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+Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 1
+       A to Amide
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34073]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
+[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
+[n.] "n with dot below"; and so forth.
+
+THE
+NEW GRESHAM
+ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME I
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                  _EDITORS_
+
+  ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B.ès L.
+
+  R. F. PATTERSON, M.A.(Cantab.), D.Litt.(Glasgow).
+
+  JOHN DOUGALL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.; Gold Medallist
+  of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ALGAE
+
+[Illustration: 1, The very broad Ulva. 2, Cornucopia. 3, Caulerpa
+Cactoides. 4, Acetabularia Mediterranea. 5, Bladder-locks. 6, Long-stalked
+Laminaria. 7, Sugared Laminaria. 8, Bladder Wrack. 9, Serrated Wrack. 10,
+Gulf-weed. 11, Thalassiophyllum Clathrus. 12, Forked Dictyota. 13,
+Medicinal Coralline. 14, Corallina Rubens. 15, Delesseria Lyalii. 16,
+Nitophyllum Crosieri. 17, Membrane-leaved Phyllophira. 18, Peacock's-tail
+Padina. 19, Banded Taonia.]
+
+THE
+
+NEW . GRESHAM
+
+ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME . I
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
+COMPANY . _Limited_
+
+66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
+LONDON W.C.2.
+1922
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+VOLUME I
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PLATES
+
+                                                                  Page
+  ALGÆ (_Coloured_)                              _Frontispiece_
+
+  AEROPLANE                                                        44
+
+  AIR-SHIPS                                                        72
+
+  ANATOMY (Human Skeleton and Muscles)                            152
+
+  ARCHÆOLOGY (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages)    220
+
+  ARCHITECTURE                                                    224
+
+  BACTERIA                                                        348
+
+MAPS IN COLOUR
+
+  AFRICA                                                           52
+
+  ASIA                                                            274
+
+  AUSTRALIA                                                       316
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I
+
+ADOLPHE ABRAHAMS, O.B.E., B.A., M.D., late Major, R.A.M.C.
+
+GEORGE E. ALLAN, D.Sc., Lecturer in Electricity, University of Glasgow.
+
+R. E. ANDERSON, Maker of Artificial Limbs.
+
+F. L. ATTENBOROUGH, B.A., Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
+
+F. F. P. BISACRE, O.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E.
+
+R. M. BROWN, B.Sc.
+
+GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Royal College of
+Science, Ireland.
+
+ARTHUR O. COOKE, Author of _A Book of Dovecotes_.
+
+J. R. AINSWORTH DAVIS, M.A., F.C.P., former Principal of The Royal
+Agricultural College, Cirencester.
+
+MONTAGU DRUMMOND, M.A., Lecturer in Botany, University of Glasgow.
+
+CHARLES J. FFOULKES, B.Litt., Major, R.M.; Curator of the Armouries, Tower
+of London.
+
+F. MORLEY FLETCHER, Director, College of Art, Edinburgh.
+
+Rev. WILLIAM FULTON, D.D., B.Sc., Professor of Systematic Theology,
+University of Aberdeen.
+
+L. HADEN GUEST, M.C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
+
+R. N. HAYGARTH, B.A., B.Sc., Queens' College, Cambridge.
+
+W. A. HISLOP, M.B., late Captain, R.A.M.C.
+
+DONALD A. MACKENZIE, Folklorist; Author of _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, &c.
+
+MAGNUS MACLEAN, M.A., D.Sc., M.Inst.E.E., M.Inst.C.E., Editor of _Modern
+Electrical Engineering_, &c.
+
+W. LOCKWOOD MARSH, O.B.E., M.A., A.F.R.Ae.S., Lieutenant-Colonel; late
+R.A.F.; Secretary of the Royal Aeronautical Society.
+
+D. J. MACKELLOR, B.Sc., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Royal Technical
+College, Glasgow.
+
+R. F. PATTERSON, M.A., D.Litt., formerly Charles Oldham Shakespeare
+Scholar, Cambridge University.
+
+ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B. ès L.
+
+JAMES RITCHIE, M.A., M.D., Professor of Bacteriology, University of
+Edinburgh.
+
+W. D. ROBIESON, M.A.
+
+JOHN J. ROSS, M.A., F.R.A.S.
+
+GEORGE SMITH, Procurator Fiscal.
+
+G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, University of
+London.
+
+C. S. STOOKS, D.S.O., Major, Indian Army; Instructor in Military
+Organization, Royal Military College, Sandhurst.
+
+M. M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C.
+
+THOMAS G. WRIGHT, LL.B., Professor of Mercantile Law, University of
+Glasgow.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
+the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
+transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--
+
+VOWELS
+
+[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.
+
+ä, as in _a_lms, Fr. _â_me, Ger. B_a_hn = á of Indian names.
+
+[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.
+
+a, as in f_a_t.
+
+[a:], as in f_a_ll.
+
+_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
+in Indian names.
+
+[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.
+
+e, as in m_e_t.
+
+[.e], as in h_e_r.
+
+[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.
+
+i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
+French and Italian words.
+
+_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eû_ne = Ger. long _ö_, as in S_ö_hne,
+G_ö_the (Goethe).
+
+eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _ö_ short.
+
+[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.
+
+o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.
+
+ö, as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.
+
+[=u] as in t_u_be.
+
+u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.
+
+[u:], as in b_u_ll.
+
+ü, as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _û_ as in d_û_, Ger. _ü_ long as in gr_ü_n,
+B_ü_hne.
+
+[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
+M_ü_ller.
+
+oi, as in _oi_l.
+
+ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.
+
+CONSONANTS
+
+Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
+have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
+The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
+being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
+explanation are the following:--
+
+ch is always as in ri_ch_.
+
+_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.
+
+g is always hard, as in _g_o.
+
+_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
+similar gutturals.
+
+[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.
+
+r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
+much more strongly trilled.
+
+s, always as in _s_o.
+
+th, as _th_ in _th_in.
+
+_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.
+
+w always consonantal, as in _w_e.
+
+x = ks, which are used instead.
+
+y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
+l[=e]ny).
+
+zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE NEW
+GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME I
+
+A, the first letter in many alphabets. The sound most commonly belonging to
+it, as in French, Italian, German, &c., is that which is heard in _father_,
+pronounced short or long. In English the letter is made to represent at
+least seven sounds, as in _father_, _mat_, _mate_, _mare_, _many_, _ball_,
+_what_, besides being used in such digraphs as _ea_ in _heat_, _oa_ in
+_boat_.--A, in music, is the sixth note in the diatonic scale of C, and
+stands when in perfect tune to the latter note in the ratio of 3/5 to 1.
+The second string of the violin is tuned to this note.
+
+A 1, a symbol attached to vessels of the highest class in Lloyd's register
+of shipping, A referring to the hull of the vessel, 1 to the rigging and
+whole equipment. When A 1 has a number prefixed, as 100 A 1, 90 A 1, the
+number denotes that the vessel is built according to certain
+specifications. See _Shipbuilding_.
+
+AA (ä) (Old Ger. _aha_, water; allied to Lat. _aqua_, water), the name of a
+great many streams of Central and Northern Europe.
+
+AACHEN (ä'_h_[.e]n). See _Aix-la-Chapelle_.
+
+AALAND ISLANDS. See _Aland Islands_.
+
+AALBORG ([=o]l'bor_h_: 'eel-town'), a seaport of Denmark, in Jutland, on
+the Liimfiord, see of a bishop, with iron-founding, distilling, fishing,
+&c. Pop. 33,449.
+
+AALEN (ä'l[.e]n), a town of Germany in Württemberg, which manufactures
+woollen and linen goods. It has important iron-works and tanneries. Pop.
+11,347.
+
+AALESUND ([=o]'le-s[u:]nd), seaport and fishing centre on the west coast of
+Norway, on a small island. Pop. 13,858.
+
+AALI PASHA. See _Ali Pasha_.
+
+AALST (älst). See _Alost_.
+
+AAR, or AARE (är), the name of several European rivers, of which the chief
+(180 miles long) is a tributary of the Rhine, next to it and the Rhone the
+longest river in Switzerland. It has its origin from the Upper and Lower
+Glaciers of the Aar, in the Bernese Alps, traverses Lakes Brienz and Thun,
+and receives the Saane, Reuss, Limmat, &c. On it are Interlaken, Thun,
+Bern, Solothurn, and Aarau, to which, as to the canton of Aargau, it gives
+its name.
+
+AARAU (ä'rou), a well-built and finely-situated town in Switzerland,
+capital of canton Aargau, on the River Aar. Pop. 9536.
+
+AARD-VARK (ärd'v[.a]rk: earth-pig), Dutch name for a burrowing
+insect-eating animal of South Africa, _Orycter[)o]pus capensis_, order
+Edentata, resembling the ant-eater and armadillo. It is called also
+_ground-hog_ and _Cape pig_.
+
+[Illustration: Aardwolf (_Prot[)e]les crist[=a]tus_)]
+
+AARDWOLF (ärd'w[u:]lf: earth-wolf) (_Prot[)e]les crist[=a]tus_), a
+burrowing carnivore of S. and E. Africa, allied to the hyenas and civets.
+It feeds on carrion, small mammals, insects, &c.
+
+AARE. See _Aar_.
+
+AARGAU (är'gou), or ARGOVIE ([.a]r-go-v[=e]), a northern canton of
+Switzerland; area, 543 sq. miles; hilly, well wooded, abundantly watered by
+the Aar and its tributaries, and well cultivated. Pop. 236,860. German is
+almost universally spoken. Capital, Aarau.
+
+AARHUUS ([=o]r'hös), a seaport and ancient town of Denmark, on the east
+coast of Jutland. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a good harbour, and
+manufactures woollens, gloves, hats, tobacco, &c. Pop. 65,858.
+
+AARON ([=a]'ron), of the tribe of Levi, brother of Moses. At Sinai, when
+the people became impatient at the long-continued absence of Moses, he
+complied with their request by making a golden calf, and thus became
+involved with them in the guilt of gross idolatry. The office of
+high-priest, which he first filled, was made hereditary in his family. He
+died at Mount Hor at the age of 123, and was succeeded by his son Eleazer.
+
+AARON'S BEARD. See _Saint John's Wort_ and _Toad-flax_.
+
+AARON'S ROD. See _Golden-rod_ and _Mullein_.
+
+AASEN ([=o]'zen), Ivar Andreas, Norwegian poet and philologist, was born in
+1813 and died in 1896. He wrote miscellaneous poems and a drama, but he is
+chiefly known as the originator of the patriotic movement known as the
+_Maulstroev_. He endeavoured to give Norway a literary language distinct
+from the Danish, which has long served as the literary and official
+language of the country. This he attempted to do mainly by the help of the
+native dialects, which he studied thoroughly, setting forth their grammar
+in special works and embodying their vocabulary in his _Norsk Ordbog med
+Dansk Forklaring_ (Norse Dictionary, with Explanations in Danish, 1873),
+supplemented by the _Norsk Ordbog_ of Hans Ross (1890-2). Numbers of poems,
+tales, &c., have been written in the language, of which Aasen was in a
+sense the inventor.
+
+AASVÄR ([=o]s'v[=a]r), a group of small islands off the Norwegian coast,
+under the Arctic Circle, where there is an important herring-fishery.
+
+AB, the eleventh month of the Jewish civil, the fifth of the
+ecclesiastical, year--part of July and part of August.
+
+ABABDA, or ABABDEH (abab'de) (GEBADEI of Pliny), a nomadic African race
+inhabiting Upper Egypt and part of Nubia, between the Nile and the Red Sea,
+dark-brown in colour. Their language is Arabic and they are Mahommedans in
+religion. They number about 40,000.
+
+AB'ACA, or MANILLA HEMP, a strong fibre yielded by the leaf-stalks of a
+kind of plantain (_Musa text[)i]lis_) which grows in the Indian
+Archipelago, and is cultivated in the Philippines. The outer fibres of the
+leaf-stalks are made into strong and durable ropes, the inner into various
+fine fabrics.
+
+AB'ACO, GREAT and LITTLE, two islands of the Bahamas group, (q.v.). Pop.
+about 4000.
+
+[Illustration: Abacus for Calculations]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Capital--_a_, the Abacus]
+
+AB'ACUS, a Latin term applied to an apparatus used in elementary schools
+for facilitating arithmetical operations, consisting of a number of
+parallel cords or wires, upon which balls or beads are strung, the
+uppermost wire being appropriated to units, the next to tens, &c.--The
+uppermost member or division of the capital of a column, immediately under
+the architrave.
+
+ABAD'DON (Heb. destruction), the name given in _Rev._ ix. 11 as that of the
+angel of the bottomless pit, otherwise called _Apollyon_. In _Job_, xxvi,
+6, it designates the underworld, or Hades.
+
+ABAKANSK', a fortified place in Siberia, near the Upper Yenisei, founded by
+Peter the Great in 1707.
+
+ABALONE (ab-a-l[=o]'ne), a name in California for a species of ear-shell
+(Haliotis) that furnishes mother-of-pearl.
+
+AB'ANA, or AMANAH, one of the two rivers of Damascus mentioned in the Bible
+(2 _Kings_, v, 12). See _Barada_.
+
+ABAN'DONMENT, a term of marine insurance, employed to designate the case
+where the party insured gives up his whole interest in the property to the
+insurer, and claims as for a total loss.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. G. Phillimore,
+_Marine Insurance_, in _Encyclopedia of the Laws of England_, vol. viii;
+C. R. Tyser, _Law relating to Losses under a Policy of Marine Insurance_.
+
+AB'ANO, a village of North Italy, 5 miles from Padua, famous for its
+mud-baths and warm springs. It is supposed to be the birthplace of Livy.
+
+ABA'RIM, a mountain range of Eastern Palestine, including Nebo, on which
+Moses died.
+
+ABATEMENT, in law, has various significations. _Abatement of nuisances_ is
+the remedy allowed to a person injured by a public or private nuisance, of
+destroying or removing it himself. A _plea in abatement_ is brought forward
+by a defendant when he wishes to defeat or quash a particular action on
+some formal or technical ground. Abatement, in mercantile law, is an
+allowance, deduction, or discount made for prompt payment or other reason.
+
+AB'ATTIS, or ABATIS, in field engineering, a mass of trees cut down and
+laid with their branches turned towards the enemy in such a way as to form
+a defence for troops stationed behind them.
+
+ABATTOIR (ab-at-wär'). See _Slaughter-house_.
+
+ABAUZIT, Firmin ([.a]-b[=o]-z[=e]), a French Protestant scholar, was born
+in 1679 and died in 1767. He lived chiefly at Geneva, but visited England
+and was highly esteemed by Newton, who considered him not unfit to be judge
+between himself and Leibnitz in the quarrel as to the invention of the
+integral and differential calculus. Collections of his works were published
+at Geneva (1770) and at London (1773).
+
+ABBA, a Syrian word equivalent to 'father', which, being applied in the
+Eastern Church to monks, superiors of monks, and other ecclesiastics, gave
+rise to the word _abbot_. In the Syriac and Coptic Churches it is given to
+bishops.
+
+ABBADIE ([.a]b-[.a]-d[=e]), Antoine Thomson and Arnaud Michel d', French
+travellers, born in Dublin in 1810 and 1815 respectively. They lived for
+years in Abyssinia, and published valuable works on that country: Arnaud,
+_Douze Ans dans la Haute-Éthiopie_; Antoine, _Géodésie de la
+Haute-Éthiopie_, &c. Arnaud died in 1893, Antoine in 1897.
+
+ABBAS I, the _Great_, Shah or King of Persia, born in 1557, ascended the
+throne in 1586, at a time when the Turks and hordes of Usbek Tartars had
+made great encroachments on the country. Having defeated the Usbeks,
+recovered the provinces overrun by them, and reduced a great part of
+Afghanistan, he made war against the Turks, and in 1605 defeated them near
+Bussorah, thus getting back all the lost provinces. He extended his rule
+beyond Persia proper, and at his death in 1628 his dominions stretched from
+the Tigris to the Indus. He is looked upon by the Persians as their
+greatest sovereign.
+
+ABBAS II, HILMI, ex-Khedive of Egypt, was born in 1874. He is the eldest
+son of Tewfik Pasha, and succeeded his father in 1892. During his reign he
+adopted an unfriendly attitude towards England, but he failed in his
+attempt to form an anti-British Cabinet in 1893. On 19th Dec., 1914, the
+British Government issued a proclamation deposing Abbas Hilmi and
+conferring the title of Sultan of Egypt upon Hussein Kamil, eldest living
+prince of the family of Mohammed Ali-Hussein Kamil, who died in 1917. See
+_Egypt_.
+
+ABBAS MIRZA, a Persian prince and soldier, was the son of the shah Feth
+Ali; born 1783, died 1833; he greatly distinguished himself in the wars
+against Russia.
+
+ABBASIDS, or ABBASSIDES (ab'as-sidz), the name of the second Arabian
+dynasty which supplanted the Ommiades. It traced its descent from Abbas
+(born 566, died 652), uncle of Mahomet, and gave thirty-seven caliphs to
+Bagdad between 749 and 1258. Harun al Rashid was a member of this dynasty.
+See _Caliphs_.
+
+ABBATE ([.a]b-bä't[=a]), the Italian term corresponding to _Abbé_.
+
+ABBÉ ([.a]b-[=a]), a French word for abbot, or for anyone regularly wearing
+the clerical dress. Before the Revolution, all who had studied theology,
+either with the view of becoming ordained clergymen or merely of obtaining
+some ecclesiastical appointment or benefice, were generally so designated.
+Marked out by their special dress, a short, violet-coloured robe, they were
+seen everywhere--at court, the ball, the theatre, and in private families,
+where they acted sometimes as tutors and sometimes as confidential
+advisers. Others, again, adopted the literary profession or became teachers
+in the higher educational establishments.
+
+ABBE, Cleveland, American meteorologist and astronomer, born at New York in
+1838, and educated at Harvard. He held various positions in connection with
+observatories and other institutions in America, and was for some time
+chief meteorologist in the United States Weather Bureau. He wrote much on
+meteorology and kindred subjects. He died in 1916. His works include: _The
+Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere_; _Relations between Climates and
+Crops_, &c.
+
+ABBEOKU'TA, a town of West Africa, in the Lagos Province of S. Nigeria, on
+the Ogun River, and on the railway from Lagos to N. Nigeria, 45 miles north
+of Lagos, consists chiefly of mud houses, surrounded by a mud wall. Pop.
+50,000 to 100,000.
+
+AB'BESS. See _Abbey_ and _Abbot_.
+
+ABBEVILLE (ancient ABBATIS VILLA), a town of France, department of the
+Somme, on the River Somme (which is here tidal), 108 miles N.N.W. of Paris.
+The town is first mentioned in the ninth century, when it belonged to the
+Abbey of St. Riquier. It has a Gothic church (St. Vulfran) (begun in the
+fifteenth century and completed in the seventeenth), which has a
+magnificent west front in the Flamboyant style. It manufactures woollens,
+sail-cloth, chemicals, &c. Pop. 20,373.
+
+AB'BEY, a monastery or religious community of the highest class, governed
+by an _abbot_, assisted generally by a prior, sub-prior, and other
+subordinate functionaries; or, in the case of a female community,
+superintended by an _abbess_. An abbey invariably included a church. A
+priory differed from an abbey only in being scarcely so extensive an
+establishment, and was governed by a _prior_. In the English conventual
+cathedral establishments, as Canterbury, Norwich, Ely, &c., the archbishops
+or bishops held the abbot's place, the immediate governor of the monastery
+being called a prior. Some priories sprang originally from the more
+important abbeys, and remained under the jurisdiction of the abbots; but
+subsequently any real distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. The
+greater abbeys formed most complete and extensive establishments, including
+not only the church and other buildings devoted to the monastic life and
+its daily requirements, such as the refectory or eating-room, the
+dormitories or sleeping-rooms, the room for social intercourse, the school
+for novices, the scribes' cells, library, &c., but also workshops,
+storehouses, mills, cattle and poultry sheds, dwellings for artisans,
+labourers, and other servants, infirmary, guest-house, &c. Among the most
+famous abbeys on the continent of Europe were those of Cluny, Clairvaux,
+and Citeaux in France; St. Galle in Switzerland, and Fulda in Germany; the
+most noteworthy English abbeys were those of Westminster, St. Mary's of
+York, Fountains, Kirkstall, Tintern, Rievaulx, Netley; and of Scotland,
+Melrose, Paisley, and Arbroath.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Fountains Abbey]
+
+ABBIATEGRASSO ([.a]b-b[=e]-ä't[=a]-gr[.a]s-s[=o]), a town in the north of
+Italy, 15 miles W.S.W. of Milan. Pop. 13,148.
+
+AB'BOT (from the Syriac _abba_, father), the head of an abbey (see
+_Abbey_), the lady of similar rank being called _abbess_ (_abbatissa_). An
+abbess, however, was not, like the abbot, allowed to exercise the spiritual
+functions of the priesthood, such as preaching, confessing, &c.; nor did
+abbesses ever succeed in freeing themselves from the control of their
+diocesan bishop. In the early age of monastic institutions (_circ._ A.D.
+300-600) the monks were not priests, but simply laymen who retired from the
+world to live in common, and the abbot was also a layman. In the course of
+time the abbots were usually ordained, and when an abbey was directly
+attached to a cathedral the bishop was also the abbot, but the functions
+devolving on the head of a monastery were, in this case, performed by a
+prior. At first the abbeys were more remarkable for their numbers than for
+their magnitude, but afterwards many of them were large and richly endowed,
+and the heads of such establishments became personages of no small
+influence and power, more especially after the abbots succeeded (by the
+eleventh century) in freeing themselves from the jurisdiction of the bishop
+of their diocese. Hence families of the highest rank might be seen eagerly
+striving to obtain the titles of abbot and abbess for their members. The
+great object was to obtain control over the revenues of the abbeys, and for
+this purpose recourse was had to the device of holding them under a kind of
+trust, or, as it was called, _in commendam_. According to the original
+idea, the abbot _in commendam_, or 'commendator', was merely a temporary
+trustee, who drew the whole or part of the revenues during a vacancy, and
+was bound to apply them to specific purposes; but ultimately the
+commendator or lay abbot in many instances held the appointment for life,
+and was allowed to apply the whole or a large portion of the revenues to
+his own private use. Many of the abbots vied with the bishops and nobility
+in rank and dignity. In England abbots long sat in the House of Lords,
+ranking next after barons. Seventeen of them were present on 28th June,
+1539, the last occasion when the abbots as a body sat in Parliament. The
+Reformation introduced vast changes, not only in Protestant countries,
+where abbeys and all other monastic establishments were generally
+suppressed, but even in countries which still continued Roman Catholic;
+many sovereigns, whilst displaying their zeal for the Roman Catholic Church
+by persecuting its opponents, did not scruple to imitate them in the
+confiscation of Church property.
+
+ABBOT (or Lord) OF MISRULE, the personage who took the chief part in the
+Christmas revelries of the English populace before the Reformation. In
+Scotland he was called Abbot of Unreason.
+
+ABBOT, George, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in 1562 and died in 1633.
+He studied at Oxford, assisted in the translation of the Bible, was made
+Bishop of Lichfield in 1609, next year Bishop of London, and in 1611
+Archbishop of Canterbury. He retained the favour of James I to the last,
+but after the accession of Charles I his influence at Court was superseded
+by that of Laud. He published several works, chiefly theological, and _A
+Brief Description of the Whole World_ (1599).
+
+AB'BOTSFORD, the country-seat of Sir Walter Scott, on the south bank of the
+Tweed, in Roxburghshire, 3 miles from Melrose, in the midst of picturesque
+scenery, forming an extensive and irregular pile in the Scottish baronial
+style of architecture.--_Abbotsford Club_, a club established at Edinburgh
+for printing works throwing light on matters of history or literature
+connected with the writings of Sir Walter Scott; issued 34 vols. 1835-64.
+
+AB'BOTT, Rev. Edwin, D.D., prolific writer on theological, educational, and
+other subjects, born in London, 1838, was educated at the City of London
+School and St. John's College, Cambridge, where he highly distinguished
+himself; he was head master of the City of London School from 1865 to 1889,
+when he retired. His _Shakespearian Grammar_ (1870) is one of his best
+contributions to English philology. Among his theological and kindred
+writings are: _Through Nature to Christ_; _Bible Lessons_; _Cambridge
+Sermons_; _Oxford Sermons_; the elaborate article _Gospels_ in the
+_Encyclopædia Britannica_ (9th edition); _From Letter to Spirit_. Other
+works are: _Philochristus_ and _Onesimus_, both romances on the history of
+the Early Christian Church; _Francis Bacon, an Account of his Life and
+Works_; _St. Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles_; _The Anglican
+Career of Cardinal Newman_ (a very depreciatory estimate); _Flatland, a
+Romance of Many Dimensions_. He also wrote: _Johannine Grammar_ (1906),
+_The Message of the Son of Man_ (1909), _The Fourfold Gospel_ (1913-7).
+
+AB'BOTT, Jacob, a popular American writer, especially of entertaining and
+instructive books for the young. He was born in 1803 and died in 1879. For
+a time he was a teacher and later a clergyman.
+
+AB'BOTT, Thomas Kingsmill, D.D., biblical scholar and writer on philosophic
+and other subjects, born at Dublin, 1829, died 18th Dec., 1913. He studied
+with distinction at Trinity College, and was successively professor in
+Dublin University of moral philosophy, 1867-72; of biblical Greek, 1875-88;
+and of Hebrew, 1879-1900; he was at one time librarian of the College. He
+has written _Sight and Touch_, directed against the Berkeleian theory of
+vision; _Elements of Logic_; _Essays, chiefly on the Original Texts of the
+Old and New Testaments_; _Notes on some Epistles of St. Paul_; _Elementary
+Theory of the Tides_; _Translation of Kant's Theory of Ethics_; _Kant's
+Introduction to Logic_; _Commentary on Ephesians and Colossians_; &c.
+
+ABBREVIA'TIONS, devices used in writing and printing to save time and
+space, consisting usually of curtailments effected in words and syllables
+by the removal of some letters, often of the whole of the letters except
+the first. The following is a list of the more important:--
+
+    A.B., _artium baccalaureus_, bachelor of arts (more commonly B.A.);
+    also, able-bodied seaman. Abp., archbishop. A.C., _ante Christum_,
+    before Christ. Ac., acre. Acc., A/c, or Acct., account. A.D., _anno
+    Domini_, in the year of our Lord: used also as if equivalent to 'after
+    Christ', or 'of the Christian era'. A.D.C., aide-de-camp. Ad lib., _ad
+    libitum_, at pleasure. A.D.O.S., assistant director of ordnance stores.
+    A.D.V.S., assistant director of veterinary services. Æt. or Ætat.
+    _ætatis_ (_anno_), in the year of his age. A.G., attorney-general,
+    adjutant-general. A.H., _anno Hegiræ_, in the year of the Hegira.
+    A.I.A., associate of the Institute of Actuaries. A.Inst.C.E., associate
+    of the Institution of Civil Engineers. A.I.Mech.E., associate of the
+    Institute of Mechanical Engineers. A.M., _ante meridiem_, forenoon;
+    _anno mundi_, in the year of the world; _artium magister_, master of
+    arts. A.M.I.E.E., associate member of the Institute of Electrical
+    Engineers. A.M.I.Mech.E., associate member of the Institute of
+    Mechanical Engineers. A.M.Inst.C.E., associate member of the
+    Institution of Civil Engineers. Anon., anonymous. A.P.D., army pay
+    department. A.R.A., associate of Royal Academy (London). A.R.A.M.,
+    associate of the Royal Academy of Music. A.R.C.O., associate of the
+    Royal College of Organists. A.R.I.B.A., associate of the Royal
+    Institute of British Architects. A.R.S.A., associate of the Royal
+    Scottish Academy. A.U.C., _ab urbe condita_, from the building of Rome
+    (753 B.C.). A.V., authorized version; artillery volunteers.
+
+    B.A., bachelor of arts. Bart, or Bt., baronet. B.C., before Christ.
+    B.C.L., bachelor of civil law. B.D., bachelor of divinity. B.L.,
+    bachelor of law. B.M., bachelor of medicine. Bp., bishop. B.S.,
+    bachelor of surgery. B.Sc., bachelor of science. B.V.M., blessed Virgin
+    Mary.
+
+    C., cap., or chap., chapter. C.A., chartered accountant. Cantab.,
+    _Cantabrigiensis_, of Cambridge. Cantuar., _Cantuariensis_, of
+    Canterbury. C.B., companion of the Bath. C.B.E., commander of the
+    British Empire. C.C., Catholic curate; county councillor. C.D.V.,
+    _carte de visite_. C.E., civil engineer. Cf., _confer_, compare. Ch.B.,
+    _chirurgiæ baccalaureus_, bachelor of surgery. C.I., order of the Crown
+    of India. C.I.E., companion of the order of the Indian Empire. C.J.,
+    chief justice. C.M., _chirurgiæ magister_, master in surgery; common
+    metre. C.M.G., companion of the order of St. Michael and St. George.
+    C.M.S., Church Missionary Society. Co., company or county. C.O.D., cash
+    on delivery. Col., colonel, colony. Coll., college. Cr., creditor.
+    C.S., civil service; clerk to the signet. C.S.I., companion of the Star
+    of India. C.T.C., Cyclists' Touring Club. Curt., current, the present
+    month. C.V.O., commander of the Royal Victorian Order. Cwt.,
+    hundredweight.
+
+    d., _denarius_, penny or pence. D.C.L., doctor of civil law. D.C.M.,
+    Distinguished Conduct Medal. D.D., doctor of divinity. Del.,
+    _delineavit_, drew it. D.F., defender of the faith. D.G., _Dei gratia_,
+    by the grace of God. D.L., deputy lieutenant. D.Lit., D.Litt., _doctor
+    litterarum_, doctor of letters or literature. Do., _ditto_, the same.
+    D.O.M., _Deo Optimo Maximo_, to God, the best and greatest. D.P.H.,
+    diploma in public health. D.Phil., doctor of philosophy. Dr., doctor,
+    also debtor. D.Sc., doctor of science. D.S.O., Distinguished Service
+    Order. D.V., _Deo volente_, God willing. Dwt., pennyweight.
+
+    E., east. Ebor., _Eboracensis_, of York. E.C., Established Church.
+    E.C.U., English Church Union. E.E., errors excepted. e.g., _exempli
+    gratia_, for example. Etc. or &c., _et cetera_, and the rest.
+
+    F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit's thermometer. F.A., Football Association.
+    F.A.S., fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F.B.A., fellow of the
+    British Academy. F.C., Free Church. F.C.P., fellow of the College of
+    Preceptors. F.C.S., fellow of the Chemical Society. F.D., _fidei
+    defensor_, defender of the faith. Fec., _fecit_, he made or did it.
+    F.F.A., fellow of the Faculty of Actuaries. F.F.P.S., fellow of the
+    Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow). F.G.S., fellow of the
+    Geological Society. F.H.S., fellow of the Horticultural Society.
+    F.I.A., fellow of the Institute of Actuaries. Fl., flourished. F.L.S.,
+    fellow of the Linnæan Society. F.M., field-marshal. F.O.B., free on
+    board (goods delivered). F.R.A.S., fellow of the Royal Astronomical
+    Society. F.R.C.O., fellow of the Royal College of Organists. F.R.C.P.,
+    fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. F.R.C.S., fellow of the
+    Royal College of Surgeons. F.R.G.S., fellow of the Royal Geographical
+    Society. F.R.I.B.A., fellow of the Royal Institute of British
+    Architects. F.R.S., fellow of the Royal Society. F.R.S.E., fellow of
+    the Royal Society of Edinburgh. F.S.A., fellow of the Society of Arts
+    or Antiquaries. F.S.S., fellow of the Statistical Society. Ft., foot or
+    feet. F.Z.S., fellow of the Zoological Society.
+
+    Gal., gallon. G.B.E., (knight) grand cross of the British Empire.
+    G.C.B., (knight) grand cross of the Bath. G.C.I.E., (knight) grand
+    commander of the Indian Empire. G.C.M.G., (knight) grand cross of St.
+    Michael and St. George. G.C.S.I., (knight) grand commander of the Star
+    of India. G.C.V.O., (knight) grand cross of the Royal Victorian Order.
+    G.R., Georgius Rex, King George. G.R.I., Georgius Rex Imperator;
+    George, King and Emperor. G.P.O., general post office.
+
+    H.B.M., his or her Britannic majesty. H.E.I.C.S., honourable East India
+    Company's service. Hhd., hogshead. H.I.H., his or her imperial
+    highness. H.M.I.S., his majesty's inspector of schools. H.M.S., his or
+    her majesty's ship. Hon., honourable. H.Q., Head-quarters. H.R.H., his
+    (her) royal highness. H.S.H., his (her) serene highness.
+
+    Ib. or Ibid., _ib[=i]dem_, in the same place. Id., _idem_, the same.
+    i.e., _id est_, that is. +I.H.S., _Jesus hominum salvator_, Jesus the
+    Saviour of men: originally it was [Greek: IÊS], the first three letters
+    of [Greek: IÊSOUS] (_I[=e]sous_), Greek for _Jesus_. Incog.,
+    _incognito_, unknown. Inf., _infra_, below. I.N.R.I., _Iesus Nazarenus
+    Rex Iudæorum_, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Inst., instant, or
+    of this month; institute. Inv., _invenit_, designed, invented.
+    I.O.G.T., Independent Order of Good Templars. I.O.U., I owe you.
+    I.S.O., Imperial Service Order.
+
+    J.P., justice of the peace. Jr., junior. J.U.D., _juris utriusque
+    doctor_, doctor both of the civil and the canon law.
+
+    K.B.E., knight commander of the British Empire. K.C., king's counsel.
+    K.C.B., knight commander of the Bath. K.C.M.G., knight commander of St.
+    Michael and St. George. K.C.I.E., knight commander of the Indian
+    Empire. K.C.S.I., knight commander of the Star of India. K.C.V.O.,
+    knight commander of the Royal Victorian Order. K.G., knight of the
+    Garter. K.P., knight of St. Patrick. K.T., knight of the Thistle. Kt.
+    or Knt., knight.
+
+    L., l, or £, pounds sterling. L.A., literate in arts. L.A.S.,
+    licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society. Lat., latitude; Latin. Lb. or
+    lb., _libra_, a pound (weight). L.C., _loco citato_, in the place
+    cited. L.C.J., lord chief-justice. L.C.P., licentiate of the College of
+    Preceptors. Ldp., lordship. L.D.S., licentiate in dental surgery.
+    Litt.D., _litterarum doctor_, doctor of literature. L.L., Low Latin.
+    L.L.A., lady literate in arts. LL.B., _legum baccalaureus_, bachelor of
+    laws. LL.D., _legum doctor_, doctor of laws (that is, the civil and the
+    canon law). LL.M., _legum magister_, master of laws. Lon. or long.,
+    longitude. Loq., _loquitur_, speaks. L.R.C.P., licentiate Royal College
+    of Physicians (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.S., licentiate Royal
+    College of Surgeons (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.V.S., licentiate of
+    the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. L.S., _locus sigilli_, the
+    place of the seal (on documents). L.S.A., licentiate of the Society of
+    Apothecaries. L.S.D., _libræ, solidi, denarii_, pounds, shillings,
+    pence.
+
+    M.A., master of arts. M.B., _medicinæ baccalaureus_, bachelor of
+    medicine. M.B.E., member of the British Empire. M.D., _medicinæ
+    doctor_, doctor of medicine. M.E., mining engineer. Messrs., messieurs,
+    gentlemen. M.F.H., master of fox-hounds. M.Inst.C.E., member of the
+    Institution of Civil Engineers. M.I.E.E., member of the Institute of
+    Electrical Engineers. M.I.M.E., member of the Institute of Mining and
+    Mechanical Engineers. M.I.Mech.E., member of the Institution of
+    Mechanical Engineers. Mlle., mademoiselle. Mme., madame. M.P., member
+    of Parliament. M.R.C.S., member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
+    M.R.C.V.S., member of the Royal College of Veterinary surgeons.
+    M.R.I.A., member of the Royal Irish Academy. MS., manuscript; MSS.,
+    manuscripts. Mus.D., _musicæ doctor_, doctor of music. M.V.O., member
+    of the Royal Victorian Order.
+
+    N., north. N.B., _nota bene_, take notice; also North Britain, New
+    Brunswick. N.D., no date. Nem. con., _nemine contradicente_, no one
+    contradicting, unanimously. No., _numero_, number. N.P., notary public.
+    N.S., new style, Nova Scotia. N.S.W., New South Wales. N.T., New
+    Testament. N.Y., New York. N.Z., New Zealand.
+
+    Ob., _obiit_, died. O.B.E., officer of the British Empire. Obs.,
+    obsolete. Obt., obedient. O.C., officer commanding. O.H.M.S., on his
+    majesty's service. O.M., Order of Merit. O.P., out of print. Op. cit.,
+    _opere citato_, in the work quoted. O.S., old style. O.T., Old
+    Testament. Oxon., _Oxoniensis_, of Oxford. Oz., ounce or ounces.
+
+    P., page; pp., pages. Par., paragraph. P.C., privy-councillor. P.E.,
+    Protestant Episcopal. Per cent., _per centum_, by the hundred. Ph.D.,
+    _philosophiæ doctor_, doctor of philosophy. Pinx., _pinxit_, painted
+    (it). P.M., _post meridiem_, afternoon. P.O., post office. P.O.O., post
+    office order. P.P., parish priest. P.P.C., _pour prendre congé_, to
+    take leave. Prox., _proximo (mense)_, next month. P.R.A., president of
+    the Royal Academy. P.R.S.A., president of the Royal Scottish Academy.
+    P.S., postscript. P.T.O., please turn over (the leaf).
+
+    Q., question, queen. Q.E.D., _quod erat demonstrandum_, which was to be
+    demonstrated. Q.E.F., _quod erat faciendum_, which was to be done.
+    Q.M., quarter-master. Q.M.G., quarter-master-general. Qu., query.
+    Quant. suff., _quantum sufficit_, as much as is needful. Q.V., _quod
+    vide_, which see.
+
+    R., _rex, regina_, king, queen. R.A., royal academician; Royal
+    Artillery. R.A.M., Royal Academy of Music. R.A.M.C., Royal Army Medical
+    Corps. R.A.O.D., Royal Army Ordnance Department. R.A.S.C., Royal Army
+    Service Corps. R.C., Roman Catholic. R.C.P., Royal College of
+    Physicians. R.C.S., Royal College of Surgeons. R.E., Royal Engineers.
+    Rev., reverend. R.I.P., _requiescat in pace_, may he rest in peace.
+    R.M., Royal Marines. R.N., Royal Navy. R.S.A., royal Scottish
+    academician. R.S.E., Royal Society of Edinburgh. R.S.L., Royal Society
+    of Literature. R.S.V.P., _répondez s'il vous plaît_, reply, if you
+    please. Rt. Hon., right honourable. Rt. Wpful., right worshipful. R.V.,
+    revised version.
+
+    S., south. S. or St., saint. Sc., _scilicet_, namely, viz. S.J.,
+    Society of Jesus (Jesuits). S.P.C.A., Society for the Prevention of
+    Cruelty to Animals. S.P.C.C., Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
+    Children. S.P.C.K., Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. S.P.G.,
+    Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. S.P.Q.R., _senatus
+    populusque Romanus_, the senate and people of Rome. S.S.C., solicitor
+    before the supreme courts. S.S.M., Society of the Sacred Mission. St.,
+    saint, street. S.T.D., _sacræ theologiæ doctor_, doctor of divinity.
+    S.T.P., _sacræ theologiæ professor_, an old-fashioned equivalent of
+    D.D.
+
+    T.C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. T.O., telegraph office.
+
+    U.F.C., United Free Church. U.K., United Kingdom. Ult., _ultimo_, last
+    (month). U.P., United Presbyterian. U.S., United States. U.S.A., United
+    States of America. U.S.N., United States Navy.
+
+    V., _vide_, see; also _versus_, against. V.C., Victoria Cross. Viz.,
+    _videlicet_, to wit, or namely. V.P., vice-president. V.S., veterinary
+    surgeon. W., west. W.I., West Indies. W.L.F., Women's Liberal
+    Federation. W.O., War Office. W.S.P.U., Women's Social and Political
+    Union. W.S. writer to the signet (Scotland).
+
+    Xmas, Christmas.
+
+    Y.M.C.A., Young Men's Christian Association. Y.W.C.A., Young Women's
+    Christian Association.
+
+    In LL.D., LL.B., &c., the letter is doubled, according to the Roman
+    system, to show that the abbreviation represents a plural noun.
+
+ABD-EL-KA'DER, an Arab chief, born in Algeria, 1807; died at Damascus,
+1883. He was the chief opponent of the French in their conquest of Algeria,
+but at last surrendered to them in 1847, and was imprisoned till set at
+liberty by Napoleon III in 1852. He afterwards resided chiefly at Damascus,
+but made various journeys, and visited the Paris exhibition of 1867. He
+wrote a religious philosophical work in Arabic which has been translated
+into French.
+
+ABDE'RA, an ancient Greek city on the Thracian coast, the birthplace of
+Democritus (the laughing philosopher), Anaxarchus, and Protagoras. Its
+inhabitants were proverbial for stupidity.
+
+ABDICA'TION, properly the voluntary, but sometimes also the involuntary,
+resignation of an office or dignity, and more especially that of sovereign
+power. Abdication does not necessarily require the execution of a formal
+deed, but may be presumed from facts and circumstances, as in the case of
+the English Revolution in 1688, when, after long debate, it was resolved by
+both Houses of Parliament that King James II, having endeavoured to subvert
+the constitution of the kingdom, had "_abdicated_ the government, and that
+the throne is thereby vacant". Yet the sovereign of Great Britain cannot
+constitutionally abdicate without the consent of both Houses of Parliament.
+The principal abdications in recent years were: Tsar Nicholas II of Russia,
+14th March, 1917; King Constantine of Greece, 11th June, 1917; King
+Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 6th Oct., 1918; Wilhelm II of Germany, 9th Nov.,
+1918; Karl I of Austria, 13th Nov., 1918; and Marie Adelaide, Grand-Duchess
+of Luxembourg, 15th Jan., 1919.
+
+[Illustration: Abdominal Regions.]
+
+ABDO'MEN, in man, the belly, or lower cavity of the trunk, separated from
+the upper cavity or thorax by the diaphragm or midriff, and bounded below
+by the bones of the pelvis. It contains the viscera belonging to the
+digestive and urinary systems. What are called the _abdominal regions_ will
+be understood from the accompanying cut, in which 1 is the _epigastric_
+region, 2 the _umbilical_, 3 the _pubic_, 4 4 the right and left
+_hypochondriac_, 5 5 the right and left _lumbar_, 6 6 right and left
+_iliac_. The name is given to the corresponding portion of the body in
+other animals. In insects it comprises the whole body behind the thorax,
+usually consisting of a series of rings. See _Alimentary Canal_.
+
+ABDOM'INAL FISHES (Abdomin[=a]les), a group of the soft-finned (or
+malacopterous) fishes, having fins upon the abdomen, and comprising the
+herring, pike, salmon, carp, &c.
+
+ABDUC'TION, a legal term, generally applied to denote the offence of
+carrying off a female either forcibly or by fraudulent representations.
+Such a delinquency in regard to a man is styled _kidnapping_. There are
+various descriptions of abduction recognized in criminal jurisprudence,
+such as that of a child, of an heiress, or of a wife.
+
+AB'DUL-AZ'IZ, Sultan of Turkey, was born in Feb., 1830, and succeeded his
+brother Abdul-Mejid, in June, 1861. He concluded treaties of commerce with
+France and England, both of which countries he visited in 1867. Deposed in
+May, 1876, he committed suicide, or more probably was assassinated, in June
+of the same year. He was succeeded by his son Murad V. See next article.
+
+AB'DUL-HAM'ID, Sultan of Turkey, younger son of Abdul-Mejid, born 22nd
+Sept., 1842, succeeded his brother Murad V, who was deposed on proof of his
+insanity in 1876. At that time Turkey, which was at war with Serbia, was
+compelled to agree to an armistice at the demand of Russia. The persecution
+and oppression of the Christian population of Bulgaria had roused
+remonstrances from other European countries, and a congress met at
+Constantinople to consider a constitution which the Porte had proclaimed.
+The conference was a failure, and in April, 1877, war was declared by
+Russia. During the sanguinary struggle which ensued the Turks fought with
+great bravery, but they had ultimately to sue for peace. A treaty was
+signed at San Stefano in Feb., 1878, but its provisions were modified by a
+congress of the Great Powers which met at Berlin. The island of Cyprus was
+ceded to Britain. Serbia, Rumania, and Montenegro were freed from Turkish
+suzerainty altogether; Bulgaria was left in nominal dependence; whilst
+Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian administration. In 1881
+Thessaly was transferred to Greece; in 1885 E. Roumelia became united to
+Bulgaria. Ever since the treaty of Berlin, Abdul Hamid saw in Germany the
+future friend of Turkey. He therefore entrusted Germans with the
+reorganization of his army and finances. Subsequently there were massacres
+of Christians, a war with Greece (1897), and troubles in Crete and
+Macedonia. In April, 1909, the Sultan was deposed, and his brother, Rashid
+Effendi, proclaimed sultan as Mohammed V. Abdul Hamid died in captivity
+10th Feb., 1918.
+
+ABD-UL-LAT'IF, an Arab writer and physician, was born at Bagdad in 1161 and
+died there in 1231. He was patronized by the celebrated Saladin, and
+published an excellent description of Egypt, which is still extant. It was
+translated into English by White, Oxford, 1800.
+
+AB'DUL-MEJ'ID KHAN, Sultan of Turkey, born in 1823, succeeded his father,
+Mahmud II, 1st July, 1839. At the time of his accession Mehemet, Pasha of
+Egypt, had risen a second time against the Turkish yoke; his son Ibrahim
+had inflicted a severe defeat on the Turks at Nizib (24th June, 1839), and
+was advancing on Constantinople. But the intervention of the leading
+European Powers checked the designs of Mehemet Ali, and saved the Turkish
+empire. Abdul-Mejid was desirous of carrying out reforms, but most of them
+were not enforced, or caused bloody insurrections where attempts were made
+to carry them out. Owing to disputes between the Latin and Greek Churches
+regarding the rights of precedence and possession of the 'holy places' in
+Palestine, and to demands made by the Tsar virtually implying the right of
+protectorate over the Christian subjects of the Sultan, war broke out
+between Turkey and Russia in 1853. In the following year the Porte effected
+an alliance with France and England (hence the Crimean War), and later on
+with Sardinia. (See _Crimean War_.) Abdul-Mejid died 25th June, 1861, and
+was succeeded by his brother, Abdul-Aziz.
+
+ABECEDA'RIAN, a term formed from the first four letters of the alphabet,
+and applied to the followers of Storch, a German Anabaptist (1522), because
+they rejected all worldly knowledge, even the learning of the alphabet.
+
+À BECKET, Thomas. See _Becket_.
+
+À BECK'ETT, Gilbert Abbott, English writer, born near London in 1811. He
+studied for the bar, and became one of the original staff of _Punch_, was
+long a leader-writer to the _Times_ and the _Morning Herald_, and
+contributed articles to the _Illustrated London News_. He wrote _Comic
+History of England_, _Comic History of Rome_, and _Comic Blackstone_, and
+between fifty and sixty plays. In 1849 he was appointed a metropolitan
+police magistrate, which office he retained till his death in 1856.
+
+ABEL, properly _Hebel_ (Heb. breath, vapour, vanity), the second son of
+Adam. He was a shepherd, and was slain by his brother Cain from jealousy
+because his sacrifice was accepted while Cain's was rejected. Several of
+the fathers, among others St. Chrysostom and Augustine, regard him as a
+type of the new, regenerate man.
+
+ABEL, Sir Frederick Augustus, chemist, was born in London, 1827; died 1902.
+Having adopted chemistry as a profession, he studied under Hofmann at the
+Royal College of Chemistry, became professor of chemistry at the Royal
+Military Academy in 1851, and was chemist to the War Department and
+chemical adviser to the Government from 1854 to 1888. He did useful work in
+connection with the chemistry of explosives (especially gun-cotton), the
+flash-point of petroleum, &c.; was joint-inventor of cordite along with
+Dewar; and was also an authority on the manufacture of steel. He was
+honoured with a baronetcy, and was also a K.C.B. and a K.C.V.O. He wrote
+works on gunpowder, gun-cotton, and explosives generally, and on
+electricity as applied to explosive purposes. His works include: _The
+Modern History of Gunpowder_; _Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes_,
+&c.
+
+ABÉLARD (ab'e-lärd), or ABAILARD, Peter, a celebrated scholastic teacher,
+born near Nantes, in Brittany, in 1079. He made extraordinary progress with
+his studies, and, ultimately eclipsing his teachers, he opened a school of
+scholastic philosophy near Paris, which attracted crowds of students from
+the neighbouring city. His success in the fiery debates which were then the
+fashion in the schools made him many enemies, among whom was Guillaume de
+Champeaux, his former teacher, chief of the cathedral school of Notre-Dame,
+and the most advanced of the Realists. Abélard succeeded his adversary in
+this school (in 1113), and under him were trained many men who afterwards
+rose to eminence, among them being the future Pope Celestin II, Peter
+Lombard, and Arnold of Brescia. While he was at the height of his
+popularity, and in his fortieth year, he fell violently in love with
+Heloise--then eighteen years of age--niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris.
+They obtained a home in Fulbert's house under the pretext of teaching
+Heloise philosophy, and their intercourse at length became apparent.
+Abélard, who had retired to Brittany, was followed by Heloise, who there
+gave birth to a son, named Astrolabius. A private marriage took place, and
+Heloise returned to her uncle's house, but, refusing to make public her
+marriage (as likely to spoil Abélard's career), she was subjected to severe
+treatment at the hands of her uncle. To save her from this Abélard carried
+her off and placed her in a convent at Argenteuil, a proceeding which so
+incensed Fulbert that he hired ruffians who broke into Abélard's chamber
+and subjected him to a shameful mutilation. Abélard, filled with grief and
+shame, became a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise took the veil.
+When time had somewhat moderated his grief, he resumed his lectures; but
+trouble after trouble overtook him. His theological writings were condemned
+by the Council of Soissons, and he retired to an oratory called the
+Paraclete, subsequently becoming head of the abbey of St. Gildas-de-Rhuys
+in Brittany. For a short time he again lectured at Paris (1136), but his
+doctrines once more brought persecution on him, and St. Bernard of
+Clairvaux, the most powerful man in the Church in those days, had him
+condemned by the Council of Sens and afterwards by the Pope. Abélard did
+not long survive this, dying at St. Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saône, 21st
+April, 1142. Heloise, who had become abbess of the Paraclete, had him
+buried there, where she herself was afterwards laid by his side. Their
+ashes were removed to Paris in 1800, and in 1817 they were finally
+deposited beneath a mausoleum in the cemetery of Père la Chaise. According
+to John of Salisbury, Abélard is credited with the invention of a new
+philosophical system, midway between Realism and Nominalism. In Ethics,
+Abélard seems to have attached importance to the psychological element in
+the action, rather than to the action itself. "The intention of sinning",
+he maintained, "is worse than the actual physical sin." A complete edition
+of his works was published by Cousin (2 vols., Paris, 1849-59), and the
+letters of Abélard and Heloise have been often published in the original
+and in translations. Pope's _Eloisa to Abélard_ is founded on them.
+Abélard's autobiography, entitled _Story of my Calamities_, is still
+extant.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Charles de Rémusat, _Abélard_ (2 vols.); J. McCabe,
+_Life of Abélard_.
+
+ABELE (a-b[=e]l'), a name of the white poplar.
+
+A'BELITE, or Abe'lian, a member of a religious sect in Africa which arose
+in the fourth century after Christ. They married, but lived in continence,
+after the manner, as they maintained, of Abel, and attempted to keep up the
+sect by adopting the children of others.
+
+ABELMOSCHUS (-mos'kus), a genus of tropical plants of the mallow family.
+_A. esculentus_, cultivated in India, Algeria, &c., yields edible pods and
+also a valuable fibre. The fruit, called _okro_ or _ochro_, is used in
+soups.
+
+ABENCERRAGES (ab-en-ser'a-jez), a powerful and distinguished Moorish family
+of Granada, the chief members of which, thirty-six in number, are said to
+have been massacred in the Alhambra by the king Abu-Hassan (latter half of
+the fifteenth century) on account of the attachment of his sister to one of
+them. There is a room in the Alhambra which is still called 'the hall of
+the Abencerrages'. The legend has furnished the subject of many poems both
+Arabic and Spanish (_Las Guerras Civiles de Granada_, by Gines Perez de
+Hita), and formed the basis for Chateaubriand's _Aventures du dernier des
+Abencérages_.
+
+AB'EN EZRA (Ibn Ezra), a celebrated Jewish rabbi, born at Toledo about
+1093, travelled in pursuit of knowledge in England, France, Italy, and
+Greece, and is supposed to have died in Rhodes about 1167. He is best known
+as a commentator on Scripture.
+
+ABENSBERG (ä'b[.e]ns-ber_h_), a village of Bavaria, in the Danube valley,
+below Ingolstadt, celebrated for Napoleon's victory over the Austrians,
+20th April, 1809.
+
+ABEOKU'TA. See _Abbeokuta_.
+
+AB'ER, a prefix in Celtic geographical proper names signifying the mouth or
+entrance of a river into the sea, or into another stream. It is used
+chiefly in Wales and Scotland, having the same meaning as _inver_.
+
+ABERA'VON, a municipal borough of Wales in Glamorganshire, near the mouth
+of the Avon in Swansea Bay, embracing Aberavon proper and its harbour Port
+Talbot. There are collieries, ironworks, copper-works, &c. Since 1918
+Aberavon gives its name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop.
+(municipal borough) (1921), 15,370.
+
+ABERBROTH'OCK. See _Arbroath_.
+
+ABERCARN', an urban district or town of England, Monmouthshire, 10½ miles
+north-west of Newport, with collieries, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 20,123.
+
+AB'ERCROMBIE, John, M.D., a Scottish writer on medical and moral science,
+and an eminent physician, born in Aberdeen, 1781, died at Edinburgh in
+1844. He graduated at the university of Edinburgh in 1803, and subsequently
+pursued his studies in London, returning to Edinburgh in 1804, where he
+acquired an extensive practice as a physician. Apart from medical
+treatises, he is known from his _Inquiries concerning the Intellectual
+Powers_ and his _Philosophy of the Moral Feelings_.
+
+AB'ERCROMBIE, Patrick, a Scottish historical writer and antiquary, born at
+Forfar, 1656; date of death uncertain. Educated at St. Andrews and abroad,
+he took the degree of M.D., and practised as a physician in Edinburgh. In
+1685 he was appointed physician to James II. His chief work is _Martial
+Atchievements of the Scots Nation_, 2 vols. folio, 1711-6.
+
+AB'ERCROMBY, Sir Ralph, a British general, born in 1734 in
+Clackmannanshire, Scotland. He entered the army in 1756 as cornet in the
+3rd Dragoon Guards; and he gradually passed through all the ranks of the
+service until he became a major-general in 1787. He served as
+lieutenant-general in Flanders, 1793-5, and was then appointed
+commander-in-chief of the forces in the West Indies, where he captured the
+islands of Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad, with the
+settlements of Demerara and Essequibo. On his return in 1798 he was
+appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland; and he afterwards held a
+corresponding command in Scotland. His next and concluding service was in
+the expedition to Egypt, of which he was commander-in-chief. He landed,
+after a severe fight, at Aboukir, 8th March, 1801; and on the 21st of the
+same month the battle of Alexandria was fought, in which Sir Ralph was
+mortally wounded.
+
+ABERDARE (-d[=a]r'), a town of South Wales, in Glamorganshire, pleasantly
+situated at the junction of the Cynon and Dare, 4 miles south-west of
+Merthyr-Tydfil, with extensive coal and iron mines in the vicinity. It
+belongs to the parliamentary borough of Merthyr-Tydfil. Pop. (1921),
+55,010.
+
+ABERDEEN', a university city and royal, municipal, and parliamentary burgh
+of Scotland, capital of the county of same name, mainly on the north bank
+of the Dee at its entrance into the North Sea, and between this river and
+the Don, with a part also on the south bank of the Dee, while the municipal
+limits include the adjacent Woodside. The site is in places somewhat hilly.
+Aberdeen is one of the oldest towns in Scotland, and was constituted a
+royal burgh by William the Lion in 1179. The streets are generally spacious
+and regular, the houses built of fine grayish-white granite. There are many
+handsome public buildings, as the County and Municipal Buildings, Marischal
+College, Grammar School, Infirmary, Arts School, Art Gallery, Music Hall
+Buildings, public library, &c. The finest street, Union Street, made in
+1800, is carried over a valley by a granite bridge having an arch of 132
+feet span. The small portion of the city called Old Aberdeen, long a
+separate town, consists mainly of a single street, stretching northwards to
+the River Don. Its chief buildings are King's College and St. Machar's
+Cathedral. Noteworthy features of the college buildings are the crown-tower
+and the chapel, the latter containing some very fine old carved woodwork.
+The cathedral, now used as a parish church, was commenced about 1357. There
+are several bridges over the Dee and Don. Over the latter is a fine old
+bridge (Brig o' Balgownie) of one arch, erected according to some accounts
+by Robert Bruce. There are docks 34 acres in area, an extensive tidal
+harbour and basin, and a graving-dock. The shipping trade is extensive. The
+industries embrace wool, jute, linen, combs, soap, preserved provisions,
+chemicals, paper, shipbuilding, engineering, and especially the cutting and
+polishing of granite. The fishing industry is of great importance. The city
+of Aberdeen returns two members to Parliament. Pop. 158,969.--_The County
+of Aberdeen_ forms the north-eastern portion of Scotland, and is bounded on
+the east and north by the North Sea. Area, 1,261,521 acres. It is divided
+into six districts (Mar, Formartine, Buchan, Alford, Garioch, and
+Strathbogie), and is generally hilly, there being in the south-west some of
+the highest mountains in Scotland, as Ben Macdhui (4295 feet), Cairntoul
+(4245), Cairngorm (4090), Lochnagar, &c. Its most valuable mineral is
+granite, large quantities of which are exported. The principal rivers are
+the Dee and the Don, both of which enter the sea at the town of Aberdeen.
+Cereals (except wheat) and other crops succeed well, and the number of
+acres under cultivation is nearly double that of any other Scottish county.
+Great numbers of cattle are fattened and sent to London and the south. On
+the banks of the upper Dee is situated Balmoral, a favourite residence of
+Queen Victoria. Aberdeenshire and Kincardine unite in sending three members
+to Parliament. Pop. 300,980.--_Aberdeen University_, as now constituted,
+derives its origin from two different foundations; one, the University and
+King's College (Old Aberdeen), founded in 1494 by Bishop Elphinstone (who
+was bishop of Aberdeen from 1483-1514) under the authority of a papal bull
+obtained at the instance of James IV; the other, Marischal College and
+University (New Aberdeen), founded in 1593 by Geo. Keith, Earl Marischal,
+by a charter ratified by act of Parliament. The two foundations existed as
+separate universities, both having the right of conferring degrees, till
+1860, when they were united and incorporated into one university, the
+University of Aberdeen. Holding the funds of both colleges and dating as
+from the foundation of King's College in 1494, the university has about 300
+bursaries or exhibitions, mostly open to public competition, and a number
+of money prizes and scholarships. The classes for arts and divinity are
+held in King's College, and those for law and medicine in Marischal
+College. There is a full teaching staff in the faculties of arts, medicine,
+science, and divinity, and two professors in that of law. There are in all
+25 professors and some 900 matriculated students. The constitution of the
+university is similar to that of Edinburgh and the other Scottish
+universities. The library contains over 80,000 volumes. The university
+unites with those of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews in sending three
+members to Parliament.
+
+ABERDEEN', George Hamilton Gordon, Earl of, British statesman, born 28th
+Jan., 1784, died 14th Dec., 1860. He began his diplomatic life in 1801 as
+attaché to Lord Cornwallis's embassy to France, which resulted in the
+signing of the treaty of Amiens. In 1806 he entered Parliament as a
+Scottish representative peer, and in 1813 was entrusted with a successful
+mission to Austria for the purpose of inducing the emperor to join the
+coalition of sovereigns against Bonaparte. In 1814 he was created a British
+peer, and in 1828 he became foreign secretary in the Duke of Wellington's
+administration. During the short premiership of Sir Robert Peel in 1834-5
+he acted as colonial secretary, and when Sir Robert again became premier in
+1841 he took office as Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He was a warm
+supporter of Catholic Emancipation, and endeavoured, though without result,
+to bring in a compromise bill in 1846, during the struggle which divided
+the Established Church of Scotland. Quitting office with his chief in 1846,
+he came, on the death of Peel in 1850, to be regarded as the leader of the
+Conservative free-trade party. On the Derby ministry failing to maintain
+its place, Lord Aberdeen returned to office in the end of 1852 as head of a
+coalition ministry. The principal event which marked his administration was
+the Crimean war; but the bad management of this irritated the country, and
+the ministry resigned in 1855. This event marks the close of Lord
+Aberdeen's public career. From his travels and his acquaintance with Greece
+and its antiquities he was called by Byron "the travelled thane, Athenian
+Aberdeen".
+
+AB'ERDEVINE. See _Siskin_.
+
+ABERGAVEN'NY (sometimes pron. ab-[.e]r-ge'ni, the Roman GOBANNIUM), a
+municipal borough and market town of England, in Monmouthshire, situated
+amid delightful scenery in the beautiful valley of the Usk. It manufactures
+woollens and shoes, and has considerable trade. Pop. (1921), 9252.
+
+ABERNETHY (ab-[.e]r-neth'i), John, an eminent English surgeon, of somewhat
+eccentric habits, born in 1764 in London, a pupil of the celebrated John
+Hunter. In 1787 he became assistant surgeon at St. Bartholomew's Hospital,
+and shortly after lecturer on anatomy and surgery. In 1815 he was elected
+principal surgeon, and under his auspices the hospital attained a celebrity
+which it had never before enjoyed. He published _Surgical Observations_;
+_The Constitutional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases_; and
+_Lectures_, explanatory of Hunter's opinions of the vital processes;
+besides smaller essays. He died in 1831.
+
+ABERRA'TION, in astronomy, the difference between the true and the observed
+position of a heavenly body, the result of the combined effect of the
+motion of light and the motion of the eye of the observer caused by the
+annual or diurnal motion of the earth; or of the motion of light and that
+of the body from which the light proceeds. When the auxiliary cause is the
+annual revolution of the earth round the sun it is called _annual
+aberration_, in consequence of which a fixed star may appear as much as
+20.4" from its true position; when the auxiliary cause is the diurnal
+rotation of the earth on its axis it is called _diurnal aberration_, which
+amounts at the greatest to 0.3"; and when the auxiliary cause is the motion
+of the body from which the light proceeds it is called _planetary
+aberration_.
+
+ABERSYCHAN (ab-[.e]r-sik'an), a town of Monmouthshire, England, about 10
+miles north of Newport, in a rich coal-mining district. Pop. (1921),
+27,089.
+
+ABERTIL'LERY, an urban district or town of England, Monmouthshire, 16 miles
+north-west of Newport, with tinplate works, coal-mines, &c. Since 1918 it
+gives its name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop. (1921),
+38,805.
+
+ABERYSTWITH (ab-[.e]r-ist'with), a seaport and fashionable watering-place
+of Wales, county of Cardigan, on Cardigan Bay. The town is well built, and
+the surrounding country is picturesque. There is here a University College
+of the University of Wales, occupying a handsome Gothic building. Pop.
+(1921), 12,289.
+
+ABEYANCE, in law, a legal term meaning that the title to dignity, office,
+or real or personal property is not vested in anyone, but is suspended
+until the right thereto is determined by the appearance of the true owner.
+Under English law, when a nobleman dies leaving no male issue, the title,
+if descendible to his heirs general, as in the case of baronies by writ, is
+said to be in abeyance, until the king, by his prerogative, terminates the
+abeyance in favour of one of the co-heiresses. See _Property_.
+
+ABGAR, title of the Syrian rulers at Edessa. The fourteenth prince of the
+dynasty, a contemporary of the Roman emperor Tiberius (A.D. 14-37), is said
+to have written a letter to our Saviour.
+
+ABHOR'RERS, in English history a name given to the Court party in 1679-80,
+who, on petitions being presented to Charles II praying him to summon
+Parliament, signed counter-petitions expressing _abhorrence_ for those who
+were thus attempting to encroach on the royal prerogative.
+
+A'BIB, the first month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, and the seventh
+of the civil year, corresponding to the latter part of March and the first
+of April. Also called _Nisan_.
+
+ABIES (ab'i-es), a genus of trees. See _Fir_ and _Spruce_.
+
+AB'INGDON, a town of England, in Berkshire, 50 miles north-west of London,
+on the right bank of the Thames. It was an important place in Anglo-Saxon
+times, and Offa, King of Mercia, had a palace in it. Formerly a
+parliamentary borough, it now gives name to a parliamentary division of
+Berks. Pop. (1921), 7167.
+
+ABIOGENESIS (a-b[=i]-o-jen'e-sis), the doctrine or hypothesis that living
+matter may be produced from non-living; spontaneous generation. See
+_Generation (Spontaneous)_.
+
+ABJURA'TION, Oath of, an oath which by an English Act passed in 1701 had to
+be taken by all holders of public offices, clergymen, teachers, members of
+the universities, and lawyers, abjuring and renouncing the exiled Stuarts:
+superseded in 1858 by a more comprehensive oath, declaring allegiance to
+the present royal family.--_Abjuration of the realm_ was an oath that a
+person guilty of felony, who had taken sanctuary, might take. This oath
+permitted him to go into exile, and not return on pain of death, unless by
+the king's permission. In ecclesiastical language the term is applied to
+renunciation of heresy.
+
+ABKHA'SIA, a Russian district, at the western extremity and south of the
+Caucasus, between the mountains and the Black Sea. The Abkhasians form a
+race distinguished from their neighbours in various respects. At one time
+they were Christians, but afterwards adopted Mahommedanism. Many of them
+migrated into Turkish territory in 1864 and 1878.
+
+ABLAINCOURT. See _Somme_.
+
+AB'LATIVE, a term applied to a case of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in
+Latin, Sanskrit, and some other languages; originally given to the case in
+Latin because separation from (_ab_, from _latus_, taken) was considered to
+be one of the chief ideas expressed by the case.
+
+ABNAKI, a Confederacy of Algonquin tribes, formerly occupying what is now
+Maine and Southern New Brunswick. Their territory, to which they removed
+after 1724, is in Canada on the St. John River and at St. Francis.
+
+ÅBO ([=o]'b[=o]), a town and port in Finland, the see of an archbishop, and
+the capital of Finland till 1819, when it was supplanted by Helsingfors.
+Pop. (1919), 56,168.
+
+ABOLITIONISTS. See _Slavery_.
+
+ABOMA'SUM, or ABOMA'SUS, the fourth stomach of ruminating animals, next the
+_omasum_ or third stomach.
+
+ABO'MEY, or AGBO'MEY, the capital of the French territory and former
+kingdom of Dahomey, in West Africa, in a fertile plain, near the coast of
+Guinea. Pop. 11,000.
+
+ABORIGINES (ab-o-rij'i-n[=e]z), the name given in general to the earliest
+known inhabitants of a country, those who are supposed to have inhabited
+the land from the beginning (Lat. _ab origine_). (The singular of the word
+is _Aboriginal_, or sometimes _Aboriginé_.)
+
+ABORTION, in medicine, the expulsion of the foetus before it is capable of
+independent existence. This may take place at any period of pregnancy
+before the completion of the twenty-eighth week. A child born after that
+time is said to be _premature_. Abortion may be the result of the general
+debility or ill-health of the mother, of a plethoric constitution, of
+special affections of the uterus, of severe exertions, sudden shocks, &c.
+Various medicinal substances, generally violent emmenagogues or drastic
+medicines, are believed to have the effect of provoking abortion, and are
+sometimes resorted to for this purpose. Attempts to procure abortion are
+punishable by law in all civilized states. When the death of the woman
+ensues as a result of the attempt, the crime is murder.--The term is
+applied in botany to denote the suppression by non-development of one or
+more of the parts of a flower, which consists normally of four
+whorls--namely, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir
+W. O. Russell, _Crimes and Misdemeanours_ (3 vols.); A. S. Taylor,
+_Principles and Practice of Medical Jurisprudence_.
+
+ABOUKIR ([.a]-bö-k[=e]r'; ancient ZEPHYRION, near ruins of Can[=o]pus), a
+small village on the Egyptian coast, 10 miles east of Alexandria. In
+Aboukir Bay took place the naval battle in which Nelson annihilated a
+French fleet on the night of 1st and 2nd Aug., 1798, thus totally
+destroying the naval power of France in the Mediterranean. Near this place,
+on 25th July, 1799, Napoleon defeated the Turks under Mustapha; and on 8th
+March, 1801, Sir Ralph Abercromby effected the landing of a British army
+against the French.
+
+ABOU-SIMBEL. See _Ipsambul_.
+
+ABOUT ([.a]-bö), Edmond François Valentin, a French novelist and
+miscellaneous writer, born 14th Feb., 1828, died 17th Jan., 1885. He was
+educated at the Lycée Charlemagne and the École Normale, Paris; and was
+sent at Government expense to the French school at Athens; on his return to
+Paris, he devoted himself to literature. Principal novels: _Tolla_, _Le Roi
+des Montagnes_, _Germaine_, _Madelon_, _Le Fellah_, _La Vieille Roche_,
+_L'Infâme_, _Les Mariages de Province_, _Le Roman d'un Brave Homme_
+(against Zola and the naturalist school), &c.; miscellaneous works: _La
+Grèce Contemporaine_, _La Question Romaine_, _La Prusse en 1860_, _Rome
+Contemporaine_, &c. In 1884 he was elected a member of the Academy. About
+wrote in a bright, humorous, and interesting style, and his novels have
+been very popular.
+
+ABRACADAB'RA, a word of Eastern origin used in incantations. When written
+on paper so as to form a triangle, the first line containing the word in
+full, the one below it omitting the last letter, and so on each time until
+only one letter remained, and worn as an amulet, it was supposed to be an
+antidote against certain diseases.
+
+   A B R A C A D A B R A
+    A B R A C A D A B R
+     A B R A C A D A B
+      A B R A C A D A
+       A B R A C A D
+        A B R A C A
+         A B R A C
+          A B R A
+           A B R
+            A B
+             A
+
+A'BRAHAM, originally ABRAM (Assyrian _Aburamu_, lofty father), the greatest
+of the Hebrew patriarchs, was born at Ur in Chaldea in 2153 B.C. according
+to Hales, in 1996 B.C. according to Ussher, while Bunsen says he lived 2850
+B.C. He migrated, accompanied by his wife Sarah and his nephew Lot, to
+Canaan, where he led a nomadic life, which extended over 175 years. His two
+sons, Isaac and Ishmael, were the progenitors of the Jews and Arabs
+respectively.
+
+ABRAHAM, Heights or Plains of. See _Quebec_.
+
+ABRAHAM À SANTA CLARA, a German pulpit orator, whose real name was Ulrich
+Megerle, born in 1644. As a preacher he acquired so great a reputation
+that, in 1669, he was appointed court-preacher in Vienna, where he died in
+1709. His sermons are full of homely, grotesque humour, often of coarse
+wit, and impartial severity towards all classes of society. His principal
+work and masterpiece is _Judas, the Archknave_ (4 vols.), 1686-95.
+
+ABRAHAMITES, 1, A sect of Syrian Deists of the ninth century, whose
+doctrines were allied to those of the Paulicians.--2, A sect of Bohemian
+Deists of the late eighteenth century, who professed to be followers of
+John Huss and claimed that they followed the religion of Abraham before his
+circumcision. Believing in one God, they rejected the Trinity, and accepted
+nothing of the Bible except the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer.
+Refusing to join either the Jewish or Christian folds, they were excluded
+from the edict of toleration promulgated by the Emperor Joseph II, and
+expelled to Transylvania in 1783. Some were martyred, others became Roman
+Catholics.
+
+ABRAHAM-MEN, originally a set of vagabonds who had been discharged from
+Bethlehem Hospital, London; but as many assumed, without right, the badge
+worn by them, the term came to signify an impostor who travelled about the
+country seeking alms, under the pretence of lunacy.
+
+ABRAM, a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 3½ miles from Wigan;
+a colliery centre. Pop. (1921), 6858.
+
+AB'RAMIS, a genus of fishes. See _Bream_.
+
+ABRAN'TES, a fortified town of Portugal, on the right bank of the Tagus
+(here navigable), 73 miles north-east of Lisbon, with which it carries on
+an active trade. Pop. 8000.
+
+ABRANTES, Duke of. See _Junot_.
+
+ABRAX'AS (or ABRASAX) STONES, the name given to stones or gems found in
+Syria, Egypt, and elsewhere, cut into almost every variety of shape, but
+generally having a human trunk and arms, with a cock's head, two serpents'
+tails for the legs, &c., and the mystico-theosophical word Abraxas or
+Abrasax in Greek characters engraved upon them. Eventually they came to be
+used as charms and amulets. Basilides (A.D. 130) and other gnostics gave
+the name of Abraxas to Almighty God, the Supreme Deity, since the numerical
+value of its letters in Greek gave the sum of 365, and they believed that
+365 orders of spirits emanated from God. Not all abraxas stones, however,
+are of gnostic origin, just as the name of abraxas cannot be applied to all
+gnostic stones. Cf. King: _The Gnostics and their Remains_, London, 1887.
+
+ABRIN, or ABRINE, a poisonous substance, being the active principle in the
+seeds of _Abrus precatorius_ (see _Abrus_). A minute quantity introduced
+into the blood is fatal to many animals, but it is employed in ailments of
+the eyes, and as a remedy for lupus and certain skin diseases.
+
+ABROGA'TION, the repealing of a law by a competent authority.
+
+ABROLHOS (a-brole'-yoce) a group of rocky islands 50 miles off the east
+coast of Brazil, the largest of which is Santa Barbara. Another group
+called Abrolhos lies off the west coast of Australia.
+
+ABRO'MA, a genus of small trees, natives of India, Java, &c., one species
+of which, _A. augusta_, has a bark yielding a strong white fibre, from
+which good cordage is made.
+
+ABRUPT', in botany, terminating suddenly, as if a part were cut short off.
+
+AB'RUS, a genus of papilionaceous plants, order Leguminosæ, one species of
+which, _Abrus precatorius_, a delicate twining shrub, a native of the East
+Indies, and found also in tropical parts of Africa and America, has round
+brilliant scarlet seeds, used to make necklaces and rosaries. Its root is
+sweetish and mucilaginous, and is used as a substitute for liquorice
+_(Indian liquorice_). The seeds yield a strong poison.
+
+ABRUZZI ([.a]-br[u:]t's[=e]), a division of Italy on the Adriatic, between
+Umbria and the Marches on the north, and Apulia on the south. It is united
+with Molise to form a _compartimento_, comprising the four provinces of
+Aquila degli Abruzzi, Campobasso, Chicti, and Teramo. The sea-coast of
+about 80 miles does not possess a single harbour. The interior is rugged
+and mountainous, being traversed throughout by the Apennines. The lower
+parts consist of fertile plains and valleys, yielding corn, wine, oil,
+almonds, saffron, &c.; area, 6387 sq. miles. Pop. 1,480,748.
+
+AB'SALON, or AXEL, a Danish prelate, statesman, and warrior, born in 1128,
+died 1201. He became the intimate friend and counsellor of his sovereign
+Waldemar I, who appointed him Archbishop of Lund. He cleared the sea of the
+Slavonic pirates who had long infested it, secured the independence of the
+kingdom by defeating a powerful fleet of the Emperor Barbarossa, and built
+the castle of Axelborg, the nucleus of Copenhagen. He ultimately became
+Primate of Denmark and Sweden. Turning his thoughts to literature he caused
+the _History of Denmark_ to be drawn up by Saxo Grammaticus and Svend
+Aagesen.
+
+AB'SCESS, any collection of purulent matter or pus formed in some tissue or
+organ of the body, and confined within some circumscribed area, of varying
+size, but always painful and often dangerous.
+
+ABSENTEEISM, a term applied to landlords who absent themselves from their
+estates and live and spend their money elsewhere; in its more extended
+meaning it refers to all those whose fixed residence is outside their own
+country but who derive their income from sources within it. The social,
+economic, political, and moral evils resulting from such a system are
+considerable and hurtful to the interests of a region, the absentee being
+apt to lose his interest in things and persons and the public welfare
+generally. Some economists, however, have adduced arguments in favour of
+it, as it may sometimes be for the good of the community that a rich and
+luxurious landlord should be absent from his estate.
+
+The absenteeism of the Irish nobility, which became worse after the Union
+with Great Britain and the transfer of Parliament from Dublin to London,
+has been a constant source of mischief, whilst France before the
+Revolution, Russia under the Tsars Alexander I and Nicholas I, and Hungary
+in the eighteenth century suffered greatly from the practice. The first
+statute concerning absentees was passed in the English Parliament in 1379,
+and in 1729 a tax was levied on all moneys paid out of Ireland.
