual source + of irritation to the Christian Powers, who sent a long series of + expeditions against them. For instance, in 1815 a United States fleet + defeated an Algerian one and forced the Dey to agree to a peace in which + he recognized the American flag as inviolable. In 1816 Lord Exmouth with + an English fleet bombarded Algiers, and exacted a treaty by which all the + Christian slaves were at once released, and the Dey undertook for the + future to treat all his prisoners of war as the European law of nations + demanded. But the piratical practices of the Algerians were soon + renewed.</p> + + <p>At last the French determined on more vigorous measures, and in 1830 + sent a force of over 40,000 men against the country. Algiers was speedily + occupied, the Dey retired, and the country was without a government, but + resistance was organized by Abd-el-Kader, an Arab chief whom the + emergency had raised up. He began his warlike career of fifteen years by + an attack on Oran in 1832, and after an obstinate struggle the French, in + Feb., 1834, consented to a peace, acknowledging him as ruling over all + the Arab tribes west of the Shelif by the title of Emir of Maskara. War + was soon again renewed with varying fortune, and in 1837, in order to + have their hands free in attacking Constantine, the French made peace + with Abd-el-Kader, leaving to him the whole of Western Algeria except + some coast towns. Constantine was now taken, and the subjugation of the + province of Constantine followed. Meanwhile Abd-el-Kader was preparing + for another conflict, and in Nov., 1838, he suddenly broke into French + territory with a strong force, and for a time the supremacy of the French + was endangered. Matters took a more favourable turn for them when General + Bugeaud was appointed governor-general in Feb., 1841. In the autumn of + 1841 Saida, the last fortress of Abd-el-Kader, fell into his hands, after + which the only region that held out against the French was that bordering + on Morocco. Early in the following year this also was conquered, and + Abd-el-Kader found himself compelled to seek refuge in the adjoining + empire. From Morocco Abd-el-Kader twice made a descent upon Algeria, on + the second occasion defeating the French in two battles; and in 1844 he + even succeeded in raising an army in Morocco to withstand the <!-- Page + 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>[105]</span>French. + Bugeaud, however, crossed the frontier, and inflicted a severe defeat on + this army, while a French fleet bombarded the towns on the coast. The + Emperor of Morocco was at length compelled to agree to a treaty, in which + he not only promised to refuse Abd-el-Kader his assistance, but even + engaged to lend his assistance against him. Reduced to extremities + Abd-el-Kader surrendered on 27th Dec., 1847, and was at first taken to + France a prisoner, but was afterwards released on his promise not to + return to Algeria. The country was yet far from subdued. The Kabyles, and + the Arabs in the south, made protracted resistance, and rose again and + again against the yoke which it was attempted to impose upon them. The + numerous risings that successively took place thus rendered Algeria a + school for French generals, such as Pélissier, Canrobert, St. Arnaud, and + MacMahon. In 1864 MacMahon succeeded Pélissier as governor-general, and + had as his first work to put down an insurrection. About this time the + Emperor Napoleon III, who had visited the colony, introduced considerable + modifications into the government, recognizing that the native races had + grievances to complain of, and that the French rulers were in various + ways astray in the methods of government adopted. Fresh disturbances + broke out in the south nearly every year till 1871, when, owing to the + Franco-Prussian war, a great effort was made to throw off the French + yoke, the colony being nearly denuded of French soldiers. It was, + however, completely suppressed, and in order to remove what was believed + to be one principal cause of the frequent insurrections, a civil + government was established instead of the military government in the + northern parts of the colony. The southern parts, inhabited by nomadic + tribes, are still subject to military rule. When the French took in hand + the occupation of Tunis, a rising took place (in 1881) in the west of + Algeria, under a chieftain who was able to inflict some loss and damage + on the French forces and colonists, but with no permanent result. Since + then quietness has generally prevailed in the colony, where the French, + however, continue to maintain a considerable military force. Owing to + this and other expenditure Algeria has always formed a burden on the + resources of France. The great aid rendered by Algeria to France during + the European War led the French Government to introduce new laws. The law + of 4th Feb., 1919, gives French citizenship to all Algerian natives under + certain conditions.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: M. D. + Stott, <i>The Real Algeria</i>; Sir R. Lambert Playfair, <i>Handbook for + Travellers in Algeria</i> (Murray's Handbooks).</p> + + <p><b>Algesi′ras.</b> See <i>Algeciras</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alghero,</b> or <b>Algheri</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-gā′rō, a<span + class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-gā′rē), a fortified + town and seaport on the north-west coast of the island of Sardinia, 15 + miles south-west of Sassari; the seat of a bishop, with a handsome + cathedral. One of the remarkable edifices of Alghero is the Casa Arbia, + where Charles V was lodged. The necropolis of Anghelu Ruju, situated in + the vicinity, was excavated in 1904.</p> + + <p><b>Algiers</b> (al′jērz; Fr., <i>Alger</i>), a city and + seaport on the Mediterranean, capital of the French colony of Algeria, is + situated on the west side of the Bay of Algiers, partly on the slope of a + hill facing the sea. The old town, which is the higher, is oriental in + appearance, with narrow, crooked streets, and houses that are strong, + prison-like edifices. Its crowning point is the Kasbah, or ancient + fortress of the Deys, about 500 feet above the sea, now serving as + barracks. The modern French town, which occupies the lower slope and + spreads along the shore, is handsomely built, with broad streets and + elegant squares. It contains the Government buildings, the central + military and civil establishments, the residence of the governor-general + and the officials of the general and provincial Government, the superior + courts of justice, the archbishop's palace and the cathedral, various + other churches, including an English church and library, the great + commercial establishments, &c. A fine boulevard built on a series of + arches, and bordered on one side by handsome buildings, runs along the + sea-front of the town overlooking the bay, harbour, and shipping. Forty + feet below are the quay and railway-station, reached by inclined roads + leading from the centre of the boulevard. The harbour is good and + capacious, enclosed by piers or jetties, and otherwise improved at great + expense, and it and the city are defended by a strong series of + fortifications. Algiers is well provided with educational institutions, + including high schools or colleges for law, medicine, literature, + mathematics, and natural science; besides normal schools, an observatory, + public library, &c. Algiers is in every way far the most important + place in Algeria. There is a large shipping trade carried on, especially + with Marseilles, Cette, and some of the Spanish ports. Trade routes from + the interior and also railways centre in Algiers, and the exports include + grain, wine, cattle, wool, ore, tobacco, fruit, olive-oil, &c. + Algiers is now an important coaling station The city possesses + widely-extended suburbs. The climate, though variable, makes it a very + desirable winter residence for invalids and others from colder regions. + Though warm, it is bracing. There is a considerable rainfall (average 29 + inches), but the dry air and absorbent soil prevent it from being + disagreeable. The winter months resemble a bright, sunny English autumn, + while the heat of summer is not so intense as that of <!-- Page 106 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>[106]</span>Egypt. The + sirocco or desert wind is troublesome, however, during summer, but in the + winter it is merely a pleasant, warm, dry breeze. Hailstorms are not + infrequent, but frost and snow in Algiers are so rare as to be almost + unknown. Pop. 172,397.</p> + + <p><b>Algin,</b> a viscous, gummy substance obtained from certain + seaweeds, more especially those of the genus Laminaria. It can be + utilized for all purposes where starch or gum is now required; may be + used in cookery for soups and jellies; and in an insoluble form it can be + cut, turned, and polished, like horn or vulcanite.</p> + + <p><b>Algo′a Bay,</b> a bay on the south coast of the Cape + Province, 425 miles east of the Cape of Good Hope, the only place of + shelter on this coast for vessels during the prevailing north-west gales. + It was the first landing-place of British immigrants in 1820. The usual + anchorage is off Port Elizabeth, on its west coast, a place of large and + increasing trade, but open on the east and south-east.</p> + + <p><b>Algol′,</b> Arabic name of a star in the constellation + Perseus (head of Medusa), remarkable as a variable star, changing in + brightness from the second to the fifth magnitude.</p> + + <p><b>Algo′ma,</b> a district of Canada, on the north of Lake + Superior, forming part of the north-west portion of Ontario, rich in + silver, copper, iron, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Algon′kins,</b> or <b>Algonquins,</b> a family of North + American Indians, formerly spread over a great extent of territory, and + still forming a large proportion of the Indians of Canada. They consisted + of four groups, namely—(1) the eastern group, comprising the + Massachusetts, Narragansets, Mohicans, Delawares, and other tribes; (2) + the north-eastern group, consisting of the Abenakis, &c.; (3) the + western group, made up of the Shawnees, Miamis, Illinois, &c.; and + (4) the north-western group, including the Chippewas or Ojibbewas, the + largest of all the tribes.</p> + + <p><b>Algorism,</b> or <b>Algorithmus,</b> in arithmetic, a word derived + from the name of Algoritmi or Al-Khowarizmi, from whose works European + scholars received much of their early information concerning Hindu + numerals. The word is now used to designate any particular arrangement of + numerical work.</p> + + <p><b>Algraphy.</b> See <i>Lithography</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alguacil,</b> or <b>Alguazil</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-gwa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-thēl′), in Spain, an officer + whose business it is to execute the decrees of a judge; a sort of + constable. In ancient times the Alguacil was the great provost of the + palace.</p> + + <p><b>Algum.</b> See <i>Almug</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alha′gi.</b> See <i>Camel's-thorn</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alhama</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lä′ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>; that is, 'the bath'), a town of + Southern Spain, province of Granada, on the Marchan, 25 miles south-west + of Granada, celebrated for its warm medicinal (sulphur) baths and + drinking waters. It formed a Moorish fortress, the recovery of which in + 1482 by the Spaniards led to the entire conquest of Granada. It was + occupied by the French from Feb., 1810-Aug., 1812, and thrown into ruins + by an earthquake in Dec., 1884. Pop. 8000.—There is also an + <i>Alhama</i> in the province of Murcia, with a warm mineral spring. Pop. + 6000.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:64%;"> + <a href="images/image036.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image036.jpg" + alt="Alhambra: The Court of the Lions" title="Alhambra: The Court of the Lions" /></a> + Alhambra—The Court of the Lions + </div> + + <p><b>Alham′bra</b> (Ar. <i>al</i> and <i>hamrah</i>, 'the' and + 'red'), a famous group of buildings in Spain, forming the citadel of + Granada when that city was one of the principal seats of the empire of + the Moors in Spain, situated on a height, surrounded by a wall flanked by + many towers, and having a circuit of 2¼ miles. Within the circuit of the + walls are two churches, a number of mean houses, and some straggling + gardens, besides the palace of Charles V and the celebrated Moorish + palace which is often distinctively spoken of as the Alhambra. This + building, to which the celebrity of the site is entirely due, was the + royal palace of the Kings of Granada. The greater part of the present + building belongs to the first half of the fourteenth century. In the + course of centuries, both through neglect and acts of vandalism, the + beauty of the Alhambra has suffered considerably. The work of restoration + was, however, undertaken in 1824 by the architect José Contreras, and + continued by his son Rafael from 1847-90. It consists mainly of buildings + surrounding two oblong courts, the one, called the Court of the Fishpond + (or of the Myrtles), 138 by 74 feet, lying north and south; the other, + called the Court of the Lions, from a fountain ornamented with twelve + lions in marble, 115 by 66 feet, lying east and west, described as being, + with the apartments that surround it, "the gem of Arabian art in Spain, + its most beautiful and most perfect example". Its design is elaborate, + exhibiting a profusion of exquisite detail gorgeous in colouring, but the + smallness of its size deprives it of the element of majesty. The + peristyle or portico on each side is supported by 128 pillars of white + marble, 11 feet high, sometimes placed singly and sometimes in groups. + Two pavilions project into the court at each end, the domed roof of one + having been restored. Some of the finest chambers of the Alhambra open + into this court, and near the entrance a museum of Moorish remains has + been formed. On the opposite side of the Court of the Lions is the Hall + of the Abencerrages. The prevalence of stucco or plaster ornamentation is + one of the features of the Alhambra, which becomes especially remarkable + in the beautiful honeycomb 'stalactite vaulting'. Arabesques and + geometrical designs with interwoven inscriptions are present in the + richest profusion. Cf. Owen <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page107"></a>[107]</span>Jones's work, <i>The Alhambra</i> (2 + vols., London, 1842-5.</p> + + <p><b>Alhaurin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-ou-rēn′), a town of + Southern Spain, province of Malaga, with sulphureous baths. Pop. + 7000.</p> + + <p><b>Ali</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>′lē), cousin and son-in-law + of Mahomet, the first of his converts, and the bravest and most faithful + of his adherents, born <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 602. He married + Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, but after the death of Mahomet (632) + his claims to the caliphate were set aside in favour successively of + Abu-Bekr, Omar, and Othman. On the assassination of Othman, in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 656, he became caliph, and after a series of + struggles with his opponents, including Ayesha, widow of Mahomet, finally + lost his life by assassination at Kufa in 661. A Mahommedan schism arose + after his death, and has produced two sects. One sect, called the + Shiites, put Ali on a level with Mahomet, and do not acknowledge the + three caliphs who preceded Ali. They are regarded as heretics by the + other sect, called Sunnites. The Turks hold his memory in abhorrence, + whilst the Persians call him the Lion of God, and venerate him as second + only to the prophet. The <i>Maxims</i> and <i>Hymns</i> of Ali are yet + extant. See <i>Caliph</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ali,</b> Pasha of Yanĭna, generally called <i>Ali Pasha</i>, + a bold and able, but ferocious and unscrupulous Albanian, born in 1741, + son of an Albanian chief, who was deprived of his territories by + rapacious neighbours. Ali by his enterprise and success, and by his + entire want of scruple, got possession of more than his father had lost, + and made himself master of a large part of Albania, including + Yanĭna, which the Porte sanctioned his holding, with the title of + pasha. Among the travellers who visited his Court at Yanĭna was + Byron, who has left a record of his impressions in <i>Childe Harold's + Pilgrimage</i>. Ali Pasha was an apostle of European culture in the East, + and the first to feel the necessity for energetic reforms in the old + Moslem institutions. He displayed excellent qualities, putting an end to + brigandage and anarchy, making roads, and encouraging commerce. He still + farther extended his sway by subduing the brave Suliotes of Epirus, whom + he conquered in 1803, after a three years' war. Aiming at independent + sovereignty, he intrigued alternately with England, France, and Russia, + and became almost independent of the Porte, which at length determined, + in 1820, to pronounce his <!-- Page 108 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page108"></a>[108]</span>deposition. Ali resisted several pashas + who were sent to carry out this decision, only surrendering at last in + 1822, on receiving assurances that his life and property would be granted + him. Faith was not kept with him, however; he was killed, and his head + was cut off and conveyed to Constantinople, while his treasures were + seized by the Porte.</p> + + <p><b>Al′ias</b> (Lat., 'at another time'), a word often used in + judicial proceedings in connection with the different names that persons + have assumed, most likely for prudential reasons, at different times, and + in order to conceal identity, as Joseph Smith <i>alias</i> Thomas + Jones.</p> + + <p><b>Alibert</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lē-bār), Jean Louis, Baron, + a distinguished French physician, born 1766, died 1837. He was a + professor in Paris, and chief physician at the Hospital St. Louis. He + wrote many valuable works on medical subjects, such as <i>Description des + maladies de la peau</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ali Bey,</b> a ruler of Egypt, born in the Caucasus in 1728, was + taken to Cairo and sold as a slave, but having entered the force of the + Mamelukes, and attained the first dignity among them, he succeeded in + making himself virtual governor of Egypt. He then refused the customary + tribute to the Porte, and coined money in his own name. In 1769 he took + advantage of a war, in which the Porte was then engaged with Russia, to + endeavour to add Syria and Palestine to his Egyptian dominion, and in + this he had almost succeeded, when the defection of his own adopted son + Mohammed Bey drove him from Egypt. Joining his ally Sheikh Daher in + Syria, he still pursued his plans of conquest with remarkable success, + till in 1773 he was induced to make the attempt to recover Egypt with + insufficient means. In a battle near Cairo his army was completely + defeated and he himself taken prisoner, dying a few days afterwards + either of his wounds or by poison.</p> + + <p><b>Al′ibi</b> (Lat., 'elsewhere'), a defence in criminal + procedure, by which the accused endeavours to prove that when the alleged + crime was committed he was present in a different place.</p> + + <p><b>Alicante</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lē-ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n′tā), a fortified town and + Mediterranean seaport in Spain, capital of the province of the same name, + picturesquely situated partly on the slope of a hill, partly on the plain + at the foot, about 80 miles south by west of Valencia. The lower town has + wide and well-built streets; the upper town is old and irregularly built. + The principal manufactures are cotton, linen, and cigars; the chief + export is wine, which largely goes to England. Alicante is an ancient + town. In 718 it was taken by the Moors, from whom it was wrested about + 1240. In modern times it has been several times besieged and bombarded, + as by the French in 1709, and in 1812, and by the federalists of + Cartagena in 1873. Pop. 58,088.—The province is very fruitful and + well cultivated, producing wine, silk, fruits, &c. The wine is of a + dark colour (hence called <i>vino tinto</i>, deep-coloured wine), and is + heavy and sweet. Area, 2185 sq. miles. Pop. 502,607.</p> + + <p><b>Alicata,</b> or <b>Licata</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-lē-kä′ta<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>, + lē-kä′ta<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), the most important commercial town on + the <span class="scac">S.</span> coast of Sicily, at the mouth of the + Salso, 24 miles <span class="scac">E.S.E.</span> of Girgenti, with a + considerable trade in sulphur, grain, wine, oil, nuts, almonds, and soda. + It occupies the site of the town which the Tyrant Phintias of Acragas + erected and named after himself, when Gela was destroyed in 280. Pop. + 22,931.</p> + + <p><b>Alice Maud Mary,</b> Princess, second daughter of Queen Victoria, + Duchess of Saxony, and Grand-duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, born 1843, died + 1878. In 1862 she married Frederick William Louis of Hesse, nephew of the + grand-duke, whom he succeeded in 1877. She showed exemplary devotion to + her father Prince Albert during his fatal illness and to the Prince of + Wales during his attack of fever in 1871. During the Franco-Prussian war + she organized hospitals for the relief of the sick and wounded. She died + from diphtheria caught while nursing her husband and children. A + selection of her letters to her mother was published in 1883 by Dr. Carl + Sell.</p> + + <p><b>A′lien,</b> in relation to any country, a person born out of + the jurisdiction of the country, and not having acquired the full rights + of a citizen of it. The position of aliens depends upon the laws of the + respective countries, but generally speaking aliens owe a local + allegiance, and are bound equally with natives to obey all general rules + for the preservation of order which do not relate specially to citizens. + Aliens have been often treated with great harshness by the laws of some + States. Thus in France there long existed what was known as the <i>droit + d'aubaine</i>, a law which claimed for the benefit of the State the + effects of deceased foreigners leaving no heirs who were natives. Aliens + have been repeatedly the objects of legislation in Britain, and the + tendency at the present day is to communicate some of the rights of + citizenship to aliens, and to widen the definition of subjects. According + to the Act of 1870 that now regulates the matter, real and personal + property of every description may be acquired, held, and disposed of by + an alien, in the same manner in all respects as by a natural-born British + subject. No other right or privilege (such as the right to hold any + office or any municipal, parliamentary, or other franchise) is by this + Act conferred on an alien except such as are expressly given in respect + of property. Previously aliens could hold only personal property; they + were incompetent to hold landed property, except under certain conditions + of residence or <!-- Page 109 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page109"></a>[109]</span>business occupancy for a term of years not + exceeding twenty-one. The children of aliens born in Britain are + natural-born subjects. Formerly the only mode of naturalization was by + Act of Parliament; but now an alien who has resided in the United Kingdom + for not less than one year immediately preceding his application, and has + previously resided in any part of His Majesty's dominions for four years + during the last eight years before the application, or who has been in + the service of the Crown for not less than five years, and intends to + reside in the kingdom, or to serve the British Crown, may apply to the + Secretary of State for a certificate of naturalization, and on giving + evidence of particulars may obtain it, being thereby entitled to almost + all the political and other rights of a natural-born British subject. At + present the law is laid down in the British Nationality and Status of + Aliens Act, 1914 and 1918. It used to be a principle in English law, that + a natural-born subject could not divest himself of his allegiance by + becoming naturalized in a foreign State (<i>nemo potest exuere + patriam</i>); but it is now laid down that a British subject who has + voluntarily become naturalized in a foreign State thereby ceases to be a + British subject. Any British subject who has become an alien may apply + for a certificate of readmission to British nationality on the same terms + as those provided for aliens in general. In the United States the + position of aliens as regards acquisition and holding of real property + differs somewhat in the different States, though in recent times the + disabilities of aliens have been removed in most of them. Personal + property they can take, hold, and dispose of like native citizens. + Individual States have no jurisdiction on the subject of naturalization, + though they may pass laws admitting aliens to any privilege short of + citizenship. A naturalized citizen is not eligible for election as + president or vice-president of the United States, and cannot serve as + senator until after nine years' citizenship, nor as a member of the House + of Representatives until after seven years' citizenship. Five years' + residence in the United States and one year's permanent residence in the + particular State are necessary for the attainment of citizenship.</p> + + <p><b>Alien Immigration.</b> In various countries certain classes of + aliens have long been prohibited from gaining admission. In the United + States, for instance, admission is refused to such persons as idiots, + epileptics, persons suffering from loathsome or dangerous contagious + diseases, paupers, criminals (except political criminals), illiterate + persons, &c. Chinese labourers as a whole are excluded, and even any + persons coming to America under a definite agreement to engage in any + kind of labour or service. Similar laws are in force in Australia, where + there is a test that a person proposing to settle in the country must be + able to write fifty words of a European language. Towards the end of last + century the great influx of foreigners into Britain, and into London in + particular, drew public attention to the matter. A select committee + appointed in 1888 reported in favour of the exclusion of destitute + aliens, in 1894 a bill was introduced into the House of Lords, while in + 1898 a bill to regulate the immigration of aliens was passed in the + Lords, but made no further progress. In 1902 a royal commission was + appointed, and drew up a report, published in 1903, containing valuable + information and various recommendations. Among these were the + establishment of an immigration department, and the granting of powers to + deport criminals, prostitutes, and other undesirable aliens, and to + prevent the landing of persons mentally unfit or suffering from + infectious or loathsome diseases. In 1904 an Aliens Immigration Bill was + introduced and read a second time in the House of Commons. It was based + on the recommendations of the commission, and in its favour it was argued + that a large amount of British labour had been displaced by aliens, in + London especially, that the prevalence of crime among aliens was out of + proportion to their numbers, that many of them were paupers, criminals + convicted in their own country, or other undesirables. In 1905 another + bill on the subject was introduced by the Government, which succeeded in + passing it, so that the matter can now be dealt with, and undesirable + aliens kept out. Since the European War (1914-8) and the new passport + regulations it is easy to ascertain the number of aliens that enter the + country and settle. At the census of 1901 the whole alien population was + set down at 286,925, as against 219,523 in 1891, but there has been a + very large influx from 1901 to 1914, by far the largest number consisting + of Russian and Polish Jews. The restrictions imposed upon aliens during + the European War are still in force, so far as they prohibit landing by + any alien, except at specified ports by leave of an immigration officer, + and, in case of former enemy aliens, by special permission of the Home + Secretary. Cf. J. M. Landa, <i>The Alien Problem</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aliganj</b> (<i>a</i>-lē-g<i>a</i>nj'), a town of Bengal, 54 + miles from Dinapur, noted for its pottery. It has a trade in grain, + indigo-seed, and cotton, and contains two mosques, and a large mud fort. + Pop. 7436.