+
+AB'SINTH, French _Absinthe_ ([.a]b-sa[n.]t), a liqueur consisting of an
+alcoholic solution strongly flavoured with an extract of several sorts of
+wormwood, oil of anise, &c. When taken habitually, or in excess, its
+effects are very pernicious. A favourite drink of the Parisians, it was
+suppressed entirely throughout France by a law passed on 12th Feb., 1915.
+
+AB'SOLUTE, in a general sense, loosed or freed from all limitations or
+conditions. In politics, an _absolute_ monarchy is that form of government
+in which the ruler is unlimited or uncontrolled by constitutional checks.
+In modern metaphysics _the Absolute_ represents the unconditioned,
+infinite, and self-existent.
+
+ABSOLU'TION, remission of a penitent's sins in the name of God. It is
+commonly maintained that down to the twelfth century the priests used only
+what is called the _precatory_ formula, "May God or Christ absolve thee",
+which is still the form in the Greek Church; whereas the Roman Catholic
+uses the expression "I absolve thee", thus regarding the forgiveness of
+sins as in the power of the priest (the _indicative_ form). This theory of
+absolution was confirmed by the Council of Trent. The passages of Scripture
+on which the Roman Catholic Church relies in laying down its doctrine of
+absolution are such as _Mat._ xvi. 19, xviii. 18; _John_, xx. 23. Among
+Protestants absolution properly means a sentence by which a person who
+stands excommunicated is released from that punishment.
+
+ABSOLUTISM, a system of government in which the supreme power is vested in
+a ruler not controlled or limited by any constitution or laws. It has
+prevailed in Oriental countries, including Japan, until the latter part of
+the nineteenth century. There are now no absolute monarchies in Europe.
+
+ABSOR'BENTS, the system of minute vessels by which the nutritive elements
+of food and other matters are carried into the circulation of vertebrate
+animals. The vessels consist of two different sets, called respectively
+_lacteals_ and _lymphatics_. The former arise from the digestive tract, the
+latter from the tissues generally, both joining a common trunk which
+ultimately enters the blood-vessel system. Absorbents in medicine are
+substances such as chalk, charcoal, &c., that absorb or suck up excessive
+secretion of fluid or gas.
+
+ABSORP'TION, in physiology, one of the vital functions by which the
+materials of nutrition and growth are absorbed and conveyed to the organs
+of plants and animals. In vertebrate animals this is done by the lymphatics
+and lacteals, in plants chiefly by the roots. See _Absorbents_.
+
+In physics, _absorption of colour_ is the phenomenon observed when certain
+colours are retained or prevented from passing through transparent bodies;
+thus pieces of coloured glass are almost opaque to some parts of the
+spectrum, while allowing other colours to pass through freely. In chemistry
+absorption is the taking up of a gas by a liquid, or by a porous solid.
+
+AB'STINENCE. See _Fasting, Temperance_.
+
+ABSTRAC'TION, the operation of the mind by which it disregards part of what
+is presented to its observation in order to concentrate its attention on
+the remainder. It is the foundation of the operation of generalization, by
+which we arrive at general conceptions. In order, for example, to form the
+conception of a horse, we disregard the colour and other peculiarities of
+the particular horses observed by us, and attend only to those qualities
+which all horses have in common. In rising to the conception of an animal
+we disregard still more qualities, and attend only to those which all
+animals have in common with one another.
+
+ABU (a-bö'), a granitic mountain of India in Sirohi State, Rajputána,
+rising precipitously from the surrounding plains, its top forming a
+picturesque and varied tract 14 miles long and 2 to 4 broad; highest point
+5653 ft. It is a hot-weather resort of Europeans, and is the site of two
+most beautiful Jain temples, built in 1031 and 1200.
+
+ABU-BEKR, or FATHER OF THE VIRGIN, born 570 died 634, the father-in-law and
+first successor of Mahomet. His right to the succession was unsuccessfully
+contested by Ali, Mahomet's son-in-law, and a schism took place, which
+divided the Mahommedans into the two great sects of Sunnites and Shiites,
+the former maintaining the validity of Abu-Bekr's and the latter that of
+Ali's claim.
+
+ABUKIR'. See _Aboukir_.
+
+ABU KLEA, a group of wells, surrounded by steep, black mountains, about 120
+miles from Khartoum, in the Sudan, where, on the 17th Jan., 1885, Sir
+Herbert Stewart, with 1500 men, defeated the Mahdi's troops numbering
+10,000.
+
+ABULFARA'GIUS, Gregory, a distinguished scholar, a Jew by birth (hence the
+name of _Barhebræus_, often given him), author of numerous works in Arabic
+and Syriac, was born in Armenia in 1226, died in 1286. About 1264 he was
+consecrated Bishop of Gubas; he was afterwards translated to Aleppo and was
+appointed primate of the Jacobite Christians. His principal work is a
+_History of the World_ from the Creation to his own day, written in Syriac,
+with an abridged version in Arabic, entitled _The Abridged History of the
+Dynasties_.
+
+ABUL'FEDA, Arab writer, Prince of Hamah, in Syria, of the same family as
+Saladin, famous as an historian and geographer, was born at Damascus 1273,
+died 1331. Amid the cares of government he devoted himself with zeal to
+study, drew the learned around him, and rendered his power and wealth
+subservient to the cause of science. His most important works are his
+_History of the Human Race_ (the portion from the birth of Mahomet to his
+own time being valuable), and his geography called _The True Situation of
+Countries_.
+
+ABUNDA, a Bantu race of Angola, living on the coastlands and on the
+terraces rising towards the interior, and divided into 'highlanders' and
+'lowlanders'. They speak Portuguese and Umbunda, a trade language.
+
+ABUSHEHR (ä-bö-sh[=a]r'). See _Bushire_.
+
+ABU-SIMBEL. See _Ibsambul_.
+
+ABU'TILON, a genus of plants, order Malvaceæ, sometimes called Indian
+mallows, found in the East Indies, Australia, Brazil, Siberia, &c. Several
+of them yield a valuable hemp-like fibre, as _A. indicum_ and _A.
+Avicennæ_. The latter, now a troublesome weed in the Middle United States,
+has been recommended for cultivation, and is sometimes called American
+jute.
+
+ABUT'MENT, the part of a bridge which receives and resists the lateral
+outward thrust of an arch; the masonry, rock, or other solid materials from
+which an arch springs.
+
+ABY'DOS, 1, an ancient city of Asia Minor, on the Hellespont, at the
+narrowest part of the strait, opposite Sestos. Leander, say ancient
+writers, swam nightly from Abydos to Sestos to see his loved Hero--a feat
+in swimming accomplished also by Lord Byron.--2, an ancient city of Upper
+Egypt (Egyptian Abotu), about 6 miles west of the Nile, now represented
+only by ruins of temples, tombs, &c. It was celebrated as the burial-place
+of the god Osiris, and its oldest temple was dedicated to him. Here, in
+1818, was discovered the famous _Abydos Tablet_, now in the British Museum,
+and containing a list of the predecessors of Rameses the Great, which was
+supplemented by the discovery of a similar historical tablet in 1864. The
+tomb of Osiris was discovered in 1898 by Amélinau. Cf. Flinders Petrie,
+_The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties_ (2 vols.), London, 1900-9.
+
+ABYSSIN'IA (Ar. _Habesha_), a country of Eastern Africa, which, with
+dependencies, may be said to extend from lat. 5° to 15° N. and long. 35° to
+42° E., having the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the W., British E. Africa on the
+S., and on the S.E. and E. Somali-land and Eritrea (Italian Red Sea coast);
+area, 350,000 sq. miles. Pop. over 8,000,000. The country is now divided
+into 9 provinces, the principal being Harrar, Tigré, Amhara or Gondar. Each
+province is governed by a ras, or prince, but Ras Michael, the governor of
+Wollo and father of the deposed negus, Lij Yasu, was crowned king on 1st
+June, 1914. Abyssinia proper is an elevated region, with a general slope to
+the north-west. The more marked physical features are a vast series of
+tablelands, of various and often of great elevations, and numerous masses
+or ranges of high and rugged mountains, dispersed over the surface in
+apparently the wildest confusion. Along the deep and tremendous ravines
+that divide the plateaux rush innumerable streams, which impart
+extraordinary fertility to the plains and valleys below. The mountains in
+various parts of the country rise to 12,000 and 13,000 feet, while some of
+the peaks are over 15,000 feet (Ras Dashan being 15,160), and are always
+covered with snow. The principal rivers belong to the Nile basin, the chief
+being the impetuous Tacazzé ('the Terrible') in the north, and the Abai in
+the south, the latter being really the upper portion of the Blue Nile. The
+principal lake is Lake Tzana or Dembea (from which issues the Abai),
+upwards of 6000 feet above the sea, having a length of about 45 and a
+breadth of 35 miles. Round this lake lies a fertile plain, deservedly
+called the granary of the country.--According to elevation there are
+several zones of vegetation. Within the lowest belt, which reaches an
+elevation of 4800 feet, cotton, wild indigo, acacias, ebony, baobabs,
+sugar-canes, coffee trees, date palms, &c., flourish, while the larger
+animals are lions, panthers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses,
+jackals, hyenas, bears, numerous antelopes, monkeys, and crocodiles. The
+middle zone, rising to 9000 feet, produces the grains, grasses, and fruits
+of southern Europe, the orange, vine, peach, apricot, the bamboo, sycamore
+tree, &c. The principal grains are millet, barley, wheat, maize, and teff,
+the latter a small seed, a favourite bread-stuff of the Abyssinians. Two,
+and in some places three, crops are obtained in one year. All the domestic
+animals of Europe, except swine, are known. There is a variety of ox with
+immense horns. The highest zone, reaching to 14,000 feet, has but little
+wood, and generally scanty vegetation, the hardier corn-plants only being
+grown; but oxen, goats, and long-woolled sheep find abundant pasture.--The
+climate is as various as the surface, but as a whole is temperate and
+agreeable; in some of the valleys the heat is often excessive, while on the
+mountains the weather is cold. In certain of the lower districts malaria
+prevails.--The chief mineral products are sulphur, copper, coal, and salt,
+the last-named serving to some extent as money. Iron is very abundant and
+is manufactured into knives, hatchets, and spears. There has been a great
+intermixture of races in Abyssinia. Those who may be considered the
+Abyssinians proper seem to have a blood-relationship with the Bedouin
+Arabs. Their complexion varies from very dark through different shades of
+brown and copper to olive, and they are usually well built. Other races are
+the black Gallas from the south; the Falashas, who claim descent from
+Abraham and retain many Jewish characteristics; the Agows, Gongas, &c. The
+great majority of the people profess Christianity, belonging, like the
+Copts, to the sect of the Monophysites. The head of the church is called
+the Abuna ('our father'), and is consecrated by the Coptic patriarch of
+Alexandria. Geez or Ethiopian is the language of their sacred books: it has
+long ago ceased to be spoken. The chief spoken language is the Amharic; in
+it some books have been published. Mohammedanism appears to be gaining
+ground in Abyssinia. A corrupt form of Judaism is professed by the
+Falashas.--The bulk of the people are devoted to agriculture and
+cattle-breeding. The trade and manufactures are of small importance. A good
+deal of common cotton cloth and some finer woven fabrics are produced.
+Leather is prepared to some extent, silver filagree-work is produced, and
+there are manufactures of common articles of iron and brass, pottery, &c.
+Trade is carried on through Zeila and Djibouti (French Ethiopian Railway
+was completed in 1915) on the Gulf of Aden, and Massowa on the Red Sea
+(Italian), exports being hides, coffee, wax, gum, ivory, &c., imports
+textile fabrics, &c. The Abyssinians were converted to Christianity in the
+fourth century, by some missionaries from Alexandria. In the sixth century
+the power of the sovereigns of their kingdom, which was generally known as
+Ethiopia, had attained its height; but before another had expired the Arabs
+had invaded the country, and obtained a footing. For several centuries
+subsequently the kingdom continued in a distracted state, being now torn by
+internal commotions and now invaded by external enemies (Mahommedans and
+Gallas). To protect himself from the latter the Emperor of Abyssinia
+applied, about the middle of the sixteenth century, to the King of Portugal
+for assistance, promising, at the same time, implicit submission to the
+Pope. The solicited aid was sent, and the empire saved. The Roman Catholic
+priests endeavoured to induce the emperor and his family to renounce the
+tenets and rites of the Coptic Church, and to adopt those of Rome. This
+attempt, however, was resisted by the ecclesiastics and the people, and
+ended, after a long struggle, in the expulsion of the Catholic priests
+about 1630. The kingdom gradually fell into a state of anarchy, and was
+broken up into several independent States. An attempt to revive the power
+of the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia was made by King Theodore about the
+middle of the last century. He introduced European artisans, and went to
+work wisely in many ways, but his cruelty and tyranny counteracted his
+politic measures. In consequence of a slight, real or fancied, which he had
+received at the hands of the British Government, he threw Consul Cameron
+and a number of other British subjects into prison, in 1863, and refused to
+give them up. To effect their release an army of nearly 12,000 men, under
+Sir Robert (afterwards Lord) Napier, was dispatched from Bombay in 1867.
+The force landed at Zoulla on the Red Sea, and marching up the country came
+within sight of the hill-fortress of Magdala in April, 1868. After being
+defeated in a battle, Theodore delivered up the captives and shut himself
+up in Magdala, which was taken by storm on the 13th April, Theodore being
+found among the slain. After the withdrawal of the British, fighting
+immediately began among the chiefs of the different provinces, but at last
+the country was divided between Kasa, who secured the northern and larger
+portion (Tigré and Amhara) and assumed the name of King Johannes, and
+Menelek, who gained possession of Shoa. Latterly Johannes made himself
+supreme and in 1881 assumed the title of emperor (_negus negusti_--king of
+kings), having under him the Kings of Shoa and Gojam. Debra Tabor, about 30
+miles east of Lake Dembea, was his chief residence. During the troubles in
+Abyssinia the Egyptians annexed Massowa and the region adjacent, Abyssinia
+being thus shut out from the sea. Afterwards the Italians gained and still
+hold Massowa and the Red Sea littoral (Eritrea). Johannes fell at Metemmeh
+in 1889, whilst fighting against the Mahdists, and was succeeded by Menelek
+II. In 1916 Lij Yasu, who succeeded Menelek II in 1913, was deposed and
+Waizeru Zauditu (born 1876) became empress.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. P. Skinner,
+_Abyssinia of Today_. A. B. Wylde, _Modern Abyssinia_.
+
+[Illustration: Acacia arabica, showing leaves, flowers, and fruit]
+
+ACA'CIA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Leguminosæ, sub-order Mimoseæ,
+consisting of trees or shrubs with compound pinnate leaves and small
+leaflets, growing in Africa, Arabia, the East Indies, Australia, &c. The
+flowers, usually small, are arranged in spikes or globular heads at the
+axils of the leaves near the extremity of the branches. The corolla is
+bell- or funnel-shaped; stamens are numerous; the fruit is a dry unjointed
+pod. Several of the species yield gum-arabic and other gums; some having
+astringent barks and pods, used in tanning. _A. Catechu_, an Indian
+species, yields the valuable astringent called catechu; _A. dealb[=a]ta_,
+the wattle tree of Australia, from 15 to 30 feet in height, is the most
+beautiful and useful of the species found there. Its bark contains a large
+percentage of tannin, and is exported in large quantities. Some species
+yield valuable timber; some are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.
+
+ACAD'EMY, an association for the promotion of literature, science, or art;
+established sometimes by Government, sometimes by the voluntary union of
+private individuals. The name Academy was first applied to the
+philosophical school of Plato, from the place where he used to teach, a
+grove or garden at Athens which was said to have belonged originally to the
+hero Acad[=e]mus. The home of Academies as associations of learned men (not
+institutes for instruction), was Hellenized Egypt and afterwards Italy of
+the Renaissance. The flourishing Academies at Florence, Naples, and Rome
+became the models of academies in other countries. Academies devote
+themselves either to the cultivation of science generally or to the
+promotion of a particular branch of study, as antiquities, language, and
+the fine arts. The most celebrated institutions bearing the name of
+academies, and designed for the encouragement of science, antiquities, and
+language respectively, are the French Académie des Sciences (founded by
+Colbert in 1666), Académie des Inscriptions (founded by Colbert in 1663),
+and Académie Française (founded by Richelieu in 1635), all of which are now
+merged in the National Institute. The most celebrated of the academies
+instituted for the improvement of language is the Italian Accademia della
+Crusca, or Furfuratorum (now the Florentine Academy), formed in 1582, and
+chiefly celebrated for the compilation of an excellent dictionary of the
+Italian language (_Vocabulario della Crusca_, Venice, 1612), and for the
+publication of several carefully-prepared editions of ancient Italian
+poets. The (Imperial) Academy of Science of St. Petersburg was projected by
+Peter the Great and established by Catherine I in 1725. The Academy of
+Science in Berlin was founded by Frederick I in 1700. It was opened in 1711
+and had Leibnitz as its first president. In Britain the name of academy, in
+the more dignified sense of the term, is confined almost exclusively to
+certain institutions for the promotion of the fine arts, such as the Royal
+Academy of Arts and the Royal Scottish Academy. The Royal Academy of Arts
+(usually called simply the Royal Academy) was founded in London in 1768,
+"for the purpose of cultivating and improving the arts of painting,
+sculpture, and architecture". The number of academicians is now limited to
+forty-two, among whom are two engravers. There are also thirty associates,
+from whom the academicians are elected. Of the associates five are
+engravers. Any person who is possessed of sufficient proficiency may be
+admitted as a student and receive instruction gratis, and prizes are
+annually bestowed on meritorious students. The annual exhibition of the
+Academy is open to all artists whose works show sufficient merit. The Royal
+Scottish Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture was founded in
+1826 and incorporated in 1838. It consists of thirty academicians and
+twenty associates. The Royal Hibernian Academy at Dublin was incorporated
+in 1823 and reorganized in 1861. It consists of thirty members and ten
+associates. A British Academy for the Promotion of Historical,
+Philosophical, and Philological Studies was incorporated in 1902. (See
+_British Academy_.) In the United States, the American Academy of Arts and
+Sciences at Boston was founded in 1780, and since then various other
+societies of similar character and name have been instituted, as the New
+York Academy of Sciences, the Chicago Academy of Science, &c.
+
+ACA'DIA (Fr. _Acadie_), the name formerly given to Nova Scotia. It received
+its first colonists from France in 1604, being then a possession of that
+country, but it passed to Britain, by the Peace of Utrecht, in 1713. In
+1756, 18,000 of the French inhabitants were forcibly removed from their
+homes on account of their hostility to the British, an incident on which is
+based Longfellow's _Evangeline_. Many Acadians afterwards wandered back to
+their old homes, and their descendants are at present supposed to number
+270,000, 100,000 of them living in French Canada.
+
+ACALE'PHA (Gr. _akal[=e]ph[=e]_, a nettle, from their stinging properties),
+a term formerly used to denote the Medusæ, or jelly-fishes, and allied
+species.
+
+ACANTHA'CEÆ, or ACANTHADS, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous herbaceous plants
+or shrubs, with opposite leaves and monopetalous corolla, mostly tropical;
+species about 1400. See _Acanthus_.
+
+[Illustration: _a_, _b_, _c_, Spines of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins
+of Acanthopterygii]
+
+ACANTHOP'TERI, ACANTHOPTERYGII (Gr. _akantha_, a spine, _pterygion_, a
+fin), a group of fishes, distinguished by the fact that at least the first
+rays in each fin exist in the form of stiff spines; it includes the perch,
+mullet, mackerel, gurnard, wrasse, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Acanthus. Examples of Greek and Roman decorative treatment]
+
+ACANTH'US, a genus of herbaceous plants or shrubs, order Acanthaceæ, mostly
+tropical, two species of which, _A. mollis_ and _A. spin[=o]sus_ (the
+bear's-breech or brankursine), are characterized by large white flowers and
+deeply-indented shining leaves. They are favourite ornamental plants in
+British gardens.--In architecture the name is given to a kind of foliage
+decoration said to have been suggested by this plant, and much employed in
+Greek, Roman, and later styles.
+
+ACAPUL'CO, a seaport of Mexico, on the Pacific, with a capacious,
+well-sheltered harbour; a coaling station for steamers, but with no great
+trade. Pop. 5950.
+
+ACAR'IDA, a division of the Arachnida, including the mites, ticks, and
+water-mites. See _Mite_.
+
+ACARNA'NIA, the most westerly portion of Northern Greece, together with
+Ætolia now forming a nomarchy with a pop. of 188,597. The Acarnanians of
+ancient times were behind the other Greeks in civilization, living by
+robbery and piracy.
+
+AC'ARUS, the genus to which the mite belongs.
+
+ACCA'DIANS (Akkad), the primitive inhabitants of Northern Babylonia
+(Akkad), who had descended from the mountainous region of Elam on the east,
+and to whom the Assyrians ascribed the origin of Chaldean civilization and
+writing. This race is believed to have belonged to the Turanian family, or
+to have been at any rate non-Semitic. What is known of them has been
+learned from the cuneiform inscriptions. See _Babylonia_ and _Summerians_.
+
+ACCELERA'TION is the rate of change of the velocity of a body under the
+action of a force. A body falling from a height is one of the most common
+instances of acceleration.--_Acceleration of the Moon_, the increase of the
+moon's mean angular velocity about the earth, the moon now moving rather
+faster than in ancient times. This phenomenon has not been fully explained,
+but it is known to be partly owing to the slow process of diminution which
+the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is undergoing, and from which there
+results a slight diminution of the sun's influence on the moon's
+motions.--_Diurnal acceleration of the fixed stars_, the apparent greater
+diurnal motion of the stars than of the sun, arising from the fact that the
+sun's apparent yearly motion takes place in a direction contrary to that of
+his apparent daily motion. The stars thus seem each day to anticipate the
+sun by nearly 3 minutes 56 seconds of mean time.
+
+AC'CENT, a term used in several senses. In English it commonly denotes
+superior stress or force of voice upon certain syllables of words, which
+distinguishes them from the other syllables. Many English words, as
+_as'pi-ra"tion_, have two accents, a secondary and primary, the latter
+being the fuller or stronger. Some words, as _in-com'pre-hen'si-bil"i-ty_,
+have two secondary or subordinate accents. When the full accent falls on a
+vowel, that vowel has its long sound, as in _vo'cal_; but when it falls on
+a consonant, the preceding vowel is short, as in _hab'it_. This kind of
+accent alone regulates English verse, as contrasted with Latin or Greek
+verse, in which the metre depended on _quantity_ or length of syllables. In
+books on elocution three marks or accents are generally made use of, the
+first or _acute_ (´) showing when the voice is to be raised, the second or
+_grave_ (`), when it is to be depressed, and the third or _circumflex_ (^)
+when the vowel is to be uttered with an undulating sound. In some languages
+there is no such distinct accent as in English (or German), and this seems
+to be now the case with French.--In music, accent is the stress or emphasis
+laid upon certain notes of a bar. The first note of a bar has the strongest
+accent, but weaker accents are given to the first notes of subordinate
+parts of the bars, as to the third, fifth, and seventh in a bar of eight
+quavers.
+
+ACCEN'TOR (_Accentor modul[=a]ris_), or HEDGE ACCENTOR, a British bird of
+the warbler family. See _Hedge Warbler_.
+
+ACCEP'TANCE, in law, the act by which a person binds himself to pay a bill
+of exchange drawn upon him. (See _Bill_.) No acceptance is valid unless
+made in writing on the bill, but an acceptance may be either absolute or
+conditional, that is, stipulating some alteration in the amount or date of
+payment, or some condition to be fulfilled previous to payment.
+
+AC'CESSARY, or AC'CESSORY, in law, a person guilty of an offence by
+connivance or participation, either before or after the act committed, as
+by command, advice, concealment, &c. An accessary _before the fact_ is one
+who procures or counsels another to commit a crime, and is not present at
+its commission; an accessary _after the fact_ is one who, knowing a felony
+to have been committed, gives assistance of any kind to the felon so as to
+hinder him from being apprehended, tried, or suffering punishment. An
+accessary before the fact may be tried and punished in all respects as if
+he were the principal. In high treason, all who participate are regarded as
+principals.
+
+ACCIDEN'TALS, notes introduced in the course of a piece of music in a
+different key from that in which the passage where they occur is
+principally written. They are represented by the sign of a sharp, flat, or
+natural immediately before the note which is to be raised or lowered.
+
+ACCIPITRES (ak-sip'i-tr[=e]z), the name given by Linnæus and Cuvier to the
+rapacious birds now usually called Raptores (q.v.).
+
+ACCLIMATIZA'TION, the process of accustoming plants or animals to live and
+propagate in a climate different from that to which they are indigenous, or
+the change which the constitution of an animal or plant undergoes under new
+climatic conditions, in the direction of adaptation to those conditions.
+The systematic study of acclimatization has only been entered upon in very
+recent times, and the little progress that has been made in it has been
+more in the direction of formulating anticipative, if not arbitrary
+hypotheses, than of actual discovery and acquisition of facts. The
+best-known society founded, for the purpose of naturalizing animals and
+plants, is the Société d'Acclimatation in Paris. It opened the Jardin
+d'Acclimatation in 1860. See _Tropical Hygiene_. The term is sometimes
+applied to the case of animals or plants taking readily to a new country
+with a climate and other circumstances similar to what they have left, such
+as European animals and plants in America and New Zealand: but this is more
+properly _naturalization_ than acclimatization.--In agriculture the word is
+used with reference to stock, principally sheep, 'acclimatized' to a
+particular area, a special allowance being made by the landlord on
+transference of the farm and stock in respect of the acclimatization of the
+sheep. The value assigned to the advantages resulting from acclimatization
+of stocks varies considerably. In Argyllshire, for instance,
+Dumbartonshire, and the western portion of Perthshire the rates are high,
+while in the south of Scotland and the north of England they are much
+lower.
+
+ACCOLADE (ak-o-l[=a]d'; Fr., from Lat. _ad_, to, _collum_, the neck), the
+ceremony used in conferring knighthood, anciently consisting either in the
+embrace given by the person who conferred the honour of knighthood or in a
+light blow on the neck or the cheek, latterly consisting in the ceremony of
+striking the candidate with a naked sword.
+
+ACCOL'TI, Benedetto, an Italian lawyer, born at Arezzo in Tuscany in 1415,
+died at Florence in 1466. He was secretary to the Florentine republic,
+1459, and author of a work on the Crusades which is said to have furnished
+Tasso with matter for his _Jerusalem Delivered_.
+
+ACCOMMODA'TION BILL, a bill of exchange drawn and accepted to raise money
+on, and not given, like a genuine bill of exchange, in payment of a debt,
+but merely intended to accommodate the drawer: colloquially called a _wind
+bill_ and a _kite_.
+
+ACCOMMODA'TION LADDER, a light ladder hung over the side of a ship at the
+gangway to facilitate ascending from, or descending to, boats.
+
+ACCOM'PANIMENT, in music, is that part of music which serves for the
+support of the principal melody.
+
+ACCOR'DION, a keyed musical wind-instrument similar to the concertina,
+being in the form of a small box, containing a number of metallic reeds
+fixed at one of their extremities, the sides of the box forming a folding
+apparatus which acts as a bellows to supply the wind, and thus set the
+reeds in vibration, and produce the notes both of melody and harmony. The
+accordion was invented by Damian of Vienna in 1829.
+
+ACCOUNTANT, a person whose chief business is with accounts and the drawing
+up of financial statements and balance-sheets. An accountant is an
+important official in banks, railways, and certain other institutions, and
+many persons carry on the business of accountant as a distinct profession,
+auditing the books of merchants, joint-stock companies, &c. There are
+several bodies of accountants in the United Kingdom incorporated by royal
+charter, and hence specially distinguished as 'chartered accountants'
+(C.A.). Since 1919 women are admitted as members of the Society of
+Incorporated Accountants.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. R. Dicksee, _Advanced
+Accounting_; G. Lisle, _Encyclopædia of Accounting_ (8 vols.).
+
+AC'CRA, a British settlement in Africa, in a swampy situation, capital of
+Gold Coast, about 75 miles east of Cape Coast Castle. Exports gold-dust,
+ivory, gums, palm-oil; imports cottons, cutlery, &c. Pop. 20,000.
+
+AC'CRINGTON, a municipal borough of England, Lancashire, 5 miles east of
+Blackburn, with large cotton factories, print-works and bleaching-greens,
+and coal-mines. Pop. 43,610. Accrington was created a parliamentary borough
+in 1918.
+
+ACCU'MULATOR, a name applied to a kind of electric battery by means of
+which electric energy can be stored and rendered portable. In the usual
+form each battery forms a cylindrical leaden vessel, containing alternate
+sheets of metallic lead and minium wrapped in felt and rolled into a spiral
+wetted with acidulated water. On being charged with electricity the energy
+may be preserved till required for use.
+
+ACCU'SATIVE CASE, in Latin and some other languages, the term applied to
+the case which designates the object to which the action of any verb is
+immediately directed, corresponding, generally speaking, to the _objective_
+in English.
+
+ACE, in aviation the name 'ace' is given to a flying-man who has
+distinguished himself by bringing down a large number (sometimes given as
+ten) of enemy machines. The word is used colloquially, and was borrowed
+from the French Air Force during the European War.
+
+ACEPH'ALA, in zoology, the headless Mollusca or those which want a distinct
+head, corresponding to those that have bivalve shells and are also called
+_Lamellibranchiata_.
+
+A'CER, the genus of plants (nat. ord. Aceraceæ) to which belongs the maple.
+
+ACERRA ([.a]-cher'[.a]), a town in South Italy, 9 miles north-east of
+Naples, the see of a bishop, in a fertile but unhealthy region. Pop.
+17,878.
+
+ACETAB'ULUM, an anatomical term applied to any cup-like cavity, as that of
+a bone to receive the protuberant end of another bone, the cavity, for
+instance, that receives the end of the thigh-bone.
+
+ACETATES (as'e-t[=a]ts), salts of acetic acid. The acetates of most
+commercial or manufacturing importance are those of aluminium and iron,
+which are used in calico-printing; of copper, which as verdigris is used as
+a colour; and of lead, best known as sugar of lead. The acetates of
+potassium, sodium, and ammonium, of iron, zinc, and lead, and the acetate
+of morphia, are employed in medicine.
+
+ACET'IC ACID, an acid produced by the oxidation of common alcohol, and of
+many other organic substances. Pure acetic acid has a very sour taste and
+pungent smell, burns the skin, and is poisonous. From freezing at ordinary
+temperatures (58° or 59°) it is known as _glacial acetic acid_. Vinegar is
+simply dilute acetic acid. Acetic acid is largely used in the arts, in
+medicine, and for domestic purposes. See _Vinegar_.
+
+ACET'IC ETHERS, or ACETIC ESTERS, acetates of alcohol radicals. The common
+ester--ethyl acetate--is a volatile colourless liquid, manufactured by
+distilling a mixture of alcohol, oil of vitriol, and acetic acid, and used
+for flavouring purposes.
+
+ACETONE (as'), a constituent of ordinary wood spirit, a colourless volatile
+liquid used as a solvent, the simplest of the _ketones_.
+
+ACET'YLENE, C_2H_2, is a substance composed of two elements, carbon and
+hydrogen, and belonging to a class of compounds known as hydrocarbons. It
+is formed in the incomplete combustion of many hydrocarbons and also of
+coal-gas, and may be produced in a variety of ways, but is now made almost
+entirely from calcium carbide. Acetylene has been known for a long time,
+but only since 1870 has it been produced in any quantity. After the
+development of the electric furnace it was found that calcium oxide,
+quicklime, heated with carbon to the high temperature possible in such a
+furnace, is transformed into calcium carbide, and this compound reacts with
+water, generating acetylene. A great deal of heat is developed on adding
+water to calcium carbide, so that care has to be taken in generating
+acetylene. Various devices are in use for bringing the two substances in
+contact slowly, and for keeping the temperature low. When carbon and
+hydrogen combine to form acetylene a large amount of heat is used up, so
+that much heat is evolved when acetylene decomposes again, and once
+decomposition starts sufficient heat is developed to decompose the whole
+volume of gas.
+
+Acetylene is a colourless gas slightly soluble in water and very sparingly
+soluble in brine. When pure it has little or no odour, but as ordinarily
+prepared it has a strong unpleasant odour due to traces of impurities such
+as sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphine, &c. The gas can be liquefied easily,
+and in the liquid state is highly explosive. It burns with an exceedingly
+sooty flame, but if it is allowed to pass through a very small orifice the
+carbon liberated becomes incandescent and acetylene burns with an intense
+white flame. It is largely used as an illuminant and for the production of
+great heat. As an illuminant the gas is produced in specially-constructed
+generators. It is led through iron pipes and burned from an acetylene
+burner, or it may be used with special types of incandescent mantles.
+Acetylene readily combines with copper and with silver to form metallic
+acetylides which are very explosive, hence pipes through which acetylene is
+passing must not be made of brass or copper. Acetylene mixed with air and
+brought in contact with an ignited body explodes even more violently than a
+mixture of air and coal-gas.
+
+Large quantities of acetylene are generated and stored for oxy-acetylene
+welding. Acetylene, burning in oxygen, gives an intensely hot flame (about
+2000°-3000° C.), sufficiently hot to melt iron. Although liquid acetylene
+is unstable, and even the gas, under slight pressure, is also unstable, it
+may be transported safely if dissolved in acetone. Acetone dissolves a
+large volume of acetylene, and this solution is quite stable and may be
+stored in iron cylinders and used for various purposes. If it is to be
+stored it must be carefully purified from phosphine, which is apt to cause
+sudden decomposition. Recently, numerous patents have been taken out for
+the preparation of compounds such as acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetic
+anhydride, &c., using acetylene as starting-point, so that many substances
+may be prepared from acetylene just as many substances may be prepared from
+benzene.
+
+ACHÆANS (a-k[=e]'anz), one of the four races into which the ancient Greeks
+were divided. In early times they inhabited a part of Northern Greece and
+of the Peloponnesus. They are represented by Homer as a brave and warlike
+people, and so distinguished were they that he usually calls the Greeks in
+general Achæans. Afterwards they settled in the district of the
+Peloponnesus, called after them Achaia, and forming a narrow belt of coast
+on the south side of the Gulf of Corinth. From very early times a
+confederacy or league existed among the twelve towns of this region. After
+the death of Alexander the Great it was broken up, but was revived again,
+280 B.C., and from this time grew in power till it spread over the whole
+Peloponnesus. It was finally dissolved by the Romans, 147 B.C., and after
+this the whole of Greece, except Thessaly, was called Achaia or Achæa.
+Achaia with Elis now forms a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. Pop.
+254,728. Cf. Freeman, _History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy_,
+London, 1893.
+
+ACHÆMENIDÆ (ak-[=e]-men'i-d[=e]) a dynasty of ancient Persian kings, being
+that to which the great Cyrus belonged.
+
+ACHAIA (a-k[=a]'ya). See _Achæans_.
+
+ACHALZIK. See _Akhalzik_.
+
+ACHARD ([.a]_h_'[.a]rt), Franz Karl, a German chemist, born 1753, died
+1821, principally known by his invention (1789-1800) of a process for
+manufacturing sugar from beetroot. In 1801 the first beet-sugar factory
+ever established was started by him in Silesia.
+
+ACHARD ([.a]-shär), Louis Amédée Eugène, born 1814, died 1875, French
+journalist, novelist, and playwright. He was best known as a novelist;
+wrote the novels _Belle Rose_, _La Chasse royale_, _Châteaux en Espagne_,
+_Robe de Nessus_, _Chaînes de fer_, &c. His _Lettres Parisiennes_ were
+published in 1838 under the pseudonym of Grimm.
+
+ACHATES (a-k[=a]'t[=e]z), a companion of Æneas in his wanderings subsequent
+to his flight from Troy. He is always distinguished in Virgil's _Æneid_ by
+the epithet _fidus_, 'faithful', and has become typical of a faithful
+friend and companion.
+
+ACHEEN, or ATCHIN ([.a]-ch[=e]n') (Du. _Atjeh_), a native State of Sumatra,
+with a capital of the same name, in the north-western extremity of the
+island, now nominally under Dutch administration. Though largely
+mountainous, it has also undulating tracts and low fertile plains. By
+treaty with Britain the Dutch were prevented from extending their territory
+in Sumatra by conquest; but this obstacle being removed, in 1871 they
+proceeded to occupy Acheen. It was not till 1879, however, after a great
+waste of blood and treasure, that they obtained a general recognition of
+their authority. But they have not been able to establish it firmly, and
+have had to put down many determined risings, sometimes costing them losses
+both in men and guns. In the seventeenth century Acheen was a powerful
+State, and carried on hostilities successfully against the Portuguese, but
+its influence decreased with the increase of the Dutch power. The principal
+exports are rice and pepper. Area, 20,471 sq. miles; pop. 789,664.
+
+ACHELOUS (ak-e-l[=o]'us) (now ASPROPOT[)A]MO), the largest river of Greece,
+rising on Mount Pindus, separating Ætolia and Acarnania, and flowing into
+the Ionian Sea. In Greek legend, Achel[=o]us, the son of Oceanus and
+Tethys, was the river-god.
+
+ACHENBACH ([.a]'_h_en-b[.a]ch), Andreas, was a distinguished German
+landscape and marine painter, born in 1815, died in 1910.
+
+ACHENBACH, Oswald, born 1827, died 1905, brother of above, was also a
+distinguished landscape painter. Both are of the Düsseldorf school, and
+pupils of the famous painter Schadow.
+
+[Illustration: Achene of Buttercup (magnified)
+
+E, Embryo. En, Endosperm. T, Testa and pericarp.]
+
+ACHENE, or ACHENIUM (a-k[=e]n', a-k[=e]'ni-um), in botany, a small, dry
+carpel containing a single seed, the pericarp of which is closely applied
+but separable, and which does not open when ripe. It is either solitary, or
+several achenia may be placed on a common receptacle as in the buttercup.
+
+ACHENSEE, a lake in Tyrol, 20 miles north-east of Innsbruck and 3018 feet
+above sea-level. On its shores are beautiful villas and hotels frequented
+as summer resorts.
+
+ACHERON (ak'e-ron) (modern FANARIOTICOS), the ancient name of several
+rivers in Greece and Italy, all of which were connected by legend with the
+lower world. The principal was a river of Thesprotia in Epirus, which
+passes through Lake Acherusia and flows into the Ionian Sea. Homer speaks
+of Acheron as a river of the lower world, and late Greek writers use the
+name to designate the lower world.
+
+ACHEULIAN, a term applied by archæologists to the late stage of Chellean
+civilization in the Pleistocene Age. It is named after St. Acheul in the
+Somme valley, where relics of it were found. The geological horizon,
+according to Professor James Geikie, is late Second Interglacial and Third
+Glacial periods.
+
+ACH'IAR, or AT'CHAR, an Indian condiment made of the young shoots of the
+bamboo pickled.
+
+ACHIEVEMENT (a-ch[=e]v'ment), in heraldry, a term applied to the shield of
+armorial bearings generally, or to a hatchment (q.v.).
+
+ACHILL (ak'il), the largest island on the Irish coast, separated from the
+mainland of Mayo by a narrow sound, now bridged over. The chief occupation
+is fishing. The island is mountainous, has fine scenery, and is visited by
+many tourists, there being now a railway terminus here, and many recent
+improvements. Pop. nearly 7000.
+
+ACHILLÆ'A, the milfoil genus of plants.
+
+ACHILLEION, famous castle at Corfu, which used to belong to the Empress
+Elizabeth of Austria. It was acquired by the ex-Kaiser William II, who
+bought it from the Archduchess Giséla, wife of Prince Leopold of Bavaria.
+
+ACHILLES (a-kil'[=e]z), a Greek legendary hero, the chief character in
+Homer's _Iliad_. His father was Peleus, ruler of Phthia in Thessaly, his
+mother the sea-goddess Thetis. When only six years of age he was able to
+overcome lions and bears. His guardian, Cheiron the Centaur, having
+declared that Troy could not be taken without his aid, his mother, fearing
+for his safety, disguised him as a girl, and introduced him among the
+daughters of Lycomedes of Scyros. Her desire for his safety made her also
+try to make him invulnerable when a child by anointing him with ambrosia,
+and again by dipping him in the River Styx, from which he came out proof
+against wounds, all but the heel, by which she held him. His place of
+concealment was discovered by Odysseus (Ulysses), and he promised his
+assistance to the Greeks against Troy. Accompanied by his close friend,
+Patroclus, he joined the expedition with a body of followers (Myrmidons) in
+fifty ships, and occupied nine years in raids upon the towns neighbouring
+to Troy, after which the siege proper commenced. On being deprived of his
+prize, the maiden Briseïs, by Agamemnon, he refused to take any further
+part in the war, and disaster attended the Greeks. Patroclus now persuaded
+Achilles to allow him to lead the Myrmidons to battle dressed in his
+armour, and he having been slain by Hector, Achilles vowed revenge on the
+Trojans, and forgot his anger against the Greeks. He attacked the Trojans
+and drove them back to their walls, slaying them in great numbers, chased
+Hector, who fled before him three times round the walls of Troy, slew him,
+and dragged his body at his chariot-wheels, but afterwards gave it up to
+Priam, who came in person to beg for it. He then performed the funeral
+rites of Patroclus, with which the _Iliad_ closes. He was killed in a
+battle at the Scæan Gate of Troy by an arrow from the bow of Paris which
+struck his vulnerable heel. In discussions on the origin of the Homeric
+poems the term _Achilleid_ is often applied to those books (i, viii, and
+xi-xxii) of the _Iliad_ in which Achilles is prominent, and which some
+suppose to have formed the original nucleus of the poem. See _Iphigenia_.
+
+ACHILLES' TENDON, or TENDON OF ACHILLES, the strong tendon which connects
+the muscles of the calf with the heel, and which may be easily felt with
+the hand. The origin of the name will be understood from the above article.
+
+ACHILLES TATIUS (a-kil'[=e]z t[=a]'shi-us), a Greek romance writer of the
+fifth century A.D., belonging to Alexandria; wrote a love story in 8 books
+called _Leucipp[=e] and Cleitophon_.
+
+ACHIMENES (a-kim'e-n[=e]z), a genus of tropical American plants, with scaly
+underground tubers, nat. ord. Gesneraceæ, now cultivated in European
+greenhouses on account of their white, blue, and red flowers.
+
+ACHLAMYDEOUS (ak-la-mid'i-us), in botany, wanting the floral envelopes,
+that is, having neither calyx nor corolla, as the willow.
+
+ACHOR ([=a]'kor), a disease of infants, in which the head, the face, and
+often the neck and breast become incrusted with thin, yellowish or greenish
+scabs, arising from minute, whitish pustules, which discharge a viscid
+fluid.
+
+ACHROMAT'IC (Gr. _a_, priv., and _chr[=o]ma, chr[=o]matos_, colour), in
+optics, transmitting colourless light, that is, not decomposed into the
+primary colours, though having passed through a refracting medium. A single
+convex lens does not give an image free from the prismatic colours, because
+the rays of different colour making up white light are not equally
+refrangible, and thus do not all come to a focus together, the violet, for
+instance, being nearest the lens, the red farthest off. If such a lens of
+crown-glass, however, is combined with a concave lens of flint-glass--the
+curvatures of both being properly adjusted--as the two materials have
+somewhat different optical properties, the latter will neutralize the
+chromatic aberration of the former, and a satisfactory image will be
+produced. Telescopes, microscopes, &c., in which the glasses are thus
+composed are called _achromatic_.
+
+ACID (Lat. _acidus_, sour), a name applied to a number of compounds, having
+more or less the qualities of vinegar (itself a diluted form of acetic
+acid). Their general properties are sour taste, the power of changing
+vegetable blues into reds, of evolving hydrogen in presence of magnesium,
+of decomposing chalk with effervescence, and of being in various degrees
+neutralized by alkalies. An acid has been defined as a compound of
+hydrogen, the whole or a part of which is replaceable by a metal when this
+is presented in the form of a hydroxide; being _monobasic_, _dibasic_, or
+_tribasic_, according to the number of replaceable hydrogen atoms in a
+molecule. See _Chemistry_.
+
+ACIERAGE ([=a]'s[=e]-[.e]r-[=a]j), (Fr. _acier_, steel), a process by which
+an engraved copper-plate or an electrotype from an engraved plate of steel
+or copper has a film of iron deposited over its surface by electricity in
+order to protect the engraving from wear in printing. By this means an
+electrotype of a fine engraving, which, if printed directly from the
+copper, would not yield 500 good impressions, can be made to yield 3000 or
+more; and when the film of iron becomes so worn as to reveal any part of
+the copper, it may be removed and a fresh coating deposited so that 20,000
+good impressions may be got.
+
+ACIPENSER (as-i-pen's[.e]r), the genus of cartilaginous ganoid fishes to
+which the sturgeon belongs.
+
+ACI REALE (ä'ch[=e] r[=a]-ä'l[=a]), a seaport of Sicily, north-east of
+Catania, a well-built town, with a trade in corn, wine, fruit, &c. Pop.
+35,587.
+
+A'CIS, according to Ovid, a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, loved by Galatea,
+and crushed to death by his rival the Cyclops Polyphemus. His blood,
+flowing from beneath the rock which crushed him, was changed into a river
+bearing his name, and renowned for the coldness of its water. It has been
+identified as the Fiume di Jaci.
+
+ACLIN'IC LINE (Gr. priv. _a, klin[=o]_, to incline), the magnetic equator,
+an irregular curve in the neighbourhood of the terrestrial equator, where
+the magnetic needle balances itself horizontally, having no dip. See
+_Magnetism_.
+
+ACNE (ak'n[=e]), a skin disease, consisting of small hard pimples, usually
+on the face, caused by congestion of the follicles of the skin.
+
+[Illustration: Acolyte]
+
+ACOLYTES (ak'o-l[=i]ts), in the ancient Latin and Greek Churches, persons
+of ecclesiastical rank next in order below the subdeacons, whose office it
+was to attend the officiating priest. The name is still retained in the
+Roman Church. Cf. Duchesne, _Christian Worship, its Origin and Evolution_.
+
+ACONCAGUA ([.a]-kon-kä'gw[.a]), a province, a river, and a mountain of
+Chile. The peak of Aconcagua, whose summit is just within the Argentine
+Republic, rises to the height of 23,080 feet, and is probably the highest
+mountain of the western hemisphere. Area of province, 5406 sq. miles. Pop.
+(1919), 132,165.
+
+AC'ONITE (_Acon[=i]tum_), a genus of hardy herbaceous plants, nat. ord.
+Ranunculaceæ, represented by the well-known wolf's-bane or monk's-hood, and
+remarkable for their poisonous properties and medicinal qualities, being
+used internally as well as externally in rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, &c.
+
+ACON'ITINE, an alkaloid extracted from monk's-hood and some other species
+of aconite; used medicinally, though a virulent poison.
+
+ACONQUIJA ([.a]-kon-k[=e]'_h_[.a]), a range of mountains in the Argentine
+Republic; the name also of a single peak, 17,000 feet high.
+
+A'CORN, the fruit of the different kinds of oak. The acorn-cups of one
+species are brought from the Levant under the name of _valonia_, and used
+in tanning.
+
+ACORN-SHELL. See _Balanus_.
+
+AC'ORUS, a genus of plants, including the sweet-flag. See _Sweet-flag_ and
+_Calamus_.
+
+ACOS'TA, Gabriel, afterwards Uriel, a Portuguese of Jewish descent, born at
+Oporto in 1590, died by his own hand 1640. Brought up a Christian, he
+afterwards embraced Judaism. Having gone to Amsterdam, where he attacked
+the practices of the Jews, and denied the divine mission of Moses, he
+suffered much persecution at the hands of the Jews. He left an
+autobiography, published in 1687, under the title _Exemplar Humanæ Vitæ_.
+He is the hero of a novel, _Die Sadducäer von Amsterdam_, and of a tragedy,
+_Uriel Acosta_, both by Gutzkow.
+
+ACOTYLE'DONS, plants not furnished with cotyledons or seed-lobes. They
+include ferns, mosses, seaweeds, &c., and are also called flowerless plants
+or cryptogams.
+
+ACOUSIMETER, or ACOUMETER (Gr. _akouein_, to hear, and _metron_, measure),
+an instrument used to determine the acuteness of hearing. It consists of a
+small bar which gives a uniform sound when struck by a hammer.
+
+ACOUSTICS (a-kou'stiks), the science of sound. It deals with the production
+of sound, its propagation and velocity in various media; the reflection,
+refraction, and interference of sound waves; the properties of musical
+notes; and the general phenomena of such vibrations of elastic bodies as
+affect the organ of hearing.
+
+In order that a sound may be heard, it is necessary that an uninterrupted
+series of particles of elastic matter should extend from the sounding body
+to our ear. Sound is propagated by a longitudinal wave-motion in the medium
+(gaseous, liquid, or solid), that is, the particles oscillate along the
+line in which the wave is travelling, giving rise to regular series of
+condensations and rarefactions.
+
+The velocity of sound varies directly as the square root of the elasticity,
+and inversely as the square root of the density, of the medium in which it
+is propagated. The velocity of sound in air at 0° C. is 330.6 metres per
+second, or 1085 feet per second; in water 1.49 kilometres per second, or
+0.926 mile per second; in copper 5.01 kilometres per second, or 3.12 miles
+per second.
+
+The intensity of sound varies inversely as the square of the distance from
+the sounding body. Recently sound-ranging instruments have been produced by
+means of which the position of a gun can be determined.
+
+A note produced by a musical instrument consists of a _fundamental_ of a
+certain frequency, together with a number of _overtones_ of various higher
+frequencies and much smaller amplitude. The _timbre_ of a note depends on
+the overtones present, the _loudness_ depends on the amplitude of the
+vibrations, and the _pitch_ depends on the frequency. The musical scale
+consists of eight notes, C D E F G A B C, whose frequencies are in the
+proportion of the numbers 24, 27, 30, 32, 36, 40, 45 and 48. The interval
+between two notes is the ratio of the frequency of the higher note to the
+frequency of the lower note. In order that the intervals may be the same in
+all keys, a tempered scale is used in music. (See Table, p. 25.)
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lord Rayleigh, _Theory of Sound_; H. Smith, _The Making of
+Sound in the Organ and Orchestra_; J. W. Capstick, _Sound_ (Cambridge
+Natural Science Manuals); E. H. Barton, _Text-book of Sound_.
+
+ACQUI ([.a]k'w[=e]), a town of Northern Italy, 18 miles S.S.W. of
+Alessandria, a bishop's see. It has warm sulphurous baths, which were known
+to the Romans, and which still attract a great many visitors. Pop. 16,500.
+
+ACRE, a standard British measure of land, also used in the colonies and the
+United States. The imperial statute acre consists of 4840 sq. yards,
+divided into 4 roods. The old Scotch acre contains 6146.8 sq. yards, the
+old Irish acre 7840 sq. yards.
+
+ACRE ([=a]'k[.e]r) (ancient ACCHO and PTOLEMAIS), a seaport of Syria, in
+Northern Palestine, on the Bay of Acre, early a place of great strength and
+importance. Taken from the Saracens under Saladin in 1191 by Richard I of
+England and Philip of France; bravely defended by the Turks, assisted by
+Sir Sidney Smith, in 1799 against Napoleon; in 1832, taken by Ibrahim
+Pasha; in 1840, bombarded by a British, Austrian, and Turkish fleet, and
+restored to the Sultan of Turkey. The town was occupied by British troops
+under General Allenby in September, 1918. Pop. 10,000.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+MUSICAL INTERVALS.--See _Acoustics_
+
+  Intervals in                                       Intervals in
+  Perfect Diatonic                Diatonic Scale.    Tempered Scale--
+  Scale.              Perfect      on System of      Mean tone.
+                   Diatonic Scale     Equal          (2^{1/6} = 1.123).
+                                   Temperament.      Semitone.
+                                                     (2^{1/12}= 1.059).
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+                   C   1                       1.000
+   9/8  major tone                                       tone.
+                   D  9/8 = 1.125     2-2/12 = 1.123
+  10/9  minor tone                                       tone.
+                   E  5/4 = 1.250     2-4/12 = 1.260
+  16/15 limma                                            semitone.
+                   F  4/3 = 1.333     2-5/12 = 1.335
+   9/8  major tone                                       tone.
+                   G  3/2 = 1.500     2-7/12 = 1.498
+  10/9  minor tone                                       tone.
+                   A  5/3 = 1.667     2-9/12 = 1.682
+   9/8  minor tone                                       tone.
+                   B 15/8 = 1.875    2-11/12 = 1.888
+  16/15 limma                                            semitone.
+                   C'  2                       2.000
+
+  Major tone ratio = 9/8      = 1.125  Limma tone ratio = 16/15    = 1.067
+  Minor   "    "   = 10/9     = 1.111  Semitone     "   = 2^{1/12} = 1.059
+  Mean    "    "   = 2^{2/12} = 1.123
+
+NOTES OF PERFECT DIATONIC SCALE (WITH THEIR FREQUENCIES)
+
+  C,,  64. Ut_1    C, 128. Ut_2    C  256. Ut_3    C'   512. Ut_4
+  D,,  72          D, 144          D  288          D'   576
+  E,,  80          E, 160          E  320          E'   640
+  F,,  85.3        F, 170.7        F  341.3        F'   682.7
+  G,,  96          G, 192          G  384          G'   768
+  A,, 106.6        A, 213.3        A  426.7        A'   853.2
+  B,, 120          B, 240          B  480          B'   960
+                                                   C'' 1024. Ut_5
+
+PERFECT DIATONIC SCALES (TRANSITION TO KEY OF DOMINANT)
+
+_Example_--Key of C to Key of G
+
+  C     D     E     F     G     A    B     C'   D'   E'   F'    G'
+  1    9/8   5/4   4/3   3/2   5/3  15/8   2   9/4  5/2  8/3    3
+
+       G    A`     B     C'    D'    E'   F'#   G'
+       1    9/8   5/4   4/3   3/2   5/3  15/8   2
+
+  A =  10/9 G.     F'  = 16/9 G.
+  A`=   9/8 G.     F'# = 15/8 G.
+  A`= 81/80 A.         = 15/8 X 9/16 F'.
+                       = (1 + 1/18{2/7}) F'.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ACRI ([=a]'kr[=e]), a town of S. Italy, province of Cosenza. Pop. 4000.
+
+AC'RITA (Gr. _akritos_, undistinguishable, doubtful), a name sometimes
+given to the animals otherwise called Protozoa.
+
+ACROCEPH'ALI, tribes of men distinguished by pyramidal or high skulls.
+
+ACROCERAU'NIA (thunder-smitten peaks) (now CAPE GLOSSA or LINGUETTA), a
+promontory of Western Greece, in Epirus, running into the Adriatic.
+
+ACROCORIN'THUS, a steep rock in Greece, nearly 1900 feet high, overhanging
+ancient Corinth, and on which stood the acropolis or citadel, the sacred
+fountain of Pir[=e]n[=e] being also here. This natural fortress has proved
+itself of importance in the modern history of Greece.
+
+AC'ROGENS (-jenz), lit. summit-growers, a term applied to the ferns,
+mosses, and lichens (cryptogams), as growing by extension upwards, in
+contradistinction to endogens and exogens.
+
+AC'ROLITH, an early form of Greek statuary in which the head, hands, and
+feet only were of stone, the trunk of the figure being of wood draped or
+gilded.
+
+ACROP'OLIS (Gr. _akros_, high, and _polis_, a city), the citadel or chief
+place of a Grecian city, usually on an eminence commanding the town. That
+of Athens contained some of the finest buildings in the world, such as the
+Parthenon, Erechth[=e]um, &c.
+
+ACROS'TIC, a poem of which the first or last, or certain other, letters of
+the line, taken in order, form some name, motto, or sentence. A poem of
+which both first and last letters are thus arranged is called a double
+acrostic. In Hebrew poetry, the term is given to a poem of which the
+initial letters of the lines or stanzas were made to run over the letters
+of the alphabet in their order, as in _Psalm_ cxix.--Acrostics have been
+much used in complimentary verses, the initial letters giving the name of
+the person eulogized. They were very popular among French poets of the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In modern times Edgar Allen Poe has
+written quite remarkable acrostic verses.
+
+ACT, in special senses: (1) In dramatic poetry, one of the principal
+divisions of a drama, in which a definite and coherent portion of the plot
+is represented; generally subdivided into smaller portions called _scenes_.
+The Greek dramas were not divided into acts. The dictum that a drama should
+consist of five acts was first formally laid down by Horace, and is
+generally adhered to by modern dramatists in tragedy. In comedy, especially
+since the time of Molière, more freedom is allowed, and a division into two
+or three acts is common.--(2) Something formally done by a legislative or
+judicial body; a statute or law passed.--(3) In universities, a thesis
+maintained in public by a candidate for a degree. See _Act of God_, _of
+Parliament_, _of Settlement_.
+
+ACTA DIUR'NA (Lat., proceedings of the day), a daily Roman newspaper which
+appeared under both the republic and the empire.
+
+ACTÆ'A. See _Baneberry_.
+
+ACTÆ'ON, in Greek mythology, a great hunter, turned into a stag by
+Art[)e]mis (Diana) for looking on her when she was bathing, and torn to
+pieces by his own dogs.
+
+ACTA ERUDITO'RUM (Lat., acts of the learned), the first literary journal
+that appeared in Germany (1682-1782). It was started by Otto Mencke, after
+the model of the _Journal des Savants_. Among the contributors, the most
+distinguished was Leibnitz.
+
+ACTA SANCTORUM (Lat., acts of the saints), a name applied to all
+collections of accounts of ancient martyrs and saints, both of the Greek
+and Roman Churches, more particularly to the valuable collection begun by
+John Bolland, a Jesuit of Antwerp, in 1643, and which, being continued by
+other divines of the same order (_Bollandists_), now extends to sixty
+volumes, the lives following each other in the order of the calendar.
+
+ACTIN'IA, the genus of animals to which the typical sea-anemones belong.
+See _Sea-anemone_.
+
+AC'TINISM, the property of those rays of light which produce chemical
+changes, as in photography, in contradistinction to the light rays and heat
+rays. The actinic property or force begins among the green rays, is
+strongest in the violet rays, and extends a long way beyond the visible
+spectrum.
+
+ACTINIUM, an element or elementary substance obtained in minute quantities
+in connection with the study of radioactivity. It was discovered by
+Debierne in 1899. In 1902 Giesel discovered another substance which he
+called _emanium_, and which was considered to be identical with _actinium_.
+Marckwald, however, came to the conclusion that these two substances are
+not identical but closely related to each other. See _Radium_, _Chemistry_.
+
+ACTIN'OLITE, a mineral nearly allied to hornblende.
+
+ACTINOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the intensity of the sun's
+actinic rays. See _Actinism_.
+
+ACTINOZO'A (lit. ray-animals), a class of animals belonging to the
+sub-kingdom Coelenterata, and including sea-anemones, corals, &c., all
+having rayed tentacles round the mouth.
+
+ACTION, the mode of seeking redress at law for any wrong, injury, or
+deprivation. Actions are divided into civil and criminal, the former again
+being divided into real, personal, and mixed.
+
+AC'TIUM (now LA PUNTA), a promontory on the western coast of Northern
+Greece, not far from the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf (Gulf of Arta),
+memorable on account of the naval victory gained here by Octavianus
+(afterwards the Emperor Augustus) over Antony and Cleopatra, 2nd Sept., 31
+B.C., in sight of their armies encamped on the opposite shores of the
+Ambracian Gulf. Soon after the beginning of the battle Cleopatra escaped
+with sixty Egyptian ships, and Antony basely followed her, and fled with
+her to Egypt. The deserted fleet was not overcome without making a brave
+resistance. Antony's land forces soon went over to the enemy, and the Roman
+world fell to Octavianus. In 1538 a victory was gained at Actium by the
+Turks over the Spanish and Venetian fleets.
+
+ACT OF GOD, a legal term defined as "a direct, violent, sudden, and
+irresistible act of nature, which could not, by any reasonable cause, have
+been foreseen or resisted". No one can be legally called upon to make good
+loss so arising.
+
+ACT OF PARLIAMENT, a law or statute proceeding from the Parliament of the
+United Kingdom passed in both houses, and having received the royal assent.
+Before it is passed it is a _Bill_ and not an Act. Acts are either public
+or private, the former affecting the whole community, the latter only
+special persons and private concerns. The whole body of public Acts
+constitutes the _statute law_. An Act of Parliament can only be altered or
+repealed by the authority of Parliament. Acts are usually cited in this
+way, "13 and 14 Vict. c. (or chap.) 21", which means the 21st Act in
+succession passed in year 13th-14th of the queen's reign (that is, 1850).
+Short titles, such as "the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854", are also used. Up
+to the time of Edward I Acts of Parliament were in Latin; then French was
+introduced, and for some time was exclusively employed. It was not till
+Henry VII's reign that all Acts were in English.
+
+ACT OF SETTLEMENT, an Act passed by the English Parliament in 1700, by
+which the succession to the throne of the three kingdoms, in the event of
+King William and Princess (afterwards Queen) Anne dying without issue, was
+settled on the Princess Sophia, electress of Hanover, and the heirs of her
+body, being Protestants. The Princess Sophia was the youngest daughter of
+Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, daughter of James I. By this act George I, son
+of the Princess Sophia, succeeded to the crown on the death of Queen
+Anne.--Another Act of Settlement was that by which, under Cromwell's
+government, a new allotment was made of almost all landed property in
+Ireland, in 1652.
+
+ACT OF TOLERATION, an Act of Parliament Passed in 1689, by which Protestant
+dissenters from the Church of England, on condition of their taking the
+oaths of supremacy and allegiance, and repudiating the doctrine of
+transubstantiation, were relieved from the restrictions under which they
+had formerly lain with regard to the exercise of their religion according
+to their own forms.
+
+ACT OF UNIFORMITY, an English Act passed in 1662, enjoining upon all
+ministers to use the _Book of Common Prayer_ on pain of forfeiture of their
+livings. See _Nonconformity_.
+
+[Illustration: Quilted Acton of the fifteenth century]
+
+ACTON, a kind of padded or quilted vest or tunic formerly worn under a coat
+of mail to save the body from bruises, or used by itself as a defensive
+garment. Jackets of leather or other material plated with mail were also so
+called. _Gambeson_ was an equivalent term.
+
+ACTON, a name of various places in England, one of them a western suburb of
+London, pop. (1921), 61,314. Since 1918 Acton gives its name to a
+parliamentary division of Middlesex, returning one member to Parliament.
+
+ACTON, John Emerich Edward Dalberg, first Baron Acton, born 1834, died
+1902, was son of Richard Acton (seventh baronet) and the daughter of the
+Duc de Dalberg, afterwards wife of Earl Granville, Mr. Gladstone's
+colleague. As a Roman Catholic he was educated at Oscott, and afterwards on
+the Continent, partly under Döllinger, and acquired a special taste for and
+profound knowledge of history. He conducted the _Home and Foreign Review_
+from 1862 to 1864, and, in doing so, showed himself a strong opponent of
+ultramontane pretensions. He next edited the _North British Review_, which
+under him was rather overweighted with learning, and soon came to an end.
+In 1869 he was raised to the peerage. He strongly opposed the
+papal-infallibility movement, and took the side of Mr. Gladstone in his
+attacks on Vaticanism. In 1895 he accepted the professorship of modern
+history at Cambridge, delivered lectures, and planned and undertook the
+editorship of the great work on modern history, _The Cambridge Modern
+History_, comprising a series of contributions by various scholars, and
+issued by the university press. Except essays, letters, or articles for
+periodicals, he himself wrote little. Since his death have been published:
+_Lectures in Modern History_ (1906); _The History of Freedom and other
+Essays_ (1907); _Lectures on the French Revolution_ (1910). His library of
+60,000 volumes he left to Mr. (now Lord) Morley, who handed it over to the
+University of Cambridge.
+
+ACTOR, one who represents some part or character on the stage. Actresses
+were unknown to the Greeks and Romans in the earliest times, men or boys
+always performing the female parts. They appeared under the Roman empire,
+however. Charles II first encouraged the public appearance of actresses in
+England; in Shakespeare's time there were none. See _Drama_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+C. F. Armstrong, _Century of Great Actors_; H. Simpson, _Century of Great
+Actresses_.
+
+ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, fifth of the books of the New Testament, written in
+Greek and assigned to the author of the gospel of St. Luke. Its date is
+probably A.D. 63 or 64. It embraces a period of about thirty years,
+beginning immediately after the resurrection, and extending to the second
+year of the imprisonment of St. Paul in Rome. Very little information is
+given regarding any of the apostles, excepting St. Peter and St. Paul, and
+the accounts of them are far from being complete. It describes the
+gathering of the infant Church; the fulfilment of the promise of Christ to
+his apostles in the descent of the Holy Ghost; the choice of Matthias in
+the place of Judas, the betrayer; the testimony of the apostles to the
+resurrection of Jesus in their discourses; their preaching in Jerusalem and
+in Judea, and afterwards to the Gentiles; the conversion of Paul, his
+preaching in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, his miracles and
+labours.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. T. Knowling, _The Expositor's Greek Testament_;
+J. Moffatt, _The Historical New Testament_; J. M. Wilson, _Origin and Aim
+of the Acts of the Apostles_.
+
+AC'TUARY, an accountant whose business is to make the necessary
+computations in regard to a basis for life assurance, annuities,
+reversions, &c.
+
+ACU'LEUS, in botany, a prickle, or sharp-pointed process of the epidermis,
+as distinguished from a thorn or spine, which is of a woody nature.
+
+ACUPRESS'URE, a means of arresting bleeding from a cut artery introduced by
+Sir James Simpson in 1859, and consisting in compressing the artery above
+the orifice, that is, on the side nearest the heart, with the middle of a
+needle (Lat. _acus_, a needle) introduced through the tissues.
+
+ACUPUNC'TURE, a surgical operation, consisting in the insertion of needles
+into certain parts of the body for alleviating pain, or for the cure of
+different species of rheumatism, neuralgia, eye diseases, &c. It is easily
+performed, gives little pain, causes neither bleeding nor inflammation, and
+seems at times of surprising efficacy.
+
+ADAGIO (It. [.a]-dä'j[=o]), a musical term, expressing a slow time, slower
+than _andante_ and less so than _largo_, _lento_, and _grave_.
+
+ADÂL', a country in Africa, east of Abyssinia and north-westward of
+Tajurrah Bay, inhabited by a dark-brown race of the same name, a tribe of
+the Danakils, Mahommedans in religion; towns Aussa and Tajurrah. Part of
+the coast here is held by the French.
+
+AD'ALBERT OF PRAGUE, called the apostle of the Prussians, son of a Bohemian
+nobleman named Slavnik, born about 939. His real name was Voitech, but he
+assumed the name of the Archbishop Adalbert, under whom he studied at
+Magdeburg. He was appointed Bishop of Prague in 983, laboured in vain among
+the heathenish Bohemians, resolved to convert the pagans of Prussia, but
+was murdered in the attempt (997). _Boga-Rodzica_, a Polish war-song, is
+said to have been composed by him.
+
+ADA'LIA, a seaport on the south coast of Asia Minor. Pop. 28,000. The
+district of Adalia has a population of over 200,000.
+
+ADAM ([.a]-d[.a][n.]), Adolphe Charles, a French composer, more especially
+of comic operas; born 1803, died 1856. Wrote _Le postillon de Longjumeau_,
+_Le Brasseur de Preston_ (Brewer of Preston), _La Rose de Peronne_, _Le roi
+d'Yvetot_, &c.
+
+ADAM, Albrecht, a German painter of battles and animals, born 1786, died
+1862. Three sons of his have also distinguished themselves as painters,
+especially Franz, born 1815, died 1886, among whose best pictures are
+several representing scenes of the Franco-Prussian war.
+
+ADAM, Alexander, a Scottish classical scholar, born in 1741; became in 1768
+rector of the High School of Edinburgh, and died there in 1809. Wrote
+_Principles of Latin and English Grammar_; _Roman Antiquities_, a useful
+school-book; _Summary of Geography and History_; _Classical Biography_, &c.
+
+ADAM, Robert, an eminent Scottish architect, born in 1728, a son of William
+Adam, architect. He resided several years in Italy, visited Spalatro, in
+Dalmatia, and published a work on the ruined palace of Diocletian there. In
+conjunction with his brother James he was much employed by the English
+nobility and gentry in constructing modern and embellishing ancient
+mansions. Among their works are the Register House and the University
+Buildings, Edinburgh, and the Adelphi Buildings, London. Robert Adam died
+in 1792, and was buried in Westminster Abbey; his brother James died in
+1794.
+
+ADAM AND EVE, the names given in Scripture to our first parents, an account
+of whom and their immediate descendants is given in the early chapters of
+_Genesis_. Cain, Abel, and Seth are all their sons that are mentioned by
+name; but we are told that they had other sons as well as daughters. There
+are numerous Rabbinical additions to the Scripture narrative of an
+extravagant character, such as the myth of Adam having a wife before Eve,
+named _Lilith_, who became the mother of giants and evil spirits. Other
+legends or inventions are contained in the Koran.
+
+ADAM DE LA HALE, an early French writer and musician, born 1235, died 1287.
+His _Jeu de Robin et de Marion_ (first produced at Naples), may be regarded
+as the first comic opera ever written. Cf. H. Guy, _Bibliographie Critique
+du Trouvère_, Paris, 1900.
+
+AD'AMANT, an old name for the diamond; also used in a vague way to imply a
+substance of impenetrable hardness.
+
+ADAMAN'TINE SPAR, a name of the mineral corundum or of a brownish variety
+of it.
+
+ADAMA'WA (also called FUMBINA), a region of West Africa, between lat. 6°
+and 10° N., and lon. 11° and 17° E. Much of the surface is hilly or
+mountainous, Mount Atlantika being 9000 or 10,000 feet. The principal river
+is the Benue. A great part of the country is covered with thick forests.
+The oil palm and bananas are staple products. Chief town Yola (Nigeria).
+
+ADAMELLO. See _European War_.
+
+AD'AMITES, a religious sect dating from the second century, probably of
+Gnostic origin. It was so called because both men and women were said to
+appear naked in their assemblies, either to imitate Adam in the state of
+innocence or to prove the control which they possessed over their passions.
+Practices similar to those of the Adamites arose several times in later
+ages. See _Beghards_.
+
+ADAM'NAN, St., born in Ireland about 624, was elected abbot of Iona in 679,
+and died there about 703 or 704. He is best known from his _Life of St.
+Columba_, valuable as throwing light on the early ecclesiastical history of
+Scotland. (There are editions by Reeves, 1857; reissued with English
+translation 1874; and by Fowler, 1895.) His feast is celebrated on 23rd
+Sept.
+
+ADAMS, Charles Francis, American litterateur and statesman, was a son of
+John Quincy Adams, and was born in 1807. His boyhood was spent in Europe,
+partly in England; but he finished his education at Harvard, and afterwards
+studied law. After serving some years in the Massachusetts legislature he
+was sent to Congress in 1859. In 1861 Lincoln sent him to England as
+American minister, and here he remained for seven years, performing the
+arduous duties of his office with the utmost tact and ability. Between 1874
+and 1877 he edited a complete edition of his grandfather's works in 12
+vols. He was one of the arbitrators on the _Alabama_ claims. Died in 1886.
+
+ADAMS, John, second president of the United States, was born at Braintree
+(now Quincy), Massachusetts, 19th Oct., 1735. He was educated at Harvard
+University, and adopted the law as a profession. His attention was directed
+to politics by the question as to the right of the English Parliament to
+tax the colonies, and in 1765 he published some essays strongly opposed to
+the claims of the mother country. As a member of the new American congress
+in 1774, 1775, and 1776 he was strenuous in his opposition to the home
+Government, and in organizing the various departments of the colonial
+Government. On 13th May, 1776, he seconded the motion for a declaration of
+independence proposed by Lee of Virginia, and was appointed a member of
+committee to draw it up. The declaration was actually drawn up by
+Jefferson, but it was Adams who fought it through Congress. In 1778 he went
+to France on a special mission, but soon came back and again returned, and
+for nine years resided abroad as representative of his country in France,
+Holland, and England. After taking part in the peace negotiations he was
+appointed, in 1785, the first ambassador of the United States to the Court
+of St. James. He was recalled in 1788, and the following year elected
+vice-president of the republic under Washington. In 1792 he was re-elected
+vice-president, and at the following election in 1797 he became president
+in succession to Washington. The commonwealth was then divided into two
+parties, the Federalists, who favoured aristocratic and were suspected of
+monarchic views, and the Republicans. Adams adhered to the former party,
+with which his views of government had always been in accordance, but the
+real leader of the party was Hamilton, with whom Adams did not agree, and
+who tried to prevent his election. His term of office proved a stormy one,
+which broke up and dissolved the Federalist party. His re-election in 1801
+was again opposed by the efforts of Hamilton, which ended in effecting the
+return of the Republican candidate Jefferson. Thus it happened that when
+Adams retired from office his influence and popularity with both parties
+were at an end, and he sunk at once into the obscurity of private life. He
+had the consolation, however, of living to see his son president. He died
+4th July, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of
+independence, and on the same day as Jefferson. His works have been ably
+edited by his grandson Charles Francis Adams.
+
+ADAMS, John Couch, English astronomer, born 1819, died 1892, studied at
+Cambridge, and was senior wrangler in 1843. His investigations into the
+irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus led him to the conclusion
+that they must be caused by another more distant planet, and the results of
+his labours were communicated in September and October, 1845, to Professor
+Challis and Airy the Astronomer Royal. The French astronomer Leverrier had
+by this time been engaged in the same line of research, and had come to
+substantially the same results, which, being published in 1846, led to the
+actual discovery of the planet Neptune by Galle of Berlin. In 1858 Adams
+was professor of mathematics at Aberdeen University, and in 1859 was
+appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy and geometry at Cambridge.
+
+ADAMS, John Quincy, sixth president of the United States, son of John
+Adams, second president, was born 11th July, 1767. Accompanying his father
+to Europe he received part of his education there, but graduated at Harvard
+in 1788. Having adopted the legal profession, in 1791 he was admitted to
+the bar. He now began to take an active interest in politics, and some
+letters that he wrote having attracted general attention, in 1794
+Washington appointed him minister to the Hague. He afterwards was sent to
+Berlin, and also on a mission to Sweden. In 1798 he received a commission
+to negotiate a treaty of commerce with Sweden. On the accession of
+Jefferson to the presidency in 1801 he was recalled. The Federalist party
+(that of his father), which was now declining, had sufficient influence in
+Massachusetts to elect him to the senate in 1803. On an important question
+of foreign policy, that of embargo, he abandoned his party, and having lost
+his re-election on this account, he retired to the professorship of
+rhetoric at Cambridge, which he held from 1806 to 1809. In 1809 he went as
+ambassador to Russia. He assisted in negotiating the peace of 1814 with
+England, and was afterwards appointed resident minister at London. Under
+Monroe as president he was secretary of state, and at the expiration of
+Monroe's double term of office he succeeded him in the presidency (1825).
+He was not very successful as president, and at the end of his term (1829)
+he was not re-elected. In 1831 he was returned to Congress by
+Massachusetts, and continued to represent this State till his death, his
+efforts being now chiefly on behalf of the Abolitionist party. He died 21st
+Feb., 1848.
+
+ADAMS, Samuel, an American statesman, second cousin of President John
+Adams, was born in Boston, 27th Sept., 1722, and was educated at Harvard
+College. He early devoted himself to politics, and in connection with the
+dispute between America and the mother country he showed himself one of the
+most unwearied, efficient, and disinterested assertors of American freedom
+and independence. He was one of the signers of the declaration of 1776,
+which he laboured most indefatigably to bring forward. He sat in congress
+eight years; from 1789-94 was lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts; from
+1794-7 governor, when he retired from public life. He died 2nd Oct., 1803.
+
+ADAM'S APPLE, the popular name of the prominence seen in the front of the
+throat in man, and which is formed by the portion of the larynx known as
+the _thyroid cartilage_. It is much smaller and less visible in females
+than in males, and is so named from the supposition that it was caused by a
+piece of the forbidden fruit having stuck in Adam's throat. In botany it is
+the name given to the plantain tree and the _Citrus pomum_. It is the Heb.
+_Ethrog_, which, according to Hebrew legend, was the fruit Adam and Eve ate
+in the garden of Eden.
+
+ADAM'S BRIDGE, a chain of reefs, sandbanks, and islands stretching between
+India and Ceylon; so called because the Mohammedans believe that when Adam
+was driven from paradise he had to pass by this way to Ceylon (where is
+also Adam's Peak). The Brahmans call it the bridge of Rama, the hero of the
+Indian Epic, the _Ramayana_.
+
+ADAM'S NEEDLE, a popular name of the Yucca plant.
+
+ADAM'S PEAK, one of the highest mountains in Ceylon, 45 miles
+east-south-east of Colombo, conical, isolated, and 7420 feet high. On the
+top, a rocky area of 64 feet by 45, is a hollow in the rock 5 feet long
+bearing a rude resemblance to a human foot, which the Brahmans believe to
+be the footprint of Siva; the Buddhists, who call it Sri-pada (sacred
+footmark), that of Buddha; the Mahommedans that of Adam. The last-named
+believe that Adam stood here on one foot for a thousand years, lamenting
+his exclusion from Eden. Devotees of all creeds meet here and present their
+offerings (chiefly rhododendron flowers) to the sacred footprint. The
+ascent is very steep, and towards the summit is assisted by steps cut and
+iron chains riveted in the rock.