</p> + + <p><b>Aligarh</b> (<i>a</i>-lē-g<i>a</i>r'), a fort and town in + India, in the United Provinces, on the East Indian railway, 84 miles + south-east of Delhi. The town, properly called Koel or Coel, is distant + about 2 miles from the fort, and is connected with it by a beautiful + avenue. It is handsome and well <!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page110"></a>[110]</span>situated, and has a trade in cotton, + &c. The fort, which had been skilfully strengthened by French + engineers in the service of the Mahrattas, was taken by storm after a + desperate resistance in 1803 by the British forces under Lord Lake, when + the whole district was added to the British possessions. Pop. 64,825. The + district has an area of 1946 sq. miles. Pop. 1,165,680.</p> + + <p><b>Align′ment</b> (a-līn′ment), a military term, + signifying the act of adjusting to a straight line or in regular straight + lines, or the state of being so adjusted.</p> + + <p><b>Al′iment,</b> food, a term which includes everything, solid + or liquid, serving as nutriment for the bodily system. Aliments are of + the most diverse character, but all of them must contain nutritious + matter of some kind, which, being extracted by the act of digestion, + enters the blood, and effects by assimilation the repair of the body. + Alimentary matter, therefore, must be similar to animal substance, or + transmutable into such. All alimentary substances must, therefore, be + composed in a greater or less degree of soluble parts, which easily lose + their peculiar qualities in the process of digestion, and correspond to + the elements of the body. The food of animals consists for the most part + of substances containing little oxygen and exhibiting a high degree of + chemical combination, in which respects they differ from most substances + that serve as sustenance for plants, which are generally highly oxidized + and exhibit little chemical combination. According to the nature of their + constituents most of the aliments of animals are divided into nitrogenous + (consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen along with nitrogen, and also + of sulphur and phosphorus) and non-nitrogenous (consisting of carbon, + hydrogen, and oxygen without nitrogen). Water and salts are usually + considered as forming a third group, and, in the widest sense of the word + aliment, oxygen alone, which enters the blood in the lungs, forms the + fourth. The articles used as food by man do not consist entirely of + nutritious substances, but with few exceptions are compounds of various + nutritious with indigestible and accordingly innutritious substances. The + only nitrogenous aliments are albuminous substances, and these are + contained largely in animal food (flesh, eggs, milk, cheese). The + principal non-nitrogenous substance obtained as food from animals is fat. + Sugar is so obtained in smaller quantities (in milk). While some + vegetable substances also contain much albumen, very many of them are + rich in starch. Among vegetable substances the richest in albumen are the + legumes (peas, beans, and lentils), and following them come the cereals + (wheat, oats, &c.). Sugar, water, and salts may pass without any + change into the circulatory system; but albuminous substances cannot do + so without being first rendered soluble and capable of absorption (in the + stomach and intestines); starch must be converted into sugar and fat + emulsified (chiefly by the action of the pancreatic juice). One of the + objects of cooking is to make our food more susceptible of the operation + of the digestive fluids.</p> + + <p>The relative importance of the various nutritious substances that are + taken into the system and enter the blood depends upon their chemical + constitution. The albuminous substances are the most indispensable, + inasmuch as they form the material by which the constant waste of the + body is repaired, whence they are called by Liebig the substance-formers. + But a part of the operation of albuminous nutriments may be performed + equally well, and at less cost, by non-nitrogenous substances, that part + being the maintenance of the temperature of the body. As is well known, + the temperature of warm-blooded animals is considerably higher than the + ordinary temperature of the surrounding air, in man about 98° F., and the + uniformity of this temperature is maintained by the heat which is set + free by the chemical processes (of oxidation) which go on within the + body. Now these processes take place as well with non-nitrogenous as with + nitrogenous substances. The former are even preferable to the latter for + the keeping up of these processes; by oxidation they yield larger + quantities of heat with less labour to the body, and they are hence + called the heat-givers. The best heat-giver is fat. Albuminous matters + are not only the tissue-formers of the body; they also supply the vehicle + for the oxygen, inasmuch as it is of such matters that the blood + corpuscles are formed. The more red blood corpuscles an animal possesses, + the more oxygen can it take into its system, and the more easily and + rapidly can it carry on the process of oxidation and develop heat. Now + only a part of the heat so developed passes away into the environment of + the animal; another part is transformed within the body (in the muscles) + into mechanical work. Hence it follows that the non-nitrogenous articles + of food produce not merely heat but also work, but only with the + assistance of albuminous matters, which, on the one hand, compose the + working machine, and, on the other hand, convey the oxygen necessary for + oxidation.</p> + + <p>The wholesome or unwholesome character of any aliment depends, in a + great measure, on the state of the digestive organs in any given case, as + also on the method in which it is cooked. Very often a simple aliment is + made indigestible by artificial cookery. In any given case the digestive + power of the individual is to be considered in order to determine whether + a particular aliment is wholesome or not. In general, therefore, we can + only say that that aliment is healthy <!-- Page 111 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page111"></a>[111]</span>which is easily + soluble, and is suited to the power of digestion of the individual. Man + is fitted to derive nourishment both from animal and vegetable aliment, + but can live exclusively on either. The nations of the North incline + generally more to animal aliments; those of the South, and the Orientals, + more to vegetable. The inhabitants of the most northerly regions live + almost entirely upon animal food, and very largely on fat on account of + its heat-giving property. See <i>Dietetics</i>, <i>Digestion</i>, + <i>Adulteration</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Alimentary Canal,</b> a common name given to the œsophagus, + stomach, and intestines of animals. See <i>Œsophagus</i>, + <i>Intestine</i>, <i>Stomach</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ali-Mirza,</b> Shah of Persia, son of Muzaffar-ed-Din, born in + 1872. He succeeded his father on 8th Jan., 1907. Although his European + education had given him sympathies for Western civilization, he showed + himself despotic, and became very unpopular. He was deposed by the + National Assembly or Mejliss in July, 1909, and his son proclaimed Shah + in his place.</p> + + <p><b>Al′imony</b> (Lat. <i>alere</i>, to nourish), in law, the + allowance to which a woman is entitled while a matrimonial suit is + pending between her and her husband, or after a legal separation from her + husband, not occasioned by adultery or elopement on her part. It is + either temporary or permanent, the former being the provision made by the + husband pending the suit, the latter after the decree.</p> + + <p><b>Al′iquot Part</b> is such part of a number as will divide and + measure it exactly without any remainder. For instance, 2 is an aliquot + part of 4, 3 of 12, and 4 of 20.</p> + + <p><b>Alisma′ceæ,</b> the water-plantain family, a natural order of + endogenous plants, the members of which are herbaceous, annual or + perennial; with petiolate leaves sheathing at the base, hermaphrodite + (rarely unisexual) flowers, disposed in spikes, panicles, or racemes. + They are floating or marsh plants, and many have edible fleshy rhizomes. + They are found in all countries, but especially in Europe and North + America, where their rather brilliant flowers adorn the pools and + streams. The principal genera are <i>Alisma</i> (water-plantain) + <i>Sagittaria</i> (arrow-head), <i>Damasonium</i> (star-fruit), and + <i>Butomus</i> (flowering-rush).</p> + + <p><b>Al′ison,</b> Rev. Archibald, a theologian and writer on + æsthetics, born at Edinburgh in 1757; died there in 1839. He studied at + Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, entered the English Church, and + finally (1800) settled as the minister of an Episcopal chapel at + Edinburgh. He published 2 volumes of sermons, and a work entitled + <i>Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste</i> (1790), in which he + maintains that all the beauty of material objects depends upon the + associations connected with them.</p> + + <p><b>Al′ison,</b> Sir Archibald, lawyer and writer of history, son + of the above, was born in Shropshire in 1792, and died in 1867, near + Glasgow. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh, and in 1814 was + admitted to the Scottish bar. He spent the next eight years in + Continental travel. On his return he was appointed advocate depute, which + post he held till 1830. In 1832 he published <i>Principles of the + Criminal Law of Scotland</i>, and in 1833 <i>The Practice of the Criminal + Law</i>. He was appointed sheriff of Lanarkshire in 1834, and retained + this post till his death. He was made a baronet in 1852. His chief + work—<i>The History of Europe, from 1789 to 1815</i>—was + first issued in 10 vols., 1833-42, the narrative being subsequently + brought down to 1852, the beginning of the second French Empire. This + work displays industry and research, and is generally accurate, but not + very readable. It has been translated into French, German, Arabic, + Hindustani, &c. Among Sir Archibald's other productions are + <i>Principles of Population</i>; <i>Free-trade and Protection</i>; + <i>England in 1815 and 1845</i>; <i>Life of the Duke of Marlborough</i>, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Al′ison,</b> General Sir Archibald, <span + class="scac">G.C.B.</span>, son of the above, was born 1826, entered the + army in 1846, and served in the Crimea, in India during the mutiny, and + in the Ashantee expedition of 1873-4. In Egypt, in 1882, he led the + Highland Brigade at the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, and in 1882-3 remained in + command of the army of occupation (of 12,000 men). He retired from the + army in 1893, and died in 1907.</p> + + <p><b>Aliwal′,</b> a village of Hindustan in the Punjab, on the + left bank of the Sutlej, celebrated from the battle fought in its + vicinity, 28th Jan., 1846, between the Sikhs and a British army commanded + by Sir Harry Smith, resulting in the total defeat of the Sikhs.</p> + + <p><b>Aliwal North,</b> a town in the eastern part of Cape Province, on + the Orange River, which here forms the boundary with the Orange Free + State, and is crossed by a fine bridge—the Frere Bridge. It stands + at the height of 4350 feet, in a locality said to be highly suitable for + consumptives, and the warm sulphur springs in the neighbourhood also + attract many invalids. It is a well-built place, with churches, hotels, + golf links, race-course, &c.; and has railway connection with East + London, Port Elizabeth, &c. Pop. 5557.—<i>Aliwal South</i> was + a name formerly given to Mossel Bay, the small seaport midway between + Cape Town and Port Elizabeth.</p> + + <p><b>Aliz′arine,</b> a substance contained in the madder root + (<i>Rubia tinctorum</i>), and largely used in dyeing reds of various + shades, as Turkey red, &c. Until 1868 it was obtained entirely from + madder root, but the use of the root has been almost superseded by the + employment of alizarine itself, prepared artificially from one of the + <!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page112"></a>[112]</span>constituents of coal-tar. It forms + yellowish-red prismatic crystals, nearly insoluble in cold, but dissolved + to a small extent by boiling water, and readily soluble in alcohol and + ether. It possesses exceedingly strong tinctorial powers.</p> + + <p><b>Al′kahest,</b> the so-called universal solvent or menstruum + of the alchemists. The word is believed to have been invented by + Paracelsus.</p> + + <p><b>Al′kali</b> (from Ar. <i>al-qali</i>, the ashes of the plant + from which soda was first obtained, or the plant itself), a term first + used to designate the soluble parts of the ashes of plants, especially of + seaweed, and designated <i>fixed alkali</i>, as marking a distinction + from ammonia, which was termed <i>volatile alkali</i>. Now the term is + applied to various classes of bodies having the following properties in + common: (1) solubility in water; (2) the power of neutralizing acids, and + forming salts with them; (3) the property of corroding animal and + vegetable substances; (4) the property of altering the tint of many + colouring matters—thus, they turn litmus, reddened by an acid, into + blue; turmeric, brown; and syrup of violets and infusion of red cabbages, + green. The alkalies may be regarded as water in which part of the + hydrogen is replaced by a metallic radicle. The caustic alkalies are + strong alkalies which have a powerful corrosive action on the skin, and + the common ones are potassic hydroxide or caustic potash, sodic hydroxide + or caustic soda, and lithic hydroxide. <i>Volatile Alkali</i>, or ammonic + hydroxide, is a much feebler alkali than the others, and when the + solution is heated all the ammonia is driven off. Other alkalies are + calcic hydroxide or slaked lime, a solution of which in water is known as + <i>lime-water</i>; baric hydroxide and strontic hydroxide, derived from + the metals barium and strontium. Quicklime is the only alkali extensively + used in agriculture.</p> + + <p><b>Alkalim′eter,</b> an instrument for ascertaining the quantity + of free alkali in any impure specimen, as in the potashes of commerce. + These, besides the carbonate of potash, of which they principally + consist, usually contain a portion of foreign salts, as sulphate and + chloride of potassium, and as the true worth of the substance, or price + for which it ought to sell, depends entirely on the quantity of + carbonate, it is of importance to be able to measure it accurately by + some easy process. This process depends on the neutralization of the + alkali by an acid of known strength, the point of neutralization being + determined by the fact that neutral liquids are without action on either + red or blue litmus solution. The alkalimeter is merely a graduated + tube—a burette—with a stopcock at the lower extremity, from + which the standard acid is dropped into water in which a known weight of + the substance is dissolved. The quantity required to produce + neutralization being noted, the strength of the liquid tested is easily + arrived at. A process of neutralization, exactly the same in principle, + may be employed to test the strength of acids by alkalies, the one + process being called <i>alkalimetry</i> the other <i>acidimetry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′kaloid,</b> a term applied to a class of nitrogenous + compounds having basic properties, found in living plants, usually in + combination with organic acids. They are usually given names ending in + <i>-ine</i>, as <i>morphine</i>, <i>quinine</i>, <i>aconitine</i>, + <i>nicotine</i>, <i>caffeine</i>, &c. Most alkaloids occur in plants, + but some are formed by decomposition. Most natural alkaloids contain + carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, but a few contain no oxygen. The + nitrogen they contain imparts to them basic properties—they are + organic bases—and hence they all form salts with acids. They all + possess a pronounced bitter taste, and the poisonous nature of many + plants, e.g. hemlock, yew, deadly nightshade, &c., are due to the + alkaloids they contain. Although formed originally within the plant, it + has been found possible to prepare several of these alkaloids by + artificial means.</p> + + <p><b>Al′kanet,</b> a dyeing drug, the bark of the root of the + <i>Anchūsa</i> or <i>Alkanna tinctoria</i>, a plant of the order + Boraginaceæ, with downy and spear-shaped leaves, and clusters of small + purple or reddish flowers. The plant is sometimes cultivated in Britain, + chiefly on the east coast of England, but most of the alkanet of commerce + is imported from the Levant or from southern France. It imparts a fine + deep-red colour to all unctuous substances and is used for colouring + oils, plasters, lip-salve, confections, &c.; also in compositions for + rubbing and giving colour to mahogany furniture, and to colour spurious + port-wine.</p> + + <p><b>Alkan′na,</b> a name of henna. See also <i>Alkanet</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alkar′sin,</b> an extremely poisonous liquid containing + kakodyle, together with oxidation products of this substance, and + formerly known as <i>Cadet's fuming liquor</i>, characterized by its + insupportable smell and high degree of spontaneous combustibility when + exposed to air.</p> + + <p><b>Al-katif,</b> a town of Arabia, on the Persian Gulf, carrying on a + considerable trade. Pop. 6000.</p> + + <p><b>Alkmaar</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>lk′mär), a town of the Netherlands, + province of North Holland, on the North Holland Canal, and 20 miles <span + class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Amsterdam; regularly built, with a fine + church (St. Lawrence) and a richly decorated Gothic town-house; + manufactures of salt, sail-cloth, vinegar, leather, &c., and an + extensive trade in cattle, corn, butter, and cheese. Pop. 22,685.</p> + + <p><b>Al-Ko′ran,</b> or <b>Qu‛ran</b>. See <i>Koran</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alla breve</b> (brā′vā), a musical direction + expressing that a breve is to be played as fast as a semibreve, a + semibreve as fast as a minim, and <!-- Page 113 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>[113]</span>so on. It is also + called a capella, as it is employed in church music.</p> + + <p><b>Al′lah,</b> in Arabic, the name of God, a word of kindred + origin with the Hebrew word <i>Elohim</i>. <i>Alla Akbar</i> (God is + great) is a Mahommedan war-cry.</p> + + <p><b>Allahabād′</b> ('city of Allah'), an ancient city of + India, capital of the United Provinces, on the wedge of land formed by + the Jumna and the Ganges, largely built of mud houses, though the English + quarter has more of a European aspect. Among the remarkable buildings are + the fort, occupying the angle between the rivers, and containing the + remains of an ancient palace, and now also the barracks, &c.; the + mausoleum and garden of Khosru, the tomb being a handsome domed building; + the Government offices and courts; Government house; the Roman Catholic + cathedral; the Central College for the United Provinces; the Mayo + Memorial and town hall. Allahabad is one of the chief resorts of Hindu + pilgrims, who have their sins washed away by bathing in the waters of the + sacred rivers Ganges and Jumna at their junction; and is also the scene + of a great fair in December and January. There are no manufactures of + importance, but a large general and transit trade is carried on. The town + is as old as the third century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In the + mutiny of 1857 it was the scene of a serious outbreak and massacre. Pop. + 171,697.—The division of <i>Allahabad</i> contains the districts of + Cawnpur, Futtehpur, Hamirpur, Banda, Jaunpur, and Allahabad; area, 17,265 + sq. miles. Pop. 5,535,803.—The district contains an area of 2852 + sq. miles, about five-sixths being under cultivation. Pop. 1,487,904.</p> + + <p><b>Allaman′da,</b> a genus of American tropical plants, ord. + Apocynaceæ, with large yellow or violet flowers; some of them are grown + in European greenhouses. <i>A. cathartica</i> has strong emetic and + purgative properties.</p> + + <p><b>Allan,</b> David, a Scottish painter, born 1744, died 1796. He + studied in Foulis's academy of painting and engraving in Glasgow, and for + sixteen years in Italy; finally establishing himself at Edinburgh, where + he succeeded Runciman as master of the Trustees' Academy. His + illustrations of the <i>Gentle Shepherd</i>, <i>The Cotter's Saturday + Night</i>, and other sketches of rustic life and manners in Scotland are + his best-known works.</p> + + <p><b>Allan,</b> Sir William, a distinguished Scottish artist, born in + 1782, died in 1850. He was a fellow student with Wilkie in Edinburgh, + afterwards a student of the Royal Academy, London. After residing in + Russia for ten years, he returned to Scotland, and publicly exhibited his + pictures, one of which (<i>Circassian Captives</i>) made his reputation. + He now turned his attention to historical painting, and produced <i>Knox + admonishing Mary Queen of Scots</i>, <i>Murder of Rizzio</i>, <i>Exiles + on their way to Siberia</i>, <i>The Slave Market at Constantinople</i>, + &c.; and afterwards also battle scenes, as the <i>Battle of + Prestonpans</i>, <i>Nelson boarding the San Nicolas</i>, and two pictures + of <i>The Battle of Waterloo</i>, the one from the British, the other + from the French position, and delineating the actual scene and the + incidents therein taking place at the moment chosen for the + representation. One of these Waterloo pictures was purchased by the Duke + of Wellington. He travelled extensively, visiting Italy, Greece, Asia + Minor, Spain, and Barbary. In 1835 he became a Royal Academician, in 1838 + president of the Scottish Academy, and in 1842 he was knighted.</p> + + <p><b>Allan′tois,</b> a structure appearing during the early + development of vertebrate animals—Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia. It + is largely made up of blood-vessels, and, especially in Birds, attains a + large size. It forms the inner lining to the shell, and may thus be + viewed as the surface by means of which the respiration of the embryo is + carried on. In Mammalia the allantois is not so largely developed as in + Birds, and it enters largely into the formation of the placenta.</p> + + <p><b>Alleghany</b> (al-le-gā′ni), a river of Pennsylvania + and New York, which unites with the Monongahela at Pittsburg to form the + Ohio; navigable nearly 200 miles above Pittsburg.</p> + + <p><b>Alleghany Mountains,</b> or the <b>Alleghanies,</b> a name + sometimes used as synonymous with Appalachians, but also often restricted + to the portion of those mountains that traverses the states of Virginia, + Maryland, and Pennsylvania from south-west to north-east, and consists of + a series of parallel ridges for the most part wooded to the summit, and + with some fertile valleys between. Their mean elevation is about 2500 + feet; but in Virginia they rise to 4473.</p> + + <p><b>Allegheny</b> (al-le-gen′i), a city of the United States, in + Pennsylvania, on the River Allegheny, opposite Pittsburg, of which it may + be considered virtually to be a suburb, and with which it is connected by + six bridges. The principal industries are connected with iron and + machinery. Pop. 132,283. Also called Allegheny City.</p> + + <p><b>Alle′giance</b> (from mid-Eng. <i>ligeaunce</i>, formed from + <i>liege</i>), according to Blackstone, is "the tie or <i>ligamen</i> + which binds the subject to the sovereign in return for that protection + which the sovereign affords the subject", or, generally, the obedience + which every subject or citizen owes to the Government of his country. It + used to be the doctrine of the English law that natural-born subjects owe + an allegiance which is intrinsic and perpetual, and which cannot be + divested by any act of their own (<i>Nemo potest exuere patriam</i>); but + this is no longer the case since the Naturalization Act passed in 1870, A + British subject, however, or <!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page114"></a>[114]</span>a child who has acquired a British + domicile by the naturalization of an alien parent, cannot in time of war + divest himself of British nationality for the purpose of becoming an + enemy alien. Aliens owe a temporary or local allegiance to the Government + under which they for the time reside. Usurpers in undisturbed possession + of the Crown are entitled to allegiance; and thus treasons against Henry + VI were punished in the reign of Edward IV, though the former had, by Act + of Parliament, been declared a usurper.</p> + + <p><b>Al′legory,</b> a figurative representation in which the signs + (words or forms) signify something besides their literal or direct + meaning. In rhetoric, allegory is often but a continued simile. Parables + and fables are a species of allegory. Sometimes long works are throughout + allegorical, as Spenser's <i>Faerie Queene</i> and Bunyan's <i>Pilgrim's + Progress</i>. When an allegory is thus continued it is indispensable to + its success that not only the allegorical meaning should be appropriate, + but that the story should have an interest of its own in the direct + meaning apart from the allegorical significance. Allegories are frequent + in the Old Testament, whilst in the New they take the form of parables. + One of the best-known allegories in classical literature is the story of + the stomach and the members of the body in the speech attributed to + Menenius Agrippa by Plutarch and Livy. (Cf. Shakespeare, + <i>Coriolanus</i>, i, 1.) Allegory is often made use of in painting and + sculpture as well as in literature.</p> + + <p><b>Allegri</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-lā′grē), Gregorio, an + Italian composer, born at Rome in 1560 or 1585, died there about 1650; + celebrated for his <i>Miserere</i>, a setting of the fifty-first psalm + (the fiftieth in the <i>Vulgate</i>), which in the Latin version begins + with that word. Allegri's <i>Miserere</i> is annually performed in the + Sistine Chapel at Rome.</p> + + <p><b>Allegro</b> (It., a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-lā′grō), a musical + term expressing a more or less quick rate of movement, or a piece of + music or movement in lively time. <i>Allegro moderato</i>, moderately + quick; <i>allegro maestoso</i>, quick but with dignity; <i>allegro + assai</i> and <i>allegro molto</i>, very quick; <i>allegro con brio</i> + or <i>con fuoco</i>, with fire and energy; <i>allegrissimo</i>, with the + utmost rapidity.</p> + + <p><b>Allein</b> (al′en), Joseph, English Nonconformist divine; + born 1633, died 1668; the author of a popular religious book entitled, + <i>An Alarm to Unconverted Sinners, or The Sure Guide to Heaven</i> + (1672).</p> + + <p><b>Allein</b> (al′en), Richard, English Nonconformist divine; + born in 1611, died 1681; rector for twenty years of Batcombe (Somerset); + deprived of his living at the Restoration, and imprisoned for preaching. + He wrote, among other things, <i>Vindiciæ Pietatis</i> ('A Vindication of + Godliness'), published in 1660, which was condemned to be burned in the + royal kitchen.</p> + + <p><b>Alleluia.</b> See <i>Halleluia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Allemande</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>d), a kind of slow, graceful dance, + invented in France in the time of Louis XIV, and again in vogue in the + time of the First Empire. The name is also given to pieces of music based + on the dance movement. Bach and Handel have composed a great number of + Allemandes, and Beethoven has written twelve for orchestra.</p> + + <p><b>Allen,</b> Bog of, the name applied to a series of bogs in Ireland + (not to one continuous morass), dispersed, often widely apart, with + extensive tracts of dry cultivated soil between, over a broad belt of + land stretching across the centre of the country, the bogs being, + however, all on the east side of the Shannon.</p> + + <p><b>Allen,</b> Ethan, an American revolutionary partisan and general; + born 1737, died 1789. He surprised and captured Ticonderoga Fort (1775); + attacked Montreal, and was captured and sent to England, being exchanged + in 1778; wrote against Christianity, <i>Reason, the only Oracle of + Man</i> (1784).—His younger brother, Ira (1751-1814), was also + prominent in the revolutionary era.</p> + + <p><b>Allen,</b> Grant, writer on scientific subjects and novelist, was + born at Kingston, Canada, 1848, died in 1899. His earlier education he + received in America, but he also studied in France and graduated at + Oxford with honours in 1870. From 1873 to 1879 he was connected with + Queen's College, Jamaica, but afterwards resided chiefly in England, and + became well known as an exponent of evolutionary science, and as a + novelist. His first important work, <i>Physiological Æsthetics</i>, + appeared in 1877; his other scientific or semi-scientific works include + <i>The Colour Sense</i>; <i>The Evolutionist at Large</i>; <i>Colin + Clouts Calendar (the record of a summer)</i>; <i>Vignettes from + Nature</i>; <i>The Colours of Flowers</i>; <i>Flowers and their + Pedigrees</i>; and <i>Force and Energy, a Theory of Dynamics</i>. Other + works by him are: <i>Anglo-Saxon Britain</i>; <i>Charles Darwin</i>; and + <i>The Evolution of the Idea of God</i>. His novels, about thirty in + number, include: <i>The Devil's Die</i>; <i>The Woman Who Did</i>, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Allen,</b> John, a Scottish political and historical writer; born + in 1771, died in 1843. He studied medicine, and became M.D. of Edinburgh + University. In 1801 he went abroad with Lord Holland and family, and + henceforth he maintained this connection, being long an inmate of Holland + House (London) and a member of the brilliant society that assembled + there. He contributed many articles to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>; and + wrote <i>An Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the Royal Prerogative in + England</i>; <i>Vindication of the Ancient Independence of Scotland</i>; + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Allen,</b> Ralph, celebrated as a philanthropist, and as the friend + of Pope, Fielding, and the elder <!-- Page 115 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>[115]</span>Pitt, was born in 1694, + died in 1764. He lived mostly at Bath, where he made a large income as + farmer of a system of posts and as owner of quarries. He is the prototype + of Squire Allworthy in Fielding's <i>Tom Jones</i>; and after the + novelist's death he took charge of his family. Pope, who received many + kindnesses at his hands, referred to him in the lines:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Let humble Allen, with an awkward shame,</p> + <p>Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>With Pitt he was on intimate terms, and left him £1000 in his will. + Hurd, Sherlock, and Warburton were also his friends.</p> + + <p><b>Allen,</b> Thomas, an English mathematician, philosopher, + antiquarian, and astrologer, born in 1542, died in 1632. He studied at + Oxford, and lived the greater part of his life in learned retirement, + corresponding with many of the famous men of his time. In his own day he + was generally reputed a dealer in the black art.</p> + + <p><b>Allen,</b> William, cardinal, an English Roman Catholic of the time + of Queen Elizabeth. Influenced by the Jesuit Robert Parsons, he became a + strenuous opponent of Protestantism and supporter of the claims of Philip + II to the English throne; born 1532, died 1594. It was by his efforts + that the English college for Catholics at Douai was established. He was + made cardinal in 1587. His numerous writings include: <i>The Declaration + of the Sentence of Sixtus V</i>, and <i>An Admonition to the Nobility and + People of England</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Allen,</b> William, <span class="scac">D.D.</span>, American + clergyman and author; born 1784, died 1868. He was president of Bowdoin + College, 1820-39; author of <i>American Biographical and Historical + Dictionary</i>; <i>Junius Unmasked</i>; &c.</p> + + <p><b>Allenby, Viscount,</b> Edmund Henry Hynman, British soldier, born + on 23rd April, 1861, and educated at Haileybury. He joined the + Inniskilling Dragoons, and in 1884 served with that regiment in the + Bechuanaland Expedition. He was with the British forces in Zululand in + 1888, took part in the South African war, and commanded the 4th Cavalry + Brigade, 1905-10. In the European War he at first commanded the British + Third Army, contributing largely to the victories of the Somme and the + Aisne. After a reverse, south of Gaza, suffered on 26th March, 1917, by + the British troops under the command of Sir Archibald Murray, the latter + was relieved, and General Allenby was placed in command of the + operations. He made thorough preparations for the next offensive, and his + progress was very rapid. Beersheba and Gaza were captured, and on 9th + Dec., 1917 Jerusalem, the Holy City, was surrendered to the general by + the mayor. His formal entry took place on the 11th. He was awarded the + <span class="scac">G.C.M.G.</span> on 16th Dec., 1917, and is a Grand + Officer of the Legion of Honour. In Aug., 1919, he was voted a sum of + £50,000 and created a viscount, adopting the title of Viscount Allenby of + Megiddo and of Felixstowe in Suffolk. In Oct., 1919, he was appointed + High Commissioner for Egypt.</p> + + <p><b>Allenstein</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l′len-stīn), a town in East + Prussia, 65 miles south of Königsberg, on the Alle, with breweries and + manufactures of iron and lucifer matches. Pop. 24,295.</p> + + <p><b>Allentown,</b> a town in the United States, Pennsylvania, on Lehigh + River, 18 miles above its junction with the Delaware. It has an important + trade in coal and iron ore, with large blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, + &c. Pop. (1920), 73,502.</p> + + <p><b>Allep′pi.</b> See <i>Aulapolay</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alleyn</b> (al′len), Edward, an actor and theatre proprietor + in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I, friend of Ben Jonson and + Shakespeare; born 1566, died 1626. Nashe called him "the famous Ned". + Having become wealthy, he built Dulwich College, under the name of "The + College of God's Gift", between 1613-17, at a cost of £10,000. See + <i>Dulwich</i>.</p> + + <p><b>All-fours,</b> a game at cards, which derives its name from the + four chances of which it consists, for each of which a point is scored. + These chances are <i>high</i>, or the ace of trumps, or next best trump + out; <i>low</i>, or the deuce of trumps, or next lowest trump out; + <i>jack</i>, or the knave of trumps; <i>game</i>, the majority of pips + collected from the tricks taken by the respective players. The player who + has all these is said to have <i>all-fours</i>. It is played by two or + four persons with the full pack. The ace counts four, the king three, + queen two, knave one, ten ten. The game is known in America as + <i>Seven-up</i>, <i>Old-sledge</i>, or <i>High-low Jack</i>.</p> + + <p><b>All-hallows,</b> or <b>All-hallowmas,</b> a name for All-saints' + Day.</p> + + <p><b>Al′lia,</b> a small affluent of the Tiber, joining it about + 12 miles from Rome, famous for the victory won by the Gauls, under + Brennus, over the Roman army. This battle resulted in the capture and + sack of Rome in 390 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Allia′ceous Plants,</b> plants belonging to the genus Allium + (ord. Liliaceæ), that to which the onion, leek, garlic, shallot, &c., + belong, or to other allied genera, and distinguished by a certain + peculiar pungent smell and taste characterized as <i>alliaceous</i>. This + flavour is also found in a few plants having no botanical affinities with + the above, as in the <i>Alliaria officinālis</i>, or + Jack-by-the-hedge, a plant of the order Cruciferæ.</p> + + <p><b>Alli′ance,</b> a league between two or more Powers. Alliances + are divided into offensive and defensive. The former are for the purpose + of attacking a common enemy, and the latter for mutual defence. An + alliance often unites both of these conditions. Offensive alliances, of + course, are usually directed against some particular enemy; defensive + alliances against anyone from <!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page116"></a>[116]</span>whom an attack may come. Among the more + famous alliances in history are: The Triple Alliance of 1688 between + Great Britain, Sweden, and the Netherlands; The Grand Alliance of 1689 + between the Emperor, Holland, England, Spain, and Saxony; The Quadruple + Alliance of 1814 between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia; The + Triple Alliance of 1882 between Germany, Austria, and Italy; and The Dual + Alliance between Russia and France.</p> + + <p><b>Alliance, Holy.</b> See <i>Holy Alliance</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alliance Israélite Universelle,</b> an association founded in Paris + in 1860 for the protection of the Jews all over the world, but + particularly with a view to advocating by various means the emancipation + of the Jews in those countries where they did not enjoy equal civil and + political rights with the other inhabitants. It was established by six + Jews of Paris: Aristide Astruc, Isidore Cahen, Jules Carvallo, Narcisse + Leven, Eugène Manuel, and Charles Netter. Adolphe Crémieux and Salomon + Munk were among the first presidents of the association. It is managed by + a central committee resident in Paris, and consisting of 62 members, 23 + of whom live in Paris. The Alliance has done a great deal towards raising + the status of the Jews in the East by establishing educational + institutions and industrial and agricultural schools, especially in + Turkey, Egypt, Morocco, Persia, Bulgaria, Tunis, and Abyssinia. The chief + sources of its income are the subscriptions and donations of the members. + Its annual income amounts to about 200,000 francs. It also manages a fund + of about £400,000 founded by Baron and Baroness de Hirsch for the + establishment of Jewish Schools in Turkey. The Alliance Israélite works + in unison with the Anglo-Jewish Association and the Board of Deputies in + London, two organizations pursuing the same aims.</p> + + <p><b>Allia′ria,</b> a genus of plants, ord. Cruciferæ, containing + two species, one of which (<i>A. officinālis</i>), commonly called + Jack-by-the-hedge, is widely spread in Europe, and often used as a + pot-herb. See <i>Alliaceous Plants</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′libone,</b> Samuel Austin, <span + class="scac">LL.D.</span>, American author, born 1816, died 1889. He + compiled a most useful <i>Critical Dictionary of English Literature and + British and American Authors</i> (3 vols., 1859, 1870, 1871, containing + 50,000 biographies, 2 vols. of supplement by J. F. Kirk, 1891).</p> + + <p><b>Allice,</b> a name of the common shad.</p> + + <p><b>Allier</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-lē-ā), a central department + of France, intersected by the River Allier, and partly bounded by the + Loire; its surface is diversified by offsets of the Cevennes and other + ranges, rising in the south to over 4000 feet, and in general richly + wooded. It has extensive beds of coal as well as other minerals, which + are actively worked, there being several flourishing centres of mining + and manufacturing enterprise; mineral waters at Vichy, Bourbon, + L'Archambault, &c. Large numbers of sheep and cattle are bred. Area, + 2848 sq. miles. Capital, Moulins. Pop. (1921), 370,950.—The River + Allier flows northward for 200 miles through Lozère, Upper Loire, Puy de + Dôme, and Allier, and enters the Loire, of which it is the chief + tributary.</p> + + <p><b>Alliga′tion,</b> a rule of arithmetic, chiefly found in the + older books, relating to the solution of questions concerning the + compounding or mixing together of different ingredients, or ingredients + of different qualities or values. Thus if a quantity of tea worth + 10<i>d</i>. the pound and another quantity worth 18<i>d</i>. are mixed, + the question to be solved by alligation is, what is the value of the + mixture by the pound?</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:57%;"> + <a href="images/image037.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image037.jpg" + alt="Alligators" title="Alligators" /></a> + Alligators—1, Mississippi Alligator; 2, Banded Cayman; 3, Chinese + Alligator + </div> + + <p><b>Alliga′tor</b> (a corruption of Sp. <i>el lagarto</i>, lit. + the lizard—Lat. <i>lacertus</i>), a genus of reptiles of the family + Crocodilidæ, differing from the true crocodiles in having a shorter and + flatter head, in having cavities or pits in the upper jaw, into which the + long canine teeth of the under jaw fit, and in having the feet much less + webbed. Their habits are less perfectly aquatic. They are confined to the + warmer parts of America, where they frequent swamps and marshes, and may + be seen basking on the dry ground during the day in the heat of the sun. + They are most active during the night, when they make a loud bellowing. + The largest of these animals grow to the length of 18 or 20 feet. They + are covered by a dense armour of horny scales, impenetrable to a bullet, + and have a large mouth, armed with strong, conical teeth. They swim with + wonderful celerity, impelled by their long, laterally-compressed, and + powerful tails. On land their motions are proportionally slow and + embarrassed because of the length and unwieldiness of their bodies and + the shortness of their limbs. They live on fish, and any small animals or + carrion, and sometimes catch pigs on the shore, or dogs which are + swimming. They even sometimes make man their prey. In winter they burrow + in the mud of swamps and marshes, lying torpid till the warm weather. The + female lays a great number of eggs, which are deposited in the sand or + mud, and left to be hatched by the heat of the sun, but after this has + taken place the mother alligator is very attentive to her young. The most + fierce and dangerous species is that found in the southern parts of the + United States (<i>Alligator Lucius</i>), having the snout a little turned + up, slightly resembling that of the pike. The alligators of South America + are there very often called <i>Caymans</i>. <i>A. sclerops</i> is known + also as the <i>Spectacled Cayman</i>, from the prominent bony rim + surrounding the orbit of each eye. The flesh of the alligator is + sometimes eaten, the tail being considered a great delicacy by the <!-- + Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page117"></a>[117]</span>negroes. Among the fossils of the south of + England are remains of a true alligator (<i>A. Hantoniensis</i>) in the + Eocene beds of the Hampshire basin.</p> + + <p><b>Alligator-apple</b> (<i>Anōna palustris</i>), a fruit allied + to the custard-apple, growing in marshy districts in Jamaica, little + eaten on account of its narcotic properties.</p> + + <p><b>Alligator-pear</b> (<i>Persēa gratissima</i>), an evergreen + tree of the nat. ord. Lauraceæ, with a fruit resembling a large pear, 1 + to 2 lb. in weight, with a firm marrow-like pulp of a delicate flavour; + called also avocado-pear, or subaltern's butter. It is a native of + tropical America and the West Indies.</p> + + <p><b>Al′lingham,</b> William, an Irish poet, born in Ireland in + 1824 or 1828, died in 1889. He published his first volume (<i>Poems</i>) + in 1850; <i>Day and Night Songs</i> in 1855; <i>Lawrence Bloomfield in + Ireland</i>, narrative poem, in 1864; <i>Songs, Poems, and Ballads</i> in + 1877 (including a number of new poems). He was a frequent contributor to + periodicals, and for some time edited <i>Fraser's Magazine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Allitera′tion,</b> the repetition of the same letter at the + beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, or at + short intervals; as "<i>m</i>any <i>m</i>en <i>m</i>any <i>m</i>inds"; + "<i>d</i>eath <i>d</i>efies the <i>d</i>octor". "<i>A</i>pt + <i>a</i>lliteration's <i>a</i>rtful <i>a</i>id" (<i>Churchill</i>). + "<i>P</i>uffs, <i>p</i>owders, <i>p</i>atches, <i>b</i>ibles, + <i>b</i>illet-doux" (<i>Pope</i>). "<i>W</i>eave the <i>w</i>arp and + <i>w</i>eave the <i>w</i>oof" (<i>Gray</i>). In the ancient German and + Scandinavian and in early English poetry alliteration took the place of + terminal rhymes, the alliterative syllables being made to recur with a + certain regularity in the same position in successive verses. In the + <i>Vision of William Concerning Piers the Ploughman</i>, for instance, it + is regularly employed as in the following lines:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Hire <i>r</i>obe was ful <i>r</i>iche . of <i>r</i>ed scarlet engreyned,</p> + <p>With <i>r</i>ibanes of <i>r</i>ed gold . and of <i>r</i>iche stones;</p> + <p>Hire a<i>rr</i>aye me <i>r</i>avysshed . such <i>r</i>icchesse saw I nevere;</p> + <p>I had <i>w</i>ondre <i>w</i>hat she <i>w</i>as . and <i>w</i>has <i>w</i>yf she <i>w</i>ere.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Alliteration was known to the Latin authors: "O <i>T</i>ite + <i>t</i>ute, <i>T</i>ati, <i>t</i>ibi <i>t</i>anta, <i>t</i>yranne + <i>t</i>ulisti" (<i>Ennius</i>). In the hands of some English poets and + prose writers of later times alliteration became a mere conceit. It is + still employed in Icelandic and Finnish poetry. So far has alliteration + sometimes been carried that long compositions have been written every + word of which commenced with the same letter. It may also be employed in + the middle of words: "Un <i>f</i>rais par<i>f</i>um sortait des + tou<i>ff</i>es d'as<i>f</i>odile" (<i>Victor Hugo</i>).</p> + + <p><b>Al′lium,</b> a genus of plants, ord. Liliaceæ;, containing + numerous well-known species of pot-herbs. They are umbelliferous, and + mostly perennial, herbaceous plants, but a few are biennial. Among them + are garlic (<i>A. satīvum</i>), onion (<i>A. Cepa</i>), leek (<i>A. + Porrum</i>), chives (<i>A. Schœnoprăsum</i>), shallot (<i>A. + ascalonĭcum</i>). The peculiar alliaceous flavour that belongs to + them is well known.</p> + + <p><b>Al′loa,</b> a river port of Scotland, on the north bank of + the Forth (where there is now a bridge), 7 miles from Stirling, county of + Clackmannan. It carries on brewing, distilling, and shipbuilding; has + manufactures of woollens, bottles, &c., and a shipping trade. Pop. + (1921), 12,421. <!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page118"></a>[118]</span></p> + + <p><b>Allocu′tion,</b> an address, a term particularly applied to + certain addresses on important occasions made by the Pope to the + cardinals, and through them to the Church in general.</p> + + <p><b>Allo′dium</b> (probably derived from <i>all</i> and + <i>odh</i>, property), land held in one's own right, without any feudal + obligation to a superior or lord. In England, according to the theory of + the British constitution, all land is held of the crown (by <i>feudal</i> + tenure); the word <i>allodial</i> is, therefore, never applied to landed + property there.</p> + + <p><b>Allogamy</b> (from the Gr. <i>allos</i>, other, and <i>gamos</i>, + wedding), meaning the transfer of the pollen of one flower to the pistil + of another. The opposite of allogamy is <i>autogamy</i>, or + self-pollination.</p> + + <p><b>Allophane,</b> a hydrous aluminium silicate, with the composition + Al<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>5</sub> + 5H<sub>2</sub>O, forming crusts in the + cavities of various rocks and commonly of a delicate blue colour.</p> + + <p><b>Allot′ment System,</b> the system of allotting small portions + of land (an acre or less) to farm-labourers or other workers, to be + cultivated after their regular work by themselves and their families, a + system believed by many to be calculated greatly to improve their + condition. An Allotment Act for England, passed in 1887, authorizes the + sanitary authorities in any locality to determine if there is a + sufficient demand for allotments there, and to acquire land to be let to + the labouring population resident in their district. Such land may be + compulsorily acquired, due compensation being given; but land belonging + to a park, pleasure-ground, &c., is not to be so acquired. No person + is to hold more than 1 acre as an allotment; and the rents are to be + fixed at such amount as may reasonably be deemed sufficient to guarantee + the sanitary authority from loss. No building is to be erected on any + allotment other than a tool-house, pig-sty, shed, or the like. In the + Allotment Acts of 1887 and 1892 (Scotland) the definition is applied to a + plot of land not exceeding 1 acre, but the Local Government Act of 1894 + authorized the letting of an allotment up to the area of 4 acres to one + person, while the Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907 definitely + extends the limit of an allotment to 5 acres. The distinction between + allotments and small holdings has therefore been obliterated, at least as + far as England and Wales are concerned. County councils will let plots of + 1 to 5 acres as small holdings, and parish councils as allotments. During + the European War 183,000 allotments were registered under the Cultivation + of Lands Order, and the number of allotments in Great Britain not + exceeding 1 acre now amounts to over 1,000,000. In proportion to the + total agricultural area or population it is much smaller in Scotland than + in England. The rents of allotments vary greatly, and near towns, or even + villages, they are very high, often from £4 to £8 per acre. A measure + corresponding to the English Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907 + was passed for Scotland in 1911, and came into operation in 1912. In + recent years a large number of co-operative allotment associations have + come into existence.</p> + + <p><b>Allot′ropy</b> (Gr. <i>allos</i>, other, <i>tropos</i>, + manner), a term used by Berzelius to express the fact that one and the + same element may exist in different forms, differing widely in external + physical properties. Thus carbon occurs as the diamond, and as charcoal + and plumbago, and is therefore regarded as a substance subject to + allotropy.</p> + + <p><b>Al′loway,</b> a parish of Scotland, now included in Ayr + parish. Here Burns was born in 1759, and the "auld haunted kirk", near + his birthplace, was the scene of the dance of witches in <i>Tam o' + Shanter</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alloy′</b> is the substance produced by melting together two + or more metals. Sometimes a chemical compound is formed, but more + generally one metal is interspersed throughout the other, much as sugar + is through water in which it is dissolved. In this case the alloy is + called a 'solid solution' of one metal in another. Many metals mix + together in all proportions, others only in certain proportions, while + some will not mix in any proportion.</p> + + <p>Scientific research has led to great advances in the use of alloys + industrially. An alloy differs from its components in most of its + physical properties, such as its hardness, ductility, strength, + melting-point, and colour. The minutest trace of certain metals + frequently produces an extraordinary change in the property of the body + with which it is mixed. For instance, if bismuth is present in copper to + the extent of more than 0.5 per cent, the copper cannot be used + successfully in the construction of electrical machinery. Frequently the + addition of a small proportion of a metal produces highly-desirable + effects in one direction, but is deleterious in other directions. For + instance, the presence of a small amount of manganese in cast-iron gives + clean castings, but the magnetic qualities of the material are + impaired.</p> + + <p>Alloys are classified as ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.</p> + + <p><i>Ferrous Alloys.</i>—These alloys are of great industrial + importance, as they include cast irons and steels. Pure iron is very + little used in industry. Ordinary <i>cast iron</i> contains iron and + about 3 per cent of carbon. The ordinary wrought iron of the blacksmith + contains less than 0.25 per cent of carbon. Cast iron is brittle, and + unreliable when used to sustain tensile stresses, and it cannot be + forged; but wrought iron can be safely used in tension, is not brittle, + and can be forged. The raw material from which steel is <!-- Page 119 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page119"></a>[119]</span>made is cast + iron or wrought iron. (For manufacture of steel see <i>Steel</i>.) The + properties of steel can be varied within very wide limits by adding to it + traces of certain metals. For instance, the addition of nickel up to 5 + per cent makes the steel much stronger and tougher; the addition of + tungsten up to about 19 per cent makes it hard (tool-steel, magnet + steel), while molybdenum has a similar effect. Chromium and vanadium have + a 'stabilizing' effect, i.e. tend to make large masses of the alloy + homogeneous, and to make the alloy retain its hardness over wide ranges + of temperature. Cobalt has a similar stabilizing effect. Molybdenum + high-speed steel is more expensive than tungsten high-speed steel, but is + said to wear better.</p> + + <p><i>Non-ferrous Alloys.</i>—Of the non-ferrous alloys the most + important have copper as the basic metal. They do not become rusty on + exposure. Copper, when used for electrical purposes, must be nearly pure. + It is deposited electrolytically (see <i>Electrolysis</i>) and then made + into bars (electrolytic copper).</p> + + <p><i>Brass</i> is an alloy of copper and zinc and varies much in + composition. The best-known varieties are:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Novel Notes in Key of Dominant." title="Novel Notes in Key of Dominant."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Best brass </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Copper 70%, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Zinc 30%.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Admiralty brass </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Copper 70%, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Zinc 29%, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Tin 1%.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Ordinary brass </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Copper 67%, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Zinc 30%, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Lead 3%.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Gun-metal is a mixture of copper, tin, and zinc. The standard + Admiralty mixture is copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2. It possesses a tensile + strength of 14 tons per sq. inch.</p> + + <p><i>Bronzes.