+
+ADAMSON, Patrick, a Scottish divine and Latin poet, born 15th March, 1536,
+died 19th Feb., 1592. He was educated at St. Andrews, lived some years in
+France, was minister of Paisley, and afterwards Archbishop of St. Andrews,
+in which position he made himself very obnoxious to the Presbyterian party.
+Deprived of the revenues of the see, he died in indigence. He turned
+portions of the Bible into Latin verse.
+
+AD'ANA, town and capital of Adana vilayet, Asia Minor, on the Seihun-Irmak;
+served by the Bagdad Railway. The district is claimed by Armenia. Cotton,
+rice, wine, and fruit are exported. Pop. (town), 70,000; (vilayet),
+1,000,000.
+
+ADANSON ([.a]-d[.a]n-s[=o][n.]), Michel, French naturalist and traveller
+(of Scottish extraction), born 1727; died 1806. He lived five years in
+Senegal, and wrote a natural history of this region as well as works on
+botany. The baobab genus is named _Adansonia_ after him. Adanson's statue
+was erected in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, in 1856.
+
+ADANSO'NIA. See preceding article and _Baobab_.
+
+ADAPTATION (from the Lat. _ad_, to, and _apt[=a]re_, to fit), the process
+of modification or alteration of a thing so as to change its original
+purpose and adapt it to other uses. Adaptation in biology is the power and
+process by which an organism or species of animals or plants changes and
+becomes modified, so as to suit the conditions of its life. In other words
+it is the adjustment, or favourable reaction, of the living world to its
+environment, the advantageous variation of animals and plants under changed
+conditions. The term now includes both that which is hereditary and that
+which is acquired. The powers of lower forms of life to adapt themselves to
+changes of environment are limited, and frequently, when the conditions
+vary suddenly, they are either arrested in their development or die
+altogether.--In literature it is the process by which an author modifies
+the work of another not in its essence but in its form and details, either
+in the original or in a foreign language.
+
+A'DAR, the twelfth month of the Hebrew sacred and sixth of the civil year,
+answering to part of February and part of March.
+
+ADDA (ancient ADDUA), a river of North Italy, which, descending from the
+Rhætian Alps, falls into Lake Como, and leaving this joins the Po, after a
+course of about 170 miles. On the banks of the Adda Napoleon won the battle
+of Lodi in 1796.
+
+ADDA, a species of lizard, more commonly called Skink.
+
+AD'DAX, a species of antelope (_Hippotr[)a]gus nasomacul[=a]tus_) of the
+size of a large ass, with much of its make. The horns of the male are about
+4 feet long, beautifully twisted into a wide-sweeping spiral of two turns
+and a half, with the points directed outwards. It has tufts of hair on the
+forehead and throat, and large broad hoofs. It inhabits the sandy regions
+of Nubia and Kordofan, and is also found in Caffraria.
+
+[Illustration: Adder (_Vipera communis_)]
+
+ADDER, a name often applied to the common viper as well as to other kinds
+of venomous serpents. See _Viper_.
+
+ADDER-PIKE (_Trach[=i]nus vip[)e]ra_), a small species of the weever fish,
+called also the Lesser Weever or Sting-fish. See _Weever_.
+
+ADDER-STONE, the name given in different parts of Britain to certain
+rounded perforated stones or glass beads found occasionally, and supposed
+to have a kind of supernatural efficacy in curing the bites of adders. They
+are believed to have been anciently used as spindle-whorls, that is, a kind
+of small fly-wheels to keep up the rotatory motion of the spindle.
+
+ADDER'S-TONGUE, a species of British fern (_Ophioglossum vulg[=a]tum_),
+whose spores are produced on a spike, supposed to resemble a serpent's
+tongue.
+
+ADDER'S-WORT, a name of snakeweed or bistort (_Polyg[)o]num Bistorta_),
+from its supposed virtue in curing the bite of serpents.
+
+AD'DINGTON, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, born 1757, died 1844. Entered
+Parliament, 1783, as a warm supporter of Pitt. Was elected speaker of the
+House of Commons, 1789, and in 1801 invited by the king to form an
+administration, chiefly signalized by the conclusion of the Peace of
+Amiens. Quarrelled with Pitt, whom he bitterly attacked. Was home secretary
+from 1812 till 1822, his repressive policy making him remarkably unpopular
+with the nation at large. Retired from official life in 1824.
+
+ADDIS ABE'BA, or ADIS ABBA'BA, a town in the south of Abyssinia, in Shoa,
+ranking as capital of the country, being chief residence of the negus or
+sovereign. It stands among mountains, at the height of 10,000 feet, and is
+a primitive place, but now has telegraphic connection with Jibouti and
+Massawa, and since 1917 is the terminus of the railway running inland from
+Jibouti by way of Harar. Pop. 50,000.
+
+AD'DISON, Rt. Hon. Christopher, P.C., M.D., Cabinet Minister. Dr. Addison
+was born 19th June, 1869, and educated at Trinity College, Harrogate, and
+St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, where he was a lecturer for a time. He
+was elected Member of Parliament for the Hoxton Division, Shoreditch, in
+1910, and was parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education from 1914
+to 1915. From 1916 to 1917 he was Minister of Munitions; he was President
+of the Local Government Board from January to June, 1919, when he became
+Minister of Health. He has written and edited several works on medical
+subjects.
+
+AD'DISON, Joseph, an eminent English essayist, son of the Rev. Lancelot
+Addison, afterwards Dean of Lichfield, born at Milston, Wiltshire, 1st May,
+1672, died 17th June, 1719. He was educated at the Charterhouse, where he
+became acquainted with Steele, and afterwards at Oxford. He held a
+fellowship from 1697 till 1711, and gained much praise for his Latin verse.
+He secured as his earliest patron the poet Dryden, who inserted some of his
+verses in his _Miscellanies_ in 1693. A translation of the fourth
+_Georgic_, with the exception of the story of _Aristæus_, by Addison,
+appeared in the same collection in 1694, and he subsequently translated for
+it two and a half books of Ovid. Dryden also prefixed his prose essay on
+Virgil's _Georgics_ to his own translation of that poem, which appeared in
+1697. An early patron of his was Charles Montague, afterwards Earl of
+Halifax; another was Lord Somers, who procured him a pension of £300 a year
+to enable him to qualify for diplomatic employments by foreign travels. He
+spent from the autumn of 1699 to that of 1703 on the Continent, where he
+became acquainted with Malebranche, Boileau, &c. During his residence
+abroad his tragedy of _Cato_ is supposed to have been written. During his
+journey across Mont Cenis he wrote his _Letter from Italy_, esteemed the
+best of his poems, and in Germany his _Dialogues on Medals_, which was not
+published till after his death. His _Remarks on Several Parts of Italy in
+the Years 1701-3_ was published in 1705. His political friends lost power
+on the death of William III, but _The Campaign_, a poem on the battle of
+Blenheim, procured him an appointment as a commissioner of appeal on
+excise. In 1706 he received an under-secretaryship, in 1707 accompanied
+Halifax on a mission to Hanover, in 1709 became secretary to the Viceroy of
+Ireland, and keeper of the records. In 1708 he was elected Member of
+Parliament for Lostwithiel, a seat he exchanged in 1710 for Malmesbury,
+which place he continued to represent till his death. From Oct., 1709, to
+Jan., 1711, he contributed 75 papers to the _Tatler_, either wholly by
+himself or in conjunction with Steele, thus founding the new literary
+school of the Essayists. For the _Spectator_ (2nd Jan., 1711, to 6th Dec.,
+1712) he wrote 274 papers, all signed by one of the four letters C., L.,
+I., O. His tragedy of _Cato_, produced April, 1713, ran for twenty nights,
+and was translated into French, Italian, German, and Latin. His other
+contributions to periodicals included 51 papers to the _Guardian_ (May to
+Sept., 1713), 24 papers to a revived _Spectator_ conducted by Budgell, and
+2 papers to Steele's _Lover_. On the death of Queen Anne he successively
+became secretary to the lords justices, secretary to the Irish viceroy, and
+one of the lords commissioners of trade. He published the _Freeholder_
+(23rd Dec., 1715, to 9th June, 1716), a political _Spectator_. In August,
+1716, he married the Countess of Warwick, a marriage which did not increase
+his happiness. He retired from public life, March, 1718, with a pension of
+£1500 a year. He formed a close friendship with Swift, and was chief of a
+distinguished literary circle. He had literary quarrels with Pope and Gay,
+the former of whom in revenge wrote the satire contained in his lines on
+Atticus in the _Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot_. He also had a paltry quarrel
+over politics with his old friend Steele. His death took place at Holland
+House, its cause being dropsy and asthma. He was buried in Westminster
+Abbey. Of his style as a writer so much has been said that nothing remains
+to say but to quote the dictum of Johnson: "Whoever wishes to attain an
+English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious,
+must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison". He had great
+conversational powers, and his intimates speak in the strongest terms of
+the enjoyment derived from his society, but he was extremely reserved
+before strangers. His _Dialogues on Medals_ and _Evidences of the Christian
+Religion_ were published posthumously in Tickell's collected edition of his
+works.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. J. Courthope, _Addison_ (English Men of Letters
+Series); _Essays from the Spectator_, edited by Henry Morley.
+
+ADDISON'S DISEASE (from Dr. Addison, Guy's Hospital, London, who traced the
+disease to its source), a fatal disease, the seat of which is the two
+glandular bodies placed one at the front of the upper part of each kidney,
+and called _suprarenal capsules_. It is characterized by anæmia or
+bloodlessness, extreme prostration, and the brownish or olive-green colour
+of the skin. Death usually results from weakness, and commonly takes place
+within a year.
+
+ADDLED PARLIAMENT, a Parliament called 5th April, 1614, in order to
+legalize the customs duties imposed by James I, but which, proceeding to
+the redress of grievances instead of granting supply, was dissolved, 7th
+June, without passing a single Bill.
+
+ADDRESS, a document containing an expression of thanks, congratulation,
+satisfaction, or dissatisfaction, &c. It is the custom of the British
+Parliament to return an address to the speech delivered by the Sovereign at
+the commencement of every session.
+
+ADDRESS, Forms of. The following are the principal modes of formally
+addressing titled personages or persons holding official rank in Great
+Britain:--
+
+    _The King or Queen._--Address in writing: To the King's (Queen's) most
+    excellent Majesty. Say: Sire or Madam, Your Majesty.
+
+    _The Royal Family._--His Royal Highness (H.R.H.) the Prince of Wales,
+    His Royal Highness the Duke of C----, His Royal Highness Prince A----.
+    A royal duke should be addressed as Sir, not My Lord Duke; and referred
+    to as Your Royal Highness. A princess is addressed Her Royal Highness
+    the Duchess of ----, Her Royal Highness Princess A----; and personally
+    as Madam, Your Royal Highness.
+
+    _Duke and Ducal Family._--His Grace the Duke of ----; My Lord Duke,
+    Your Grace. Her Grace the Duchess of ----; Madam, Your Grace. The
+    duke's eldest son is in law only an esquire, but in courtesy takes a
+    secondary title of his father, and is addressed as if he held it by
+    right. A younger son is addressed Lord J---- B----; My Lord, Your
+    Lordship; a daughter, Lady M---- B---- (Christian and surname); Madam,
+    Your Ladyship. A duke's, marquis's, or earl's daughter marrying a
+    commoner simply changes her surname for his.
+
+    _The Lord-lieutenant of Ireland_ is styled His Excellency, or, if a
+    duke, His Grace, and addressed according to his titular rank.
+
+    _Marquess._--The Most Honourable the Marquess of ----; My Lord
+    Marquess, My Lord. The eldest son has a secondary title of his father,
+    as in the case of a duke's eldest son; the younger sons and the
+    daughters are all addressed as the younger sons and daughters of a
+    duke.
+
+    _Earl._--The Right Honourable the Earl of ----; My Lord, Your Lordship.
+    The Right Honourable the Countess of----; Madam, Your Ladyship. The
+    eldest son is addressed by a secondary title of his father; younger
+    son, The Honourable G---- T----; Sir; the daughter, as duke's and
+    marquess's daughter.
+
+    _Viscount._--The Right Honourable the Viscount ----; My Lord, Your
+    Lordship. The Right Honourable the Viscountess ----; Madam, Your
+    Ladyship. Son: The Honourable A---- B---- (Christian and surname); Sir.
+    Daughter: The Honourable J---- C---- (Christian and surname); Madame;
+    if married, The Honourable Mrs. ---- (married name).
+
+    _Baron._--The Right Honourable Lord ----; My Lord, Your Lordship. The
+    Right Honourable the Lady ----; Madam, your Ladyship. Son: The
+    Honourable J---- C----; Sir. Daughter: The Honourable M---- H----; if
+    married, The Honourable Mrs. ----, same as viscount's daughter.
+
+    _Baronet._--Sir A---- B----, Baronet; Sir; more familiarly Dear Sir
+    A----.
+
+    _Knight._--Sir C---- D----, Kt., or K.C.S.I., K.C.B., G.C.B., &c.,
+    according to rank. The wives of baronets and knights are styled Lady,
+    Lady ----.
+
+    _Archbishop._--His Grace the Lord Archbishop of ----; My Lord
+    Archbishop; Your Grace. An archbishop is also styled Most Reverend.
+
+    _Bishop._--The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of ----; My Lord. The wives
+    of prelates have no special title. Bishops not connected with the
+    English established church may be addressed--The Right Reverend Bishop
+    ----; Right Reverend Sir.
+
+    _Dean._--The Very Reverend; Sir; Mr. Dean.
+
+    Members of the Privy Council, members and ex-members of cabinet, the
+    Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief
+    Justice and the Lords Justices, the Lord Advocate, the lords of the
+    treasury and admiralty, are called Right Honourable; the justices (not
+    being _lords_ justices) are styled Honourable. Ambassadors, governors
+    of colonies, &c., are styled Excellency.
+
+    The Lord Mayors of London, York, Dublin, &c., and the Lord Provost of
+    Edinburgh, are styled Right Honourable; the Lord Provost of Glasgow,
+    Honourable. A Mayor is addressed as Right Worshipful. Lords of Session
+    (Scotland) have the courtesy title of Lord, are addressed as My Lord,
+    Your Lordship, and also called Honourable. Sheriffs and their
+    substitutes are addressed in their courts in Scotland as My Lord.
+
+    In the United States persons holding official rank are similarly
+    addressed; thus the President is styled His Excellency, as are also
+    governors of states and foreign ministers; the vice-president,
+    lieutenant-governors, senators, representatives, judges, and mayors are
+    styled Honourable.
+
+ADDUC'TOR, a muscle which draws one part of the body towards another:
+applied in zoology to one of the muscles which bring together the valves of
+the shell of the bivalve molluscs.
+
+ADEL'. See _Adal._
+
+ADELA, born 1062, died 1137, fourth daughter of William the Conqueror, wife
+of Stephen, Count of Blois and Chartres, and mother of Stephen, King of
+England. She proved herself an able ruler and a generous patroness of
+learning while her husband was abroad with the First Crusade; and after his
+death she acted as regent for his sons.
+
+ADELAIDE (ad'e-l[=a]d), the capital of South Australia, 6 miles east from
+Port Adelaide (on St. Vincent Gulf), its port, with which it is united by
+railway, founded in 1837, and named after the queen of William IV. Situated
+on a large plain, it is built nearly in the form of a square, with the
+streets at right angles, and is divided into North and South Adelaide,
+separated by the river Torrens, which is crossed by several bridges, and by
+means of a dam is converted into a fine sheet of water. The public
+buildings comprise the Government House, the town hall, the post and
+telegraph offices, the Government offices, court-houses, the houses of
+legislature, the University, South Australian Institute, &c. There is a
+good service of tramway cars. Adelaide is connected by railway with
+Melbourne, and is the terminus of the overland telegraph to Port Darwin. It
+has a large trade. Pop. (including suburbs), (1919), 256,660.
+
+ADELAIDE, daughter of George, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Meiningen, and wife of
+the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV, King of England; born 1792,
+died 1849; married 11th July, 1818, had two daughters, who died in infancy.
+She became queen-consort on William attaining the throne in 1830, and was
+for a time unpopular from being supposed to be averse to reform. On the
+death of William she passed into private life, with an allowance of
+£100,000 a year.
+
+ADELARD OF BATH, an English philosophical writer of the twelfth century. He
+travelled through Spain, the north of Africa, Greece, and Asia Minor, and
+acquired from the Arabs much knowledge, which he put in systematic shape.
+Chief works, _Perdifficiles Quæstiones Naturales_ and _De Eodem et
+Diverso._
+
+ADELSBERG (ä'd[.e]lz-ber_h_), a small town of North Italy, in Carniola,
+midway between Trieste and Laibach, remarkable for the wonderful stalactite
+cave in its vicinity. The most extended of the ramifications which compose
+it reaches to over 2 miles from the entrance, at which the River Poik
+disappears, and is heard rushing below. The stalactites and stalagmites are
+of the most varied and often beautiful forms, and have received fanciful
+appellations, as they resemble columns, statues, &c.
+
+ADELUNG ([.a]d'e-l[u:]ng), Friedrich von, nephew of J. C. Adelung, was a
+distinguished philologist. He was tutor to the Grand-duke Nicholas,
+afterwards Emperor of Russia, and became president of the Academy of
+Sciences at St. Petersburg (now Petrograd). Born 1768, died 1843.
+
+ADELUNG, Johann Christoph, a German philologist, born 1732, died 1806. In
+1759 he was appointed professor in the Protestant academy at Erfurt, and
+two years after removed to Leipzig, where he applied himself to the works
+by which he made so great a name, particularly his German dictionary,
+_Grammatisch-kritisches Wörterbuch der hochdeutschen Mundart_ (Leipzig,
+1774-86), and his _Mithridates_, a work on general philology. In 1787 he
+was appointed librarian of the public library in Dresden--an office which
+he held till his death.
+
+A'DEN, a seaport town and territory belonging to Britain, on the south-west
+coast of Arabia, in a dry and barren district, the town being almost
+entirely closed in by an amphitheatre of rocks, and possessing an admirable
+harbour. Occupying an important military position, Aden is strongly
+fortified and permanently garrisoned. It is of importance also as a coaling
+station for steamers, and carries on a great amount of commerce, forming an
+entrepôt and place of transhipment for goods valued at £6,000,000 a year.
+Its greatest drawback is the scarcity of fresh water, which is obtained
+partly from wells, partly from rock-cisterns that receive the rain, and
+partly by condensation from salt water--the only unfailing means of supply.
+The peninsula on which it stands somewhat resembles the rock of Gibraltar,
+and could be rendered as formidable. Aden was a Roman colony, and in the
+Middle Ages it was a great entrepôt of the Eastern trade. It was acquired
+by Britain in 1839, after which it was attacked repeatedly by the Arabs.
+With the additional territory latterly acquired, the total British area is
+75 sq. miles (or with the island of Perim, 80); while a large tract is
+under British influence. Aden is attached to the Bombay Presidency. Pop.
+46,165.
+
+ADENANTHE'RA, a genus of trees and shrubs, natives of the East Indies, nat.
+ord. Leguminosæ. _A. pavon[=i]na_ is one of the largest and handsomest
+trees of India, and yields hard solid timber called red sandal-wood. The
+bright scarlet seeds, from their equality in weight (each=4 grains), are
+used by goldsmiths in the East as weights.
+
+ADENI'TIS (Gr. _ad[=e]n_, a gland), in medicine, inflammation of one or
+more of the lymphatic glands.
+
+AD'ENOIDS, small growths often occurring in the back wall of the throat in
+children, blocking the nostrils and commonly causing deafness. They can be
+removed by a simple operation.
+
+ADERER'. See _Adrar_.
+
+ADERNO', a town of Sicily, 18 miles N.W. of Catania and about 10 miles
+W.S.W. of Mount Etna. Pop. 25,000.
+
+ADESSENA'RIAN, one of a sect of Christians which holds that there is a real
+presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but denying that it is effected by
+transubstantiation.
+
+ADHESION, the tendency of two bodies to stick together when put in close
+contact, or the mutual attraction of their surfaces; distinguished from
+_cohesion_, which denotes the mutual attraction between the particles of a
+homogeneous body. Adhesion may exist between two solids, between a solid
+and a fluid, or between two fluids. A plate of glass or of polished metal
+laid on the surface of water and attached to one arm of a balance will
+support much more than its own weight in the opposite scale from the force
+of adhesion between the water and the plate. From the same force arises the
+tendency of most liquids, when gently poured from a jar, to run down the
+exterior of a vessel or along any other surface they meet.
+
+ADIAN'TUM, a genus of ferns; the maiden-hair fern.
+
+ADIAPH'ORIST (Gr. _adiaphoros_, indifferent), a name given in the sixteenth
+century to Melanchthon's party, who held some opinions and ceremonies to be
+indifferent which Luther condemned as sinful or heretical.
+
+ADIGE (ä'd[=e]-j[=a]), Ger. _Etsch_ (ancient ATH[)E]SIS), a river of
+Northern Italy, which rises in the Rhætian Alps, and after a south and east
+course of about 180 miles, during which it passes Verona and Legnago, falls
+into the Adriatic, forming a delta connected with that of the Po.
+
+AD'IPOCERE (-s[=e]r) (Lat. _adeps_, fat, and _cera_, wax), a substance of a
+light-brown colour formed by animal matter when protected from atmospheric
+air, and under certain circumstances of temperature and humidity. It was
+first observed by Fourcroy, and a quantity discovered at the Cimetière des
+Innocents, Paris. A similar substance is found in peat-bogs in Wales and
+Ireland.
+
+AD'IPOSE TISSUE, the cellular tissue containing the oily or fatty matter of
+the body. It underlies the skin, surrounds the large vessels and nerves,
+invests the kidneys, &c., and sometimes accumulates in large masses.
+
+ADIRON'DACK MOUNTAINS, in the United States, a group belonging to the
+Appalachian chain, extending from the N.E. corner of the State of New York
+to near its centre. The scenery is wild and grand, diversified by numerous
+beautiful lakes, and the whole region is a favourite resort of sportsmen
+and tourists.
+
+AD'IT, a more or less horizontal opening, giving access to the shaft of a
+mine. It is made to slope gradually from the farthest point in the interior
+to the mouth, and by means of it the principal drainage is usually carried
+on. See _Mine_.
+
+AD'JECTIVE, in grammar, a word used to denote some quality in the noun or
+substantive to which it is accessory. The adjective is indeclinable in
+English (but has _degrees_ of comparison), and generally precedes the noun,
+while in most other European languages it follows the inflections of the
+substantive, and is more commonly placed after it, though in German it
+precedes it, as in English.
+
+ADJUDICA'TION, in English law, is the decree of the court in bankruptcy
+declaring a person bankrupt.
+
+ADJUST'MENT, in marine insurance, is the settling of the amount of the loss
+which the insurer is entitled under a particular policy to recover, and if
+the policy is subscribed by more than one underwriter, of the amounts which
+the underwriters respectively are liable to pay.
+
+AD'JUTANT, an officer appointed to each regiment or battalion, whose duty
+is to assist the commander. He is charged with instruction in drill, and
+all the interior discipline, duties, and efficiency of the corps. He has
+the charge of all documents and correspondence, and is the channel of
+communication for all orders.
+
+[Illustration: Adjutant-bird (_Leptopt[)i]lus arg[)a]la_)]
+
+ADJUTANT-BIRD (_Leptopt[)i]lus arg[)a]la_), a large grallatorial or wading
+bird of the stork family, native of the warmer parts of India, where it is
+known as Hurg[)i]la or Arg[)a]la. It stands about five feet high, has an
+enormous bill, nearly bare head and neck, and a pouch hanging from the
+under part of the neck. It is one of the most voracious carnivorous birds
+known, and in India, from its devouring all sorts of carrion and noxious
+animals, is protected by law. From underneath the wings are obtained those
+light downy feathers known as _marabou_ feathers, from the name of an
+allied species of bird (_L. marabou_) inhabiting Western Africa, and also
+producing them.
+
+ADJUTANT-GENERAL, in Great Britain the second military member of the Army
+Council, and styled Adjutant-general to the Forces. He is a general
+officer, and at the head of his department at the War Office, which is
+charged with all duties relative to personnel.--Among the Jesuits this name
+was given to a select number of fathers, who resided with the general of
+the order, and had each a province or country assigned to him.
+
+AD'JUTATORS, in English history, representatives elected by the
+parliamentary forces in 1647 to act with the officers in compelling
+Parliament to satisfy the demands of the army.
+
+ADLER, Victor, Austrian socialist leader, born in 1852. Educated as a
+physician, he gave up his profession for socialist propaganda. He visited
+England, and wrote a book on factory inspection in this country. He was the
+founder and editor of the _Arbeiter-Zeitung_; was a member of the Lower
+Austrian Diet and of the Imperial Council in 1907. His son, Dr. Friedrich
+Adler, assassinated Count Stuergkh, the Austrian premier, on 20th Oct.,
+1916. He died in 1918.
+
+AD'LINGTON, a straggling place in Lancashire to the south-east of Chorley,
+engaged in the cotton manufacture. Pop. (1921), 4393.
+
+ADME'TUS, in Greek mythology, King of Pheræ, in Thessaly, and husband of
+Alcestis, who gave signal proof of her attachment by consenting to die in
+order to prolong her husband's life. See _Alcestis_.
+
+ADMINISTRA'TION, in politics, the executive power or body, the ministry or
+cabinet.
+
+ADMIN'ISTRATOR, in law, the person to whom the goods of a man dying
+intestate are committed by the proper authority, and who is bound to
+account for them when required.
+
+AD'MIRAL, the commander-in-chief of a squadron or fleet of ships of war, or
+of the entire naval force of a country, or simply a naval officer of the
+highest rank. In the British navy admirals are of four ranks--admiral of
+the fleet, admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral. They were also divided
+formerly into three classes, named after the colours of their respective
+flags, admirals of the _red_, of the _white_, and of the _blue_. In 1864,
+however, this distinction was given up, and now there is one flag common to
+all ships of war, namely, the white ensign divided into four quarters by
+the cross of St. George, and having the union in the upper corner next the
+staff.--The title _admiral of the fleet_ is conferred on a few admirals,
+and carries an increase of pay along with it.--A _vice-admiral_ is next in
+rank and command to the admiral: he carries his flag at the
+foretop-gallant-mast head, while an admiral carries his at the main. A
+_rear-admiral_, next in rank to the vice-admiral, carries his flag at the
+mizzentop-gallant-mast head.--_Lord high admiral_, in Great Britain, an
+officer who (when this rare dignity is conferred) is at the head of the
+naval administration of Great Britain. There have been few high admirals
+since 1632, when the office was first put in commission. James Duke of York
+(afterwards James II) held it for several years during Charles II's reign.
+In the reign of William and Mary it was vested in lords commissioners of
+the admiralty, and since that time it has been held for short periods only
+by Prince George of Denmark (1702-8) in the time of Queen Anne, and by
+William IV, then Duke of Clarence, in 1827-8.
+
+AD'MIRALTY, that department of the Government of a country that is at the
+head of its naval service. In Britain the board of Admiralty now consists
+of the First Lord of the Admiralty and seven other commissioners, four of
+them being Sea Lords, and one a Civil Lord. The First Lord is always a
+member of the cabinet, and it is he who principally exercises the powers of
+the department. Under the 1912 Admiralty Organization Scheme, the various
+members of the board are responsible for special business. Several changes
+in Admiralty organization were made during the European War, but after the
+cessation of hostilities the system reverted to that of peace time.
+
+ADMIRALTY CHARTS are charts issued by the hydrographic department of the
+Admiralty of Britain; they are prepared by specially appointed surveyors
+and draughtsmen, and besides being supplied to every ship in the fleet, are
+sold to the general public at prices much less than their cost. In
+connection with these charts there are published books of sailing
+directions, lists of lights, &c. The navigating charts are generally on the
+scale of half an inch to a mile, and show all the dangers of the coasts
+with sufficient distinctness to enable the seamen to avoid them; the charts
+of larger size exhibit all the intricacies of the coast.
+
+ADMIRALTY COURT, a court which takes cognizance of civil and criminal
+causes of a maritime nature, including captures made in war, and offences
+committed on the high seas, and has to do with many matters connected with
+maritime affairs. In England the Admiralty Court was once held before the
+Lord High Admiral, and at a later period was presided over by his deputy or
+the deputy of the Lords Commissioners. It now forms a branch of the
+Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division of the High Court of Justice.
+There is a separate Irish Admiralty Court. In Scotland Admiralty cases are
+now prosecuted in the Court of Session, or in the Sheriff Court. In the
+United States, Admiralty cases are taken up in the first instance by the
+district courts.
+
+ADMIRALTY ISLAND, an island belonging to the United States off the
+north-west coast of North America, 80 or 90 miles long and about 20 broad,
+covered with fine timber and inhabited by Sitka Indians.
+
+ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a cluster of 40 islands, north of New Guinea, in what
+was once called the Bismarck Archipelago. Discovered by the Dutch explorer
+Shouten in 1616, they were in German possession from 1884 to 12th Sept.,
+1914, when they were occupied by an Australian force. They have since been
+in British occupation. The largest is about 60 miles in length; the rest
+are much smaller. They are covered with a luxuriant vegetation, and possess
+dense groves of coco-nut trees. There are valuable pearl and other shell
+fisheries. Capital, Lorengau. Pop. (native), 4000; (European), 50.
+
+[Illustration: Stipule adnated to Leaf-stalk of Rose]
+
+AD'NATE, in botany, applied to a part growing attached to another and
+principal part by its whole length, as stipules adnated to the leaf-stalk.
+
+ADOBE ([.a]-d[=o]'b[=a]), the Spanish name for a brick made of loamy earth,
+containing about two-thirds fine sand and one-third clayey dust, sun-dried;
+in common use for building in Mexico, Texas, and Central America. Building
+material in ancient Egypt and Assyria was adobe.
+
+ADOL'PHUS, John, 1768-1845, an able English criminal lawyer, and author of
+the _History of England from the Accession of George III_ and _Biographical
+Memoirs of the French Revolution_.
+
+ADOLPHUS OF NASSAU, elected Emperor of Germany, 1292. In 1298 the college
+of electors transferred the crown to Albert of Austria, but, Adolphus
+refusing to abdicate, a war ensued in which he fell, after a heroic
+resistance, 2nd July, 1298.
+
+ADONAI (ad'o-n[=i]), a name bestowed upon God in the Old Testament. See
+_Jehovah_.
+
+ADO'NI, a town and district in Madras; pop. of former 30,416, of latter
+179,418. It is well known for excellent silk and cotton fabrics.
+
+ADO'NIS, son of Myrrha, a mythological personage, originally a deity of the
+Phoenicians, but borrowed into Greek mythology. He was represented as being
+a great favourite of Aphrodit[=e] (Venus), who accompanied him when engaged
+in hunting, of which he was very fond. He received a mortal wound from the
+tusk of a wild boar, and when the goddess hurried to his assistance she
+found him lifeless, whereupon she caused his blood to give rise to the
+anemone. The worship of Adonis, which arose in Phoenicia, was afterwards
+widely spread round the Mediterranean. He is the reproductive principle,
+nature's decay in winter and its revival in spring. The name Adonis is akin
+to the Heb. _Adonai_, Lord. See _Tammuz_.
+
+ADO'NIS, a small river rising in Lebanon and flowing to the Mediterranean.
+When in flood it is tinged with a red colour, and so is connected with the
+legend of Adonis.
+
+ADO'NIS, a genus of ranunculaceous plants. In the corn-adonis or pheasant's
+eye (_A. autumn[=a]lis_) the petals are bright scarlet like the blood of
+Adonis, from which the plant is fabled to have sprung.
+
+ADOPTIANISM, the theory according to which Christ as a man is the adopted
+Son of God. Elipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, Bishop of Urgella,
+asserted this double sonship in Christ, maintaining that He was indeed the
+Son of God in His divine nature, but as man He was the Son of God only by
+grace and adoption. 'The Man Christ' is therefore only the adopted and not
+the natural Son of God. The doctrine was vigorously opposed by Alcuin, and
+condemned by the councils of Ratisbon (792) and Frankfort (794). The
+theory, however, found advocates during the Middle Ages, and has given rise
+to theological disputes in modern times. Adoptianism was attributed both to
+Abelard and Duns Scotus.
+
+ADOP'TION, the admission of a stranger by birth to the privileges of a
+child. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and also some modern nations,
+adoption is placed under legal regulation. In Rome the effect of adoption
+was to create the legal relation of father and son, just as if the person
+adopted was born of the blood of the adopter in lawful marriage. The
+adopted son took the name of his adopter, and was bound to perform his new
+father's religious duties. Adoption is not recognized by the law of England
+and Scotland; there are legal means to enable a person to assume the name
+and arms, and to inherit the property of another. In some of the United
+States adoption is regulated by laws not very dissimilar to those which
+prevailed among the Romans.
+
+ADOUR ([.a]-dör), a river of France, rising in the Hautes Pyrenees, and
+falling into the sea a little below Bayonne; length about 200 miles; partly
+navigable.
+
+ADO'WA, a town of Abyssinia, in Tigré, at an elevation of 6270 feet; the
+chief commercial depot on the caravan route from Massawa to Gondar. Pop.
+about 4000. Here the Italians suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of
+the Abyssinians, 1st March, 1896.
+
+ADRA (ä'_d_r[.a]), a seaport of Southern Spain, in Andalusia, near the
+mouth of the Adra, on the Mediterranean; with marble quarries and lead
+works. Pop. 9000.
+
+ADRAMIT'TI (ancient ADRAMYTTIUM; Turk. _Edremid_), a town of Turkey in
+Asia, near the head of the gulf of the same name, 80 miles north of Smyrna.
+Pop. about 5000.
+
+ADRAR', a district in the Western Sahara, peopled by Berbers possessing
+camels, sheep, and oxen, and cultivating dates, wheat, barley, and melons.
+Chief towns, Wadan and Shingit, which has inexhaustible beds of rock-salt.
+
+ADREN'ALIN, or SUPRARENIN, a crystalline substance obtained from the
+adrenals or suprarenal capsules of cattle and sheep, which possesses the
+property of checking bleeding by its styptic or contractive powers, and is
+used in medical practice, more especially in the case of bleeding at the
+nose and nervous catarrh.
+
+ADRIA (ä'dri-[.a]), a cathedral city of Northern Italy, province of Rovigo,
+between the Po and the Adige, on the site of the ancient town of same name,
+whence the Adriatic derives its appellation. Owing to alluvial deposits the
+sea is now 17 miles distant. Pop. 11,878.
+
+A'DRIAN, the name of six Popes. The first, a Roman, ruled from 772-795; a
+contemporary and friend of Charlemagne. He expended vast sums in rebuilding
+the walls and restoring the aqueducts of Rome.--ADRIAN II, a Roman, was
+elected Pope in 867, at the age of seventy-five years. He died in 872, in
+the midst of conflicts with the Greek Church.--ADRIAN III, a Roman, elected
+884, was Pope for one year and four months only. He was the first Pope who
+changed his name on the occasion of his exaltation.--ADRIAN IV, originally
+named NICOLAS BREAKSPEAR, the only Englishman who ever occupied the papal
+chair, was born about 1100, and died 1159. He is said to have been a native
+of Hertfordshire, studied in France, and became abbot of St. Rufus in
+Provence, cardinal and legate to Norway. Chosen Pope in 1154, his reign is
+chiefly remarkable for his almost constant struggle for supremacy with
+Frederick Barbarossa, who on one occasion had been forced to hold his
+stirrup, and had been crowned by him at Rome (1155). He issued the famous
+bull (1158) granting the sovereignty of Ireland, on condition of the
+payment of Peter's pence, to Henry II.--ADRIAN V, previously called
+OTTOBUONO FIESCHI, of Genoa, settled, as legate of the Pope, the dispute
+between King Henry III of England and his nobles, in favour of the former;
+but died a month after his election to the papal chair (1276).--ADRIAN VI
+(the last pontifice barbaro), born at Utrecht in 1459, was elected to the
+papal chair, 9th Jan., 1522. He tried to reform abuses in the Church, but
+opposed the zeal of Luther with reproaches and threats, and even attempted
+to excite Erasmus and Zuinglius against him. Died 1523, after a reign of
+one year and a half.
+
+A'DRIAN, a town of the United States, in Michigan, 70 miles W.S.W. of
+Detroit. Its extensive water-power is employed in works of various kinds.
+Pop. 9654.
+
+A'DRIAN, Publius Ælius Hadrianus. See _Hadrian_.
+
+ADRIANO'PLE (Turk. _Edreneh_), an important city in the Balkans, about 135
+miles W.N.W. from Constantinople, on the Maritza (ancient _Hebrus_), at its
+junction with the Tundja and the Arda. It has a great mosque, among the
+most magnificent in the world; a palace, now in a state of decay; a grand
+aqueduct, and a splendid bazaar; manufactures of silk, woollen, and cotton
+stuffs, otto of roses, leather, &c., and an important trade. Adrianople
+received its present name from the Roman emperor Adrian (Hadrian). In 1361
+it was taken by Amurath I, and was the residence of the Turkish sovereigns
+till the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. In 1829 it was taken by the
+Russians, and here was then concluded the peace of Adrianople, by which
+Russia received important accessions of territory in the Caucasus and on
+the coast of the Black Sea. The Russians occupied it also in 1878.
+Adrianople was bombarded by the Balkan allied forces in Feb., 1913, and
+fell 28th March; it was recaptured by the Turks, under Enver Bey, 20th
+July. Pop. 83,000.
+
+ADRIAN'S (or HADRIAN'S) WALL. See _Roman Walls_.
+
+ADRIAT'IC SEA, or GULF OF VENICE, an arm of the Mediterranean, stretching
+in a north-westerly direction from the Straits of Otranto, between Italy
+and the Balkan Peninsula (Yugo-Slavia). Length, about 480 miles; average
+breadth, about 100; area, about 60,000 sq. miles. The rivers which it
+receives, particularly the Po, its principal feeder, have produced, and are
+still producing, great geological changes in its basin by their alluvial
+deposits. Hence Adria, between the Po and the Adige, which gives the sea
+its name, though once a flourishing seaport, is now 17 miles inland. An
+oceanographic investigation of the Adriatic Sea took place in Feb. and
+March, 1911. The principal trading ports on the Italian side are Brindisi,
+Bari, Ancona, Sinigaglia, and Venice; on the east side Ragusa, Fiume,
+Pirano, Pola, and Trieste (Italian).
+
+ADSCRIPTI GLEBÆ (Lat., persons attached to the soil), a term applied to a
+class of Roman slaves attached in perpetuity to and transferred with the
+land they cultivated. Colliers and salt workers in Scotland were in a
+similar position till 1775.
+
+ADULA'RIA, a very pure, limpid, translucent variety of the common felspar,
+called by lapidaries _moonstone_, on account of the play of light exhibited
+by the arrangement of its crystalline structure. It is found on the Alps,
+but the best specimens are brought from Ceylon. It is so called from
+_Adula_, one of the peaks of St. Gothard, where fine specimens are got.
+
+ADUL'LAM, CAVE OF, a cave to which David fled when persecuted by Saul, and
+whither he was followed by "every one who was in distress, in debt, or
+discontented" (1 _Sam._ xxii, 1, 2).--The name _Adullamites_ was given to
+an English political party, consisting of R. Lowe, Lord Elcho, and other
+Liberals, who opposed the majority of their party on the Franchise Bill of
+1866. The term originated from a speech of John Bright on 13th March, 1866.
+
+ADULTERA'TION, a term applied to the fraudulent mixture of articles of
+commerce, foods, drugs, beverages, seeds, &c., with inferior ingredients,
+and also to any accidental impurity found in a substance. The chief objects
+of adulteration are to render a substance more pleasing in appearance, to
+increase the weight, to make an inferior article appear as good as the
+article of superior quality. Any substance added to an article to increase
+its bulk, weight, colour, &c., is spoken of as an adulterant. Milk is often
+adulterated with water and with colouring-matter. Butter may be adulterated
+by mixing with it other fats or by the addition of colouring-matter. Nearly
+every article of food can be adulterated in some way to make it appear of
+finer quality. _Preservatives_ added to foods and drugs generally may be
+classed as adulterants. Thus cream is preserved by adding small quantities
+of boric acid. Beer sometimes contains salicylic acid added as a
+preservative. Chloroform contains a small quantity of alcohol to prevent
+decomposition. Methylated spirits is alcohol adulterated in several ways to
+render it unfit for human consumption. Tobacco contains benzoic acid as
+preservative, and sometimes saltpetre to aid burning. Many of these
+adulterants are harmful, so that such added to foods and beverages must be
+present only in very small quantities. Food and Drug Acts lay down the
+limits of the quantities of foreign matter permitted either as preservative
+or impurity. Practically every article of commerce is adulterated in some
+way, and pure substances are seldom used. Cf. Walker, _The Food Inspector's
+Encyclopædia_.
+
+ADUL'TERY, the voluntary sexual intercourse of a married person with any
+other than the offender's husband or wife; when committed between two
+married persons, the offence is called double, and when between a married
+and single person, single adultery. The Mosaic, Greek, and early Roman law
+only recognized the offence when a married woman was the offender. By the
+Jewish law it was punished with death. In Greece the laws against it were
+severe. By the laws of Draco and Solon adulterers, when caught in the act,
+were at the mercy of the injured party. In early Rome the punishment was
+left to the discretion of the husband and parents of the adulteress. The
+punishment assigned by the Lex Julia, under Augustus, was banishment or a
+heavy fine. Under Constantius and Constans, adulterers were burned or sewed
+in sacks and thrown into the sea; under Justinian the wife was to be
+scourged, lose her dower, and be shut up in a monastery; at the expiration
+of two years the husband might take her again; if he refused she was shaven
+and made a nun for life. By the ancient laws of France this crime was
+punishable with death. In Spain personal mutilation was frequently the
+punishment adopted. In several European countries adultery is regarded as a
+criminal offence, but in none does the punishment exceed imprisonment for a
+short period, accompanied by a fine. In England formerly it was punishable
+with fine and imprisonment, and in Scotland it was frequently made a
+capital offence. In Great Britain at the present day, however, it is
+punishable only by ecclesiastical censure. The aggrieved husband, however,
+can obtain damages against his wife's seducer. In England a man can obtain
+a dissolution of his marriage on the ground of his wife's adultery, and a
+wife can obtain a judicial separation on the ground of her husband's
+adultery, or a dissolution of the marriage if the offence is coupled with
+cruelty, desertion, or bigamy. In Scotland it is not necessary to prove
+cruelty. In the United States the punishment of adultery has varied
+materially at different times. It is, however, very seldom punished
+criminally in the States. A person divorced for adultery is by the laws of
+France and Scotland prohibited from intermarrying with the co-respondent.
+
+AD VALO'REM (Lat., according to the value), a term applied to customs or
+duties levied according to the worth of the goods, as sworn to by the
+owner, and not according to number, weight, measure, &c.
+
+ADVANCE-NOTE, a draft on the owner of a vessel, generally for one month's
+wages, given by the master to the sailors on their signing the articles of
+agreement. The granting of such notes to British sailors was made illegal
+by an Act passed in 1880.
+
+AD'VENT (Lat. _adventus_, an arrival, 'the coming of our Saviour'), the
+name applied to the holy season which occupies the four or, according to
+the Greek Church, six weeks preceding Christmas, and which forms the first
+portion of the ecclesiastical year, as observed by the Anglican, the Roman
+Catholic, and the Greek Church.
+
+AD'VENTISTS, a group of six American religious sects who believe in the
+speedy coming of Christ, and generally practise adult immersion. The first
+sect of Adventists was founded by William Miller in 1831.--There is also a
+sect called _Seventh-day Adventists_, who hold that the coming of Christ is
+at hand, and maintain that the Sabbath is still the seventh day of the
+week.
+
+AD'VERB, one of the parts of speech used to limit or qualify the
+signification of an adjective, verb, or other adverb; as, _very cold_,
+_naturally brave_, _much more clearly_, _readily agreed_. Adverbs may be
+classified as follows: (1) Adverbs of time, as, _now_, _then_, _never_,
+&c.; (2) of place, as, _here_, _there_, _where_, &c.; (3) of degree, as,
+_very_, _much_, _nearly_, _almost_, &c.; (4) of affirmation, negation, or
+doubt, as, _yes_, _no_, _certainly_, _perhaps_, &c.; (5) of manner, as,
+_well_, _badly_, _clearly_, &c.
+
+ADVERTIS'ING. Advertising on a small scale is a practice as old as
+commerce; but modern advertising on a large scale cannot be dated further
+back than 1785, when the _Times_ was founded. The last thirty years have
+witnessed a great increase in the importance of advertisements as part of
+the policy of a progressive business. Much more intelligence and vastly
+more money is now spent on advertising than ever was before. America led
+the way, but the British are not now far behind in the number and ingenuity
+of their advertisements.
+
+There are roughly speaking five distinct types of advertisement:--
+
+(1) Press advertising, under which heading is included daily and weekly
+newspapers, monthly magazines and year books, directories, &c.
+
+(2) Mail-order advertising, which comprises form-letters, catalogues.
+
+(3) Poster and showcard advertising. This includes large and small posters,
+on hoardings, in railway stations or tubes, &c.
+
+(4) Illuminated signs either outside buildings on a large scale or in
+frames of various sizes inside business premises, theatres, &c.
+
+(5) Cinema advertising--a recent development which has proved extremely
+effective.
+
+Advertising to be successful must be carefully organized. A firm wishing to
+advertise must first of all settle how much money it is willing to spend on
+this object. A common practice is to devote a fixed proportion of the
+profits--at least five per cent--to advertising. The firm must then
+carefully consider the period of time over which the expenditure agreed
+upon is to be spread. Occasional or spasmodic advertising does not produce
+satisfactory results; advertising must be constant and must move with the
+times in order to be effective. A firm not uncommonly reviews the results
+of its advertising every six months, when it also arranges its plans for
+future advertisements. Mistakes in policy can thus be corrected and
+successful schemes can be readopted or improved upon. Advertising on any
+large scale must be handled by experts. Many thousands of pounds are wasted
+yearly by firms which hand over this work to a director who has no
+knowledge of how to advertise. The proper way for a firm to act, if it
+wishes to enter upon a campaign of publicity, is to engage an efficient
+advertising staff or to employ a reliable advertising agent. These agents
+in many cases obtain their profits from the commission given to them by
+newspapers--this often being about ten per cent of the cost of the space
+booked. In return for this they give their advice and copy--everything,
+indeed, except blocks and sketches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry Sampson, _A
+History of Advertising_; _Edinburgh Review_, Feb., 1843, _On the
+Advertising System_. A good account of the more recent developments of
+advertising is to be found in H. G. Wells's novel _Tono-Bungay_; T.
+Russell, _Commercial Advertising_.
+
+AD VITAM AUT CULPAM (Lat., for life or till a fault), a formula often used
+in regard to appointments to posts or offices, intimating that they are
+held for life or till the person forfeits his position by some fault or
+misdeed.
+
+AD'VOCATE (Lat., _advocatus_--_ad_, to, _voco_, to call), a lawyer
+authorized to plead the cause of his clients before a court of law. It is
+only in Scotland that this word seems to denote a distinct class belonging
+to the legal profession, the advocates of Scotland being the pleaders
+before the supreme courts, and corresponding to the _barristers_ of England
+and Ireland. These advocates all belong to the _Faculty of Advocates_,
+Edinburgh, to whom the oral pleadings in the Court of Session are for the
+most part limited, while they are also competent to plead in all the
+inferior Scottish courts and in the House of Lords in cases of appeal from
+the Court of Session. The supreme judges in Scotland, as well as the
+sheriffs of the various counties, are always selected from among them.
+Candidates for admission must undergo two separate examinations, one in
+general scholarship and the other in law.--The _Lord-Advocate_, called also
+the _King's_ or _Queen's Advocate_, is the principal law officer of the
+crown in Scotland. He is the public prosecutor of crimes in the Supreme
+Court, and senior counsel for the crown in civil causes. Being appointed by
+the crown, he goes out of office with the administration to which he
+belongs. As public prosecutor he is assisted by the solicitor-general and
+by four junior counsel called advocates-depute. The lord-advocate and the
+solicitor-general, in addition to their official duties, accept of ordinary
+bar practice.
+
+ADVOCATES' LIBRARY, the chief library in Scotland, located in Edinburgh,
+and founded about 1682 by the Faculty of Advocates. It was increased by
+donations and by sums granted by the Faculty from time to time. As the
+donations were not confined to advocates the library was considered a kind
+of public library, and it has continued to retain this character. In 1709
+it obtained, along with eight other libraries, the right to demand a copy
+of every new book published in Britain, which right it still possesses. The
+number of volumes is over 600,000 and MSS. over 3200.
+
+ADVOCA'TUS DIAB'OLI (Devil's advocate), in the Roman Catholic Church, a
+functionary who, when a deceased person is proposed for canonization,
+brings forward and insists upon all the weak points of the character and
+life of the deceased, endeavouring to show that he is not worthy of
+sainthood. The first formal mention of such an officer occurs under Pope
+Leo X (1513-21). The opposite side is taken by the _Advocatus Dei_ (God's
+advocate).
+
+ADVOW'SON, in English law, a right of presentation to a vacant benefice,
+or, in other words, a right of nominating a person to officiate in a vacant
+church. Those who have this right are styled _patrons_. Advowsons are of
+three kinds--_presentative_, _collative_, and _donative_: _presentative_,
+when the patron presents his clerk to the bishop of the diocese to be
+instituted; _collative_, when the bishop is the patron, and institutes or
+_collates_ his clerk by a single act; _donative_, when a church is founded
+by the king, or any person licensed by him, without being subject to the
+ordinary, so that the patron confers the benefice on his clerk without
+presentation, institution, or induction. An advowson cannot be held by
+either a Roman Catholic or an alien.
+
+AD'YTUM, a secret place of retirement in the ancient temples, esteemed the
+most sacred spot; the innermost sanctuary or shrine. From this place the
+oracles were given, and none but the priests were permitted to enter it.
+The Holy of Holies or Sanctum Sanctorum of the Temple at Jerusalem was of a
+similar character.
+
+ADZE, a cutting instrument used for chipping the surface of timber,
+somewhat of a mattock shape, and having a blade of steel forming a portion
+of a cylindrical surface, with a cutting edge at right angles to the length
+of the handle.
+
+ÆDILES ([=e]'d[=i]lz), Roman magistrates who had the supervision of the
+national games and spectacles; of the public edifices, such as temples (the
+name comes from _ædes_, a temple); of private buildings, of the markets,
+cleansing and draining the city, &c.
+
+Æ'DUI, one of the most powerful nations of Gaul, between the Liger (Loire)
+and the Arar (Saône). On the arrival of Julius Cæsar in Gaul (58 B.C.) they
+were subject to Ariovistus, but their independence was restored by Cæsar.
+Their chief town was Bibracte (Mont Beuvray, near Autun).
+
+ÆGADE'AN ISLANDS, a group of small islands lying off the western extremity
+of Sicily, and consisting of Maritimo, Favignana, Levanso, and Le Formiche.
+
+[Illustration: Grecian Ibex (_Capra ægagrus_)]
+
+ÆGAG'RUS, a wild species of ibex (_Capra ægagrus_), found in herds on the
+Caucasus, and many Asiatic mountains, believed to be the original source of
+at least one variety of the domestic goat.
+
+ÆGEAN CIVILIZATION, a term applied to the pre-Hellenic civilization of
+south-eastern Europe, including Crete, Greece and the Cyclades, and the
+Danubian or Mid-European area. See _Crete_ and _Danubian Civilization_.
+
+ÆGEAN SEA ([=e]-j[=e]'an), that part of the Mediterranean which washes the
+eastern shores of Greece, and the western coast of Asia Minor. See
+_Archipelago_.
+
+Æ'GILOPS, a genus of grasses, very closely allied to wheat, and somewhat
+remarkable from the alleged fact that by cultivation one of the species
+becomes a kind of wheat.
+
+ÆGINA ([=e]-j[=i]'na), a Greek island in the Gulf of Ægina, south of
+Athens, triangular in form; area about 32 sq. miles; pop. 8500. It forms
+part of the nomarchy of Attica and Boeotia. Except in the west, where the
+surface is more level, the island is mountainous and unproductive. The
+inhabitants are chiefly engaged in trade, seafaring, and agriculture, the
+chief crops being almonds, olives, and grain. The greater number of them
+reside in the seaport town of Ægina. Ægina was anciently colonized by
+Dorians from the opposite coast of Peloponnesus. In the latter half of the
+sixth century B.C. it had a flourishing commerce, a large navy, and was the
+seat of a distinct school of art. At the battle of Salamis (480 B.C.) the
+Æginetans behaved with great valour. In 456 the island fell under the power
+of the Athenians, and in 431 the Æginetans were expelled to make room for
+Athenian settlers, but were afterwards restored. On a hill are the remains
+of a splendid temple of Athena (Minerva), many of the columns of which are
+still standing. Here was found in 1811 a considerable amount of sculpture
+from the pediments (the _Æginetan marbles_), which is now at the Glyptothek
+at Munich, and is prized as throwing light on the early history of Greek
+art. Though in these figures there is a wonderfully exact imitation of
+nature, yet there is a certain stiffness about them and an unnatural
+sameness of expression in all. They should probably be assigned to the
+period 500-480 B.C.
+
+ÆGIS ([=e]'jis), the shield of Zeus, according to Homer, but according to
+later writers and artists a metal cuirass or breastplate, in which was set
+the head of the Gorgon Medusa, and with which Athena (Minerva) is often
+represented as being protected. In a figurative sense the word is used to
+denote some shielding or protecting power.
+
+ÆGLE ([=e]'gl[=e]), a genus of plants. See _Bel._
+
+ÆGOSPOT'AMI ('goat-rivers'), a place on the Hellespont, of some note in
+Greek history, the Athenian fleet being here completely defeated in 405
+B.C. by the Spartan Lysander, thus ending the Peloponnesian war.
+
+ÆLFRIC (al'frik), Abbot, called _Grammaticus_ (the grammarian), was a
+celebrated English author of the eleventh century. He became a monk of
+Abingdon, was afterwards connected with Winchester, and died Abbot of
+Eynsham. His principal works are two books of homilies, a _Treatise on the
+Old and New Testaments_, a translation and abridgment of the first seven
+books of the Bible, a _Latin Grammar and Glossary_, &c. He has been
+frequently confounded both with Ælfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, and
+Ælfric, Archbishop of York, surnamed Putta, who lived about the same time.
+There was also an Ælfric of Malmesbury.
+
+ÆLIA'NUS, Claudius, often called simply ÆLIAN, a Roman author who lived
+about A.D. 221, and wrote in Greek a collection of stories and anecdotes
+and a natural history of animals.
+
+ÆLIA'NUS TACTICUS, so called to distinguish him from Claudius Ælianus,
+lived at Rome, and wrote a work _On the Military Tactics of the Greeks_,
+which he dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian, who was emperor from A.D. 117 to
+138. This book was closely studied by soldiers of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries.
+
+AELST (älst), Belgian town, same as ALOST.
+
+ÆNE'AS, the hero of Virgil's _Æn[=e]id_, a Trojan, who, according to Homer,
+was, next to Hector, the bravest of the warriors of Troy. When that town
+was taken and set on fire, Æneas, according to the narrative of Virgil,
+with his father, son, and wife Creusa, fled, but the latter was lost in the
+confusion of the flight. Having collected a fleet he sailed for Italy, but
+after numerous adventures he was driven by a tempest to the coast of
+Africa, where Queen Dido of Carthage received him kindly, and would have
+married him. Jupiter, however, sent Mercury to Æneas, and commanded him to
+sail to Italy. Whilst the deserted Dido ended her life on the funeral pile,
+Æneas set sail with his companions, and after further adventures by land
+and sea reached the country of King Latinus, in Italy. The king's daughter
+Lavinia was destined by an oracle to wed a stranger, this stranger being
+Æneas, but was promised by her mother to Turnus, King of the R[)u]t[)u]li.
+This occasioned a war, which was ended by Æneas slaying Turnus and marrying
+Lavinia. His son by Lavinia, Æneas Sylvius, was the ancestor of the kings
+of Alba Longa, and of Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city of Rome.
+
+ÆOLIAN HARP, or ÆOLUS' HARP, a musical instrument, generally consisting of
+a box of thin fibrous wood (often of deal), to which are attached from
+eight to fifteen fine catgut strings or wires, stretched on low bridges at
+either end, and tuned in unison. Its length is made to correspond with the
+size of the window or other aperture in which it is intended to be placed.
+When the wind blows athwart the strings it produces very beautiful sounds,
+sweetly mingling all the harmonic tones, and swelling or diminishing
+according to the strength or weakness of the blast.
+
+ÆOLIANS (Gr. _Aioleis_), one of the four races into which the ancient
+Greeks were divided, originally inhabiting the district of Æ[)o]lis, in
+Thessaly, from which they spread over other parts of Greece. In early times
+they were the most numerous and powerful of the Hellenic races, chiefly
+inhabiting Northern Greece and the western side of Peloponnesus, though
+latterly a portion of them went to Lesbos and Tenedos and the north-west
+shores of Asia Minor, where they possessed a number of cities. Their
+language, the Æolian dialect, was one of the three principal dialects of
+the Greek. It was cultivated for literary purposes chiefly at Lesbos, and
+was the dialect in which Alcæus and Sappho wrote.
+
+ÆOL'IPILE (Lat. _Æ[)o]li pila_, the ball of Æ[)o]lus), a spherical vessel
+of metal, with a pipe of small aperture, through which the vapour of heated
+water in the ball passes out with considerable noise; or having two nozzles
+so placed that the steam rushing out causes it to revolve on the principle
+of the Barker's mill. It was known to the ancient Greeks.
+
+Æ'OLUS, in Greek mythology, the god of the winds, which he kept confined in
+a cave in the Æolian Islands, releasing them when he wished or was
+commanded by the superior gods.
+
+Æ'ON, a Greek word signifying life, an age, and sometimes eternity, but
+used by the Gnostics to express spirits or powers that had emanated from
+the Supreme Mind before the beginning of time. They held both Christ and
+the Holy Spirit to be æons; but as they denied the divine origin of the
+books of Moses, they said that the spirit which had inspired him and the
+prophets was not that exalted æon whom God sent forth after the ascension
+of Christ, but an æon very much inferior, and removed at a great distance
+from the Supreme Being.
+
+ÆPYOR'NIS, a genus of gigantic birds whose remains have been found in
+Madagascar, where they are supposed to have lived perhaps not longer than
+200 years ago. It had three toes, and is classed with the cursorial birds
+(ostrich, &c.). Its eggs measured 14 inches in length, being about six
+times the bulk of those of the ostrich. The bird which laid them may well
+have been the roc of Eastern tradition.
+
+Æ'QUI, an ancient people of Italy, conspicuous in the early wars of Rome,
+and inhabiting the mountain district between the upper valley of the Anio
+(Teverone) and Lake Fuc[)i]nus. They were probably akin to the Volscians,
+with whom they were in constant alliance. They were defeated by Cincinnatus
+in 458 B.C., and again by the dictator Postumius Tubertus in 428 B.C., and
+were finally subdued about 304-302 B.C. Soon after they were admitted to
+Roman citizenship.
+
+A'ERATED BREAD, bread which receives its sponginess or porosity from
+carbonic acid supplied artificially, and not produced by the fermentation
+caused by leaven or yeast.
+
+A'ERATED WATERS, waters impregnated with carbonic acid gas, and forming
+effervescing beverages. Some mineral waters are naturally aerated, as
+Vichy, Apollinaris, Rosbach, &c.; others, especially such as are used for
+medicinal purposes, are frequently aerated to render them more palatable
+and exhilarating. Water simply aerated, as soda-water, or aerated and
+flavoured with lemon or fruit syrups, is largely used, especially in
+summer, as a refreshing beverage. There are numerous varieties of apparatus
+for manufacturing aerated waters. The essential parts of an aerated-water
+machine are a generator in which the gas is produced, a vessel containing
+the water to be impregnated, and an apparatus for forcing the gas into the
+water. This last may be effected by force-pumps or by the high pressure of
+the impregnating gas itself. The quantity of gas with which the water is
+charged is usually equal to a pressure of 5 atmospheres. See also _Mineral
+Waters_.--Cf. W. Kirkby, _Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters_.
+
+AERIAL ROPEWAYS or CABLEWAYS, a means of transport or carriage in which a
+great rope or cable, elevated above the ground on fixed supports, is made
+use of in conveying from place to place materials or articles of various
+kinds. Such a cable may be said to serve the purpose of a rail, from which
+are suspended the carriages, buckets, or carriers of whatever sort are
+employed to convey the materials dealt with, the cable being actuated by
+means of a steam-engine and winding-gear of suitable construction. Such
+cables are now much used in carrying materials over a comparatively short
+space, as in quarries, excavations for canals, docks, &c.; in the
+construction of bridges, in shipbuilding, &c. Besides being employed in
+such works--not to mention the coaling of a battleship at sea from a coal
+transport standing by--elevated ropeways miles in length have also been
+constructed between places where no roads exist, or where road carriage is
+much more expensive. The greatest aerial line yet in existence is in the
+Argentine Republic, being built to connect a mining locality in the Andes,
+about 15,000 feet above sea-level, with a station on the Northern Railway
+11,500 feet lower down and about 22 miles off, the line running across deep
+chasms and hollows, and being in places supported on iron towers 130 feet
+high. The wire rope is said to have a length of 87 miles.
+
+AË'RIANS, the followers of Aërius of Pontus, who in the fourth century
+originated a small heretical sect, objecting to the established feast-days,
+fasts or abstinences, the distinction between bishops and presbyters,
+prayers for the dead, &c.
+
+AERODYNAM'ICS, a branch of physical science which treats of the properties
+and motions of elastic fluids (air, gases), and of the appliances by which
+these are exemplified. This subject is often explained in connection with
+hydrodynamics. See also _Meteorology_.
+
+AERÖE, or ARRÖE (är'eu-e), an island of Denmark, in the Little Belt, 15
+miles long by 5 broad, with 12,000 inhabitants. Though hilly, it is very
+fertile.
+
+A'EROLITE, a meteoric stone, meteorite, or shooting-star. See _Meteoric
+Stones_.
+
+[Illustration: "Montgolfière", or Hot-air Balloon, above Furnace]
+
+AERONAU'TICS, the art or science of navigating the air, including Aviation
+(see _Aeroplane_ and _Sea-planes_) and Aerostation (see _Balloons_ and
+_Air-ships_). From the days of the mythical exploit of Dædalus and Icarus,
+students of 'experimental philosophy', or scientists, of all ages, turned
+their thoughts and inventive genius to the evolution of a machine by means
+of which man could fly. Most of the early schemes of which any details have
+survived were based upon the observation of birds and embodied the flapping
+of wings affixed to the arms or legs. Among the very early experimenters
+may be mentioned the monk Oliver of Malmesbury (A.D. 1050), de Pérouse
+(1420), who is said to have succeeded in flying over Lake Trasimene, and
+the great Leonardo da Vinci. All these produced designs for what are known
+as Ornithopters, or flapping-wing machines. There was, however, another
+school which believed in the future of machines which would be themselves
+lighter than air. The idea in the minds of the experimenters of this school
+was in the early days the replacing of the air in brass globes by a vacuum.
+If the brass were thin enough it was believed that the globe would then be
+sufficiently light to rise. It was, however, not realized that under such
+circumstances the globe would inevitably collapse under the pressure of the
+atmosphere with no corresponding internal pressure to withstand it. Among
+this 'lighter-than-air' school of experimenters were the famous Roger Bacon
+(twelfth century), Robert Hooke of the Royal Society (1644), and Francesco
+de Lana, a Jesuit priest (1660). It was this school which ultimately
+achieved success by providing the first machine of any sort to leave the
+ground and rise into the air. On 5th June, 1783, the first balloon ascended
+from the village of Annonay in France. It owed its inception to the genius
+of two brothers, paper-makers by trade, named Etienne and Joseph
+Montgolfier. Struck by the sight of smoke ascending from a chimney, after
+many failures with flapping-wing models, they conceived the idea of filling
+a receptacle with smoke and seeing if it would rise. They built a balloon
+or 'globe' of paper and canvas, and lit a fire of wood and straw below the
+aperture in it. The balloon gradually filled and rose into the air to a
+height reported to be 6000 feet, though this is probably an exaggeration.
+It remained in the air for ten minutes and landed 1½ miles away. This was
+the forerunner of the 'Montgolfières', or hot-air balloons, which are a
+feature of fêtes and Guy Fawkes' Day celebrations. It was followed by the
+sending up of a 'Montgolfière' from Versailles on 18th Sept. of the same
+year, carrying a basket containing a sheep, a cock, and a duck. The first
+human beings to make an ascent were Pilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis
+d'Arlande, who went away from Paris on 21st Nov., 1783. They passed right
+over Paris, and were in the air for twenty-five minutes, during which time
+they replenished the fire suspended in a brazier below the neck of the
+balloon.
+
+The real genesis of the balloon, or air-ship as we know it to-day, was due
+to the discovery of hydrogen as the lightest gas, which discovery was made
+in 1766 by an English chemist, Henry Cavendish. Various people claim the
+credit of having been the first to call attention to the possibilities of
+this gas for aerial navigation. In 1781 Dr. Joseph Black of Edinburgh
+suggested to his pupils that a thin bladder filled with 'the inflammable
+gas' (hydrogen) would rise into the air, but it appears doubtful whether he
+ever actually made the experiment. Tiberius Cavallo the same year, before
+the Royal Society, demonstrated that soap-bubbles filled with hydrogen
+would rise and float in the air. The honour of building the first hydrogen
+balloon belongs, however, to three Frenchmen--the brothers Robert, and
+Charles, a physicist. They sent up a hydrogen-filled balloon of varnished
+silk from the Champ de Mars, Paris, on 7th Aug., 1783. One of the Roberts
+and Charles themselves made the second human ascent in their balloon--the
+first in a hydrogen balloon as opposed to a Montgolfière (as above)--on 1st
+Dec. the same year. In 1784 the same Frenchmen constructed the first
+'air-ship' or navigable balloon to the order of the Duc de Chartres
+(Philippe Egalité). The gas container of this was elongated in form, and it
+could be propelled to some small extent by means of oars, and steered by a
+rudder. In the same year a French military officer, named Meusnier,
+produced a completely detailed design for an air-ship. This embodied the
+first suggestion of screw-propellers, to be worked by man-power, and also
+provided for a 'ballonet' into which air could be driven to replace
+hydrogen lost owing to expansion during the ascent. Meusnier's design was
+the genesis of the modern non-rigid air-ship, all the essential features
+remaining. This air-ship was, however, never built.
+
+[Illustration: Giffard's Steam-driven Air-ship]
+
+The first ascent in the British Isles was made in a Montgolfière by James
+Tytler at Edinburgh, on 27th Aug., 1784, though he travelled only a few
+hundred yards. He was followed by Vincent Lunardi, an Italian, who ascended
+from the artillery ground in London three weeks later (Sept., 1784),
+landing near Ware in Hertfordshire. The first Channel crossing by air was
+made in a hydrogen balloon from Dover to Calais on 7th Jan., 1785, by
+Blanchard and Dr. Jeffries.
+
+Subsequent developments in air-ships are due to the pioneer work of Giffard
+(1852) (the first steam-driven air-ship), Dupuy de Lôme (1872), the
+brothers Tissandier (electric propulsion) (1883), Rénard and Krebbs (1884),
+Wölfert (1897), Santos Dumont (1898-1905), Zeppelin (1900), Lebaudy (1903),
+Barton (English) (1905), Willows (English) (1910).
+
+In the meantime experimental work was being carried on by the exponents of
+the heavier-than-air school, who soon abandoned the flapping-wing principle
+and eventually evolved the modern aeroplane. The modern aeroplane was
+evolved from the brain of an Englishman, Sir George Cayley, who in 1809
+contributed an article to _Nicholson's Journal_ in which he outlined the
+outstretched wings, vertical and horizontal steering surfaces,
+screw-propeller, 'explosion' motor, and 'stream-line' form of the modern
+aeroplane. In 1842 Henson and Stringfellow, both Englishmen, constructed a
+steam-driven model on this principle, which is now in the South Kensington
+Museum. Wenham in 1866 contributed a valuable paper to the Royal
+Aeronautical Society on the subject. In 1896 Lillienthal in Germany carried
+out a number of glides with rigid wings, provided with a movable tail,
+fixed to his body. He was followed by Chanute, who in America emphasized
+the biplane principle in his glider. In 1896 Ader, a Frenchman, built an
+'avion' which is claimed to have risen from the ground at Satory, but this
+is doubtful. In 1895 a huge steam-propelled aeroplane built by Sir Hiram
+Maxim burst the rails holding it down and lifted for a few feet.
+
+[Illustration: A Handley Page Biplane, showing the principal parts]
+
+[Illustration: Wright's Biplane Glider]
+
+The real credit for the evolution of a man-carrying aeroplane is, however,
+due to the American brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio.
+Encouraged by the advice of Chanute, they commenced experimenting with
+biplane gliders on the sand-hills at Kittyhawk. Meeting with considerable
+success, they fitted a petrol motor of their own design in 1903 and made
+several straight flights during the same year. In 1904 they succeeded in
+making the first turn in the air. These experiments were carried out in
+great secrecy, and it was not until 1908 that their first public flights
+were made in France, the first taking place in October of that year. The
+first aviator to fly in Europe was Santos Dumont, who, on 12th Nov., 1906,
+covered 220 metres, having previously in the same year flown for shorter
+distances. At this time and during the two or three ensuing years many
+experiments were carried out, and flights made, by Farman, Voisin,
+Esnault-Pelterie, and Blériot in France; Wright and Curtiss in America; and
+Roe, Ogilvie, and Moore-Brabazon in England. A prize of £2000 offered by
+MM. Deutsch de la Meurthe and Ernest Archdeacon for the first circular
+flight over a distance of 1 kilometre, returning to the point of starting,
+was won in Jan., 1908, by Henry Farman.
+
+The second crossing of the Channel, and the first by a 'heavier-than-air'
+machine, was effected by Louis Blériot in a machine of his own construction
+with an Anzani engine from Calais to Dover on 25th July, 1909. From that
+date the science of aviation (flight by heavier-than-air machines) may be
+said to have begun, and progress was merely a record of improvements. By
+the end of 1919 the Atlantic had been crossed four times; once by
+sea-plane, once by a non-stop aeroplane flight, and twice (outward and
+return) by non-stop air-ship flights. Aeroplanes had achieved a speed of
+190 miles an hour, had attained to a height of over 34,000 feet, and had
+covered upwards of 1900 miles in one non-stop flight.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: De St.
+Fond, _Description de la Machine Aerostatique_; Cavallo, _History and
+Practice of Aerostation_; Lunardi, _The First Aerial Voyage in England_;
+Moedebeck, _Pocket Book of Aeronautics_; Santos Dumont, _My Air-ships_;
+_The Aeronautical Classics_ (Aeronautical Society); G. Tissandier,
+_Histoire des Ballons_; A. Berget, _The Conquest of the Air_.
+
+[Illustration: Early Types of Aeroplanes
+(a) Wright Biplane (1908). (b) Blériot Monoplane (1909).
+(c) Santos Dumont Biplane (1906).]
+
+AEROPLANE, a flying-machine deriving its power of sustentation from the
+reaction of the air driven downwards by the rapid transit of fixed wings or
+'planes' through the air. The term 'plane' for the wing of an aeroplane is
+strictly a misnomer, as the word implies a flat plate, whereas a wing is
+'cambered' or curved in section from front to back. This is due to the
+discovery of Lillienthal (see _Aeronautics_) that a cambered 'aerofoil'
+when set at an angle to a wind current gives more 'lift' than a flat plane.
+The wing of an aeroplane is normally set at an angle horizontally (or
+rather at an angle to the relative wind) varying from 0° to 4°. This angle
+is known as the 'angle of incidence'. As the wing is driven through the air
+under the influence of the propeller, the air meets the 'leading' or
+'entering' edge and is divided into two streams along the top and bottom
+surfaces. It does not, however, follow the surface closely, but in the case
+of the lower stratum is deflected downwards at an angle to the surface,
+which results in an upward reaction. The upper of the two streams of air is
+correspondingly deflected upwards at an angle to the surface for a short
+distance. This causes an 'area of discontinuity of flow', or eddy, which
+results in 'negative pressure', causing an upward suction. This fact was
+first discovered by Sir Hiram Maxim, though it was G. Eiffel who measured
+the effects of the positive pressure on the lower surface and the negative
+pressure on the upper surface, and found, contrary to all expectation, that
+the latter is responsible for three-quarters of the total lifting effect of
+the wing. In addition to the lift, the wings offer resistance to progress
+through the air, which effect is known as 'drag'. The ratio of lift to drag
+is a measure of the efficiency of a wing-section. A well-designed wing will
+have a L/D ratio at an angle of incidence of 4° of about 16, i.e. the lift
+effect in pounds will be 16 times that of the drag. The fundamental
+equation of an aeroplane is R = KSV^2, where R = the resistance, K = a
+constant (usually 0.003), S = area of surface, and V = the velocity in feet
+per second. From this it will be seen that the resistance for the same area
+increases as the square of the speed, which shows the importance of
+reducing the resistance to the lowest possible degree if high speeds are to
+be obtained. For this purpose it is necessary that the flow of air round
+the component parts of the aeroplane caused by its passage should be as
+little disturbed and broken up into eddies as possible. It is found that
+the best theoretical shape for this purpose is a body of circular
+cross-section tapering from front to rear, with the maximum cross-section
+toward the _front_. The 'fineness ratio' (ratio of length to maximum
+diameter) should be about 6 to 1, and the maximum cross-section situated
+about one-third of the distance from the nose. Such a form will offer only
+about 1/20 the resistance of a flat plate of similar cross-section, and is
+known as a 'stream-line form'. The width of a wing from side to side at
+right angles to the wind is known as the 'span', and the breadth from front
+to back as the 'chord'. The ratio of span to chord is the 'aspect ratio'.
+Owing to the increase in drag resulting from low aspect ratio (large chord
+relative to span) the higher the aspect ratio the more efficient the wing.
+This is in practice about 6, owing to structural difficulties in
+constructing a wing of larger relative span. The essential parts of an
+aeroplane are the wings, fuselage (body), tail (comprising fixed vertical
+and horizontal surfaces behind which are hinged movable rudders and
+elevators), and chassis, or landing-carriage. The majority of modern
+machines are biplanes, i.e. with one set of wings superposed on the other
+and connected by upright wooden members called 'struts'. Aeroplanes with
+one set of wings only are called 'monoplanes'; those with three,
+'triplanes'; with four, 'quadruplanes'; and with more than four,
+'multiplanes'. Aeroplanes are also divided into 'tractor' and 'pusher',
+according to whether the propeller is situated in front or rear of the
+wings.
+
+When the engine is started, the revolution of the propeller causes the
+aeroplane to move along the ground until such a speed is reached (usually
+about 35-50 miles per hour) that it is able to support its own weight in
+the air when it leaves the ground. When in the air it is made to ascend or
+descend by moving the elevators, which are operated by a vertical stick in
+front of the pilot through control cables or levers. Steering to right or
+left is effected by the rudder, which is operated by a foot-bar through
+cables or levers. Lateral balance is obtained by means of 'ailerons' or
+flaps on the outer extremities of the wings. If one wing tends to dip, the
+aileron on that side is depressed. This increases the resistance of that
+wing and so causes it to rise. By a combination of movements of the
+elevators, rudder, and ailerons almost any evolution can be performed with
+a modern aeroplane. A well-designed machine will, on cutting off the
+engine-power, turn its nose slightly down and automatically assume its own
+'gliding-angle' to the ground. The gliding-angle is the ratio of descent to
+forward travel and is usually 1 in 12 to 1 in 14.
+
+Speeds of 190 miles per hour have been attained and a height of 34,600 feet
+reached. The greatest distance covered in one flight is the crossing of the
+Atlantic--slightly more than 1900 miles--while an aeroplane has remained in
+the air for 24 hours. Aeroplanes range in size from small single-seater
+'scouts' with a duration of only some three hours, to large
+multiple-engined machines with a weight, fully loaded, of from 15 to 20
+tons. The essential feature of the aeroplane is, as already stated, that it
+is heavier than air and therefore subject to the laws of gravity in the
+event of engine failure. Its choice of a landing-ground is then dependent
+upon its height at the moment and gliding-angle.
+
+Aeroplanes are normally constructed throughout of wood, though steel is
+occasionally used. The wings are built of wooden 'spars', of which there
+are usually two along the length of each wing, connected together by wooden
+'ribs'. The wings of a biplane are braced by the struts (see above) and by
+wires. 'Landing-wires' support the weight of the wing on the ground, while
+'flying-wires' prevent them folding upwards under the influence of the lift
+in flight. 'Drift-wires' are to prevent the wings folding backwards under
+the pressure of the air in flight. See also _Aeronautics_,
+_Sea-planes_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Barber, _The Aeroplane Speaks_; H. Barber,
+_Aerobatics_; Hamel and Turner, _Flying_; Borlase Mathews, _Aviation Pocket
+Book_; Pippard and Pritchard, _Aeroplane Structures_; Judge, _Design of
+Aeroplanes_; Judge, _Properties of Aerofoils_; Loening, _Military
+Aeroplanes_.