</i>—The bronzes are alloys of copper, with zinc or + tin mainly. They can be cast easily, and when heated to a dull red the + metal can be forged, stamped, rolled, pressed, or extruded. They are + largely free from corrosion.</p> + + <p><i>Phosphor Bronze.</i>—This is a specially strong bronze. A + typical composition is copper 89.5, tin 10, phosphorus 0.5. The tensile + strength is higher than that of pure copper or brass (about 15 tons per + sq. inch), and it has about one-half the electrical conductivity of pure + copper. It is used for small castings, and it can be drawn into wire, + which is used in alternating-current electric-railway construction for + the overhead conductor.</p> + + <p><i>Delta metals</i> are bronzes of specially high tensile strength + (30-50 tons per sq. inch).</p> + + <p><i>Manganese bronzes</i> are bronzes of high tensile strength and + ductility, and are largely used for marine propellers. Manganese bronze + is not affected by sea-water. It usually contains copper, zinc, and + manganese, with a little aluminium and tin.</p> + + <p>A recently-discovered copper alloy is known as <i>monel metal</i>. It + is a naturally-occurring alloy of copper, nickel, iron, and manganese + (copper 27-29 per cent, nickel 68-70 per cent, iron and manganese 4-5 per + cent), and possesses, roughly, the qualities of a mild steel and copper. + It has a high tensile strength, which it retains over a wide range of + temperature change. It is ductile, is not affected by immersion in + sea-water, and can be machined. It is used for pump-valves, pump-pistons, + turbine blading, &c.</p> + + <p>In the British silver coinage silver is alloyed with 7.5 per cent + copper, which renders it harder and more durable. British gold coinage + contains 8.3 per cent of copper.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Law, <i>Alloys</i>; Osmond and Stead, + <i>Microscopic Analysis of Metals</i>; Mellor, <i>Crystallization of Iron + and Steel</i>; Desch, <i>Metallography</i>.</p> + + <p><b>All Saints' Day,</b> a festival of the Christian Church, instituted + in 835, and celebrated on 1st Nov. in honour of the saints in + general.</p> + + <p><b>All Souls' College,</b> a college of Oxford University, founded in + 1437 by Henry Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury. Attached to it are the + Chichele Professorship of International Law and the Chichele + Professorship of Modern History.</p> + + <p><b>All Souls' Day,</b> a festival of the Roman Catholic Church, + instituted in 998, and observed on 2nd Nov. for the relief of souls in + purgatory.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image038.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image038.jpg" + alt="Allspice" title="Allspice" /></a> + Allspice (<i>Myrtus Pimenta</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Allspice</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>l′spīs), or <b>Pimenta,</b> is + the dried and ground berry of a West Indian species of myrtle (<i>Myrtus + Pimenta</i>), a beautiful tree with white and fragrant aromatic flowers + and leaves of a deep shining green. The tree is often 30 feet high, and + may yield 150 lb. of raw berries, <!-- Page 120 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page120"></a>[120]</span>equivalent to 100 lb. + of dried spice. Pimenta is thought to resemble in flavour a mixture of + cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence the popular name of + <i>allspice</i>; it is also called Jamaica pepper, the trees being + cultivated there extensively. It is employed in cookery, also in medicine + as an agreeable aromatic, and forms the basis of a distilled water, a + spirit, and an essential oil.</p> + + <p><b>All′ston</b> (äl′stun), Washington, an American + painter, born 1779, died 1843. He studied in London and Rome, and is most + celebrated for his pictures on scriptural subjects. Among his pictures + <i>The Angel Uriel</i> is at Stafford House; <i>The Prophet Jeremiah</i> + at Yale College, Newport. A portrait of Coleridge by Allston is in the + National Gallery. He also wrote poems and a tragical romance + (<i>Monaldi</i>).</p> + + <p><b>Allu′vium</b> (Lat. <i>alluvium</i>—<i>ad</i>, to, and + <i>luo</i>, to wash), deposits of soil collected by the action of water, + such as are found in valleys and plains, consisting of loam, clay, + gravel, &c., washed down from the higher grounds. Great alterations + are often produced by alluvium—deltas and whole islands being often + formed by this cause. Much of the rich land along the banks of rivers is + alluvial in its origin. There are great tracts of alluviums lying along + the banks of the Derwent, the Ouse, and the Trent, and the Romney Marsh + of Kent along the banks of the Thames.</p> + + <p><b>Allygurh.</b> See <i>Aligarh</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alma,</b> a small river of Russia, in the Crimea, celebrated from + the victory gained by the allied British and French over the Russians, + 20th Sept., 1854.</p> + + <p><b>Al′mack's,</b> the name formerly given to certain + assembly-rooms in King Street, St. James's, London, derived from Almack, + a tavern-keeper, by whom they were built, and whose real name is said to + have been M‘Call, of which Almack is an anagram; afterwards called + <i>Willis's Rooms</i>. They were first opened about 1770, and became + famous for the extreme exclusiveness displayed by the lady patronesses in + regard to the admission of applicants for tickets to the balls held + here—only those of the most assured social standing being admitted. + They were turned into a restaurant in 1890.</p> + + <p><b>Alma′da,</b> a town of Portugal, on the Tagus, opposite + Lisbon. Pop. 7913.</p> + + <p><b>Al′maden,</b> a place in California, United States, about 60 + miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of San Francisco, with rich + quicksilver-mines, the product of which has been largely employed in gold + and silver mining.</p> + + <p><b>Almaden′,</b> a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real, + celebrated both in ancient and modern times for its mines of quicksilver + (in the form of cinnabar). Pop. 7410.</p> + + <p><b>Almaden Process.</b> See <i>Mercury</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′magest</b> (Ar. <i>al</i>, the, and Gr. + <i>megistē</i>, greatest, <i>sc.</i> 'treatise') the name of a + celebrated astronomical work composed by Claudius Ptolemy.</p> + + <p><b>Alma′gro,</b> an old town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real + (New Castile), with important lace manufactures. Pop. 7700.</p> + + <p><b>Alma′gro,</b> Diego de, Spanish 'Conquistador', a foundling, + born in 1475, killed 1538. He took part with Pizarro in the conquest of + Peru, and after frequent disputes with Pizarro about their respective + shares in their conquests led an expedition against Chile, which he + failed to conquer. On his return a struggle took place between him and + Pizarro, in which Almagro was finally overcome, taken prisoner, + strangled, and afterwards beheaded. He was avenged by his son, born in + 1520, who raised an insurrection, in which Pizarro was assassinated, in + 1541. The younger Almagro was put to death at Cuzco in 1542 by De Castro, + the new Viceroy of Peru.</p> + + <p><b>Almalee′,</b> a town of Asia Minor, 50 miles from Adalia, + with thriving manufactures and a considerable trade. Pop. 3500.</p> + + <p><b>Al′ma Ma′ter</b> (Lat., fostering or bounteous mother), + a term familiarly applied to their own university by those who have had a + university education.</p> + + <p><b>Al-Mamun</b> (ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-mön′), a caliph of the Abasside + dynasty, son of Harun-al-Rashid, born 786, died 833. Under him Bagdad + became a great centre of art and science.</p> + + <p><b>Al′manac,</b> a calendar, in which are set down the rising + and setting of the sun, the phases of the moon, the most remarkable + positions and phenomena of the heavenly bodies, for every month and day + of the year; also the several fasts and feasts to be observed in the + Church and State, &c., and often much miscellaneous information + likely to be useful to the public. The term is of Arabic origin, but the + Arabs were not the first to use almanacs, which indeed existed from + remote ages. In England they are known from the fourteenth century, there + being several English almanacs of this century existing in MS. They + became generally used in Europe within a short time after the invention + of printing; and they were very early remarkable, as some are still, for + the mixture of truth and falsehood which they contained. Their effects in + France were found so mischievous, from the pretended prophecies which + they published, that an edict was promulgated by Henry III in 1579 + forbidding any predictions to be inserted in them relating to civil + affairs, whether those of the State or of private persons. In the reign + of James I of England letters-patent were granted to the two universities + and the Stationers' Company for an exclusive right of printing almanacs, + but in 1775 this monopoly was abolished. During the civil war of Charles + I, and thence onward, English <!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page121"></a>[121]</span>almanacs were conspicuous for the + unblushing boldness of their astrological predictions, and their + determined perpetuation of popular errors. The most famous English + almanac was <i>Poor Robin's Almanack</i>, which was published from 1663 + to 1775. Gradually, however, a better taste began to prevail, and in 1828 + the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, by publishing the + <i>British Almanac</i>, had the merit of taking the lead in the + production of an unexceptionable almanac in Great Britain. The example + thus set has been almost universally adopted. The circulation of almanacs + continued to be much cramped by the very heavy duty of one shilling and + threepence per copy till 1834, when this duty was abolished. About 200 + new almanacs were started immediately on the repeal. Almanacs, from their + periodical character, and the frequency with which they are referred to, + are now more and more used as vehicles for conveying statistical and + other useful information, some being intended for the inhabitants of a + particular country or district, others for a particular class or party. + Some of the almanacs that are regularly published every year are + extremely useful, and are indeed almost indispensable to men engaged in + official, mercantile, literary, or professional business. Such in Great + Britain are <i>Thom's Official Directory of the United Kingdom</i>, + <i>The British Almanac</i>, <i>Oliver and Boyd's New Edinburgh + Almanac</i>, and <i>Whitaker's Almanac</i>, started in 1868. In the + United States is published <i>The American Almanac</i>, a useful + compilation. The <i>Almanach de Gotha</i>, which has appeared at Gotha + since 1764, contains in small bulk a wonderful quantity of information + regarding the reigning families and Governments, the finances, commerce, + population, &c., of the different States throughout the world. Since + 1871 it is published both in a French and in a German edition. Among + French almanacs the most famous was the <i>Almanach Liégeois</i>, whilst + the <i>Almanach National</i>, first published in 1679 as <i>Almanach + Royal</i>, is the most important of modern almanacs in France. Almanacs + that pretend to foretell the weather and occurrences of various kinds are + still popular in Britain, France, and elsewhere.—<i>The Nautical + Almanac</i> is an important work published annually by the British + Government, two or three years in advance, in which is contained much + useful astronomical matter, more especially the distances of the moon + from the sun, and from certain fixed stars, for every three hours of + apparent time, adapted to the meridian of the Royal Observatory, + Greenwich. By comparing these with the distances carefully observed at + sea the mariner may, with comparative ease, infer his longitude to a + degree of accuracy unattainable in any other way, and sufficient for most + nautical purposes. This almanac was commenced in 1767 by Dr. Maskelyne, + Astronomer Royal. The French <i>Connaissance des Temps</i> is published + for the same purpose as the English <i>Nautical Almanac</i>, and nearly + on the same plan. It commenced in 1679. Of a similar character is the + <i>Astronomisches Jahrbuch</i> published at Berlin.</p> + + <p><b>Alman′dine,</b> a mineral of a reddish or violet colour, a + variety of precious or noble garnet.</p> + + <p><b>Alman′sa,</b> a town of south-eastern Spain (Murcia), near + which was fought (25th April, 1707) a decisive battle in the War of the + Spanish Succession, when the French, under the Duke of Berwick, defeated + the Anglo-Spanish army under the Earl of Galway. Pop. 11,887.</p> + + <p><b>Alman′zur,</b> or <b>Almansur,</b> a caliph of the Abasside + dynasty, reigned 754-75. He was cruel and treacherous and a persecutor of + the Christians, but a patron of learning.</p> + + <p><b>Alma-Tad′ema,</b> Sir Lawrence, Dutch painter, born in 1836, + resided since 1870 in England, where he became a naturalized subject. He + was made A.R.A. in 1876, R.A. in 1879, knighted in 1899, and awarded the + Order of Merit in 1905. He died at Wiesbaden, 25th June, 1912. He is + especially celebrated for his pictures of ancient Roman, Greek, and + Egyptian life, which are painted with great realism and archæological + correctness.</p> + + <p><b>Al′meh,</b> the name given in Egypt to a class of girls whose + profession is to sing for the amusement of the upper classes, as + distinguished from the <i>gawasi</i>, who perform before the lower + classes. They perform at feasts and other entertainments (including + funerals), and many of them are skilful improvisatrici. One of their most + famous dances is called 'The Bee'.</p> + + <p><b>Almeida</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-mā′i-da<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), one of the strongest + fortresses in Portugal, in the province of Beira, near the Spanish + border, on the Coa. Pop. 2350. Taken by Masséna from the English in 1810, + retaken by Wellington in 1811.</p> + + <p><b>Almeida</b> (da<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-mā′i-da<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), Francisco d', first + Portuguese viceroy of India, son of the Conde de Abrantes, born about the + middle of the fifteenth century. He fought with renown against the Moors, + and being appointed governor of the new Portuguese settlements on the + African and Indian coasts, he sailed for India in 1505, accompanied by + his son Lorenzo and other eminent men. In Africa he took possession of + Quiloa and Mombas, and in the East he conquered Cananor, Cochin, Calicut, + &c., and established forts and factories. His son Lorenzo discovered + the Maldives and Madagascar, but perished in an attack made on him by a + fleet sent by the Sultan of Egypt, with the aid of the Porte and the + Republic of Venice. Having signally defeated the Mussulmans (1508), and + avenged his son, and being superseded by Albuquerque, he sailed for <!-- + Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page122"></a>[122]</span>Portugal, but was killed in a skirmish on + the African coast in 1510.</p> + + <p><b>Almelo′,</b> a town of Holland, province of Overyssel, on the + Vechte; with manufactures of linen. Pop. 7360.</p> + + <p><b>Almendralejo</b> (-ā′hō), a town of Spain, + province of Badajoz, in a district rich in grain, wine, and fruits, with + many brandy distilleries. Pop. 12,587.</p> + + <p><b>Almeria</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-mā-rē′a<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), a fortified seaport + of Southern Spain, capital of province of Almeria, near the mouth of a + river and on the gulf of same name, with no building of consequence + except a Gothic cathedral, but with a large trade, exporting grapes, iron + ore, lead, esparto, &c. The province, which has an area of 3360 sq. + miles, is generally mountainous, and rich in minerals. Pop. of town, + 48,614; of province, 393,689.</p> + + <p><b>Almodo′var,</b> a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New + Castile), near the Sierra Morena. Pop. 12,640.</p> + + <p><b>Almohades</b> (al′mo-hādz), a Moorish dynasty that + ruled in Africa and Spain in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, + founded by Mohammed Ibn Tumart, a religious enthusiast, who assumed the + title of <i>Mahdi</i>. They overthrew the Almoravides in Spain, but + themselves received a defeat in 1212 from which they did not recover, and + in 1269 were overthrown in Africa, when Idris El-Wathik, their last emir, + was murdered by a slave.</p> + + <p><b>Al-mokanna.</b> See <i>Mokanna</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Almond</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>′mund), the fruit of the almond + tree (<i>Amygdălus commūnis</i>), a tree which grows usually + to the height of 20 feet, and is akin to the peach, nectarine, &c. + (ord. Rosaceæ). It has beautiful pinkish flowers that appear before the + leaves, which are oval, pointed, and delicately serrated. It is a native + of Africa and Asia, naturalized in Southern Europe, and cultivated in + England for its beauty, as it seldom produces edible fruit even in the + warmer portions of Southern England. The fruit is a drupe, ovoid, and + with downy outer surface; the fleshy covering is tough and fibrous; it + covers the compressed wrinkled stone enclosing the seed or almond within + it. There are two varieties, one sweet and the other bitter; both are + produced from <i>A. communis</i>, though from different varieties. Most + of the sweet almonds imported into Britain come from Southern Europe, the + Levant, and California, the finest being the Valencian, Jordan, and + Malaga. They contain a bland fixed oil, consisting chiefly of olein. + Bitter almonds come from Mogador, and besides a fixed oil they contain a + substance called <i>emulsin</i>, and also a bitter crystalline substance + called <i>amygdalin</i>, which, acting on the emulsin, produces prussic + acid, whence the aroma of bitter almonds when mixed with water. + <i>Almond-oil</i>, a bland fixed oil, is expressed from the kernels of + either sweet or bitter almonds, and is used by perfumers and in medicine. + A poisonous essential oil is obtained from bitter almonds, which is used + for flavouring by cooks and confectioners, also by perfumers and in + medicine. The name <i>almond</i>, with a qualifying word prefixed, is + also given to the seeds of other species of plants; thus <i>Java + almonds</i> are the kernels of <i>Canarium commune</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Almondbury</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>′mund-be-ri), a town of England, + West Riding of Yorkshire, <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of Huddersfield, + in which it is now included, with manufactures of woollens, cotton and + silk goods.</p> + + <p><b>Al′moner,</b> an officer of a religious establishment to whom + belonged the distribution of alms. The grand almoner (<i>grand + aumonier</i>) of France was the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in that + kingdom before the revolution. The lord almoner, or lord high almoner of + England, is generally a bishop, whose office is well-nigh a sinecure. He + distributes the sovereign's doles to the poor on Maundy Thursday.</p> + + <p><b>Almo′ra,</b> a town and fortress of India, in the United + Provinces, capital of Kumaon, 170 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> + of Delhi, a thriving little place. Pop. about 10,560.</p> + + <p><b>Almo′ravides</b> (-vīdz), a Moorish dynasty which arose + in North-Western Africa in the eleventh century, and reigned from + 1055-1147. The town of Marrakesh, built in 1062, became the capital of + this dynasty. Having crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, the family gained + possession of all Arabic Spain, but was overthrown by the Almohades in + the following century.</p> + + <p><b>Al′mug</b> (or <b>Al′gum</b>) <b>tree,</b> names which + occur in <i>1 Kings</i>, x, 11, 12, and <i>2 Chron</i>., ii, 8, and ix, + 10, 11, as the names of trees of which the wood was used for pillars in + the temple and the king's house, for harps and psalteries, &c. They + are said in one passage to be hewn in Lebanon, in another to be brought + from Ophir. They have been identified by critics with the red sandalwood + of India. Some of them may possibly have been transplanted to Lebanon by + the Phoenicians.</p> + + <p><b>Almuñecar</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-mu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>n-ye-kär′), a seaport of Spain, + Granada, on the Mediterranean. Pop. 8000.</p> + + <p><b>Al′nager,</b> formerly, in England, an official whose duty it + was to inspect, measure, and stamp woollen cloth.</p> + + <p><b>Al′nus.</b> See <i>Alder</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alnwick</b> (an′ik), a town of England, county town of + Northumberland, 34 miles north of Newcastle, near the Aln. It is well + built, and carries on tanning, brewing, and a general trade. The town is + famous for the curious ceremonies which take place there annually during + the election of the common council (25th March). Alnwick Castle, + residence of the Dukes of Northumberland, for many centuries a fortress + <!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page123"></a>[123]</span>of great strength, stands close to the + town. Pop. (1921), 6991.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image039.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image039.jpg" + alt="Socotrine Aloe" title="Socotrine Aloe" /></a> + Socotrine Aloe (<i>Aloe socotrīna</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Aloe</b> (al′ō), the name of a number of plants + belonging to the genus Aloë (ord. Liliaceæ), some of which are not more + than a few inches, whilst others are 30 feet and upwards in height; + natives of South Africa and Socotra; leaves fleshy, thick, and more or + less spinous at the edges or extremity; flowers with a tubular corolla. + Some of the larger kinds are of great use, the fibrous parts of the + leaves being made into cordage, fishing nets and lines, cloth, &c. + The inspissated juice of several species is used in medicine, under the + name of <i>aloes</i>, forming a bitter purgative. The medicinal value of + bitter aloes was known to the Greeks in the fourth century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> According to the Arabian historian Edrisi, the + occupation of Socotra by the Macedonians was due to Aristotle's + persuading Alexander the Great to secure the monopoly of the supplies of + the drug. The drug is said to have been commended to Alfred the Great by + the Patriarch of Jerusalem, but a direct trade in it between Socotra and + Britain was opened only in the seventeenth century. The principal + drug-producing species are the Socotrine aloe (<i>A. + Socotrīna</i>); the Barbados aloe (<i>A. vulgāris</i>), first + imported into Britain in 1693; the Cape aloe (<i>A. spicāta</i>), + 1780; and Natal aloes, 1870; &c. A beautiful violet colour is yielded + by the leaves of the Socotrine aloe. The American aloe (see <i>Agave</i>) + is a different plant altogether; as are also the aloes or lign-aloes of + Scripture, which are supposed to be the <i>Aquilaria + Agallŏchum</i>, or aloes-wood (q. v.). <i>Aloe fibre</i> is + obtained from species of Aloë, Agave, Yucca, &c., and is made into + coarse fabrics, ropes, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aloes-wood,</b> <b>Eagle-wood,</b> or <b>Agilawood,</b> the inner + portion of the trunk of <i>Aquilāria ovāta</i> and <i>A. + Agallŏchum</i>, forest trees belonging to the ord. Aquilariaceæ, + found in tropical Asia, and yielding a fragrant resinous substance, + which, as well as the wood, is burned for its perfume. Another tree, the + <i>Aloexўlon Agallŏchum</i> (ord. Leguminosæ), also produces + aloes-wood. This wood is supposed to be the lign-aloes (a corruption of + the Lat. <i>lignum aloe</i>) of the Bible.</p> + + <p><b>Alope′cia,</b> a variety of baldness in which the hair falls + off from the beard and eyebrows, as well as the scalp.</p> + + <p><b>Alopecu′rus,</b> a genus of grasses. See + <i>Foxtail-grass</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alo′ra,</b> a town of Southern Spain, province of Malaga. + Pop. 6200.</p> + + <p><b>Alost,</b> or <b>Aalst</b> (ä′lost, älst), a town of Belgium, + 15 miles <span class="scac">W.N.W.</span> of Brussels, on the Dender + (here navigable), with a beautiful, though unfinished, church, and an + ancient town hall (thirteenth century); manufactures of lace, thread, + linen and cotton goods, &c., and a considerable trade. In the + market-place stands a statue of Thierry Maartens, who introduced the art + of typography into the Netherlands in 1473. The town was occupied by the + Germans in 1914. Pop. 35,603.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/image040.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image040.jpg" + alt="Alpaca" title="Alpaca" /></a> + Alpaca (<i>Auchēnia Paco</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Alpac′a,</b> a ruminant mammal of the camel tribe, and genus + Auchēnia (<i>A. Paco</i>), a native of the Andes, especially of the + mountains of Chile and Peru, and closely allied to the llama. Llamas <!-- + Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>[124]</span>and + alpacas are mutually fertile when crossed, and this explains the + existence of intermediate forms between the two breeds. It has been + domesticated, and remains also in a wild state. In form and size it + approaches the sheep, but has a longer neck. It is valued chiefly for its + long, soft, and silky wool, which is straighter than that of the sheep, + and very strong, and is woven into fabrics of great beauty, used for + shawls, clothing for warm climates, coat-linings, and umbrellas, and + known by the same name. Cloth made from imported alpaca wool is + manufactured in England, principally in Yorkshire. Attempts have been + made to introduce and acclimatize the alpaca in Europe and in Australia, + but no measure of success has attended the experiments. Its flesh is + pleasant and wholesome.</p> + + <p><b>Alpe′na,</b> a town of the United States, Michigan, at the + entrance of the Thunder into Lake Huron, with saw-mills, woollen + factories, &c. Pop. 12,706.</p> + + <p><b>Alpen-horn,</b> or <b>Alp-horn</b> (Ger.), a long, nearly-straight + horn, curving slightly, and widening towards its extremity, used in the + Alps to convey signals, or notice of something.</p> + + <p><b>Alpen-stock</b> (Ger.), a strong, tall stick shod with iron, + pointed at the end so as to take hold in, and give support on, ice and + other dangerous places in climbing the Alps and other high mountains.</p> + + <p><b>Alpes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>lp), the name of three departments in the + south-east of France, all more or less covered by the Alps or their + offshoots:—<i>Basses-Alpes</i> (bäs-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>lp; Lower Alps) has mountains rising to a + height of 8000 to 10,000 feet, is drained by the Durance and its + tributaries, and is the most thinly-peopled department in France; area, + 2697 sq. miles; capital, Digne. Pop. (1921), + 91,882.—<i>Hautes-Alpes</i> (ōt-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>lp; Upper Alps), mostly formed out of + ancient Dauphiné, traversed by the Cottian and Dauphiné Alps (highest + summits 12,000 feet), drained chiefly by the Durance and its tributaries. + It is the lowest department in France in point of absolute population; + area, 2178 sq. miles; capital, Gap. Pop. (1921), + 89,275.—<i>Alpes-Maritimes</i> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>lp-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ri-tēm; Maritime Alps) has the + Mediterranean on the south, and mainly consists of the territory of Nice, + ceded to France by Italy in 1860. The greater part of the surface is + covered by the Maritime Alps; the principal river is the Var. It produces + in the south, cereals, vines, olives, oranges, citrons, and other fruits; + and there are manufactories of perfumes, liqueurs, soap, &c., and + valuable fisheries. It is a favourite resort for invalids; area, 1443 sq. + miles; capital, Nice. Pop. 357,759.</p> + + <p><b>Al′pha</b> and <b>O′mega,</b> the first and last + letters of the Greek alphabet, sometimes used to signify the beginning + and the end, or the first and the last of anything; also as a symbol of + the Divine Being (<i>Rev.</i> i, 8; xxi, 6; xxii, 13). They were also + formerly the symbol of Christianity, and engraved accordingly on the + tombs of the ancient Christians. Some of these engravings are to be seen + in the Louvre.</p> + + <p><b>Al′phabet</b> (from <i>Alpha</i> and <i>Beta</i>, the two + first letters of the Greek alphabet), the series of characters used in + writing a language, and intended to represent the sounds of which it + consists. The English alphabet, like most of those of modern Europe, is + derived directly from the Latin, the Latin from the ancient Greek, and + that from the Phœnician, which again is believed to have had its + origin in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, although Egyptologists are not + unanimous on this point. There is little evidence in support of the + theory that the Phœnician alphabet had developed from the Assyrian + cuneiform. Some scholars, like Sir Arthur Evans, are of opinion that the + Philistines established on the coast of Palestine had brought the + alphabet over from Crete, and that from them it passed to the + Phœnicians. The names of the letters in Phœnician and Hebrew + must have been almost the same, for the Greek names, which, with the + letters, were borrowed from the former, differ little from the Hebrew. By + means of the names we may trace the process by which the Egyptian + characters were transformed into letters by the Phœnicians. Some + Egyptian character would, by its form, recall the idea of a house, for + example, in Phœnician or Hebrew <i>beth</i>. This character would + subsequently come to be used wherever the sound <i>b</i> occurred. Its + form might be afterwards simplified, or even completely modified, but the + name would still remain, as <i>beth</i> still continues the Hebrew name + for <i>b</i>, and <i>beta</i> the Greek. Our letter <i>m</i>, which in + Hebrew was called <i>mim</i>, water, has still a considerable resemblance + to the zig-zag wavy line which had been chosen to represent water, as in + the zodiacal symbol for <i>Aquarius</i>. The letter <i>o</i>, of which + the Hebrew name means eye, no doubt was originally intended to represent + that organ. While the ancient Greek alphabet gave rise to the ordinary + Greek alphabet and the Latin, the Greek alphabet of later times furnished + elements for the Coptic, the Gothic, and the old Slavic alphabets. The + Latin characters are now employed by a great many nations, such as the + Italian, the French, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the English, the Dutch, + the German, the Hungarian, the Polish, &c., each nation having + introduced such modifications or additions as are necessary to express + the sound of the language peculiar to it. The Greek alphabet originally + possessed only sixteen letters, though the Phœnician had + twenty-two. The original Latin alphabet, as it is found in the oldest + inscriptions, consisted of twenty-one letters; namely, the <!-- Page 125 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page125"></a>[125]</span>vowels + <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, and <i>u</i> (<i>v</i>), and the + consonants <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>k</i>, + <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>q</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>s</i>, + <i>t</i>, <i>x</i>, <i>z</i>. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet had two characters + for the digraph <i>th</i>, which were unfortunately not retained in later + English; it had also the character <i>æ</i>. It wanted <i>j</i>, + <i>v</i>, <i>y</i> (consonant), and <i>z</i>. The German alphabet + consists of the same letters as the English, but the sounds of some of + them are different. Anciently certain characters called <i>Runic</i> were + made use of by the Teutonic nations, to which some would attribute an + origin independent of the Greek and Latin alphabets. Wimmer, the Danish + scholar, is, however, of opinion that the <i>runes</i> were developed + from the Latin alphabet. While the alphabets of the west of Europe are + derived from the Latin, the Russian, which is very complete, is based on + the Greek, with some characters borrowed from the Armenian, &c; it is + called <i>azbouka</i>, from the first two letters <i>az</i>, a, and + <i>bouki</i>, b. Among Asiatic alphabets, the Arabian (ultimately of + Phœnician origin) has played a part analogous to that of the Latin + in Europe, the conquests of Mohammedanism having imposed it on the + Persian, the Turkish, the Hindustani, &c. The Sanskrit or + Devanāgari alphabet is one of the most remarkable alphabets of the + world. As now used it has fourteen characters for the vowels and + diphthongs, and thirty-three for the consonants, besides two other + symbols. Our alphabet is a very imperfect instrument for what it has to + perform, being both defective and redundant. An alphabet is not essential + to the writing of a language, since ideograms or symbols may be used + instead, as in Chinese. See <i>Writing</i>.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. Clodd, <i>The Alphabet</i> (Useful + Knowledge Series, Hodder & Stoughton); Canon J. Taylor, <i>The + Alphabet</i>; Philippe Berger, <i>Histoire de l'Écriture dans + l'Antiquité</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alphē′us</b> (now <b>Rufia</b>), the largest river of + Peloponnesus, flowing westwards into the Ionian Sea. In Greek mythology + Alphēus is supposed to have been the son of Oceanus and Tethys.</p> + + <p><b>Alphon′so,</b> the name of a number of Portuguese and Spanish + kings. Among the former may be mentioned <b>Alphonso I,</b> the + Conqueror, first King of Portugal, son of Henry of Burgundy, the + Conqueror and first Count of Portugal; born 1110, fought successfully + against the Spaniards and the Moors, named himself King of Portugal, and + was as such recognized by the Pope; died 1185.—<b>Alphonso V,</b> + the African, born in 1432; succeeded his father, Edward I, 1438; + conquered Tangiers in 1471; died 1481. During his reign Prince Henry the + Navigator continued the important voyages of discovery already begun by + the Portuguese. Under him was drawn up an important code of + laws.—Among kings of Spain may be mentioned <b>Alphonso X,</b> King + of Castile and Leon, surnamed the <i>Astronomer</i>, the + <i>Philosopher</i>, or the <i>Wise</i> (El Sabio); born in 1226; + succeeded in 1252. Being grandson of Philip of Hohenstaufen, son of + Frederick Barbarossa, he endeavoured to have himself elected Emperor of + Germany, and in 1257 succeeded in dividing the election with Richard, + Earl of Cornwall. On Richard's death in 1272 he again unsuccessfully + contested the imperial crown. Meantime his throne was endangered by + conspiracies of the nobles and the attacks of the Moors. The Moors he + conquered, but his domestic troubles were less easily overcome, and he + was finally dethroned by his son Sancho, and died two years after, 1284. + Alphonso was the most learned prince of his age. Under his direction or + superintendence were drawn up a celebrated code of laws, valuable + astronomical tables which go under his name (<i>Alphonsine Tables</i>), + the first general history of Spain in the Castilian tongue, and a Spanish + translation of the Bible.—<b>Alphonso V</b> of Aragon, I of Naples + and Sicily, born in 1385, was the son of Ferdinand I of Aragon, the + throne of which he ascended in 1416, ruling also over Sicily and the + Island of Sardinia. Queen Joanna of Naples made him her heir, but after + her death in 1435 her will was disputed by René of Anjou. Alphonso now + proceeded to take possession of Naples by force, which he succeeded in + doing in 1442, and reigned till his death in 1458. He was an enlightened + patron of literary men, by whom, in the latter part of his reign, his + Court was thronged.—<b>Alphonso XII,</b> King of Spain, the only + son of Queen Isabella II and her cousin Francis of Assisi, was born in + 1857 and died in 1885. He left Spain with his mother when she was driven + from the throne by the revolution of 1868, and till 1874 resided partly + in France, partly in Austria. In the latter year he studied for a time at + the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, being then known as Prince of the + Asturias. His mother had given up her claims to the throne in 1870 in his + favour, and in 1874 Alphonso came forward himself as claimant, and in the + end of the year was proclaimed by General Martinez Campos as king. He now + passed over into Spain and was enthusiastically received, most of the + Spaniards being by this time tired of the republican Government, which + had failed to put down the Carlist party. Alphonso was successful in + bringing the Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and henceforth he reigned + with little disturbance. His minister Canovas del Castillo ruined, + however, Alphonso's popularity when he advised the king to conclude an + alliance with Bismarck and Germany. He married first his cousin Maria de + las Mercedes, daughter of the Duc de Montpensier; second, Maria + Christina, Archduchess of Austria, whom he left a widow with two + daughters and a son.—<b>Alphonso XIII,</b> King of Spain, born in + 1886, the posthumous son of <!-- Page 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page126"></a>[126]</span>Alphonso XII. His mother was appointed + regent during his minority, and acted as such until 1902. On attaining + his sixteenth year, the king assumed personal charge of the Government. + In 1906 (31st May) he married Princess Ena, daughter of Princess Henry of + Battenberg, a daughter of Queen Victoria.</p> + + <p><b>Alpine Club,</b> an association of English gentlemen, originating + in 1856 or 1857, having as their common bond of union a delight in making + the ascent of mountains, in the Alps or elsewhere, difficult to ascend, + and in investigating everything connected with mountains. Similar + associations now exist in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France.</p> + + <p><b>Alpine Crow,</b> or <b>Alpine Chough</b> (<i>Pyrrhocŏrax + alpīnus</i>), a European bird closely akin to the chough of + England.</p> + + <p><b>Alpine Museum,</b> a museum established at Munich in 1911 by the + German and Austrian Alpine Club. Its purpose is to spread knowledge about + the Alps, and to disseminate the results of scientific research by means + of exhibits and literary publications. Not only alpine geology, botany, + and zoology, but also industry, custom, and costumes are well + demonstrated in the exhibits.</p> + + <p><b>Alpine Plants,</b> the name given to those plants whose habitat is + in the neighbourhood of the snow, on mountains partly covered with it all + the year round. As the height of the snow-line varies according to the + latitude and local conditions, so also does the height at which these + plants grow. The mean height for the alpine plants of Central Europe is + about 6000 feet; but it rises in parts of the Alps and in the Pyrenees to + 9000 feet, or even more. The high grounds clear of snow among these + mountains present a very well marked flora, the general characters of the + plants being a low dwarfish habit, a tendency to form thick turfs, stems + partly or wholly woody, and large brilliantly-coloured and often very + sweet-smelling flowers. They are also often closely covered with woolly + hairs. In the Alps of Middle Europe the eye is at once attracted by + gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, primroses of different kinds, + &c. Ferns and mosses of many kinds also characterize these regions. + Some alpine plants are found only in one locality. Considerable success + has attended the attempt to grow alpine plants in gardens, the first + necessity being a situation where there is plenty of sunlight, and which + is free from the shade of trees.</p> + + <p><b>Alpine Warbler</b> (<i>Accentor alpīnus</i>), a European bird + of the same genus as the hedge-sparrow.</p> + + <p><b>Alpin′ia,</b> a genus of plants. See <i>Galanga</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alps,</b> the highest and most extensive system of mountains in + Europe, included between lat. 44° and 48° <span class="scac">N.</span>, + and long. 5° and 18° <span class="scac">E.</span>, covering great part of + Northern Italy, several departments of France, nearly the whole of + Switzerland, and a large part of Austria, while its extensive + ramifications connect it with nearly all the mountain systems of Europe. + The culminating peak is Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the true + centre is the St. Gothard, or the mountain mass to which it belongs, and + from whose slopes flow, either directly or by affluents, the great rivers + of Central Europe—the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. Round the + northern frontier of Italy the Alps form a remarkable barrier, shutting + it off from the mainland of Europe, so that formerly it could hardly be + approached from France, Germany, or Switzerland, except through high and + difficult passes. In the west this barrier approaches close to the + Mediterranean coast, and near Nice there is left a free passage into the + Italian peninsula between the mountains and the sea. From this point + eastward the chain proceeds along the coast till it forms a junction with + the Apennines. In the opposite direction it proceeds north-west, and + afterwards north to Mont Blanc, on the boundaries of France and Italy; it + then turns north-east and runs generally in this direction to the Gross + Glockner, in Central Tyrol, between the Rivers Drave and the Salza, where + it divides into two branches, the northern proceeding north-east towards + Vienna, the southern towards the Balkan Peninsula. The principal valleys + of the Alps run mostly in a direction nearly parallel with the principal + ranges, and therefore east and west. The transverse valleys are commonly + shorter, and frequently lead up through a narrow gorge to a depression in + the main ridge between two adjacent peaks. These are the passes or + <i>cols</i>, which may usually be found by tracing a stream which + descends from the mountains up to its source.</p> + + <p>The Alps in their various great divisions receive different names. The + <i>Maritime Alps</i>, so called from their proximity to the + Mediterranean, extend westward from their junction with the Apennines for + a distance of about 100 miles; culminating points Aiguille de Chambeyron, + 11,155 feet, and Grand Rioburent, 11,142 feet; principal pass, the Col di + Tende (6158 feet), which was made practicable for carriages by Napoleon + I. Proceeding northward the next group consists of the <i>Cottian + Alps</i>, length about 60 miles; principal peaks: Monte Viso, 12,605 + feet; Pic des Écrins, 13,462; Pelvoux, 12,973. Next come the <i>Graian + Alps</i>, 50 miles long, with extensive ramifications in Savoy and + Piedmont; principal peaks: Aiguille de la Sassière, 12,326 feet; Grand + Paradis, 13,300; Grande Casse, 12,780. To this group belongs Mont Cenis + (6765 feet), over which a carriage road was constructed by Napoleon I, + while a railway now passes through <!-- Page 127 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>[127]</span>the mountain by a + tunnel nearly 8 miles long. These three divisions of the Alps are often + classed together as the <i>Western Alps</i>, while the portion of the + system immediately east of this forms the <i>Central Alps</i>. The + <i>Pennine Alps</i> form the loftiest portion of the whole system, having + Mont Blanc (in France) at one extremity and Monte Rosa at the other (60 + miles), and including the Alps of Savoy and the Valais. In the east the + valley of the Upper Rhone separates the Pennine Alps from the great chain + of the <i>Bernese Alps</i> running nearly parallel, the great peaks of + the two ranges being about 20 miles apart. The principal heights of the + Pennine Alps are Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet; Monte Rosa, 15,217; + Mischabelhörner (Dom), 14,935; Weisshorn, 14,804; Matterhorn, 14,780. In + the Bernese Alps, the Finsteraarhorn, 14,026; Aletschhorn, 13,803; + Jungfrau, 13,671. The pass of Great St. Bernard is celebrated for its + hospice. The most easterly pass is the Simplon, 6595 feet, with a + carriage road made by Napoleon I, and a tunnel leading into Italy, fully + 12 miles long. Farther east are the <i>Lepontine Alps</i>, which give off + a number of streams that feed the Italian lakes—Maggiore, Como, + &c. The principal pass is the St. Gothard (6936 feet), over which a + carriage road leads to Italy, while through this mountain mass a railway + tunnel more than 9 miles long has been opened. Highest peaks: Tödi, + 11,887 feet; Monte Leone, 11,696. The <i>Rhætian Alps</i>, extending east + to about lat. 12° 30′, are the most easterly of the Central Alps, + and are divided into two portions by the Engadine, or valley of the Inn, + and also broken by the valley of the Adige; principal peaks: Piz Bernina, + 13,294 feet; Ortlerspitze, 12,814; Monte Adamello, 11,832. The Brenner + Pass (4588 feet), from Verona to Innsbruck, and between the Central and + the Eastern Alps, is crossed by a railway. On the railway from Innsbruck + to the Lake of Constance is the Arlberg Tunnel, over 6 miles long. The + <i>Eastern Alps</i> form the broadest and lowest portion of the system, + and embrace the <i>Noric Alps</i>, the <i>Carnic Alps</i>, the <i>Julian + Alps</i>, &c.; highest peak, the Gross Glockner, 12,405 feet. The + height of the south-eastern continuations of the Alps rapidly diminishes, + and they lose themselves in ranges having nothing in common with the + great mountain masses which distinguish the centre of the system.</p> + + <p>The Alps are very rich in lakes and streams. Among the chief of the + former are the Lakes of Geneva, Constance, Zürich, Thun, Brienz, on the + north side; on the south Maggiore, Como, Lugano, Garda, &c. The + drainage is carried to the North Sea by the Rhine, to the Mediterranean + by the Rhone, to the Adriatic by the Po, to the Black Sea by the + Danube.</p> + + <p>In the lower valleys of the Alps the mean temperature ranges from 50° + to 60°. Half-way up the Alps it averages about 32°—a height which + in the snowy regions it never reaches. But even where the temperature is + lowest the solar radiation produced by the rocks and snow is often so + great as to raise the photometer to 120° and even higher. The + exhilarating and invigorating nature of the climate in the upper regions + during summer has been acknowledged by all.</p> + + <p>In respect to vegetation the Alps have been divided into six zones, + depending on height modified by exposure and local circumstances. The + first is the olive region. This tree flourishes better on sheltered + slopes of the mountains than on the plains of Northern Italy. The vine, + which bears greater winter cold, distinguishes the second zone. On slopes + exposed to the sun it flourishes to a considerable extent. The third is + called the mountainous region. Cereals and deciduous trees form the + distinguishing features of its vegetation. The mean temperature about + equals that of Great Britain, but the extremes are greater. The fourth + region is the sub-Alpine or coniferous. Here are vast forests of pines of + various species. Most of the Alpine villages are in the two last regions. + On the northern slopes pines grow to 6000, and on the southern slopes to + 7000 feet above the level of the sea. This is also the region of the + lower or permanent pastures where the flocks are fed in winter. The fifth + is the pasture region, the term <i>alp</i> being used in the local sense + of high pasture grounds. It extends from the uppermost limit of trees to + the region of perpetual snow. Here there are shrubs, rhododendrons, + junipers, bilberries, and dwarf willows, &c. The sixth zone is the + region of perpetual snow. The line of snow varies, according to seasons + and localities, from 8000 to 9500 feet, but the line is not continuous, + being often broken in upon. Few flowering plants extend above 10,000 + feet, but they have been found as high as 12,000 feet.</p> + + <p>At this great elevation are found the wild goat and the chamois. In + summer the high mountain pastures are covered with large flocks of + cattle, sheep, and goats, which are in winter removed to a lower and + warmer level. The marmot, and white or Alpine hare, inhabit both the + snowy and the woody regions. Lower down are found the wild-cat, fox, + lynx, bear, and wolf; the last two are now extremely rare. The vulture, + eagle, and other birds of prey frequent the highest elevations, the + ptarmigan seeks its food and shelter among the diminutive plants that + border upon the snow-line. Excellent trout and other fish are found; but + the most elevated lakes are, from their low temperature, entirely + destitute of fish. <!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page128"></a>[128]</span></p> + + <p>The geological structure of the Alps is highly involved, and is far, + as yet, from being thoroughly investigated or understood. In general + three zones can be distinguished, a central, in which crystalline rocks + prevail, and two exterior zones, in which sedimentary rocks predominate. + The rocks of the central zone consist of granite, gneiss, hornblende, + mica slate, and other slates and schists. In the western Alps there are + also considerable elevations in the central zone that belong to the + Jurassic (Oolite) and Cretaceous formations. From the disposition of the + beds, which are broken, tilted, and distorted on a gigantic scale, the + Alps appear to have been formed by a succession of disruptions and + elevations extending over a very protracted period. Among the minerals + that are obtained are iron and lead, gold, silver, copper, zinc, alum, + and coal.</p> + + <p>Extensive views of alpine scenery are now commanded by means of + special railways climbing to the summit of Mont Blanc, the Jungfrau, and + other mountains. The Rigi railway was one of the earliest constructed of + these. Here there are hotels at the top, 5905 feet above the level of the + sea, and 4468 above the Lake of Lucerne. A favourite view from hence is + to watch the sun rise over the Bernese Alps. The Becca di Nona (8415 + feet), south of Aosta, gives, according to some authorities, the finest + panoramic view to be obtained from any summit of the Alps. The most + accessible glaciers are those of Aletsch, Chamonix, and Zermatt.</p> + + <p><b>Alpujarras</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-pö-<i>h</i>a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r′ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s), a district of Spain, in Andalusia, + between the Sierra Nevada and the Mediterranean, mountainous, but with + rich and well-cultivated valleys, yielding grain, vines, olives, and + other fruits. The inhabitants are Christianized descendants of the + Moors.</p> + + <p><b>Alquifou</b> (al′ki-fö), a sort of lead ore used by potters + as a green varnish or glaze.</p> + + <p><b>Alsace</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-sa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s; Ger. <i>Elsass</i>), before the French + revolution a province of France, on the Rhine, afterwards constituting + the French departments of Haut- and Bas-Rhin, and subsequently to the + Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1 annexed by Germany, and incorporated in the + province of Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine). Alsace is generally a + level country, though there are several ranges of low hills richly + wooded. The principal river is the Ill. Corn, flax, tobacco, grapes, and + other fruits are grown. Area, 3202 sq. miles. Pop. 1,218,803. Alsace was + originally a part of ancient Gaul. It afterwards became a dukedom of the + German Empire. In 1268, the line of its dukes becoming extinct, it was + parcelled out to several members of the empire. By the peace of + Westphalia, in 1648, a great part of it was ceded to France, which + afterwards seized the rest of it, this seizure being recognized by the + peace of Ryswick, in 1697.</p> + + <p><b>Alsace-Lorraine,</b> the imperial territory, or Reichsland of + Elsass-Lothringen, taken by Germany from France in 1871, and restored to + France in 1919. The province is partly bounded by the Rhine; area, 5605 + sq. miles. Pop. 1,874,014. Under the German system the province was + divided into three districts, namely, Lorraine, Upper Alsace, and Lower + Alsace, and governed by a Statthalter, having his seat at Strassburg. By + the law of 31st May, 1911, a constitution was granted to Alsace-Lorraine, + by which it received three votes in the Federal Council. After the + signing of the armistice, French troops occupied Alsace-Lorraine, and the + French Government, by a decree of 26th Nov., 1918, took over the + administration of the restored territories, and French officials were + installed. The three chief towns are Strassburg, Mulhausen, and Metz. + About 76 per cent of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, 22 per cent + Evangelical, and between 1 and 2 per cent Jews. The chief crops are + wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes, and hay; the potash deposits of + Alsace are superior to and more extensive than those of Strassfurt, + Germany. <i>See France; Moselle.</i>—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: M. Harrison, <i>The Stolen Lands: a Study + on Alsace-Lorraine</i>; G. W. Edwards, <i>Alsace-Lorraine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alsa′tia,</b> formerly a cant name for Whitefriars, a + district in London between the Thames and Fleet Street, and adjoining the + Temple, which, possessing certain privileges of sanctuary, became for + that reason a nest of mischievous characters who were liable to be + arrested. These privileges were abolished in 1697. The name Alsatia is a + Latinized form of Alsace, which, being on the frontiers of France and + Germany, was a harbour for necessitous or troublesome characters from + both countries.</p> + + <p><b>Al′sen,</b> an island on the east coast of + Schleswig-Holstein; length, 20 miles, breadth, from 5 to 7 miles, + diversified with forests, lakes, well-cultivated fields, orchards, and + towns. Pop. 25,000.</p> + + <p><b>Al Sirat</b> (sē′rat), in Mahommedan belief the bridge + extending over the abyss of hell, which must be crossed by everyone on + his journey to heaven. It is finer than a hair, as sharp as the edge of a + sword, and beset with thorns on either side. The righteous will pass over + with ease and swiftness, but the wicked will fall into hell below.</p> + + <p><b>Alstrœme′ria,</b> a genus of South American plants, + ord. Amaryllidaceæ, some of them cultivated in European greenhouses and + gardens. <i>A. Salsilla</i> and <i>A. ovāta</i> are cultivated for + their edible tubers.</p> + + <p><b>Altaic Languages</b> (also called <b>Ural-Altaic</b> and + <b>Turanian</b>), a family of languages occupying a portion of Northern + and Eastern Europe, and nearly the whole of Northern and Central Asia, + <!-- Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page129"></a>[129]</span>together with some other regions, and + divided into five branches, the Ugrian or Finno-Hungarian, Samoyedic, + Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic.</p> + + <p><b>Altai Mountains</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l′tī), an important Asiatic + system on the borders of Siberia and Mongolia, partly in Russian and + partly in Chinese territory, between lat. 46° and 53° <span + class="scac">N.