+
+AEROSTATIC PRESS, a contrivance for extracting the colouring matter from
+dye-woods and for similar purposes. A liquid intended to carry with it the
+extract is brought into contact with the substance containing it, and a
+vacuum being made by an air-pump suitably applied, the pressure of the
+atmosphere forces the liquid through the intervening mass, carrying the
+colour or other soluble matter with it.
+
+AEROSTAT'ICS, that branch of physics which treats of the weight, pressure,
+and equilibrium of air and gases. See _Air_; _Air-pump_; _Barometer_;
+_Gases, Properties of_; _Hydrostatics_; _Meteorology_; &c.
+
+AEROTHERAPEUTICS is the treatment of disease by atmospheres artificially
+prepared and differing from the normal in compression or pressure or
+temperature. It is divided into:
+
+1. _Medical atmospheres_ artificially produced by changing the proportions
+of the normal gases of the atmosphere, or by adding gases to the
+atmosphere. These are applied by inhalation in various ways:
+
+(a) By the inhalation of gases--_ether_; _chloroform_; _nitrous oxide_ (see
+_Anæsthetics_). _Oxygen_ under pressure in a cylinder, with outlet applied
+close to the patient's mouth and nose, is used in severe cases of
+pneumonia, cardiac disease, or wherever breathing is difficult. _Amyl
+nitrate_ is inhaled on the breaking of the glass capsules in which it is
+contained close to the patient's mouth; this treatment is used in cardiac
+disease and other conditions to recover blood pressure. _Chlorine_ and
+_iodine_ are used in cases of throat and bronchial affections by inhaling
+the vapour itself for a short time, or by inhaling air strongly impregnated
+with the substance.
+
+(b) By inhalation of substances requiring heat for volatilization, e.g.
+_mercury_ and _sulphur_. The patient, enveloped in a sheet, sits on a
+chair, while the substance, placed in a vessel on the floor inside the
+enveloping sheet near the patient, is heated by a spirit lamp or similar
+method. _Mercury_ is used for chronic and syphilitic laryngitis and
+pharyngitis; _sulphur_ for scabies and other skin diseases.
+
+(c) By inhalation of steam or warm-water vapour with a drug added.
+Apparatus of various kinds is used, the simplest of which is a wide-mouthed
+jug filled with boiling water to which the drug has been added. The patient
+takes a deep breath, drawing the vapour into his mouth up a napkin arranged
+in the form of a tube. More complicated forms of apparatus are steam-sprays
+and nebulizers for laryngeal and bronchial troubles.
+
+(d) Cold medicated sprays and inhalations. Throat- and nose-sprays are much
+used, also sprays for the administration of local anæsthetics (ethyl
+chloride). Respirators are made of wire gauze with cotton wool or a sponge;
+the substance is poured on and inhaled by the patient.
+
+For (c) and (d) the following drugs are used: carbolic acid, creosote,
+terebine, thymol, eucalyptol, zinc sulphate, in phthisis and bronchial
+affections; and eusol, izal, lysol, &c., for disinfection and fumigation.
+
+2. _Changes produced by variation in barometric pressure considered in
+treatment of disease_:
+
+Normal barometric pressure at sea-level, 29-30 inches; at Davos (5200
+feet), 25 inches; at summit of Pike's Peak, Colorado (14,000 feet), 17½
+inches; in balloon ascent (Glaisher and Coxwell) of 29,000 feet, 9¾ inches.
+
+The effects of high pressure are seen in divers, caisson workers, miners.
+The effects of low pressure are seen in balloonists, airmen. The effect of
+sudden return to normal from high pressure is seen in cases of caisson
+disease (q.v.). The effects of low pressure were first applied to the human
+body in 1835 by V.T. Junot. He contrived a hollow copper ball, 4 yards in
+diameter, capable of containing a man, and by pumping out air gradually,
+produced the effects of low pressure. This principle was then applied by
+him locally by cupping-glasses similar in shape to the upper part of a
+wineglass. There are two types of cupping:
+
+(a) In _wet cupping_ an incision is made in the skin of the part to be
+treated. The air inside the glass is exhausted by introducing a lighted
+match, then the open end of the glass is immediately applied to the surface
+of the skin.
+
+(b) In _dry cupping_ the treatment is similarly carried out, but no
+incision is made.
+
+The low pressure (partial vacuum) draws blood to the part. Cupping is used
+in congestion of internal organs, e.g. lungs, kidneys.
+
+The artificial application of air to lungs at varying pressure is carried
+out by inspiring rarefied air or compressed air and expiring into rarefied
+air or into compressed air. Only inspiring compressed air, or expiring into
+rarefied air, can be practically applied. There are many kinds of apparatus
+for this. The best is the compressed-air bath (seen at Brompton Hospital,
+London), consisting of three parts--the engine, receiver, and air-chamber.
+
+The patient is placed in this air-chamber, where he remains for two hours,
+during which time the pressure is usually raised from half again to double
+normal. For the first half-hour the pressure is gradually raised, and is
+maintained at the same abnormal height for one hour; for the last half-hour
+it is reduced again gradually to normal. The patient first experiences an
+unpleasant sensation in the throat. This is relieved by swallowing or by
+drinking water; then pain in the ear-drums; the voice becomes shriller.
+These are early signs of the effects of high pressure, and are seen to a
+more marked degree in cases where a man has descended suddenly into a mine,
+caisson, &c. Compressed air-baths are used in cases of asthma, bronchitis,
+emphysema, anæmia.
+
+Respiratory gymnastics are of value for defective breathing due to badly
+formed chests or injury and disease of the lungs. There are various forms
+of artificial breathing exercises and many ways of using artificial aids,
+e.g. breathing into bottles connected together by tubes and partly filled
+with water. The water is forced from one bottle to another by the
+respiratory effort of the patient.
+
+AERSCHOT, town in Belgium, province of Brabant, on the Demer, a tributary
+of the Dyle. It was occupied by the Germans in Aug., 1914. Pop. 7800.
+
+ÆSCHINES (es'ki-n[=e]z), a celebrated Athenian orator, the rival and
+opponent of Demosthenes, was born in 389 B.C. and died in 314. He headed
+the Macedonian party in Greece, or those in favour of an alliance with
+Philip, while Demosthenes took the opposite side. Having failed in 330 B.C.
+in a prosecution against Ctesiphon for proposing to bestow a crown of gold
+upon Demosthenes for his services to the State (whence the oration of
+Demosthenes 'On the Crown') he left Athens, and subsequently established a
+school of eloquence at Rhodes. Three of his orations are extant. Æschines
+should not be confounded with his namesake, the Athenian philosopher and
+intimate friend of Socrates.
+
+ÆSCHYLUS (es'ki-lus), the first in time of the three great tragic poets of
+Greece, born at Eleusis, in Attica, 525 B.C., died in Sicily 456. Before he
+gained distinction as a dramatist he had fought at the battle of Marathon
+(490), as he afterwards did at Artemisium, Salamis, and Platæa. He first
+gained the prize for tragedy in 484 B.C. _The Persians_, the earliest of
+his extant pieces, formed part of a trilogy which gained the prize in 472
+B.C. In 468 B.C. he was defeated by Sophocles, and then is said to have
+gone to the Court of Hiero, King of Syracuse. Altogether he is reputed to
+have composed ninety plays and gained thirteen triumphs. Only seven of his
+tragedies are extant: _The Persians_, _Seven against Thebes_, _Suppliants_,
+_Prometheus_, _Agamemnon_, _Choephori_, and _Eumenides_, the last three
+forming a trilogy on the story of Orestes, represented in 458 B.C. Æschylus
+may be called the creator of Greek tragedy, both from the splendour of his
+dramatic writings and from the scenic improvements and accessories he
+introduced. Till his time only one actor had appeared on the stage at a
+time, and by bringing on a second he was really the founder of dramatic
+dialogue. His style was grand, daring, and full of energy, and his
+choruses, though difficult, are among the noblest pieces of poetry in the
+world. His plays have little or no plot, and his characters are drawn by a
+few powerful strokes. There are English poetical translations of his plays
+by Blackie, Plumptre, Swanwick, Campbell, Robert Browning, and Elizabeth
+Barrett Browning.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bishop Copleston, _Æschylus_, in English
+Classics for Modern Readers Series (Blackwood & Son); Miss J. Case,
+Translation of _Prometheus Vinctus_ (Dent).
+
+ÆSCULA'PIUS (Gr. _Askl[=e]pios_), the god of medicine among the Greeks and
+afterwards adopted by the Romans, usually said to have been a son of Apollo
+and the nymph Coronis. He was worshipped in particular at Epidaurus, in the
+Peloponnesus, where a temple with a grove was dedicated to him. The sick
+who visited his temple had to spend one or more nights in the sanctuary,
+after which the remedies to be used were revealed in a dream. Those who
+were cured offered a sacrifice to Æsculapius, commonly a cock. He is often
+represented with a large beard, holding a knotty staff, round which is
+entwined a serpent, the serpent being specially his symbol. The staff and
+serpent have been adopted as a badge by the Royal Army Medical Corps.
+Sometimes Æsculapius is represented under the image of a serpent
+only.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Dyer, _The Gods of Greece_; W. H. D. Rouse, _Greek
+Votive Offerings_.
+
+ÆS'CULUS, the genus of plants to which belongs the horse-chestnut.
+
+ÆSIR, in Scandinavian mythology, the eleven chief gods, besides Odin. They
+are: Thor, Balder, Ty or Tyr, Bragi, Heimdal, Hod, Vidar, Vali, Ull,
+Forseti, and Loki or Lopt. See _Scandinavian Mythology_.
+
+Æ'SOP, the Greek fabulist, is said to have been a contemporary of Croesus
+and Solon, and thus probably lived about the middle of the sixth century
+(620-550) B.C. But so little is known of his life that his existence has
+been called in question. He is said to have been originally a slave, and to
+have received his freedom from a Samian master, Iadmon. He then visited the
+court of Croesus, and is also said to have visited Pisistratus at Athens.
+Finally he was sent by Croesus to Delphi to distribute a sum of money to
+each of the citizens. For some reason he refused to distribute the money,
+whereupon the Delphians, enraged, threw him from a precipice and killed
+him. No works of Æsop are extant, and it is doubtful whether he wrote any.
+Bentley inclined to the supposition that his fables were delivered orally
+and perpetuated by repetition. Such fables are spoken of both by
+Aristophanes and Plato. Phædrus turned into Latin verse the Æsopian fables
+current in his day, with additions of his own. In modern times several
+collections claiming to be Æsop's fables have been published. Cf. J.
+Jacobs, _The Fables of Æsop_.
+
+ÆSTHET'ICS (Gr. _aisth[=e]tikos_, pertaining to perception), the philosophy
+of the beautiful; the name given to the branch of philosophy or of science
+which is concerned with that class of emotions, or with those attributes,
+real or apparent, of objects generally comprehended under the term
+_beauty_, and other related expressions. The term æsthetics first received
+this application from Baumgarten (1714-62), a German philosopher, who was
+the first modern writer to deal systematically with the subject, though the
+beautiful had received attention at the hands of philosophers from early
+times. Socrates, according to Xenophon, regarded the beautiful as
+coincident with the good, and both as resolvable into the useful. Plato, in
+accordance with his idealistic theory, held the existence of an absolute
+beauty, which is the ground of beauty in all things. He also asserted the
+intimate union of the good, the beautiful, and the true. Aristotle treated
+of the subject in much more detail than Plato, but chiefly from the
+scientific or critical point of view. In his treatises on _Poetics_ and
+_Rhetoric_ he lays down a theory of art, and establishes principles of
+beauty. His philosophical views were in many respects opposed to those of
+Plato. He does not admit an absolute conception of the beautiful; but he
+distinguishes beauty from the good, the useful, the fit, and the necessary.
+He resolves beauty into certain elements, as order, symmetry, definiteness.
+A distinction of beauty, according to him, is the absence of lust or desire
+in the pleasure it excites. Beauty has no utilitarian or ethical object;
+the aim of art is merely to give immediate pleasure; its essence is
+imitation. Plotinus agrees with Plato, and disagrees with Aristotle, in
+holding that beauty may subsist in single and simple objects, and
+consequently in restoring the absolute conception of beauty. He differs
+from Plato and Aristotle in raising art above nature. Baumgarten's
+treatment of æsthetics is essentially Platonic. He made the division of
+philosophy into logic, ethics, and æsthetics; the first dealing with
+knowledge, the second with action (will and desire), the third with beauty.
+He limits æsthetics to the conceptions derived from the senses, and makes
+them consist in confused or obscured conceptions, in contradistinction to
+logical knowledge, which consists in clear conceptions. Kant, in his
+_Critique of the Power of Judgment_, defines beauty in reference to his
+four categories, quantity, quality, relation, and modality. In accordance
+with the subjective character of his system he denies an absolute
+conception of beauty, but his detailed treatment of the subject is
+inconsistent with the denial. Thus he attributes a beauty to single colours
+and tones, not on any plea of complexity, but on the ground of purity. He
+holds also that the highest meaning of beauty is to symbolize moral good,
+and arbitrarily attaches moral characters to the seven primary colours. The
+value of art is mediate, and the beauty of art is inferior to that of
+nature. The treatment of beauty in the systems of Schelling and Hegel could
+with difficulty be made comprehensible without a detailed reference to the
+principles of these remarkable speculations. English writers on beauty are
+numerous, but they rarely ascend to the heights of German speculation.
+Shaftesbury adopted the notion that beauty is perceived by a special
+internal sense; in which he was followed by Hutcheson, who held that beauty
+existed only in the perceiving mind, and not in the object. Numerous
+English writers, among whom the principal are Alison and Jeffrey, have
+supported the theory that the source of beauty is to be found in
+association--a theory analogous to that which places morality in sympathy.
+The ability of its supporters gave this view a temporary popularity, but
+its baselessness has been effectively exposed by successive critics. Dugald
+Stewart attempted to show that there is no common quality in the beautiful
+beyond that of producing a certain refined pleasure; and Bain agrees with
+this criticism, but endeavours to restrict the beautiful within a group of
+emotions chiefly excited by association or combination of simpler
+elementary feelings. Herbert Spencer has a theory of beauty which is
+subservient to the theory of evolution. He makes beauty consist in the play
+of the higher powers of perception and emotion, defined as an activity not
+directly subservient to any processes conducive to life, but being
+gratifications sought for themselves alone. He classifies æsthetic
+pleasures according to the complexity of the emotions excited, or the
+number of powers duly exercised; and he attributes the depth and apparent
+vagueness of musical emotions to associations with vocal tones built up
+during vast ages. Among numerous writers who have made valuable
+contributions to the scientific discussion of æsthetics may be mentioned
+Winckelmann, Lessing, Richter, the Schlegels, Gervinus, Helmholtz, Ruskin,
+Home, Hogarth, Burke, Taine, and others.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Herbert Spencer,
+_Principles of Psychology_; Grant Allen, _Physiological Æsthetics_; A.
+Bain, _Emotions and Will_; B. Bosanquet, _History of Æsthetics_; W. Knight,
+_Philosophy of the Beautiful_.
+
+ÆSTIVA'TION, a botanical term applied to the arrangement of the parts of a
+flower in the flower-bud previous to the opening of the bud.--The term is
+also applied to the summer sleep of animals. See _Dormant State_.
+
+ÆTH'ELING. See _Atheling_.
+
+Æ'THER. See _Ether_.
+
+ÆTHIO'PIA. See _Ethiopia_.
+
+Æ'THRIOSCOPE (Gr. _aithrios_, clear, cloudless), an instrument (devised by
+Sir John Leslie) for measuring radiation towards a clear sky, consisting of
+a metallic cup with a highly-polished interior of paraboloid shape, in the
+focus of which is placed one bulb of a differential thermometer, the other
+being outside. The inside bulb at once begins to radiate heat when exposed
+to a clear sky, and the extent to which this takes place is shown by the
+scale of the thermometer. The æthrioscope also indicates the presence of
+invisible aqueous vapour in the atmosphere, radiation being less than when
+the air is dry.
+
+ÆTHU'SA, a genus of umbelliferous plants. See _Fool's Parsley_.
+
+ÆTIOLOGY (Gr. _aitia_, cause, and _logos_, discourse), the theory of the
+physical causes of any class of phenomena, or the science of causation. It
+is, however, mainly used in medicine, and deals with the causes and origin
+of disease.
+
+AË'TIUS, a general of the western Roman Empire, born A.D. 396; murdered
+454. As commander in the reign of Valentinian III he defended the empire
+against the Huns, Visigoths, Franks, Burgundians, &c., completely defeating
+the Huns under Attila in a great battle at Châlons in 451. For twenty years
+he was at the head of public affairs, and in the end was murdered by
+Valentinian, who was jealous of his power.
+
+ÆT'NA. See _Etna_.
+
+ÆTO'LIA, a western division of northern Greece, separated on the west by
+the Achelous from Acarnania and washed by the Corinthian Gulf on the south.
+The inhabitants are little heard of in Greek history till the Peloponnesian
+war, at which time they were notorious among the Greeks for the rudeness of
+their manners. Ætolia, in conjunction with Acarnania, now forms a nomarchy
+of the kingdom of Greece.
+
+AFANASIEV, Alexander Nicolaievitsh, Russian folklorist, born in 1826.
+Besides numerous articles and essays he wrote several monumental works:
+_The Ancient Slav's Poetic View of Nature_ (3 vols., 1866-9), _Russian
+Tales and Fables for Children_ (3 vols., 1870), &c. He died in 1871.
+
+AFFIDA'VIT, a written statement of facts upon oath or affirmation.
+Affidavits are generally made use of when evidence is to be laid before a
+judge or a court, while evidence brought before a jury is delivered orally.
+The person making the affidavit signs his name at the bottom of it, and
+swears that the statements contained in it are true. The affidavit may be
+sworn to in open court, or before a magistrate or other duly qualified
+person; it may be made abroad before a qualified British state official.
+
+AFFIN'ITY, in chemistry, the force by which unlike kinds of matter combine
+so intimately that the properties of the constituents are lost, and a
+compound with new properties is produced. Of the force itself we know
+little or nothing. It is not the same under all conditions, being very much
+modified by circumstances, especially temperature. The usual effect of
+increase of temperature is to diminish affinity and ultimately to cause the
+separation of a compound into its constituents; and there is probably for
+every compound a temperature above which it could not exist, but would be
+broken up. Where two elements combine to form a compound, heat is almost
+always evolved, and the amount evolved serves as a measure of the affinity.
+In order that chemical affinity may come into play it is necessary that the
+substances should be in contact, and usually one of them at least is a
+fluid or a gas. The results produced by chemical combination are endlessly
+varied. Colour, taste, and smell are changed, destroyed, or created;
+harmless constituents produce strong poisons, strong poisons produce
+harmless compounds.
+
+AFFINITY, in law, is that degree of connection which subsists between one
+of two married persons and the blood relations of the other. It is no real
+kindred (consanguinity). A person cannot, by legal succession, receive an
+inheritance from a relation by affinity; neither does it extend to the
+nearest relations of husband and wife so as to create a mutual relation
+between them. The degrees of affinity are computed in the same way as those
+of consanguinity or blood. All legal impediments arising from affinity
+cease upon the death of the husband or wife, excepting those which relate
+to the marriage of the survivor.
+
+AFFIRMA'TION, a solemn declaration by Quakers, Moravians, Dunkers, and
+others, who object to taking an oath, in confirmation of their testimony in
+courts of law, or of their statements on other occasions on which the
+sanction of an oath is required of other persons. In England the form for
+Quakers is, 'I do solemnly, sincerely, and truly declare and affirm'.
+Affirmation is generally allowed to be substituted for an oath in all cases
+where a person refuses to take an oath from conscientious motives, if the
+judge is satisfied that the motives are conscientious. False affirmation is
+subjected to the same penalties as perjury.
+
+AFFREIGHTMENT means the contract of carriage of goods by sea, by which the
+shipowner undertakes to carry goods in his ship for hire or _freight_.
+Unless otherwise stipulated, the merchant or freighter is only bound to pay
+the freight upon delivery of the goods at the agreed destination. If the
+voyage is abandoned, the merchant may claim his goods without any payment.
+The merchant must load and discharge his cargo within the _lay-days_ or
+stipulated time, if any; otherwise within a reasonable time. Failure
+entails liability in damages--known as _demurrage_--for undue detention of
+the ship. The merchant will also be liable in damages--known as
+_dead-freight_--if he fails to furnish the full cargo promised. The
+shipowner has a lien on the goods for their own freight and charges, but
+not for a general balance. Nor has he any lien for dead-freight or
+demurrage. All such liens may be validly stipulated for in the contract.
+They are purely possessory as contrasted with the so-called maritime liens
+for seamen's and shipmasters' wages, which are valid without possession.
+There is no lien for _advance freight_, which in Scotland is repayable if
+the cargo is lost at sea or delivery otherwise prevented, but not so in
+England. In Scotland, accordingly, the burden of insuring advance freight
+falls upon the shipowner, in England upon the merchant.
+
+The main obligations upon the shipowner are to provide a seaworthy vessel,
+carry without undue delay, and deliver the goods in the same condition as
+they were shipped. Unless otherwise agreed, he is liable for damage or loss
+through negligence, and if he be a common carrier, as he frequently is,
+even the absence of negligence may not save him. There is nothing in
+British law, however, to prevent him from contracting out of all
+responsibility for the safety of goods committed to his care, and he
+generally does so, either by inserting what is known as an 'exception
+clause' in the document evidencing the contract, viz. the Bill of Lading,
+or by giving public notice that he only accepts goods upon that footing. In
+this respect the position of shipowners is more favourable than that of
+railway companies and other land carriers, whose freedom of contract is
+curtailed by statute.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. G. Carver, _Carriage by Sea_; Sir
+T. E. Scrutton, _Contract of Affreightment_.
+
+AFFRIQUE ([.a]f-r[=e]k), St., a town of southern France, department of
+Aveyron.
+
+AFGHANISTAN ([.a]f-gän'i-stän), that is, the land of the Afghans, a country
+in Asia, bounded on the east by the N. W. Frontier Province, &c., on the
+south by Baluchistan, on the west by the Persian province of Khorasan, and
+on the north by Bukhara and Russian Turkestan. The eastern and southern
+boundaries were settled in 1893, whilst the boundary towards Persia was
+demarcated between March, 1903, and May, 1905. The area may be set down at
+about 250,000 sq. miles. The population is estimated at 6,000,000.
+Afghanistan consists chiefly of lofty, bare, uninhabited tablelands, sandy
+barren plains, ranges of snow-covered mountains, offsets of the Hindu Kush
+or the Himálaya, and deep ravines and valleys. Many of the last are well
+watered and very fertile, but about four-fifths of the whole surface is
+rocky, mountainous, and unproductive. The surface on the north-east is
+covered with lofty ranges belonging to the Hindu Kush, whose heights are
+often 18,000 and sometimes reach perhaps 25,000 feet. The whole
+north-eastern portion of the country has a general elevation of over 6000
+feet; but towards the south-west, in which direction the principal mountain
+chains of the interior run, the general elevation declines to not more than
+1600 feet. In the interior the mountains sometimes reach the height of
+15,000 feet. Great part of the frontier towards India consists of the
+Suleiman range, 12,000 feet high. There are numerous practicable avenues of
+communication between Afghanistan and India, among the most extensively
+used being the famous Khyber Pass, by which the River Kabul enters the
+Punjab; the Gomul Pass, also leading to the Punjab; and the Bolan Pass on
+the south, through which the route passes to Sind. Of the rivers the
+largest is the Helmund, which flows in a south-westerly direction more than
+400 miles, till it enters the Hamoon or Seistan swamp. It receives the
+Arghandab, a considerable stream. Next in importance are the Kabul in the
+north-east, which drains to the Indus, and the Hari Rud in the north-west,
+which, like other Afghan streams, loses itself in the sand. The climate is
+extremely cold in the higher, and intensely hot in the lower regions, yet
+on the whole it is salubrious. The most common trees are the pine, oak,
+birch, and walnut. In the valleys fruits, in the greatest variety and
+abundance, grow wild. The principal crops are wheat (forming the staple
+food of the people), barley, rice, and maize. Other crops are tobacco,
+sugar-cane, and cotton. The chief domestic animals are the dromedary, the
+horse, ass, and mule, the ox, sheep with large fine fleeces and enormous
+fat tails, and goats; of wild animals there are the tiger, bears, leopards,
+wolves, jackal, hyena, foxes, &c. The chief towns are Kabul (the capital),
+Kandahar, Ghuzni, and Herat. The inhabitants belong to different races, but
+the Afghans proper form the great mass of the people. They are allied in
+blood to the Persians, and are divided into a number of tribes, among which
+the Duranis and Ghiljis are the most important. The Afghans, claiming
+descent from King Saul, are called by their own ancient chroniclers
+Beni-Israel. They are bold, hardy, and warlike, fond of freedom and
+resolute in maintaining it, but of a restless, turbulent temper, and much
+given to plunder. Tribal dissensions are constantly in existence, and
+seldom or never do all the Afghans pay allegiance to the nominal ruler of
+their country. Their language (Pushtu) is distinct from the Persian, though
+it contains a great number of Persian words, and is written, like the
+Persian, with the Arabic characters. In religion they are Mahommedans of
+the Sunnite sect.
+
+After having been subjugated by Alexander the Great, the country of the
+Afghans fell successively under the sway, actual or nominal, of Parthians,
+Seleucidæ, Persians, and Arabs. Djinghiz Khan conquered Afghanistan in the
+twelfth century and Timur in the fourteenth. In 1504 Sultan Baber took
+Cabul and founded the Mogul dynasty in India; Afghanistan thus formed part
+of the great empire of Delhi. In 1738 the country was conquered by the
+Persians under Nadir Shah. On his death in 1747 Ahmed Shah, one of his
+generals, obtained the sovereignty of Afghanistan, and became the founder
+of a dynasty which lasted about eighty years. At the end of that time Dost
+Mohammed, the ruler of Cabul, had acquired a preponderating influence in
+the country. On account of his dealings with the Russians the British
+resolved to dethrone him and restore Shah Shuja, a former ruler. In April,
+1839, a British army under Sir John Keane entered Afghanistan, occupied
+Cabul, and placed Shah Shuja on the throne, a force of 8000 being left to
+support the new sovereign. Sir W. Macnaghten remained as envoy at Cabul,
+with Sir Alexander Burnes as assistant envoy. The Afghans soon organized a
+widespread insurrection, which came to a head on 2nd Nov., 1841, when
+Burnes and a number of British officers, besides women and children, were
+murdered, Macnaghten being murdered not long after. The other British
+leaders now made a treaty with the Afghans, at whose head was Akbar, son of
+Dost Mohammed, agreeing to withdraw the forces from the country, while the
+Afghans were to furnish them with provisions and escort them on their way.
+On 6th Jan., 1842, the British left Cabul and began their most disastrous
+retreat. The cold was intense, they had almost no food--for the treacherous
+Afghans did not fulfil their promises--and day after day they were assailed
+by bodies of the enemy. By the 13th 26,000 persons, including
+camp-followers, women and children, were destroyed. Some were kept as
+prisoners, but only one man, Dr. Brydon, reached Jelalabad, which, as well
+as Kandahar, was still held by British troops. In a few months General
+Pollock, with a fresh army from India, retook Cabul and soon finished the
+war. Shah Shuja having been assassinated, Dost Mohammed again obtained the
+throne of Cabul, and acquired extensive power in Afghanistan. He joined
+with the Sikhs against the British, but afterwards made an offensive and
+defensive alliance with the latter. He died in 1863, having nominated his
+son Shere Ali his successor. Shere Ali entered into friendly relations with
+the British, but in 1878, having repulsed a British envoy and refused to
+receive a British mission (a Russian mission being meantime at his Court),
+war was declared against him, and the British troops entered Afghanistan.
+They met with comparatively little resistance; the Ameer fled to Turkestan,
+where he soon after died; and his son Yakoob Khan having succeeded him
+concluded a treaty with the British (at Gandamak, May, 1879), in which a
+certain extension of the British frontier, the control by Britain of the
+foreign policy of Afghanistan, and the residence of a British envoy in
+Cabul, were the chief stipulations. Not long after this settlement, the
+British resident at Cabul, Sir Louis P. Cavagnari, and the other members of
+the mission were treacherously attacked and slain by the Afghans, and
+troops had again to be sent into the country. Cabul was again occupied, and
+Kandahar and Ghazni were also relieved; while Yakoob Khan was sent to
+imprisonment in India. In 1880 Abdur-Rahman, a grandson of Dost Mohammed,
+was recognized by Britain as ameer of the country. He was on friendly terms
+with the British during his reign, which ended with his death in 1901, his
+son Habibullah being his successor. He had adopted the title of
+Sirajul-Millat wa ud-din, 'Lamp of the Nation and Religion'. In a treaty
+signed on 21st March, 1905, the Ameer recognized the engagements which his
+father had entered into with the British Government. Encroachments by the
+Russians on territory claimed by Afghanistan almost brought about a rupture
+between Britain and Russia in 1885, and led to the delimitation of the
+frontier of Afghanistan on the side next Russia. On 31st Aug., 1907, an
+Anglo-Russian Convention relating to Afghanistan was signed. The Russian
+Government recognized Afghanistan as outside the Russian sphere of
+influence, whilst Great Britain undertook neither to annex nor occupy any
+portion of Afghanistan. In spite of German intrigues, the Ameer refused, in
+1915, the inducements held out to him to abandon his British ally. He was
+assassinated on 20th Feb., 1919, and was succeeded by his third son
+Amanullah. The new Ameer sought to gain popularity with his subjects by
+embarking on an unprovoked war of aggression upon India. Hostilities broke
+out in May, 1919, and ended with a peace treaty signed at Rawalpindi on 8th
+Aug., 1919. In 1922 the first Afghan minister was appointed to London
+(instead of to Delhi).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: MacGregor, _Gazetteer of
+Afghanistan_; Malleson, _History of Afghanistan_; Forbes, _The Afghan
+Wars_; Field-Marshal Earl Roberts, _Forty-one Years in India_; J. G. Lyons,
+_Afghanistan: the Buffer State_.
+
+AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR ('opium-black-castle'), a city of Asia Minor, 170 miles
+E.S.E. of Constantinople, with manufactures of woollen goods, and a trade
+in opium (_afium_), &c. Pop. about 20,000.
+
+AFRAG'OLA, a town of Italy, about 6 miles N.N.E. of Naples. Pop. 23,155.
+
+AFRA'NIUS, Lucius, a Roman comic dramatist who flourished about the
+beginning of the first century B.C., and of whose writings only fragments
+remain.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+AF'RICA, one of the three great divisions of the Old World, and the second
+in extent of the five principal continents of the globe, forming a vast
+peninsula joined to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. It is of a compact form,
+with few important projections or indentations, and having therefore a very
+small extent of coast-line (about 16,000 miles, or much less than that of
+Europe) in proportion to its area. This continent extends from 37° 21' N.
+lat. to 34° 51' S. lat., and the extreme points, Cape Blanco and Cape
+Agulhas, are nearly 5000 miles apart. From west to east, between Cape
+Verde, lon. 17° 34' W., and Cape Guardafui, lon. 51° 16' E., the distance
+is about 4600 miles. The area is estimated at 11,500,000 sq. miles, or more
+than three times that of Europe. The islands belonging to Africa are not
+numerous, and, except Madagascar, none of them are large. They include
+Madeira, the Canaries, Cape Verde Islands, Fernando Po, Principe, São
+Thomé, Ascension, St. Helena, Mauritius, Réunion, the Comoros, Socotra, &c.
+
+The interior of Africa is as yet imperfectly known, but we know enough of
+the continent as a whole to be able to point to some general features that
+characterize it. One of these is that almost all round it at no great
+distance from the sea, and, roughly speaking, parallel with the coast-line,
+we find ranges of mountains or elevated lands forming the outer edges of
+interior plateaux. The most striking feature of Northern Africa is the
+immense tract known as the Sahara or Great Desert, which is enclosed on the
+north by the Atlas Mountains (greatest height, 12,000 to 15,000 feet), the
+plateau of Barbary and that of Barqa, on the east by the mountains along
+the west coast of the Red Sea, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and on
+the south by the Sudan. The Sahara is by no means the sea of sand it has
+sometimes been represented: it contains elevated plateaux and even
+mountains radiating in all directions, with habitable valleys between. A
+considerable nomadic population is scattered over the habitable parts, and
+in the more favoured regions there are settled communities. The Sudan,
+which lies to the south of the Sahara, and separates it from the more
+elevated plateau of Southern Africa, forms a belt of pastoral country
+across Africa, and includes the countries on the Niger, around Lake Tchad
+(or Chad), and eastwards to the elevated region of Abyssinia. Southern
+Africa as a whole is much more fertile and well watered than Northern
+Africa, though it also has a desert tract of considerable extent (the
+Kalahari Desert). This division of the continent consists of a tableland,
+or series of tablelands, of considerable elevation and great diversity of
+surface, exhibiting hollows filled with great lakes, and terraces over
+which the rivers break in falls and rapids, as they find their way to the
+low-lying coast tracts. The mountains which enclose Southern Africa are
+mostly much higher on the east than on the west, the most northerly of the
+former being those of Abyssinia, with heights of 10,000 to 14,000 or 16,000
+feet, while the eastern edge of the Abyssinian plateau presents a steep
+unbroken line of 7000 feet in height for many hundred miles. Farther south,
+and between the great lakes and the Indian Ocean, we find Mounts Kenya and
+Kilimanjaro (19,500 feet), the loftiest in Africa, covered with perpetual
+snow. Of the continuation of this mountain boundary we shall only mention
+the Drakenberg Mountains, which stretch to the southern extremity of the
+continent, reaching, in Cathkin Peak, Natal, the height of over 10,000
+feet. Of the mountains that form the western border the highest are the
+Cameroon Mountains, which rise to a height of 13,000 feet at the inner
+angle of the Gulf of Guinea. The average elevation of the southern plateau
+is from 3000 to 4000 feet.
+
+The Nile is the only great river of Africa which flows into the
+Mediterranean. It receives its waters primarily from the great lake
+Victoria Nyanza, which lies under the equator, and in its upper course is
+fed by tributary streams of great size, but for the last 1200 miles of its
+course it has not a single affluent. It drains an area of more than
+1,000,000 sq. miles. The Indian Ocean receives numerous rivers; but the
+only great river of South Africa which enters that ocean is the Zambezi,
+the fourth in size of the continent, and having in its course the Victoria
+Falls, one of the greatest waterfalls in the world. In Southern Africa
+also, but flowing westward and entering the Atlantic, is the Congo, which
+takes its origin from a series of lakes and marshes in the interior, is fed
+by great tributaries, and is the first in volume of all the African rivers,
+carrying to the ocean more water than the Mississippi. Unlike most of the
+African rivers, the mouth of the Congo forms an estuary. Of the other
+Atlantic rivers, the Senegal, the Gambia, and the Niger are the largest,
+the last being third among African streams.
+
+With the exception of Lake Tchad there are no great lakes in the northern
+division of Africa, whereas in the number and magnificence of its lakes the
+southern division almost rivals North America. Here are the Victoria and
+Albert Nyanza, Lakes Tanganyika, Nyasa, Shirwa, Bangweulu, Moero, and other
+lakes. Of these the Victoria and Albert belong to the basin of the Nile;
+Tanganyika, Bangweulu, and Moero to that of the Congo; Nyasa, by its
+affluent the Shiré, to the Zambezi. Lake Tchad on the borders of the
+northern desert region is now known to be much smaller than was formerly
+believed, but varies in area according to the season. Lake Ngami in the far
+south is now a mere swamp.
+
+The climate of Africa is mainly influenced by the fact that it lies almost
+entirely within the tropics. In the equatorial belt, both north and south,
+rain is abundant and vegetation very luxuriant, dense tropical forests
+prevailing for about 10° on either side of the line. To the north and south
+of the equatorial belt the rainfall diminishes, and the forest region is
+succeeded by an open pastoral and agricultural country. This is followed by
+the rainless regions of the Sahara on the north and the Kalahari Desert on
+the south, extending beyond the tropics, and bordering on the agricultural
+and pastoral countries of the north and south coasts, which lie entirely in
+the temperate zone. The low coast regions of Africa are almost everywhere
+unhealthy, the Atlantic coast within the tropics being the most fatal
+region to Europeans.
+
+Among mineral productions may be mentioned gold, which is found in the
+rivers of West Africa (hence the name Gold Coast), and in Southern Africa,
+most abundantly in the Transvaal; diamonds have been found in large numbers
+in recent years in the south; iron, copper, lead, tin, and coal are also
+found.--Among plants are the baobab, the date-palm (important as a food
+plant in the north), the doum-palm, the oil-palm, the wax-palm, the
+shea-butter tree, trees yielding caoutchouc, the papyrus, the castor-oil
+plant, indigo, the coffee-plant, heaths with beautiful flowers, aloes, &c.
+Among cultivated plants are wheat, maize, millet, and other grains, cotton,
+coffee, cassava, ground-nut, yam, banana, tobacco, various fruits, &c. As
+regards both plants and animals, Northern Africa, adjoining the
+Mediterranean, is distinguished from the rest of Africa in its great
+agreement with Southern Europe.--Among the most characteristic African
+animals are the lion, hyena, jackal, gorilla, chimpanzee, baboon, African
+elephant (never domesticated, yielding much ivory to trade), hippopotamus,
+rhinoceros, giraffe, zebra, quagga, antelopes in great variety and immense
+numbers.--Among birds are the ostrich, the secretary-bird or serpent-eater,
+the honey-guide cuckoo, sacred ibis, guinea fowl.--The reptiles include the
+crocodile, chameleon, and serpents of various kinds, some of them very
+venomous. Among insects are locusts, scorpions, the tsetse-fly whose bite
+is so fatal to cattle, and white-ants.
+
+The great races of which the population of Africa mainly consists are the
+Eastern Hamites (who are not a distinct race but a blend), the Semites, the
+Negroes, and the Bantus. To the Semitic stock belong the Arabs, who form a
+considerable portion of the population in Egypt and along the north coast,
+while a portion of the inhabitants of Abyssinia is of the same race. The
+Hamites are represented, according to Sergi, by the Copts of Egypt, the
+Berbers, Kabyles, &c., of Northern Africa, and the Somâli, Danâkil, &c., of
+East Africa. The Negro races occupy a vast territory in the Sudan and
+Central Africa, while the Bantus occupy the greater part of Southern Africa
+from a short distance north of the equator, and include the Kaffirs,
+Bechuanas, Swahili, and allied races. In the extreme south-west are the
+Hottentots and Bushmen (the latter a dwarfish race), distinct from the
+other races as well as, probably, from each other. In Madagascar there is a
+large Malay element. To these may be added the Fulahs on the Niger and the
+Nubians on the Nile and elsewhere, who are of a brownish colour, and are
+often regarded as distinct from the other races, though sometimes classed
+with the Negroes. In religion a great proportion of the inhabitants are
+heathens of the lowest type; Mohammedanism numbers a large number of
+adherents in North Africa, and is rapidly spreading in the Sudan;
+Christianity prevails only among the Copts, the Abyssinians, and the
+natives of Madagascar, the last-named having been converted in recent
+times. Elsewhere the missionaries seem to have made but little progress.
+Over a great part of the continent civilization is at a low ebb, yet in
+some parts the natives have shown considerable skill in agriculture and
+various mechanical arts, as in weaving and metal working. Of African trade
+two features are the caravans that traverse great distances, and the trade
+in slaves that still widely prevails, though it has been greatly restricted
+in recent years. Among articles exported from Africa are palm-oil,
+diamonds, ivory, ostrich feathers, wool, cotton, gold, esparto, caoutchouc,
+&c. The population is estimated at 180,000,000. Of these a small number are
+of European origin--French in Algeria and Morocco, British and Dutch at the
+southern extremity.
+
+Great areas in Africa have been apportioned among European Powers as
+protectorates or spheres of influence. Among native States still more or
+less independent are Egypt, Abyssinia, Waday, Bagirmi, Liberia. To Britain
+belong the Cape Province, Natal, the Orange Free State and Transvaal, with
+Rhodesia, &c., farther north, a region in Eastern Africa extending from the
+sea to Lake Victoria and the headwaters of the Nile, Nigeria, Gold Coast,
+and other tracts on the west, with Mauritius, &c.; to France belong Algeria
+and Tunis, Senegambia, Zone of Morocco, territory north of the Lower Congo,
+Madagascar, &c.; the Portuguese possess Angola on the west coast and
+Mozambique on the east; Italy has a territory on the Red Sea, and part of
+Somaliland; Spain has a part of the coast of the Sahara; the Congo State is
+a colony of Belgium; Zanzibar is merged in Kenya Colony. Germany was
+deprived of her possessions in Africa during the European War, and the
+Peace Conference of 1919 appointed Great Britain, France, and Belgium to
+act as mandatories of the League of Nations.
+
+The name Africa was given by the Romans at first only to a small district
+in the immediate neighbourhood of Carthage. The Greeks called Africa Libya,
+and the Romans often used the same name. The first African exploring
+expedition on record was sent by Pharaoh Necho about the end of the seventh
+century B.C. to circumnavigate the continent. The navigators, who were
+Phoenicians, were absent three years, and according to report they
+accomplished their object. Fifty or a hundred years later, Hanno, a
+Carthaginian, made a voyage down the west coast and seems to have got as
+far as the Bight of Benin. The east coast was probably known to the
+ancients as far as Mozambique and the island of Madagascar. Of modern
+nations the Portuguese were the first to take in hand the exploration of
+Africa. In 1433 they doubled Cape Bojador, in 1441 reached Cape Blanco, in
+1442 Cape Verde, in 1462 they discovered Sierra Leone. In 1484 the
+Portuguese Diego Cam discovered the mouth of the Congo. In 1486 Bartholomew
+Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached Algoa Bay. A few years later
+a Portuguese traveller visited Abyssinia. In 1497 Vasco da Gama, who was
+commissioned to find a route by sea to India, sailed round the southern
+extremity as far as Zanzibar, discovering Natal on his way. The first
+European settlements were those of the Portuguese in Angola and Mozambique,
+soon after 1500. In 1650 the Dutch made a settlement at the Cape. In 1770
+James Bruce reached the source of the Blue Nile in Abyssinia. For the
+exploration of the interior of Africa, however, little was done before the
+close of the eighteenth century.
+
+Modern African exploration may be said to begin with Mungo Park, who
+reached the upper course of the Niger (1795-1805). Dr. Lacerda, a
+Portuguese, about the same time reached the capital of the Cazembe, in the
+centre of South Africa, where he died. During 1802-6 two Portuguese traders
+crossed the continent from Angola, through the Cazembe's dominions, to the
+Portuguese possessions on the Zambezi. During 1822-4 extensive explorations
+were made in Northern and Western Africa by Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney,
+who proceeded from Tripoli by Murzuq to Lake Tchad, and explored the
+adjacent regions; Laing, in 1826, crossed the desert from Tripoli to
+Timbuktu; Caillié, leaving Senegal, made in 1827-8 a journey to Timbuktu,
+and thence through the desert to Morocco. In 1830 Lander traced a large
+part of the course of the Niger downward to its mouth, discovering its
+tributary the Benue. In the south Livingstone, who was stationed as a
+missionary at Kolobeng, setting out from that place in 1849 discovered Lake
+Ngami. In 1851 he went north again, and came upon numerous rivers flowing
+north, affluents of the Zambezi. In 1848 and 1849 Krapf and Rebmann,
+missionaries in East Africa, discovered the mountains Kilimanjaro and
+Kenya. An expedition sent out by the British Government started from
+Tripoli in 1850 to visit the Sahara and the regions around Lake Tchad, the
+chiefs being Richardson, Overweg, and Barth. The last alone returned in
+1855, having carried his explorations over 2,000,000 sq. miles of this part
+of Africa, hitherto almost unknown. During 1853-6 Livingstone made an
+important series of explorations. He first went north-westwards, tracing
+part of the Upper Zambezi, and reached St. Paul de Loanda on the west coast
+in 1854. On his return journey he followed pretty nearly the same route
+till he reached the Zambezi, and proceeding down the river, and visiting
+its falls, called by him the Victoria Falls, he arrived at Quelimane at its
+mouth on 20th May, 1856, thus crossing the continent from sea to sea. In
+1858 he resumed his exploration of the Zambezi regions, and in various
+journeys visited Lakes Shirwa and Nyasa, sailed up the Shiré to the latter
+lake, and established the general features of the geography of this part of
+Africa, returning to England in 1864. By this time the great lakes of
+equatorial Africa were becoming known, Tanganyika and Victoria having been
+discovered by Burton and Speke in 1858, and the latter having been visited
+by Speke and Grant in 1862 and found to give rise to the Nile, while the
+Albert Nyanza was discovered by Baker in 1864. In 1866 Livingstone entered
+on his last great series of explorations, the main object of which was to
+settle the position of the watersheds in the interior of the continent, and
+which he carried on till his death in 1873. His most important explorations
+on this occasion were west and south-west of Tanganyika, including the
+discovery of Lakes Bangweulu and Moero, and part of the upper course of the
+River Congo (here called Lualaba). For over two years he was lost to the
+knowledge of Europe till met with by H. M. Stanley at Tanganyika in 1871.
+Gerhard Rohlfs, in a succession of journeys from 1861 to 1874, traversed
+the Sahara in different directions, and also crossed the continent entirely
+from Tripoli to Lagos by way of Murzuq, Bornu, &c. During 1873-5 Lieutenant
+Cameron, who had been sent in search of Livingstone, surveyed Lake
+Tanganyika, explored the country to the west of it, and then travelling to
+the south-west, finally reached Benguella on the Atlantic coast. During
+1874-7 Stanley surveyed Lakes Victoria Nyanza and Tanganyika and explored
+the intervening country; then going westward to where Livingstone had
+struck the Congo he followed the river down to its mouth, thus finally
+settling its course and completing a remarkable and valuable series of
+explorations. In 1879 Serpa Pinto completed a journey across the continent
+from Benguella to Natal, and in 1881-2 Wissman and Pogge crossed it again
+from St. Paul de Loanda to Zanzibar. In recent years our knowledge of all
+parts of Africa has been greatly increased, thanks to the efforts of
+travellers, missionaries, and commercial agents. Steamers now ply on the
+Congo, and on Lakes Tanganyika, Nyasa, and Victoria, and numerous railways
+('Cape to Cairo', &c.) extend far into the continent.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mungo
+Park, _Travels_; D. Livingstone, _Missionary Travels_; Sir H. M. Stanley,
+_In Darkest Africa_; Sir H. H. Johnston, _Africa_.
+
+AFRIDIS ([.a]-fr[=e]'diz), a tribe or clan on the north-west frontier of
+India, about the Khyber Pass, who have at various times given trouble to
+the British, and are included in a new (1922) scheme of Khassadars
+(irregulars). In 1897-8 a campaign ('the Tirah campaign') had to be
+undertaken against them, costly both in men and money, before British
+authority was asserted. In 1905 the Afridis of the force called the Khyber
+Rifles formed an escort for the Prince and Princess of Wales on their visit
+to the famous pass, which was long in their charge.--Cf. Holdich, _The
+Indian Borderland_.
+
+AFRIKANDER BUND, an association dating from 1880 and founded for the
+purpose of consolidating Afrikander influence in South Africa. For a time
+it supported the policy of Cecil Rhodes, but after 1895 separated itself
+from him. After the war in 1902 the Bund was reorganized, and identified
+with the South African party whose policy is to further the federation of
+the South African colonies under the British crown.
+
+A'GA, formerly title of Turkish officers of a lower military rank, now of
+men of great wealth and influence except learned men and ecclesiastics, to
+whom the corresponding title of _effendi_, meaning 'elder brother' and
+subsequently 'master', is given.
+
+AG'ADES, a town of Africa, near the middle of the Sahara, capital of the
+Saharan oasis of Aïr or Asben; at one time a seat of great traffic,
+probably containing 60,000 inhabitants, now with a pop. of about 7000.
+
+AGADIR, a little town on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, the Santa Cruz May
+of the Spaniards. It was seized by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century,
+and captured by Mulai Ahmed in 1536. It was once one of the most important
+seaports of Morocco, but is now closed to commerce and only used as a
+customs station, its place being taken by Mogador. In July, 1910, the
+appearance of a French cruiser in the port of Agadir gave rise to a
+Franco-German dispute, and in 1911 Germany sent the gunboat _Panther_, and
+a few days later the _Berlin_, to Agadir for the protection of German
+subjects. See _France_, _Germany_.
+
+AGALLOCHUM (a-gal'o-kum), a fragrant wood obtained from _Aloex[)y]lon
+Agall[)o]chum_, a leguminous tree of Cochin-China, and _Aquil[=a]ria
+Agall[)o]cha_, a large tree found in north-east Bengal, abounding in resin
+and an essential oil which yields a perfume used as incense.
+
+AGAL'MATOLITE (Gr. _agalma_, image), a kind of stone, a clay-slate altered
+by heat and by the addition of alkalies, which is carved into images, &c.,
+by the Chinese.
+
+AG'AMA, a name of several lizards allied to the iguana, natives of both
+hemispheres.
+
+AGAMEM'NON, in Greek mythology, son of Atreus, King of Mycenæ and Argos,
+brother of Menelaus, and commander of the allied Greeks at the siege of
+Troy. Returning home after the fall of Troy, he was treacherously
+assassinated by his wife, Clytemnestra, and her paramour, Ægisthus,
+Agamemnon's cousin. He was the father of Orestes, Iphigen[=i]a, and
+Electra.
+
+AG'AMI. See _Trumpeter_.
+
+AGAMOGENESIS (-jen'e-sis; Gr. _a_, priv., _gamos_, marriage, _genesis_,
+reproduction), the production of young without the congress of the sexes,
+one of the phenomena of alternate generation. See _Generation_ and
+_Parthenogenesis_.
+
+AGANIPPE (-nip'[=e]), daughter of the river-god Parmessos, or Termessos,
+nymph of a fountain on Mount Helicon, in Greece, sacred to the Muses, which
+had the property of inspiring with poetic fire whoever drank of it. The
+name is often given to the wife of Acrisius and mother of Danae.
+
+AGAPE (ag'a-p[=e]; Gr. _agap[=e]_, love), in ecclesiastical history, the
+love-feast or feast of charity, in use among the primitive Christians, when
+a liberal contribution was made by the rich to feed the poor. For a time
+the agape coincided with the _eucharist_, which, at its origin, was clearly
+funerary in its intention. "For as often as ye eat this bread and drink
+this cup, ye do show the Lord's death till he come." During the first three
+centuries love-feasts were held in the churches without scandal, but in
+after-times they acquired a bad reputation, not undeservedly, and they were
+condemned at the Council of Carthage in 397. Some modern sects, as the
+Wesleyans, Sandemanians, Moravians, &c., have attempted to revive this
+feast.
+
+AGAPEMONE (ag-a-pem'o-n[=e]; lit. 'the abode of love'), the name of a
+singular conventual establishment which has existed at Spaxton, near
+Bridgewater, Somersetshire, since 1859, the originator of it being a
+certain Henry James Prince, at one time a clergyman of the Church of
+England, who called himself the Witness of the First Resurrection. The life
+spent by the inmates appears to be a sort of religious epicureanism. Some
+of the proceedings of the inmates of the 'Abode of Love' have resulted in
+applications to the courts of law, where parties formerly members of the
+society have returned to the world and sought to regain their rights from
+Prince and his followers, and such cases have caused some scandal. In 1902
+Prince was succeeded by T. H. Smyth-Pigott.
+
+A'GAR-A'GAR, a dried seaweed of the Asiatic Archipelago, the _Gracilaria
+lichenoides_, much used in the East for soups and jellies, and also by
+paper and silk manufacturers.
+
+[Illustration: _Agaricus campestris_, the Common Mushroom]
+
+AGAR'IC (_Agar[)i]cus_), a large and important genus of fungi,
+characterized by having a fleshy cap or pileus, and a number of radiating
+plates or gills on which are produced the naked spores. The majority of the
+species are furnished with stems, but some are attached to the objects on
+which they grow by their pileus. Over a thousand species are known, and are
+arranged in five sections according to whether the colour of their spores
+is white, pink, brown, purple, or black. The chief British representatives
+are the common wild mushroom (_A. campestris_, L.), the Horse mushroom (_A.
+arvensis_, Schæff.), _A. elvensis_, B. and Br., _A. silvaticus_, Schæff.,
+&c. Many of the species are edible, like the common mushroom, and supply a
+delicious article of food, while others are deleterious and even poisonous.
+
+AGARIC MINERAL, or MOUNTAIN-MEAL, one of the purest of the native
+carbonates of lime, found chiefly in the clefts of rocks and at the bottom
+of some lakes in a loose or semi-indurated form resembling a fungus. The
+name is also applied to a stone of loose consistence found in Tuscany, of
+which bricks may be made so light as to float in water, and of which the
+ancients are supposed to have made their floating bricks. It is a hydrated
+silicate of magnesium, mixed with lime, alumina, and a small quantity of
+iron.
+
+AGA'SIAS, a Greek sculptor of Ephesus, about 400 B.C., whose celebrated
+statue, known as the Borghese Gladiator, representing a soldier contending
+with a horseman, is now in the Louvre, Paris.
+
+AGASSIZ (ag'as-[=e]), Louis John Rudolph, an eminent naturalist, born 1807,
+died 1873, son of a Swiss Protestant clergyman at Motiers, near the eastern
+extremity of the Lake of Neufchâtel. He completed his education at
+Lausanne, and early developed a love of the natural sciences. He studied
+medicine at Zürich, Heidelberg, and Munich. His attention was first
+specially directed to ichthyology by being called on to describe the
+Brazilian fishes brought to Europe from Brazil by Martius and Spix. This
+work was published in 1829, and was followed in 1830 by _Histoire Naturelle
+des Poissons d'eaux douces de l'Europe Centrale_ (Fresh-water Fishes of
+Central Europe). Directing his attention to fossil ichthyology, five
+volumes of his _Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles_ appeared between 1834
+and 1844. His researches led him to propose a new classification of fishes,
+which he divided into four classes, distinguished by the characters of the
+skin, as ganoids, placoids, cycloids, and ctenoids. His system has not been
+generally adopted, but the names of his classes have been taken as useful
+terms. In 1836 he began the study of glaciers, and in 1840 he published his
+_Études sur les Glaciers_, in 1847 his _Système Glaciaire_. From 1838 he
+had been professor of natural history at Neufchâtel, when in 1846 pressing
+solicitations and attractive offers induced him to settle in America, where
+he was connected as a teacher first with Harvard University, Cambridge, and
+afterwards with Cornell University as well as Harvard. After his arrival in
+America he engaged in various investigations and explorations, and
+published numerous works, including: _Principles of Zoology_, in connection
+with Dr. A. Gould (1848); _Contributions to the Natural History of the
+United States_ (4 vols., 1857-62); _Zoologie Générale_ (1854); _Methods of
+Study in Natural History_ (1863). In 1865-6 he made zoological excursions
+and investigations in Brazil, which were productive of most valuable
+results. Agassiz held views on many important points in science different
+from those which prevailed among the scientific men of the day, and in
+particular he strongly opposed the evolution theory. Cf. _Letters and
+Recollections_, edited by G. R. Agassiz.
+
+AGASSIZ (ag'a-s[=e]), Mount, an extinct volcano in Arizona, United States,
+10,000 feet in height; a place of summer resort, near the Great Cañon of
+the Colorado.
+
+AG'ATE, a semi-translucent compound mineral mass formed in the cavities of
+rocks by the successive deposition of various types of silica, or by the
+staining of a siliceous mass thus deposited along concentric zones. Bands
+or layers of various colours blended together, the base generally being
+chalcedony, and this mixed with variable proportions of jasper, amethyst,
+quartz, opal, heliotrope, and carnelian. The varying manner in which these
+materials are arranged causes the agate when polished to assume some
+characteristic appearances, and thus certain varieties are distinguished,
+as the ribbon agate, the fortification agate, the zone agate, the star
+agate, the moss agate, the clouded agate, &c. In Scotland they are cut and
+polished under the name of Scottish pebbles.
+
+AGATHAR'CHUS, a Greek painter, native of Samos, the first to paint a scene
+for the acting of tragedies. The view, however, that he applied the rules
+of perspective to theatrical scene-painting is doubtful. He flourished
+about 480 B.C.
+
+AGATH'IAS, a Greek poet and historian, born at Myrina, Asia Minor, about
+A.D. 530; author of an anthology, a collection of love poems, and a history
+of his own times, which is our chief authority for the period 552-8, during
+which time the Byzantine army was struggling against the Goths, Vandals,
+and Franks.
+
+AGATHOCLES (a-gath'o-kl[=e]z), a Sicilian Greek, one of the boldest
+adventurers of antiquity, born 361 B.C. By his ability and energy, and
+being entirely unscrupulous, he raised himself from being a potter to being
+tyrant of Syracuse and master of Sicily. Wars with the Carthaginians were
+the chief events of his life. He died at the age of seventy-two.
+
+AG'ATHON, a Greek tragic poet, a friend of Euripides, and contemporary with
+Socrates and Alcibiades, born about 445 B.C., died about 402 B.C. The
+banquet which he gave to celebrate his first dramatic victory was made the
+groundwork of Plato's _Symposium_.
+
+[Illustration: Agave (_Agave americana_)]
+
+AGAVE (a-g[=a]'v[=e]), a genus of plants, nat. ord. Amaryllidaceæ (which
+includes the daffodil and narcissus), popularly known as American aloes.
+They are generally large, and have a massive tuft of fleshy leaves with a
+spiny apex. They live for many years--ten to seventy according to
+treatment--before flowering. When this takes place, the tall flowering stem
+springs from the centre of the tuft of leaves, and grows very rapidly until
+it reaches a height of 15, 20, or even 40 feet, bearing towards the end a
+large number of flowers. The best-known species is _A. americ[=a]na_, known
+as the Maguey or 'tree of wonders', introduced into Spain in 1561, and now
+extensively grown in the warmer parts of this continent as well as in Asia
+(India in particular). This and other species yield various important
+products, the chief being the fibre obtained by maceration from the leaves
+and roots, and known commercially as American aloe, pita flax, or vegetable
+silk. The sap when fermented yields a beverage resembling cider, the
+_pulque_ beer of the Spaniards, or is distilled into an intoxicating spirit
+(Mezcal or Aguardiente). The leaves are used for feeding cattle; the fibres
+of the leaves are formed into thread, cord, and ropes, and are also good
+material for paper-making; an extract from the leaves is used as a
+substitute for soap; slices of the withered flower-stem are used as
+razor-strops.
+
+AGDE ([.a]gd), a seaport of southern France, department of Hérault, with a
+cathedral, an ancient and remarkable structure. The trade, chiefly
+coasting, is extensive. Pop. 9265.
+
+AGE, a period of time representing the whole or a part of the duration of
+any individual thing or being, but used more specifically in a variety of
+senses. In law _age_ is applied to the periods of life when men and women
+are enabled to do that which before, for want of years and consequently of
+judgment, they could not legally do. A male at twelve years old may take
+the oath of allegiance; at fourteen is at years of discretion, and
+therefore may choose his guardian or be an executor, although he cannot act
+until of age; and at twenty-one is at his own disposal, and may alienate
+and devise his lands, goods, and chattels. In English law a male at
+fourteen and a female at twelve may consent or disagree to marriage, but it
+cannot be celebrated without the consent of the parents or guardians until
+the parties are of age. A female at fourteen is at years of legal
+discretion, and may choose a guardian; at seventeen may be an executrix;
+and at twenty-one may dispose of herself and her lands. So that full age in
+male or female is twenty-one years, which age is completed on the day
+preceding the anniversary of a person's birth, who till that time is an
+infant, and so styled in law. In France majority is attained at twenty-one,
+whilst the marriageable age is eighteen for males and fifteen for females,
+subject to consent of parents or guardians. In England no one can take a
+seat in Parliament under twenty-one, be ordained a priest under
+twenty-four, nor made a bishop under thirty. In France a seat in the
+Chamber of Deputies may be taken only at twenty-five and in the Senate at
+forty. The law of Scotland divides life into three periods--pupilarity,
+minority, and majority. The first extends up to the time of legal puberty,
+that is, twelve years for a female and fourteen for a male, when they may
+marry; the second extends from this point up to twenty-one years, which is
+the time when majority is attained.
+
+The term is also applied to designate the successive epochs or stages of
+civilization in history or mythology. Hesiod speaks of five distinct
+ages:--1. The _golden_ or _Saturnian age_, a patriarchal and peaceful age.
+2. The _silver age_, licentious and wicked. 3. The _brazen age_, violent,
+savage, and warlike. 4. The _heroic age_, which seemed an approximation to
+a better state of things. 5. The _iron age_, when justice and honour had
+left the earth. The term is also used in such expressions as the _dark
+ages_, the _middle ages_, the _Elizabethan age_, &c.
+
+The _Archæological Ages_ or _Periods_ are three--the Stone Age, the Bronze
+Age, and the Iron Age, these names being given in accordance with the
+materials chiefly employed for weapons, implements, &c., during the
+particular period. The Stone Age of Europe has been subdivided into
+two--the Palæolithic or earlier, and Neolithic or later. The word _age_ in
+this sense has no reference to the lapse of time--or not necessarily
+so--but simply refers to the stage at which a people has arrived in its
+progress towards civilization; thus there are races still in their stone
+age. The Palæolithic or earlier stone age in Europe was doubtless immensely
+earlier than the Neolithic, the latter being marked by implements of much
+greater finish than the former. See _Stone Age_.
+
+AGEN ([.a]-zha[n.]), one of the oldest towns in France, capital of
+department Lot-et-Garonne on the Garonne, 74 miles south-east of Bordeaux;
+see of a bishop; manufactures sailcloth and other articles, and has an
+extensive trade. The river is here crossed by a stone bridge, a suspension
+bridge, and a canal aqueduct. Pop. 23,294.
+
+AGENOR (a-j[=e]'nor), a mythical Greek hero, King of Phoenicia, and father
+of Europa and Cadmus. Also one of the bravest among the Trojans, slain by
+Neoptolemus.
+
+A'GENT, a person appointed by another to act for or perform any kind of
+business for him, the latter being called in relation to the former the
+_principal_. Ambassadors were originally styled diplomatic agents.--In
+India, it is the name for an officer to whom political power is given to
+deal with native states.--_Army Agent_ is a kind of military banker,
+authorized by the Government to manage the monetary affairs of a regiment.
+There are only a few of these agents, and consequently each has in charge
+the affairs of a number of different regiments.--_Crown Agents_ are
+officials appointed by the secretary of state for the colonies to act as
+commercial and financial agents in this country for the different British
+colonies that are not self-governing; those that are self-governing appoint
+their own agents, who are designated _agents-general_.--_Agent_ in
+mechanics is the general force producing a movement.
+
+AGERATUM (a-jer'a-tum), a genus of composite plants of the warmer parts of
+America, one species of which, _A. mexic[=a]num_, is a well-known
+flower-border annual with dense lavender-blue heads. From it have been
+derived several varieties with flowers of different colours used chiefly as
+bedding plants.
+
+AGER PUBLICUS. See _Agrarian Law_.
+
+AGESILAUS (a-jes-i-l[=a]'us), a king of Sparta, born in 444 B.C., and
+elevated to the throne after the death of his brother Agis II. He acquired
+renown by his exploits against the Persians, Thebans, and Athenians. Though
+a vigorous ruler, and almost adored by his soldiers, he was of small
+stature and lame from his birth. He died in Egypt in the winter of 361-360
+B.C. His life has been written by Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos.
+
+AGGLOM'ERATE, in geology, a collective name for masses consisting of
+angular fragments ejected from volcanoes. When a rock mass consists largely
+of fragments worn and rounded by water it is called a _conglomerate_, and
+such masses were originally, no doubt, gravels and shingles on sea beaches
+and river channels.
+
+AGGLU'TINATE LANGUAGES, languages in which the modifying suffixes are, as
+it were, glued on to the root, both it and the suffixes retaining a kind of
+distinctive independence and individuality, as in the Japanese, Turkish,
+and other Turanian languages, and the Basque language.
+
+AGG'REGATE, a term applied in geology to rocks composed of several
+different mineral constituents capable of being separated by mechanical
+means, as granite, where the quartz, felspar, and mica can be separated
+mechanically.--In botany it is applied to flowers composed of many small
+florets having a common undivided receptacle, the anthers being distinct
+and separate, the florets commonly standing on stalks, and each having a
+partial calyx.
+
+AGGRY BEADS, glass beads of various forms and colours, prized by the
+natives of West Africa as ornaments, and as having magical and medicinal
+virtues. Their origin and history are not well known. Such beads have been
+found in various parts of the world, including North and South America, and
+often in graves. Some authorities believe that the oldest of them are the
+work of the ancient Egyptians, or the Phoenicians, while the later are
+probably of Venetian origin.
+
+AGHA, see _Aga_.
+
+AGHRIM, see _Aughrim_.
+
+AGINCOURT ([.a]-zha[n.]-kör), a village of Northern France, department Pas
+de Calais, famous for the battle of 25th Oct., 1415, between the French and
+English. Henry V, King of England, eager to conquer France, landed at
+Harfleur, took the place by storm, and wished to march through Picardy to
+Calais, but was met by a French army under the Constable d'Albret. The
+English numbered about 15,000 men, while the French numbers are variously
+given as from 50,000 to 150,000. The confined nature and softness of the
+ground were to the disadvantage of the French, who were drawn up in three
+columns unnecessarily deep. The English archers attacked the first division
+in front and in flank, and soon threw them into disorder. The second
+division fled on the fall of the Duc d'Alençon, who was struck down by
+Henry himself; and the third division fled without striking a blow. Of the
+French 10,000 were killed, including the Constable d'Albret, with six dukes
+and princes. The English lost 1600 men killed, among them the Duke of York,
+Henry's uncle. After the battle the English continued their march to
+Calais.
+
+AGIO ([=a]'ji-[=o]), the difference between the real and the nominal value
+of money, as between paper money and actual coin. It is used to denote both
+the difference between two currencies in the same country and the
+variations in the currencies of different countries. The term is derived
+from the It. _aggiungere_, to add, augment, hence _agiotage_. See _Disagio_
+and _Balance of Trade_.
+
+AGIRA ([.a]-j[=e]'r[.a]), (ancient AGYRIUM), a town of Sicily south-west of
+Etna. Pop. 22,485.
+
+AGIS ([=a]'jis), the name of four Spartan kings, the most important of whom
+was Agis IV, who succeeded to the throne in 244 B.C., and reigned four
+years. He attempted a reform of the abuses which had crept into the
+State--his plan comprehending a redistribution of the land, a division of
+wealth, and the cancelling of all debts. Opposed by his colleague Leonidas,
+advantage was taken of his absence, in an expedition against the Ætolians,
+to depose him. Agis at first took sanctuary in a temple, but he was
+treacherously seized and strangled, after going through the form of a
+trial.
+
+AGISTMENT (from the Lat. _ad_, to, and Fr. _giste_, lodging), a term
+designating the pasturing of horses, cattle, or sheep of another. See
+_Bailment_.
+
+AGITATORS, an alternative form of _Adjutators_, a name given to the
+representatives elected in 1647 by the different regiments of the English
+parliamentary army.
+
+AGLAIA (a-gl[=a]'ya), wife of Hephaistos, in Greek mythology, one of the
+three Graces, the other two being Euphrosyne and Thalia.
+
+AGLOSSA, a sub-order of anurous amphibia, the frogs, without a tongue.
+
+AGNANO ([.a]-nyä'n[=o]), until 1870 a lake of Italy, west of Naples,
+occupying probably the crater of an extinct volcano, but now drained.
+
+AG'NATES, in the civil law, relations on the male side, in opposition to
+_cognates_, relations on the female side.
+
+AGNELLO PASS, see _European War_.
+
+AGNES, St., a virgin martyr who, according to the story, suffered martyrdom
+because she steadfastly refused to marry Sempronius, the prefect of Rome,
+and adhered to her religion in spite of repeated temptations and threats,
+A.D. 303. She was first led to the stake, but as the flames did not injure
+her she was beheaded. Her festival is celebrated on 21st Jan. For
+superstitions connected with St. Agnes' Eve see Keats's poem _The Eve of
+St. Agnes_. Tintoret's most remarkable picture is _The Martyrdom of St.
+Agnes_.
+
+AGNES, St., the most southerly of the Scilly Islands. A lighthouse was
+erected here as early as 1680; another on the Wolf Rock near the island was
+completed in 1858.
+
+AGNESI ([.a]-ny[=a]'s[=e]), Maria Gaetana, a learned Italian lady, born at
+Milan in 1718. In her ninth year she was able to speak Latin, in her
+eleventh Greek; she then studied the oriental languages, and at the age of
+thirteen mastered Hebrew, besides French, Spanish, and German. She was
+called the 'Walking Polyglot'. She next studied geometry, philosophy, and
+mathematics. She was appointed, in 1750, professor of mathematics in the
+University of Bologna, ultimately took the veil, and died in 1799. Her
+sister, Maria Theresa, composed several cantatas and three operas.
+
+[Illustration: Agni--Moore's _Hindoo Pantheon_]
+
+AG'NI, the Hindu god of fire, second only to Indra, and one of the eight
+guardians of the world, and especially the lord of the south-east quarter.
+He is celebrated in many of the hymns of the Rig Veda. He is often
+represented as of a red or flame colour, and rides on a ram or a goat. He
+is still worshipped as the personification of fire, and the friction of two
+sticks for procuring the temple fire is still regarded as the symbol of
+Agni's miraculous rebirth.
+
+AGNOETÆ, a monophysitic sect of the sixth century.
+
+AGNOLO, Baccio d' (b[.a]ch'[=o] d[.a]n'yo-l[=o]), a Florentine wood-carver,
+sculptor, and architect; designed some of the finest palaces, &c., in
+Florence, such as the Villa Borghese, the Palais Bartolini, &c.; born 1460,
+died 1543.
+
+AGNO'MEN (Lat.), an additional name given by the Romans to an individual in
+allusion to some quality, circumstance, or achievement by which he was
+distinguished, as _Africanus_ added to P. Cornelius Scipio.
+
+AGNONE ([.a]-ny[=o]'n[=a]), a town of S. Italy, province of Molise, famous
+for the excellence of its copper wares. Pop. 6000.
+
+AGNOSTICS (ag-nos'tiks; Gr. _a_, not, _gign[=o]skein_, to know), a modern
+term invented by Huxley in 1869 and applied to those who disclaim any
+knowledge of God, the origin of the universe, immortality, &c. The
+agnostics, or adherents of this doctrine, hold that the mind of man is
+limited to a knowledge of phenomena and of what is relative, and that,
+therefore, the infinite, the absolute, and the unconditioned, being beyond
+all experience, are consequently beyond its range. Agnosticism is therefore
+the attitude of 'solemnly suspended judgment', and cannot be identified
+with atheism. The agnostics do not deny the existence of a Divine Being,
+but merely maintain that we have no scientific ground for either belief or
+denial.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir Leslie Stephen, _An Agnostic's Apology_; R.
+Flint, _Agnosticism_; J. Ward, _Naturalism and Agnosticism_.
+
+AGNUS CASTUS, a shrub, _Vitex Agnuscastus_, nat. ord. Verbenaceæ, a native
+of the Mediterranean countries, with white flowers and acrid, aromatic
+fruits. It had anciently the imagined virtue of preserving chastity--hence
+the term _castus_ (Lat., chaste).
+
+AGNUS DEI (d[=e]'[=i]; Lat., 'the Lamb of God'), a term applied to Christ
+in _John_, i, 29, and in the Roman Catholic liturgy a prayer beginning with
+the words 'Agnus Dei', generally sung before the communion. The term is
+also commonly given to a medal, or more frequently a disk of wax, round,
+oblong, or oval, consecrated by the pope, stamped with the figure of a lamb
+supporting the banner of the cross; supposed to possess great virtues, such
+as preserving those who carry it in faith from accidents, &c. Jean Châtel,
+the assassin of Henri IV, was found covered with such medals.
+
+AGON'IC LINE (Gr. _a_, not, and _g[=o]nia_, an angle), in terrestrial
+magnetism a name applied to the line which joins all the places on the
+earth's surface at which the needle of the compass points due north and
+south, without any declination. See _Magnetism_.
+
+AG'ONY COLUMN, a column in the advertising sheet of some of the daily
+journals, in which disappearances, losses, mysterious appeals and
+correspondence, and generally any advertising eccentricity appear.
+
+AG'ORA, the market-place of a Greek town, corresponding to the Roman
+_forum_. The Agora of Athens is situated in a valley partially enclosed by
+the Acropolis, Areopagus, Pnyx, and Museum.
+
+AGOS'TA. See _Augusta_.
+
+AGOUARA ([.a]-g[u:]-ä'r[.a]), a name given to the crab-eating racoon
+(_Proc[)y]on cancriv[)o]rus_) of S. America.
+
+AGOULT ([.a]-gö), Marie de Flavigny, Comtesse d', a French writer of
+fiction, history, politics, philosophy, and art; daughter of Vicomte de
+Flavigny; born at Frankfort in 1805, died at Paris 1876. She contributed
+many articles to the _Revue des Deux-Mondes_, &c., under the pseudonym of
+_Daniel Stern_, and wrote _Lettres Républicaines_ (1848); _Histoire de la
+Révolution de 1848_; _Esquisses Morales et Politiques_; _Trois Journées de
+la Vie de Marie Stuart_; _Florence et Turin_ (a series of artistic and
+political studies); _Dante et Goethe_; dialogues, and numerous romances,
+&c.
+
+AGOUTA (a-gö'ta), _Solen[)o]don paradoxus_, an insectivorous mammal
+peculiar to Hayti, of the tanrec family, somewhat larger than a rat. It has
+its tail devoid of hair and covered with scales, its eyes small, and an
+elongated nose like the shrews. Another species (_S. cub[=a]nus_) belongs
+to Cuba.
+
+AGOUTI (a-gö'ti), the name of several rodent mammals, forming a family by
+themselves, genus Dasyprocta. There are eight or nine species, all
+belonging to S. America and the W. Indies. The common agouti, or
+yellow-rumped cavy (_D. agouti_), is of the size of a rabbit. It burrows in
+the ground or in hollow trees, lives on vegetables, doing much injury to
+the sugar-cane, is as voracious as a pig, and makes a similar grunting
+noise. Its flesh is white and good to eat.
+
+AGRA (ä'gra), a city of India, in the United Provinces, on the right bank
+of the Jumna, 841 miles by rail from Calcutta. It is a well-built and
+handsome town and has various interesting structures, among which are the
+imperial palace, a mass of buildings erected by several emperors; the Motí
+Masjid or Pearl Mosque (both within the old and extensive fort); the mosque
+called the Jama Masjid (a cenotaph of white marble); and, above all, the
+Taj Mahal, 'a dream in marble', a mausoleum of the seventeenth century,
+built by the Emperor Shah Jehan (1628-58) for his favourite queen, Mumtaz
+Mahal. It is made of white marble, and is adorned throughout with exquisite
+mosaics. Its cost is estimated at £800,000, and 20,000 workmen, under the
+direction of Austin of Bordeaux, were engaged on it for twenty-two years.
+There are several Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, a government
+college, and three other colleges or high schools, besides a medical
+college. Agra has a trade in grain, sugar, &c., and some manufactures,
+including beautiful inlaid mosaics. It was founded in 1566 by the Emperor
+Akbar, and was a residence of the emperors for over a century. Pop.
+185,449. The Agra division has an area of 10,078 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+5,007,900.
+
+AGRAFFE', a sort of ornamental buckle, clasp, or similar fastening for
+holding together articles of dress, &c., often adorned with precious
+stones.
+
+AGRAM, or ZAGREB, a city in Yugo-Slavia, capital of the former Hungarian
+province of Croatia and Slavonia, near the River Save; contains the
+residence of the ban or governor of Croatia and Slavonia, Government
+buildings, cathedral (being the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop),
+university, theatre, &c.; carries on an active trade, and manufactures
+tobacco, leather, and linens. Pop. 79,038.
+
+AGRA'PHIA. See _Aphasia_.
+
+AGRARIAN LAWS, laws enacted in ancient Rome for the division of the public
+lands, that is, the lands belonging to the State (_ager publicus_). As the
+territory of Rome increased, the public land increased, the land of
+conquered peoples being always regarded as the property of the conqueror.
+The right to the use of this public land belonged originally only to the
+patricians or ruling class, but afterwards the claims of the plebeians on
+it were also admitted, though they were often unfairly treated in the
+sharing of it. Hence arose much discontent among the plebeians, and various
+remedial laws were passed with more or less success. Indeed an equitable
+adjustment of the land question between the aristocracy and the common
+people was never attained.
+
+AGRAVAINE, Sir, one of the knights of the Round Table.
+
+AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE. See _Levellers_.
+
+AGRIC'OLA, Gnæus Julius, lived from A.D. 37 to 93, a Roman consul under the
+Emperor Vespasian, and governor in Britain, the greater part of which he
+reduced to the dominion of Rome; distinguished as a statesman and general.