</span>, long. 83° and 91° <span class="scac">E.</span>, + but having great eastern extensions. The Russian portion is comprised in + the governments of Tomsk and Semipalatinsk, the Chinese in Dsungaria. The + rivers of this region, which are large and numerous, are mostly + headwaters of the Obi and Irtish. The mountain scenery is generally grand + and interesting. The highest summit is Byeluka ('white mountain', from + its snowy top), height 11,000 feet. The area covered by perpetual snow is + very considerable, and glaciers occupy a large area. In the high lands + the winter is very severe, but on the whole the climate is comparatively + mild and is also healthy. The flora of the Altai Mountains greatly + resembles that of the Alps, about five-sixths of the latter being found + here. The mountain forests are composed of birch, alder, aspen, fir, + larch, stone-pine, &c. The wild sheep has here its native home, and + several kinds of deer are found. The Altai is exceedingly rich in + minerals, including gold, silver, copper, and iron. The name Altai means + 'gold mountain'. The inhabitants are chiefly Russians and Kalmuks. The + chief town is Barnaul.</p> + + <p><b>Altamu′ra,</b> a town of South Italy, province of Bari, at + the foot of the Apennines, walled, well built, and containing a + magnificent cathedral. Pop. 25,616.</p> + + <p><b>Altar</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>l′tar), any pile or structure raised + above the ground for receiving sacrifices to some divinity. Amongst the + Semites the altar was primarily the place where the victim was + slaughtered, and amongst the Indo-Germanic peoples the place where it was + burnt. The Greek and Roman altars were various in form, and often highly + ornamental; in temples they were usually placed before the statue of the + god. In the Jewish ceremonial the altar held an important place, and was + associated with many of the most significant rites of religion. Two + altars were erected in the tabernacle in the wilderness, and the same + number in the temple. In most sections of the Christian Church the + communion-table, or table on which the eucharist is placed, is called an + altar. In the primitive Church it was a table of wood, but subsequently + stone and metal were introduced with rich ornaments, sculpture, and + painting. After the introduction of Gothic art the altar frequently + became a lofty and most elaborate structure. Originally there was but one + altar in a church, but later on there might be several in a large church, + the chief or <i>high altar</i> standing at the east end. Over an altar + there is often a painting (an <i>altar-piece</i>), and behind it there + may be an ornamental <i>altar-screen</i> separating the choir from the + east end of the church.</p> + + <p><b>Altaz′imuth</b> (also called <b>Universal Instrument</b>), an + astronomical instrument similar to a theodolite, having a telescope so + mounted that it can be turned round in a plane perpendicular to the + horizon, while it and the graduated vertical circle connected can also be + turned horizontally to any point of the compass above a graduated + horizontal circle. The altazimuth can thus determine the altitude and + azimuth of objects, hence the name.</p> + + <p><b>Altdorf</b>. See <i>Altorf</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′tena,</b> a town of Prussia, Westphalia, 40 miles <span + class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Cologne; it has wire-works, rolling-mills, + chain-works, manufactories of needles, pins, thimbles, &c. Pop. + 14,579.</p> + + <p><b>Al′tenburg,</b> a town of Germany, capital of Saxe-Altenburg, + 23 miles south of Leipzig. It has some fine streets and many handsome + buildings, including a splendid palace; it manufactures cigars, woollen + yarn, gloves, hats, musical instruments, glass, brushes, &c. Pop. + 39,976.</p> + + <p><b>Alteratives</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>l′-), medicines, as mercury, iodine, + &c., which, administered in small doses, gradually induce a change in + the habit or constitution, and imperceptibly alter disordered secretions + and actions, and restore healthy functions without producing any sensible + evacuation by perspiration, purging, or vomiting.</p> + + <p><b>Alter ego</b> (Lat., 'another I'), a second self, one who + represents another in every respect. This term was formerly given, in the + official style of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, to a substitute + appointed by the king to manage the affairs of the kingdom, with full + royal power.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:16%;"> + <a href="images/image041.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image041.jpg" + alt="Alternate leaves" title="Alternate leaves" /></a> + Alternate leaves + </div> + + <p><b>Alter′nate,</b> in botany, placed on opposite sides of an + axis at a different level, as leaves.—<i>Alternate generation</i>, + the reproduction of young not resembling their parents, but their + grandparents, continuously, as in the jelly-fishes, &c. See + <i>Generations, Alternation of</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alternator</b>. See <i>Electricity</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Althæ′a,</b> a genus of plants. See <i>Hollyhock</i> and + <i>Marsh-mallow</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Althorn,</b> one of the instruments of the sax-horn family, the + tenor sax-horn. See <i>Sax-horn</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Al′tiscope,</b> an instrument consisting of an arrangement of + mirrors in a vertical framework, <!-- Page 130 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>[130]</span>by means of which a + person is enabled to overlook an object (a parapet, for instance) + intervening between himself and any view that he desires to see, the + picture of the latter being reflected from a higher to a lower mirror, + where it is seen by the observer.</p> + + <p><b>Al′titude,</b> in mathematics, the perpendicular height of + the vertex or apex of a plane figure or solid above the base. In + astronomy it is the vertical height of any point or body above the + horizon. It is measured or estimated by the angle subtended between the + object and the plane of the horizon, and may be either <i>true</i> or + <i>apparent</i>. The <i>apparent</i> altitude is that which is obtained + immediately from observation; the <i>true</i> altitude, that which + results from correcting the apparent altitude, by making allowance for + parallax, refraction, &c. Altitude is one of the main determining + influences of local climate. Its increase has the same effect on + temperature as an increase of distance north or south of the equator.</p> + + <p><b>Altitude-and-azimuth Instrument.</b> See <i>Altazimuth</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alto,</b> in music, the highest singing voice of a male adult, the + lowest of a boy or a woman, being in the latter the same as + <i>contralto</i>. The alto, or <i>counter-tenor</i>, is not a natural + voice, but a development of the <i>falsetto</i>. It is almost entirely + confined to English singers, and the only music written for it is by + English composers. It is especially used in cathedral compositions and + glees.</p> + + <p><b>Altofts,</b> a town of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, on the + south of the Calder, 3 miles north-east of Wakefield, with a + fourteenth-century Gothic church, and extensive collieries adjoining. + Pop. (1921), 5050 (urban district).</p> + + <p><b>Al′ton,</b> a town of England, in Hampshire, 16 miles + north-east of Winchester, famous for its ale. Pop. (1921), 5580.</p> + + <p><b>Al′ton,</b> a town of the United States, in Illinois, on the + Mississippi near the mouth of the Missouri, with a state penitentiary, + several mills and manufactories, and in the neighbourhood limestone and + coal. Pop. 23,783.</p> + + <p><b>Al′tona,</b> an important commercial city of + Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, adjoining Hamburg, + with which it virtually forms one city. It is a free port, and its + commerce, both inland and foreign, is large, being quite identified with + that of Hamburg. Pop. (1919), 168,729.</p> + + <p><b>Altoo′na,</b> a town of the United States, in Pennsylvania, + at the eastern base of the Alleghanies, 244 miles west of Philadelphia, + with large machine-shops and locomotive factories. Pop. (1920), + 60,331.</p> + + <p><b>Al′torf,</b> a small town of Switzerland, capital of the + canton of Uri beautifully situated, near the Lake of Lucerne, amid + gardens and orchards, and memorable as the place where, according to + legend, Tell shot the apple from his son's head. A colossal statue of + Tell now stands here. The town possesses a beautiful church containing a + remarkable organ and a picture by Van Dyck. Pop. 3837.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/image042.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image042.jpg" + alt="Alto-rilievo" title="Alto-rilievo" /></a> + Alto-rilievo.—Soldiers of the Prætorian Guard, the personal + body-guard of the Emperor Augustus (in the Louvre, Paris). + </div> + + <p><b>Alto-rilievo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l′tō-rē-lē-ā″vo), + high relief, a term applied in regard to sculptured figures to express + that they stand out boldly from the background, projecting more than half + their thickness, without being entirely detached. In mezzo-rilievo, or + middle relief, the projection is one-half, and in basso-rilievo, or + bas-relief, less than one-half. Alto-rilievo is further distinguished + from mezzo-rilievo by some portion of the figures standing usually quite + free from the surface on which they are carved, while in the latter the + figures, though rounded, are not detached in any part.</p> + + <p><b>Altötting</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>lt-eut′ing), a famous place of + pilgrimage, in Bavaria, 52 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of + Munich, near the Inn, with an ancient image of the Madonna (the Black + Virgin) in a chapel dating from 696, and containing a rich treasure in + gold and precious stones; and another chapel in which Tilly was buried. + Pop. 5408.</p> + + <p><b>Altranstädt</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>lt′-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-stet), a village of Saxony, where a + treaty was concluded between Charles XII, King of Sweden, and Augustus, + Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, 24th Sept., 1706, by which the + latter resigned the crown of Poland. <!-- Page 131 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page131"></a>[131]</span></p> + + <p><b>Alt′ringham,</b> or <b>Altrincham,</b> a town of England, in + Cheshire, 8 miles south-west of Manchester, resorted to by invalids; + large quantities of fruit and vegetables are raised; and there are + several industrial works. Pop. 20,461. Also a parliamentary division of + the county.</p> + + <p><b>Al′truism,</b> a term first employed by the French + philosopher Comte, to signify devotion to others or to humanity: the + opposite of <i>selfishness</i> or <i>egoism</i>. It was adopted by the + English positivists and applied to sociological problems of the physical + theory of organic evolution. Herbert Spencer gives considerable space to + the discussion of altruism and egoism in his <i>Data of Ethics</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Altstätten</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>lt′stet-n), a town of Switzerland, + canton St. Gall, in the valley of the Rhine, 10 miles south of the Lake + of Constance, with manufactures of cotton and woollen goods. Pop. + 8743.</p> + + <p><b>Altwasser</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>lt′va<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s-ėr), a town of Prussia, in + Silesia, 35 miles south-west of Breslau; here are made porcelain, + machinery, iron, yarn, mirrors, &c. Pop. 17,321.</p> + + <p><b>Al′um,</b> a well-known crystalline, astringent substance + with a sweetish taste, a double sulphate of potassium and aluminium with + water of crystallization; formula, + K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>.Al<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>.24 + H<sub>2</sub>O. It crystallizes in colourless regular octahedra. Its + solution reddens vegetable blues. When heated, its water of + crystallization is driven off, and it becomes light and spongy with + slightly corrosive properties, and is used as a caustic under the name of + <i>burnt alum</i>. Alum is prepared in Great Britain at Whitby from + alum-slate—where it forms the cliffs for miles—and was once + manufactured near Glasgow from bituminous alum-shale and slate-clay, + obtained from old coal-pits. It is also prepared near Rome from + alum-stone. Common alum is strictly <i>potash</i> alum; other two + varieties are <i>soda</i> alum and <i>ammonia</i> alum, both similar in + properties. <i>Iron alum</i> (pale mauve) and <i>chrome alum</i> (deep + purple) are compounds containing iron and chromium in place of aluminium. + Alum is employed to harden tallow, to remove grease from printers' + cushions and blocks in calico manufactories, and in dyeing as a mordant. + It is also largely used in the composition of crayons, in tannery, and in + medicine (as an astringent and styptic). Wood and paper are dipped in a + solution of alum to render them less combustible.</p> + + <p><b>Alumbagh</b> (<i>a</i>-l<i>a</i>m-bäg′), a palace and + connected buildings in Hindustan, about 4 miles south of Lucknow. On the + outbreak of the Indian Mutiny it was occupied by the revolted sepoys, and + converted into a fort. On the 23rd Sept., 1857, it was captured by the + British, and during the following winter a British garrison, under Sir + James Outram, held out there, though repeatedly attacked by overwhelming + numbers of the rebels, till in March, 1858, it was finally relieved. Sir + Henry Havelock was buried within the grounds.</p> + + <p><b>Alu′mina</b> (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), the single oxide + of the metal aluminium. As found native it is called corundum, when + crystallized ruby or sapphire, when amorphous emery. It is next to the + diamond in hardness. In combination with silica it is one of the most + widely distributed of substances, as it enters in large quantity into the + composition of granite, traps, slates, schists, clays, loams, and other + rocks. The porcelain clays and kaolins contain about half their weight of + this earth, to which they owe their most valuable properties. It forms + compounds with certain colouring matters, which causes it to be employed + in the preparation of the colours called <i>lakes</i> in dyeing and + calico-printing. It combines with the acids and forms numerous salts, the + most important of which are the sulphate (see <i>Alum</i>) and acetate, + the latter of extensive use as a mordant.</p> + + <p><b>Alumin′ium</b> (symbol Al, atomic weight 27.1), a metal + discovered in 1827, but nowhere found native, although its oxide, alumina + (which see), is abundantly distributed. The minerals <i>bauxite</i> and + <i>cryolite</i> are sources of aluminium, but the chief source is the + pure oxide, from which the metal is obtained by means of a strong + electric current. It is a shining white metal, of a colour between that + of silver and platinum, very light (specific gravity, 2.56 cast, 2.67 + hammered), not liable to tarnish nor undergo oxidation in the air, very + ductile and malleable, and remarkably sonorous. It forms several useful + alloys with iron and copper; one of the latter (<i>aluminium gold</i>) + much resembles gold, and is made into cheap trinkets. Another, known as + <i>aluminium bronze</i>, possesses great hardness and tenacity. Spoons, + tea and coffee pots, dish-covers, musical and mathematical instruments, + trinkets, &c., are made of aluminium.</p> + + <p><b>Alum-root,</b> the name given in America to two plants from the + remarkable astringency of their roots, which are used for medical + purposes: <i>Gerānium maculātum</i> and <i>Heuchĕra + americāna</i> (nat. ord. Saxifragaceæ).</p> + + <p><b>Alum-slate,</b> or <b>Alum-schist,</b> a slaty rock from which much + alum is prepared; colour greyish, bluish, or iron-black; often possessed + of a glossy or shining lustre; chiefly composed of clay (silicate of + alumina), with variable proportions of sulphide of iron (iron-pyrites), + lime, bitumen, and magnesia.</p> + + <p><b>Alum-stone.</b> See <i>Alunite</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alunite,</b> a mineral sulphate of aluminium and potassium, greyish + or yellowish white, from which alum is prepared in Sicily by roasting and + lixiviation. It is regarded as a possible source <!-- Page 132 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>[132]</span>of potassium for + agriculture and also of aluminium. A considerable vein occurs in + Utah.</p> + + <p><b>Alun′no,</b> Niccolo (real name <b>Niccolo de + Liberatore</b>), an Italian painter of the fifteenth century, the founder + of the Umbrian School, born in Foligno about 1430, died 1502. Vasari, + interpreting wrongly the passage "Nicholaus alumnus Fulginiæ", gave him + the name of Alunno.</p> + + <p><b>Al′va,</b> a town of Scotland, in Clackmannanshire, 2½ miles + north of Alloa, near the River Devon, at the foot of the Ochils. It + manufactures woollen shawls, tweeds, yarn, &c. Pop. (1921), 4107.</p> + + <p><b>Al′va,</b> or <b>Al′ba,</b> Ferdinand Alvarez, Duke of, + Spanish statesman and general under Charles V and Philip II, was born in + 1508; early embraced a military career, and fought in the wars of Charles + V in France, Italy, Africa, Hungary, and Germany. He is more especially + remembered for his bloody and tyrannical government of the Netherlands + (1567-73), which had revolted, and which he was commissioned by Philip II + to reduce to entire subjection to Spain. Among his first proceedings was + to establish the 'Council of Blood', a tribunal which condemned, without + discrimination, all whose opinions were suspected, and whose riches were + coveted. The present and absent, the living and the dead, were subjected + to trial and their property confiscated. Many merchants and mechanics + emigrated to England; people by hundreds of thousands abandoned their + country. The Counts of Egmont and Horn, and other men of rank, were + executed, and William and Louis of Orange had to save themselves in + Germany. The most oppressive taxes were imposed, and trade was brought + completely to a standstill. As a reward for his services to the faith the + Pope presented him with a consecrated hat and sword, a distinction + previously conferred only on princes. Resistance was only quelled for a + time, and soon the provinces of Holland and Zealand revolted against his + tyranny. A fleet which was fitted out at his command was annihilated, and + he was everywhere met with insuperable courage. Hopeless of finally + subduing the country he asked to be recalled, and accordingly, in Dec., + 1573, Alva left the country, in which, as he himself boasted, he had + executed 18,000 men. He was received with distinction in Madrid, but did + not long enjoy his former credit. He had the honour, however, before his + death (which took place in 1582) of reducing all Portugal to subjection + to his sovereign. It is said of him that during sixty years of warfare he + never lost a battle and was never taken by surprise.</p> + + <p><b>Alvarado</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-va<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rä′dō), Pedro de, one of the + Spanish 'conquistadores', was born towards the end of the fifteenth + century, and died in 1541. Having crossed the Atlantic, he was associated + (1519) with Cortez in his expedition to conquer Mexico; and was entrusted + with important operations. In July, 1520, during the disastrous retreat + from the capital after the death of Montezuma, the perilous command of + the rear-guard was assigned to Alvarado. On his return to Spain he was + received with honour by Charles V, who made him governor of Guatemala, + which he had himself conquered. To this was subsequently added Honduras. + He continued to add to the Spanish dominions in America till his + death.</p> + + <p><b>Alvarez</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-va<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-reth′), Don José, a Spanish + sculptor, born 1768, died 1827. His works are characterized by truth to + nature, dignity, and feeling, one of the chief representing a scene in + the defence of Saragossa. The Museo del Prado, in Madrid, contains some + of his finest work.</p> + + <p><b>Alve′olus,</b> one of the sockets in which the teeth of + mammals are fixed. Hence <i>alveolar arches</i>, the parts of the jaws + containing these sockets.</p> + + <p><b>Alverstoke.</b> See <i>Gosport</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Alverstone,</b> Richard Everard Webster, first Viscount, eminent + English lawyer, born in 1842, died in 1915. Educated at King's College + School, the Charterhouse, and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called + to the bar in 1868, and made Q.C. in 1878. He was Member of Parliament + for Launceston for a short time in 1885, and from that year to 1900 + represented the Isle of Wight. He was Attorney-General from 1885-6, + 1886-92, and 1895-1900, being then made Lord Chief Justice and elevated + to the peerage: he had been created a baronet in 1899. He represented + Britain in the arbitration with the United States regarding the Behring + Sea (1893), in the affair of the Venezuelan and Guiana boundary (1898-9), + and was one of three British commissioners who, with three from the + United States, settled the Canada and Alaska boundary in 1903. Upon + retiring in 1913 he was created viscount. His book <i>Recollections of + Bar and Bench</i> was published in 1914.</p> + + <p><b>Alwar</b> (<i>a</i>l-w<i>a</i>r′), a State of north-western + Hindustan, in Rajputana; area, 3141 sq. miles; surface generally elevated + and rugged, and much of it of an arid description, though water is + generally found on the plains by digging a little beneath the surface, + and the means of irrigation being thus provided, the soil, though sandy, + is highly productive. This semi-independent State has as its ruler a + rajah with a revenue of £232,000; military force, about 5000 infantry and + 2000 cavalry. Pop. 791,688.—<i>Alwar</i>, the capital, is situated + at the base of a rocky hill crowned by a fort, 80 miles <span + class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of Delhi. It is surrounded by a moat and + rampart, and is poorly built, but has fine surroundings; it contains the + rajah's palace and a few other good buildings. Pop. 41,305. <!-- Page 133 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page133"></a>[133]</span></p> + + <p><b>Alys′sum</b> (<i>A. saxatile</i>, L.), a native of Crete, a + genus of cruciferous plants, several species of which are cultivated on + account of their white or yellow coloured flowers; madwort.</p> + + <p><b>Alyth</b> (ā′lith), a town of Scotland, Perthshire, + near the eastern boundary, with linen and jute manufactures. Pop. (1921), + 1710.</p> + + <p><b>Amad′avat</b> (<i>Estrilda amandāva</i>), a small + Indian singing bird allied to the finches and buntings; the female is + olive-brown, and the male, in summer, largely crimson.</p> + + <p><b>Amade′us,</b> the name of several counts of Savoy. The first + was the son of Humbert I, and succeeded him in 1048, dying about 1078; + others who have occupied an important place in history are the + following:—<b>Amadeus V,</b> 'the Great', succeeded in 1285; gained + great honour in defending Rhodes against the Turks; increased his + possessions by marriage and war; was made a prince of the empire; died in + 1323.—<b>Amadeus VIII</b> succeeded his father, Amadeus VII, in + 1391, and had his title raised to that of duke by the Emperor Sigismund. + He was chosen regent of Piedmont; but after this elevation retired from + his throne and family into a religious house. He now aspired to the + papacy, and was chosen by the Council of Basel (1439), becoming Pope, or + rather anti-Pope, under the name of Felix V, though he had never taken + holy orders. He was recognized as Pope by only a few princes, and + resigned in 1449, being the last of the anti-Popes. He died in 1451.</p> + + <p><b>Amade′us,</b> Duke of Aosta, for a short time King of Spain, + second son of Victor Emanuel of Italy, and brother of Humbert I, King of + Italy. He was born in 1845, and, thanks to the influence of Marshals Prim + and Serrano, was chosen by the Cortes King of Spain in 1870, Queen + Isabella having had to leave the country in 1868. He made his entrance + into Madrid as king on 2nd Jan., 1871, and took the oath to the + constitution. His position was far from comfortable, however, and, having + little hope of becoming acceptable to all parties, he abdicated in 1873 + (11th Feb.). He died in 1890.</p> + + <p><b>Amade′us,</b> Lake, a large salt lake or salt swamp in South + Australia, and nearly in the centre of Australia. It was discovered by + Giles in 1872, and is seldom visited, being in a dreary, arid region.</p> + + <p><b>Am′adis,</b> a name belonging to a number of heroes in the + romances of chivalry, Amadis de Gaul being the greatest among them, and + represented as the progenitor of the whole. The Spanish series of Amadis + romances is the oldest. It is comprised in fourteen books, of which the + first four narrate the adventures of Amadis de Gaul, this portion of the + series having originated about the end of the thirteenth or beginning of + the fourteenth century, and the subsequent books being added by various + hands. An abridged English translation of <i>Amadis of Gaul</i> was + published by Southey in 1803.</p> + + <p><b>Amadou</b> (am′a-dö), a name of several fungi, genus + Polypŏrus, of a leathery appearance, growing on trees. See + <i>German Tinder</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amager</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>m′a-ger), a small Danish island in + the Sound, opposite Copenhagen, part of which is situated on it. Rural + pop. 25,000.</p> + + <p><b>Amako′sa,</b> one of the Kaffir tribes of S. Africa.</p> + + <p><b>Amalasun′tha,</b> daughter of Theodoric, king of the + Ostrogoths, and after his death regent of Italy for her son Athalarich. + Athalarich died in 534, after which Amalasuntha married her cousin + Theodahad, but retained the power in her own hands. Mainly on this + account she was imprisoned and strangled in her bath by order of her + second husband, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 535.</p> + + <p><b>Amal′ekites,</b> an ancient tribe occupying the peninsula + between Egypt and Palestine, named after a grandson of Esau. They were + denounced by Moses for their hostility to the Israelites during their + journey through the wilderness, and they seem to have been all but + exterminated by Saul and David. The Kenites seem to have been a branch of + the Amalekites.</p> + + <p><b>Amal′fi,</b> a seaport in Southern Italy, on the Gulf of + Salerno, 23 miles from Naples, the seat of an archbishop. In the early + part of the Middle Ages it was a place of great commercial importance, + and it long enjoyed a republican constitution of its own. Quarrels with + its neighbours, encroachments of the sea, and other causes led to its + downfall, but it is still much visited by tourists. The road from Salerno + to Amalfi is a magnificent carriage-way, partly hewn in the cliffs, and + affords charming views. Amalfi is surrounded by rocky heights, and its + harbour was choked up by a landslip in 1900. Here arose the <i>Amalfian + Code</i> of maritime law, composed in 1010 and containing 66 articles, + which once had great influence in the maritime affairs of the + Mediterranean trading peoples. The MS. was discovered by the Prince of + Andorra, in 1844, in the imperial library at Vienna. Pop. 7472.</p> + + <p><b>Amal′gam,</b> a name applied to the alloys of mercury with + the other metals. One of them is the amalgam of mercury with tin, which + is used to silver looking-glasses. Mercury unites very readily with gold + and silver at ordinary temperatures, and advantage is taken of this to + separate them from their ores, the process being called + <i>amalgamation</i>. The mercury dissolves and combines with the precious + metal and separates it from the waste matters, and is itself easily + driven off by heat. An amalgam made of cadmium and copper is frequently + used in dentistry, and an amalgam of zinc and tin is used for the rubbers + of frictional electric machines. <!-- Page 134 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>[134]</span></p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/image043.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image043.jpg" + alt="Amanita" title="Amanita" /></a> + Amanita.—Two forms of fly-agaric + </div> + + <p><b>Amani′ta,</b> a genus of fungi, one species of which, <i>A. + muscāria</i>, or fly-agaric, is extremely poisonous.</p> + + <p><b>Ama′nus,</b> a branch of the Taurus Mountains in Asia + Minor.</p> + + <p><b>Amapala</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-pä′la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a seaport of Central America, State of + Honduras, on a small island.</p> + + <p><b>Amarantha′ceæ,</b> the amaranths, a nat. ord. of apetalous + plants, chiefly found in tropical countries, where they are often + troublesome weeds. They are remarkable for the white or sometimes reddish + scales of which their flowers are composed. Amaranthus, the typical + genus, comprises <i>A. caudātus</i>, or love-lies-bleeding, a + common plant in gardens, with pendulous racemes of crimson flowers; and + <i>A. hypochondriăcus</i>, or prince's feather. The blossoms keep + their bloom after being plucked and dried (hence the name: Gr. <i>a</i>, + not, and <i>marainō</i>, to wither).</p> + + <p><b>Amarapura</b> (<i>a</i>-m<i>a</i>-r<i>a</i>-pö′r<i>a</i>), a + deserted city, once the capital of the Burmese Empire, on the left bank + of the Irawadi, quite close to Mandalay. In 1810, when the city had about + 175,000 inhabitants, it was completely destroyed by fire; in 1839 it was + visited by a destructive earthquake. In 1857 the seat of government was + removed to Mandalay. Pop. 6500.</p> + + <p><b>Amaryllida′ceæ,</b> an order of monocotyledonous plants, + generally bulbous, occasionally with a tall, cylindrical, woody stem (as + in Agave); with a highly-coloured flower, six stamens, and an inferior + three-celled ovary; natives of Europe and most of the warmer parts of the + world. The order includes the snowdrop, the snow-flake, the daffodil, the + belladonna-lily (belonging to the typical genus Amaryllis), the so-called + Guernsey-lily (probably a native of Japan), the Brunsvigias, the + blood-flowers (Hæmanthus) of the Cape of Good Hope, different species of + Narcissus, Agave (American aloe), &c. Many are highly prized in + gardens and hot-houses; the bulbs of some are extremely poisonous.</p> + + <p><b>Amasia</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-sē′a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a town in the north of Asia Minor, on + the Irmak, 60 miles from the Black Sea, surmounted by a rocky height in + which is a ruined fortress; has numerous mosques, richly-endowed + Mahommedan schools, and a trade in wine, silk, &c. Amasia was a + residence of the ancient kings of Pontus. A few miles from Amasia, on the + road leading to Zilleh, is the famous battle-field where Cæsar defeated + Pharnaces, King of Pontus, and whence he sent his famous message to Rome: + <i>Veni, vidi, vici</i>. Pop. 30,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ama′sis,</b> King of Egypt from 569 to 526 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, obtained the throne by rebelling against his + predecessor and benefactor Apries, and is chiefly known from his + friendship for the Greeks, and his wise government of the kingdom, which, + under him, was in the most prosperous condition. He was succeeded by his + son Psammetik.</p> + + <p><b>Amati</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-mä′tē), a family, almost a + dynasty, of Cremona who manufactured violins in the sixteenth and + seventeenth centuries. Andrea (about 1540-1600) was the founder of the + business, which was carried on by his sons Geronimo and Antonio, and by + Niccolo the son of Geronimo. The first instrument signed Amati bears the + date 1546. Most of the violins made by them are of comparatively small + size and flat model, and the tone produced by the fourth or G string is + somewhat thin and sharp. Many of Niccolo Amati's violins are, however, of + a larger size and have all the fulness and intensity of tone + characteristic of those manufactured by Stradivario and Guarnerio.</p> + + <p><b>Amatit′lan,</b> a town in Central America, State of + Guatemala, about 15 miles south of the city of Guatemala, a busy modern + town, the inhabitants of which are actively engaged in the cochineal + trade. There is a small lake of the same name close to the town. Pop. + 12,000.</p> + + <p><b>Amauro′sis</b> (Gr. <i>amauros</i>, dark), a species of + blindness, formerly called <i>gutta serena</i> (the 'drop serene', as + Milton, whose blindness was of this sort, called it), caused by disease + of the nerves of vision. The most frequent causes are a long-continued + direction of the eye on minute objects, long exposure to a bright light, + to the fire of a forge, to snow, or irritating gases, overfulness of + blood, disease of the brain, &c. If taken in time it may be cured or + mitigated; but, unless caused by loss of blood, by lead-poisoning, or + debility, it is usually incurable.</p> + + <p><b>Amaxichi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>ks′ē-hē), the chief + town and seaport of Santa Maura (Leukadia), one of the Ionian Isles, the + seat of a Greek bishop; manufactures cotton and leather. Pop. 5500.</p> + + <p><b>Am′azon,</b> or <b>Am′azons,</b> a river of South <!-- + Page 135 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page135"></a>[135]</span>America, the largest in the world, formed + by a great number of sources which rise in the Andes, the two head + branches being the Tunguragua or Marañon and the Ucayali, both rising in + Peru, the former from Lake Lauricocha, in lat. 10° 29′ <span + class="scac">S.</span>, the latter formed by the Apurimac and Urubamba, + the headwaters of which are between lat. 14° and 16° <span + class="scac">S.</span>; general course north of east; length, including + windings, between 3000 and 4000 miles; area of drainage basin, 2,500,000 + sq. miles. It enters the Atlantic under the equator by a mouth 200 miles + wide, divided into two principal and several smaller arms by the large + island Marajo and a number of smaller islands. In its upper course + navigation is interrupted by rapids, but from its mouth upwards for a + distance of 3300 miles (mostly in Brazil) there is no obstruction. It + receives the waters of about 200 tributaries, 100 of which are navigable + and seventeen of these 1000 to 2300 miles in length; northern + tributaries: Santiago, Morona, Pastaça, Tigre, Napo, Putumayo, Japura, + Rio Negro (the Cassiquiare connects this stream with the Orinoco), + &c.; southern: Huallaga, Ucayali, Javari, Jutay, Jurua, Coary, Purus, + Madeira, Tapajos, Xingu, &c. At Tabatinga, where it enters Brazilian + territory, the breadth is 1½ miles; below the mouth of the Madeira it is + 3 miles wide, and where there are islands often as much as 7; from the + sea to the Rio Negro, 750 miles in a straight line, the depth is nowhere + less than 30 fathoms; up to the junction of the Ucayale there is depth + sufficient for the largest vessels. The Amazonian water system affords + some 50,000 miles of river suitable for navigation. The rapidity of the + river is considerable, especially during the rainy season (Jan. to June), + when it is subject to floods; but there is no great fall in its course. + The tides reach up as far as 400 miles from its mouth. The singular + phenomenon of the <i>bore</i>, or as it is called on the Amazon the + <i>pororoca</i>, occurs at the mouth of the river at spring-tides on a + grand scale. The river swarms with alligators, turtles, and a great + variety of fish. The country through which it flows is extremely fertile, + and is mostly covered with immense forests; it must at some future time + support a numerous population, and be the theatre of a busy commerce. + Steamers and other craft ply on the river, the chief centre of trade + being Para, at its mouth. The Amazon was discovered by Vicente Yañez + Pinzon in 1500, but the stream was not navigated by any European till + 1541, when Francis Orellana descended it. Orellana stated that he found + on its banks a nation of armed women, and this circumstance gave the name + to the river.</p> + + <p><b>Amaz′onas,</b> the largest state of Brazil, traversed by the + Amazon and its tributaries; area, 731,000 sq. miles. Pop. 459,309.</p> + + <p><b>Am′azons,</b> according to an ancient Greek tradition, the + name of a community of women, who permitted no men to reside among them, + fought under the conduct of a queen, and long constituted a formidable + State. They were said to burn off the right breast that it might not + impede them in the use of the bow—a legend that arose from the + Greeks supposing the name was from <i>a</i>, not, <i>mazos</i>, breast. + It is probably from <i>a</i>, together, and <i>mazos</i>, breast, the + name meaning therefore sisters. Several nations of Amazons are mentioned, + the most famous being those who dwelt in Pontus, who built Ephesus and + other cities. Their queen, Hippolyta, was vanquished by Hercules, who + took from her the girdle of Mars. They attacked Attica in the time of + Theseus. They came to the assistance of Troy under their queen, + Penthesilēa, who was slain by Achilles.</p> + + <p><b>Amazu′lu,</b> a branch of the Zulu Kaffir race. See + <i>Zulus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amba′la,</b> or <b>Umball′a,</b> a town of India, in + the Punjab, in an open plain 3 miles from the Ghaggar, consisting of an + old and a new portion, with a flourishing trade in grain and other + commodities. The military cantonment is several miles distant. Total pop. + 80,131.</p> + + <p><b>Ambale′ma,</b> a town of S. America, Colombia, on the + Magdalena; the centre of an important tobacco district. Pop. 6285.</p> + + <p><b>Am′baree,</b> a fibre similar to jute largely used in India, + obtained from <i>Hibiscus cannabīnus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ambarvalia,</b> an ancient Roman festival held annually in May, and + celebrated by the Arval Brothers (Fratres Arvales). Its object was to + preserve the growing crops from harm of any kind.</p> + + <p><b>Ambas′sador,</b> a minister of the highest rank, employed by + one prince or State at the Court of another to manage the public + concerns, or support the interests of his own prince or State, and + representing the power and dignity of his sovereign or State. Ambassadors + are <i>ordinary</i> when they reside permanently at a foreign Court, or + <i>extraordinary</i> when they are sent on a special occasion. When + <i>ambassadors extraordinary</i> have full powers, as of concluding + peace, making treaties, and the like, they are called + <i>plenipotentiaries</i>. Ambassadors are often called simply + <i>ministers</i>. <i>Envoys</i> are ministers employed on special + occasions, and are of less dignity than ambassadors. The term + <i>ambassador</i>, however, is also used in a more general sense for any + diplomatic agent or minister. An ambassador and his suite are not + amenable to the laws of the country in which they are residing. See + <i>Diplomacy</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Am′batch</b> (<i>Herminiēra elaphroxўlon</i>), a + thorny leguminous shrub with yellow flowers growing in the shallows of + the Upper Nile and other rivers of tropical Africa, 15 to 20 feet high. + Its wood is extremely light and spongy, and hence is made <!-- Page 136 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>[136]</span>into floats or + rafts. A raft capable of bearing eight persons can easily be carried by + one.</p> + + <p><b>Amba′to,</b> a town of Ecuador, on the side of Chimborazo, 70 + miles south of Quito. Pop. 12,000.</p> + + <p><b>Am′ber,</b> a semi-mineral substance of resinous composition, + a sort of fossil resin, the produce of extinct Coniferæ, used for the + manufacture of ornamental objects. It is usually of yellow or + reddish-brown colour; brittle; yields easily to the knife; is + translucent, and possessed of a resinous lustre. Specific gravity, 1.065. + It burns with a yellow flame, emitting a pungent aromatic smoke, and + leaving a light carbonaceous residue, which is employed as the basis of + the finest black varnishes. By friction it becomes strongly electric. It + is found in masses from the size of coarse sand to that of a man's head, + and occurs in beds of bituminous wood situated upon the shores of the + Baltic and Adriatic Seas; also in Poland, France, Italy, and Denmark. It + is often washed up on the Prussian shores of the Baltic, and is also + obtained by fishing for it with nets. Sometimes it is found on the east + coast of Britain, in gravel pits round London, also in the United + States.</p> + + <p><b>Am′berg,</b> a town of South Germany, in Bavaria, on the + Vils, well built, with a Gothic church of the fifteenth century, royal + palace, town house, &c.; it manufactures iron-wares, stone-ware, + tobacco, beer, vinegar, and arms. Pop. 25,242.</p> + + <p><b>Am′bergris,</b> a substance derived from the intestines of + the sperm-whale, and found floating or on the shore; yellowish or + blackish white; very light; melts at 140°, and is entirely dissipated on + red-hot coals; is soluble in ether, volatile oils, and partially in + alcohol, and is chiefly composed of a peculiar fatty, substance. Its + odour is very agreeable, and hence it is used as a perfume.</p> + + <p><b>Amble,</b> a town (urban district) of England, Northumberland, near + the mouth of the River Coquet, with a harbour at which coal is exported, + fishing also being carried on. Pop. 4851.</p> + + <p><b>Ambleside,</b> an old market-town of England, Westmorland, near the + head of Windermere, a great tourist centre. Pop. (1921), 2878.</p> + + <p><b>Ambleteuse</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-bl-t<i>eu</i>z), a small seaport of + France, 6 miles from Boulogne. After the capture of Boulogne in 1544 the + English began to construct a military harbour here under the name of New + Haven, but had to abandon the enterprise in 1554. Here James II landed on + Christmas Day, 1688, after his flight from England; and from its harbour + Napoleon I prepared to dispatch a flotilla of flat-bottomed boats for the + invasion of Britain.</p> + + <p><b>Amblyop′sis,</b> a genus of blind fishes, containing only one + species, <i>A. spelæus</i>, found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.</p> + + <p><b>Am′blyopy,</b> dullness or obscurity of eyesight without any + apparent defect in the organs; the first stage of amaurosis.</p> + + <p><b>Am′bo,</b> or <b>Am′bon,</b> in early Christian + churches a kind of raised desk or pulpit, sometimes richly ornamented, + from which certain parts of the service were read, or discourses + delivered, there being sometimes two in one church. Some of the most + ancient of these pulpits (fourth century) are at Salonica and at Ravenna + (fifth and sixth centuries). The ambo constructed by Justinian in the + Church of St. Sophia was destroyed by an earthquake.</p> + + <p><b>Amboina.</b> See <i>Amboyna</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amboise</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-bwäz), a town of France, department + Indre-et-Loire, 12 miles east of Tours, on the Loire, with an antique + castle, the residence of several French kings, and manufactures of files + and rasps. Near the Château d'Amboise is that of Cloux, which was given + by Francis I to Leonardo da Vinci, and where the artist died in 1519. + Pop. 4660.</p> + + <p><b>Amboy′na,</b> <b>Amboina,</b> or <b>Apon,</b> one of the + Molucca Islands in the Indian Archipelago, close to the large island of + Ceram; area, about 360 sq. miles. Here is the seat of government of the + Dutch residency or province of Amboyna, which includes also Ceram, Buru, + &c. Its surface is generally hilly or mountainous, its general aspect + beautiful, and its climate on the whole salubrious, but frequently + visited by earthquakes. It affords a variety of useful trees, including + the coco-nut and sago palms. Cloves and nutmegs are the staple + productions. The soil in the valleys and along the shores is very + fertile, but a large portion remains uncultivated. The natives are mostly + of Malayan race. The capital, also called <i>Amboyna</i>, is situated on + the Bay of Amboyna, and is well built and defended by a citadel. The + streets are planted on each side with rows of fruit-trees. It is a free + port. Pop. 10,000. In 1607 Amboyna and the other Moluccas were taken by + the Dutch from the Portuguese, and it was for some years the seat of + government of the Dutch East Indies. Trade with the Moluccas was secured + to the British by treaty in 1619, but the British establishment was + destroyed and several persons massacred in 1623, an outrage for which no + satisfaction was obtained till Cromwell obtained it in 1654. Amboyna was + taken by the British in 1796 and 1810, but each time restored to the + Dutch. Pop. about 40,000. The Dutch residency of Amboyna, including the + Banda group, Ceram, Buru, and other islands, has an area of 19,870 sq. + miles and a population of about 300,000.</p> + + <p><b>Amboyna Wood,</b> a beautiful curled orange or brownish coloured + wood brought from the Moluccas, yielded by <i>Pterospermum + indicum</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ambra′cia.</b> See <i>Arta</i>. <!-- Page 137 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>[137]</span></p> + + <p><b>Ambrine,</b> a preparation of paraffin, resin, and wax, used as a + remedy in the treatment of burns and scalds and in rheumatic disorders. + It was discovered by Barthe de Sandford, a French doctor, in 1904.</p> + + <p><b>Am′brose,</b> Saint, a celebrated father of the Church; born + in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 333 or 334, probably at Trèves, where + his father was prefect; died in 397. He was educated at Rome, studied + law, practised as a pleader at Milan, and in 369 was appointed governor + of Liguria and Æmilia (North Italy). His kindness and wisdom gained him + the esteem and love of the people, and in 374 he was unanimously called + to the bishopric of Milan, though not yet baptized. For a time he refused + to accept this dignity, but he had to give way, and at once ranged + himself against the Arians. In his struggles against the Arian heresy he + was opposed by Justina, mother of Valentinian II, and for a time by the + young emperor himself, together with the courtiers and the Gothic troops. + Backed by the people of Milan, however, he felt strong enough to deny the + Arians the use of a single church in the city, although Justina, in her + son's name, demanded that two should be given up. He had also to carry on + a war with paganism, Symmachus, the prefect of the city, an eloquent + orator, having endeavoured to restore the worship of heathen deities. In + 390, on account of the ruthless massacres at Thessalonica ordered by the + emperor Theodosius, he refused him entrance into the church of Milan for + eight months. The later years of his life were devoted to the more + immediate care of his see. His writings, which are numerous, show that + his theological knowledge extended little beyond an acquaintance with the + works of the Greek fathers. He wrote Latin hymns, but the <i>Te Deum + Laudamus</i>, which has been ascribed to him, was written a century + later. He introduced the <i>Ambrosian Chant</i>, a mode of singing more + monotonous than the Gregorian, which superseded it. He also compiled a + form of ritual known by his name. The best edition of his works is that + published in Paris, 1686-90, in 2 vols. fol., and reissued at Lyons in + 1853.</p> + + <p><b>Ambro′sia,</b> in Greek mythology the food of the gods, as + nectar was their drink.</p> + + <p><b>Ambrosian Chant.</b> See <i>Ambrose</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ambrosian Library,</b> a public library in Milan founded by the + cardinal archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a relation of St. Charles + Borromeo, who sent scholars, among them Antonio Olgiati, all over Europe + to acquire books. The library was opened in 1609, now containing 230,000 + printed books and many MSS., among the latter being the famous collection + of Pinelli. It was named in honour of St. Ambrose, the patron saint of + Milan.</p> + + <p><b>Am′bry,</b> a niche or recess in the wall of ancient churches + near the altar, fitted with a door and used for keeping the sacred + utensils, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Ambula′cral System,</b> the locomotive apparatus of the + Echinodermata (sea-urchins, star-fishes, &c.), the most important + feature of which is the protrusible tube-feet that the animal can at will + dilate with water and thus move forward.</p> + + <p><b>Am′bulance (Field),</b> a military medical unit attached to + an army in the field for the purpose of providing medical and surgical + first-aid to sick and wounded immediately behind the fighting-line. The + term field-ambulance was adopted in the British service in 1905-6. The + chief and most important duty of a field-ambulance is to relieve fighting + troops of their sick and wounded and transfer them to the rear to the + collecting-hospitals, known as Casualty Clearing Stations, situated at + the head of the line of communications to the army's base. Three + field-ambulances are attached to each division in the field, one to each + brigade, and their officers and men are divided into bearer and nursing + sections and equipped with horse or mule and motor transport for wounded + and sick. In the East sick and wounded are often carried in litters on + camel-back, two of the cacolets being balanced against each other. A + medical ambulance is theoretically able to undertake any hospital work, + but in practice it confines itself when in action with its division to + clearing the front line, and when at rest to treating the minor maladies + such as lice, scabies, and slight illnesses which do not require much + time or equipment. The medical and surgical outfit of an ambulance is + carried in panniers and is usually in excess of its requirements. The + word ambulance is often used to designate the motors or other vehicles + employed by military or civil authorities in carrying the sick and + wounded.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: M. M. Bird, <i>The + Errand of Mercy: a History of Ambulance Work upon the Battle-field</i>; + G. H. Painton, <i>The Field Ambulance Guide</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amelan′chier</b> (-kē-ėr), a genus of small trees + natives of Europe and N. America, allied to the medlar. <i>A. + vulgāris</i>, long cultivated in English gardens, has showy white + flowers; <i>A. Botryāpium</i> (grape-pear) and <i>A. + ovālis</i>, American species, yield pleasant fruits.</p> + + <p><b>Ameland</b> (ä′me-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>nt), an island off the north coast of + Holland, 13 miles long and 3 broad; flat; inhabitants (about 2000 in + number) chiefly engaged in fishing and agriculture.</p> + + <p><b>Amélie-les-Bains</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-mā-lē-lā-ban<span + class="x1"><span class="x3">˙</span></span>), a village of France, + department Pyrénées-Orientales, frequented as a winter residence for + invalids, and for its warm sulphureous springs. The place was known to + the Romans, as it has been proved by the discovery of Roman medals + there.</p> + + <p><b>Amen</b> (ā-men′), a Hebrew word, signifying 'verily', + 'truly', transferred from the religious <!-- Page 138 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>[138]</span>language of the Jews to + that of the Christians, and used at the end of prayers as equivalent to + 'so be it', 'may this be granted'.</p> + + <p><b>Amend′ment,</b> a proposal brought forward in a meeting of + some public or other body, either in order to get an alteration + introduced into some proposal already before the meeting, or entirely to + overturn such proposal. In Parliament an amendment denotes an alteration + made in the original draft of a Bill whilst it is passing through the + houses. Amendments may be made so as totally to alter the nature of the + proposition; and this is a way of getting rid of a proposition, by making + it bear a sense different from what was intended by the movers, who are + thus compelled to abandon it.</p> + + <p><b>Ameno′phis</b> (or <b>Amenhotep</b>) <b>III,</b> a king of + ancient Egypt about 1500 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>; warred + successfully against Syrians and Ethiopians; built magnificent temples + and palaces at Thebes, where the so-called Memnon statue is a statue of + this king. He was the only Egyptian king deified during his lifetime.</p> + + <p><b>Amenorrhœ′a,</b> absence or suspension of menstruation. + The former may arise from general debility or from defective development, + the latter from exposure to cold, from attacks of fever or other ailment, + violent excitement, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Amenta′ceæ,</b> an order of plants having their flowers + arranged in amenta or catkins; now broken up into several orders, the + chief of which are Betulaceæ (the birch), Salicaceæ (the willow), Fagaceæ + (the beech), Juglandaceæ (the walnut), and Myricaceæ (bog-myrtle).</p> + + <p><b>Amen′tia,</b> imbecility from birth, especially when extreme; + idiocy.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:33%;"> + <a href="images/image044.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image044.jpg" + alt="Amentum" title="Amentum" /></a> + Amentum<br /> + Hazel (<i>Corylus Avellana</i>) showing Catkins and Nuts. + </div> + + <p><b>Amen′tum,</b> in botany, that kind of inflorescence which is + commonly known as a catkin (as in the birch or willow), consisting of + unisexual apetalous flowers in the axil of scales or bracts.</p> + + <p><b>Amer′ica,</b> or the <b>New World,</b> the largest of the + great divisions of the globe except Asia, is washed on the west by the + Pacific, on the east by the Atlantic, on the north by the Arctic Ocean, + while on the south it tapers to a point. On the north-west it approaches + within about 50 miles of Asia, while on the north-east the island of + Greenland approaches within 370 miles of the European island Iceland; but + in the south the distance between the American mainland and Europe or + Africa is very great. Extreme points of the continent—north, + Boothia Felix, at the Strait of Bellot, lat. 72° <span + class="scac">N.</span>; south, Cape Horn, lat. 56° <span + class="scac">S.</span>; west, Cape Prince of Wales, long. 168° <span + class="scac">W.</span>; east, Point de Guia, long. 35° <span + class="scac">W.</span> America as a whole forms the two triangular + continents of North and South America, united by the narrow Isthmus of + Panama, and having an entire length of about 10,000 miles; a maximum + breadth (in North America) of 3500 miles; a coast-line of 44,000 miles; + and a total area, including the islands, of over 16,000,000, of which N. + America contains about 8,300,000 sq. miles. South America is more compact + in form than N. America, in this respect resembling Africa, while N. + America more resembles Europe. Between the two on the east side is the + great basin which comprises the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and + the West India Islands. Like Europe also N. America possesses numerous + islands, while those of S. America are less important and confined almost + to the southern extremity.