+His life, written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, gives the best
+extant account of Britain in the early part of the period of the Roman
+rule. He was the twelfth Roman general who had been in Britain, but was the
+only one who effectually subdued the southern portion of it and reconciled
+the Britons to the Roman yoke. This he did by teaching them the arts of
+civilization and to settle in towns. He constructed the chain of forts
+between the Forth and the Clyde, defeated Galgacus at the battle of Mons
+Graupius, and sailed round the island, discovering the Orkneys.
+
+AGRIC'OLA, Georg (originally Bauer, that is, peasant = Lat. _agricola_),
+born in Saxony 1490, died at Chemnitz 1555, German physician and
+mineralogist. Though tinged with the superstitions of his age, he made the
+first successful attempt to reduce mineralogy to a science, and introduced
+many improvements in the art of mining. A complete edition of his works was
+published at Basel in 1550 and 1558.
+
+AGRICOLA, Johann, the son of a tailor at Eisleben, was born in 1492, and
+called, from his native city, _master of Eisleben_ (_magister Islebius_);
+one of the most active among the theologians who propagated the doctrines
+of Luther. In 1537, when professor in Wittenberg, he stirred up the
+Antinomian controversy with Luther and Melanchthon. He afterwards lived at
+Berlin, where he died in 1566, after a life of controversy. Besides his
+theological works he composed a work explaining the common German proverbs.
+
+AGRICOLA, Johann Friedrich, German musician and composer, born near
+Altenburg 1720, died at Berlin 1774; pupil of Sebastian Bach; wrote several
+operas, including _Iphigenia in Tauris_. He wrote under the pseudonym of
+'Olibrio'.
+
+AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, German scholar, born at Groningen 1443, died at
+Heidelberg 1485. After travelling in France and Italy he was appointed
+professor of philosophy at Heidelberg, and did good service in
+transplanting the revived classical learning into Germany.
+
+AG'RICULTURE is the art of cultivating the ground, more especially with the
+plough and in large areas or fields, in order to raise grain and other
+crops for man and beast; including the art of preparing the soil, sowing
+and planting seeds, removing the crops, and also the raising and feeding of
+cattle or other live stock. This art is the basis of all other arts, and in
+all countries coeval with the first dawn of civilization. At how remote a
+period it must have been successfully practised in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and
+China we have no means of knowing, but there is sufficient evidence of
+agriculture having attained considerable development many centuries before
+the Christian era. Egypt was renowned as a corn country in the time of the
+Jewish patriarchs, and had probably been so for centuries before. The
+hieroglyphics on ancient monuments furnish records of the early development
+of agriculture in Egypt and of the use of the plough and other agricultural
+implements. The advanced methods of the Egyptians and Syrians were
+introduced into Europe by the Saracens. Land culture also attained a more
+or less considerable development in ancient China and Hindustan. Among the
+ancient Greeks the implements of agriculture were very few and simple.
+Hesiod, who wrote a poem on agriculture as early as the eighth century
+B.C., mentions a plough consisting of three parts, the share-beam, the
+draught-pole, and the plough-tail, but antiquarians are not agreed as to
+its exact form. The ground received three ploughings, one in autumn,
+another in spring, and a third immediately before sowing the seed. Manures
+were applied, and the advantage of mixing soils, as sand with clay or clay
+with sand, was understood. Seed was sown by hand, and covered with a rake.
+Grain was reaped with a sickle, bound in sheaves, thrashed, then winnowed
+by wind, laid in chests, bins, or granaries, and taken out as wanted by the
+family, to be ground. Agriculture was highly esteemed among the ancient
+Romans, and very full accounts are contained in the works of Pliny, Virgil,
+Cato, Varro, and Palladius. The Romans used a great many different
+implements of agriculture. The plough is represented by Cato as of two
+kinds, one for strong, the other for light soils. Varro mentions one with
+two mould-boards, with which, he says, "when they plough, after sowing the
+seed, they are said to ridge". Pliny mentions a plough with one
+mould-board, and others with a coulter, of which he says there were many
+kinds. Fallowing was a practice rarely deviated from by the Romans. In most
+cases a fallow and a year's crop succeeded each other. Manure was collected
+from various sources, and irrigation was practised on a large scale.
+
+The Romans introduced their agricultural knowledge among the Britons, and
+during the most flourishing period of the Roman occupation large quantities
+of corn were exported from Britain to the Continent. During the time that
+the Angles and Saxons were extending their conquests over the country
+agriculture must have been greatly neglected; but afterwards it was
+practised with some success among the Anglo-Saxon population, especially,
+as was generally the case during the Middle Ages, on lands belonging to the
+Church. Swine formed at this time a most important portion of the live
+stock, finding plenty of oak and beech mast to eat. The feudal system
+introduced by the Normans, though beneficial in some respects as tending to
+ensure the personal security of individuals, operated powerfully against
+progress in agricultural improvements. War and the chase, the two ancient
+and deadliest foes of husbandry, formed the most prominent occupations of
+the Norman princes and nobles. Thriving villages and smiling fields were
+converted into deer forests, vexatious imposts were laid on the farmers,
+and the serfs had no interest in the cultivation of the soil. But the monks
+of every monastery retained such of their lands as they could most
+conveniently take charge of, and these they cultivated with great care,
+under their own inspection, and frequently with their own hands. The
+various operations of husbandry, such as manuring, ploughing, sowing,
+harrowing;, reaping, thrashing, winnowing, &c., are incidentally mentioned
+by the writers of those days; but it is impossible to collect from them a
+definite account of the manner in which those operations were performed.
+
+While there is much in the writings of the old English chroniclers
+concerning the tenure of land, upon which subject the _Domesday Book_ gives
+much enlightenment, there is a great lack of information as to the manner
+in which the land was cultivated. Information began to be recorded in the
+middle of the thirteenth century, but only one treatise is known to have
+been written, namely, _La Dite de Husbanderye_, an essay in Norman French
+by Walter de Henley. This work was superseded by another treatise, the best
+of the early works on the subject, and published in the reign of Henry VIII
+(in 1523) by Sir A. Fitzherbert, judge of the Common Pleas. It is entitled
+the _Book of Husbandry_, and contains directions for draining, clearing,
+and enclosing a farm, for enriching the soil, and rendering it fit for
+tillage. Lime, marl, and fallowing are strongly recommended. The subject of
+agriculture attained some prominence during the reign of Elizabeth. The
+principal writers of that period were Tusser, Googe, and Sir Hugh Platt.
+Tusser's _Five Hundreth Pointes of Good Husbandry_ (first complete edition
+published in 1580) conveys much useful instruction in metre, but few works
+of this time contain much that is original or valuable. The first half of
+the seventeenth century produced no systematic work on agriculture, though
+several on different branches of the subject. About 1645 the field
+cultivation of red clover was introduced into England, the merit of this
+improvement being due to Sir Richard Weston, author of a _Discourse on the
+Husbandry of Brabant and Flanders_, to whom also belongs the credit of
+first growing turnips in England. The Dutch had devoted much attention to
+the improvement of winter roots, and also to the cultivation of clover and
+other artificial grasses, and the farmers and proprietors of England soon
+saw the advantages to be derived from their introduction. Potatoes had been
+introduced during the latter part of the sixteenth century, but were not
+for long in general cultivation. A number of writers on agriculture
+appeared in England during the Commonwealth, the most important works on
+the subject being Blythe's _Improver Improved_ and Hartlib's _Legacy_. The
+former writer speaks of a rotation, or rather alternation of crops, and
+well knew the use of lime, as also of other manures. In the eighteenth
+century the first name of importance in British agriculture is that of
+Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, who began to drill wheat and other
+crops about the year 1701, and whose _Horse-hoeing Husbandry_ was published
+in 1731. Tull was a great advocate of the system of sowing crops in rows or
+drills with an interval between every two or three rows wide enough to
+allow of ploughing or hoeing to be carried on. This enabled the ground to
+be cleared with crops still growing, thus obviating the necessity for 'bare
+fallow' and leading to the _four-course_ or Norfolk Rotation of Charles,
+second Viscount Townshend, the first agriculturist to cultivate turnips on
+a large scale. After the time of Tull and Townshend no great alteration in
+British agriculture took place till Robert Bakewell and others effected
+some important improvements in the breeds of cattle, sheep, and swine in
+the latter half of the eighteenth century. The raising and maintenance of
+live stock, especially of sheep, was a characteristic of English farming
+from a very early time, and for several centuries the country had almost a
+monopoly in the supply of wool. To Bakewell we owe the well-known breed of
+Leicester sheep. By the end of the century it was a common practice to
+alternate green crops with grain crops, instead of exhausting the land with
+a number of successive crops of corn. A well-known writer on agriculture at
+this period, and one who did a great deal of good in diffusing a knowledge
+of the subject, was Arthur Young. Scotland was for a long time behind
+England in agricultural progress. Great progress was made during the
+eighteenth century, however, especially in the latter half of it, turnips
+being introduced as a field-crop, and new implements such as the
+swing-plough and the thrashing-machine coming into general use. The
+construction of good roads through the country also gave agriculture a
+great impulse. During the wars caused by the French revolution (1795-1815)
+the high price of agricultural produce led to an extraordinary improvement
+in agriculture all over Britain. The establishment of the institution
+called the National Board of Agriculture was also of very great service to
+British husbandry at this period. Though a private association, it was
+assisted by an annual parliamentary grant, and prizes were given by it for
+the encouragement of experiments and improvements in agriculture. It
+existed from 1793 to 1816.
+
+Among other societies which have greatly furthered the progress of
+agriculture in Britain, the chief in existence at the present day are the
+Smithfield Club, inaugurated in 1798; the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England, established in 1838; the Highland and Agricultural Society of
+Scotland, founded in 1783; and the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland,
+instituted in 1841. The objects of these and similar societies are such as
+the following: To encourage the introduction of improvements in
+agriculture; to encourage the improvement of agricultural implements and
+farm buildings; the application of chemistry to agriculture; the
+destruction of insects injurious to vegetation; to promote the discovery
+and adoption of new varieties of grain, or other useful vegetables; to
+collect information regarding the management of woods, plantations, and
+fences; to improve the education of those supported by the cultivation of
+the soil; to improve the veterinary art; to improve the breeds of live
+stock, &c. Shows are held, at which prizes are distributed for live stock,
+implements, and farm produce.
+
+Through the efforts of the above-mentioned and other societies, the
+investigations of scientific men, the general diffusion of knowledge among
+all classes, and the necessity of competing with producers in foreign
+countries, agriculture made vast strides in Britain during the nineteenth
+century and the beginning of the twentieth. Among the chief improvements we
+may mention deep ploughing and thorough draining. By the introduction of
+new or improved implements the labour necessary to the carrying out of
+agricultural operations has been greatly diminished, and advancement in
+this direction has been promoted by the necessities of the Great War.
+Labour-saving machinery is likely to be used in future on an increasingly
+large scale. Science, too, has been called in to act as the handmaid of
+art, and in its application we owe very much to the researches conducted at
+the Rothamsted Experimental Station, founded in 1834 by Lawes, who endowed
+the Lawes Trust in 1889. Gilbert and he worked together from 1843 to the
+end of last century. It is primarily by the investigations of the chemist
+and physicist that agriculture has been put on a really scientific basis.
+The physiology of plants and animals, and the complex properties of soils,
+have all been investigated, and most important results obtained. Artificial
+manures, in great variety to supply the elements wanted for plant growth,
+have come into common use, and the free nitrogen of the air is now worked
+up into various substances by which the nitrate of soda imported from South
+America can be replaced. An improvement in all kinds of stock is becoming
+more and more general, feeding is conducted on more scientific principles,
+and improved varieties of crop-plants are created by applying the
+principles of Mendel and other scientists. Much attention is also devoted
+to seed-testing, and the applications of electricity to agriculture are
+being developed.
+
+As a result of the new conditions, to be a thoroughly-trained and competent
+agriculturist requires a special education, partly theoretical, partly
+practical. In many countries there are now agricultural schools or colleges
+supported by the State, and many such institutions exist in Britain. In
+Scotland, the Edinburgh chair of Rural Economy was founded in 1790; in
+Ireland, the Glasnevin Institution was inaugurated in 1838; and the
+establishment of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, dates from
+1845. In the United States nearly all the States have now colleges, or
+departments of colleges, devoted to the teaching of agriculture, and large
+allotments of public land have been made for their support. There are also
+numerous experimental stations. In Britain there has been a Board of
+Agriculture since 1889, under a cabinet minister, which was constituted a
+ministry in 1919; previously there was only a department under a committee
+of the Privy Council.
+
+It is probable that on the whole the agriculture of Britain is farther
+advanced than that of any other region of similar size. Wheat, barley, and
+oats are the chief cereals in Britain; the chief roots are turnips and
+potatoes; other crops (besides grass and clover) are beans, peas, mangold,
+hops, and flax. In Europe at large the principal cereals are wheat, oats,
+barley, and rye, wheat being mostly grown in the middle and southern
+regions, such as France, Spain, part of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy,
+and southern Russia, the others in the more northern portion, while maize
+is grown in the warmest parts. Turnips are comparatively little grown out
+of Britain, beet-root in some sense taking their place; potatoes, however,
+are largely cultivated, except in the south. In the United States maize is
+the chief corn crop, next to which comes wheat, then oats; potatoes are an
+important crop, but turnips are only grown to a very small extent. In
+Canada large quantities of wheat are grown (more especially in Manitoba and
+the North-West), much is also now produced in the Australian colonies, in
+India, Argentina, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Fream, _Elements of Agriculture_;
+C. W. Burkett, _Agriculture for Beginners_; _Encyclopædia of Agriculture_
+(Gresham Publishing Company).
+
+AGRIGENTUM (-jen'tum) (modern GIRGENTI), an ancient Greek city of Sicily,
+founded about 580 B.C., and long one of the most important places on the
+island. The town is also famous as the birthplace of the philosopher
+Empedocles. Extensive ruins of splendid temples and public buildings yet
+attest its ancient magnificence. See _Girgenti_.
+
+AG'RIMONY (Agrimonia), a genus of plants, nat. ord. Rosaceæ, consisting of
+slender perennial herbs found in temperate regions. _A. Eupatoria_, or
+common agrimony, was formerly of much repute as a medicine in England. Its
+leaves and rootstock are astringent, and the latter yields a yellow dye.
+The plant is a common weed on the borders of cornfields and on roadsides.
+
+AGRIPPA, Herod. See _Herod Agrippa_.
+
+AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, a Roman statesman and general, the son-in-law of
+Augustus; born 63 B.C., died 12 B.C. He was prætor in 41 B.C.; consul in
+37, 28, and 27; ædile in 33; and tribune from 18 till his death. He
+commanded the fleet of Augustus in the battle of Actium. To him Rome is
+indebted for three of her principal aqueducts, the Pantheon, and several
+other works of public use and ornament.
+
+AGRIP'PA, von Nettesheim, Cornelius Henry, born in 1486 at Cologne,
+soldier, doctor, and, by common reputation, a magician. In his youth he was
+secretary to the Emperor Maximilian I; he subsequently served seven years
+in Italy, and was knighted. On quitting the army he devoted himself to
+science, became famous as a magician and alchemist, and was involved in
+disputes with the churchmen. After an active, varied, and eventful life he
+died at Grenoble in 1534 or 1535. His works were published at Lyons in
+1550.
+
+AGRIPPI'NA, the name of several Roman women, among whom we may mention: 1.
+The youngest daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and wife of C.
+Germanicus; a heroic woman, adorned with great virtues. Tiberius, who hated
+her for her virtues and popularity, banished her to the Island of
+Pandataria, where she starved herself to death in A.D. 33. 2. A daughter of
+the last mentioned, and the mother of Nero, by Domitius Ahenobarbus. Her
+third husband was her uncle, the Emperor Claudius, whom she subsequently
+poisoned to secure the government of the Empire through her son Nero. After
+ruling a few years in her son's name he became tired of her ascendency, and
+caused her to be assassinated (A.D. 60).
+
+AGROPYRON, a genus of grasses most of which are perennials. The root-stalks
+of _Agropyron repens_ (_Radix Graminis_) have aperient and diuretic
+properties.
+
+AGROSTEM'MA. See _Corncockle_.
+
+AGROS'TIS, a genus of grasses, consisting of many species, and valuable as
+pasture-grasses. The bent-grasses belong to the genus.
+
+AG'TELEK, a village in Hungary, near the road from Pesth to Kassa, with
+about 600 inhabitants, celebrated for one of the largest and most
+remarkable stalactitic caverns in Europe.
+
+AGUA ([.a]g'w[.a]), an active volcano of Central America, in Guatemala,
+rising to the height of 15,000 feet. It has twice destroyed the old city of
+Guatemala, in its immediate vicinity.
+
+AGUARA ([.a]-gwä'r[.a]). See _Agouara_.
+
+AGUARDIENTE ([.a]-gwär-d[=e]-en'te), a popular spirituous beverage of Spain
+and Portugal, a kind of coarse brandy, made from red wine, from the refuse
+of the grapes left in the wine-press, &c., generally flavoured with anise;
+also a Mexican alcoholic drink distilled from the fermented juice of the
+agave.
+
+AGUAS CALIENTES ([.a]g'w[.a]s k[.a]-l[=e]-en't[=a]s; lit. 'warm waters'), a
+town 270 miles N.W. of Mexico, capital of the State of its own name, named
+from the thermal springs near it; has manufactures of cottons and a
+considerable trade. Pop. 45,198.--Aguas Calientes State has an area of
+2,968 sq. miles, and a pop. of 124,500.
+
+AGUE ([=a]'g[=u]), a kind of fever, which may be followed by serious
+consequences, but generally is more troublesome than dangerous. According
+to the length of the interval between one febrile paroxysm and another,
+agues are denominated _quotidian_ when they occur once in twenty-four
+hours, _tertian_ when they come on every forty-eight hours, _quartan_ when
+they visit the patient once in seventy-two hours. Ague arises from marsh
+miasmata, a temperature above 60° being, however, apparently required to
+produce it. To cure the disease and prevent the recurrence, quinine and
+various other bitter and astringent drugs are given with complete success
+in the majority of cases.
+
+AGUE-CAKE, a tumour caused by enlargement and hardening of the spleen,
+often the consequence of ague or intermittent fever.
+
+AGUESSEAU ([.a]-ges-[=o]), Henri François d', a distinguished French jurist
+and statesman, born at Limoges in 1668; was in 1690 advocate-general at
+Paris, and at the age of thirty-two procureur-général of the Parliament. He
+risked disgrace with Louis XIV by successfully opposing the famous papal
+bull _Unigenitus_. He was made chancellor in 1717, was deprived of his
+office in 1718 on account of his opposition to Law's system of finance, but
+had to be recalled in 1720. In 1722 he had to retire a second time; but was
+recalled in 1727 by Cardinal Fleury, and in 1737 again got the
+chancellorship, which he held till 1750. He died in 1751.
+
+AGUILAR ([.a]-g[=e]-lär'), a town of Spain, province of Cordova, in
+Andalusia, in a good wine-producing district, and with a trade in corn and
+wine. Pop. 12,635.
+
+AGUILAR (a-gi-lär'), Grace, an English writer, born at Hackney 1816, died
+at Frankfort 1847. Of Jewish parentage, she at first devoted herself to
+Jewish subjects, such as _The Women of Israel_, _The Jewish Faith_, &c.;
+but her fame rests on her novels, _Home Influence_, _A Mother's
+Recompense_, _Home Scenes and Heart Studies_, &c., most of which were
+published posthumously by her mother.
+
+AGUILAS ([.a]-g[=e]'l[.a]s), a flourishing seaport of Southern Spain,
+province of Murcia, with copper and lead smelting works. Pop. 15,967.
+
+AGULHAS ([.a]-g[u:]l'y[.a]s), Cape, a promontory, forming the most southern
+extremity of Africa, about 90 miles south-east of the Cape of Good Hope,
+rising to 455 feet above the sea, with a lighthouse.
+
+AGU'TI. See _Agouti_.
+
+A'HAB, the seventh King of Israel, succeeded his father Omri, 918-897 or
+875-853 B.C. At the instigation of his wife Jezebel he erected a temple to
+Baal, and became a cruel persecutor of the true prophets. He was killed by
+an arrow at the siege of Ramoth-Gilead. He was succeeded by his son
+Ahaziah.
+
+AHAG'GAR, a mountainous region of the Sahara, south of Algeria, with some
+fertile valleys, inhabited by the Tuaregs.
+
+AHANTA. See _Gold Coast_, _West Africa_.
+
+AHASUE'RUS, in Scripture history, a king of Persia, probably the same as
+Xerxes, the husband of Esther, to whom the Scriptures ascribe a singular
+deliverance of the Jews from extirpation.--_Ahasuerus_ is also a Scripture
+name for Cambyses, the son of Cyrus (_Ezra_, iv, 6), and for Astyages, King
+of the Medes (_Dan._ ix, 1). Ahasuerus is also the traditional name of the
+wandering Jew.
+
+A'HAZ, the twelfth King of Judah, succeeded his father Jotham, 742-727 or
+734-715 B.C. Forsaking the true religion, he gave himself up completely to
+idolatry, and plundered the temple to obtain presents for Tiglath-Pileser,
+King of Assyria.
+
+AHAZI'AH.--1. Son of Ahab and Jezebel, and eighth King of Israel, died from
+a fall through a lattice in his palace at Samaria after reigning two years
+(896, 895 B.C.).--2. Fifth or sixth King of Judah, and nephew of the above.
+He reigned but one year, and was slain (884 B.C.) by Jehu.
+
+AHITH'OPHEL, privy-councillor to David, and confederate and adviser of
+Absalom in his rebellion against his father. When Hushai's advice
+prevailed, Ahithophel, despairing of success, hanged himself.
+
+AHMEDABAD, or AHMADABAD (ä-m_a_d-ä-bäd), a town of India, presidency of
+Bombay, in district of its own name, on the left bank of the Sábarmatí, 310
+miles north of Bombay. It was founded in 1412 by Ahmed Shah, and was
+converted by him into a great capital, adorned with splendid edifices. It
+came finally into the hands of the British in 1818. It is still a handsome
+and populous place, enclosed by a wall, with many noteworthy buildings;
+manufactures of fine silk and cotton fabrics, cloths of gold and silver,
+pottery, paper, enamel, mother-of-pearl, &c. There were disturbances here
+in 1919. (See _Rowlatt Act_.) Pop. 216,777.--Area of district, 3949 sq.
+miles; pop. 795,094.
+
+AHMED MIRZA, Shah of Persia, born in 1898. He succeeded his father,
+Mohammed Ali, when the latter was deposed on 16th July, 1909.
+
+AHMEDNAG'AR, a town of India, presidency of Bombay, in district of its own
+name, surrounded by an earthen wall; with manufactures of cotton and silk
+cloths. Near the city is the fort, built of stone and 1½ miles round. Pop.
+(including military) 42,032.--Area of district, 6645 sq. miles; pop.
+945,305.
+
+AHMED SHAH, born 1724, died 1773, founder of the Durâni dynasty in
+Afghanistan. On the assassination of Nadir he proclaimed himself shah, and
+set about subduing the provinces surrounding his realm. Among his first
+acts was the securing of the famed Koh-i-noor diamond, which had fallen
+into the hands of his predecessor. He crossed the Indus in 1748, and his
+conquests in Northern India culminated in the defeat of the Mahrattas at
+Panipat (6th Jan., 1761). Affairs in his own country necessitated his
+withdrawal from India, but he extended his empire vastly in other
+directions far beyond the limits of modern Afghanistan. He was succeeded by
+his son Timur.
+
+AHRIMAN (ä'ri-man; in the Zend _Angromainyus_, 'spirit of evil or
+annihilation'), according to the dualistic doctrine of Zoroaster, the
+origin or the personification of evil, sovereign of the Devas or evil
+spirits, lord of darkness and of death, being thus opposed to Ormuzd
+(_Ahuramazda_), the spirit of good and of light.
+
+AH'WAZ, a small Persian town on the River Karun, province of Khuzistan, at
+the head of river navigation, a place of some commercial note. In the
+neighbourhood are the vast ruins of a city supposed to date from the time
+of the Parthian Empire.
+
+AI (ä'[=e]). See _Sloth_.
+
+AID, a subsidy paid in ancient feudal times by vassals to their lords on
+certain occasions, the chief of which were: when their lord was taken
+prisoner and required to be ransomed, when his eldest son was to be made a
+knight, and when his eldest daughter was to be married and required a
+dowry. From the Norman Conquest to the fourteenth century the collecting of
+aids by the Crown was one of the forms of taxation, being afterwards
+regulated by Parliament.
+
+AI'DAN, Saint, Bishop of Lindisfarne, was originally a monk of Iona, in
+which monastery Oswald I, who became king of Northumberland in 635, had
+been educated. At the request of Oswald, Aidan was sent to preach
+Christianity to his subjects, and established himself in Lindisfarne as the
+first Bishop of Durham. He died in 651.
+
+AIDE-DE-CAMP ([=a]d-d[.e]-k[.a][n.]), a military officer who conveys the
+orders of a general to the various divisions of the army on the field of
+battle, and at other times acts as his secretary and general confidential
+agent.
+
+AIDIN ([.a]-i-d[=e]n'), or GUZEL HISSAR, a town in Asia Minor, about 60
+miles south-east of Smyrna, with which it is connected by rail; has fine
+mosques and bazaars, is the residence of a pasha, and has an extensive
+trade in cotton, leather, figs, grapes, &c. Pop. 35,000.
+
+AIGRETTE' (French), a term used to denote the feathery crown attached to
+the seeds of various plants, such as the thistle, dandelion, &c. (called in
+botany _pappus_).--It is also applied to any head-dress in the form of a
+plume, whether composed of feathers, flowers, or precious stones.
+
+AIGUES MORTES ([=a]g mort; Lat. _Aquæ Mortuæ_, 'dead waters'), a small town
+of Southern France, near the mouths of the Rhone, department of Gard; with
+ancient walls and castle; near it are lagoons, from which great quantities
+of salt are extracted. Pop. 4000.
+
+AIGUILLE ([=a]'gwil; Fr., lit. a needle), a name given in the Alps to the
+needle-like points or tops of granite, gneiss, quartz, and other
+crystalline rocks and mountain masses; also applied to sharp-pointed masses
+of ice on glaciers and elsewhere.--It is also the name given to a
+peculiarly-shaped French mountain in Isère, 6500 feet high.
+
+AIGUN ([=i]-g[u:]n'), a town of China, in Manchuria, on the Amur, with a
+good trade. Pop. 15,000.
+
+AI'KIN, John, M.D., an English miscellaneous writer, born 1747, died 1822.
+He practised as physician at Chester, Warrington (where he taught
+physiology and chemistry at the Dissenters' Academy), and London; turned
+his attention to literature and published various works of a miscellaneous
+description, some in conjunction with his sister Mrs. Barbauld, including
+the popular _Evenings at Home_ (1792-5), written with the view of
+popularizing scientific subjects. His _General Biographical Dictionary_ (in
+10 vols.) was begun in 1799 and finished in 1815. He was editor of the
+_Monthly Magazine_ from 1796 till 1807.
+
+AI'KIN, Lucy, daughter of the preceding, was born in 1781, and died 1864.
+In 1810 she published _Poetical Epistles on Women_, which was followed by a
+number of books for the young and a novel _Lorimer_ (1814). In 1818
+appeared her _Memoirs of the Court of Queen Elizabeth_, a very popular
+work. She afterwards produced similar works on the reigns of James I (1822)
+and Charles I (1833), and a _Life of Addison_ (1843). In 1824 she had
+published the literary remains and biography of her father. She carried on
+an interesting correspondence with Dr. Channing from 1826-42, which was
+published in 1874.
+
+AIKMAN, William, an eminent Scottish portrait-painter, born in Forfarshire
+in 1682, died in 1731. He studied at Edinburgh and in Italy, visited
+Turkey, and spent the later portion of his life in London, where he enjoyed
+the friendship of most of the distinguished men of Queen Anne's time. The
+portrait of President Duncan Forbes (1685-1747) in the National Gallery is
+attributed to him.
+
+AILAN'TO, or AILANTHUS (meaning tree of the gods), a tree, genus Ailantus,
+nat. ord. Simarubaceæ. The _A. glandul[=o]sa_, a large and handsome tree,
+with pinnate leaves 1 or 2 feet long, is a native of China, but has been
+introduced into Europe and North America. A species of silk-worm, the
+ailanthus silk-worm (_Saturnia cynthia_), feeds on its leaves, and the
+material produced, though wanting the fineness and gloss of mulberry silk,
+is produced at less cost, and is more durable. The wood is hard, heavy,
+yellowish-white, and will take a fine polish. The tree has been in
+cultivation in England since 1751.
+
+AILERON. See _Aeronautics_, _Aeroplane_.
+
+AIL'RED (contracted form of ETHELRED), a religious and historical writer,
+supposed to have been born in 1097, but whether in Scotland or in England
+is not known, died 1166; abbot of Rievaulx, in the North Riding of
+Yorkshire. Wrote lives of Edward the Confessor and St. Margaret, Queen of
+Scotland, _Genealogy of the Kings of England_, _The Battle of the
+Standard_, &c.
+
+AILSA CRAIG, a rocky islet in the Firth of Clyde, 10 miles from the coast
+of Ayr, of a conical form, 1097 feet high, and about 2 miles in
+circumference, precipitous on all sides except the north-east, where alone
+it is accessible, frequented by innumerable sea-fowl, including
+solan-geese, and covered with grass. On it is a lighthouse.
+
+AILU'RUS. See _Panda_.
+
+AIMARD ([=a]-mär), Gustave, French novelist, born 1818, died 1883. He lived
+for ten years among the Indians of North America, and wrote a number of
+stories dealing with Indian life, such as _Les Trappeurs de l'Arkansas_
+(1858), _La Loi de Lynch_ (1859), _Les Nuits Mexicaines_ (1863), _Les
+Bohèmes de la Mer_ (1865), which have been popular in English translations.
+His work is not unlike that of Fenimore Cooper.
+
+AIN (a[n.]), a south-eastern frontier department of France, mountainous in
+the east (ridges of the Jura), flat or undulating in the west, divided into
+two nearly equal parts by the River Ain, a tributary of the Rhône; area,
+2248 sq. miles; pop. (1921), 315,757. Capital, Bourg.
+
+AINGER ([=a]n'j[.e]r), Rev. Alfred, born in 1837, died in 1904, was
+educated at King's College, London, and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, took
+orders after gaining his degree, and in 1866 was appointed reader of the
+Temple Church, London. He was made Master of the Temple in 1893, while
+holding also a canonry in Bristol Cathedral, to which he had been appointed
+in 1887. He was highly successful as a preacher, but is chiefly known by
+his literary labours, especially those connected with Lamb and Hood, whose
+works he edited. The volumes on Lamb and on Crabbe in the 'English Men of
+Letters' series are by him, and he wrote a memoir of Hood for his edition
+of the works. A volume of his sermons under the title of _The Gospel of
+Human Life_ was published after his death in 1904. Cf. Edith Sichel, _Life
+and Letters of Canon Ainger_.
+
+AINMILLER ([=i]n'mil-er), Max Emanuel, a German artist who may be regarded
+as the restorer of the art of glass-painting, born 1807, died 1870. As
+inspector of the State institute of glass-painting at Munich he raised this
+art to a high degree of perfection by the new or improved processes
+introduced by him. Under his supervision this establishment (which
+afterwards became his own) produced a vast number of painted windows for
+ecclesiastical and other buildings, among the principal being a series of
+forty windows, containing a hundred historical and scriptural pictures, in
+Glasgow Cathedral. Some of his work is in St. Paul's Cathedral, and his
+finest productions are the windows in the Cathedrals of Cologne and
+Regensburg.
+
+AINOS ([=i]'n[=o]z; that is, men), the native name of an uncivilized race
+of people inhabiting the Japanese island of Yesso, as also Sakhalien, and
+the Kurile Islands, and believed to be the aboriginal inhabitants of Japan.
+They do not average over 5 feet in height, but are strong and active. They
+are very hairy, wear matted beards, and have black hair which they allow to
+grow till it falls over their shoulders. Their complexion is dark brown,
+approaching to black. They support themselves by hunting and fishing. There
+are numerous legends relating to the Ainos. According to one of these, of
+Japanese origin, they descended from the constellation of the Bear, whilst
+another mentions as their ancestor a certain Okikurumi who came down from
+heaven. The Ainos call themselves Ainu Utara, and the Chinese refer to them
+as the Tungi (barbarians of the East). They are very superstitious, and
+worship a number of gods, such as the universal god (Opitta-Kamui), the sun
+(Tsup-Kamui), the bear (Isho-Kamui), &c. Cf. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and
+their Folklore_.
+
+AINSWORTH, Henry, a Puritan divine and scholar, born 1571, died 1622. He
+passed great part of his life in Amsterdam, being from 1610 pastor of a
+'Brownist' church there (the Brownists being forerunners of the
+Independents). He was a voluminous writer, a controversialist and
+commentator, and a thorough Hebrew scholar.
+
+AINSWORTH, Robert, born in Lancashire, 1660, earned his living by keeping a
+private school in or near London, and died there in 1743. Among other
+learned works he compiled the well-known _Latin and English Dictionary_,
+first published in 1736, which passed through many editions, but is now
+entirely superseded.
+
+AINSWORTH, William Francis, an English physician, geologist, and traveller,
+born 1807. He was surgeon and geologist to the Euphrates expedition under
+Colonel Chesney, and published _Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and
+Chaldæa_ (1838); _Travels in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Armenia_ (1842);
+_Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks_ (1844), &c. Died 1896.
+
+AINSWORTH, William Harrison, an English novelist, born 1805, died 1882. He
+was the son of a Manchester solicitor and intended for the profession of
+law, but devoted himself to literature. He wrote _Rookwood_ (1834), _Jack
+Sheppard_, illustrated by Cruickshank (1839), and about forty other novels,
+including _Guy Fawkes_, _Tower of London_, _Windsor Castle_, _Lancashire
+Witches_, _Flitch of Bacon_, &c. His literary models were at first Sir
+Walter Scott and afterwards Victor Hugo's _Nôtre Dame de Paris_.
+
+AIN-TAB ([.a]-in-täb'), a town of Northern Syria, 60 miles north of Aleppo;
+with manufactures of cottons, woollens, leather, &c., and an extensive
+trade. There is here an American Protestant mission. Pop. 45,000.
+
+AINU. See _Ainos_.
+
+AIR, the gaseous substance of which our atmosphere consists, being a
+mixture mainly of about 78 per cent by volume of nitrogen and 21 per cent
+of oxygen. The latter is absolutely essential to animal life, while the
+purpose chiefly served by the nitrogen appears to be to dilute the oxygen.
+Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen, and hence the air dissolved
+in water contains about 10 per cent more oxygen than atmospheric air. The
+oxygen therefore available for those animals which breathe by gills is
+somewhat less diluted with nitrogen, but it is very much diluted with
+water. For the various properties and phenomena connected with air see such
+articles as _Atmosphere_, _Aeronautics_, _Air-pump_, _Barometer_,
+_Combustion_, _Respiration_, &c.
+
+AIR, in music (in It. _aria_), a continuous melody, in which some lyric
+subject or passion is expressed. The lyric melody of a single voice,
+accompanied by instruments, is its proper form of composition. Thus we find
+it in the higher order of musical works; as in cantatas, oratorios, operas,
+and also independently in concertos.--_Air_ is also the name often given to
+the upper or most prominent part in a concerted piece, and is thus
+equivalent to _treble_, _soprano_, &c.
+
+AÏR, or ASBEN. See _Asben_.
+
+AIRA. See _Hair-grass_.
+
+AIR BEDS AND CUSHIONS, often used by the sick and invalids, are composed of
+india-rubber or of cloth made air-tight by a solution of india-rubber, and
+when required for use filled with air, which thus supplies the place of the
+usual stuffing materials. They tend to prevent bed-sores from continuous
+lying in one position. They are also cheap and easily transported, as the
+bed or cushion, when not in use, can be packed in small compass, to be
+again inflated with air when wanted.
+
+AIR-BLADDER. See _Swimming-bladder_.
+
+AIR-BRAKE, a brake operated by air pressure, usually applied to brake,
+simultaneously, all the wheels of a moving train. In the Westinghouse type,
+by means of an ingenious 'triple valve' carried one on each carriage, the
+train pipe is made to serve the dual purpose of supply and control. An
+air-pump on the engine compresses air into the main receiver, from which it
+flows through a reducing valve into the train pipe. The pressure, acting on
+the under side of the triple valve, moves the valve to its extreme
+position, thereby opening a passage to an auxiliary receiver on the
+carriage and also putting the brake cylinder into communication with the
+atmosphere. A spring in the brake cylinder keeps the brakes in the 'off'
+position.
+
+To apply the brakes, the pressure is lowered in the train pipe. The air
+pressure in the auxiliary receiver reverses the triple valve, thus
+admitting air to the brake cylinder and closing the outlet to atmosphere.
+
+To remove the brakes, air from the main receiver is passed into the train
+pipe, and the triple valve is restored to the 'off' position. See
+_Traction_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. W. Wood, _Westinghouse Air-brake_; R. H.
+Blackhall, _Air-brake Catechism_.
+
+AIR-CELLS, cavities in the cellular tissue of the stems and leaves of
+plants which contain air only, the juices of the plants being contained in
+separate vessels. They are largest and most numerous in aquatic plants, as
+in the _Vallisneria spir[=a]lis_ and the _Victoria regia_, the gigantic
+leaves of which latter are buoyed up on the surface of the water by their
+means.--The minute cells in the lungs of animals are also called air-cells.
+There are also air-cells in the bodies of birds. They are connected with
+the respiratory system, and are situated in the cavity of the thorax and
+abdomen, and sometimes extend into the bones. They are most fully developed
+in birds of powerful and rapid flight, such as the albatross.
+
+AIRD, Thomas, a Scottish poet and miscellaneous writer, friend of Professor
+Wilson, De Quincey, and Carlyle, long editor of a newspaper in Dumfries;
+born 1802, died 1876. He wrote _The Devil's Dream on Mount Aksbeck_; _The
+Old Bachelor_, &c.
+
+AIRDRIE, a municipal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, in Lanarkshire,
+near the Monkland Canal, 11 miles east of Glasgow, in the centre of a rich
+mining district, with a large cotton-mill, foundries and machine shops,
+breweries, &c., and collieries and ironworks in its vicinity. Pop. 24,160.
+
+AIR-ENGINE, an engine in which air heated, and so expanded, or compressed
+air is used as the motive power. A great many engines of the former kind
+have been invented, some of which have been found to work pretty well where
+no great power is required. They may be said to be essentially similar in
+construction to the steam-engine, though of course the expansibility of air
+by heat is small compared with the expansion that takes place when water is
+converted into steam. Engines working by compressed air have been found
+very useful in mining, tunnelling, &c., and the compressed air may be
+conveyed to its destination by means of pipes. In such cases the waste air
+serves for ventilation and for reducing the oppressive heat.
+
+AIRE ([=a]r), a river of England, W. Riding of Yorkshire, rising to the
+south-east of Penyghent and flowing in a south-easterly direction to join
+the Ouse above Goole, having passed through Leeds on its way; length, 70
+miles. It is navigable up to Leeds, and forms an important portion of the
+Aire and Calder Navigation system, which connects Goole, Hull, &c., with
+Liverpool. The Calder enters the Aire at Castleford. The district specially
+known as _Airedale_ is the valley of the Aire above Leeds.--A large breed
+of terrier, of which there are several varieties, is known as the _Airedale
+terrier_, a strongly-built animal, rather long in the legs, with a hard,
+close coat.
+
+AIRE, a river of France, in the Argonne region, a tributary of the Aisne.
+
+AIRE-SUR-L'ADOUR ([=a]r-s[.u]r-l[.a]-dör), a small but ancient town of
+France, department of Landes, the see of a bishop. Pop. 3000.
+
+AIRE-SUR-LA-LYS ([=a]r-s[.u]r-l[.a]-l[=e]), an old fortified town of
+France, department of Pas de Calais, 10 miles south-east of St. Omer. Pop.
+5000.
+
+AIR-GUN, a gun from which the bullet is propelled by means of compressed
+air. Until about the middle of the nineteenth century air-guns were made
+with a metal reservoir in the butt; this reservoir was charged with air by
+means of a pump, and although one pumping put in enough air for six or
+seven shots, the process of loading was awkward and laborious. The
+well-known 'Gem' air-gun was worked by means of a spring, which compressed
+the air; the great defect of this gun was that the barrel was used as a
+cocking-lever, and so was apt to become bent and inaccurate. The 'Gem' was
+a smooth-bore gun, and early attempts at rifled air-guns failed, as the
+pellet was apt to stick in the barrel, owing to the low velocity not
+allowing it to take the grooves. The 'Quackenbush' air-gun made an attempt
+to get over this difficulty; its slugs were felted, and the felt took the
+rifling and greatly increased the accuracy of the weapon, but, of course,
+the ammunition was much more expensive than ordinary air-gun pellets. The
+B.S.A. air-rifle is an excellent weapon which has overcome all the early
+difficulties of construction. It has a fixed barrel, a separate
+cocking-lever, and a rotating breech-plug, and the muzzle velocity of its
+16-grain pellet is 600 feet per second, which compares not unfavourably
+with the 1000 feet per second of the 40-grain bullet of a .22 long-rifle
+cartridge. An air-gun is a splendid weapon for practising markmanship, as
+it is almost noiseless, and as its ammunition costs little. It does not
+need to be elaborately cleaned, as a miniature rifle does; an occasional
+oiling is all that it requires to keep it in order, and with care it should
+fire an indefinite number of shots without losing its accuracy.
+
+AIROLO ([.a]-i-r[=o]'l[=o]), a small town of Switzerland, canton Ticino, at
+the southern end of the St. Gothard Tunnel, and the first place on this
+route at which Italian is spoken. Pop. 2000.
+
+AIR-PLANTS, or EPIPHYTES, are plants that grow upon other plants or trees,
+apparently without receiving any nutriment otherwise than from the air. The
+name is restricted to flowering plants (mosses or lichens being excluded)
+and is suitably applied to many species of orchids. The conditions
+necessary to the growth of such plants are excessive heat and moisture, and
+hence their chief localities are the damp and shady tropical forests of
+Africa, Asia, and America. They are particularly abundant in Java and
+tropical America.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Air-pump (sectional view)]
+
+AIR-PUMP, an apparatus by means of which air or other gas may be removed
+from or compressed into an enclosed space. It was invented by Otto von
+Guericke of Magdeburg about the year 1654, and described in 1657 by Gaspar
+Schott. An ordinary suction-pump for water is on the same principle as the
+air-pump; indeed, before water reaches the top of the pipe the air has been
+pumped out by the same machinery which pumps the water. An ordinary
+air-pump (see fig. 1) consists essentially of a cylinder or barrel with a
+piston and valves. The barrel is connected to the vessel from which the air
+is to be pumped. A is the vessel to be exhausted, C the air-pump cylinder,
+P the piston, VV valves in the piston, and O the connection to the vessel
+A. When the piston moves downwards from the position shown, it cuts off the
+connection with A by passing over O. The length L is made long enough so
+that O is kept covered up during the downstroke. The air filling the space
+D is compressed, and so lifts the valves VV and passes out through them.
+This goes on till the end of the downward stroke, when the volume is very
+small indeed. When the upward motion begins, the valves VV close, and the
+piston rises and creates a vacuum in D. When the piston rises sufficiently
+to uncover O (as in figure), air rushes from A into the highly-exhausted
+space D and fills it. The process is repeated indefinitely, and A is
+gradually exhausted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Toepler Pump Fig. 3.--Sprengel Pump]
+
+Air-pumps for compressing air are constructed on the same principle, but
+the valves act the reverse way. The bicycle pump is a well-known example of
+this form of pump. In the Fleuss or Geryk pump greater efficiency is
+attained by having layers of oil in the barrel and above the piston. In
+nearly all pumps for producing the high vacua necessary, e.g. for the
+electric glow-lamp and the X-ray tube, mercury is employed. In one form,
+the Toepler pump, a reservoir containing mercury is connected by a flexible
+tube to the receiver. (See fig 2. T tube connecting pump to vessel to be
+exhausted; R, reservoir, raised above A to drive air in B and C through D
+and out into open air; R is then lowered, and B and C fill with air from
+receiver. Process then repeated.) By alternately lowering and raising the
+reservoir, gas is first withdrawn from the receiver and then expelled
+through D, which also acts as a barometer. The process is repeated until
+the desired degree of exhaustion is reached. In a second type, the Sprengel
+pump, a stream of mercury from a reservoir situated above the vessel to be
+exhausted falls in drops through a narrow vertical tube which communicates
+with the vessel. (See fig. 3. A, reservoir; B, tube leading to vessel to be
+exhausted; C, bubbles of air carried down by mercury.) The air is entrapped
+between the falling drops of mercury, and is carried down and expelled with
+it. In the filter-pump, water is used instead of mercury, the pump being
+connected to an ordinary water-tap.
+
+A more recent form, the Gaede pump, is of the rotary type. (See fig. 4. C,
+iron case; G, glass front; P two-chamber porcelain drum rotated
+counter-clockwise about axle A. As mercury leaves chamber R, air enters
+from receiver by tube T and opening B. When B is immersed, mercury enters
+and air is driven into case C and removed through tube S.) A porcelain
+drum, divided into two cells, rotates within an air-tight case more than
+half filled with mercury. Each cell has an opening which, when above the
+mercury surface, places the cell in communication with the receiver. When
+the opening is immersed, the entrapped air passes by another channel into
+the outer case, from which it is removed by another less efficient pump.
+The pump will reduce the pressure within a 6-litre bulb from 10 millimetres
+to .00001 millimetre of mercury in fifteen minutes. Langmuir's pump employs
+the principle of the aspirator. A current of mercury vapour passes from a
+mercury boiler past a tube communicating with the apparatus to be
+exhausted, and sucks the air from it; the mercury is condensed in the upper
+part of the pump, returns by side tubes to the boiler and leaves the
+extracted air in this condenser. A less efficient pump is employed to
+remove the air from the mercury condenser as it accumulates. This pump is
+said to be simple and rapid in action, and capable of exhausting an
+11-litre bulb from atmospheric pressure to .00001 millimetre in eighty
+seconds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Gaede Pump]
+
+Air-pumps are largely used in steam engineering, both on land and at sea,
+to extract the air which enters the condenser with the steam (see
+_Condenser_). Several varieties of air-pumps are in use. 1. The ordinary
+piston-pump (fig. 1) in which the piston extracts air by first sucking it
+into the cylinder and then expelling it to the atmosphere. The opening
+leading to the condenser is closed during the stroke in which the air is
+expelled. Two or three cylinders are usually provided on each air-pump set,
+the former type being known as a 2-throw pump and the latter a 3-throw
+pump. One of the best-known makes is the _Edwards_ air-pump. Piston
+air-pumps are driven either by the main engine through a suitable
+mechanism, or by a separate electric motor. The amount of power required to
+drive them varies with the size of the set, and with large engines of over
+10,000 h.p. it is about ½ per cent or less. Vacua as high as 29 inches
+(Bar. 30 inches) can be readily maintained on large plants by this type of
+pump, provided the condenser is suitably designed. In well-maintained
+plants bad vacua are commonly due to deficient air extraction, which may
+arise from the low-pressure air-piping not being air-tight, or from the
+air-pump being too small. 2. The water-ejector type uses the momentum of a
+jet of water to extract the air entrained with it. Well-known types of this
+plant are the ordinary barometric jet-condenser and the _Leblanc_ air-pump.
+In the latter type, a rotating wheel, which carries vanes, forcibly throws
+sheets of water into a pipe communicating with the condenser. The sheets of
+water lie across the pipe, and the space between them is filled up with air
+sucked from the condenser. This water, with the entrained air, is thrown
+out, against the atmospheric pressure, by the momentum imparted to the
+water sheets by the rotating wheel. Very high vacua can be obtained with
+the Leblanc pump, but the power required to drive it is more than is
+required with a 3-throw piston-pump. (Cp. Sprengel pump above). 3. A
+steam-ejector is also used, a jet of steam taking the place of the sheets
+of water in the Leblanc type. Parsons' _augmentor condenser_ works on this
+principle. A small jet of steam sucks the air from the main condenser and
+compresses it into a small so-called augmentor condenser. The pressure in
+this condenser is a little higher than the pressure in the main condenser,
+but it is sufficient to enable an ordinary 3-throw pump to be used
+efficiently. The steam used to extract the air is condensed in the
+augmentor condenser by cold water, and the interior of the augmentor
+condenser is connected to the inlet of an ordinary 3-throw pump. The
+3-throw pump is called upon to deal with the air at a slightly higher
+pressure than the condenser pressure, and the vacuum in the main condenser
+is improved by the drop of pressure which exists between the augmentor
+condenser and the main condenser. In a well-designed plant, for instance, a
+3-throw pump might be used to maintain a vacuum of 29 inches in the
+augmentor condenser, while the steam jet would provide another ½ inch of
+vacuum, giving 29½ inches vacuum in the main condenser. The _pressure_ in
+the main condenser is thereby reduced from 1 inch Hg. to ½ inch Hg.; a
+reduction of _one-half_. (Cp. Langmuir's pump above--using a mercury-vapour
+jet instead of a steam jet.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. P. Thompson, _The
+Development of the Mercurial Air-Pump_; E. Hausbrand, _Evaporating,
+Condensing, and Cooling Apparatus_.
+
+AIR-RAIDS. Apart from various sporadic bomb-dropping attacks by the
+Italians in Tripoli in 1913, the first air-raid proper was made by a
+Zeppelin on Antwerp during the investiture of that city by the Germans in
+1914. Later on this new method of warfare was developed to a considerable
+extent by both sides during the Great European War, both air-ships and
+aeroplanes being used. Air-craft for this purpose have been likened to
+long-range guns, with the advantage of greater precision, because the
+target is in view, and very much longer effective range--the Germans, for
+example, used to raid London, and on one occasion Edinburgh, from bases
+situated in North Germany and on the Schleswig coast. Air-raids are of
+great value in affecting the _moral_ of the enemy country by bringing home
+the effects of war in its most terrifying aspect to the civilian population
+at home, and thus causing the dislocation of traffic and diminishing the
+output of munitions. Their practical value is in attacking and destroying
+munition-factories, army head-quarters, naval bases, &c., in addition to
+such important work as the demolition of ammunition-dumps, and cutting
+lines of communication behind the front.
+
+Various protective devices against raiding aircraft have been invented.
+Among these are high-angle guns, capable of throwing shells to a height of
+some 30,000 feet, though possibly the most effective defence is small
+high-speed aeroplanes armed with machine-guns and capable of reaching great
+heights in a short space of time. For use at night, kite-balloons (see
+_Balloons_) are sent up in clumps connected together by cables. From the
+cables is suspended a network of steel wires, which is invisible to the
+hostile air-craft, and in which they may become entangled and so brought
+down. These have been raised to a height of as much as 12,000 feet. For
+raiding purposes two types of aeroplane--in addition to air-ships--have
+been developed. 'Day bombers' carry out raids in daylight at heights of
+12,000 to 20,000 feet on points from 50 to 100 miles behind the lines.
+'Night-bombers' are slower machines which raid well into the enemy's
+territory--up to 200 or more miles--at heights varying from 8000 to 12,000
+feet. It is usual for night-raids to be carried out by squadrons of
+machines flying in formation, each machine carrying about a ton of bombs
+(in 1918). Air-ships can carry 5-10 tons of bombs to places up to 1000
+miles distant from their bases.
+
+During the last months of the war, our Independent Air Force dropped 500
+tons of bombs on German objectives, and this raiding over a wide area of
+industrial Germany played no small part in causing that loss of spirit
+among the enemy which led eventually to their request for an armistice, and
+their virtual capitulation.
+
+AIR-SHIPS
+
+[Illustration]
+
+AIR-SHIPS, lighter-than-air craft provided with means of propulsion and
+steering. The air-ship, unlike the aeroplane, is not dependent upon its
+engines for its power to remain in flight, but derives its sustentation
+from the hydrogen gas with which it is filled. Hydrogen, first weighed by
+Henry Cavendish in 1766, is the lightest gas known, being 14.47 times
+lighter than air. In the pure state it has a lifting force of 71.155 lb.
+per 1000 cu. feet, but for calculation purposes is usually assumed to
+contain 5 per cent of impurities, giving a 'lift' of approximately 68 lb.
+per 1000 cu. feet. Hydrogen is, when mixed with air, highly inflammable,
+and helium has therefore been suggested as a substitute. This has a lift,
+when pure, of about 65 lb. per 1000 cu. feet, but is only found in a few
+places in America and is therefore at present too expensive to be used in
+quantities. The lift of any given quantity of hydrogen depends upon the
+difference between its weight and that of an equal volume of air. As the
+amount, and therefore weight, of air contained in a given space varies with
+the barometric pressure and temperature, the lift of hydrogen given above
+varies also. These figures are based upon a temperature of 60° F. and a
+barometric pressure of 30 inches. As an air-ship rises from the ground, the
+density, and therefore pressure, of the air decreases, which causes the
+hydrogen in the envelope to expand proportionately. Rise in temperature has
+the same effect. When an air-ship ascends, the gas therefore expands, and
+at a certain point would burst the envelope were valves not provided to
+allow some of the gas to escape. It is important to realize that as the
+expansion occurs at a rate corresponding to the decrease in density no
+alteration in lift occurs so long as gas is not lost through the valves.
+This would continue indefinitely if the gas-chamber were capable of
+stretching indefinitely, but with the cotton-fabric used in practice a
+height is reached when gas commences to escape from the automatic valves.
+From this moment the lift of the air-ship begins to decrease. At a certain
+point this decrease will have reached such a point that the air-ship is 'in
+equilibrium', i.e. she weighs precisely the same as the volume of air she
+displaces. This is known as the 'maximum height'. Up to 10,000 feet it is
+roughly true that 1/30 of the lift is lost per 1000 foot rise.
+
+The simplest form of air-ship is the _non-rigid_, which consists of a
+rubberized cotton-fabric gas-container (the 'envelope'), from which the
+'car', containing engines, crew, &c., is hung by flexible steel-wire ropes.
+To resist the bending moment introduced by the weight of the car, the
+envelope is inflated with hydrogen under pressure--usually about 25 mm. of
+water. So long as this pressure is greater than any local compression due
+to bending or loading in the fabric, the envelope will retain its shape. On
+coming down from a height, owing to the loss of gas, as already explained,
+the pressure will be reduced, and something must be done to restore it or
+the envelope will buckle. Fabric bags, known as 'ballonets', are therefore
+fitted inside the envelope, and as the air-ship descends air is forced into
+these bags, which supplies the lost pressure and maintains the shape of the
+envelope. The height to which a non-rigid air-ship can go, on returning
+from which the ballonets will be just full of air and the pressure the same
+as at starting, is known as the 'maximum ballonet height'. Ballonets are
+usually equivalent in volume to rather less than a quarter of the total
+volume of the air-ship--giving a maximum ballonet height of 6000 to 7000
+feet. Usually from two to three ballonets are provided, according to the
+size of the air-ship. During the Great European War British non-rigid
+air-ships were constructed varying in size from a capacity of 70,000 cu.
+feet to 360,000 cu. feet. The former had one 75-h.p. engine, and the latter
+two of 375 h.p. each. Owing to difficulties in maintaining the shape and
+distributing the weight of the car over a long envelope, it is generally
+considered that 500,000 cu. feet probably represents the maximum size in
+which the non-rigid form of construction can be used. Above this size the
+_semi-rigid_ type is used. In this case the envelope remains as in the
+non-rigid, but a girder or 'keel' is introduced between the envelope and
+the car, the weight of which is therefore taken by the keel and thence
+distributed to the envelope instead of being taken direct from the envelope
+as in non-rigids. There has been little development of non-rigids in Great
+Britain. The most prominent types are the Italian 'Forlanini', 'Verduzzio',
+and military air-ships. The keel, in all these examples, is not a rigid
+girder in the vertical sense, as it consists of a number of sections
+connected together by links. It is designed to resist compression only so
+long as it is held straight by the pressure of the envelope, and is not
+capable of taking a bending moment. When a size of about
+1,000,000-cu.-foot-hydrogen capacity is reached it becomes economical to
+use the _rigid_ method of construction. This is totally distinct from the
+other two types, as the non-rigid envelope is replaced by a rigid hull of
+sufficient strength to retain its shape without the assistance of any
+internal gas-pressure. The hull consists of a number of longitudinal
+members--usually built-up girders of 'duralumin', an aluminium
+alloy--connected together at distances of 25-30 feet by a number of
+'transverse frames', or rings, forming bulkheads. The transverse frames are
+also of duralumin girders, and are braced by 'radical wires' running from
+the joints of these girders to a ring in the centre. Between each pair of
+these transverse frames is a gas-bag containing hydrogen. The gas-bags are
+made of rubberized cotton on to which is stuck 'gold-beater's skin', made
+from the lining of the intestines of an ox. This is done to prevent
+hydrogen leakage. This is necessary, as the fabric of the gas-bags of a
+rigid air-ship is lighter and contains less rubber than the envelope of a
+non-rigid.
+
+A '[Delta]'-shaped keel runs along the interior of the ship, its weight
+being taken on the two bottom longitudinal girders. The chief function of
+the keel is to distribute the load of the various weights to the transverse
+frames of the air-ship. In it are slung the petrol-tanks, water-ballast
+tanks, bombs, &c., and living accommodation for the crew is also provided
+there. Along the bottom runs a walking-way from which access is gained to
+the cars and various parts of the air-ship. The cars containing the
+engines, wireless-cabin, and pilot's cabin are suspended from the
+transverse frames. Some of the cars, instead of being slung below the
+centre-line, are slung in pairs some little way up the side of the
+air-ship.
+
+All air-ships are steered by means of rudders and, in the vertical sense,
+elevators, in precisely the same way as aeroplanes. Up to the end of 1919
+speeds of 84 miles per hour had been reached and air-ships had climbed to
+24,000 feet. The greatest distance covered in one flight was 4500 miles,
+while the longest time in the air was effected by R34 on her voyage to
+America, which occupied 108 hours--4 days 8 hours. Rigid air-ships of
+2,750,000-cu.-foot capacity had been built with a length of nearly 300 feet
+and a gross lift of 60 tons. See also _Aeronautics_,
+_Balloons_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Sazerac de Forges, _La Conquête de l'Air_;
+Santos Dumont, _My Airships_; Hildebrandt, _Airships: Past and Present_;
+Major G. Whale, _British Airships: Past, Present, and Future_.
+
+AIRY, Sir George Biddell, a distinguished English astronomer, was born at
+Alnwick, 27th July, 1801, and educated at Hereford, Colchester, and Trinity
+College, Cambridge, where he was senior wrangler in 1823. At Cambridge he
+was Lucasian professor of mathematics, and subsequently Plumian professor
+of astronomy and experimental philosophy, in the latter capacity having
+charge of the observatory. In 1835 he was appointed Astronomer Royal, and
+as such his superintendence of the observatory at Greenwich was able and
+successful. He resigned this post with a pension in 1881. His important
+achievement is the discovery of a new inequality in the motions of Venus
+and the earth. He wrote much and made numerous valuable investigations on
+subjects connected with astronomy, physics, and mathematics. Among separate
+works published by him may be mentioned _Popular Astronomy_, _On Sound and
+Atmospheric Vibrations_, _A Treatise on Magnetism_, _On the Undulatory
+Theory of Optics_, _On Gravitation_. He died 2nd Jan., 1892. He left an
+autobiography, published in 1896.
+
+AISLE ([=i]l; from Lat. _ala_, a wing), in architecture, one of the lateral
+divisions of a church in the direction of its length, separated from the
+central portion or nave by piers or pillars. There may be one aisle or more
+on each side of the nave. The cathedrals at Chichester, Milan, and Amiens
+have five aisles, Antwerp and Paris seven, and that of Cordova nineteen
+aisles in all. The nave is sometimes called the central aisle. See
+_Cathedral_.
+
+AISNE ([=a]n), a north-eastern frontier department of France; area, 2838
+sq. miles. It is an undulating, well-cultivated, and well-wooded region,
+chiefly watered by the Oise in the north, its tributary the Aisne in the
+centre, and the Marne in the south. It contains the important towns of St.
+Quentin, Laon (the capital), Soissons, and Château Thierry. In the European
+War (1914-18) severe fighting took place on the Aisne, and a great battle
+was fought on 12th Sep., 1914. General Nivelle's offensive on the Aisne
+began in April, 1917. Pop. (1921), 421,575.
+
+AÏVA'LIK, or KIDONIA, a seaport of Asia Minor, on the Gulf of Adramyti, 66
+miles north by west of Smyrna, carrying on an extensive commerce in
+olive-oil, soap, cotton, &c. Pop. 21,000.
+
+AIX ([=a]ks), a town of Southern France, department Bouches-du-Rhône, on
+the River Arc, the seat of an archbishop. It is well built, has an old
+cathedral and other interesting buildings, including a university, a
+library (over 100,000 vols.), museum, &c.; manufactures cotton and woollen
+goods, oil, soap, hats, flour, &c.; warm springs, now less visited than
+formerly. Aix was founded in 123 B.C. by the Roman consul Gaius Sextius
+Calvinus, and from its mineral springs was called _Aquæ Sextiæ_ (Sextian
+Waters). Between this town and Arles, Marius gained his great victory over
+the Teutons, 102 B.C. In the Middle Ages the counts of Provence held their
+court here, to which the troubadours used to resort. Pop. 29,836.
+
+AIX, or AIX-LES-BAINS ([=a]ks-l[=a]-ba[n.]), a finely-situated village of
+France, department of Savoie, 8 miles north of Chambéry, on the side of a
+fertile valley, with much-frequented hot springs known to the Romans by the
+name of _Aquæ Gratianæ_, and with ruins of a Roman triumphal arch, and of a
+temple of Diana. Pop. 8900.
+
+AIX-LA-CHAPELLE ([=a]ks-l[.a]-sh[.a]-pel; Ger. _Aachen_), a city of Rhenish
+Prussia, 38 miles west by south of Cologne, pleasantly situated in a fine
+vale watered by the Wurm, formerly surrounded by ramparts, now converted
+into pleasant promenades. It is well built, and though an ancient town has
+now quite a modern appearance. The most important building is the
+cathedral, the oldest portion of which, often called the nave, was erected
+in the time of Charles the Great (Charlemagne) as the palace chapel about
+796. It is in the Byzantine style, and consists of an octagon, surrounded
+by a sixteen-sided gallery and surmounted by a cupola, in the middle being
+the tomb of Charlemagne. The adjoining Gothic choir, begun in 1353 and
+finished in 1413, forms the other chief division of the cathedral; it is
+lofty and of great elegance, and has fine painted windows. Another
+noteworthy building is the Rathaus (town hall), erected in the fourteenth
+century. Aix-la-Chapelle, with the adjoining Burtscheid, which may be
+considered a suburb, is a place of great commerce and manufacturing
+industry, the chief productions being woollen yarns and cloths, needles,
+machinery, cards (for the woollen manufacture), railway and other
+carriages, cigars, chemicals, silk goods, hosiery, glass, soap, &c. A
+considerable portion of its importance and prosperity arises from the
+influx of visitors to its sulphur and chalybeate springs and
+baths.--Aix-la-Chapelle was known to the Romans as _Aquisgranum_. It was
+the favourite residence of Charles the Great, who made it the capital of
+all his dominions north of the Alps, and who died here in 814. During the
+Middle Ages it was a free imperial city and very flourishing. Thirty-seven
+German emperors and eleven empresses have been crowned in it, and the
+imperial insignia were preserved here till 1795, when they were carried to
+Vienna. The town was in possession of France from 1794 to 1814. Pop.
+156,143.--_Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle_, a congress held in 1818, by which
+the army of the allies in France was withdrawn after France had paid the
+contribution imposed at the peace of 1815, and by which independence was
+restored to France.--A _treaty_ of peace concluded at this city, 2nd May,
+1668, as a result of the Triple Alliance, put an end to the war carried on
+against Spain by Louis XIV in 1667, after the death of his father-in-law,
+Philip IV, in support of his claims to a great part of the Spanish
+Netherlands, which he urged in the name of his queen, the infanta Maria
+Theresa. By this France obtained Lille, Charleroi, Douai, Tournai,
+Oudenarde, &c. The _second peace_ of Aix-la-Chapelle, 18th Oct., 1748,
+terminated the Austrian war of succession.
+
+AJACCIO ([.a]-y[.a]ch'[=o]), the capital of Corsica, on the south-west
+coast of the island, on a tongue of land projecting into the Gulf of
+Ajaccio, the birthplace of Napoleon and the seat of a bishop, with coral
+and sardine fisheries, and a considerable trade. There are here a
+cathedral, a college with library and museum, marble statue of Napoleon,
+monument of the Bonaparte family, &c. Ajaccio is connected by railway with
+Bastia and other places, and is becoming a winter resort for people with
+weak lungs. Pop. 20,946.
+
+AJAN'TA, a village and ravine of India, in the north-west of the Nizam's
+dominions, about 50 miles north-north-east of Aurangabad. The ravine, 4
+miles N.W. of the village, is celebrated for its cave temples and
+monasteries, twenty-nine in number, excavated out of a wall of almost
+perpendicular rock about 250 feet high. They are all richly ornamented with
+sculpture, and covered with highly-finished paintings, representing
+subjects of almost all kinds. The oldest are assigned to about 200 B.C.,
+the most modern to about A.D. 600, and they may be said to furnish a
+continuous record of Buddhist art during 800 years, the faith at the latter
+date being practically expelled from India.
+
+A'JAX (Gr. _Aias_), the name of two Grecian chiefs who fought against Troy,
+the one being son of O[)i]leus, King of Locris, surnamed the Little, the
+other son of Telamon, the Great or Telamonian Ajax. The latter was from
+Salamis, and sailed with twelve ships to Troy, where he is represented by
+Homer as the boldest and handsomest of the Greeks, after Achilles. He had
+more than one combat with Hector, against whom he was well matched. On the
+death of Achilles, when his arms, which Ajax claimed, were awarded to
+Ulysses, he became insane and killed himself. This is the subject of
+Sophocles' tragedy _Ajax_. The other Ajax was hardly of less importance as
+a champion on the Greek side in the Trojan war. At the fall of Troy he
+entered the temple of Pallas Athena and seized Cassandra. He lost his life
+during his homeward voyage, either by shipwreck or by a flash of lightning
+sent by Athena, who was offended at the violation of her temple.
+
+AJMERE, AJMIR, or AJMER, a British commissionership or province in India,
+Rajputána, divided into the two districts of Ajmere and Mairwara (or
+Merwara); area, 2711 sq. miles. The surface of the province, which is
+entirely surrounded by native States, is hilly in the north and west, where
+there is a branch of the Aravali range, but level in the south and east.
+The soil is partly fertile, but there are large barren sandy plains, and
+there are no rivers of any importance. There are a large number of tanks
+which collect the water of small streams, and are useful for irrigation.
+The province suffered severely from famine in 1899-1900, the population
+being reduced by 12 or 13 per cent. Pop. 501,395.--_Ajmere_, the capital,
+an ancient city, a favourite residence of the Mogul emperors, is 279 miles
+S.W. of Delhi, at the foot of Taragarh Hill (2853 feet), on which is a
+fort. It is surrounded by a wall, has well-built streets, and possesses a
+Government college, as also Mayo College for Rajput nobles, a Scottish
+mission, a mosque that forms one of the finest specimens of early
+Mahommedan architecture extant, and an old palace of Akbar, now the
+treasury. There is a trade in cotton, sugar, salt, &c., and the town is an
+important station on the Rajputána railway. Pop. 86,200.
+
+AJOWAN' (_Ptych[=o]tis Ajowan_), an umbelliferous plant cultivated in
+India, Persia, and Egypt, the seeds of which are used in cookery and in
+medicine, having carminative properties. The seeds much resemble caraway
+seeds, have a strong smell of thyme, and are exported in some quantity to
+Europe as a source of _thymol_, now so well known.
+
+AJU'GA, a genus of plants belonging to the labiate family. See _Bugle_.
+
+AJ'UTAGE, a short tube of a tapering shape fitting into the side of a
+reservoir or vessel to regulate the discharge of water from it. Also, the
+nozzle of a tube for regulating the discharge of water to form a _jet
+d'eau_.
+
+AKABAH', Gulf of, an arm of the Red Sea, on the east side of the Peninsula
+of Sinai, which separates it from the Gulf of Suez; nearly 100 miles long.
+The village of Akabah, at the northern extremity of the gulf, is supposed
+to be near the site of the _Ezion-geber_ of the Old Testament; and here
+also was Elath, long a place of note. Akabah still carries on a small
+trade. It was captured by the Arabs in 1917.
+
+AKAGAMASEKI. Same as _Simonoseki_.
+
+AKAROID RESIN, a resin obtained from some of the grass-trees of Australia,
+used in varnishes.
+
+AKASSA, a seaport of Southern Nigeria, on a small island nearly opposite
+the chief mouth of the Niger. There are here engineering and other works,
+at which ships may be repaired, belonging to the Government.
+
+AK'BAR (that is 'very great'), a Mogul emperor, the greatest Asiatic prince
+of modern times. He was born at Amerkote, in Sind, in 1542, succeeded his
+father, Humayun, a grandson of Sultan Baber, at the age of thirteen, and
+governed first under the guardianship of his minister, Beyram, but took the
+chief power into his own hands in 1560. He fought with distinguished valour
+against his foreign foes and rebellious subjects, conquering all his
+enemies, and extending the limits of the empire farther than they had ever
+been before, although on his accession they embraced only a small part of
+the former Mogul Empire. Although a Mohammedan by birth, he abandoned Islam
+and founded a new religion which he called 'Divine Faith' (_Diu-i-Olahi_).
+His contemporaries bestowed upon him the title of 'Guardian of Mankind'. He
+was also a generous patron of literature, and commissioned the Jesuit
+missionary, Jerome Xavier, to translate the four gospels into Persian. His
+government was remarkable for its mildness and tolerance towards all sects;
+he was indefatigable in his attention to the internal administration of his
+empire, and instituted inquiries into the population, character, and
+productions of each province. The result of his statistical labours, as
+well as a history of his reign, were collected by his minister, Abul Fazl,
+in a work called _Akbar-Nameh_ (Book of Akbar), the third part of which,
+entitled _Ayini-Akbari_ (Institutes of Akbar), was published in an English
+translation at Calcutta (1783-6, 3 vols.), and reprinted in London. He died
+in 1605. His mausoleum at Secundra, near Agra, is a fine example of
+Mohammedan architecture. Cf. V. A. Smith, _Akbar, The Great Mogul_.
+
+AKEE' (_Blighia sap[)i]da_), a tree of the nat. ord. Sapindaceæ, much
+esteemed for its fruit. The leaves are somewhat similar to those of the
+ash; the flowers are small and white, and produced in branched spikes. The
+fruit is lobed and ribbed, of a dull orange colour, and contains several
+large black seeds, embedded in a succulent and slightly bitter arillus of a
+pale straw colour, which is eaten when cooked. The akee is a native of
+Guinea, from whence it was carried to the West Indies by Captain Bligh in
+1793.
+
+À KEMPIS, Thomas. See _Thomas à Kempis_.
+
+AKEN (ä'ken), a Prussian town, province of Saxony, on the left bank of the
+Elbe, with manufactures of tobacco, cloth, beetroot sugar, leather, &c.
+Pop. 7358.
+
+A'KENSIDE, Mark, a poet and physician, born in 1721, at
+Newcastle-upon-Tyne, died in London in 1770. He was the son of a butcher,
+and was sent to the University of Edinburgh to qualify for the ministry,
+but chose the study of medicine instead. After three years' residence at
+Edinburgh he went to Leyden, and in 1744 became Doctor of Physic. In the
+same year he published the _Pleasures of Imagination_, which he is said to
+have written in Edinburgh, and which was translated into French by Baron
+d'Holbach (1769). In 1746 he wrote his much-praised _Hymn to the Naiads_.
+Having settled in London, he became a fellow of the Royal Society, and was
+admitted into the College of Physicians. In 1759 he was appointed first
+assistant and afterwards head physician to St. Thomas's Hospital. In his
+later days he wrote little poetry, but published several medical essays and
+observations. The place of Akenside as a poet is not very high, though Dr.
+Johnson praised the blank verse of his poems, and his somewhat cumbrous
+_Pleasures of Imagination_ was once considered one of the most pleasing
+didactic poems in our language.
+
+AKERMANN', a fortified town and seaport in Bessarabia, near the mouth of
+the Dniester, with a good port. The vicinity produces quantities of salt,
+and also fine grapes from which excellent wine is made. A treaty was signed
+here, 6th Oct., 1826, between Russia and the Porte, by which Moldavia,
+Walachia, and Serbia were released from all but nominal dependence on
+Turkey. Pop. 40,000.
+
+AKHALZIK, or ACHALZIK ([.a]-_h_[.a]l'tsik), a town of Russia in Asia, in
+the Trans-Caucasian government of Tiflis, 97 miles west of Tiflis, with a
+citadel. It was taken by the Russians in 1828. Pop. 15,977.
+
+AK-HISSAR ('white castle'), a town in Asia Minor, 46 miles N.E. of Smyrna,
+occupying the site of the ancient Thyatira, relics of which city are here
+abundant. Here the Emperor Valens defeated the usurper Procopius in 366,
+and Murad defeated the Prince of Aïdin in 1425. Pop. 20,000.
+
+AKHTYRKA ([.a]_h_-tir'k[.a]), a cathedral town of the Ukraine, government
+of Kharkov, with a good trade and some manufactures. Pop. 31,918.
+
+AKJERMANN ([.a]k-yer-m[.a]n'). Same as _Akermann_.
+
+AKKAD, the northern portion of ancient Babylonia occupied by the earliest
+Semitic invaders when the southern portion was Sumer (or Sumeria) and
+occupied by non-Semites. There was also a city of the same name, the
+Biblical Accad (_Gen._ x), which was prominent before 2000 B.C. Its ruins
+were unearthed between 1917 and 1919. See _Babylonia_.
+
+AKKAS, a dwarfish race of Central Africa, dwelling in scattered settlements
+to the north-west of Lake Albert Nyanza, about lat. 3° N., lon. 29° E.
+Their height averages about 4½ feet; they are of a brownish or coffee
+colour; head large, jaws projecting (or prognathous), ears large, hands
+small. They are timid and suspicious, and live almost entirely by the
+chase, being exceedingly skilful with the bow and arrow. They were first
+seen by the traveller G. A. Schweinfurth in 1870.
+
+AKMOLINSK', a Russian province in Central Asia, largely consisting of
+steppes and wastes; the chief rivers are the Ishim and Sari-Su; and it
+contains the larger part of Lake Balkash. Capital, Omsk. Area, about
+225,070 sq. miles. Pop. 1,523,700.--_Akmolinsk_ is a place of some
+importance for its caravan trade. Pop. 11,000.
+
+AKO'LA, a town of India, in Berar, the residence of the commissioner of
+Berar, on the River Morna, 150 miles W. by S. of Nagpur; with walls and a
+fort, and some trade in cotton. Pop. 29,289.
+
+AK'RON, a town of the United States, in Ohio, 100 miles N.E. of Columbus,
+on an elevated site. Being furnished with ample water-power by the Little
+Cuyahoga, it possesses large flour-mills, woollen factories, manufactures
+of iron goods, &c. In the vicinity extensive beds of mineral paint are
+worked. Pop. (1920), 208,435.
+
+AKSU' ('white water'), a town of Eastern or Chinese Turkestan, 300 miles
+from Kashgar, in the valley of the Aksu. It is an important centre of trade
+between Russia, China, and Tartary, and has manufactures of cotton cloth,
+leather, and metal goods. Formerly the residence of the kings of Kashgar
+and Yarkand. Pop. 30,000.
+
+AKYAB', a seaport of Lower Burmah, capital of the province of Arracan, at
+the mouth of the River Kuladan or Akyab, of recent upgrowth, well built,
+possessing a good harbour, and carrying on an important trade, its chief
+exports being rice and petroleum. Pop. 35,680.
+
+AL, the article in the Arabic language. It appears in English words derived
+from the Arabic, such as Algebra, Alchemy, Alcove.
+
+ALABAMA (al-a-b[.a]'ma), one of the United States, bounded by Tennessee,
+Georgia, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and Mississippi; area, 51,998 sq.
+miles. The southern part, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico and Florida, is
+low and level, and wooded largely with pine, hence known as the 'pine-woods
+region'; the middle is hilly, with some tracts of level sand or prairies;
+the north is broken and mountainous. The State is intersected by the Rivers
+Alabama, Tombigbee, Mobile, Coosa, Tallapoosa, Tennessee, &c., some of them
+navigable for several hundred miles. The soil is various, being in some
+places, particularly in the south, sandy and barren, but in most parts is
+fertile, especially in the river valleys and in the centre, where there is
+a very fertile tract known as the 'cotton belt'. The climate in general is
+warm, and in the lowlying lands skirting the rivers is rather unhealthy. In
+the more elevated parts it is healthy and agreeable, the winters being mild
+and the summers tempered by breezes from the Gulf of Mexico. The staple
+production is cotton, especially in the middle and south, where rice and
+sugar are also grown; in the north the cereals (above all maize) are the
+principal crops. Alabama possesses extensive beds of iron ore and coal,
+with marble, granite, and other minerals; and coal and iron mining, and the
+smelting and working of iron, are now important industries. The manufacture
+of cotton goods is extensively carried on. The foreign trade is
+concentrated in Mobile, whence cotton is the principal export. The State
+sends eight representatives to Congress. Its principal towns are
+Montgomery, the seat of government, and Mobile, the chief port. There is a
+State university at Tuscaloosa, a university connected with the Methodist
+Episcopal body, several State normal colleges, besides professional
+schools, &c., in the principal towns. Alabama became a State in 1819. It
+was one of the slave States. Pop. (1920), 2,348,174.