</p> + + <p>Three-fourths of the area of America is comparatively flat, and this + portion of the surface is bounded on the west by lofty mountain systems + which stretch continuously from north to south between the extremities of + the continent, generally at no great distance from the west shore. In + North America the Rocky Mountains, a broad series of masses partly + consisting of plateaux, form the most important portion of the elevated + surface, being continued southward in the mountains and tableland of + Mexico and the ranges of Central America. Separated by depressions from + the Rocky Mountains proper, and running close to and parallel with the + western coast, are several lofty ranges (Sierra Nevada, Cascade + Mountains, &c.). Near the eastern coast, and forming an isolated + mass, are the Appalachians, a system of much inferior magnitude. The + loftiest mountains in N. America are M‘Kinley (20,470 feet), in + Alaska; <!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page139"></a>[139]</span>Logan (19,514 feet), in N. W. Canada; and + Popocatepetl (18,000 feet). The depression of the Isthmus of Panama + (about 260 feet) forms a natural separation between the systems of the + north and the south. In S. America the Andes form a system of greater + elevation but less breadth than the Rocky Mountains, and consist of a + series of ranges (<i>cordilleras</i>) closely following the line of the + west coast from the Isthmus of Panama to Cape Horn. The highest summits + are Aconcagua (23,080 feet), Sorata or Illampu (21,484), and Sahama + (21,054). Volcanoes are numerous. Isolated mountain groups of minor + importance are the highlands of Venezuela and of Brazil, the latter near + the eastern coast, reaching a height of 10,000 feet.</p> + + <p>The fertile lowlands which lie to the east of the Rocky Mountains and + the Andes form a depression extending through both continents from the + northern to the southern oceans. They have somewhat different features + and different names in different portions; in N. America are + <i>prairies</i> and <i>savannahs</i>, in S. America <i>llanos</i>, + <i>selvas</i>, and <i>pampas</i>.</p> + + <p>Through these low grounds flow the numerous great rivers which form so + characteristic a feature of America. The principal are the Mackenzie, + Coppermine, and Great Fish Rivers, entering the Northern Ocean; the + Churchill, Nelson, Severn, and Albany, entering Hudson's Bay; the St. + Lawrence, entering the Atlantic; Mississippi and Rio del Norte, entering + the Gulf of Mexico (all these being in N. America); the Magdalena, + Orinoco, Amazon, Paranahiba, Rio de la Plata, Colorado, and Rio Negro, + entering the Atlantic (all in S. America); and the Yukon, Fraser, + Colombia, San Joaquin, Sacramento, and Colorado, entering the Pacific. + The rivers which flow into the Pacific, however, owing to the fact that + the great backbone of the continent, the Rocky Mountains and the Andes, + lies so near the west coast, are of comparatively little importance, in + S. America being all quite small. Sometimes rivers traversing the same + plains, and nearly on the same levels, open communications with each + other, a remarkable instance being the Cassiquiari in S. America, which, + branching off from the Rio Negro and joining the Orinoco, forms a kind of + natural canal, uniting the basins of the Orinoco and the Amazon. The + Amazon or Marañon in S. America, the largest river in the world, has a + course of about 3500 miles, and a basin of 2,300,000 sq. miles; the + Mississippi-Missouri, the largest river of North America, runs a longer + course than the Amazon, but the area of its basin is not nearly so great. + North America has the most extensive group of lakes in the + world—Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, which + through the St. Lawrence send their drainage to the Atlantic. Thus by + means of lakes and rivers the interior of both N. and S. America is + opened up and made accessible.</p> + + <p>In regard to climate N. America naturally differs very much from S. + America, and has more resemblance to the continents of Europe and Asia + (regarded as a whole). In N. America, as in the older continent, the + eastern parts are colder than the western, and hence the towns on the + Atlantic coast have a winter temperature about 10° lower than those in + corresponding latitudes of Europe. The winter temperature of the greater + part of N. America is indeed severe, though the intense cold is less felt + on account of the dryness of the air. There is no regular season of + rainfall unless in the south. Although two-thirds of S. America lies + within the tropics the heat is not so great as might be expected, owing + to the prevailing winds, the influences of the Andes, and other causes. + The highest temperature experienced is probably not more than 100° in the + shade; at Rio de Janeiro the mean is about 74°, at Lima 72°. Over a great + part of S. America there is a wet and a dry season, varying in different + regions; on the upper Amazon the rains last for ten months, being caused + by the prevailing easterly winds bringing moisture from the Atlantic, + which is condensed on the eastern slopes of the Andes. In each of the + Americas there is a region in which little or no rain falls; in N. + America it extends over a part of the United States and Northern Mexico, + in S. America over a part of the coast region of Peru and Chile.</p> + + <p>America is rich in valuable minerals. It has supplied the world with + immense quantities of gold and silver, which it still yields in no small + amount, especially in the United States. It possesses inexhaustible + stores of coal (United States), with iron, copper, lead, tin, mercury, + &c. Petroleum may be called one of its specialities, its petroleum + wells having caused whole towns to spring into existence. Diamonds and + other precious stones are found.</p> + + <p>As regards vegetation America may be called a region of forests and + verdure, vast tracts being covered by the grassy prairies, llanos, and + pampas where the forests fail. In N. America the forests have been + largely made use of by man; in S. America vast areas are covered with + forests, which as yet are traversed only by the uncivilized Indian. In + the north is the region of pines and firs; farther south come the + deciduous trees, as the oak, beech, maple, elm, chestnut, &c. Then + follow the evergreen forests of the tropical regions. The useful timber + trees are very numerous; among the most characteristic of America are + mahogany and other ornamental woods, and various dyewoods. In the + tropical parts are numerous palms, cacti in great variety, and various + species of the agave or American aloe. In the virgin forests of S. + America the trees are <!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page140"></a>[140]</span>often bound together into an impenetrable + mass of vegetation by various kinds of climbing and twining plants. Among + useful plants belonging to the American continent are maize, the potato, + cacao, tobacco, cinchona, vanilla, Paraguay tea, &c. The most + important plants introduced are wheat, rice, and other grains, + sugar-cane, coffee, and cotton, with various fruits and vegetables. The + vine is native to the continent, and both the American and introduced + varieties are now largely cultivated.</p> + + <p>The animals of America include, among carnivora, the jaguar or + American tiger, found only in S. America; the puma or American lion, + found mostly in S. America; the grizzly bear of N. America, fully as + powerful an animal as either; the black bear, the skunk, the racoon, the + American or prairie wolf, several species of foxes, &c. The rodents + are represented by the beaver, the porcupine, and squirrels of several + species; the marsupials by the opossum. Among ruminants are the bison, + or, as it is commonly called, the buffalo, the moose or elk, the + Virginian stag, the musk-ox; and in S. America the llama (which takes the + place of the camel of the Old World), the alpaca, and the vicuña. Other + animals most distinctive of S. America are sloths, fitted to live only in + its dense and boundless forests; ant-eaters and armadillos; monkeys with + prehensile tails, in this and other respects differing from those of the + Old World; the condor among the heights of the Andes, the nandu, rhea or + three-toed ostrich, beautiful parrots and humming-birds. Among American + reptiles are the boa-constrictor, the rattlesnake, the alligator or + cayman, the iguana and other large lizards, large frogs and toads. The + domestic animals of America, horses, cattle, and sheep, are of foreign + origin. The electrical eel exists in the tropical waters.</p> + + <p>The population of America consists partly of an aboriginal race or + races, partly of immigrants or their descendants. The aboriginal + inhabitants are the American Indians or red men, being generally of a + brownish-red colour, and now forming a very small portion of the total + population, especially in N. America, where the white population has + almost exterminated them. These people are divided into branches, some of + which have displayed a considerable aptitude for civilization. When the + Europeans became acquainted with the New World, Mexico, Central America, + and part of S. America were inhabited by populations which had made great + advances in many things that pertain to civilized life, dwelling in large + and well-built cities under a settled form of government, and practising + agriculture and the mechanical arts. Ever since the discovery of America + at the close of the fifteenth century Europeans of all nations have + crowded into it; and the comparatively feeble native races have rapidly + diminished, or lost their distinctive features by intermixtures with + whites, and also with negroes brought from Africa to work as slaves. + These mixed races are distinguished by a variety of names, as Mestizos, + Mulattoes, Zambos, &c. In North America the white population is + mainly of British origin, though to a considerable extent it also + consists of Germans, Scandinavians, &c., and the descendants of such. + In Central and South America the prevailing white nationality is the + Spanish and Portuguese. In the extreme north are the Eskimos—a + scattered and stunted race closely allied to some of the peoples of + Northern Asia. That the aboriginal inhabitants of America passed over + from Asia is tolerably certain, but when and from what part we do not + know. The total population of the New World is estimated at 180,000,000, + of which perhaps 124,000,000 are whites, 28,000,000 mixed races, + 15,000,000 negroes, and 13,000,000 Indians. As regards religion, the bulk + of the population of N. America is Protestant; of Central and S. America + the religion is almost exclusively Roman Catholic. Several millions of + the Indians are heathens.—The independent States of America are all + republican in form of government, Brazil having become a republic in + 1889. See <i>North America</i>, <i>Central America</i>, <i>South + America</i>, <i>West Indies</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>The merit of first opening up the American continent to modern Europe + belongs to the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus, who discovered, in + Oct., 1492, one of the Bahamas, and named it San Salvador. Europeans, + however, had on different former occasions discovered the American + coasts, and the coasts of Massachusetts and Rhode Island were visited by + Northmen and named Vinland in the year 1000. Still these discoveries had + no influence on the enterprise of Columbus, and cannot detract in the + least from his merit; they were forgotten, and had never been made known + to the inhabitants of the rest of Europe. Though Columbus was the first + of his time who set foot in the New World, it has taken its name not from + him, but from Amerigo Vespucci. The mainland was first seen in 1497 by + Sebastian Cabot, who sailed under the patronage of Henry VII of England. + For further particulars of discovery see <i>North America</i> and + <i>South America</i>.</p> + + <p>The known history of America hardly goes beyond the period of its + discovery by Columbus; but it possesses many monuments of antiquity that + might take us many centuries backward, could we learn anything of their + origin or of those by whom they were produced. Among such antiquities are + great earthworks in the form of mounds, or of raised enclosures, crowning + the tops of hills, river peninsulas, &c., and no doubt serving for + defence. They enclose considerable <!-- Page 141 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>[141]</span>areas, are surrounded + by an exterior ditch, and by ramparts which are composed of mingled earth + and stones, and are often of great extent in proportion to the area + enclosed. They are always supplied either naturally or artificially with + water, and give other indications of having been provided for a siege. + Barrows and tumuli containing human bones, and bearing indications of + having been used both as places of sepulture and as temples, are also + numerous. They are in geometrical forms—circles, squares, + parallelograms, &c. A mound on the plain of Cahokia in Illinois, + opposite the city of St. Louis, is 700 feet long, 500 feet broad, and 90 + feet high. Earth mounds of another class represent gigantic animal forms + in bas-relief on the ground. One is a man with two heads, the body 50 + feet long and 25 feet broad across the breast; another represents a + serpent 1000 feet in length, with graceful curves. The monuments of + Mexico, Central America, and Peru are of a more advanced state of + civilization, approach nearer to the historical period, and make the loss + of authentic information more keenly felt. Here there are numerous ruined + towns with most elaborate sculptures, lofty pyramidal structures serving + as temples or forts, statues, picture writing, hieroglyphics, roads, + aqueducts, bridges, &c. Some remarkable prehistoric remains + discovered in recent years are what are known as the abodes of the + 'cliff-dwellers'. These consist of habitations constructed on terraces + and in caves high up and steep sides of cañons in Colorado and other + parts of the western states of N. America. Some of these buildings are + several stories high. See also <i>Mexico</i>, <i>Peru</i>, + &c.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L. Farrand, <i>The + American Nation</i>; Prescott, <i>The Conquest of Mexico</i> and <i>The + Conquest of Peru</i>; Winsor, <i>Narrative and Critical History of + America</i>; F. W. Halsey, <i>Great Epochs in American History</i> (11 + vols.).</p> + + <p><b>American Indians.</b> See <i>Indians</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Americanism,</b> a term, phrase, or idiom peculiar to the English + language as spoken in America, and not forming part of the language as + spoken in England. The following is a list of a few of the more + noteworthy Americanisms, some of them being rather slangy or vulgar.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Approbate</i>, to approve.</p> + + <p><i>Around</i> or <i>round</i>, about or near. To <i>hang around</i> is + to loiter about a place.</p> + + <p><i>Backwoods</i>, the partially-cleared forest regions in the western + States.</p> + + <p><i>Bee</i>, an assemblage of persons to unite their labours for the + benefit of an individual or family, or to carry out a joint scheme.</p> + + <p><i>Boss</i>, an employer or superintendent of labourers, a leader.</p> + + <p><i>Bug</i>, a coleopterous insect, or what in England is called a + <i>beetle</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Buggy</i>, a four-wheeled vehicle.</p> + + <p><i>Bulldose</i>, to; to intimidate voters.</p> + + <p><i>Bunkum</i> or <i>buncombe</i>, a speech made solely to please a + constituency; talk for talking's sake, and in an inflated style.</p> + + <p><i>Bureau</i>, a chest of drawers, a dressing-table surmounted by a + mirror.</p> + + <p><i>Calculate</i>, to suppose, to believe, to think.</p> + + <p><i>Camp-meeting</i>, a meeting held in the fields or woods for + religious purposes, and where the assemblage encamps and remains several + days.</p> + + <p><i>Cane-brake</i>, a thicket of canes.</p> + + <p><i>Car</i>, a carriage or wagon of a railway train. The Englishman + 'travels by rail' or 'takes the train'; the American takes or goes by the + <i>cars</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Carpet-bagger</i>, a needy political adventurer who carries all his + worldly goods in a carpet-bag.</p> + + <p><i>Caucus</i>, a private meeting of the leading politicians of a party + to agree upon the plans to be pursued in an approaching election.</p> + + <p><i>Chalk</i>: a <i>long chalk</i> means a great distance, a good + deal.</p> + + <p><i>Clever</i>, good-natured, obliging.</p> + + <p><i>Cocktail</i>, a stimulating drink made of brandy or gin mixed with + bitters, sugar, and water.</p> + + <p><i>Corn</i>, maize (in England it means wheat, or grain in + general).</p> + + <p><i>Corn-husking</i>, or <i>corn-shucking</i>, an occasion on which a + farmer invites his neighbours to assist him in stripping the husks from + his Indian corn.</p> + + <p><i>Cow-hide</i>, a whip made of twisted strips of raw hide.</p> + + <p><i>Creek</i>, a small river or brook; not, as in England, a small arm + of the sea.</p> + + <p><i>Cunning</i>, small and pretty, nice, e.g. 'It was such a + <i>cunning</i> baby'.</p> + + <p><i>Dander</i>; to get one's <i>dander raised</i>, to have one's + <i>dander up</i>, is to have been worked into a passion.</p> + + <p><i>Dead-heads</i>, people who have free admission to entertainments, + or who have the use of public conveyances, or the like, free of + charge.</p> + + <p><i>Depot</i>, a railway station.</p> + + <p><i>Down east</i>, in or into the New England States. A + <i>down-easter</i> is a New Englander.</p> + + <p><i>Drummer</i>, a bagman or commercial traveller.</p> + + <p><i>Dry goods</i>, a general term for such articles as are sold by + linen-drapers, haberdashers, hosiers, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Dutch</i>, the German language.—<i>Dutchman</i>, a + German.</p> + + <p><i>Fix</i>, to; to put in order, to prepare, to adjust. To fix the + hair, the table, the fire, is to dress the hair, lay the table, make up + the fire.</p> + + <p><i>Fixings</i>, arrangements, dress, embellishments, luggage, + furniture, garnishings of any kind.</p> + + <p><i>Gerrymander</i>, to arrange political divisions so that in an + election one party may obtain an advantage over its opponent, even though + the latter may possess a majority of votes in the State; from the deviser + of such a scheme, named <i>Gerry</i>, governor of Massachusetts.</p> + + <p><i>Given name</i>, a Christian name.</p> + + <p><i>Guess</i>, to; to believe, to suppose, to think, to fancy; also + used emphatically, as 'Joe, will you liquor up?' 'I guess I will.'</p> + + <p><i>Gulch</i>, a deep abrupt ravine, caused by the action of water.</p> + + <p><i>Happen in</i>, to; to happen to come in or call.</p> + + <p><i>Help</i>, a servant.</p> + + <p><i>High-falutin</i>, inflated speech, bombast.</p> + + <p><i>Hoe-cake</i>, a cake of Indian meal baked on a hoe or before the + fire.</p> + + <p><i>Indian summer</i>, the short season of pleasant weather usually + occurring about the middle of November.</p> + + <p><i>Johnny Cake</i>, a cake made of Indian corn meal mixed with milk or + water and sometimes a little stewed pumpkin; the term is also applied to + a New Englander.</p> + + <p><i>Julep</i>, a drink composed of brandy or whisky with sugar, pounded + ice, and some sprigs of mint.</p> + + <p><i>Log-rolling</i>, the assembly of several parties of wood-cutters to + help one of them in rolling their logs to the river after they are felled + and trimmed; also employed in politics to signify a like system of mutual + co-operation.</p> + + <p><i>Lot</i>, a piece or division of land, an allotment.</p> + + <p><i>Lumber</i>, timber sawed and split for use; as beams, joists, + planks, staves, hoops, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Lynch law</i>, an irregular species of justice executed by the + populace or a mob, without legal authority or trial.</p> + + <p><i>Mail letters</i>, to; to post letters.</p> + + <p><i>Make tracks</i>, to; to run away.</p> + + <p><i>Mitten</i>; to <i>get the mitten</i> is to meet with a refusal.</p> + + <p><i>Mizzle</i>, to; to abscond, or run away.</p> + + <p><i>Mush</i>, a kind of hasty-pudding.</p> + + <p><i>Muss</i>, a state of confusion.</p> + + <p><i>Notions</i>, a term applied to every variety of small-wares.</p> + + <p><i>One-horse</i>: a one-horse thing is a thing of no value or + importance, a mean and trifling thing.</p> + + <p><i>Picaninny</i>, a negro child.</p> + + <p><i>Pile</i>, a quantity of money.</p> + + <p><i>Planks</i>, in a political sense, are the several principles which + appertain to a party; <i>platform</i> is the collection of such + principles.</p> + + <p><i>Reckon</i>, to; to suppose, to think.</p> + + <p><i>Rock</i>, a stone of any size; a pebble; as to throw <i>rocks</i> + at a dog. <!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page142"></a>[142]</span></p> + + <p><i>Scalawag</i>, a scamp, a scapegrace.</p> + + <p><i>Shanty</i>, a mean structure such as squatters erect; a temporary + hut.</p> + + <p><i>Skedaddle</i>, to; to run away; a word introduced during the civil + war.</p> + + <p><i>Smart</i>, often used in the sense of considerable, a good deal, as + a <i>smart chance</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Soft sawder</i>, flattering, coaxing talk.</p> + + <p><i>Span</i> of horses, two horses as nearly as possible alike, + harnessed side by side.</p> + + <p><i>Spread-eagle style</i>, a compound of exaggeration, bombast, mixed + metaphor, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Store</i>, a shop, as a book <i>store</i>, a grocery + <i>store</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Strike oil</i>, to; to come upon petroleum: hence to make a lucky + hit, especially financially.</p> + + <p><i>Stump speech</i>, a bombastic speech calculated to please the + popular ear, such speeches in newly-settled districts being often + delivered from stumps of trees.</p> + + <p><i>Sun-up</i>, sunrise.</p> + + <p><i>Tall</i>, great, fine (used by Shakespeare much in the same sense); + <i>tall talk</i> is extravagant talk.</p> + + <p><i>Ticket</i>: to vote the <i>straight ticket</i> is to vote for all + the men or measures your party wishes.</p> + + <p><i>Truck</i>, the small produce of gardens; <i>truck patch</i>, a plot + in which the smaller fruits and vegetables are raised.</p> + + <p><i>Ugly</i>, ill-tempered, vicious.</p> + + <p><i>Vamose</i>, to; to run off (from the Sp. <i>vamos</i>, let us + go).</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: T. Pickering, <i>Vocabulary of + Words and Phrases Supposed to be Peculiar to America</i>; J. R. Bartlett, + <i>Dictionary of Americanisms</i>; Schele de Vere, + <i>Americanisms</i>.</p> + + <p><b>American Jute.</b> See <i>Abutilon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>American Organ.</b> See <i>Organ</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amer′icus,</b> a town of the United States, Georgia, in a + good cotton and corn district. Pop. 11,000.</p> + + <p><b>Amerigo Vespucci</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-mer-ē′go vespu<span + class="x1"><span class="x3">¨</span></span>t′chē), a + maritime discoverer, after whom America has been named, born, 1451, at + Florence; died, 1512, at Seville. In 1499 he coasted along the continent + of America for several hundred leagues, and the publication of his + narrative, while the prior discovery of Columbus was yet comparatively a + secret, led to the giving of his name to the new continent.</p> + + <p><b>Amerongen,</b> a village in Holland. Here, at the château belonging + to Count Goddard Bentinck, the ex-Kaiser Wilhelm II took up his residence + after signing his letters of abdication at Spa on 9th Nov., 1918.</p> + + <p><b>Amersfoort</b> (ä′merz-fōrt), a town in Holland, + province of Utrecht, communicating by the Eem with the Zuider-Zee; + manufactures woollen goods, tobacco, glass, and silk yarn. Pop. + 28,777.</p> + + <p><b>Ames,</b> Fisher, American statesman, born 1758, died 1808; studied + law, and became prominent in his profession—distinguished as a + political orator and essayist.</p> + + <p><b>Ames,</b> Joseph, English antiquary, born at Yarmouth, 1689, died + 1759. He became a ship-chandler at Wapping, devoted himself to + antiquarian pursuits, and was for many years secretary to the Society of + Antiquaries. His chief publication is, <i>Typographical Antiquities: + being an historical account of Printing in England</i> (1749).</p> + + <p><b>Ametab′ola</b> (Gr. <i>ametabolos</i>, unchangeable), a + division of insects, including only the apterous or wingless insects, as + lice, spring-tails, &c., which do not undergo any metamorphosis, but + which escape from the egg nearly under the same form which they preserve + through life.</p> + + <p><b>Am′ethyst,</b> a violet-blue or purple variety of quartz, + generally occurring crystallized in hexahedral prisms or pyramids, also + in rolled fragments, composed of imperfect prismatic crystals. It is + wrought into various articles of jewellery. The <i>oriental amethyst</i> + is a rare violet-coloured gem, a variety of alumina or corundum, of much + brilliance and beauty. The name is generally said to be of Greek origin, + and expresses some supposed quality in the stone of preventing or curing + intoxication. The gem was one of the twelve stones in the breastplate of + the Jewish high-priest.</p> + + <p><b>Amhara</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>m-hä′ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a district of Abyssinia, lying between + the Tacazzé and the Blue Nile, but of which the limits are not well + defined. The Amharic language, developed from the ancient Gheez, and + written since the sixteenth century, has gradually gained ground in + Southern and Central Abyssinia, and has also become the Court + language.</p> + + <p><b>Amherst</b> (am′ėrst), a seaport of Canada, in Nova + Scotia, on an arm of Chignecto Bay, with flourishing industries, and + trade by railway and sea. Pop. 10,320. Also a port of Burmah, 31 miles + south of Moulmein, a health resort of Europeans. Pop. 3750.</p> + + <p><b>Amherst,</b> Jeffrey, Lord, born 1717, died 1797; distinguished + British general, who fought at Dettingen and Fontenoy, and commanded in + America, where he took Louisburg, Ticonderoga, and Quebec, and restored + the British prestige in Canada. He was raised to the peerage, became + commander-in-chief, and ultimately field-marshal.</p> + + <p><b>Amherst,</b> William Pitt, first earl, nephew of the above; + Governor-General of India, 1823; prosecuted the first Burmese war, and + suppressed the Barrackpore mutiny. Born 1773, died 1857.</p> + + <p><b>Amian′thus,</b> a kind of flexible asbestos. See + <i>Asbestos</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amice</b> (am′is), an oblong piece of linen with an + embroidered apparel sewed upon it, worn under the alb by priests of the + Roman Catholic Church when engaged in the sacrifice of the mass.</p> + + <p><b>Amide,</b> or <b>Amine</b> (am′id, am′in), names used + in chemistry. The amines are compounds formed by the introduction of + alcohol radicles into ammonia, e.g. + C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>, which is known as ethylamine. + They closely resemble ammonia in properties. The amides are formed by + replacing one of the hydrogen atoms of ammonia by an acid radicle, e.g. + C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>ONH<sub>2</sub>, which is called acetamide. + They are not strongly basic, and are usually crystalline, and have high + boiling-points.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 +Part 1, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. 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