+
+ALABAMA, a river of the United States, in the State of Alabama, formed by
+the junction of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa. After a course of 300 miles
+it joins the Tombigbee and assumes the name of the Mobile.
+
+ALABAMA, The, a ship built at Birkenhead to act as a privateer in the
+service of the Confederate States of North America during the civil war
+begun in 1861. She was a wooden screw steamer with two engines of 350 h.p.
+each, 1040 tons burden, and carried eight 32-pounders. Before she was
+launched her destination was made known to the British Government, but
+owing to some legal formalities the orders given for her detention did not
+reach Liverpool till the day after she had left that port (29th July,
+1862). She received her armament and stores at the Azores, and entered on
+her destructive career, capturing and burning merchant vessels, till she
+was sunk in a fight with the Federal war steamer _Kearsarge_, off
+Cherbourg, 19th June, 1864. As early as the winter of 1862 the United
+States Government declared that they held themselves entitled at a suitable
+period to demand full compensation from Britain for the damages inflicted
+on American property by the _Alabama_ and several other cruisers that had
+been built, supplied, or recruited in British ports or waters. After a long
+series of negotiations it was agreed to submit the final settlement of the
+question to a court of arbitration, consisting of representatives of
+Britain and the United States, and of three other members, appointed by the
+King of Italy, the President of Switzerland, and the Emperor of Brazil.
+This court met at Geneva, 17th Dec., 1871, and a claim for indirect damages
+to American commerce having been abandoned by the United States Government,
+the decree was given in Sept., 1872, that Britain was liable to the United
+States in damages to the amount of 15,500,000 dollars (about £3,229,200).
+After all awards were made to private claimants about 8,000,000 dollars
+still remain unclaimed.
+
+ALABANDITE, or MANGANBLENDE, a black submetallic mineral.
+
+ALABAS'TER, a name applied to a granular variety of gypsum or hydrated
+sulphate of lime. It was much used by the ancients for the manufacture of
+ointment and perfume boxes, vases, and the like. It has a fine granular
+texture, is usually of a pure white colour, and is so soft that it can be
+scratched with the nail. It is found in many parts of Europe; in great
+abundance and of peculiarly excellent quality in Tuscany. From the finer
+and more compact kinds, vases, clock-stands, statuettes, and other
+ornamental articles are made, and from inferior kinds the cement known as
+plaster of Paris. A variety of carbonate of lime, closely resembling
+alabaster in appearance, is used for similar purposes under the name of
+_Oriental alabaster_. It is usually stalagmitic or stalactitic in origin
+and is often of a yellowish colour. It may be distinguished from true
+alabaster by being too hard to be scratched with the nail.
+
+ALAC'TAGA (_Alact[)a]ga jac[)u]lus_), a rodent mammal, closely allied to
+the jerboa, but somewhat larger in size, with a still longer tail. Its
+range extends from the Crimea and the steppes of the Don across Central
+Asia to the Chinese frontier.
+
+ALADDIN, son of Mustafa, a poor tailor of China. A magician, who pretended
+to be his uncle, gave him a magic ring and sent him to fetch 'the wonderful
+lamp' from a cave. Aladdin secured the lamp, but refused to give it to the
+magician, who shut him in the cave. Aladdin was rescued by the Genie of the
+Ring, and by means of the Genie of the Lamp acquired great wealth, built a
+magnificent palace, and married the Sultan's daughter. Afterwards the
+magician got possession of the lamp, and caused the palace to be
+transported into Africa. Aladdin was arrested, but was again saved by the
+Genie of the Ring. He poisoned the magician, recovered the lamp, and by its
+means restored his palace to its original site.
+
+ALAGO'AS, a maritime State of Brazil; area, 22,577 sq. miles; pop.
+946,617.--_Alagoas_, the former capital of the province, is situated on the
+south side of an arm of the sea, about 20 miles distant from Maceio, to
+which the seat of government was transferred in 1839. Pop. about 4000.
+
+ALAIS ([.a]-l[=a]), a town of Southern France, department of Gard, 87 miles
+N.W. of Marseilles, with coal, iron, and lead mines, which are actively
+worked, and chalybeate springs, which have many visitors during the autumn
+months. The treaty of Alais, signed on 28th June, 1629, ended the Huguenot
+wars in France. Pop. 29,800.
+
+ALAJUELA ([.a]-l[.a]-_h_u-[=a]'l[.a]), a town of Central America, in the
+State of Costa Rica. Pop. 12,000.
+
+ALA-KUL, a lake in Russian Central Asia, near the borders of Mongolia, in
+lat. 46° N. lon. 81° 40' E.; area, 660 sq. miles.
+
+ALAMANNI. See _Alemanni_.
+
+ALAMAN'NI, Luigi, an Italian poet, of noble family, born at Florence in
+1495. Suspected of conspiring against the life of Cardinal Giulio de'
+Medici, who then governed Florence in the name of Pope Leo X, he fled to
+Venice, and when the cardinal ascended the papal chair under the name of
+Clement VII he took refuge in France, where he henceforth lived, being
+employed by Francis I and Henry II in several important negotiations. He
+died in 1556. His principal works are a didactic poem, _La Coltivazione_, a
+splendid imitation of Virgil's _Georgics_ (1546); a comedy entitled
+_Flora_; two epics, _Girone il Cortese_ (1548) and _L'Avarchide_, an
+imitation of the _Iliad_ (1570); and a collection of eclogues, satires,
+psalms, &c., partly in blank verse, the invention of which is contested
+with him by Trissino, a contemporary.
+
+AL'AMO, a fort in Bexar county, Texas, United States, celebrated for the
+resistance its occupants (140 Texans) made to a Mexican force of 4000 from
+23rd Feb. to 6th March, 1836. At the latter date only six Texans remained
+alive, and on their surrendering they were slaughtered by the Mexicans.
+
+AL'AMOS, a town of Mexico, State of Sonora, the capital of a mining
+district. Pop. 12,000.
+
+ÅLAND (o'land) ISLANDS, a numerous group of islands and islets, about
+eighty of which are inhabited, formerly in Russia, situated in the Baltic
+Sea, near the mouth of the Gulf of Finland; area, 468 sq. miles. The
+principal island, Åland, distant about 30 miles from the Swedish coast, is
+18 miles long and about 14 broad. The fortress of Bomarsund, here situated,
+was destroyed by an Anglo-French force in Aug., 1854. The inhabitants, who
+are of Swedish extraction, employ themselves mostly in fishing. The islands
+were ceded by Sweden to Russia in 1809, and proclaimed a province of
+Finland in 1918. A referendum of the inhabitants, taken in Dec., 1918,
+decided in favour of union with Sweden, but on 22nd Oct., 1921, an
+agreement for the neutralization of the islands was signed at Genoa. Pop.
+18,000.
+
+ALA'NI, or ALANS, one of the warlike tribes which migrated from Asia
+westward at the time of the decline of the Roman Empire. They are first met
+with in the region of the Caucasus, where Pompey fought with them. From
+this centre they spread over the south of modern Russia to the confines of
+the Roman Empire. About the middle of the fifth century they joined the
+Vandals, among whom they became lost to history.
+
+ALARCON' Y MENDO'ZA, Don Juan Ruiz de, one of the most distinguished
+dramatic poets of Spain, born in Mexico about the end of the sixteenth or
+the beginning of the seventeenth century. He came to Europe about 1622, and
+in 1628 he published a volume containing eight comedies, and in 1634
+another containing twelve. One of them, called _La Verdad Sospechosa_ (The
+Truth Suspected), published in 1630 in a collection bearing the name of
+Lope de Vega, furnished Corneille with the groundwork and greater part of
+the substance of his _Menteur_. Hence Corneille's declaration in the
+preface to that play that he had borrowed the subject from Lope de Vega.
+His _Tejedor de Segovia_ (Weaver of Segovia) and _Las Paredes Oyen_ (Walls
+have Ears) are still performed on the Spanish stage. He died in 1639.
+
+AL'ARIC I, King of the Visigoths, was born about the middle of the fourth
+century, probably in 370, and is first mentioned in history in A.D. 394,
+when Theodosius the Great gave him the command of his Gothic auxiliaries.
+The dissensions between Arcadius and Honorius, the sons of Theodosius,
+inspired Alaric with the intention of attacking the Roman Empire. In 396 he
+ravaged Greece, from which he was driven by the Roman general Stilicho, but
+made a masterly retreat to Illyria, of which Arcadius, frightened at his
+successes, appointed him governor. In 400 he invaded Italy, but was
+defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia (403), and induced to transfer his
+services from Arcadius to Honorius on condition of receiving 4000 lb. of
+gold. Honorius having failed to fulfil this condition, Alaric made a second
+invasion of Italy, during which he besieged Rome three times. The first
+time (408) the city was saved by paying a heavy ransom; the second (409) it
+capitulated, and Honorius was deposed, but shortly afterwards restored. His
+sanction of a treacherous attack on the forces of Alaric brought about the
+third siege, and the city was taken 24th Aug., 410, and sacked for six
+days, Alaric, however, doing everything in his power to restrain the
+violence of his followers. He quitted Rome with the intention of reducing
+Sicily and Africa, but died at Cosenza in 410. Legend has it that he was
+buried beneath the river-bed of the Busenzo, the course of which was
+temporarily turned aside for the purpose.
+
+AL'ARIC II, King of the Visigoths from A.D. 484 to 507. At the beginning of
+his reign the dominions of the Visigoths were at their greatest extent,
+embracing three-fourths of the modern Spain and all Western Gaul to the
+south of the Loire. His unwarlike character induced Clovis, King of the
+Franks, to invade the kingdom of the Visigoths. In a battle near Poitiers
+(507) Alaric was slain and his army completely defeated. The _Breviarium
+Alaricianum_, a code of laws derived exclusively from Roman sources, was
+compiled by a body of Roman jurists at the command of this King Alaric.
+
+ALARM, in military language, a signal, given by beat of drum, bugle-call,
+or firing of a gun, to warn a camp or garrison of a surprise intended or
+actually made by the enemy. A place, called the _alarm-post_, is generally
+appointed at which the troops are to assemble when an alarm is
+given.--_Alarm_ is also the name given to several contrivances in which
+electricity is made use of, as a _fire-alarm_, by which intelligence is at
+once conveyed to the proper quarter when a fire breaks out; a
+_burglar-alarm_, an arrangement of wires and a battery in a house intended
+to set a bell or bells ringing should a burglar attempt to gain entrance.
+
+ALARM-CLOCK, one which can be set so as to ring loudly at a certain hour to
+wake from sleep or excite attention.
+
+ALA-SHEHR ([.a]-l[.a]-sh[=a]r') (ancient PHILADELPHIA), a town in Asia
+Minor, 100 miles east of Smyrna, famous as the seat of one of the first
+Christian churches, and still having a vast number of interesting remains
+of antiquity, consisting of fragments of beautiful columns, sarcophagi,
+fountains, &c. It is a place of some importance, carrying on a thriving
+trade, chiefly with Smyrna, to which runs a railway. Pop. 15,000.
+
+ALAS'KA, a territory belonging to the United States, comprising all that
+portion of the north-west of North America which lies west of the 141st
+meridian of west longitude, together with an irregular strip of coast-land
+(and the adjacent islands), extending south to lat. 54° 40' N., and lying
+between Canada and the Pacific (the boundary being adjusted in 1903); total
+area, about 590,884 sq. miles. The chief river is the Yukon, a great
+stream, now navigated in summer for most of its course. The principal
+mountains (among which are several volcanoes) are Mounts McKinley (20,470
+feet) and Wrangell (17,400 feet). The climate of the interior is very
+severe in winter, but in summer the heat is intense; on the Pacific coast
+it is mild but moist. Alaska produces excellent timber. Numbers of
+fur-bearing animals abound, such as the fur-seal, sea-otter, beaver, fox,
+mink, marten, &c.; and the fur trade has long been valuable. The coasts and
+rivers swarm with fish, and salmon and cod are caught and exported. Gold is
+now mined in several localities, especially Cape Nome, where a town has
+sprung up. The aboriginal inhabitants consist of Esquimaux and Indians.
+Alaska, called Russian America until 1867, was sold to the United States
+for 7,200,000 dollars, the acquisition being ratified by Congress on 20th
+June, 1867. It has a legislative assembly consisting of eight senators and
+sixteen representatives, and the legislature meets biennially since 1913.
+The capital was formerly Sitka, on Baranoff Island, but is now Juneau, on
+Gastineau Channel. Pop. 64,356, latest estimate being
+75,000.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. W. Greely, _Handbook of Alaska_; J. Muir,
+_Travels in Alaska_.
+
+ALASKITE, an igneous rock consisting of quartz and felspar. See _Granite_.
+
+ALAS'SIO, a seaport of North Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa, a winter resort
+of people from England. Pop. 5000.
+
+ALASTOR, in Greek mythology, is a surname of Zeus (cf. Lat. Jupiter
+_Vindex_) describing him as the avenger of evil deeds. The name or epithet
+is also used to designate any deity or demon who avenges wrongs committed
+by men. _Alastor_ is the title of a poem by Shelley.
+
+ALATAU ([.a]-l[.a]-tou'), the name of three considerable mountain ranges of
+Central Asia, on the Russian and Chinese frontiers.
+
+ALATYR ([.a]-l[.a]-tir'), a town in Russia, government Simbirsk, at the
+confluence of the Alatyr with the Sura, with a considerable trade. Pop.
+11,000.
+
+ALAU'DA, a genus of insessorial birds, which includes the larks. See
+_Lark_.
+
+A'LAVA, a hilly province in the north of Spain, one of the three Basque
+provinces; area, 1175 sq. miles; covered by branches of the Pyrenees, the
+mountains being clothed with oak, chestnut, and other timber, and the
+valleys yielding grain, vegetables, and abundance of fruits. There are iron
+and copper mines, and inexhaustible salt springs. Capital, Vittoria. Pop.
+97,692.
+
+[Illustration: A, Alb with its Apparels _a_, _b_, and Girdle _c_; B, Amice;
+C, Stole]
+
+ALB (from Lat. _albus_, white), a clerical vestment of the Catholic Church
+worn by priests while officiating in the more solemn functions of divine
+service. It is a long robe of white linen reaching to the feet, bound round
+the waist by a cincture, and fitting more closely to the body than the
+surplice. It is now little used except during Mass. After the Reformation
+the _alb_ was not used in the Church of England, but since the ritualistic
+revival in the nineteenth century it has again been introduced into a
+number of churches.
+
+ALBA, the name of several towns in ancient Italy, the most celebrated of
+which was Alba Longa, a city of Latium, according to tradition built by
+Ascanius, the son of Æneas, 300 years before the foundation of Rome, at one
+time the most powerful city of Latium. It ultimately fell under the
+dominion of Rome, when the town was destroyed, it is said. In later times
+its site became covered with villas of wealthy Romans.
+
+ALBA (anciently ALBA POMPEIA), a town of Northern Italy, about 30 miles
+S.E. of Turin, is the see of a bishop, has a cathedral, bishop's palace,
+church with fresco paintings by Perugino, &c. Pop. 6872.
+
+ALBA, Duke of. See _Alva_.
+
+ALBACETE ([.a]l-b[.a]-th[=a]'t[=a]), a town in Southern Spain, capital of
+the province of the same name, 106 miles N.N.W. of Cartagena, with a
+considerable trade, both direct and transit, and manufactures of knives,
+daggers, &c. Pop. 24,805.--The province has an area of 5737 sq. miles, and
+a pop. of 273,380.
+
+ALBA LONGA. See _Alba_.
+
+ALBAN, St., the earliest British martyr, flourished in the third century,
+and was, it is said, converted from Paganism by a confessor whom he had
+saved from his persecutors. He refused to sacrifice to the gods, and was
+executed outside the city of Verulamium (St. Albans) in 285 or 305.
+
+ALBANI ([.a]l-bä'n[=e]), Francesco, a famous Italian painter, born at
+Bologna in 1578, died in 1660. He studied with Guido Reni under the Flemish
+painter Calvaert and the Caracci. It is said that his second wife, Doralice
+Fioraventi, bore him twelve children of such beauty that they served him as
+models for his paintings. Among the best known of his compositions are _The
+Sleeping Venus_, _Diana in the Bath_, _Danaë Reclining_, _Galatea on the
+Sea_, _Europa on the Bull_.
+
+ALBA'NI, Madame, maiden name Marie Louise Emma Cecile Lajeunesse, famous
+singer, was born near Montreal in 1852, was trained at home by her father,
+and studied also in Paris and Milan. She made her first public appearance
+in Europe at Messina, in Bellini's _La Sonnambula_, and in 1872 sang in the
+Royal Italian Opera in London. Since then she has attained the position of
+one of the world's foremost singers, both in opera and oratorio. In 1878
+she was married to Mr. Ernest Gye, the operatic manager. She adopted the
+professional name of Albani from Albany, in the United States, where as a
+girl she sang in the Roman Catholic cathedral. In 1911 she published her
+memoirs under the title of _Forty Years of Song_.
+
+ALBA'NIA, an extensive region stretching along the coast of the Adriatic
+for about 290 miles, and having a breadth varying from about 90 to about 50
+miles. The boundary on the east is formed by a range of mountains, and the
+country is composed of at least nine ridges of hills, of which six are in
+Lower or Southern Albania (ancient Epirus) and the remainder in Central and
+Upper or Northern Albania. There are no large rivers, and in summer many of
+the streams are completely dry. The Drin or Drino is the largest. The most
+beautiful lake is that of Ochrida, 20 miles long, 8 broad at the widest
+part. The Lake of Scutari, in Upper Albania, is the largest. Among trees
+Albania has many species of oak, the poplar, hazel, plane, chestnut,
+cypress, and laurel. The vine flourishes, together with the orange, almond,
+fig, mulberry, and citron; maize, wheat, and barley are cultivated. Its
+fauna comprises bears, wolves, and chamois; sheep, goats, horses, asses,
+and mules are plentiful. The chief exports are live stock, wool, hides,
+timber, oil, salt-fish, cheese, and tobacco. The chief ports are Prevesa,
+Valona, and Durazzo. The population, about 850,000, consists chiefly of
+Albanians or Arnauts, or, as they call themselves, Skupetars, i.e.
+inhabitants of the mountains (by the Turks they are called Arnauts, by the
+Greeks Arbanites, and by the Serbs Arbanasi). They are spread along the
+coasts of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. History and legend afford little or
+no record of the arrival of the Albanian race in the Balkan Peninsula. It
+may, however, be safely asserted that the Albanians are the direct
+descendants of the earliest Aryan immigrants, who were represented in
+historical times by the kindred Illyrians, Macedonians, and Epirots. The
+majority live in Albania, the rest in Montenegro, Greece, Southern Italy,
+Sicily, Bessarabia, and Asia Minor. As regards religion they are either
+Christians or Mohammedans. They are divided into several tribes, among whom
+the Suliotes are partly of Greek origin. The Albanian language is a branch
+of the Indo-European languages, and related to the long-ago extinct
+language of the Messapians. The language consists of numerous dialects,
+which may be divided into those of the Tosks in the south and the Gheggas
+in the north. Though their country became a province of the Turkish
+dominions in 1431, they maintained for centuries a certain degree of
+independence, which the Porte never found it possible to overcome. On 28th
+Nov., 1912, the complete independence of Albania was proclaimed at Valona,
+a provisional government was founded under Ismail Kemal Bey, and Albanian
+autonomy was agreed to at the Ambassadorial Conference in London on 20th
+Dec. On 21st Feb., 1914, the crown was offered to Prince William of Wied,
+who arrived at Durazzo on 7th March. The prince was supported and advised
+by an International Commission of Control, but he left the country at the
+outbreak of hostilities in 1914. Attempts made by Essad Pasha to establish
+a military government failed, and the country was overrun by the Austrians,
+who captured Durazzo on 28th Feb., 1916. On 3rd June, 1917, the general in
+charge of the Italian forces proclaimed Albania an independent country, and
+a provisional government was set up at Durazzo. Albanian independence was
+recognized by the Powers and Albania admitted to the League of Nations in
+Dec., 1920.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. F. Tozer, _Researches in the Highlands of
+Turkey_; W. Peacock, _Albania, The Foundling State_.
+
+ALBA'NO, a city and lake in Italy, the former about 15 miles south-east of
+Rome, and on the west border of the lake, amid beautiful scenery. An
+ancient tomb in the Etruscan style was for a long time looked upon as the
+sepulchre of the Horatii and Curiatii. Here are also the ruins of the
+villas of Pompey and Domitian. Pop. 8000.--The lake, situated immediately
+beneath the Alban Hill, is of an oval form, 6 miles in circumference,
+surrounded by steep banks of volcanic tufa 300 or 400 feet high, and
+discharges its superfluous waters by an artificial tunnel at least 2000
+years old.
+
+ALBANS, St. See _St. Albans_.
+
+AL'BANY, the original Celtic name probably at first applied to the whole of
+Britain, but afterwards restricted to the Highlands of Scotland. It gave
+the title of duke formerly to a prince of the blood-royal of Scotland. The
+first duke was Robert Stuart (1345-1420), son of Robert II by his mistress
+Elizabeth Mure, and brother of Robert III. He was virtual ruler of the
+kingdom during the latter years of his brother's reign, and acted as regent
+for his nephew James I (kept a prisoner in England) till his own death.
+Another nephew, David, Duke of Rothesay, is said to have been starved to
+death in Falkland Castle at his instigation. His son Murdoch, second duke,
+succeeded him as regent, and was put to death by James for
+maladministration. The third duke was Alexander, second son of James II and
+brother of James III. A large part of his life was passed in France. His
+son John was the fourth who bore the title. He was regent of Scotland
+during the minority of James V (1515-23).
+
+AL'BANY, a city of the United States, capital of the State of New York on
+the west bank of the Hudson, 132 miles north of New York city, from and to
+which steamboats run daily. The Erie Canal and the numerous railway lines
+centring here from all directions greatly contribute to the growth and
+prosperity of the city, which carries on an extensive trade. It is a great
+mart for timber, and has foundries, breweries, tanneries, &c. Albany was
+settled by the Dutch between 1610 and 1614, and the older houses are in the
+Dutch style, with the gable-ends to the streets. There is a university, an
+observatory, and a State library with 90,000 volumes. The principal public
+buildings are the capitol or State-house, which cost about £5,000,000, and
+the State-hall for the public offices, a State arsenal, and numerous
+churches. Pop. (1920), 113,344.
+
+AL'BANY, Louisa Maria Caroline, Countess of, a princess of the
+Stolberg-Gedern family, was born in 1753, and married, in 1772, the
+pretender, Charles Edward Stuart, after which event she bore the above
+title. To escape from the ill-treatment of her husband she retired, in
+1780, to the house of her brother-in-law at Rome, where she met the poet
+Alfieri, whose mistress she became. After the death of Alfieri in 1793 she
+opened her famous political and literary salon frequented by the Duchess of
+Devonshire, the Duchess of Hamilton, Cardinal Consalvi, Samuel Rogers,
+Thomas Moore, Lamartine, and Chateaubriand. She died at Florence in 1824,
+where she was buried at the Church of Sta Croce, by the side of Alfieri,
+whom she is supposed to have married secretly.
+
+ALBA'TA, a name sometimes given to German silver.
+
+[Illustration: Wandering Albatross (_Diom[=e]dea ex[)u]lans_)]
+
+AL'BATROSS, a large marine swimming bird of several species, of which the
+wandering albatross (_Diomed[=e]a ex[)u]lans_) is the best known. The bill
+is straight and strong, the upper mandible hooked at the point and the
+lower one truncated; there are three webbed toes on each foot. The upper
+part of the body is of a greyish brown, and the belly white. It is the
+largest sea-bird known, some measuring 17½ feet from tip to tip of their
+expanded wings. They abound at the Cape of Good Hope and in other parts of
+the southern seas, and in Behring's Straits, and have been known to
+accompany ships for whole days without ever resting on the waves. From this
+habit the bird is regarded with feelings of attachment and superstitious
+awe by sailors, it being reckoned unlucky to kill one. Coleridge has
+availed himself of this feeling in his _Ancient Mariner_. The albatross is
+met with at great distances from the land, settling down on the waves at
+night to sleep. It is exceedingly voracious, whenever food is abundant,
+gorging to such a degree as to be unable to fly or swim. It feeds on fish,
+carrion, fish-spawn, oceanic mollusca, and other small marine animals. Its
+cry is harsh and disagreeable. Its nest is a heap of earth; its eggs are
+larger than those of a goose.
+
+ALBATROSS, a name applied to a certain type of German aeroplanes, much used
+for scouting purposes during the European War.
+
+ALBAY ([.a]l-b[=i]'), a province, town, bay, and volcano in the south-east
+part of the Island of Luzon, one of the Philippines. The province is
+mountainous but fertile; the town regularly built, with a pop. of 34,000;
+the bay capacious, secure, and almost landlocked; and the volcano, which is
+always in activity, forms a conspicuous landmark.
+
+ALBEMARLE, Duke of. See _Monk, George_.
+
+AL'BENDORF, a village in Prussia, province of Silesia, 50 miles S.W. of
+Breslau, remarkable for the pilgrimages made to its church, chapels,
+statues, &c. Pop. 1800.
+
+ALBERONI, Cardinal Giulio (j[=u]'li-o [.a]l-b[=a]-r[=o]'n[=e]), born in
+1664 in North Italy, and educated for the Church. In his youth he laboured
+as a gardener, but thanks to the protection of the Duc de Vendôme, whose
+secretary he became, and afterwards of the Duc de Parma, he rose to high
+position. The latter sent him as his minister to Madrid, where he gained
+the affection of Philip V. He rose by cunning and intrigue to the position
+of Prime Minister, became a cardinal, was all-powerful in Spain after the
+year 1715, and endeavoured to restore it to its ancient splendour. In
+pursuance of this object he invaded Sardinia and Sicily, and indeed
+entertained the idea of stirring up a general war in Europe. The alliance
+of France and England, however, rendered his schemes abortive, and led to
+his dismissal and exile in 1720. He wandered about a long time under false
+names, but on the accession of Pope Innocent XIII he was restored to all
+the rights and honours of a cardinal. He died in 1752, and was buried at
+Piacenza.
+
+ALBERT, Prince, Albert Francis Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince of
+Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Prince Consort of England, second son of Ernest I,
+Duke of Saxe-Coburg, was born at the Rosenau, a castle near Coburg, on 26th
+Aug., 1819. In 1837 he entered the University of Bonn, where he devoted
+himself to the studies of political and natural science, history,
+philosophy, &c., as well as to those of music and painting. On leaving the
+university he made a tour through the chief cities of Italy with Baron
+Stockmar. On 10th Feb., 1840, he married his cousin, Queen Victoria of
+England. Leopold I, King of the Belgians and uncle of Queen Victoria, was
+greatly instrumental in bringing about the marriage. An allowance of
+£30,000 a year was settled upon the prince, who was naturalized by Act of
+Parliament, received the title of Royal Highness by patent, was made a
+field-marshal, a Knight of the Garter, of the Bath, &c. Other honours were
+subsequently bestowed upon him, the chief of which was the title of Prince
+Consort (1857). His foreign birth at first caused him to be regarded with
+some suspicion, but his unfailing tact and genuine ability were not long in
+gaining their due recognition. He always carefully abstained from party
+politics, but his knowledge of the politics of his adopted country, both
+domestic and foreign, was profound and accurate, and must often have been
+of service to the queen and her advisers. He always took a deep and active
+interest in the welfare of the people in general. His services to the cause
+of science and art were very important; he presided over the commission
+appointed in 1841 to consider the best means of rebuilding the Houses of
+Parliament, and the great exhibition of 1851 owed much of its success to
+his activity, knowledge, and judgment. The amendment of the Articles of War
+in 1844 which ultimately put an end to duelling was due to his suggestion.
+Cambridge University conferred upon him the degree of LL.D., and in 1847 he
+was elected Chancellor. He presided and delivered the inaugural address at
+the meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen in 1859. He died of
+typhoid fever on 14th Dec., 1861, after a short illness. A collection of
+his speeches and addresses was published in 1862. A biography of the prince
+by Sir Theodore Martin was published in 5 volumes, London, 1875-80.
+
+ALBERT, first Duke of Prussia, and last grand-master of the Teutonic Order,
+was born in 1490; died in 1568. In 1511 he was chosen by the Teutonic
+knights grand-master of their order. Being nephew of Sigismund, King of
+Poland, the knights hoped by his means to be freed from the feudal
+superiority of Poland, and placed under the protection of the empire. This
+superiority, however, Sigismund refused to surrender, and war broke out
+between uncle and nephew. He subsequently became reconciled to his uncle,
+and obtained his investiture as hereditary Duke of Prussia under the Polish
+Crown, the territorial rights of the Teutonic Order being thus set aside.
+The latter years of his reign were spent in organizing the government and
+promoting the prosperity of his duchy; he founded schools and churches,
+established a ducal library, and opened the University of Königsberg in
+1543.
+
+AL'BERT I, Duke of Austria, and afterwards Emperor of Germany, son of
+Rudolph of Hapsburg, was born in 1248. On the death of his father in 1292
+he claimed the Empire, but his arrogant conduct drove the electors to
+choose Adolphus of Nassau emperor. Adolphus, after a reign of six years,
+having lost the regard of all the princes of the Empire, Albert was elected
+to succeed him. A battle ensued near Göllheim, in which Adolphus was slain
+by his adversary, who was elected and crowned. Pope Boniface VIII, however,
+refused to acknowledge him as emperor, and ordered the electoral princes to
+renounce their allegiance to him. On the other hand, Albert formed an
+alliance with Philip le Bel of France, and offered so determined and
+successful a resistance to the papal authority that Boniface was induced to
+withdraw his opposition, on condition that Albert would break with his
+French ally. During the subsequent years of his reign the Emperor was
+engaged in unsuccessful wars with Holland, Hungary, Bohemia, and other
+States. His measures still further to strengthen his authority over the
+Swiss Forest Cantons of Unterwalden, Schwyz, and Uri drove the inhabitants
+into open revolt in Jan. 1308. While on his way to crush the Swiss he was
+assassinated, at Windisch in May, 1308, by his nephew John, Duke of Suabia,
+called afterwards the Parricide, whose inheritance he had seized upon.
+
+ALBERT I, King of the Belgians, born on 8th April, 1875, at Brussels. He is
+the son of Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders (died 17th Nov., 1905), and
+of Princess Marie of Hohenzollern (born 17th Nov., 1845). After the death
+of his cousin, the Duke of Brabant, and of his father in 1905, Prince
+Albert became heir apparent. In 1906 he became member of the Belgian Senate
+and in 1907 was appointed by his uncle, Leopold II, Lieutenant-General. On
+2nd Oct., 1900, he married Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Duke Charles
+Theodor of Bavaria; there are three children. He ascended the Belgian
+throne in Nov., 1909, after the death of his uncle Leopold II.
+
+ALBERT EDWARD, or simply EDWARD, one of the equatorial lakes of Africa,
+otherwise known as _Muta Nzige_ (q.v.).
+
+ALBERT HALL, an amphitheatre in the Italian Renaissance style in
+Kensington, London, built during 1867-71 for concerts and assemblies. It
+can seat 9000 people, and its organ, which has nearly 9000 pipes, is one of
+the largest in the world.
+
+ALBERT MEMORIAL, the monument erected in Kensington Gardens, London, in
+memory of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. It is the work of Sir
+Gilbert Scott, and its style is Victorian Gothic.
+
+ALBERT NYAN'ZA, a lake of Africa, one of the headwaters of the Nile, lying
+(approximately) between lat. 2° 30' and 1° 10' N., and with its north-east
+extremity in about lon. 28° E.; general direction from north-east to
+south-west, surface about 2500 feet above sea-level. It is surrounded by
+precipitous cliffs, and bounded on the west and south-west by great ranges
+of mountains. It abounds with fish, and its shores are infested with
+crocodiles and hippopotami. It receives the Victoria Nile from the Victoria
+Nyanza, and the White Nile issues from its northern extremity.
+
+ALBERT-BAPAUME. Along the great trunk road from Albert to Bapaume and on
+either side of it, fierce fighting took place during the Somme offensive of
+1916, marked by the stages La Boiselle, Pozières and Le Sars. When, in
+Feb., 1917, the Germans began the great retreat, the fortified village of
+Pys on the left of the road was seized at a rush. On the 26th the village
+of Warlencourt fell, and two days later Thilley village 1½ miles from
+Bapaume, was taken. The British troops, avoiding direct assaults, gradually
+encircled the town, forcing the Germans to withdraw. It was entered on 17th
+March.
+
+ALBERTA, a province of Canada, established on 1st Sept., 1905, and
+comprising the former territory of Alberta and the part of the former
+territory of Athabasca lying west of the meridian 110°, and having the new
+province of Saskatchewan on the east, British Columbia on the west, the
+United States on the south, and Mackenzie territory on the north; area,
+255,285 sq. miles. A large part of the area on the west is occupied by the
+Rocky Mountains, which are shared in common with Alberta and British
+Columbia, and consist mostly of a series of more or less parallel ridges.
+One or two of the loftier summits are in the province, others on the
+boundary. There is much valuable timber in this district. The general slope
+of the surface is from west to east and north-east. The province is
+intersected by numerous rivers and streams that have their sources in the
+Rockies, some of them, such as the Peace River and the Athabasca, sending
+their waters to the Arctic Ocean, while the others, such as the North and
+South Saskatchewan and their tributaries, belong to the Hudson Bay basin.
+In the extreme south are one or two small tributaries of the Missouri.
+There are a number of lakes, the largest being the Lesser Slave Lake and
+Lake Athabasca (partly in this province). Notwithstanding the number of the
+streams, there are districts, especially in the south, where agriculture
+cannot be successfully carried on without irrigation. Farther to the north
+there are areas highly suitable for agriculture, and timber is also
+abundant. Cattle ranching is successfully carried on in the south, but
+tillage, with and even without irrigation, is also carried on, fine crops
+of wheat being grown. The most valuable mineral is coal, which is found at
+various places, but is chiefly mined in the south at Lethbridge, and
+farther north in the Banff district. Here there are hot springs and grand
+scenery, and a large tract of land has been set apart as a national park.
+Near Edmonton, the capital, coal is found on the bank of the North
+Saskatchewan, and is readily worked. Iron, petroleum, and other minerals
+are found. The climate is very warm in summer, and in winter less severe
+and prolonged than might be supposed. The warm _chinook_ winds from the
+Pacific often blow in winter, and speedily melt the snow. The province is
+crossed in the south by the Canadian Pacific Railway, running by way of
+Calgary and Banff, and crossing the Rockies. From Calgary one branch runs
+north to Edmonton, another runs south to McLeod, where other lines make a
+connection with the States railroads and British Columbia. Edmonton, being
+also on the Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific, is bound to
+become a great centre of trade and provincial development. It and Calgary
+are the chief towns. The population in 1911 was returned at 374,663, the
+latest estimate being nearly 500,000.
+
+ALBERTITE, an asphaltic hydrocarbon compound, a soft black material,
+obtained in Canada.
+
+ALBER'TUS MAGNUS, or ALBERT THE GREAT, Count of Bollstädt, a distinguished
+German scholar of the thirteenth century, born in 1193, or 1205, studied at
+Padua, became a monk of the Dominican order, teaching in the schools of
+Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where Thomas Aquinas became his pupil.
+In 1245 he went to Paris and publicly expounded the doctrines of Aristotle,
+notwithstanding the prohibition of the Church. He is called Doctor
+Universalis, for he was one of the most proficient scholars of his day,
+second only to Roger Bacon in his knowledge of nature. He became rector of
+the school of Cologne in 1249; in 1254 he was made provincial of his order
+in Germany; and in 1260 he received from Pope Alexander IV the appointment
+of Bishop of Ratisbon. In 1263 he retired to his convent at Cologne, where
+he composed many works, especially commentaries on Aristotle. He died in
+1280. Owing to his profound knowledge he did not escape the imputation of
+using magical arts and trafficking with the Evil One.
+
+AL'BI. See _Alby_.
+
+ALBIGENSES (al-bi-jen's[=e]z), a neo-Manichæan sect which spread widely in
+the south of France and elsewhere about the twelfth century, and which
+differed in doctrine and practice from the Roman Catholic Church, by which
+they were subjected to severe persecution. They are said to have been so
+named from Albi, on the banks of the Tarn, a tributary of the Garonne,
+where, and about Toulouse, Narbonne, &c., they were numerous. They were
+also known as Catharists (q.v.) and their doctrines were similar to those
+of several other religious sects such as the Gnostics, Manichæans, and
+Bogomils. Among the principal doctrines of the Albigenses was the belief in
+the existence of two principles, good and evil, the creators of the
+spiritual and material worlds. Since all matter is under the control of the
+evil principle, maintained the Albigenses, all flesh is evil. The
+extinction of bodily life, therefore, the deliverance of the soul from the
+prison-house of the body, should be the aim of man. Suicide by means of
+starvation was consequently highly meritorious. It is admitted even by
+Catholic writers (see _Catholic Encyclopædia_, vol. i, p. 268) that the
+Albigenses were principally antisacerdotal and opposed to the Roman Church
+on account of the scandalous life led by the Catholic clergy. A crusade was
+begun against them, and Count Raymond VI of Toulouse for tolerating them,
+in 1209, the army of the cross being called together by Pope Innocent III.
+The war was carried on with a cruelty which reflected deep disgrace upon
+the Catholic Church. Béziers, the capital of Raymond's nephew Roger, was
+taken by storm, and 20,000 of the inhabitants, without distinction of
+creed, were put to the sword. Simon de Montfort, the military leader of the
+crusade, was equally severe towards other places in the territory of
+Raymond and his allies. After the death of Raymond VI, in 1222, his son,
+Raymond VII, was obliged, notwithstanding his readiness to do penance, to
+defend his inheritance against the papal legates and Louis VIII of France.
+When hundreds of thousands had fallen on both sides, a peace was made in
+1229, by which Raymond was obliged to cede Narbonne with other territories
+to Louis IX, and make his son-in-law, a brother of Louis, his heir. The
+heretics were now delivered up to the proselytizing zeal of the Dominicans,
+and to the courts of the Inquisition, by which means it was brought about
+that the Albigenses disappeared after the middle of the thirteenth century.
+Cf. C. Schmidt, _Histoire et doctrine de la Secte des Cathares ou
+Albigeois_ (2 vols.)
+
+ALBINOS (al-b[=i]'n[=o]z), the name given to those persons from whose skin,
+hair, and eyes, in consequence of some defect in their organization, the
+dark colouring matter is absent. The skin of albinos, therefore, whether
+they belong to the white, Indian, or negro races, is of a uniform pale
+milky colour, their hair is white, while the iris of their eyes is pale
+rose colour, and the pupil intensely red, the absence of the dark pigment
+allowing the multitude of blood-vessels in these parts of the eye to be
+seen. For the same reason their eyes are not well suited to endure the
+bright light of day, and they see best in shade or by moonlight. The
+peculiarity of _albinism_ or _leucopathy_ is hereditary and not confined to
+the human race, having been observed also in horses, rabbits, rats, mice,
+&c., birds (white crows or blackbirds are not particularly uncommon), and
+fishes. Albinos are not of necessity lacking in mental vigour or capacity.
+Cf. Karl Pearson, _A Monograph on Albinism in Man_.
+
+AL'BION (Celtic _Albainn_), the earliest name by which the island of Great
+Britain was known, employed already by writers of the sixth century B.C.,
+who speak not of Britannia but of the land of the Albiones, and in poetry
+still used for Great Britain. It is connected with Lat. _albus_, white, on
+account, perhaps, of the chalk cliffs of Dover. The same word as _Albany_,
+_Albyn_.
+
+AL'BITE, or SODA-FELSPAR, a mineral, a kind of felspar, usually of a white
+colour, to which property it owes its name (Lat. _albus_, white), but
+occasionally bluish, greyish, greenish, or reddish white.
+
+ALBIZZIA (al-bit'si-a), a genus of leguminous trees and shrubs, allied to
+the genus Acacia, with doubly-pinnate leaves and white, yellow, or red
+flowers often in globular heads, and broad, straight, flat pods. They
+number over fifty species, and inhabit tropical and subtropical Asia,
+Africa, and Australia. _A. lophanta_, a native of south-western Australia,
+has a bark that contains tannin. _A. Lebbek_, a native of Asia and Africa,
+yields valuable timber, and in Egypt is much cultivated as a shade tree.
+_A. Julibrissin_, a tree with rose-red flowers, is found in Asia and
+Africa, and has been introduced into Southern Europe.
+
+AL'BOIN, King of the Lombards, succeeded his father Audoin in 561, and
+reigned in Noricum and Pannonia. Narses, the general of Justinian, sought
+his alliance, and received his aid, in the war against Totila, King of the
+Ostrogoths. Alboin afterwards (in 568) undertook the conquest of Italy,
+where Narses, who had subjected this country to Justinian, offended by an
+ungrateful Court, sought an avenger in Alboin, and offered him his
+co-operation. After a victorious career in Italy he was slain at Verona, in
+573 or 574, by an assassin, instigated by his wife Rosamond, whose hatred
+he had incurred by sending her, in one of his fits of intoxication, a cup
+wrought from the skull of her father, and forcing her to drink from it.
+
+ALBORAK, in Mohammedan mythology, the animal said to have been brought by
+the angel Gabriel to carry Mohammed to the seventh heaven. It had the face
+of a man, the body of a horse, the wings of an eagle, and spoke with a
+human voice.
+
+ALBRECHT ([.a]l'bre_h_t), the German form of _Albert_ (q.v.).
+
+ALBRECHTSBERGER ([.a]l'bre_h_ts-ber-g[.e]r), Johann Georg, a German
+composer and writer on music; a teacher of Beethoven, Moscheles, &c. Born
+1736, died 1809.
+
+ALBRET, Jeanne d' (zh[.a]n d[.a]l-br[=a]), Queen of Navarre, wife of
+Antoine de Bourbon and mother of Henri IV of France, a zealous supporter of
+the reformed religion, which she established in her kingdom; born 1528,
+died (probably poisoned) 1572, shortly before the massacre of St.
+Bartholomew.
+
+ALBUERA ([.a]l-b[u:]-[=a]'r[.a]), a village of Spain, in Estremadura, 12
+miles S.S.E. of Badajoz. A battle was fought here, 16th May, 1811, between
+the army of Marshal Beresford (30,000) and that of Marshal Soult (25,000),
+when the latter was obliged to retreat to Seville, leaving Badajoz to fall
+into the hands of the allies.
+
+ALBU'GO, an affection of the eye, consisting of a white opacity in the
+cornea; called also _leucoma_.
+
+AL'BUM, in ancient Rome a board painted white, on which edicts and public
+notices were inscribed in black. It is now a name generally given to a
+blank book for the reception of pieces of poetry, autographs, engravings,
+photographs, &c. In law it is applied to rent paid in silver (white money).
+
+ALBU'MEN, or ALBUMIN (Lat., from _albus_, white), a substance, or rather
+group of substances, so named from the Latin for the white of an egg, which
+is one of its most abundant known forms. It may be taken as the type of the
+protein compounds or the nitrogenous class of food-stuffs. One variety
+enters largely into the composition of the animal fluids and solids, is
+coagulable by heat at and above 160°, and is composed of carbon, hydrogen,
+nitrogen, and oxygen, with a little sulphur. It abounds in the serum of the
+blood, the vitreous and crystalline humours of the eye, the fluid of
+dropsy, the substance called coagulable lymph, in nutritive matters, the
+juice of flesh, &c. The blood contains about 7 per cent of albumen. Another
+variety, called vegetable albumen, exists in most vegetable juices and many
+seeds, and has nearly the same composition and properties as egg albumen.
+When albumen coagulates in any fluid it readily encloses any substances
+that may be suspended in the fluid. Hence it is used to clarify syrupy
+liquors. In cookery, white of eggs is employed for clarifying, but in large
+operations, like sugar-refining, the serum of blood is used. From its being
+coagulable by various salts, and especially by corrosive sublimate, with
+which it forms an insoluble compound, white of egg is a convenient antidote
+in cases of poisoning by that substance. With lime it forms a cement to
+mend broken ware.
+
+In botany the name albumen is given to the farinaceous matter which
+surrounds the embryo, the term in this case having no reference to chemical
+composition. It constitutes the meat of the coco-nut, the flour or meal of
+cereals, the roasted part of coffee, &c.
+
+ALBUMINU'RIA, a condition in which the urine contains albumen, evidencing a
+diseased state of the kidneys.
+
+ALBUÑOL ([.a]l-b[u:]-nyol'), a seaport of Southern Spain, province Granada,
+on the Mediterranean. Pop. 7451.
+
+ALBUQUERQUE ([.a]l-b[u:]-kerk'[=a]), Affonso de, surnamed 'the Great', an
+eminent Portuguese admiral, born 1453, died in 1515. Portugal having
+subjected to its power a large part of the western coast of Africa, and
+begun to extend its sway in the East Indies, Albuquerque was appointed
+viceroy of the Portuguese acquisitions in this quarter, and arrived in 1503
+with a fleet on the coast of Malabar. His career here was extremely
+successful, he having extended the Portuguese power over Malabar, Ceylon,
+the Sunda Islands, and the Peninsula of Malacca, and made the Portuguese
+name respected by all the nations and princes of India. Notwithstanding his
+services and his virtues, he was unjustly superseded in his commands by his
+personal enemy Lopez Soarez, and so severely did he feel the ingratitude of
+his sovereign, King Emanuel, that he died a few days after receiving the
+intelligence. His famous letter to the king was discovered and published in
+1542 by J. M. de Fonseca. The first volume of his letters was published in
+1884 by the Royal Academy of Lisbon.
+
+[Illustration: Alburnum
+_a a_, Alburnum or sapwood. _b b_, Heart-wood. _c_, Pith. _d_, Bark]
+
+ALBUR'NUM, the soft white substance which, in trees, is found between the
+liber or inner bark and the wood, and, in progress of time acquiring
+solidity, becomes itself the wood. A new layer of wood, or rather of
+alburnum, is added annually to the tree in every part just under the bark.
+
+ALBURY (al'ber-i), a rising town of New South Wales on the borders of
+Victoria, on the right bank of the Murray, 190 miles north-east of
+Melbourne, in a good agricultural and wine-producing district. Pop. 6750.
+
+ALBY, or ALBI ([.a]l'b[=e]), an old town of southern France, department of
+Tarn, 42 miles north-east of Toulouse, on the Tarn, in an extensive plain.
+It has a cathedral, a Gothic structure, begun in 1282. It manufactures
+linens, cottons, leather, &c. Alby is said to have given the Albigenses
+their name. Pop. 18,262.
+
+ALCÆ'US, one of the greatest Grecian lyric poets, was born at Mitylene, in
+Lesbos, and flourished there at the close of the seventh and beginning of
+the sixth centuries B.C.; but of his life little is known. A strong manly
+enthusiasm for freedom and justice pervades his lyrics, of which only a few
+fragments are left. He wrote in the Æolic dialect, and was the inventor of
+a metre that bears his name (Alcaics), which Horace has employed in many of
+his odes.
+
+ALCALA' DE GUADAIRA (gw[.a]-d[=i]'r[.a]; 'the castle of Guadaira'), a town
+of southern Spain, on the Guadaira, 7 miles east of Seville, chiefly
+celebrated for its manufacture of bread, with which it supplies a large
+part of the population of Seville. Pop. 8930.
+
+ALCALA' DE HENARES (en-ä'res), a beautiful city of Spain, 16 miles E.N.E.
+of Madrid, 1 mile from the Henares. It has an imposing appearance when seen
+from some distance, but on nearer inspection is found to be in a state of
+decay. There was formerly a university here, at one time attended by 10,000
+students; but in 1836 it was removed with its library to Madrid. Cervantes
+was born here. Pop. 11,728.
+
+ALCALA' LA REAL (r[=a]-[.a]l'), a town of Spain, 18 miles south-east of
+Jaen, with a fine abbey and some trade. It was captured in 1340 by Alphonso
+XI of Leon, from whence it derives the epithet Real ('Royal'). Pop. 15,901.
+
+ALCALDE (Sp.; [.a]l-k[.a]l-d[=a]), or ALCAIDE (Port.; al-k[=i]'d[=a]; Ar.
+_alqadi_ (Cadi), the judge, not to be confused with _alcaide_, the governor
+of a fortress), the name of a magistrate in the Spanish and Portuguese
+towns, to whom the administration of justice and the regulation of the
+police is committed. His office nearly corresponds to that of justice of
+the peace. The name and the office are of Moorish origin.
+
+AL'CAMO, a city in the west of Sicily, 2½ miles south of the Gulf of
+Castellamare, near the site of the ancient Segesta, the ruins of which,
+including a well-preserved Doric temple and a theatre, as well as the
+remains of Moorish occupation, are still to be found here. The district is
+celebrated for its wine. Pop. 32,200.
+
+ALCAÑIZ ([.a]l-k[.a]n-y[=e]th'), a town of north-eastern Spain (Aragon).
+Pop. 8750.
+
+ALCAN'TARA (Ar., 'the bridge'), an ancient town and frontier fortress of
+Spain, on the Tagus, on a rocky acclivity, and enclosed by ancient walls.
+Pop. 3224.--_Order of Alcantara_, an ancient Spanish order of knighthood
+instituted for defence against the Moors in 1156, and made a military
+religious order in 1197.
+
+ALCARRAZA ([.a]l-k[.a]r-rä'th[.a]), a vessel made of a kind of porous,
+unglazed pottery, used in Spain to hold drinking-water, which, oozing
+slightly through the vessel, is kept cool by the evaporation that takes
+place at the surface. Similar vessels have been long used in Egypt and
+elsewhere.
+
+ALCAZAR DE SAN JUAN ([.a]l-kä'th[.a]r d[=a] s[.a]n-_h_wän), a town of
+Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), with manufactures of soap,
+saltpetre, gunpowder, chocolate, &c. Pop. 13,645.
+
+ALCE'DO. See _Kingfisher_.
+
+ALCES'TIS, in Greek mythology, wife of Admetus, King of Thessaly. Her
+husband was ill, and, according to an oracle, would die unless someone made
+a vow to meet death in his stead. This was secretly done by Alcestis, and
+Admetus recovered. After her decease Hercules brought her back from the
+infernal regions.
+
+AL'CHEMY, or ALCHYMY, the art which in former times occupied the place of
+and paved the way for the modern science of chemistry (as astrology did for
+astronomy), but whose aims were not scientific, being confined solely to
+the discovery of the means of indefinitely prolonging human life, and of
+transmuting the baser metals into gold and silver. Among the alchemists it
+was generally thought necessary to find a substance which, containing the
+original principle of all matter, should possess the power of dissolving
+all substances into their elements. This general solvent, or _menstruum
+universale_, which at the same time was to possess the power of removing
+all the seeds of disease out of the human body and renewing life, was
+called the _philosophers' stone_, _lapis philosophorum_, and its pretended
+possessors were known as _adepts_. Alchemy flourished chiefly in the Middle
+Ages, though how old such notions might be as those by which the alchemists
+were inspired it is difficult to say. There are many stories about the
+mystic origin of alchemy. The art is said to have been taught by the fallen
+angels, by Isis, or by Miriam, sister of Moses, or by John the Baptist.
+According to Suidas, Egypt was the home of alchemy, and the mythical Hermes
+Trismegistus of pre-Christian times was said to have left behind him many
+books of magical and alchemical learning, and after him alchemy received
+the name of the _hermetic art_. At a later period chemistry and alchemy
+were cultivated among the Arabians, and by them the pursuit was introduced
+into Europe. Many of the monks devoted themselves to alchemy, although they
+were afterwards prohibited from studying it by the popes. Thus Albertus
+Magnus is said to have been the author of a work _De Alchimia_, and several
+treatises on the subject are attributed to Thomas Aquinas. But even Pope
+John XXII is said to have worked at the science at Avignon. Raymond Lully,
+or Lullius, a famous alchemist of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
+is said to have changed for King Edward I a mass of 50,000 lb. of
+quicksilver into gold, of which the first rose-nobles were coined. Among
+other alchemists may be mentioned John Cremer, Abbot of Westminster
+(1327-77), Nicholas Flamel (1330-80), Basilius Valentinus, Isaac of
+Holland, and Paracelsus (1493-1541). With the growth of chemistry, the
+recognition of the chemical elements as forming a large number of distinct
+substances, and the conception of the fixed unalterable nature of the
+atoms, attempts to transform the base metals into gold were largely
+abandoned as being unscientific. But the most modern view of matter,
+namely, that the atoms of all elements are composed of numerous electrons,
+favours the idea of the transmutability of elements, and the production of
+helium from radium (see these articles) by Ramsay shows the possibility of
+this transmutation.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pattison-Muir, _Alchemy, or the
+Beginnings of Chemistry_ (Hodder & Stoughton: Useful Knowledge Series);
+H. S. Redgrove, _Alchemy, Ancient and Modern_.
+
+ALCIBI'ADES (-d[=e]z), a famous Athenian statesman and general of high
+family and of great abilities, but of no principle, was born at Athens in
+the 82nd Olympiad, 450 B.C., being the son of Cleinias, and a relative of
+Pericles, who also was his guardian. In youth he was remarkable for the
+beauty of his person, no less than for the dissoluteness of his manners. He
+came under the influence of Socrates, but little permanent effect was
+produced on his character by the precepts of the sage. He acquired great
+popularity by his liberality in providing for the amusements of the people,
+and after the death of Cleon attained a political ascendancy which left him
+no rival but Nicias. Thus he played an important part in the long-continued
+Peloponnesian war. In 415 he advocated the expedition against Sicily, and
+was chosen one of the leaders, but before the expedition sailed he was
+charged with profaning and divulging the Eleusinian mysteries, and
+mutilating the busts of Hermes, which were set up in public all through
+Athens. Rather than stand his trial he went over to Sparta, divulged the
+plans of the Athenians, and assisted the Spartans to defeat them. Sentence
+of death and confiscation was pronounced against him at Athens, and he was
+cursed by the ministers of religion. He soon left Sparta and took refuge
+with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, ingratiating himself by his
+affectation of Persian manners, as he had previously done at Sparta by a
+similar affectation of Spartan simplicity. He now began to intrigue for his
+return to Athens, offering to bring Tissaphernes over to the Athenian
+alliance, and after a while he was recalled and his banishment cancelled.
+He, however, remained abroad for some years in command of the Athenian
+forces, gained several victories, and took Chalcedon and Byzantium. In 407
+B.C. he returned to Athens, but in 406, the fleet which he commanded having
+suffered a severe defeat, he was deprived of his command. He once more went
+over to the Persians, taking refuge with the satrap Pharnabazus of Phrygia,
+and here he was assassinated in 404 B.C. The authorities for his life are
+Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos.
+
+ALCINOUS (al-sin'o-us), King of the Phæacians. See _Ulysses_.
+
+ALCIRA ([.a]l-th[=e]'r[.a]), a town of Spain, province of Valencia, on the
+Jucar, founded by the Carthaginians. Fruits, rice, &c., are grown. Pop.
+22,050.
+
+ALC'MAN, the chief lyric poet of Sparta, a Lydian by birth, flourished
+between 671 B.C. and 631, and wrote (in the Doric dialect) love songs,
+hymns, pæans, &c., of which only fragments remain.
+
+ALCME'NA. See _Amphitryon_.
+
+ALCO, a small variety of dog, with a small head and large pendulous ears,
+found wild in Mexico and Peru, and also domesticated.
+
+ALCOBAÇA ([.a]l-k[=o]-bä's[.a]), a small town of Portugal, 50 miles north
+of Lisbon, celebrated for a magnificent Cistercian monastery founded in
+1148 by Don Alphonso I, and completed in 1222. It contains the tombs of
+Alphonso II, Alphonso III, Pedro I and his wife Ines de Castro.
+
+AL'COHOL, or ETHYL ALCOHOL, C_2H_6O, is a substance obtained by allowing
+the juice of the grape to undergo a change known as fermentation. It is
+only in modern times that alcohol has been isolated and its properties
+examined. Alcohol is now prepared in enormous quantities, both for
+industrial purposes and for the preparation of alcoholic beverages, from
+substances rich in sugar or in starch. Potatoes and maize form the main
+source of alcohol. These are treated with steam under pressure in
+specially-constructed tanks to extract starchy materials. The starch so
+liberated is then fermented by means of a substance diastase. This
+treatment transforms sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The solution
+is then filtered to remove all insoluble matter, proteids, &c., and from
+this solid residue, cattle-feeding cakes are made. This treatment yields a
+solution containing 9-10 per cent alcohol. The solution is fractionally
+distilled, using a special form of distilling column. The most volatile
+part of the distillate, first runnings, contains acetaldehyde, the second
+fraction contains the bulk of the alcohol and some water, and the least
+volatile portion, last runnings, fusel oil and higher alcohols. By this
+means a liquid containing 80-95 per cent alcohol, rectified spirits, is
+obtained. For preparation of beverages, fusel oil must be carefully
+separated from alcohol, as fusel oil has an injurious effect
+physiologically. The removal of the last traces of water from alcohol is
+very troublesome. It is repeatedly distilled over quicklime or
+freshly-ignited potassium carbonate, giving an alcohol containing 98-99 per
+cent alcohol. The small quantity of water still contained is removed by
+leaving it in contact with metallic calcium. An alcohol containing more
+than 96 per cent alcohol is known as _absolute_. Pure alcohol is a
+colourless poisonous liquid boiling at 78° C., possessing a strong odour
+and a burning taste. It is inflammable and mixes with water in all
+proportions and has a specific gravity 0.80625 at 0° C. Very low
+temperatures convert it into a glassy solid, melting at -117° C., hence it
+may be used in thermometers for low-temperature measurements. Alcohol burns
+with a non-luminous flame and gives out great heat; it is used, therefore,
+in various types of lamps for heating purposes. It is also used as a fuel
+for motors and is a very valuable solvent for many substances such as
+resin, oils, colouring-matter, varnishes, and ethereal essences. The
+so-called 'solid alcohol' can be obtained by dissolving 30 to 40 parts of
+collodion in 100 parts of alcohol, a solid which separates and burns like
+alcohol, leaving no residue. Alcohol is the important constituent of all
+alcoholic beverages and it is due to its presence that wine, whisky, &c.,
+have a stimulating and intoxicating effect on the nervous system. Beverages
+such as beer, wine, cider, &c., are prepared by direct fermentation of
+sugars obtained in fruit juices in the case of wine and cider and from
+barley in the case of beer. These contain varying amounts of alcohol, thus
+wine may contain from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol, whilst beer contains 3
+to 5 per cent. Whisky, brandy, &c., contain more alcohol, 50-70 per cent,
+and for the preparation of these the alcohol used must be distilled and
+purified after fermentation. The alcohol content of an aqueous solution may
+be deduced from a determination of the specific gravity of the solution or
+directly by the Alcoholometer. This gives percentage by volume. The amount
+of alcohol present in any alcoholic beverage cannot be obtained directly,
+but if 1/3 of the liquid be distilled and the distillate made up to the
+original volume, then the alcohol may be determined by the Alcoholometer.
+The name alcohol is applied generally in chemistry to a large group of
+substances, containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which have chemical
+properties analogous to those of ethyl alcohol.
+
+AL'COHOLISM, a morbid condition of the body (especially of the nervous
+system) brought on by the immoderate use of alcoholic liquors.
+
+ALCOHOLOM'ETER, an instrument constructed on the principle of the
+hydrometer, to determine from the specific gravity of spirituous liquors
+the percentage of alcohol they contain, the scale marking directly the
+required proportion. If the liquor contain anything besides water and
+alcohol, previous distillation is necessary.
+
+ALCO'RAN. See _Koran_.
+
+AL'COTT, LOUISA MAY, a distinguished American authoress, born in 1833. She
+wrote a number of books chiefly intended for the young: _Little Women_
+(1867), _An Old-fashioned Girl_ (1869), _Little Men_ (1871), _Jack and
+Jill_ (1880), &c. Died in 1888.
+
+[Illustration: Alcove. French; late sixteenth century]
+
+AL'COVE, a recess in a room, usually separated from the rest of the room by
+columns, a balustrade, or by curtains, and often containing a bed or seats.
+
+ALCOY', a town of Spain, in Valencia, 24 miles north by west of Alicante,
+in a richly-cultivated district. There is a Roman bridge over the river,
+and the town has a very picturesque appearance; its chief manufactures are
+paper and woollen goods. On the 22nd of April an annual feast is celebrated
+by the inhabitants of the town commemorating a victory over the Moors in
+1257. Pop. 33,896.
+
+ALCUDIA, Duke of. See _Godoy_.
+
+ALCUIN (alk'win; in his native tongue _Ealhwine_), a learned Englishman,
+the confidant, instructor, and adviser of Charles the Great (Charlemagne).
+He was born at York in 735, and was educated at York School, of which he
+subsequently was head master. Alcuin having gone to Rome, Charlemagne
+became acquainted with him at Parma, invited him in 782 to his Court, and
+made use of his services in his endeavours to civilize his subjects. To
+secure the benefit of his instructions, Charlemagne established at his
+Court a school, called _Schola Palatina_, or the Palace School. In the
+royal academy Alcuin was called _Flaccus Albinus_. Most of the schools in
+France were either founded or improved by him; thus he founded the school
+in the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, in 796, after the plan of the school
+in York. Alcuin left the Court in 801, and retired to the abbey of St.
+Martin of Tours, but kept up a constant correspondence with Charles to his
+death in 804. He left works on theology, philosophy, rhetoric, also poems
+and letters, all of which have been published. His letters, 232 of which
+were addressed to Charlemagne, form the most important part of his work. As
+a philosopher, Alcuin, though lacking in originality, exercised a
+considerable influence over his contemporaries. The expression of
+'scholasticism' is attributed to him.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. J. B. Gaskoin,
+_Alcuin, His Life and his Work_, J. B. Mullinger, _The Schools of Charles
+the Great_.
+
+ALCYONA'RIA, coelenterate animals forming a great division of the class
+Actinozoa (see _Sea-anemone_). These animals are nearly all composite, and
+the individual polyps have mostly eight tentacles. They include the
+organ-pipe corals, sea-pens, fan-corals, &c., as also the red coral of
+commerce. The polyps resemble those of the genus Alcyonium in structure,
+and in the number and arrangement of the tentacles. See _Alcyonium_.
+
+ALCYO'NIUM, a genus of coelenterate animals, one familiar species of which,
+dredged around the British coasts--_A. digit[=a]tum_--is named 'Dead-Men's
+Fingers', or 'Cow's Paps', from its lobed or digitate appearance. It grows
+attached to stones, shells, and other objects. It consists of a mass of
+little polyps, each polyp possessing eight little fringed tentacles
+disposed around a central mouth. The Alcyonium forms the type of the
+_Alcyonaria_.
+
+AL'DAN, a river of Eastern Siberia, a tributary of the Lena, 1200 miles in
+length. The Aldan Mountains run along parallel to it on the left for 400
+miles.
+
+ALDEB'ARAN, a star of the first magnitude, forming the eye of the
+constellation Taurus or the Bull, the brightest of the five stars known to
+the Greeks as the Hyades. Spectrum analysis has shown it to contain
+antimony, bismuth, iron, mercury, hydrogen, sodium, calcium, &c.
+
+ALDEBURGH ([a:]ld'bu-ru), a municipal borough of England, on the coast of
+Suffolk, more important formerly than it is now, having suffered from
+encroachments of the sea. The poet Crabbe was born there in 1754. Pop.
+2892.
+
+AL'DEHYDE, in chemistry, the generic name given to the compounds of alcohol
+intermediate between the alcohols and the acids. Common aldehyde (C_2H_4O)
+is derived from spirit of wine by oxidation, and is a colourless, limpid,
+volatile, and inflammable liquid, with a peculiar ethereal odour, which is
+suffocating when strong; specific gravity, 0.79. Atmospheric oxygen
+converts it into acetic acid. It decomposes oxide of silver, depositing a
+brilliant film of metallic silver; hence it is used in silvering curved
+glass surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: Common Alder (_Alnus glutinosa_)]
+
+ALDER ([a:]l'd[.e]r; Alnus), a genus of plants of the sub-ord. Betulaceæ
+(Birch), (nat. ord. Amentaceæ). Fourteen species are known as small trees
+or shrubs indigenous to temperate and colder regions of the globe; eight of
+these are found in Central and Western Europe. The only species indigenous
+to Britain is the common alder (_Alnus glutin[=o]sa_), a tree growing in
+wet situations in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Its wood, light and
+soft and of a reddish colour, is used for a variety of purposes, and is
+well adapted for work which is to be kept constantly in water. Alder is
+still largely used in gunpowder manufacture, and the roots and knots
+furnish a beautifully-veined wood well suited for cabinet work; it is used
+for cigar-boxes in East Prussia and West Russia. The bark is used in
+tanning and leather-dressing, and by fishermen for staining their nets.
+This and the young twigs are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield
+different shades of yellow and red. With the addition of copperas it yields
+a black dye.
+
+ALDERLEY EDGE, a town of England, Cheshire, about 8 miles south-west of
+Stockport. Pop. (1921), 3072.
+
+AL'DERMAN ([a:]l'd[.e]r-; Anglo-Saxon _ealdorman_, from _ealdor_, older,
+and _man_), among the Anglo-Saxons a person of a rank equivalent to that of
+an earl or count, the governor of a shire or county, and member of the
+_witena-gemót_ or great council of the nation. Aldermen played an important
+rôle already before the Constitution of Egbert, but reached their highest
+power during the reign of Alfred the Great, who had married the daughter of
+an alderman. Aldermen, at present, are officers associated with the mayor
+of a city for the administration of the municipal government in England and
+the United States.
+
+AL'DERNEY (Fr. _Aurigny_), an island belonging to Britain, off the coast of
+Normandy, 10 miles due west of Cape La Hogue, and 60 from the nearest point
+of England, the most northerly of the Channel Islands, between 3 and 4
+miles long, and about 1¼ broad. The coast is bold and rocky; the interior
+is fertile. About a third of the island is occupied by grass lands; and the
+Alderney cows, a small-sized but handsome breed, are famous for the
+richness of their milk. The climate is mild and healthy. A judge, with six
+'jurats', chosen by the people for life, and twelve 'douzainiers',
+representatives of the people, form a kind of local legislature. The French
+language still prevails among the inhabitants, but all understand and many
+speak English. The _Race of Alderney_ is the strait between the coast of
+France and this island. Pop. 2561.
+
+ALDERSHOT (äl'd[.e]r-), a town and military station in England, the latter
+having given rise to the former. The 'camp' was originated in 1854 by the
+purchase by Government of a tract of moorland known as Aldershot Heath, on
+the confines of Surrey, Hampshire, and Berkshire. The object was to
+accustom both officers and soldiers to act more readily when drawn up in
+brigades and divisions, their practice having been limited for the most
+part, since the termination of the French war, to the movements of
+battalions and companies. It was also deemed advisable to accustom the army
+to camp life, and to exercise the men in all the evolutions and movements
+which they might be required to perform when brought into actual contact
+with the enemy. The accommodation provided for the army, officers as well
+as men, consisted at first of wooden huts; but these have been superseded
+by brick barracks, and altogether the money expended on the camp has
+amounted to over £3,000,000. The men are exercised in marching,
+skirmishing, and similar field operations, which are carried on during the
+summer months with great activity; they are also instructed in the camp in
+cooking and other duties. The troops at Aldershot in summer include a
+number of Territorials, Senior and Junior O.T.C., &c. The town is in the
+neighbourhood of the barracks, immediately beyond the Government ground,
+and in Hampshire. It contains several churches, and has schools,
+newspapers, literary institutes, music-halls &c. Aldershot gives its name
+to a parliamentary division of Hants. Pop. (1921), 28,756.
+
+ALD'HELM, an Anglo-Saxon scholar and prelate, Abbot of Malmesbury and
+Bishop of Sherborne, born 640 (?), died 709. He was a great fosterer of
+learning and builder of churches, and has left Latin writings on
+theological subjects.
+
+AL'DINE EDITIONS, the name given to the works which proceeded from the
+press of Aldus Manutius and his family at Venice (1494-1592), Rome
+(1562-70), and Bologna. (See _Manutius_.) Recommended by their value, as
+well as by a splendid exterior, they have gained the respect of scholars
+and the attention of book-collectors. Many of them are the first printed
+editions (_editiones principes_) of Greek and Latin classics. Others are
+texts of the modern Italian authors. These editions are of importance in
+the history of printing. The editions printed by Aldus Manutius the Elder
+are, however, much more valuable than those issued by his descendants.
+Among the former are the first edition of the works of Aristotle in 5
+vols., and the works of Virgil, Horace, and Petrarch. Aldus had nine kinds
+of Greek type, and no one before him printed so much and so beautifully in
+this language. Of the Latin character he procured fourteen kinds of type.
+
+ALDOBRANDI'NI, the name of a Florentine family, subsequently of princely
+rank (now extinct), which produced one Pope (Clement VIII) and several
+cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and men of learning.--_Aldobrandini
+Marriage_, one of the most beautiful ancient fresco paintings, belonging
+probably to the time of Augustus, discovered in 1606 on Mount Aquilinus at
+the very spot where once were the gardens of Mæcenas, and acquired by
+Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement VIII, now in the Vatican. It
+represents a marriage scene in which ten persons are portrayed. There is a
+beautiful copy of this fresco by Poussin in the Galleria Doria at Rome.
+
+AL'DRED, or EALDRED, Anglo-Saxon prelate, Bishop of Worcester and
+Archbishop of York, born 1000(?), died 1069. He improved the discipline of
+the Church and built several monastic churches. On the death of Edward the
+Confessor he is said to have crowned Harold. Having submitted to the
+Conqueror, whose esteem he enjoyed and whose power he made subservient to
+the views of the Church, he also crowned him as well as Matilda.
+
+ALD'RICH, Henry, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; born in 1647, died in 1710;
+distinguished as a philosopher, an architect, and as a musician. His
+_Compendium of Logic_ was a textbook till long past the middle of last
+century. He adapted many of the works of the older musicians, such as
+Palestrina and Carissimi, to the liturgy of the Church of England, and
+composed many services and anthems, some of which are still heard in
+English cathedrals.
+
+ALDRICH, Thomas Bailey, the most conspicuous American poet of his
+generation. Born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on 11th Nov., 1836; died at
+Boston in March, 1907. He edited _Every Saturday_ in Boston from 1865 to
+1874, and the _Atlantic Monthly_ from 1881 to 1890. He was a poet of some
+skill, the chief characteristic of his lyrics being refinement and finish.
+Some of his short stories have been rarely surpassed by other American
+writers. Among his volumes of verse are: _The Ballad of Babie Bell_ (1856);
+_Cloth of Gold_ (1874); _Lyrics and Sonnets_ (1880); _Friar Jerome's
+Beautiful Book_ (1881); _Unguarded Gates and other Poems_ (1895), &c. His
+prose works include: _Story of a Bad Boy_ (1870); _Marjorie Daw and other
+People_ (1873); _The Stillwater Tragedy_ (1880); _Two Bites of a Cherry_
+(1893).
+
+ALDROVAN'DI, Ulysses, a distinguished Italian naturalist; born 1522, died
+1607. He was professor at Bologna, and established botanical gardens and a
+museum of natural history there; wrote a work on natural history in 14
+vols. His _Antidotarii Bononiensis epitome_ (1574) has served as a model
+for all Pharmacopoeias published in later years.
+
+ALE and BEER, well-known and extensively-used fermented liquors, the
+principle of which is extracted from several sorts of grain but most
+commonly from barley, after it has undergone the process termed malting.
+Beer is a more general term than ale, being often used for any kind of
+fermented malt liquor, including porter, though it is also used in a more
+special signification. See _Brewing_.
+
+ALEARDI ([.a]-l[=a]-[.a]r'd[=e]), ALEARDO, a distinguished Italian lyrical
+and political poet and patriot, born 1812, died 1878; he was a member of
+the Italian board of higher education and a senator. His best work is his
+poem _Il Monte Circello_ (1844).
+
+ALE-CONNER, formerly an officer in England appointed to assay ale and beer,
+and to take care that they were good and wholesome, and sold at a proper
+price. The duty of the ale-conners of London was to inspect the measures
+used in public-houses, to prevent frauds in selling liquors. Four of these
+were chosen annually by the liverymen, in common hall, on Mid-summer's Day.
+
+ALE-COST. See _Costmary_.
+
+ALEC'TO, in Greek mythology, one of the Furies (q.v.).
+
+ALEMAN ([.a]-le-m[.a]n'), Mateo, a Spanish novelist, born about the middle
+of the sixteenth century, died in 1610. His fame rests on his _Life and
+Adventures of the Rogue Guzman de Alfarache_ (translated into French in
+1600 and into English in 1623), one of the best of the _picaresque_ or
+rogue novels, which give such a lively picture of the shady classes of
+society in Spain during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The hero
+becomes in succession stable-boy, beggar, porter, thief, man of fashion,
+soldier, valet, merchant, student, robber, galley-slave, and lastly his own
+biographer.
+
+ALEMAN'NI, or ALAMANNI, a confederacy of several German tribes which, at
+the commencement of the third century after Christ, lived near the Roman
+territory, and came then and subsequently into conflict with the imperial
+troops. Caracalla first fought with them in 213, but did not conquer them;
+Severus was likewise unsuccessful. About 250 they began to cross the Rhine
+westwards, and in 255 they overran Gaul along with the Franks. In 259 a
+body of them was defeated in Italy at Milan, and in the following year they
+were driven out of Gaul by Postumus. But the Alemanni did not desist from
+their incursions, notwithstanding the numerous defeats they suffered at the
+hands of the Roman troops. In the fourth century they crossed the Rhine and
+ravaged Gaul, but were severely defeated by the Emperor Julian and driven
+back. Subsequently they occupied a considerable territory on both sides of
+the Rhine; but at last Clovis broke their power in 496 and deprived them of
+a large portion of their possessions. Part of their territory was formed
+into a duchy called Alemannia or Swabia, this name being derived from Suevi
+or Swabians, the name which they gave themselves. It is from the Alemanni
+that the French have derived their names for Germans and Germany in
+general, namely, _Allemands_ and _Allemagne_, though strictly speaking only
+the modern Swabians and northern Swiss are the proper descendants of that
+ancient race.
+
+ALEMBERT ([.a]-l[.a][n.]-b[=a]r), Jean le Rond d', a French mathematician
+and philosopher, born in Paris, 16th Nov., 1717, and died there 29th Oct.,
+1783. He was the illegitimate son of Madame de Tencin and Chevalier
+Destouches, and was exposed at the Church of St. Jean le Rond (hence his
+name) soon after birth. He was brought up by the wife of a poor glazier,
+and with her he lived for more than forty years. His parents never publicly
+acknowledged him, but his father settled upon him an income of 1200 livres.
+He showed much quickness in learning, entered the College Mazarin at the
+age of twelve, and studied mathematics with enthusiasm and success, but
+received little encouragement from his teachers. Having left college he
+studied law and became an advocate, but did not practise, and long
+continued to occupy himself with mathematics, in which he made immense
+advances by his own efforts, often arriving at results that other
+mathematicians had previously arrived at unknown to him. A pamphlet on the
+motion of solid bodies in a fluid, and another on the integral calculus,
+which he laid before the Academy of Sciences in 1739 and 1740, showed him
+in so favourable a light that the Academy received him in 1741 into the
+number of its members. He soon after published his famous work on dynamics,
+_Traité de Dynamique_ (1743) and another work dealing with fluids, _Traité
+des Fluides_. His _Réflexion sur la cause générale des vents_ was also a
+work that added to D'Alembert's reputation. He also took a part in the
+investigations which completed the discoveries of Newton respecting the
+motion of the heavenly bodies, and published at intervals various important
+astronomical dissertations--on the perturbations of the planets, for
+instance, and on the precession of the equinoxes--as well as on other
+subjects. He also took part, with Diderot and others, in the celebrated
+_Encyclopédie_ in 33 vols., for which he wrote the _Discours Préliminaire_,
+as well as many philosophical and almost all the mathematical articles.
+Literature, history, and philosophy also received attention from him, and
+his _Éléments de Philosophie_ (1759), in which he agrees with the theories
+of Condillac and Locke, was a work of much value. His great philosophical
+aim seems to have been the idea of secularizing morality upon a rational
+basis. Among his miscellaneous works are _Mélanges de Philosophie,
+d'Histoire, et de Littérature_; _Traduction de quelques Morceaux choisis de
+Tacite_; _Sur la Destruction des Jésuites_; _Histoire des Membres de
+l'Académie Française_; _Éléments de Musique théorique et pratique_. He
+received an invitation from the Russian empress Catherine II to go to St.
+Petersburg (now Petrograd) as tutor to her son, a very large sum being
+offered; and Frederick the Great invited him to settle in Berlin, but in
+vain. From Frederick, however, he accepted a pension, and he also paid a
+visit to Berlin. There was an intimate friendship between him and Voltaire.
+He never married, but he was on terms of the closest friendship with Madame
+L'Espinasse, and they occupied the same house for a number of years. He was
+held in high esteem by David Hume, who left him a legacy of £200.
+
+ALEM'BIC, a simple apparatus sometimes used by chemists for distillation,
+and consisting of three main parts, body, head, and receiver. The
+_cucurbit_, or body, contains the substance to be distilled, and is usually
+somewhat like a bottle, bulging below and narrowing towards the top; the
+_head_, of a globular form, with a flat under-ring, fits on to the neck of
+the cucurbit, condenses the vapour from the heated liquid, and receives the
+distilled liquid on the ring enclosing the neck of the lower vessel, and
+thus causes it to find egress by a discharging-pipe into the third section,
+called the _receiver_. See _Distillation_.
+
+ALEMTEJO ([.a]-l[=a][n.]-t[=a]'zh[=o]; 'beyond the Tagus'), the largest
+province of Portugal, and the most southern except Algarve; area, 9219 sq.
+miles; pop. 478,584. The capital is Evora. It has about 30 miles of coast,
+but no good harbour and no navigable river. Large areas are devoted to
+pasturage, and the cultivated portions are comparatively limited, though in
+the east there are fertile valleys where grain, fruits, &c., are
+cultivated. There are valuable cork forests in this portion also. Excellent
+horses are reared. Copper and iron mines are worked; but on the whole this
+province is in a backward condition, and is the most thinly inhabited in
+the country.
+
+ALENÇON ([.a]-l[.a][n.]-s[=o][n.]), a town of France, capital of department
+Orne, and formerly of the Duchy of Alençon, on the right bank of the
+Sarthe, 105 miles west by south of Paris; well built; has a fine Gothic
+church (fifteenth century) and interesting remains of the old castle of the
+ducs d'Alençon. Alençon was long famed for its point-lace, called 'point
+d'Alençon', an industry established at the instigation of Colbert in 1673
+but now much fallen off; it has cotton and flax spinning and weaving, &c.
+Fine rock-crystal, yielding the so-called 'diamants d'Alençon', is found in
+the neighbouring granite quarries. Alençon is mentioned as a city for the
+first time in 717. Pop. 16,590.--_Alençon_, originally a county, later a
+dukedom, became united with the crown in 1221, and was given by Louis XI as
+an appanage to his fifth son, with whom the branch of the Alençon-Valois
+commenced. The first duke of the name lost his life at the battle of
+Agincourt in 1415; another, called Charles IV, married the celebrated
+Margaret of Valois, sister of Francis I. He commanded the left wing of the
+French army at the battle of Pavia, where, instead of supporting the king
+at a critical moment, he fled at the head of his troops, the consequence of
+which was the loss of the battle and the capture of the king.
+
+ALEP'PO, a city in North Syria, on the River Koik, in a fine plain 60 miles
+south-east of Alexandretta, which is its port, and 129 miles N.N.E. of
+Damascus. It has a circumference of about 7 miles, and consists of the old
+town and numerous suburbs. Its appearance at a distance is striking, and
+the houses are well built of stone. On a hill stands the citadel, and at
+its foot the governor's palace. Previous to 1822 Aleppo contained about 100
+mosques, but in that year an earthquake laid the greater part of them in
+ruins, and destroyed nearly the whole city. The aqueduct built by the
+Romans is the oldest monument of the town. Among the chief attractions of
+Aleppo are its gardens, in which the pistachio-nut is extensively
+cultivated. The branch railway to Hamah from the Beyrout-Damascus line has
+been continued to Aleppo. Formerly the city was a great centre of trade and
+manufactures, but the earthquake and other causes have combined greatly to
+lessen its prosperity. It has still a trade, however, in the products of
+the country, such as wool, cotton, silk, wax, skins, soap, tobacco, &c.,
+and imports a certain quantity of European manufactures.--Aleppo was a
+place of considerable importance in very remote times. By the Greeks and
+Romans it was called _Beroea_. It was conquered by the Arabs in 638, and
+its original name _Chalybon_ was then turned into _Haleb_, whence the
+Italian form _Aleppo_. The town was occupied by British troops on 27th
+Oct., 1918. Its population, 200,000 at the beginning of last century, is
+now estimated at over 250,000. The language generally spoken is Arabic. The
+vilayet of Aleppo has a pop. of 1,500,000.
+
+ALESH'KI, a town of Southern Russia, government Taurida. Pop. 8915.
+
+ALE'SIA, a town and fortress of ancient Gaul, at which in 52 B.C. Julius
+Cæsar inflicted a crushing defeat on the Gauls under Vercingetorix. It is
+now represented by the village of Alise, department Côte d'Or, near which
+Napoleon III erected a colossal statue of Vercingetorix in 1865.
+
+ALESSAN'DRIA, a town and fortress in North Italy, capital of the province
+of the same name, in a marshy country, near the junction of the Bormida and
+the Tanaro. It was built in 1168 by the Cremonese and Milanese, and was
+named in honour of Pope Alexander III, who made it a bishop's see. It has a
+cathedral, important manufactures of linen, woollen, and silk goods, and an
+active trade. It ranks as one of the first fortresses of Europe, the
+fortifications including a surrounding wall and bastions, and a strong
+citadel on the opposite side of the Tanaro, connected by a bridge with the
+town. Pop. (with suburbs) 78,159.
+
+ALES'SI, Galeazzo, a distinguished Italian architect, born at Perugia,
+1512, died there in 1572. Many palaces, villas, and churches were erected
+after his designs, and at the request of Philip II of Spain he drew a plan
+for the Escurial.
+
+ALETSCH'-GLACIER, the greatest glacier in Switzerland, canton Valais, a
+prolongation of the immense mass of glaciers connected with the Jungfrau,
+the Aletschhorn (14,000 feet), and other peaks; about 15 miles long.
+
+ALEURITES, a tree belonging to the nat. ord. Euphorbiaceæ, is found in
+tropical and subtropical parts of the world. _Aleurites triloba_, the
+'candleberry tree', is cultivated in the Moluccan Islands for its fruit.
+The oil extracted from its seeds is valuable both for food and light.
+
+ALEUROM'ETER, an instrument for indicating the bread-making qualities of
+wheaten flour. The indications depend upon the expansion of the gluten
+contained in a given quantity of flour when freed of its starch by
+pulverization and repeated washings with water.
+
+ALEU'TIAN ISLANDS, a chain of about eighty small islands belonging to the
+United States, separating the Sea of Kamchatka from the northern part of
+the Pacific Ocean, and extending nearly 1000 miles from east to west
+between lon. 172° E. and 163° W.; total area, 6391 sq. miles; pop. 1220.
+They are of volcanic formation, and in a number of them there are volcanoes
+still in activity. Their general appearance is dismal and barren, yet
+grassy valleys capable of supporting cattle throughout the year are met
+with, and potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables are successfully
+cultivated. They afford also an abundance of valuable fur and of fish. The
+natives belong to the same stock with those of Kamchatka.
+
+ALE'WIFE (corruption of the Indian name), the _Al[=o]sa tyrannus_, a fish
+of the same genus as the shad, growing to the length of 12 inches, and
+caught in great quantities in the mouths of the rivers of New England, New
+Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, being salted and exported.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Alexander the Great]
+
+ALEXANDER, surnamed THE GREAT, was the son of Philip of Macedon and his
+queen Olympias, and was born at Pella, 356 B.C. In youth he had Aristotle
+as instructor, and he early displayed uncommon abilities. The victory of
+Chæronea in 338, which brought Greece entirely under Macedonia, was mainly
+decided by his efforts. Philip having been assassinated, 336 B.C.,
+Alexander, not yet twenty years of age, ascended the throne. His father had
+been preparing an expedition against the Persians, and Alexander determined
+to carry it out; but before doing so he had to chastise the barbarian
+tribes on the frontiers of Macedon as well as quell a rising in Greece, in
+which he took and destroyed Thebes, put 6000 of the inhabitants to the
+sword, and carried 30,000 into captivity. Leaving Antipater to govern in
+his stead in Europe, and being confirmed as commander-in-chief of the Greek
+forces in the general assembly of the Greeks, he crossed over the
+Hellespont into Asia, in the spring of 334, with 30,000 foot and 5000
+horse. His first encounter with the Persian forces (assisted by Greek
+mercenaries) was at the small river Gran[=i]cus, where he gained a complete
+victory. Most of the cities of Asia Minor now opened their gates to the
+victor, and Alexander restored democracy in all the Greek cities. In
+passing through Gordium he cut the Gordian knot, on which it was believed
+the fate of Asia depended, and then conquered Lycia, Ionia, Caria,
+Pamphylia, and Cappadocia. A sickness, caused by bathing in the Cydnus (333
+B.C.), checked his progress; but scarcely was he restored to health when he
+continued his advance, and this same year defeated the Persian emperor
+Darius and his army of 500,000 or 600,000 men (including 50,000 Greek
+mercenaries) near Issus (inner angle of the Gulf of Alexandretta). Darius
+fled towards the interior of his dominions, leaving his family and
+treasures to fall into the hands of the conqueror. Alexander did not pursue
+Darius, but proceeded southwards, and secured all the towns along the
+Mediterranean Sea, though he only got possession of Tyre (taken 332 B.C.)
+after besieging it for seven months. Palestine and Egypt now fell before
+him, and in the latter he founded Alexandria, which became one of the first
+cities of ancient times. Hence he went through the desert of Libya, to
+consult the oracle of Zeus Ammon, and it was said that the god recognized
+him as his son. On his return Alexander marched against Darius, who had
+collected an immense army in Assyria, and rejected the proposals of his
+rival for peace. A battle was fought at Gaugamela, about 50 miles from
+Arbela, 331 B.C., and notwithstanding the immense numerical superiority of
+his enemy, Alexander (who had but 40,000 men and 7000 horse) gained a
+complete victory. Babylon and Susa opened their gates to the conqueror, who
+marched towards Persepolis, the capital of Persia, and entered it in
+triumph. He now seems for a time to have lost his self-command. He gave
+himself up to arrogance and dissipation, and is said in a fit of
+intoxication to have set fire to the palace of Persepolis, one of the
+wonders of the world. Rousing himself up, however, he set out in pursuit of
+Darius, who, having lost his throne, was kept prisoner by Bessus, satrap of
+Bactriana. Bessus, on seeing himself closely pursued, caused Darius to be
+assassinated (330 B.C.). Continuing his progress he subdued Bessus, and
+advanced to the Jaxartes, the extreme eastern limit of the empire, but did
+not fully subdue the whole of this region till 328, some fortresses holding
+out with great tenacity. In one of these he took prisoner the beautiful
+Roxana, daughter of Oxyartes, a nobleman of Sogdiana, and having fallen in
+love with her he married her. Meantime disaffection had once or twice
+manifested itself among his Macedonian followers and had been cruelly
+punished; and he had also, to his lasting remorse, killed his faithful
+friend Cleitus in a fit of drunken rage. Alexander now formed the idea of
+conquering India, then scarcely known even by name. He passed the Indus
+(326 B.C.), marched towards the Hydaspes (Jhelum), at the passage of which
+he conquered a king named Porus in a fierce battle, and advanced
+victoriously through the north-west of India, and intended to proceed as
+far as the Ganges, when the murmurs of his army compelled him to return. On
+the Hydaspes he built a fleet, in which he sent a part of his army down the
+river, while the rest proceeded along the banks. By the Hydaspes he reached
+the Acesines (Chenab), and thus the Indus, down which he sailed to the sea.
+Nearchus, his admiral, sailed hence to the Persian Gulf, while Alexander
+directed his march by land to Babylon, losing a great part of his troops in
+the desert through which he had to pass. In Susa he married Statira, the
+eldest daughter of Darius, and rewarded those of his Macedonians who had
+married Persian women, because it was his intention to unite the two
+nations as closely as possible. At Opis, on the Tigris, a mutiny arose
+among his Macedonians (in 324), who thought he showed too much favour to
+the Asiatics; by firmness and policy he succeeded in quelling this rising,
+and sent home 10,000 veterans with rich rewards. Soon after, his favourite,
+Hephæstion, died at Ecbatana, and Alexander's grief was unbounded. The
+favourite was royally buried at Babylon, and here Alexander was engaged in
+extensive plans for the future, when he became suddenly sick, after a
+banquet, and died in a few days (323 B.C.), in his thirty-third year, after
+a reign of twelve years and eight months. His body was after a time
+conveyed to Egypt with great splendour by his general Ptolemy. He left
+behind him an immense empire, which was divided among his chief generals,
+and became the scene of continual wars. The reign of Alexander constitutes
+an important period in the history of humanity. His career was not merely a
+series of empty conquests, but was attended with the most important
+results. The language, and much of the civilization of Greece, followed in
+his track; large additions were made to the sciences of geography, natural
+history, &c.; a road was opened to India; and the products of the farthest
+east were introduced into Europe. Greek kingdoms, under his generals and
+their successors, continued to exist in Asia for centuries.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+B. I. Wheeler, _Alexander the Great_ (Heroes of the Nations Series:
+Putnam); Grote, _History of Greece_; Holm, _History of Greece_; Dodge,
+_Alexander_ (Great Captains Series).
+
+ALEXANDER, the name of eight popes, the earliest of whom, ALEXANDER I, is
+said to have reigned from 108 to 119. ALEXANDER III, elected 1159, died
+1181, exercised his authority with great vigour against Henry II when the
+latter was accused of the assassination of Thomas Becket. The most famous
+(or infamous) is ALEXANDER VI (Borgia), who was born at Valencia, in Spain,
+in 1431, and died in 1503. When he was only twenty-five years of age his
+uncle, Pope Calixtus III, made him a cardinal, and shortly afterwards
+appointed him to the dignified and lucrative office of vice-chancellor. By
+bribery he prepared his way to the papal throne, which he attained in 1492,
+after the death of Innocent VIII. Both the authority and revenues of the
+popes being at this time much impaired, he set himself to reduce the power
+of the Italian princes, and seize upon their possessions for the benefit of
+his own family. To effect this end he is said not to have scrupled to use
+the vilest means, including poison and assassination. His policy, foreign
+as well as domestic, was faithless and base, and his private life was
+stained by immorality. He understood how to extract immense sums of money
+from all Christian countries under various pretexts. He sold indulgences,
+and set aside, in favour of himself, the wills of several cardinals. His
+excesses roused against him the powerful eloquence of Savonarola, who, by
+pen and pulpit, urged his deposition, but had to meet his death at the
+stake in 1498. Not long after his election Alexander had the honour of
+deciding the dispute between the kings of Portugal and Castile concerning
+their respective claims to the foreign countries recently discovered. It
+must, however, be admitted that Pope Alexander, whilst striking the wealthy
+and powerful, interested himself in the welfare of the people, and that he
+was a patron of arts and letters. His son, Cesare Borgia, and his daughter,
+Lucrezia, are equally notorious with himself.
+
+ALEXANDER, the name of three Scottish kings. ALEXANDER I, a son of Malcolm
+III, Canmore, and Margaret of England, succeeded his brother Edgar in 1107,
+and governed with great ability till his death in 1124. He was a great
+benefactor of the Church, and a firm vindicator of the national
+independence.--ALEXANDER II was born in 1198, and succeeded his father,
+William the Lion, in 1214. He was a wise and energetic prince, and Scotland
+prospered greatly under him, though disturbed by the Norsemen, by the
+restlessness of some of the Celtic chiefs, and by the attempts of Henry III
+of England to make Alexander do homage to him. He helped Robert FitzWilliam
+to capture London and compel King John to sign Magna Charta. Alexander
+married Henry's sister, Joan, in 1221, who lived till 1238. In 1244 war
+with England almost broke out, but was fortunately averted. Alexander died
+in 1248 at Kerrera, an island opposite Oban, when on an expedition in which
+he hoped to wrest the Hebrides from Norway. He was succeeded by his son,
+ALEXANDER III, a boy of eight, who in 1251 married Margaret, eldest
+daughter of Henry III of England. Like his father, he was eager to bring
+the Hebrides under his sway, and this he was enabled to accomplish in a few
+years after the defeat of the Norse King Haco at Largs, in 1263. The
+mainland and islands of Scotland were now under one sovereign, though
+Orkney and Shetland still belonged to Norway. Alexander was strenuous in
+asserting the independence both of the Scottish kingdom and the Scottish
+Church against England. He died in 1285 by the falling of his horse while
+he was riding in the dark between Burntisland and Kinghorn. He left as his
+heiress Margaret, the Maid of Norway, daughter of Eric of Norway, and of
+Alexander's daughter, Margaret. Under him Scotland enjoyed greater
+prosperity than for generations afterwards.
+
+ALEXANDER I, Emperor of Russia, son of Paul I and Maria, daughter of Prince
+Eugene of Würtemberg, was born in 1777, and died in 1825. On the
+assassination of his father, in 1801, Alexander ascended the throne, and
+one of his first acts was to conclude peace with Britain, against which his
+predecessor had declared war. In 1803 he offered his services as mediator
+between England and France, and two years later a convention was entered
+into between Russia, England, Austria, and Sweden for the purpose of
+resisting the encroachments of France on the territories of independent
+States. He was present at the battle of Austerlitz (1805), when the
+combined armies of Russia and Austria were defeated by Napoleon. In the
+succeeding campaign the Russians were again beaten at Eylau (8th Feb.,
+1807) and Friedland (14th June), the result of which was an interview
+between Alexander and Napoleon, and the treaty at Tilsit. The Russian
+emperor now for a time identified himself with the Napoleonic schemes, and
+soon obtained possession of Finland and an extended territory on the
+Danube. The French alliance, however, he found to be too oppressive, and
+his having separated himself from Napoleon led to the disastrous French
+invasion of 1812. In 1813 he published a manifesto which served as the
+basis of the coalition of the other European powers against France, which
+was followed by the capture of Paris (in 1814), the abdication of Napoleon
+and the restoration of the Bourbons, and the utter overthrow of Napoleon
+the following year. After Waterloo, Alexander, accompanied by the Emperor
+of Austria and the King of Prussia, made his second entrance into Paris,
+where they concluded the treaty known as the Holy Alliance. The remaining
+part of his reign was chiefly taken up with measures of internal reform,
+including the gradual abolition of serfdom, and the promotion of education,
+agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, as well as literature and the fine
+arts.
+
+ALEXANDER II, Emperor of Russia, was born 29th April, 1818, and succeeded
+his father Nicholas in 1855, before the end of the Crimean war. After peace
+was concluded, the new emperor set about effecting reforms in the empire,
+the greatest of all being the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, a measure
+which gave freedom, on certain conditions, to 50,000,000 of human beings
+who were previously in a state little removed from that of slavery. Under
+him, too, representative assemblies in the provinces were introduced, and
+he also did much to improve education, and to reorganize the judicial
+system. During his reign the Russian dominions in Central Asia were
+extended, a piece of territory south of the Caucasus, formerly belonging to
+Turkey, was acquired, and a part of Bessarabia restored to Russia. The
+latter additions resulted from the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8. He was
+killed by an explosive missile flung at him by a Nihilist in a street in
+St. Petersburg (now Petrograd), 13th March, 1881. He was succeeded by his
+son, Alexander III. His only daughter was married to the Duke of Edinburgh.
+
+ALEXANDER III, Emperor of Russia, son of Alexander II, born in 1845, became
+heir to the throne on the death of his eldest brother, Nicholas (1865). In
+1863 he married Princess Dagmar of Denmark; he succeeded to the throne in
+1881, on the assassination of his father, being crowned in Moscow in 1883.
+He gave up the reforms begun by his father, and ruled in the old autocratic
+fashion, restricting the liberties of Finland and the Baltic Provinces, and
+encouraging persecution of the Jews. He spent much time in the
+closely-guarded castle of Gatchina, to be safe from Nihilistic attempts,
+several of which he narrowly escaped. He endeavoured to put down corruption
+and underhand dealing among the bureaucracy, and in his own habits gave an
+example of simplicity and economy. While showing himself suspicious of
+Germany and Austria-Hungary, he entered on friendly relations with France.
+He began to suffer from disease of the kidneys in 1893, and died at Livadia
+on 1st Nov., 1894. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicholas II.
+
+ALEXANDER I, King of Serbia, born in 1876. He was the son of King Milan,
+and on the abdication of his father in 1889 was proclaimed king under a
+regency. He married Madame Draga Mashin, a widow, who was much older than
+himself. Both were assassinated on 11th June, 1903.
+
+ALEXANDER OF HALES. See _Hales, Alexander de._
+
+ALEXANDER, Boyd, British explorer and naturalist, born in 1873. He led many
+expeditions for research and exploration to the Cape Verde Islands, the
+Zambesi River, and various parts of the world. He also discovered many new
+birds when he ascended the Mount St. Isabel. In 1908 he received the gold
+medal of the Royal Geographical Society. He was murdered by natives in May,
+1910, while exploring the French Congo. He wrote _From the Niger to the
+Nile_ (1907), &c. _Boyd Alexander's Last Journey_ was published in 1912.
+
+ALEXANDER NEVSKOI, a Russian hero and saint, son of the Grand-Duke
+Jaroslav, born in 1219, died in 1263. He fought valiantly against assaults
+of the Mongols, the Danes, Swedes, and Knights of the Teutonic Order. He
+gained the name of _Nevskoi_ in 1240, for a splendid victory, on the Neva,
+over the Swedes. The gratitude of his countrymen commemorated the hero in
+popular songs, and raised him to the dignity of a saint. Peter the Great
+built a splendid monastery at St. Petersburg (Petrograd) in his honour, and
+in memory of him established the Order of Alexander Nevskoi.
+
+ALEXANDER SEVE'RUS, a Roman emperor, born in 208, died A.D. 235. He was
+raised to the imperial dignity in A.D. 222 by the prætorian guards, after
+they had put his cousin the Emperor Heliogabalus to death. He governed ably
+both in peace and war; and also occupied himself in poetry, philosophy, and
+literature. He was very tolerant in religious matters, and although not
+professing Christianity intended to erect a temple to Christ, but was
+prevented by the pagan priests from carrying out this plan. In 232 he
+defeated the Persians under Artaxerxes, who wished to drive the Romans from
+Asia. When on an expedition into Gaul, to repress an incursion of the
+Germans, he was murdered with his mother in an insurrection of his troops,
+headed by the brutal Maximin, who succeeded him as emperor.
+
+ALEXANDERS (_Smyrnium Olus[=a]trum_), an umbelliferous biennial plant, a
+native of the Mediterranean region, but found in Great Britain and Ireland.
+It was formerly cultivated for its leaf-stalks, which, having a pleasant
+aromatic flavour, were blanched and used instead of celery--a vegetable
+that has taken its place.
+
+ALEXANDRA, the queen mother, widow of Edward VII, daughter of Christian IX,
+King of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen on 1st Dec., 1844, and was married
+on 10th March, 1863, being Princess of Wales up to the death of Queen
+Victoria and the accession of King Edward in Jan., 1901. She was highly
+popular from the first in the country of her husband, as she constantly
+showed an interest in all benevolent causes. She has been the mother of six
+children, one of whom died in infancy, while the eldest, Edward, Duke of
+Clarence and Avondale, died in 1892 at the age of twenty-eight. Cf. S. A.
+Tooley, _Queen Alexandra_.
+
+ALEXANDRET'TA, or ISKANDEROON (ancient ALEXANDRIA AD ISSUM), a small
+seaport in Asia Minor, on the Gulf of Iskanderoon, the port of Aleppo and
+Northern Syria. Named after Alexander the Great, and founded in memory of
+the battle of Issus. In 1832 Mehemet Ali won a victory over the Turks near
+Alexandretta. There is a large export and import trade. It was occupied by
+British and French troops in Nov., 1918. Pop. 10,000.
+
+ALEXAN'DRIA, an ancient city and seaport in Egypt, at the north-west angle
+of the Nile delta, on a ridge of land between the sea and Lake Mareotis.
+Ancient Alexandria was founded by, and named in honour of, Alexander the
+Great, in 332 B.C., and was long a great and splendid city, the centre of
+commerce between the east and west, as well as of Greek learning and
+civilization, with a population at one time of perhaps 1,000,000. It was
+especially celebrated for its great library, and also for its famous
+lighthouse, one of the wonders of the world, standing upon the little
+island of Pharos, which was connected with the city by a mole. Under Roman
+rule it was the second city of the empire, and when Constantinople became
+the capital of the East it still remained the chief centre of trade; but it
+received a blow from which it never recovered when captured by Amru,
+general of Caliph Omar, in 641, after a siege of fourteen months. Its ruin
+was finally completed by the building of Cairo (969) and the discovery of
+the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope (1498) which opened up a new
+route for the Asiatic trade. See _Alexandrian Library_, _Alexandrian
+School_.--Modern Alexandria stands partly on what was formerly the island
+of Pharos, partly on the peninsula which now connects it with the mainland
+and which was formed by the accumulation of soil, and partly on the
+mainland. The streets in the Turkish quarter are narrow, dirty, and
+irregular; in the foreign quarter they are regular and wide, and it is here
+that the finest houses are situated. Here also are the principal shops and
+hotels, banks, offices of companies, &c.; this part of the city being
+supplied with gas, and with water brought by the Mahmudieh Canal from the
+western branch of the Nile. Alexandria is connected by railway with Cairo,
+Rosetta, and Suez. A little to the south of the city are the catacombs,
+which now serve as a quarry. Another relic of antiquity is Pompey's Pillar,
+98 feet 9 inches high. Alexandria has two ports, on the east and west
+respectively of the isthmus of the Pharos peninsula, the latter having a
+breakwater over 3000 yards in length, with fine quays and suitable railway
+and other accommodation. The trade of Alexandria is large and varied, the
+exports being cotton, beans, pease, rice, wheat, &c.; the imports chiefly
+manufactured goods, machinery, timber, and coal. The origin of its more
+recent career of prosperity it owes to Mohammed Ali. In 1882 the
+insurrection of Arabi Pasha and the massacre of Europeans led to the
+intervention of the British, and the bombardment of the forts by the
+British fleet in July. The administrative district has an area of 19 sq.
+miles; pop. 444,617 (or 23,401 per square mile).
+
+ALEXANDRIA, a town and port of the United States, in Virginia, on the right
+bank of the Potomac (which is of sufficient depth for large vessels), 7
+miles south of Washington, carries on a considerable trade, chiefly in
+flour. Pop. (1920), 18,060.
+
+ALEXANDRIA, a town of Scotland, in Dumbartonshire, on the Leven, 4 miles
+north of Dumbarton, with extensive cotton-printing and bleaching works.
+Pop. 9850.
+
+ALEXANDRIA, a town of the Ukraine, in the former Russian government of
+Kherson, on a tributary of the Dnieper. Pop. 10,521.
+
+ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, the largest and most famous of all the ancient
+collections of books, founded by Ptolemy Soter (died 283 B.C.), King of
+Egypt, and greatly enlarged by succeeding Ptolemies. The first librarian
+was Zenodotus (234 B.C.). At its most flourishing period it is said to have
+numbered 700,000 volumes, accommodated in two different buildings, one of
+them being the Serapeion, or temple of Jupiter Serapis. The other
+collection was burned during Julius Cæsar's siege of the city, but the
+Serapeion library existed to the time of the Emperor Theodosius the Great,
+when, at the general destruction of the heathen temples, the splendid
+temple of Jupiter Serapis was gutted (A.D. 391) by a fanatical crowd of
+Christians, and its literary treasures destroyed or scattered. A library
+was again accumulated, but was burned by the Arabs when they captured the
+city under the caliph Omar in 641. Amru, the captain of the caliph's army,
+would have been willing to spare the library, but Omar is said to have
+disposed of the matter in the famous words: "If these writings of the
+Greeks agree with the Koran they are useless, and need not be preserved; if
+they disagree they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed". This story,
+however, which rests solely on the authority of Abulfaragius, a writer who
+lived six centuries later, is now generally discredited.
+
+ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL or AGE, the school or period of Greek literature and
+learning that existed at Alexandria in Egypt during the three hundred years
+that the rule of the Ptolemies lasted (323-30 B.C.), and continued under
+the Roman supremacy. Ptolemy Soter founded the famous library of Alexandria
+(see above) and his son, Philadelphus, established a kind of academy of
+sciences and arts. Many scholars and men of genius were thus attracted to
+Alexandria, and a period of literary activity set in, which made Alexandria
+for long the focus and centre of Greek culture and intellectual effort. It
+must be admitted, however, that originality was not a characteristic of the
+Alexandrian age, which was stronger in criticism, grammar, and science than
+in pure literature. Among the grammarians and critics were Zenodotus,
+Eratosthenes, Aristophanes, Aristarchus, and Zoilus, proverbial as a
+captious critic. Their merit is to have collected, edited, and preserved
+the existing monuments of Greek literature. To the poets belong Apollonius,
+Lycophron, Aratus, Nicander, Euphorion, Callimachus, Theocritus, Philetas,
+&c. Among those who pursued mathematics, physics, and astronomy was Euclid,
+the father of scientific geometry; Archimedes, great in physics and
+mechanics; Apollonius of Perga, whose work on conic sections still exists;
+Nicomachus, the first scientific arithmetician; and (under the Romans) the
+astronomer and geographer Ptolemy. Alexandria also was distinguished in
+philosophical speculation, and it was here that the New Platonic school was
+established by Ammonius of Alexandria (about A.D. 193), whose disciples
+were Plotinus and Origen. Being for the most part Orientals, formed by the
+study of Greek learning, the writings of the New Platonists are strikingly
+characterized--for example, those of Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus, Iamblicus,
+Porphyrius--by a mixture of Asiatic and European elements. The connection
+of Neo-Platonism with Alexandria is, however, less than is commonly
+supposed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mahaffy, _Greek Life and Thought from the Age of
+Alexander to the Roman Empire_; Kingsley, _Alexandria and her Schools_;
+Vacherot, _Histoire critique de l'école d'Alexandrie_ (3 vols.).
+
+ALEXANDRIAN VERSION. See _Codex Alexandrinus_.
+
+ALEXANDRINE, in prosody, the name given, from an old French poem on
+Alexander the Great, to a species of verse, which consists of six iambic
+feet, or twelve syllables, the pause being, in correct Alexandrines, always
+on the sixth syllable; for example, the second of the following verses:--
+
+  A needless Alexandrine ends the song,
+  That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.
+
+In English Drayton's _Polyolbion_ is written in this measure, and the
+concluding line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In France the
+verse fell into disuse during the early part of the sixteenth century, but
+was again revived by Jean Antoine de Baïf, one of the poets of the Pléiade.
+Jodelle introduced the verse into the drama, and Ronsard made it very
+popular. French epics and dramas being confined to this verse, it is
+therefore called the _heroic_.
+
+ALEXANDRO'POL, formerly a Russian town and fortress in the Transcaucasian
+government of Erivan, near the highway from Erivan to Kars; now belonging
+to Armenia; it has silk manufactories. Pop. 48,938.
+
+ALEXAN'DROV, a town of Russia, government of Vladimir, with a famous
+convent, in the church of which are interred two sisters of Peter the
+Great; manufactures of steel and cotton goods. Pop. 7179.
+
+ALEX'ISBAD, a bathing-place of Germany, Anhalt, in the Harz Mountains, with
+two mineral springs strongly impregnated with iron.
+
+ALEX'IS MIKHAI'LOVITSH (son of Michael), second Russian Tsar of the line of
+Romanov, born in 1629, succeeded his father Mikhail Feodorovitsh in 1645,
+and died in 1676. He did much for the internal administration and for the
+enlargement of the empire; reconquered Little Russia from Poland, and
+carried his authority to the extreme east of Siberia. He was father of
+sixteen children, the most famous of them being Peter the Great and his
+sister Sophia.
+
+ALEXIS PETRO'VITSH, eldest son of Peter the Great and Eudoxia Lopukhina,
+repudiated in 1698, was born in Moscow, 1690, and died in 1718. He opposed
+the innovations introduced by his father, who on this account disinherited
+him by a ukase in 1718, and when he discovered that Alexis was paving the
+way to succeed to the crown he had his son tried and condemned to death. A
+few days afterwards Alexis died, after having received twenty-five strokes
+with the knout, leaving a son, afterwards the Emperor Peter II.
+
+ALEX'IUS COMNE'NUS, Byzantine Emperor, was born in 1048, and died in 1118.
+He was a nephew of Isaac the first emperor of the Comneni, and attained the
+throne in 1081, at a time when the Empire was menaced from various sides,
+especially by the Turks and the Normans. From these dangers he managed to
+extricate himself by policy or warlike measures, and maintained his
+position till the age of seventy, during a reign of thirty-seven years. His
+daughter Anna wrote a life of him (_The Alexiad_), which is one continuous
+eulogy, but all the Latin historians are very severe on him.
+
+AL'FA. See _Esparto_.
+
+ALFAL'FA, generally known in Britain as lucerne, a prolific forage plant
+largely grown in California, &c.
+
+ALFARA'BI, an eminent Arabian scholar of the tenth century; died at
+Damascus in 950; wrote on Aristotelian philosophy, and compiled a kind of
+encyclopedia.
+
+AL'FENID, an alloy of nickel plated with silver, used for spoons, forks,
+candlesticks, tea services, &c.
+
+ALFIERI ([.a]l-f[=e]-[=a]'r[=e]), Vittorio, Count, Italian poet, was born
+at Asti in 1749, and died in 1803. After extensive European travels he
+began to write, and his first play, _Cleopatra_ (1775), being received with
+general applause he determined to devote all his efforts to attaining a
+position among writers of dramatic poetry. At Florence he became intimate
+with the Countess of Albany, wife of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, and on
+the death of the prince she lived with him as his mistress. This connection
+he believed to have served to stimulate and elevate his poetic powers. He
+died at Florence and was buried in the church of Santa Croce, between
+Macchiavelli and Michael Angelo, where a beautiful monument by Canova
+covers his remains. He wrote twenty-one tragedies and six comedies. His
+theatrical work has been rightly styled a creation of his pride as much as
+of his genius; he endeavoured to turn the theatre into a platform and was
+constantly preaching from the stage. Anxious to use his characters as
+exponents of his theories, and to make them _talk_, he often forgot to make
+them _act_. Alfieri himself admitted that he was writing with a view to
+"teaching men how to become free, strong, generous, and passionate for real
+virtue", but such an attitude is opposed to true art. His tragedies are
+full of lofty and patriotic sentiments, but the language is stiff and
+without poetic grace, and the plots poor. Nevertheless he is considered the
+first tragic writer of Italy, and has served as a model for his successors.
+Alfieri composed also an epic, lyrics, satires, and poetical translations
+from the ancient classics. He left an interesting autobiography. The best
+edition of his works is that published at Pisa (1805-13) in 22 vols.
+
+ALFON'SO. See _Alphonso_.
+
+AL'FORD, Henry, D.D., Dean of Canterbury, an English poet, scholar, and
+miscellaneous writer, was born in London in 1810. After attending various
+schools he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827, graduated B.A. in
+1832, was elected fellow in 1834, and next year became vicar of Wymeswold,
+Leicestershire. In 1842 he was appointed examiner in logic and moral
+philosophy to the University of London, and held the appointment till 1857.
+He early began the great work of his life, his edition of the Greek
+Testament with commentary, which occupied him for twenty years, the first
+volumes being published in 1849, the fourth and last in 1861. In 1853 he
+was transferred to Quebec Chapel, London, and in 1857 was appointed Dean of
+Canterbury. He was the first editor of the _Contemporary Review_ (1866-70).
+He died in 1871. Among other works he wrote _Chapters on the Poets of
+Ancient Greece_, _Sermons_, _Psalms and Hymns_, _Homilies on the Acts of
+the Apostles_, _Letters from Abroad_, _Poetical Works_, _Plea for the
+Queen's English_.
+
+AL'FRED (or ÆL'FRED) THE GREAT, King of England, was born at Wantage, in
+Berkshire, A.D. 849, his father being Ethelwulf, son of Egbert, King of the
+West Saxons. He succeeded his brother Ethelred in 872, at a time when the
+Danes, or Northmen, had extended their conquests widely over the country,
+and they had completely overrun the kingdom of the West Saxons by 878.
+Alfred was obliged to flee in disguise. At length he gathered a small
+force, and having fortified himself on the Isle of Athelney, formed by the
+confluence of the Rivers Parret and Tone, amid the marshes of Somerset, he
+was able to make frequent sallies against the enemy. It was during his
+abode here that he went, according to legend, disguised as a harper into
+the camp of King Guthrum (or Guthorm), and, having ascertained that the
+Danes felt themselves secure, hastened back to his troops, led them against
+the enemy, and gained such a decided victory that fourteen days afterwards
+the Danes begged for peace. This battle took place in May, 878, near
+Edington, in Wiltshire. Alfred allowed the Danes who were already in the
+country to remain, on condition that they gave hostages, took a solemn oath
+to quit Wessex, and embraced Christianity. Their king, Guthrum, was
+baptized, with thirty of his followers, and ever afterward remained
+faithful to Alfred. They received that portion of the east of England now
+occupied by the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge, as a place of
+residence. The few years of tranquillity (886-93) which followed were
+employed by Alfred in rebuilding the towns that had suffered most during
+the war, particularly London; in training his people in arms and no less in
+agriculture; in improving the navy; in systematizing the laws and internal
+administration; and in literary labours and the advancement of learning. He
+caused many manuscripts to be translated from Latin, and himself translated
+several works into Anglo-Saxon, such as the _Psalms_, _Æsop's Fables_,
+_Boethius on the Consolation of Philosophy_, the _History of Orosius_,
+_Bede's Ecclesiastical History_, &c. He also drew up several original works
+in Anglo-Saxon. These peaceful labours were interrupted, about 894, by an
+invasion of the Northmen, who, after a struggle of three years, were
+finally driven out. Alfred died in 901. He had married, in 868, Alswith or
+Ealhswith, the daughter of a Mercian nobleman, and left two sons: Edward,
+who succeeded him, and Ethelwerd, who died in 922.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Plummer,
+_Life and Times of Alfred the Great_; A. Bowker, _Alfred the Great,
+Chapters on his Life and Times_; B. A. Lees, _Alfred the Great_.
+
+ALGÆ (al'j[=e]), a nat. ord. of cryptogamic or thallogenous plants, found
+for the most part in the sea and fresh water, or on the surface of damp
+walls, rocks, the bark of trees, and in similar moist situations. They are
+either some shade of bluish-green, green, brown, or red colour. The higher
+forms have stems bearing leaf-like expansions, and they are often attached
+to the rocks by roots, which, however, do not derive nutriment from the
+rocks. A stem, however, is most frequently absent. The plants are nourished
+through their whole surface by the medium in which they live. They vary in
+size from the microscopic diatoms to forms whose stems resemble those of
+forest trees, and whose fronds rival the leaves of the palm. They are
+entirely composed of cellular tissue, and many are edible and nutritious,
+as carrageen or Irish-moss, dulse, &c. Kelp, iodine, and bromine are
+products of various species. The Algæ are also valuable as manure. They are
+often divided into five orders: Diatomaceæ, Confervaceæ, Fucaceæ,
+Ceramiaceæ, and Characeæ.
+
+ALGAR'DI, Alessandro, one of the chief Italian sculptors of the seventeenth
+century; born 1602, died 1654. He lived and worked chiefly at Rome;
+executed the tomb of Leo XI in St. Peter's, a bronze statue of Innocent X,
+and a marble relief with life-size figures over the altar of St. Leo there.
+
+ALGARO'BA-BEAN. See _Carob Tree_.
+
+AL'GAROT, a violently purgative and emetic white powder, precipitated from
+chloride of antimony in water; it was used in medicine by the physician
+Victor Algarotus in the sixteenth century.
+
+ALGAROT'TI, Francesco, Count, born in 1712, died in 1764, an Italian writer
+on science, the fine arts, &c. He lived for some years in France and for a
+long time in Germany, Frederick the Great of Prussia having made him
+chamberlain and count. He wrote _Neutonianismo per le donne_; _Saggi sopra
+le belle arti_, his principal work on art; poems, letters, &c. Algarotti's
+works published at Venice in 17 vols. (1791-4) and illustrated by Tesi and
+Novelli are a _chef-d'oeuvre_ of typography. Frederick the Great erected at
+Pisa a monument to his memory.
+
+ALGARVE (al-g[.a]r'v[=a], meaning the land situated in the west), a
+maritime province of Portugal occupying the southern portion of the
+country, mountainous but with some fertile tracts. The title King of
+Algarve was held by the Kings of Portugal. Area, 1937 sq. miles; pop.
+274,122.
+
+ALGAU ([.a]l'gou), a name for the south-western portion of Bavaria and the
+adjacent parts of Würtemberg and Tyrol, intersected by the Algau Alps. The
+Algau breed of cattle is one of the best in Germany.
+
+ALGAZZALI ([.a]l-g[.a]z-ä'l[=e]), Abu Hamed Mohammed, an Arabian
+philosopher, Persian by birth; born 1058, died 1111. He was a most prolific
+author; an opponent of the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy of the day,
+and wrote against it the _Destruction of the Philosophers_, answered by
+Averroes in his _Destruction of the Destruction_.
+
+AL'GEBRA (from the Arabic _al_, definite article, and _jabbara_, to make
+equal), a kind of generalized arithmetic, in which numbers or quantities
+and operations, often also the results of operations, are represented by
+symbols. Thus the expression xy + cz + dy^2 denotes that a number
+represented by x is to be multiplied by a number represented by y, a number
+c multiplied by a number z, a number d by a number y multiplied by itself
+(or squared), and the sum taken of these three products. So the _equation_
+(as it is called) x^2 - 7x + 12 = 0 expresses the fact that if a certain
+number x is multiplied by itself, and this result made less by seven times
+the number and greater by twelve, the result is 0. In this case x must
+either be 3 or 4 to produce the given result; but such an equation (or
+formula) as (a + b)(a - b) = a^2 - b^2 is always true whatever values may
+be assigned to a and b. Algebra is an invaluable instrument in intricate
+calculations of all kinds, and enables operations to be performed and
+results obtained that by arithmetic would be impossible, and its scope is
+still being extended.
+
+The beginnings of algebraic method are to be found in Diophantus, a Greek
+of the fourth century of our era, but it was the Arabians that introduced
+algebra to Europe, and from them it received its name. The first Arabian
+treatise on algebra was published in the reign of the great Caliph Al Mamun
+(813-33) by Mohammed Ben Musa. Italian merchants were the first algebraists
+in Europe, and in 1202 Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa, who had travelled and
+studied in the East, published a work treating of algebra as then
+understood in the Arabian school. From this time to the discovery of
+printing considerable attention was given to algebra, and the work of Ben
+Musa and another Arabian treatise, called the _Rule of Algebra_, were
+translated into Italian. The first printed work treating on algebra (also
+on arithmetic, &c.) appeared at Venice in 1494, the author being a monk
+called Luca Pacioli da Bergo, a Minorite friar. Rapid progress now began to
+be made, and among the names of those to whom advances are to be attributed
+are Tartaglia and Geronimo Cardano. About the middle of the sixteenth
+century the German Stifel introduced the signs +, -, [sqrt], and Robert
+Recorde the sign =. The last-named wrote the first English work on algebra
+in 1557. François Vieta, a French mathematician (1540-1603), first adopted
+the method which has led to so great an extension of modern algebra, by
+being the first who used general symbols for known quantities as well as
+for unknown. It was he also who first made the application of algebra to
+geometry. Albert Girard, a Flemish mathematician in the seventeenth
+century, extended the theory of equations by the introduction of imaginary
+quantities. The Englishman Harriot, early in the seventeenth century,
+discovered negative roots, and established the equality between the number
+of roots and the units in the degree of the equation. He also invented the
+signs < >, and Oughtred that of ×. Descartes, though not the first to apply
+algebra to geometry, has, by the extent and importance of his applications,
+commonly acquired the credit of being so. The same discoveries have also
+been attributed to him as to Harriot, and their respective claims have
+caused much controversy. He obtained by means of algebra the definition and
+description of curves. Since his time algebra has been applied so widely in
+geometry and higher mathematics that we need only mention the names of
+Fermat, Wallis, Newton, Leibnitz, De Moivre, MacLaurin, Taylor, Euler,
+D'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Fourier, Poisson, Gauss, Horner, De Morgan,
+Sylvester, Cayley. Boole, Jevons, and others have applied the algebraic
+method not only to formal logic but to political economy.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Chrystal, _Algebra_ (2 vols.); Hobson, _Trigonometry_; Hardy, _Pure
+Mathematics_; Whittaker and Watson, _Modern Analysis_.
+
+ALGECIRAS ([.a]l-_h_e-th[=e]'r[.a]s) (perhaps Portus Albus of the Romans),
+a seaport of Spain, on the west side of the Bay of Gibraltar, a well-built
+town carrying on a brisk coasting trade. It was the first conquest of the
+Arabs in Spain (711), and was held by them till 1344, when it was taken by
+Alphonso XI of Castile after a long siege. Near it, in 1801, Admiral Sir
+James Saumarez defeated a Franco-Spanish fleet. Differences between France
+and Germany regarding Morocco led to a conference of European Powers here
+from 16th Jan.-7th April, 1906. Pop. 15,800.
+
+ALGE'RIA, a French dependency in N. Africa, having on the north the
+Mediterranean, on the east Tunis, on the west Morocco, and on the south the
+Desert of Sahara; area, 122,878 sq. miles, or including the Algerian Sahara
+343,500. The country is divided into three departments--Algiers, Oran, and
+Constantine. The coastline is about 550 miles in length, steep and rocky,
+and though the indentations are numerous, the harbours are much exposed to
+the north wind. The country is traversed by the Atlas Mountains, two chains
+of which--the Great Atlas, bordering on the Sahara, and the Little, or
+Maritime Atlas, between it and the sea--run parallel to the coast, the
+former attaining a height of 7000 feet. The intervals are filled with lower
+ranges, and numerous transverse ranges connect the principal ones and run
+from them to the coast, forming elevated tablelands and enclosed valleys.
+The rivers are numerous, but many of them are mere torrents rising in the
+mountains near the coast. The Shelif is much the largest. Some of the
+rivers are largely used for irrigation, and artesian wells have been sunk
+in some places for the same purpose. There are, both on the coast and in
+the interior, extensive salt lakes or marshes (_Shotts_), which dry up to a
+great extent in summer. The country bordering on the coast, called the
+_Tell_, is generally hilly, with fertile valleys; in some places a flat and
+fertile plain extends between the hills and the sea. In the east there are
+_Shotts_ that sink below the sea-level, and into these it has been proposed
+to introduce the waters of the Mediterranean. The climate varies
+considerably according to elevation and local peculiarities. There are
+three seasons: winter from November to February, spring from March to June,
+and summer from July to October. The summer is very hot and dry. In many
+parts of the coast the temperature is moderate and the climate so healthy
+that Algeria is now a winter resort for invalids.
+
+The chief products of cultivation are wheat, barley, and oats, tobacco,
+cotton, wine, silk, and dates. Early vegetables, especially potatoes and
+pease, are exported to France and England. A fibre called _alfa_, a variety
+of esparto, which grows wild on the high plateaux, is exported in large
+quantities. Cork is also exported. There are valuable forests, in which
+grow various sorts of pines and oaks, ash, cedar, myrtle, pistachio-nut,
+mastic, carob, &c. The Australian _Eucalyptus glob[)u]lus_ (a gum tree) has
+been successfully introduced. Agriculture often suffers much from the
+ravages of locusts. Among wild animals are the lion, panther, hyena, and
+jackal; the domestic quadrupeds include the horse, the mule, cattle, sheep,
+and pigs (introduced by the French). Algeria possesses valuable minerals,
+including iron, copper, lead, sulphur, zinc, antimony, marble (white and
+red), phosphate, and lithographic stone.
+
+The trade of Algeria has greatly increased under French rule, France,
+Spain, and England being the countries with which it is principally carried
+on, and three-fourths of the whole being with France. The exports (besides
+those mentioned above) are olive-oil, raw hides, wood, wool, tobacco,
+oranges, &c.; the imports, manufactured goods, wines, spirits, coffee, &c.
+The manufacturing industries are unimportant, and include morocco leather,
+carpets, muslins, and silks. French money, weights, and measures are
+generally used. The chief towns are Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Bona, and
+Tlemsen. There are about 2800 miles of railways opened; there is also a
+considerable network of telegraph lines.
+
+The two principal native races inhabiting Algeria are Arabs and Berbers.
+The former are mostly nomads, dwelling in tents and wandering from place to
+place, though a large number of them are settled in the Tell, where they
+carry on agriculture and have formed numerous villages. The Berbers, here
+called Kabyles, are the original inhabitants of the territory and still
+form a considerable part of the population. They speak the Berber language,
+but use Arabic characters in writing. The Jews form a small but influential
+part of the population. Various other races also exist. Except the Jews,
+all the native races are Mahommedans. There are now a considerable number
+of French and other colonists, provision being made for granting them
+concessions of land on certain conditions. There are over 260,000 colonists
+of French origin in Algeria, and over 200,000 colonists natives of other
+European countries (chiefly Spaniards and Italians). Algeria is governed by
+a governor-general, who is assisted by a council appointed by the French
+Government. The settled portion of the country, in the three departments of
+Algiers, Constantine, and Oran, is treated much as if it were a part of
+France, and each department sends two deputies and one senator to the
+French chambers. The rest of the territory is under military rule. The
+colony costs France a considerable sum every year. Pop. of Algeria proper
+in 1911, 5,523,449; of the Algerian Sahara, 40,379.
+
+The country now called Algeria was known to the Romans as Numidia. It
+flourished greatly under their rule, and early received the Christian
+religion. It was conquered by the Vandals in A.D. 430-1, and recovered by
+Belisarius for the Byzantine Empire in 533-4. About the middle of the
+seventh century it was overrun by the Saracens. The town of Algiers was
+founded about 935 by Yussef Ibn Zeiri, and the country was subsequently
+ruled by his successors and the dynasties of the Almoravides and Almohades.
+After the overthrow of the latter, about 1269, it broke up into a number of
+small independent territories. The Moors and Jews, who were driven out of
+Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella at the end of the fifteenth century,
+settled in large numbers in Algeria, and revenged themselves on their
+persecutors by the practice of piracy. On this account various expeditions
+were made by Spain against Algeria, and by 1510 the greater part of the
+country was made tributary. A few years later the Algerians invited to
+their assistance the Turkish pirate Horush (or Haruj) Barbarossa, who made
+himself Sultan of Algiers in 1516, but was not long in being taken by the
+Spaniards and beheaded. His brother and successor put Algiers under the
+protection of Turkey (about 1520), and organized the system of piracy which
+was long the terror of European commerce, and was never wholly suppressed
+till the French occupation. Henceforth the country belonged to the Turkish
+Empire, though from 1710 the connection was little more than nominal. The
+depredations of the Algerian pirates were a continual source of irritation
+to the Christian Powers, who sent a long series of expeditions against
+them. For instance, in 1815 a United States fleet defeated an Algerian one
+and forced the Dey to agree to a peace in which he recognized the American
+flag as inviolable. In 1816 Lord Exmouth with an English fleet bombarded
+Algiers, and exacted a treaty by which all the Christian slaves were at
+once released, and the Dey undertook for the future to treat all his
+prisoners of war as the European law of nations demanded. But the piratical
+practices of the Algerians were soon renewed.
+
+At last the French determined on more vigorous measures, and in 1830 sent a
+force of over 40,000 men against the country. Algiers was speedily
+occupied, the Dey retired, and the country was without a government, but
+resistance was organized by Abd-el-Kader, an Arab chief whom the emergency
+had raised up. He began his warlike career of fifteen years by an attack on
+Oran in 1832, and after an obstinate struggle the French, in Feb., 1834,
+consented to a peace, acknowledging him as ruling over all the Arab tribes
+west of the Shelif by the title of Emir of Maskara. War was soon again
+renewed with varying fortune, and in 1837, in order to have their hands
+free in attacking Constantine, the French made peace with Abd-el-Kader,
+leaving to him the whole of Western Algeria except some coast towns.
+Constantine was now taken, and the subjugation of the province of
+Constantine followed. Meanwhile Abd-el-Kader was preparing for another
+conflict, and in Nov., 1838, he suddenly broke into French territory with a
+strong force, and for a time the supremacy of the French was endangered.
+Matters took a more favourable turn for them when General Bugeaud was
+appointed governor-general in Feb., 1841. In the autumn of 1841 Saida, the
+last fortress of Abd-el-Kader, fell into his hands, after which the only
+region that held out against the French was that bordering on Morocco.
+Early in the following year this also was conquered, and Abd-el-Kader found
+himself compelled to seek refuge in the adjoining empire. From Morocco
+Abd-el-Kader twice made a descent upon Algeria, on the second occasion
+defeating the French in two battles; and in 1844 he even succeeded in
+raising an army in Morocco to withstand the French. Bugeaud, however,
+crossed the frontier, and inflicted a severe defeat on this army, while a
+French fleet bombarded the towns on the coast. The Emperor of Morocco was
+at length compelled to agree to a treaty, in which he not only promised to
+refuse Abd-el-Kader his assistance, but even engaged to lend his assistance
+against him. Reduced to extremities Abd-el-Kader surrendered on 27th Dec.,
+1847, and was at first taken to France a prisoner, but was afterwards
+released on his promise not to return to Algeria. The country was yet far
+from subdued. The Kabyles, and the Arabs in the south, made protracted
+resistance, and rose again and again against the yoke which it was
+attempted to impose upon them. The numerous risings that successively took
+place thus rendered Algeria a school for French generals, such as
+Pélissier, Canrobert, St. Arnaud, and MacMahon. In 1864 MacMahon succeeded
+Pélissier as governor-general, and had as his first work to put down an
+insurrection. About this time the Emperor Napoleon III, who had visited the
+colony, introduced considerable modifications into the government,
+recognizing that the native races had grievances to complain of, and that
+the French rulers were in various ways astray in the methods of government
+adopted. Fresh disturbances broke out in the south nearly every year till
+1871, when, owing to the Franco-Prussian war, a great effort was made to
+throw off the French yoke, the colony being nearly denuded of French
+soldiers. It was, however, completely suppressed, and in order to remove
+what was believed to be one principal cause of the frequent insurrections,
+a civil government was established instead of the military government in
+the northern parts of the colony. The southern parts, inhabited by nomadic
+tribes, are still subject to military rule. When the French took in hand
+the occupation of Tunis, a rising took place (in 1881) in the west of
+Algeria, under a chieftain who was able to inflict some loss and damage on
+the French forces and colonists, but with no permanent result. Since then
+quietness has generally prevailed in the colony, where the French, however,
+continue to maintain a considerable military force. Owing to this and other
+expenditure Algeria has always formed a burden on the resources of France.
+The great aid rendered by Algeria to France during the European War led the
+French Government to introduce new laws. The law of 4th Feb., 1919, gives
+French citizenship to all Algerian natives under certain
+conditions.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. D. Stott, _The Real Algeria_; Sir R. Lambert
+Playfair, _Handbook for Travellers in Algeria_ (Murray's Handbooks).
+
+ALGESI'RAS. See _Algeciras_.
+
+ALGHERO, or ALGHERI ([.a]l-g[=a]'r[=o], [.a]l-g[=a]'r[=e]), a fortified
+town and seaport on the north-west coast of the island of Sardinia, 15
+miles south-west of Sassari; the seat of a bishop, with a handsome
+cathedral. One of the remarkable edifices of Alghero is the Casa Arbia,
+where Charles V was lodged. The necropolis of Anghelu Ruju, situated in the
+vicinity, was excavated in 1904.
+
+ALGIERS (al'j[=e]rz; Fr., _Alger_), a city and seaport on the
+Mediterranean, capital of the French colony of Algeria, is situated on the
+west side of the Bay of Algiers, partly on the slope of a hill facing the
+sea. The old town, which is the higher, is oriental in appearance, with
+narrow, crooked streets, and houses that are strong, prison-like edifices.
+Its crowning point is the Kasbah, or ancient fortress of the Deys, about
+500 feet above the sea, now serving as barracks. The modern French town,
+which occupies the lower slope and spreads along the shore, is handsomely
+built, with broad streets and elegant squares. It contains the Government
+buildings, the central military and civil establishments, the residence of
+the governor-general and the officials of the general and provincial
+Government, the superior courts of justice, the archbishop's palace and the
+cathedral, various other churches, including an English church and library,
+the great commercial establishments, &c. A fine boulevard built on a series
+of arches, and bordered on one side by handsome buildings, runs along the
+sea-front of the town overlooking the bay, harbour, and shipping. Forty
+feet below are the quay and railway-station, reached by inclined roads
+leading from the centre of the boulevard. The harbour is good and
+capacious, enclosed by piers or jetties, and otherwise improved at great
+expense, and it and the city are defended by a strong series of
+fortifications. Algiers is well provided with educational institutions,
+including high schools or colleges for law, medicine, literature,
+mathematics, and natural science; besides normal schools, an observatory,
+public library, &c. Algiers is in every way far the most important place in
+Algeria. There is a large shipping trade carried on, especially with
+Marseilles, Cette, and some of the Spanish ports. Trade routes from the
+interior and also railways centre in Algiers, and the exports include
+grain, wine, cattle, wool, ore, tobacco, fruit, olive-oil, &c. Algiers is
+now an important coaling station The city possesses widely-extended
+suburbs. The climate, though variable, makes it a very desirable winter
+residence for invalids and others from colder regions. Though warm, it is
+bracing. There is a considerable rainfall (average 29 inches), but the dry
+air and absorbent soil prevent it from being disagreeable. The winter
+months resemble a bright, sunny English autumn, while the heat of summer is
+not so intense as that of Egypt. The sirocco or desert wind is troublesome,
+however, during summer, but in the winter it is merely a pleasant, warm,
+dry breeze. Hailstorms are not infrequent, but frost and snow in Algiers
+are so rare as to be almost unknown. Pop. 172,397.
+
+ALGIN, a viscous, gummy substance obtained from certain seaweeds, more
+especially those of the genus Laminaria. It can be utilized for all
+purposes where starch or gum is now required; may be used in cookery for
+soups and jellies; and in an insoluble form it can be cut, turned, and
+polished, like horn or vulcanite.
+
+ALGO'A BAY, a bay on the south coast of the Cape Province, 425 miles east
+of the Cape of Good Hope, the only place of shelter on this coast for
+vessels during the prevailing north-west gales. It was the first
+landing-place of British immigrants in 1820. The usual anchorage is off
+Port Elizabeth, on its west coast, a place of large and increasing trade,
+but open on the east and south-east.
+
+ALGOL', Arabic name of a star in the constellation Perseus (head of
+Medusa), remarkable as a variable star, changing in brightness from the
+second to the fifth magnitude.
+
+ALGO'MA, a district of Canada, on the north of Lake Superior, forming part
+of the north-west portion of Ontario, rich in silver, copper, iron, &c.
+
+ALGON'KINS, or ALGONQUINS, a family of North American Indians, formerly
+spread over a great extent of territory, and still forming a large
+proportion of the Indians of Canada. They consisted of four groups,
+namely--(1) the eastern group, comprising the Massachusetts, Narragansets,
+Mohicans, Delawares, and other tribes; (2) the north-eastern group,
+consisting of the Abenakis, &c.; (3) the western group, made up of the
+Shawnees, Miamis, Illinois, &c.; and (4) the north-western group, including
+the Chippewas or Ojibbewas, the largest of all the tribes.
+
+ALGORISM, or ALGORITHMUS, in arithmetic, a word derived from the name of
+Algoritmi or Al-Khowarizmi, from whose works European scholars received
+much of their early information concerning Hindu numerals. The word is now
+used to designate any particular arrangement of numerical work.
+
+ALGRAPHY. See _Lithography_.
+
+ALGUACIL, or ALGUAZIL ([.a]l-gw[.a]-th[=e]l'), in Spain, an officer whose
+business it is to execute the decrees of a judge; a sort of constable. In
+ancient times the Alguacil was the great provost of the palace.
+
+ALGUM. See _Almug_.
+
+ALHA'GI. See _Camel's-thorn_.
+
+ALHAMA ([.a]-lä'm[.a]; that is, 'the bath'), a town of Southern Spain,
+province of Granada, on the Marchan, 25 miles south-west of Granada,
+celebrated for its warm medicinal (sulphur) baths and drinking waters. It
+formed a Moorish fortress, the recovery of which in 1482 by the Spaniards
+led to the entire conquest of Granada. It was occupied by the French from
+Feb., 1810-Aug., 1812, and thrown into ruins by an earthquake in Dec.,
+1884. Pop. 8000.--There is also an _Alhama_ in the province of Murcia, with
+a warm mineral spring. Pop. 6000.
+
+[Illustration: Alhambra--The Court of the Lions]
+
+ALHAM'BRA (Ar. _al_ and _hamrah_, 'the' and 'red'), a famous group of
+buildings in Spain, forming the citadel of Granada when that city was one
+of the principal seats of the empire of the Moors in Spain, situated on a
+height, surrounded by a wall flanked by many towers, and having a circuit
+of 2¼ miles. Within the circuit of the walls are two churches, a number of
+mean houses, and some straggling gardens, besides the palace of Charles V
+and the celebrated Moorish palace which is often distinctively spoken of as
+the Alhambra. This building, to which the celebrity of the site is entirely
+due, was the royal palace of the Kings of Granada. The greater part of the
+present building belongs to the first half of the fourteenth century. In
+the course of centuries, both through neglect and acts of vandalism, the
+beauty of the Alhambra has suffered considerably. The work of restoration
+was, however, undertaken in 1824 by the architect José Contreras, and
+continued by his son Rafael from 1847-90. It consists mainly of buildings
+surrounding two oblong courts, the one, called the Court of the Fishpond
+(or of the Myrtles), 138 by 74 feet, lying north and south; the other,
+called the Court of the Lions, from a fountain ornamented with twelve lions
+in marble, 115 by 66 feet, lying east and west, described as being, with
+the apartments that surround it, "the gem of Arabian art in Spain, its most
+beautiful and most perfect example". Its design is elaborate, exhibiting a
+profusion of exquisite detail gorgeous in colouring, but the smallness of
+its size deprives it of the element of majesty. The peristyle or portico on
+each side is supported by 128 pillars of white marble, 11 feet high,
+sometimes placed singly and sometimes in groups. Two pavilions project into
+the court at each end, the domed roof of one having been restored. Some of
+the finest chambers of the Alhambra open into this court, and near the
+entrance a museum of Moorish remains has been formed. On the opposite side
+of the Court of the Lions is the Hall of the Abencerrages. The prevalence
+of stucco or plaster ornamentation is one of the features of the Alhambra,
+which becomes especially remarkable in the beautiful honeycomb 'stalactite
+vaulting'. Arabesques and geometrical designs with interwoven inscriptions
+are present in the richest profusion. Cf. Owen Jones's work, _The Alhambra_
+(2 vols., London, 1842-5.
+
+ALHAURIN ([.a]l-ou-r[=e]n'), a town of Southern Spain, province of Malaga,
+with sulphureous baths. Pop. 7000.
+
+ALI ([.a]'l[=e]), cousin and son-in-law of Mahomet, the first of his
+converts, and the bravest and most faithful of his adherents, born A.D.
+602. He married Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, but after the death of
+Mahomet (632) his claims to the caliphate were set aside in favour
+successively of Abu-Bekr, Omar, and Othman. On the assassination of Othman,
+in A.D. 656, he became caliph, and after a series of struggles with his
+opponents, including Ayesha, widow of Mahomet, finally lost his life by
+assassination at Kufa in 661. A Mahommedan schism arose after his death,
+and has produced two sects. One sect, called the Shiites, put Ali on a
+level with Mahomet, and do not acknowledge the three caliphs who preceded
+Ali. They are regarded as heretics by the other sect, called Sunnites. The
+Turks hold his memory in abhorrence, whilst the Persians call him the Lion
+of God, and venerate him as second only to the prophet. The _Maxims_ and
+_Hymns_ of Ali are yet extant. See _Caliph_.
+
+ALI, Pasha of Yan[)i]na, generally called _Ali Pasha_, a bold and able, but
+ferocious and unscrupulous Albanian, born in 1741, son of an Albanian
+chief, who was deprived of his territories by rapacious neighbours. Ali by
+his enterprise and success, and by his entire want of scruple, got
+possession of more than his father had lost, and made himself master of a
+large part of Albania, including Yan[)i]na, which the Porte sanctioned his
+holding, with the title of pasha. Among the travellers who visited his
+Court at Yan[)i]na was Byron, who has left a record of his impressions in
+_Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_. Ali Pasha was an apostle of European culture
+in the East, and the first to feel the necessity for energetic reforms in
+the old Moslem institutions. He displayed excellent qualities, putting an
+end to brigandage and anarchy, making roads, and encouraging commerce. He
+still farther extended his sway by subduing the brave Suliotes of Epirus,
+whom he conquered in 1803, after a three years' war. Aiming at independent
+sovereignty, he intrigued alternately with England, France, and Russia, and
+became almost independent of the Porte, which at length determined, in
+1820, to pronounce his deposition. Ali resisted several pashas who were
+sent to carry out this decision, only surrendering at last in 1822, on
+receiving assurances that his life and property would be granted him. Faith
+was not kept with him, however; he was killed, and his head was cut off and
+conveyed to Constantinople, while his treasures were seized by the Porte.
+
+AL'IAS (Lat., 'at another time'), a word often used in judicial proceedings
+in connection with the different names that persons have assumed, most
+likely for prudential reasons, at different times, and in order to conceal
+identity, as Joseph Smith _alias_ Thomas Jones.
+
+ALIBERT ([.a]-l[=e]-b[=a]r), Jean Louis, Baron, a distinguished French
+physician, born 1766, died 1837. He was a professor in Paris, and chief
+physician at the Hospital St. Louis. He wrote many valuable works on
+medical subjects, such as _Description des maladies de la peau_.
+
+ALI BEY, a ruler of Egypt, born in the Caucasus in 1728, was taken to Cairo
+and sold as a slave, but having entered the force of the Mamelukes, and
+attained the first dignity among them, he succeeded in making himself
+virtual governor of Egypt. He then refused the customary tribute to the
+Porte, and coined money in his own name. In 1769 he took advantage of a
+war, in which the Porte was then engaged with Russia, to endeavour to add
+Syria and Palestine to his Egyptian dominion, and in this he had almost
+succeeded, when the defection of his own adopted son Mohammed Bey drove him
+from Egypt. Joining his ally Sheikh Daher in Syria, he still pursued his
+plans of conquest with remarkable success, till in 1773 he was induced to
+make the attempt to recover Egypt with insufficient means. In a battle near
+Cairo his army was completely defeated and he himself taken prisoner, dying
+a few days afterwards either of his wounds or by poison.
+
+AL'IBI (Lat., 'elsewhere'), a defence in criminal procedure, by which the
+accused endeavours to prove that when the alleged crime was committed he
+was present in a different place.
+
+ALICANTE ([.a]-l[=e]-k[.a]n't[=a]), a fortified town and Mediterranean
+seaport in Spain, capital of the province of the same name, picturesquely
+situated partly on the slope of a hill, partly on the plain at the foot,
+about 80 miles south by west of Valencia. The lower town has wide and
+well-built streets; the upper town is old and irregularly built. The
+principal manufactures are cotton, linen, and cigars; the chief export is
+wine, which largely goes to England. Alicante is an ancient town. In 718 it
+was taken by the Moors, from whom it was wrested about 1240. In modern
+times it has been several times besieged and bombarded, as by the French in
+1709, and in 1812, and by the federalists of Cartagena in 1873. Pop.
+58,088.--The province is very fruitful and well cultivated, producing wine,
+silk, fruits, &c. The wine is of a dark colour (hence called _vino tinto_,
+deep-coloured wine), and is heavy and sweet. Area, 2185 sq. miles. Pop.
+502,607.
+
+ALICATA, or LICATA ([.a]-l[=e]-kä't[.a], l[=e]-kä't[.a]), the most
+important commercial town on the S. coast of Sicily, at the mouth of the
+Salso, 24 miles E.S.E. of Girgenti, with a considerable trade in sulphur,
+grain, wine, oil, nuts, almonds, and soda. It occupies the site of the town
+which the Tyrant Phintias of Acragas erected and named after himself, when
+Gela was destroyed in 280. Pop. 22,931.
+
+ALICE MAUD MARY, Princess, second daughter of Queen Victoria, Duchess of
+Saxony, and Grand-duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, born 1843, died 1878. In 1862
+she married Frederick William Louis of Hesse, nephew of the grand-duke,
+whom he succeeded in 1877. She showed exemplary devotion to her father
+Prince Albert during his fatal illness and to the Prince of Wales during
+his attack of fever in 1871. During the Franco-Prussian war she organized
+hospitals for the relief of the sick and wounded. She died from diphtheria
+caught while nursing her husband and children. A selection of her letters
+to her mother was published in 1883 by Dr. Carl Sell.
+
+A'LIEN, in relation to any country, a person born out of the jurisdiction
+of the country, and not having acquired the full rights of a citizen of it.
+The position of aliens depends upon the laws of the respective countries,
+but generally speaking aliens owe a local allegiance, and are bound equally
+with natives to obey all general rules for the preservation of order which
+do not relate specially to citizens. Aliens have been often treated with
+great harshness by the laws of some States. Thus in France there long
+existed what was known as the _droit d'aubaine_, a law which claimed for
+the benefit of the State the effects of deceased foreigners leaving no
+heirs who were natives. Aliens have been repeatedly the objects of
+legislation in Britain, and the tendency at the present day is to
+communicate some of the rights of citizenship to aliens, and to widen the
+definition of subjects. According to the Act of 1870 that now regulates the
+matter, real and personal property of every description may be acquired,
+held, and disposed of by an alien, in the same manner in all respects as by
+a natural-born British subject. No other right or privilege (such as the
+right to hold any office or any municipal, parliamentary, or other
+franchise) is by this Act conferred on an alien except such as are
+expressly given in respect of property. Previously aliens could hold only
+personal property; they were incompetent to hold landed property, except
+under certain conditions of residence or business occupancy for a term of
+years not exceeding twenty-one. The children of aliens born in Britain are
+natural-born subjects. Formerly the only mode of naturalization was by Act
+of Parliament; but now an alien who has resided in the United Kingdom for
+not less than one year immediately preceding his application, and has
+previously resided in any part of His Majesty's dominions for four years
+during the last eight years before the application, or who has been in the
+service of the Crown for not less than five years, and intends to reside in
+the kingdom, or to serve the British Crown, may apply to the Secretary of
+State for a certificate of naturalization, and on giving evidence of
+particulars may obtain it, being thereby entitled to almost all the
+political and other rights of a natural-born British subject. At present
+the law is laid down in the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act,
+1914 and 1918. It used to be a principle in English law, that a
+natural-born subject could not divest himself of his allegiance by becoming
+naturalized in a foreign State (_nemo potest exuere patriam_); but it is
+now laid down that a British subject who has voluntarily become naturalized
+in a foreign State thereby ceases to be a British subject. Any British
+subject who has become an alien may apply for a certificate of readmission
+to British nationality on the same terms as those provided for aliens in
+general. In the United States the position of aliens as regards acquisition
+and holding of real property differs somewhat in the different States,
+though in recent times the disabilities of aliens have been removed in most
+of them. Personal property they can take, hold, and dispose of like native
+citizens. Individual States have no jurisdiction on the subject of
+naturalization, though they may pass laws admitting aliens to any privilege
+short of citizenship. A naturalized citizen is not eligible for election as
+president or vice-president of the United States, and cannot serve as
+senator until after nine years' citizenship, nor as a member of the House
+of Representatives until after seven years' citizenship. Five years'
+residence in the United States and one year's permanent residence in the
+particular State are necessary for the attainment of citizenship.
+
+ALIEN IMMIGRATION. In various countries certain classes of aliens have long
+been prohibited from gaining admission. In the United States, for instance,
+admission is refused to such persons as idiots, epileptics, persons
+suffering from loathsome or dangerous contagious diseases, paupers,
+criminals (except political criminals), illiterate persons, &c. Chinese
+labourers as a whole are excluded, and even any persons coming to America
+under a definite agreement to engage in any kind of labour or service.
+Similar laws are in force in Australia, where there is a test that a person
+proposing to settle in the country must be able to write fifty words of a
+European language. Towards the end of last century the great influx of
+foreigners into Britain, and into London in particular, drew public
+attention to the matter. A select committee appointed in 1888 reported in
+favour of the exclusion of destitute aliens, in 1894 a bill was introduced
+into the House of Lords, while in 1898 a bill to regulate the immigration
+of aliens was passed in the Lords, but made no further progress. In 1902 a
+royal commission was appointed, and drew up a report, published in 1903,
+containing valuable information and various recommendations. Among these
+were the establishment of an immigration department, and the granting of
+powers to deport criminals, prostitutes, and other undesirable aliens, and
+to prevent the landing of persons mentally unfit or suffering from
+infectious or loathsome diseases. In 1904 an Aliens Immigration Bill was
+introduced and read a second time in the House of Commons. It was based on
+the recommendations of the commission, and in its favour it was argued that
+a large amount of British labour had been displaced by aliens, in London
+especially, that the prevalence of crime among aliens was out of proportion
+to their numbers, that many of them were paupers, criminals convicted in
+their own country, or other undesirables. In 1905 another bill on the
+subject was introduced by the Government, which succeeded in passing it, so
+that the matter can now be dealt with, and undesirable aliens kept out.
+Since the European War (1914-8) and the new passport regulations it is easy
+to ascertain the number of aliens that enter the country and settle. At the
+census of 1901 the whole alien population was set down at 286,925, as
+against 219,523 in 1891, but there has been a very large influx from 1901
+to 1914, by far the largest number consisting of Russian and Polish Jews.
+The restrictions imposed upon aliens during the European War are still in
+force, so far as they prohibit landing by any alien, except at specified
+ports by leave of an immigration officer, and, in case of former enemy
+aliens, by special permission of the Home Secretary. Cf. J. M. Landa, _The
+Alien Problem_.
+
+ALIGANJ (_a_-l[=e]-g_a_nj'), a town of Bengal, 54 miles from Dinapur, noted
+for its pottery. It has a trade in grain, indigo-seed, and cotton, and
+contains two mosques, and a large mud fort. Pop. 7436.
+
+ALIGARH (_a_-l[=e]-g_a_r'), a fort and town in India, in the United
+Provinces, on the East Indian railway, 84 miles south-east of Delhi. The
+town, properly called Koel or Coel, is distant about 2 miles from the fort,
+and is connected with it by a beautiful avenue. It is handsome and well
+situated, and has a trade in cotton, &c. The fort, which had been skilfully
+strengthened by French engineers in the service of the Mahrattas, was taken
+by storm after a desperate resistance in 1803 by the British forces under
+Lord Lake, when the whole district was added to the British possessions.
+Pop. 64,825. The district has an area of 1946 sq. miles. Pop. 1,165,680.
+
+ALIGN'MENT (a-l[=i]n'ment), a military term, signifying the act of
+adjusting to a straight line or in regular straight lines, or the state of
+being so adjusted.
+
+AL'IMENT, food, a term which includes everything, solid or liquid, serving
+as nutriment for the bodily system. Aliments are of the most diverse
+character, but all of them must contain nutritious matter of some kind,
+which, being extracted by the act of digestion, enters the blood, and
+effects by assimilation the repair of the body. Alimentary matter,
+therefore, must be similar to animal substance, or transmutable into such.
+All alimentary substances must, therefore, be composed in a greater or less
+degree of soluble parts, which easily lose their peculiar qualities in the
+process of digestion, and correspond to the elements of the body. The food
+of animals consists for the most part of substances containing little
+oxygen and exhibiting a high degree of chemical combination, in which
+respects they differ from most substances that serve as sustenance for
+plants, which are generally highly oxidized and exhibit little chemical
+combination. According to the nature of their constituents most of the
+aliments of animals are divided into nitrogenous (consisting of carbon,
+hydrogen, and oxygen along with nitrogen, and also of sulphur and
+phosphorus) and non-nitrogenous (consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
+without nitrogen). Water and salts are usually considered as forming a
+third group, and, in the widest sense of the word aliment, oxygen alone,
+which enters the blood in the lungs, forms the fourth. The articles used as
+food by man do not consist entirely of nutritious substances, but with few
+exceptions are compounds of various nutritious with indigestible and
+accordingly innutritious substances. The only nitrogenous aliments are
+albuminous substances, and these are contained largely in animal food
+(flesh, eggs, milk, cheese). The principal non-nitrogenous substance
+obtained as food from animals is fat. Sugar is so obtained in smaller
+quantities (in milk). While some vegetable substances also contain much
+albumen, very many of them are rich in starch. Among vegetable substances
+the richest in albumen are the legumes (peas, beans, and lentils), and
+following them come the cereals (wheat, oats, &c.). Sugar, water, and salts
+may pass without any change into the circulatory system; but albuminous
+substances cannot do so without being first rendered soluble and capable of
+absorption (in the stomach and intestines); starch must be converted into
+sugar and fat emulsified (chiefly by the action of the pancreatic juice).
+One of the objects of cooking is to make our food more susceptible of the
+operation of the digestive fluids.
+
+The relative importance of the various nutritious substances that are taken
+into the system and enter the blood depends upon their chemical
+constitution. The albuminous substances are the most indispensable,
+inasmuch as they form the material by which the constant waste of the body
+is repaired, whence they are called by Liebig the substance-formers. But a
+part of the operation of albuminous nutriments may be performed equally
+well, and at less cost, by non-nitrogenous substances, that part being the
+maintenance of the temperature of the body. As is well known, the
+temperature of warm-blooded animals is considerably higher than the
+ordinary temperature of the surrounding air, in man about 98° F., and the
+uniformity of this temperature is maintained by the heat which is set free
+by the chemical processes (of oxidation) which go on within the body. Now
+these processes take place as well with non-nitrogenous as with nitrogenous
+substances. The former are even preferable to the latter for the keeping up
+of these processes; by oxidation they yield larger quantities of heat with
+less labour to the body, and they are hence called the heat-givers. The
+best heat-giver is fat. Albuminous matters are not only the tissue-formers
+of the body; they also supply the vehicle for the oxygen, inasmuch as it is
+of such matters that the blood corpuscles are formed. The more red blood
+corpuscles an animal possesses, the more oxygen can it take into its
+system, and the more easily and rapidly can it carry on the process of
+oxidation and develop heat. Now only a part of the heat so developed passes
+away into the environment of the animal; another part is transformed within
+the body (in the muscles) into mechanical work. Hence it follows that the
+non-nitrogenous articles of food produce not merely heat but also work, but
+only with the assistance of albuminous matters, which, on the one hand,
+compose the working machine, and, on the other hand, convey the oxygen
+necessary for oxidation.
+
+The wholesome or unwholesome character of any aliment depends, in a great
+measure, on the state of the digestive organs in any given case, as also on
+the method in which it is cooked. Very often a simple aliment is made
+indigestible by artificial cookery. In any given case the digestive power
+of the individual is to be considered in order to determine whether a
+particular aliment is wholesome or not. In general, therefore, we can only
+say that that aliment is healthy which is easily soluble, and is suited to
+the power of digestion of the individual. Man is fitted to derive
+nourishment both from animal and vegetable aliment, but can live
+exclusively on either. The nations of the North incline generally more to
+animal aliments; those of the South, and the Orientals, more to vegetable.
+The inhabitants of the most northerly regions live almost entirely upon
+animal food, and very largely on fat on account of its heat-giving
+property. See _Dietetics_, _Digestion_, _Adulteration_, &c.
+
+ALIMENTARY CANAL, a common name given to the oesophagus, stomach, and
+intestines of animals. See _Oesophagus_, _Intestine_, _Stomach_.
+
+ALI-MIRZA, Shah of Persia, son of Muzaffar-ed-Din, born in 1872. He
+succeeded his father on 8th Jan., 1907. Although his European education had
+given him sympathies for Western civilization, he showed himself despotic,
+and became very unpopular. He was deposed by the National Assembly or
+Mejliss in July, 1909, and his son proclaimed Shah in his place.
+
+AL'IMONY (Lat. _alere_, to nourish), in law, the allowance to which a woman
+is entitled while a matrimonial suit is pending between her and her
+husband, or after a legal separation from her husband, not occasioned by
+adultery or elopement on her part. It is either temporary or permanent, the
+former being the provision made by the husband pending the suit, the latter
+after the decree.
+
+AL'IQUOT PART is such part of a number as will divide and measure it
+exactly without any remainder. For instance, 2 is an aliquot part of 4, 3
+of 12, and 4 of 20.
+
+ALISMA'CEÆ, the water-plantain family, a natural order of endogenous
+plants, the members of which are herbaceous, annual or perennial; with
+petiolate leaves sheathing at the base, hermaphrodite (rarely unisexual)
+flowers, disposed in spikes, panicles, or racemes. They are floating or
+marsh plants, and many have edible fleshy rhizomes. They are found in all
+countries, but especially in Europe and North America, where their rather
+brilliant flowers adorn the pools and streams. The principal genera are
+_Alisma_ (water-plantain) _Sagittaria_ (arrow-head), _Damasonium_
+(star-fruit), and _Butomus_ (flowering-rush).
+
+AL'ISON, Rev. Archibald, a theologian and writer on æsthetics, born at
+Edinburgh in 1757; died there in 1839. He studied at Glasgow and at Balliol
+College, Oxford, entered the English Church, and finally (1800) settled as
+the minister of an Episcopal chapel at Edinburgh. He published 2 volumes of
+sermons, and a work entitled _Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste_
+(1790), in which he maintains that all the beauty of material objects
+depends upon the associations connected with them.
+
+AL'ISON, Sir Archibald, lawyer and writer of history, son of the above, was
+born in Shropshire in 1792, and died in 1867, near Glasgow. He was educated
+at the University of Edinburgh, and in 1814 was admitted to the Scottish
+bar. He spent the next eight years in Continental travel. On his return he
+was appointed advocate depute, which post he held till 1830. In 1832 he
+published _Principles of the Criminal Law of Scotland_, and in 1833 _The
+Practice of the Criminal Law_. He was appointed sheriff of Lanarkshire in
+1834, and retained this post till his death. He was made a baronet in 1852.
+His chief work--_The History of Europe, from 1789 to 1815_--was first
+issued in 10 vols., 1833-42, the narrative being subsequently brought down
+to 1852, the beginning of the second French Empire. This work displays
+industry and research, and is generally accurate, but not very readable. It
+has been translated into French, German, Arabic, Hindustani, &c. Among Sir
+Archibald's other productions are _Principles of Population_; _Free-trade
+and Protection_; _England in 1815 and 1845_; _Life of the Duke of
+Marlborough_, &c.
+
+AL'ISON, General Sir Archibald, G.C.B., son of the above, was born 1826,
+entered the army in 1846, and served in the Crimea, in India during the
+mutiny, and in the Ashantee expedition of 1873-4. In Egypt, in 1882, he led
+the Highland Brigade at the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, and in 1882-3 remained
+in command of the army of occupation (of 12,000 men). He retired from the
+army in 1893, and died in 1907.
+
+ALIWAL', a village of Hindustan in the Punjab, on the left bank of the
+Sutlej, celebrated from the battle fought in its vicinity, 28th Jan., 1846,
+between the Sikhs and a British army commanded by Sir Harry Smith,
+resulting in the total defeat of the Sikhs.
+
+ALIWAL NORTH, a town in the eastern part of Cape Province, on the Orange
+River, which here forms the boundary with the Orange Free State, and is
+crossed by a fine bridge--the Frere Bridge. It stands at the height of 4350
+feet, in a locality said to be highly suitable for consumptives, and the
+warm sulphur springs in the neighbourhood also attract many invalids. It is
+a well-built place, with churches, hotels, golf links, race-course, &c.;
+and has railway connection with East London, Port Elizabeth, &c. Pop.
+5557.--_Aliwal South_ was a name formerly given to Mossel Bay, the small
+seaport midway between Cape Town and Port Elizabeth.
+
+ALIZ'ARINE, a substance contained in the madder root (_Rubia tinctorum_),
+and largely used in dyeing reds of various shades, as Turkey red, &c. Until
+1868 it was obtained entirely from madder root, but the use of the root has
+been almost superseded by the employment of alizarine itself, prepared
+artificially from one of the constituents of coal-tar. It forms
+yellowish-red prismatic crystals, nearly insoluble in cold, but dissolved
+to a small extent by boiling water, and readily soluble in alcohol and
+ether. It possesses exceedingly strong tinctorial powers.
+
+AL'KAHEST, the so-called universal solvent or menstruum of the alchemists.
+The word is believed to have been invented by Paracelsus.
+
+AL'KALI (from Ar. _al-qali_, the ashes of the plant from which soda was
+first obtained, or the plant itself), a term first used to designate the
+soluble parts of the ashes of plants, especially of seaweed, and designated
+_fixed alkali_, as marking a distinction from ammonia, which was termed
+_volatile alkali_. Now the term is applied to various classes of bodies
+having the following properties in common: (1) solubility in water; (2) the
+power of neutralizing acids, and forming salts with them; (3) the property
+of corroding animal and vegetable substances; (4) the property of altering
+the tint of many colouring matters--thus, they turn litmus, reddened by an
+acid, into blue; turmeric, brown; and syrup of violets and infusion of red
+cabbages, green. The alkalies may be regarded as water in which part of the
+hydrogen is replaced by a metallic radicle. The caustic alkalies are strong
+alkalies which have a powerful corrosive action on the skin, and the common
+ones are potassic hydroxide or caustic potash, sodic hydroxide or caustic
+soda, and lithic hydroxide. _Volatile Alkali_, or ammonic hydroxide, is a
+much feebler alkali than the others, and when the solution is heated all
+the ammonia is driven off. Other alkalies are calcic hydroxide or slaked
+lime, a solution of which in water is known as _lime-water_; baric
+hydroxide and strontic hydroxide, derived from the metals barium and
+strontium. Quicklime is the only alkali extensively used in agriculture.
+
+ALKALIM'ETER, an instrument for ascertaining the quantity of free alkali in
+any impure specimen, as in the potashes of commerce. These, besides the
+carbonate of potash, of which they principally consist, usually contain a
+portion of foreign salts, as sulphate and chloride of potassium, and as the
+true worth of the substance, or price for which it ought to sell, depends
+entirely on the quantity of carbonate, it is of importance to be able to
+measure it accurately by some easy process. This process depends on the
+neutralization of the alkali by an acid of known strength, the point of
+neutralization being determined by the fact that neutral liquids are
+without action on either red or blue litmus solution. The alkalimeter is
+merely a graduated tube--a burette--with a stopcock at the lower extremity,
+from which the standard acid is dropped into water in which a known weight
+of the substance is dissolved. The quantity required to produce
+neutralization being noted, the strength of the liquid tested is easily
+arrived at. A process of neutralization, exactly the same in principle, may
+be employed to test the strength of acids by alkalies, the one process
+being called _alkalimetry_ the other _acidimetry_.
+
+AL'KALOID, a term applied to a class of nitrogenous compounds having basic
+properties, found in living plants, usually in combination with organic
+acids. They are usually given names ending in _-ine_, as _morphine_,
+_quinine_, _aconitine_, _nicotine_, _caffeine_, &c. Most alkaloids occur in
+plants, but some are formed by decomposition. Most natural alkaloids
+contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, but a few contain no
+oxygen. The nitrogen they contain imparts to them basic properties--they
+are organic bases--and hence they all form salts with acids. They all
+possess a pronounced bitter taste, and the poisonous nature of many plants,
+e.g. hemlock, yew, deadly nightshade, &c., are due to the alkaloids they
+contain. Although formed originally within the plant, it has been found
+possible to prepare several of these alkaloids by artificial means.
+
+AL'KANET, a dyeing drug, the bark of the root of the _Anch[=u]sa_ or
+_Alkanna tinctoria_, a plant of the order Boraginaceæ, with downy and
+spear-shaped leaves, and clusters of small purple or reddish flowers. The
+plant is sometimes cultivated in Britain, chiefly on the east coast of
+England, but most of the alkanet of commerce is imported from the Levant or
+from southern France. It imparts a fine deep-red colour to all unctuous
+substances and is used for colouring oils, plasters, lip-salve,
+confections, &c.; also in compositions for rubbing and giving colour to
+mahogany furniture, and to colour spurious port-wine.
+
+ALKAN'NA, a name of henna. See also _Alkanet_.
+
+ALKAR'SIN, an extremely poisonous liquid containing kakodyle, together with
+oxidation products of this substance, and formerly known as _Cadet's fuming
+liquor_, characterized by its insupportable smell and high degree of
+spontaneous combustibility when exposed to air.
+
+AL-KATIF, a town of Arabia, on the Persian Gulf, carrying on a considerable
+trade. Pop. 6000.
+
+ALKMAAR ([.a]lk'mär), a town of the Netherlands, province of North Holland,
+on the North Holland Canal, and 20 miles N.N.W. of Amsterdam; regularly
+built, with a fine church (St. Lawrence) and a richly decorated Gothic
+town-house; manufactures of salt, sail-cloth, vinegar, leather, &c., and an
+extensive trade in cattle, corn, butter, and cheese. Pop. 22,685.
+
+AL-KO'RAN, or QU`RAN. See _Koran_.
+
+ALLA BREVE (br[=a]'v[=a]), a musical direction expressing that a breve is
+to be played as fast as a semibreve, a semibreve as fast as a minim, and so
+on. It is also called a capella, as it is employed in church music.
+
+AL'LAH, in Arabic, the name of God, a word of kindred origin with the
+Hebrew word _Elohim_. _Alla Akbar_ (God is great) is a Mahommedan war-cry.
+
+ALLAHAB[=A]D' ('city of Allah'), an ancient city of India, capital of the
+United Provinces, on the wedge of land formed by the Jumna and the Ganges,
+largely built of mud houses, though the English quarter has more of a
+European aspect. Among the remarkable buildings are the fort, occupying the
+angle between the rivers, and containing the remains of an ancient palace,
+and now also the barracks, &c.; the mausoleum and garden of Khosru, the
+tomb being a handsome domed building; the Government offices and courts;
+Government house; the Roman Catholic cathedral; the Central College for the
+United Provinces; the Mayo Memorial and town hall. Allahabad is one of the
+chief resorts of Hindu pilgrims, who have their sins washed away by bathing
+in the waters of the sacred rivers Ganges and Jumna at their junction; and
+is also the scene of a great fair in December and January. There are no
+manufactures of importance, but a large general and transit trade is
+carried on. The town is as old as the third century B.C. In the mutiny of
+1857 it was the scene of a serious outbreak and massacre. Pop.
+171,697.--The division of _Allahabad_ contains the districts of Cawnpur,
+Futtehpur, Hamirpur, Banda, Jaunpur, and Allahabad; area, 17,265 sq. miles.
+Pop. 5,535,803.--The district contains an area of 2852 sq. miles, about
+five-sixths being under cultivation. Pop. 1,487,904.
+
+ALLAMAN'DA, a genus of American tropical plants, ord. Apocynaceæ, with
+large yellow or violet flowers; some of them are grown in European
+greenhouses. _A. cathartica_ has strong emetic and purgative properties.
+
+ALLAN, David, a Scottish painter, born 1744, died 1796. He studied in
+Foulis's academy of painting and engraving in Glasgow, and for sixteen
+years in Italy; finally establishing himself at Edinburgh, where he
+succeeded Runciman as master of the Trustees' Academy. His illustrations of
+the _Gentle Shepherd_, _The Cotter's Saturday Night_, and other sketches of
+rustic life and manners in Scotland are his best-known works.
+
+ALLAN, Sir William, a distinguished Scottish artist, born in 1782, died in
+1850. He was a fellow student with Wilkie in Edinburgh, afterwards a
+student of the Royal Academy, London. After residing in Russia for ten
+years, he returned to Scotland, and publicly exhibited his pictures, one of
+which (_Circassian Captives_) made his reputation. He now turned his
+attention to historical painting, and produced _Knox admonishing Mary Queen
+of Scots_, _Murder of Rizzio_, _Exiles on their way to Siberia_, _The Slave
+Market at Constantinople_, &c.; and afterwards also battle scenes, as the
+_Battle of Prestonpans_, _Nelson boarding the San Nicolas_, and two
+pictures of _The Battle of Waterloo_, the one from the British, the other
+from the French position, and delineating the actual scene and the
+incidents therein taking place at the moment chosen for the representation.
+One of these Waterloo pictures was purchased by the Duke of Wellington. He
+travelled extensively, visiting Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, Spain, and
+Barbary. In 1835 he became a Royal Academician, in 1838 president of the
+Scottish Academy, and in 1842 he was knighted.
+
+ALLAN'TOIS, a structure appearing during the early development of
+vertebrate animals--Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia. It is largely made up of
+blood-vessels, and, especially in Birds, attains a large size. It forms the
+inner lining to the shell, and may thus be viewed as the surface by means
+of which the respiration of the embryo is carried on. In Mammalia the
+allantois is not so largely developed as in Birds, and it enters largely
+into the formation of the placenta.
+
+ALLEGHANY (al-le-g[=a]'ni), a river of Pennsylvania and New York, which
+unites with the Monongahela at Pittsburg to form the Ohio; navigable nearly
+200 miles above Pittsburg.
+
+ALLEGHANY MOUNTAINS, or the ALLEGHANIES, a name sometimes used as
+synonymous with Appalachians, but also often restricted to the portion of
+those mountains that traverses the states of Virginia, Maryland, and
+Pennsylvania from south-west to north-east, and consists of a series of
+parallel ridges for the most part wooded to the summit, and with some
+fertile valleys between. Their mean elevation is about 2500 feet; but in
+Virginia they rise to 4473.
+
+ALLEGHENY (al-le-gen'i), a city of the United States, in Pennsylvania, on
+the River Allegheny, opposite Pittsburg, of which it may be considered
+virtually to be a suburb, and with which it is connected by six bridges.
+The principal industries are connected with iron and machinery. Pop.
+132,283. Also called Allegheny City.
+
+ALLE'GIANCE (from mid-Eng. _ligeaunce_, formed from _liege_), according to
+Blackstone, is "the tie or _ligamen_ which binds the subject to the
+sovereign in return for that protection which the sovereign affords the
+subject", or, generally, the obedience which every subject or citizen owes
+to the Government of his country. It used to be the doctrine of the English
+law that natural-born subjects owe an allegiance which is intrinsic and
+perpetual, and which cannot be divested by any act of their own (_Nemo
+potest exuere patriam_); but this is no longer the case since the
+Naturalization Act passed in 1870, A British subject, however, or a child
+who has acquired a British domicile by the naturalization of an alien
+parent, cannot in time of war divest himself of British nationality for the
+purpose of becoming an enemy alien. Aliens owe a temporary or local
+allegiance to the Government under which they for the time reside. Usurpers
+in undisturbed possession of the Crown are entitled to allegiance; and thus
+treasons against Henry VI were punished in the reign of Edward IV, though
+the former had, by Act of Parliament, been declared a usurper.
+
+AL'LEGORY, a figurative representation in which the signs (words or forms)
+signify something besides their literal or direct meaning. In rhetoric,
+allegory is often but a continued simile. Parables and fables are a species
+of allegory. Sometimes long works are throughout allegorical, as Spenser's
+_Faerie Queene_ and Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_. When an allegory is thus
+continued it is indispensable to its success that not only the allegorical
+meaning should be appropriate, but that the story should have an interest
+of its own in the direct meaning apart from the allegorical significance.
+Allegories are frequent in the Old Testament, whilst in the New they take
+the form of parables. One of the best-known allegories in classical
+literature is the story of the stomach and the members of the body in the
+speech attributed to Menenius Agrippa by Plutarch and Livy. (Cf.
+Shakespeare, _Coriolanus_, i, 1.) Allegory is often made use of in painting
+and sculpture as well as in literature.
+
+ALLEGRI ([.a]l-l[=a]'gr[=e]), Gregorio, an Italian composer, born at Rome
+in 1560 or 1585, died there about 1650; celebrated for his _Miserere_, a
+setting of the fifty-first psalm (the fiftieth in the _Vulgate_), which in
+the Latin version begins with that word. Allegri's _Miserere_ is annually
+performed in the Sistine Chapel at Rome.
+
+ALLEGRO (It., [.a]l-l[=a]'gr[=o]), a musical term expressing a more or less
+quick rate of movement, or a piece of music or movement in lively time.
+_Allegro moderato_, moderately quick; _allegro maestoso_, quick but with
+dignity; _allegro assai_ and _allegro molto_, very quick; _allegro con
+brio_ or _con fuoco_, with fire and energy; _allegrissimo_, with the utmost
+rapidity.
+
+ALLEIN (al'en), Joseph, English Nonconformist divine; born 1633, died 1668;
+the author of a popular religious book entitled, _An Alarm to Unconverted
+Sinners, or The Sure Guide to Heaven_ (1672).
+
+ALLEIN (al'en), Richard, English Nonconformist divine; born in 1611, died
+1681; rector for twenty years of Batcombe (Somerset); deprived of his
+living at the Restoration, and imprisoned for preaching. He wrote, among
+other things, _Vindiciæ Pietatis_ ('A Vindication of Godliness'), published
+in 1660, which was condemned to be burned in the royal kitchen.
+
+ALLELUIA. See _Halleluia_.
+
+ALLEMANDE ([.a]l-m[.a][n.]d), a kind of slow, graceful dance, invented in
+France in the time of Louis XIV, and again in vogue in the time of the
+First Empire. The name is also given to pieces of music based on the dance
+movement. Bach and Handel have composed a great number of Allemandes, and
+Beethoven has written twelve for orchestra.
+
+ALLEN, Bog of, the name applied to a series of bogs in Ireland (not to one
+continuous morass), dispersed, often widely apart, with extensive tracts of
+dry cultivated soil between, over a broad belt of land stretching across
+the centre of the country, the bogs being, however, all on the east side of
+the Shannon.
+
+ALLEN, Ethan, an American revolutionary partisan and general; born 1737,
+died 1789. He surprised and captured Ticonderoga Fort (1775); attacked
+Montreal, and was captured and sent to England, being exchanged in 1778;
+wrote against Christianity, _Reason, the only Oracle of Man_ (1784).--His
+younger brother, Ira (1751-1814), was also prominent in the revolutionary
+era.
+
+ALLEN, Grant, writer on scientific subjects and novelist, was born at
+Kingston, Canada, 1848, died in 1899. His earlier education he received in
+America, but he also studied in France and graduated at Oxford with honours
+in 1870. From 1873 to 1879 he was connected with Queen's College, Jamaica,
+but afterwards resided chiefly in England, and became well known as an
+exponent of evolutionary science, and as a novelist. His first important
+work, _Physiological Æsthetics_, appeared in 1877; his other scientific or
+semi-scientific works include _The Colour Sense_; _The Evolutionist at
+Large_; _Colin Clouts Calendar (the record of a summer)_; _Vignettes from
+Nature_; _The Colours of Flowers_; _Flowers and their Pedigrees_; and
+_Force and Energy, a Theory of Dynamics_. Other works by him are:
+_Anglo-Saxon Britain_; _Charles Darwin_; and _The Evolution of the Idea of
+God_. His novels, about thirty in number, include: _The Devil's Die_; _The
+Woman Who Did_, &c.
+
+ALLEN, John, a Scottish political and historical writer; born in 1771, died
+in 1843. He studied medicine, and became M.D. of Edinburgh University. In
+1801 he went abroad with Lord Holland and family, and henceforth he
+maintained this connection, being long an inmate of Holland House (London)
+and a member of the brilliant society that assembled there. He contributed
+many articles to the _Edinburgh Review_; and wrote _An Inquiry into the
+Rise and Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England_; _Vindication of the
+Ancient Independence of Scotland_; &c.
+
+ALLEN, Ralph, celebrated as a philanthropist, and as the friend of Pope,
+Fielding, and the elder Pitt, was born in 1694, died in 1764. He lived
+mostly at Bath, where he made a large income as farmer of a system of posts
+and as owner of quarries. He is the prototype of Squire Allworthy in
+Fielding's _Tom Jones_; and after the novelist's death he took charge of
+his family. Pope, who received many kindnesses at his hands, referred to
+him in the lines:
+
+  Let humble Allen, with an awkward shame,
+  Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame.
+
+With Pitt he was on intimate terms, and left him £1000 in his will. Hurd,
+Sherlock, and Warburton were also his friends.
+
+ALLEN, Thomas, an English mathematician, philosopher, antiquarian, and
+astrologer, born in 1542, died in 1632. He studied at Oxford, and lived the
+greater part of his life in learned retirement, corresponding with many of
+the famous men of his time. In his own day he was generally reputed a
+dealer in the black art.
+
+ALLEN, William, cardinal, an English Roman Catholic of the time of Queen
+Elizabeth. Influenced by the Jesuit Robert Parsons, he became a strenuous
+opponent of Protestantism and supporter of the claims of Philip II to the
+English throne; born 1532, died 1594. It was by his efforts that the
+English college for Catholics at Douai was established. He was made
+cardinal in 1587. His numerous writings include: _The Declaration of the
+Sentence of Sixtus V_, and _An Admonition to the Nobility and People of
+England_.
+
+ALLEN, William, D.D., American clergyman and author; born 1784, died 1868.
+He was president of Bowdoin College, 1820-39; author of _American
+Biographical and Historical Dictionary_; _Junius Unmasked_; &c.
+
+ALLENBY, VISCOUNT, Edmund Henry Hynman, British soldier, born on 23rd
+April, 1861, and educated at Haileybury. He joined the Inniskilling
+Dragoons, and in 1884 served with that regiment in the Bechuanaland
+Expedition. He was with the British forces in Zululand in 1888, took part
+in the South African war, and commanded the 4th Cavalry Brigade, 1905-10.
+In the European War he at first commanded the British Third Army,
+contributing largely to the victories of the Somme and the Aisne. After a
+reverse, south of Gaza, suffered on 26th March, 1917, by the British troops
+under the command of Sir Archibald Murray, the latter was relieved, and
+General Allenby was placed in command of the operations. He made thorough
+preparations for the next offensive, and his progress was very rapid.
+Beersheba and Gaza were captured, and on 9th Dec., 1917 Jerusalem, the Holy
+City, was surrendered to the general by the mayor. His formal entry took
+place on the 11th. He was awarded the G.C.M.G. on 16th Dec., 1917, and is a
+Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. In Aug., 1919, he was voted a sum of
+£50,000 and created a viscount, adopting the title of Viscount Allenby of
+Megiddo and of Felixstowe in Suffolk. In Oct., 1919, he was appointed High
+Commissioner for Egypt.
+
+ALLENSTEIN ([.a]l'len-st[=i]n), a town in East Prussia, 65 miles south of
+Königsberg, on the Alle, with breweries and manufactures of iron and
+lucifer matches. Pop. 24,295.
+
+ALLENTOWN, a town in the United States, Pennsylvania, on Lehigh River, 18
+miles above its junction with the Delaware. It has an important trade in
+coal and iron ore, with large blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, &c. Pop.
+(1920), 73,502.
+
+ALLEP'PI. See _Aulapolay_.
+
+ALLEYN (al'len), Edward, an actor and theatre proprietor in the reigns of
+Elizabeth and James I, friend of Ben Jonson and Shakespeare; born 1566,
+died 1626. Nashe called him "the famous Ned". Having become wealthy, he
+built Dulwich College, under the name of "The College of God's Gift",
+between 1613-17, at a cost of £10,000. See _Dulwich_.
+
+ALL-FOURS, a game at cards, which derives its name from the four chances of
+which it consists, for each of which a point is scored. These chances are
+_high_, or the ace of trumps, or next best trump out; _low_, or the deuce
+of trumps, or next lowest trump out; _jack_, or the knave of trumps;
+_game_, the majority of pips collected from the tricks taken by the
+respective players. The player who has all these is said to have
+_all-fours_. It is played by two or four persons with the full pack. The
+ace counts four, the king three, queen two, knave one, ten ten. The game is
+known in America as _Seven-up_, _Old-sledge_, or _High-low Jack_.
+
+ALL-HALLOWS, or ALL-HALLOWMAS, a name for All-saints' Day.
+
+AL'LIA, a small affluent of the Tiber, joining it about 12 miles from Rome,
+famous for the victory won by the Gauls, under Brennus, over the Roman
+army. This battle resulted in the capture and sack of Rome in 390 B.C.
+
+ALLIA'CEOUS PLANTS, plants belonging to the genus Allium (ord. Liliaceæ),
+that to which the onion, leek, garlic, shallot, &c., belong, or to other
+allied genera, and distinguished by a certain peculiar pungent smell and
+taste characterized as _alliaceous_. This flavour is also found in a few
+plants having no botanical affinities with the above, as in the _Alliaria
+officin[=a]lis_, or Jack-by-the-hedge, a plant of the order Cruciferæ.
+
+ALLI'ANCE, a league between two or more Powers. Alliances are divided into
+offensive and defensive. The former are for the purpose of attacking a
+common enemy, and the latter for mutual defence. An alliance often unites
+both of these conditions. Offensive alliances, of course, are usually
+directed against some particular enemy; defensive alliances against anyone
+from whom an attack may come. Among the more famous alliances in history
+are: The Triple Alliance of 1688 between Great Britain, Sweden, and the
+Netherlands; The Grand Alliance of 1689 between the Emperor, Holland,
+England, Spain, and Saxony; The Quadruple Alliance of 1814 between Great
+Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia; The Triple Alliance of 1882 between
+Germany, Austria, and Italy; and The Dual Alliance between Russia and
+France.
+
+ALLIANCE, HOLY. See _Holy Alliance_.
+
+ALLIANCE ISRAÉLITE UNIVERSELLE, an association founded in Paris in 1860 for
+the protection of the Jews all over the world, but particularly with a view
+to advocating by various means the emancipation of the Jews in those
+countries where they did not enjoy equal civil and political rights with
+the other inhabitants. It was established by six Jews of Paris: Aristide
+Astruc, Isidore Cahen, Jules Carvallo, Narcisse Leven, Eugène Manuel, and
+Charles Netter. Adolphe Crémieux and Salomon Munk were among the first
+presidents of the association. It is managed by a central committee
+resident in Paris, and consisting of 62 members, 23 of whom live in Paris.
+The Alliance has done a great deal towards raising the status of the Jews
+in the East by establishing educational institutions and industrial and
+agricultural schools, especially in Turkey, Egypt, Morocco, Persia,
+Bulgaria, Tunis, and Abyssinia. The chief sources of its income are the
+subscriptions and donations of the members. Its annual income amounts to
+about 200,000 francs. It also manages a fund of about £400,000 founded by
+Baron and Baroness de Hirsch for the establishment of Jewish Schools in
+Turkey. The Alliance Israélite works in unison with the Anglo-Jewish
+Association and the Board of Deputies in London, two organizations pursuing
+the same aims.
+
+ALLIA'RIA, a genus of plants, ord. Cruciferæ, containing two species, one
+of which (_A. officin[=a]lis_), commonly called Jack-by-the-hedge, is
+widely spread in Europe, and often used as a pot-herb. See _Alliaceous
+Plants_.
+
+AL'LIBONE, Samuel Austin, LL.D., American author, born 1816, died 1889. He
+compiled a most useful _Critical Dictionary of English Literature and
+British and American Authors_ (3 vols., 1859, 1870, 1871, containing 50,000
+biographies, 2 vols. of supplement by J. F. Kirk, 1891).
+
+ALLICE, a name of the common shad.
+
+ALLIER ([.a]l-l[=e]-[=a]), a central department of France, intersected by
+the River Allier, and partly bounded by the Loire; its surface is
+diversified by offsets of the Cevennes and other ranges, rising in the
+south to over 4000 feet, and in general richly wooded. It has extensive
+beds of coal as well as other minerals, which are actively worked, there
+being several flourishing centres of mining and manufacturing enterprise;
+mineral waters at Vichy, Bourbon, L'Archambault, &c. Large numbers of sheep
+and cattle are bred. Area, 2848 sq. miles. Capital, Moulins. Pop. (1921),
+370,950.--The River Allier flows northward for 200 miles through Lozère,
+Upper Loire, Puy de Dôme, and Allier, and enters the Loire, of which it is
+the chief tributary.
+
+ALLIGA'TION, a rule of arithmetic, chiefly found in the older books,
+relating to the solution of questions concerning the compounding or mixing
+together of different ingredients, or ingredients of different qualities or
+values. Thus if a quantity of tea worth 10d. the pound and another quantity
+worth 18d. are mixed, the question to be solved by alligation is, what is
+the value of the mixture by the pound?
+
+[Illustration: Alligators--1, Mississippi Alligator; 2, Banded Cayman; 3,
+Chinese Alligator]
+
+ALLIGA'TOR (a corruption of Sp. _el lagarto_, lit. the lizard--Lat.
+_lacertus_), a genus of reptiles of the family Crocodilidæ, differing from
+the true crocodiles in having a shorter and flatter head, in having
+cavities or pits in the upper jaw, into which the long canine teeth of the
+under jaw fit, and in having the feet much less webbed. Their habits are
+less perfectly aquatic. They are confined to the warmer parts of America,
+where they frequent swamps and marshes, and may be seen basking on the dry
+ground during the day in the heat of the sun. They are most active during
+the night, when they make a loud bellowing. The largest of these animals
+grow to the length of 18 or 20 feet. They are covered by a dense armour of
+horny scales, impenetrable to a bullet, and have a large mouth, armed with
+strong, conical teeth. They swim with wonderful celerity, impelled by their
+long, laterally-compressed, and powerful tails. On land their motions are
+proportionally slow and embarrassed because of the length and unwieldiness
+of their bodies and the shortness of their limbs. They live on fish, and
+any small animals or carrion, and sometimes catch pigs on the shore, or
+dogs which are swimming. They even sometimes make man their prey. In winter
+they burrow in the mud of swamps and marshes, lying torpid till the warm
+weather. The female lays a great number of eggs, which are deposited in the
+sand or mud, and left to be hatched by the heat of the sun, but after this
+has taken place the mother alligator is very attentive to her young. The
+most fierce and dangerous species is that found in the southern parts of
+the United States (_Alligator Lucius_), having the snout a little turned
+up, slightly resembling that of the pike. The alligators of South America
+are there very often called _Caymans_. _A. sclerops_ is known also as the
+_Spectacled Cayman_, from the prominent bony rim surrounding the orbit of
+each eye. The flesh of the alligator is sometimes eaten, the tail being
+considered a great delicacy by the negroes. Among the fossils of the south
+of England are remains of a true alligator (_A. Hantoniensis_) in the
+Eocene beds of the Hampshire basin.
+
+ALLIGATOR-APPLE (_An[=o]na palustris_), a fruit allied to the
+custard-apple, growing in marshy districts in Jamaica, little eaten on
+account of its narcotic properties.
+
+ALLIGATOR-PEAR (_Pers[=e]a gratissima_), an evergreen tree of the nat. ord.
+Lauraceæ, with a fruit resembling a large pear, 1 to 2 lb. in weight, with
+a firm marrow-like pulp of a delicate flavour; called also avocado-pear, or
+subaltern's butter. It is a native of tropical America and the West Indies.
+
+AL'LINGHAM, William, an Irish poet, born in Ireland in 1824 or 1828, died
+in 1889. He published his first volume (_Poems_) in 1850; _Day and Night
+Songs_ in 1855; _Lawrence Bloomfield in Ireland_, narrative poem, in 1864;
+_Songs, Poems, and Ballads_ in 1877 (including a number of new poems). He
+was a frequent contributor to periodicals, and for some time edited
+_Fraser's Magazine_.
+
+ALLITERA'TION, the repetition of the same letter at the beginning of two or
+more words immediately succeeding each other, or at short intervals; as
+"_m_any _m_en _m_any _m_inds"; "_d_eath _d_efies the _d_octor". "_A_pt
+_a_lliteration's _a_rtful _a_id" (_Churchill_). "_P_uffs, _p_owders,
+_p_atches, _b_ibles, _b_illet-doux" (_Pope_). "_W_eave the _w_arp and
+_w_eave the _w_oof" (_Gray_). In the ancient German and Scandinavian and in
+early English poetry alliteration took the place of terminal rhymes, the
+alliterative syllables being made to recur with a certain regularity in the
+same position in successive verses. In the _Vision of William Concerning
+Piers the Ploughman_, for instance, it is regularly employed as in the
+following lines:--
+
+  Hire _r_obe was ful _r_iche . of _r_ed scarlet engreyned,
+  With _r_ibanes of _r_ed gold . and of _r_iche stones;
+  Hire a_rr_aye me _r_avysshed . such _r_icchesse saw I nevere;
+  I had _w_ondre _w_hat she _w_as . and _w_has _w_yf she _w_ere.
+
+Alliteration was known to the Latin authors: "O _T_ite _t_ute, _T_ati,
+_t_ibi _t_anta, _t_yranne _t_ulisti" (_Ennius_). In the hands of some
+English poets and prose writers of later times alliteration became a mere
+conceit. It is still employed in Icelandic and Finnish poetry. So far has
+alliteration sometimes been carried that long compositions have been
+written every word of which commenced with the same letter. It may also be
+employed in the middle of words: "Un _f_rais par_f_um sortait des tou_ff_es
+d'as_f_odile" (_Victor Hugo_).
+
+AL'LIUM, a genus of plants, ord. Liliaceæ;, containing numerous well-known
+species of pot-herbs. They are umbelliferous, and mostly perennial,
+herbaceous plants, but a few are biennial. Among them are garlic (_A.
+sat[=i]vum_), onion (_A. Cepa_), leek (_A. Porrum_), chives (_A.
+Schoenopr[)a]sum_), shallot (_A. ascalon[)i]cum_). The peculiar alliaceous
+flavour that belongs to them is well known.
+
+AL'LOA, a river port of Scotland, on the north bank of the Forth (where
+there is now a bridge), 7 miles from Stirling, county of Clackmannan. It
+carries on brewing, distilling, and shipbuilding; has manufactures of
+woollens, bottles, &c., and a shipping trade. Pop. (1921), 12,421.
+
+ALLOCU'TION, an address, a term particularly applied to certain addresses
+on important occasions made by the Pope to the cardinals, and through them
+to the Church in general.
+
+ALLO'DIUM (probably derived from _all_ and _odh_, property), land held in
+one's own right, without any feudal obligation to a superior or lord. In
+England, according to the theory of the British constitution, all land is
+held of the crown (by _feudal_ tenure); the word _allodial_ is, therefore,
+never applied to landed property there.
+
+ALLOGAMY (from the Gr. _allos_, other, and _gamos_, wedding), meaning the
+transfer of the pollen of one flower to the pistil of another. The opposite
+of allogamy is _autogamy_, or self-pollination.
+
+ALLOPHANE, a hydrous aluminium silicate, with the composition Al_2SiO_5 +
+5H_2O, forming crusts in the cavities of various rocks and commonly of a
+delicate blue colour.
+
+ALLOT'MENT SYSTEM, the system of allotting small portions of land (an acre
+or less) to farm-labourers or other workers, to be cultivated after their
+regular work by themselves and their families, a system believed by many to
+be calculated greatly to improve their condition. An Allotment Act for
+England, passed in 1887, authorizes the sanitary authorities in any
+locality to determine if there is a sufficient demand for allotments there,
+and to acquire land to be let to the labouring population resident in their
+district. Such land may be compulsorily acquired, due compensation being
+given; but land belonging to a park, pleasure-ground, &c., is not to be so
+acquired. No person is to hold more than 1 acre as an allotment; and the
+rents are to be fixed at such amount as may reasonably be deemed sufficient
+to guarantee the sanitary authority from loss. No building is to be erected
+on any allotment other than a tool-house, pig-sty, shed, or the like. In
+the Allotment Acts of 1887 and 1892 (Scotland) the definition is applied to
+a plot of land not exceeding 1 acre, but the Local Government Act of 1894
+authorized the letting of an allotment up to the area of 4 acres to one
+person, while the Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907 definitely
+extends the limit of an allotment to 5 acres. The distinction between
+allotments and small holdings has therefore been obliterated, at least as
+far as England and Wales are concerned. County councils will let plots of 1
+to 5 acres as small holdings, and parish councils as allotments. During the
+European War 183,000 allotments were registered under the Cultivation of
+Lands Order, and the number of allotments in Great Britain not exceeding 1
+acre now amounts to over 1,000,000. In proportion to the total agricultural
+area or population it is much smaller in Scotland than in England. The
+rents of allotments vary greatly, and near towns, or even villages, they
+are very high, often from £4 to £8 per acre. A measure corresponding to the
+English Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907 was passed for Scotland
+in 1911, and came into operation in 1912. In recent years a large number of
+co-operative allotment associations have come into existence.
+
+ALLOT'ROPY (Gr. _allos_, other, _tropos_, manner), a term used by Berzelius
+to express the fact that one and the same element may exist in different
+forms, differing widely in external physical properties. Thus carbon occurs
+as the diamond, and as charcoal and plumbago, and is therefore regarded as
+a substance subject to allotropy.
+
+AL'LOWAY, a parish of Scotland, now included in Ayr parish. Here Burns was
+born in 1759, and the "auld haunted kirk", near his birthplace, was the
+scene of the dance of witches in _Tam o' Shanter_.
+
+ALLOY' is the substance produced by melting together two or more metals.
+Sometimes a chemical compound is formed, but more generally one metal is
+interspersed throughout the other, much as sugar is through water in which
+it is dissolved. In this case the alloy is called a 'solid solution' of one
+metal in another. Many metals mix together in all proportions, others only
+in certain proportions, while some will not mix in any proportion.
+
+Scientific research has led to great advances in the use of alloys
+industrially. An alloy differs from its components in most of its physical
+properties, such as its hardness, ductility, strength, melting-point, and
+colour. The minutest trace of certain metals frequently produces an
+extraordinary change in the property of the body with which it is mixed.
+For instance, if bismuth is present in copper to the extent of more than
+0.5 per cent, the copper cannot be used successfully in the construction of
+electrical machinery. Frequently the addition of a small proportion of a
+metal produces highly-desirable effects in one direction, but is
+deleterious in other directions. For instance, the presence of a small
+amount of manganese in cast-iron gives clean castings, but the magnetic
+qualities of the material are impaired.
+
+Alloys are classified as ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.
+
+_Ferrous Alloys._--These alloys are of great industrial importance, as they
+include cast irons and steels. Pure iron is very little used in industry.
+Ordinary _cast iron_ contains iron and about 3 per cent of carbon. The
+ordinary wrought iron of the blacksmith contains less than 0.25 per cent of
+carbon. Cast iron is brittle, and unreliable when used to sustain tensile
+stresses, and it cannot be forged; but wrought iron can be safely used in
+tension, is not brittle, and can be forged. The raw material from which
+steel is made is cast iron or wrought iron. (For manufacture of steel see
+_Steel_.) The properties of steel can be varied within very wide limits by
+adding to it traces of certain metals. For instance, the addition of nickel
+up to 5 per cent makes the steel much stronger and tougher; the addition of
+tungsten up to about 19 per cent makes it hard (tool-steel, magnet steel),
+while molybdenum has a similar effect. Chromium and vanadium have a
+'stabilizing' effect, i.e. tend to make large masses of the alloy
+homogeneous, and to make the alloy retain its hardness over wide ranges of
+temperature. Cobalt has a similar stabilizing effect. Molybdenum high-speed
+steel is more expensive than tungsten high-speed steel, but is said to wear
+better.
+
+_Non-ferrous Alloys._--Of the non-ferrous alloys the most important have
+copper as the basic metal. They do not become rusty on exposure. Copper,
+when used for electrical purposes, must be nearly pure. It is deposited
+electrolytically (see _Electrolysis_) and then made into bars (electrolytic
+copper).
+
+_Brass_ is an alloy of copper and zinc and varies much in composition. The
+best-known varieties are:--
+
+  Best brass        Copper 70%,     Zinc 30%.
+  Admiralty brass   Copper 70%,     Zinc 29%,     Tin  1%.
+  Ordinary brass    Copper 67%,     Zinc 30%,     Lead 3%.
+
+Gun-metal is a mixture of copper, tin, and zinc. The standard Admiralty
+mixture is copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2. It possesses a tensile strength of 14
+tons per sq. inch.
+
+_Bronzes._--The bronzes are alloys of copper, with zinc or tin mainly. They
+can be cast easily, and when heated to a dull red the metal can be forged,
+stamped, rolled, pressed, or extruded. They are largely free from
+corrosion.
+
+_Phosphor Bronze._--This is a specially strong bronze. A typical
+composition is copper 89.5, tin 10, phosphorus 0.5. The tensile strength is
+higher than that of pure copper or brass (about 15 tons per sq. inch), and
+it has about one-half the electrical conductivity of pure copper. It is
+used for small castings, and it can be drawn into wire, which is used in
+alternating-current electric-railway construction for the overhead
+conductor.
+
+_Delta metals_ are bronzes of specially high tensile strength (30-50 tons
+per sq. inch).
+
+_Manganese bronzes_ are bronzes of high tensile strength and ductility, and
+are largely used for marine propellers. Manganese bronze is not affected by
+sea-water. It usually contains copper, zinc, and manganese, with a little
+aluminium and tin.
+
+A recently-discovered copper alloy is known as _monel metal_. It is a
+naturally-occurring alloy of copper, nickel, iron, and manganese (copper
+27-29 per cent, nickel 68-70 per cent, iron and manganese 4-5 per cent),
+and possesses, roughly, the qualities of a mild steel and copper. It has a
+high tensile strength, which it retains over a wide range of temperature
+change. It is ductile, is not affected by immersion in sea-water, and can
+be machined. It is used for pump-valves, pump-pistons, turbine blading, &c.
+
+In the British silver coinage silver is alloyed with 7.5 per cent copper,
+which renders it harder and more durable. British gold coinage contains 8.3
+per cent of copper.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Law, _Alloys_; Osmond and Stead,
+_Microscopic Analysis of Metals_; Mellor, _Crystallization of Iron and
+Steel_; Desch, _Metallography_.
+
+ALL SAINTS' DAY, a festival of the Christian Church, instituted in 835, and
+celebrated on 1st Nov. in honour of the saints in general.
+
+ALL SOULS' COLLEGE, a college of Oxford University, founded in 1437 by
+Henry Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury. Attached to it are the Chichele
+Professorship of International Law and the Chichele Professorship of Modern
+History.
+
+ALL SOULS' DAY, a festival of the Roman Catholic Church, instituted in 998,
+and observed on 2nd Nov. for the relief of souls in purgatory.
+
+[Illustration: Allspice (_Myrtus Pimenta_)]
+
+ALLSPICE ([a:]l'sp[=i]s), or PIMENTA, is the dried and ground berry of a
+West Indian species of myrtle (_Myrtus Pimenta_), a beautiful tree with
+white and fragrant aromatic flowers and leaves of a deep shining green. The
+tree is often 30 feet high, and may yield 150 lb. of raw berries,
+equivalent to 100 lb. of dried spice. Pimenta is thought to resemble in
+flavour a mixture of cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence the popular name
+of _allspice_; it is also called Jamaica pepper, the trees being cultivated
+there extensively. It is employed in cookery, also in medicine as an
+agreeable aromatic, and forms the basis of a distilled water, a spirit, and
+an essential oil.
+
+ALL'STON (äl'stun), Washington, an American painter, born 1779, died 1843.
+He studied in London and Rome, and is most celebrated for his pictures on
+scriptural subjects. Among his pictures _The Angel Uriel_ is at Stafford
+House; _The Prophet Jeremiah_ at Yale College, Newport. A portrait of
+Coleridge by Allston is in the National Gallery. He also wrote poems and a
+tragical romance (_Monaldi_).
+
+ALLU'VIUM (Lat. _alluvium_--_ad_, to, and _luo_, to wash), deposits of soil
+collected by the action of water, such as are found in valleys and plains,
+consisting of loam, clay, gravel, &c., washed down from the higher grounds.
+Great alterations are often produced by alluvium--deltas and whole islands
+being often formed by this cause. Much of the rich land along the banks of
+rivers is alluvial in its origin. There are great tracts of alluviums lying
+along the banks of the Derwent, the Ouse, and the Trent, and the Romney
+Marsh of Kent along the banks of the Thames.
+
+ALLYGURH. See _Aligarh_.
+
+ALMA, a small river of Russia, in the Crimea, celebrated from the victory
+gained by the allied British and French over the Russians, 20th Sept.,
+1854.
+
+AL'MACK'S, the name formerly given to certain assembly-rooms in King
+Street, St. James's, London, derived from Almack, a tavern-keeper, by whom
+they were built, and whose real name is said to have been McCall, of which
+Almack is an anagram; afterwards called _Willis's Rooms_. They were first
+opened about 1770, and became famous for the extreme exclusiveness
+displayed by the lady patronesses in regard to the admission of applicants
+for tickets to the balls held here--only those of the most assured social
+standing being admitted. They were turned into a restaurant in 1890.
+
+ALMA'DA, a town of Portugal, on the Tagus, opposite Lisbon. Pop. 7913.
+
+AL'MADEN, a place in California, United States, about 60 miles S.E. of San
+Francisco, with rich quicksilver-mines, the product of which has been
+largely employed in gold and silver mining.
+
+ALMADEN', a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real, celebrated both in
+ancient and modern times for its mines of quicksilver (in the form of
+cinnabar). Pop. 7410.
+
+ALMADEN PROCESS. See _Mercury_.
+
+AL'MAGEST (Ar. _al_, the, and Gr. _megist[=e]_, greatest, _sc._ 'treatise')
+the name of a celebrated astronomical work composed by Claudius Ptolemy.
+
+ALMA'GRO, an old town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), with
+important lace manufactures. Pop. 7700.
+
+ALMA'GRO, Diego de, Spanish 'Conquistador', a foundling, born in 1475,
+killed 1538. He took part with Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, and after
+frequent disputes with Pizarro about their respective shares in their
+conquests led an expedition against Chile, which he failed to conquer. On
+his return a struggle took place between him and Pizarro, in which Almagro
+was finally overcome, taken prisoner, strangled, and afterwards beheaded.
+He was avenged by his son, born in 1520, who raised an insurrection, in
+which Pizarro was assassinated, in 1541. The younger Almagro was put to
+death at Cuzco in 1542 by De Castro, the new Viceroy of Peru.
+
+ALMALEE', a town of Asia Minor, 50 miles from Adalia, with thriving
+manufactures and a considerable trade. Pop. 3500.
+
+AL'MA MA'TER (Lat., fostering or bounteous mother), a term familiarly
+applied to their own university by those who have had a university
+education.
+
+AL-MAMUN (m[.a]-mön'), a caliph of the Abasside dynasty, son of
+Harun-al-Rashid, born 786, died 833. Under him Bagdad became a great centre
+of art and science.
+
+AL'MANAC, a calendar, in which are set down the rising and setting of the
+sun, the phases of the moon, the most remarkable positions and phenomena of
+the heavenly bodies, for every month and day of the year; also the several
+fasts and feasts to be observed in the Church and State, &c., and often
+much miscellaneous information likely to be useful to the public. The term
+is of Arabic origin, but the Arabs were not the first to use almanacs,
+which indeed existed from remote ages. In England they are known from the
+fourteenth century, there being several English almanacs of this century
+existing in MS. They became generally used in Europe within a short time
+after the invention of printing; and they were very early remarkable, as
+some are still, for the mixture of truth and falsehood which they
+contained. Their effects in France were found so mischievous, from the
+pretended prophecies which they published, that an edict was promulgated by
+Henry III in 1579 forbidding any predictions to be inserted in them
+relating to civil affairs, whether those of the State or of private
+persons. In the reign of James I of England letters-patent were granted to
+the two universities and the Stationers' Company for an exclusive right of
+printing almanacs, but in 1775 this monopoly was abolished. During the
+civil war of Charles I, and thence onward, English almanacs were
+conspicuous for the unblushing boldness of their astrological predictions,
+and their determined perpetuation of popular errors. The most famous
+English almanac was _Poor Robin's Almanack_, which was published from 1663
+to 1775. Gradually, however, a better taste began to prevail, and in 1828
+the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, by publishing the
+_British Almanac_, had the merit of taking the lead in the production of an
+unexceptionable almanac in Great Britain. The example thus set has been
+almost universally adopted. The circulation of almanacs continued to be
+much cramped by the very heavy duty of one shilling and threepence per copy
+till 1834, when this duty was abolished. About 200 new almanacs were
+started immediately on the repeal. Almanacs, from their periodical
+character, and the frequency with which they are referred to, are now more
+and more used as vehicles for conveying statistical and other useful
+information, some being intended for the inhabitants of a particular
+country or district, others for a particular class or party. Some of the
+almanacs that are regularly published every year are extremely useful, and
+are indeed almost indispensable to men engaged in official, mercantile,
+literary, or professional business. Such in Great Britain are _Thom's
+Official Directory of the United Kingdom_, _The British Almanac_, _Oliver
+and Boyd's New Edinburgh Almanac_, and _Whitaker's Almanac_, started in
+1868. In the United States is published _The American Almanac_, a useful
+compilation. The _Almanach de Gotha_, which has appeared at Gotha since
+1764, contains in small bulk a wonderful quantity of information regarding
+the reigning families and Governments, the finances, commerce, population,
+&c., of the different States throughout the world. Since 1871 it is
+published both in a French and in a German edition. Among French almanacs
+the most famous was the _Almanach Liégeois_, whilst the _Almanach
+National_, first published in 1679 as _Almanach Royal_, is the most
+important of modern almanacs in France. Almanacs that pretend to foretell
+the weather and occurrences of various kinds are still popular in Britain,
+France, and elsewhere.--_The Nautical Almanac_ is an important work
+published annually by the British Government, two or three years in
+advance, in which is contained much useful astronomical matter, more
+especially the distances of the moon from the sun, and from certain fixed
+stars, for every three hours of apparent time, adapted to the meridian of
+the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. By comparing these with the distances
+carefully observed at sea the mariner may, with comparative ease, infer his
+longitude to a degree of accuracy unattainable in any other way, and
+sufficient for most nautical purposes. This almanac was commenced in 1767
+by Dr. Maskelyne, Astronomer Royal. The French _Connaissance des Temps_ is
+published for the same purpose as the English _Nautical Almanac_, and
+nearly on the same plan. It commenced in 1679. Of a similar character is
+the _Astronomisches Jahrbuch_ published at Berlin.
+
+ALMAN'DINE, a mineral of a reddish or violet colour, a variety of precious
+or noble garnet.
+
+ALMAN'SA, a town of south-eastern Spain (Murcia), near which was fought
+(25th April, 1707) a decisive battle in the War of the Spanish Succession,
+when the French, under the Duke of Berwick, defeated the Anglo-Spanish army
+under the Earl of Galway. Pop. 11,887.
+
+ALMAN'ZUR, or ALMANSUR, a caliph of the Abasside dynasty, reigned 754-75.
+He was cruel and treacherous and a persecutor of the Christians, but a
+patron of learning.
+
+ALMA-TAD'EMA, Sir Lawrence, Dutch painter, born in 1836, resided since 1870
+in England, where he became a naturalized subject. He was made A.R.A. in
+1876, R.A. in 1879, knighted in 1899, and awarded the Order of Merit in
+1905. He died at Wiesbaden, 25th June, 1912. He is especially celebrated
+for his pictures of ancient Roman, Greek, and Egyptian life, which are
+painted with great realism and archæological correctness.
+
+AL'MEH, the name given in Egypt to a class of girls whose profession is to
+sing for the amusement of the upper classes, as distinguished from the
+_gawasi_, who perform before the lower classes. They perform at feasts and
+other entertainments (including funerals), and many of them are skilful
+improvisatrici. One of their most famous dances is called 'The Bee'.
+
+ALMEIDA ([.a]l-m[=a]'i-d[.a]), one of the strongest fortresses in Portugal,
+in the province of Beira, near the Spanish border, on the Coa. Pop. 2350.
+Taken by Masséna from the English in 1810, retaken by Wellington in 1811.
+
+ALMEIDA (d[.a]l-m[=a]'i-d[.a]), Francisco d', first Portuguese viceroy of
+India, son of the Conde de Abrantes, born about the middle of the fifteenth
+century. He fought with renown against the Moors, and being appointed
+governor of the new Portuguese settlements on the African and Indian
+coasts, he sailed for India in 1505, accompanied by his son Lorenzo and
+other eminent men. In Africa he took possession of Quiloa and Mombas, and
+in the East he conquered Cananor, Cochin, Calicut, &c., and established
+forts and factories. His son Lorenzo discovered the Maldives and
+Madagascar, but perished in an attack made on him by a fleet sent by the
+Sultan of Egypt, with the aid of the Porte and the Republic of Venice.
+Having signally defeated the Mussulmans (1508), and avenged his son, and
+being superseded by Albuquerque, he sailed for Portugal, but was killed in
+a skirmish on the African coast in 1510.
+
+ALMELO', a town of Holland, province of Overyssel, on the Vechte; with
+manufactures of linen. Pop. 7360.
+
+ALMENDRALEJO (-[=a]'h[=o]), a town of Spain, province of Badajoz, in a
+district rich in grain, wine, and fruits, with many brandy distilleries.
+Pop. 12,587.
+
+ALMERIA ([.a]l-m[=a]-r[=e]'[.a]), a fortified seaport of Southern Spain,
+capital of province of Almeria, near the mouth of a river and on the gulf
+of same name, with no building of consequence except a Gothic cathedral,
+but with a large trade, exporting grapes, iron ore, lead, esparto, &c. The
+province, which has an area of 3360 sq. miles, is generally mountainous,
+and rich in minerals. Pop. of town, 48,614; of province, 393,689.
+
+ALMODO'VAR, a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), near
+the Sierra Morena. Pop. 12,640.
+
+ALMOHADES (al'mo-h[=a]dz), a Moorish dynasty that ruled in Africa and Spain
+in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, founded by Mohammed Ibn Tumart, a
+religious enthusiast, who assumed the title of _Mahdi_. They overthrew the
+Almoravides in Spain, but themselves received a defeat in 1212 from which
+they did not recover, and in 1269 were overthrown in Africa, when Idris
+El-Wathik, their last emir, was murdered by a slave.
+
+AL-MOKANNA. See _Mokanna_.
+
+ALMOND ([.a]'mund), the fruit of the almond tree (_Amygd[)a]lus
+comm[=u]nis_), a tree which grows usually to the height of 20 feet, and is
+akin to the peach, nectarine, &c. (ord. Rosaceæ). It has beautiful pinkish
+flowers that appear before the leaves, which are oval, pointed, and
+delicately serrated. It is a native of Africa and Asia, naturalized in
+Southern Europe, and cultivated in England for its beauty, as it seldom
+produces edible fruit even in the warmer portions of Southern England. The
+fruit is a drupe, ovoid, and with downy outer surface; the fleshy covering
+is tough and fibrous; it covers the compressed wrinkled stone enclosing the
+seed or almond within it. There are two varieties, one sweet and the other
+bitter; both are produced from _A. communis_, though from different
+varieties. Most of the sweet almonds imported into Britain come from
+Southern Europe, the Levant, and California, the finest being the
+Valencian, Jordan, and Malaga. They contain a bland fixed oil, consisting
+chiefly of olein. Bitter almonds come from Mogador, and besides a fixed oil
+they contain a substance called _emulsin_, and also a bitter crystalline
+substance called _amygdalin_, which, acting on the emulsin, produces
+prussic acid, whence the aroma of bitter almonds when mixed with water.
+_Almond-oil_, a bland fixed oil, is expressed from the kernels of either
+sweet or bitter almonds, and is used by perfumers and in medicine. A
+poisonous essential oil is obtained from bitter almonds, which is used for
+flavouring by cooks and confectioners, also by perfumers and in medicine.
+The name _almond_, with a qualifying word prefixed, is also given to the
+seeds of other species of plants; thus _Java almonds_ are the kernels of
+_Canarium commune_.
+
+ALMONDBURY ([.a]'mund-be-ri), a town of England, West Riding of Yorkshire,
+S.E. of Huddersfield, in which it is now included, with manufactures of
+woollens, cotton and silk goods.
+
+AL'MONER, an officer of a religious establishment to whom belonged the
+distribution of alms. The grand almoner (_grand aumonier_) of France was
+the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in that kingdom before the revolution.
+The lord almoner, or lord high almoner of England, is generally a bishop,
+whose office is well-nigh a sinecure. He distributes the sovereign's doles
+to the poor on Maundy Thursday.
+
+ALMO'RA, a town and fortress of India, in the United Provinces, capital of
+Kumaon, 170 miles E.N.E. of Delhi, a thriving little place. Pop. about
+10,560.
+
+ALMO'RAVIDES (-v[=i]dz), a Moorish dynasty which arose in North-Western
+Africa in the eleventh century, and reigned from 1055-1147. The town of
+Marrakesh, built in 1062, became the capital of this dynasty. Having
+crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, the family gained possession of all
+Arabic Spain, but was overthrown by the Almohades in the following century.
+
+AL'MUG (or AL'GUM) TREE, names which occur in _1 Kings_, x, 11, 12, and _2
+Chron_., ii, 8, and ix, 10, 11, as the names of trees of which the wood was
+used for pillars in the temple and the king's house, for harps and
+psalteries, &c. They are said in one passage to be hewn in Lebanon, in
+another to be brought from Ophir. They have been identified by critics with
+the red sandalwood of India. Some of them may possibly have been
+transplanted to Lebanon by the Phoenicians.
+
+ALMUÑECAR ([.a]l-m[u:]n-ye-kär'), a seaport of Spain, Granada, on the
+Mediterranean. Pop. 8000.
+
+AL'NAGER, formerly, in England, an official whose duty it was to inspect,
+measure, and stamp woollen cloth.
+
+AL'NUS. See _Alder_.
+
+ALNWICK (an'ik), a town of England, county town of Northumberland, 34 miles
+north of Newcastle, near the Aln. It is well built, and carries on tanning,
+brewing, and a general trade. The town is famous for the curious ceremonies
+which take place there annually during the election of the common council
+(25th March). Alnwick Castle, residence of the Dukes of Northumberland, for
+many centuries a fortress of great strength, stands close to the town. Pop.
+(1921), 6991.
+
+[Illustration: Socotrine Aloe (_Aloe socotr[=i]na_)]
+
+ALOE (al'[=o]), the name of a number of plants belonging to the genus Aloë
+(ord. Liliaceæ), some of which are not more than a few inches, whilst
+others are 30 feet and upwards in height; natives of South Africa and
+Socotra; leaves fleshy, thick, and more or less spinous at the edges or
+extremity; flowers with a tubular corolla. Some of the larger kinds are of
+great use, the fibrous parts of the leaves being made into cordage, fishing
+nets and lines, cloth, &c. The inspissated juice of several species is used
+in medicine, under the name of _aloes_, forming a bitter purgative. The
+medicinal value of bitter aloes was known to the Greeks in the fourth
+century B.C. According to the Arabian historian Edrisi, the occupation of
+Socotra by the Macedonians was due to Aristotle's persuading Alexander the
+Great to secure the monopoly of the supplies of the drug. The drug is said
+to have been commended to Alfred the Great by the Patriarch of Jerusalem,
+but a direct trade in it between Socotra and Britain was opened only in the
+seventeenth century. The principal drug-producing species are the Socotrine
+aloe (_A. Socotr[=i]na_); the Barbados aloe (_A. vulg[=a]ris_), first
+imported into Britain in 1693; the Cape aloe (_A. spic[=a]ta_), 1780; and
+Natal aloes, 1870; &c. A beautiful violet colour is yielded by the leaves
+of the Socotrine aloe. The American aloe (see _Agave_) is a different plant
+altogether; as are also the aloes or lign-aloes of Scripture, which are
+supposed to be the _Aquilaria Agall[)o]chum_, or aloes-wood (q. v.). _Aloe
+fibre_ is obtained from species of Aloë, Agave, Yucca, &c., and is made
+into coarse fabrics, ropes, &c.
+
+ALOES-WOOD, EAGLE-WOOD, or AGILAWOOD, the inner portion of the trunk of
+_Aquil[=a]ria ov[=a]ta_ and _A. Agall[)o]chum_, forest trees belonging to
+the ord. Aquilariaceæ, found in tropical Asia, and yielding a fragrant
+resinous substance, which, as well as the wood, is burned for its perfume.
+Another tree, the _Aloex[)y]lon Agall[)o]chum_ (ord. Leguminosæ), also
+produces aloes-wood. This wood is supposed to be the lign-aloes (a
+corruption of the Lat. _lignum aloe_) of the Bible.
+
+ALOPE'CIA, a variety of baldness in which the hair falls off from the beard
+and eyebrows, as well as the scalp.
+
+ALOPECU'RUS, a genus of grasses. See _Foxtail-grass_.
+
+ALO'RA, a town of Southern Spain, province of Malaga. Pop. 6200.
+
+ALOST, or AALST (ä'lost, älst), a town of Belgium, 15 miles W.N.W. of
+Brussels, on the Dender (here navigable), with a beautiful, though
+unfinished, church, and an ancient town hall (thirteenth century);
+manufactures of lace, thread, linen and cotton goods, &c., and a
+considerable trade. In the market-place stands a statue of Thierry
+Maartens, who introduced the art of typography into the Netherlands in
+1473. The town was occupied by the Germans in 1914. Pop. 35,603.
+
+[Illustration: Alpaca (_Auch[=e]nia Paco_)]
+
+ALPAC'A, a ruminant mammal of the camel tribe, and genus Auch[=e]nia (_A.
+Paco_), a native of the Andes, especially of the mountains of Chile and
+Peru, and closely allied to the llama. Llamas and alpacas are mutually
+fertile when crossed, and this explains the existence of intermediate forms
+between the two breeds. It has been domesticated, and remains also in a
+wild state. In form and size it approaches the sheep, but has a longer
+neck. It is valued chiefly for its long, soft, and silky wool, which is
+straighter than that of the sheep, and very strong, and is woven into
+fabrics of great beauty, used for shawls, clothing for warm climates,
+coat-linings, and umbrellas, and known by the same name. Cloth made from
+imported alpaca wool is manufactured in England, principally in Yorkshire.
+Attempts have been made to introduce and acclimatize the alpaca in Europe
+and in Australia, but no measure of success has attended the experiments.
+Its flesh is pleasant and wholesome.
+
+ALPE'NA, a town of the United States, Michigan, at the entrance of the
+Thunder into Lake Huron, with saw-mills, woollen factories, &c. Pop.
+12,706.
+
+ALPEN-HORN, or ALP-HORN (Ger.), a long, nearly-straight horn, curving
+slightly, and widening towards its extremity, used in the Alps to convey
+signals, or notice of something.
+
+ALPEN-STOCK (Ger.), a strong, tall stick shod with iron, pointed at the end
+so as to take hold in, and give support on, ice and other dangerous places
+in climbing the Alps and other high mountains.
+
+ALPES ([.a]lp), the name of three departments in the south-east of France,
+all more or less covered by the Alps or their offshoots:--_Basses-Alpes_
+(bäs-[.a]lp; Lower Alps) has mountains rising to a height of 8000 to 10,000
+feet, is drained by the Durance and its tributaries, and is the most
+thinly-peopled department in France; area, 2697 sq. miles; capital, Digne.
+Pop. (1921), 91,882.--_Hautes-Alpes_ ([=o]t-[.a]lp; Upper Alps), mostly
+formed out of ancient Dauphiné, traversed by the Cottian and Dauphiné Alps
+(highest summits 12,000 feet), drained chiefly by the Durance and its
+tributaries. It is the lowest department in France in point of absolute
+population; area, 2178 sq. miles; capital, Gap. Pop. (1921),
+89,275.--_Alpes-Maritimes_ ([.a]lp-m[.a]-ri-t[=e]m; Maritime Alps) has the
+Mediterranean on the south, and mainly consists of the territory of Nice,
+ceded to France by Italy in 1860. The greater part of the surface is
+covered by the Maritime Alps; the principal river is the Var. It produces
+in the south, cereals, vines, olives, oranges, citrons, and other fruits;
+and there are manufactories of perfumes, liqueurs, soap, &c., and valuable
+fisheries. It is a favourite resort for invalids; area, 1443 sq. miles;
+capital, Nice. Pop. 357,759.
+
+AL'PHA and O'MEGA, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet,
+sometimes used to signify the beginning and the end, or the first and the
+last of anything; also as a symbol of the Divine Being (_Rev._ i, 8; xxi,
+6; xxii, 13). They were also formerly the symbol of Christianity, and
+engraved accordingly on the tombs of the ancient Christians. Some of these
+engravings are to be seen in the Louvre.
+
+AL'PHABET (from _Alpha_ and _Beta_, the two first letters of the Greek
+alphabet), the series of characters used in writing a language, and
+intended to represent the sounds of which it consists. The English
+alphabet, like most of those of modern Europe, is derived directly from the
+Latin, the Latin from the ancient Greek, and that from the Phoenician,
+which again is believed to have had its origin in the Egyptian
+hieroglyphics, although Egyptologists are not unanimous on this point.
+There is little evidence in support of the theory that the Phoenician
+alphabet had developed from the Assyrian cuneiform. Some scholars, like Sir
+Arthur Evans, are of opinion that the Philistines established on the coast
+of Palestine had brought the alphabet over from Crete, and that from them
+it passed to the Phoenicians. The names of the letters in Phoenician and
+Hebrew must have been almost the same, for the Greek names, which, with the
+letters, were borrowed from the former, differ little from the Hebrew. By
+means of the names we may trace the process by which the Egyptian
+characters were transformed into letters by the Phoenicians. Some Egyptian
+character would, by its form, recall the idea of a house, for example, in
+Phoenician or Hebrew _beth_. This character would subsequently come to be
+used wherever the sound b occurred. Its form might be afterwards
+simplified, or even completely modified, but the name would still remain,
+as _beth_ still continues the Hebrew name for b, and _beta_ the Greek. Our
+letter m, which in Hebrew was called _mim_, water, has still a considerable
+resemblance to the zig-zag wavy line which had been chosen to represent
+water, as in the zodiacal symbol for _Aquarius_. The letter o, of which the
+Hebrew name means eye, no doubt was originally intended to represent that
+organ. While the ancient Greek alphabet gave rise to the ordinary Greek
+alphabet and the Latin, the Greek alphabet of later times furnished
+elements for the Coptic, the Gothic, and the old Slavic alphabets. The
+Latin characters are now employed by a great many nations, such as the
+Italian, the French, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the English, the Dutch,
+the German, the Hungarian, the Polish, &c., each nation having introduced
+such modifications or additions as are necessary to express the sound of
+the language peculiar to it. The Greek alphabet originally possessed only
+sixteen letters, though the Phoenician had twenty-two. The original Latin
+alphabet, as it is found in the oldest inscriptions, consisted of
+twenty-one letters; namely, the vowels a, e, i, o, and u (v), and the
+consonants b, c, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, x, z. The Anglo-Saxon
+alphabet had two characters for the digraph th, which were unfortunately
+not retained in later English; it had also the character æ. It wanted j, v,
+y (consonant), and z. The German alphabet consists of the same letters as
+the English, but the sounds of some of them are different. Anciently
+certain characters called _Runic_ were made use of by the Teutonic nations,
+to which some would attribute an origin independent of the Greek and Latin
+alphabets. Wimmer, the Danish scholar, is, however, of opinion that the
+_runes_ were developed from the Latin alphabet. While the alphabets of the
+west of Europe are derived from the Latin, the Russian, which is very
+complete, is based on the Greek, with some characters borrowed from the
+Armenian, &c; it is called _azbouka_, from the first two letters _az_, a,
+and _bouki_, b. Among Asiatic alphabets, the Arabian (ultimately of
+Phoenician origin) has played a part analogous to that of the Latin in
+Europe, the conquests of Mohammedanism having imposed it on the Persian,
+the Turkish, the Hindustani, &c. The Sanskrit or Devan[=a]gari alphabet is
+one of the most remarkable alphabets of the world. As now used it has
+fourteen characters for the vowels and diphthongs, and thirty-three for the
+consonants, besides two other symbols. Our alphabet is a very imperfect
+instrument for what it has to perform, being both defective and redundant.
+An alphabet is not essential to the writing of a language, since ideograms
+or symbols may be used instead, as in Chinese. See
+_Writing_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Clodd, _The Alphabet_ (Useful Knowledge
+Series, Hodder & Stoughton); Canon J. Taylor, _The Alphabet_; Philippe
+Berger, _Histoire de l'Écriture dans l'Antiquité_.
+
+ALPH[=E]'US (now RUFIA), the largest river of Peloponnesus, flowing
+westwards into the Ionian Sea. In Greek mythology Alph[=e]us is supposed to
+have been the son of Oceanus and Tethys.
+
+ALPHON'SO, the name of a number of Portuguese and Spanish kings. Among the
+former may be mentioned ALPHONSO I, the Conqueror, first King of Portugal,
+son of Henry of Burgundy, the Conqueror and first Count of Portugal; born
+1110, fought successfully against the Spaniards and the Moors, named
+himself King of Portugal, and was as such recognized by the Pope; died
+1185.--ALPHONSO V, the African, born in 1432; succeeded his father, Edward
+I, 1438; conquered Tangiers in 1471; died 1481. During his reign Prince
+Henry the Navigator continued the important voyages of discovery already
+begun by the Portuguese. Under him was drawn up an important code of
+laws.--Among kings of Spain may be mentioned ALPHONSO X, King of Castile
+and Leon, surnamed the _Astronomer_, the _Philosopher_, or the _Wise_ (El
+Sabio); born in 1226; succeeded in 1252. Being grandson of Philip of
+Hohenstaufen, son of Frederick Barbarossa, he endeavoured to have himself
+elected Emperor of Germany, and in 1257 succeeded in dividing the election
+with Richard, Earl of Cornwall. On Richard's death in 1272 he again
+unsuccessfully contested the imperial crown. Meantime his throne was
+endangered by conspiracies of the nobles and the attacks of the Moors. The
+Moors he conquered, but his domestic troubles were less easily overcome,
+and he was finally dethroned by his son Sancho, and died two years after,
+1284. Alphonso was the most learned prince of his age. Under his direction
+or superintendence were drawn up a celebrated code of laws, valuable
+astronomical tables which go under his name (_Alphonsine Tables_), the
+first general history of Spain in the Castilian tongue, and a Spanish
+translation of the Bible.--ALPHONSO V of Aragon, I of Naples and Sicily,
+born in 1385, was the son of Ferdinand I of Aragon, the throne of which he
+ascended in 1416, ruling also over Sicily and the Island of Sardinia. Queen
+Joanna of Naples made him her heir, but after her death in 1435 her will
+was disputed by René of Anjou. Alphonso now proceeded to take possession of
+Naples by force, which he succeeded in doing in 1442, and reigned till his
+death in 1458. He was an enlightened patron of literary men, by whom, in
+the latter part of his reign, his Court was thronged.--ALPHONSO XII, King
+of Spain, the only son of Queen Isabella II and her cousin Francis of
+Assisi, was born in 1857 and died in 1885. He left Spain with his mother
+when she was driven from the throne by the revolution of 1868, and till
+1874 resided partly in France, partly in Austria. In the latter year he
+studied for a time at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, being then
+known as Prince of the Asturias. His mother had given up her claims to the
+throne in 1870 in his favour, and in 1874 Alphonso came forward himself as
+claimant, and in the end of the year was proclaimed by General Martinez
+Campos as king. He now passed over into Spain and was enthusiastically
+received, most of the Spaniards being by this time tired of the republican
+Government, which had failed to put down the Carlist party. Alphonso was
+successful in bringing the Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and
+henceforth he reigned with little disturbance. His minister Canovas del
+Castillo ruined, however, Alphonso's popularity when he advised the king to
+conclude an alliance with Bismarck and Germany. He married first his cousin
+Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of the Duc de Montpensier; second, Maria
+Christina, Archduchess of Austria, whom he left a widow with two daughters
+and a son.--ALPHONSO XIII, King of Spain, born in 1886, the posthumous son
+of Alphonso XII. His mother was appointed regent during his minority, and
+acted as such until 1902. On attaining his sixteenth year, the king assumed
+personal charge of the Government. In 1906 (31st May) he married Princess
+Ena, daughter of Princess Henry of Battenberg, a daughter of Queen
+Victoria.
+
+ALPINE CLUB, an association of English gentlemen, originating in 1856 or
+1857, having as their common bond of union a delight in making the ascent
+of mountains, in the Alps or elsewhere, difficult to ascend, and in
+investigating everything connected with mountains. Similar associations now
+exist in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France.
+
+ALPINE CROW, or ALPINE CHOUGH (_Pyrrhoc[)o]rax alp[=i]nus_), a European
+bird closely akin to the chough of England.
+
+ALPINE MUSEUM, a museum established at Munich in 1911 by the German and
+Austrian Alpine Club. Its purpose is to spread knowledge about the Alps,
+and to disseminate the results of scientific research by means of exhibits
+and literary publications. Not only alpine geology, botany, and zoology,
+but also industry, custom, and costumes are well demonstrated in the
+exhibits.
+
+ALPINE PLANTS, the name given to those plants whose habitat is in the
+neighbourhood of the snow, on mountains partly covered with it all the year
+round. As the height of the snow-line varies according to the latitude and
+local conditions, so also does the height at which these plants grow. The
+mean height for the alpine plants of Central Europe is about 6000 feet; but
+it rises in parts of the Alps and in the Pyrenees to 9000 feet, or even
+more. The high grounds clear of snow among these mountains present a very
+well marked flora, the general characters of the plants being a low
+dwarfish habit, a tendency to form thick turfs, stems partly or wholly
+woody, and large brilliantly-coloured and often very sweet-smelling
+flowers. They are also often closely covered with woolly hairs. In the Alps
+of Middle Europe the eye is at once attracted by gentians, saxifrages,
+rhododendrons, primroses of different kinds, &c. Ferns and mosses of many
+kinds also characterize these regions. Some alpine plants are found only in
+one locality. Considerable success has attended the attempt to grow alpine
+plants in gardens, the first necessity being a situation where there is
+plenty of sunlight, and which is free from the shade of trees.
+
+ALPINE WARBLER (_Accentor alp[=i]nus_), a European bird of the same genus
+as the hedge-sparrow.
+
+ALPIN'IA, a genus of plants. See _Galanga_.
+
+ALPS, the highest and most extensive system of mountains in Europe,
+included between lat. 44° and 48° N., and long. 5° and 18° E., covering
+great part of Northern Italy, several departments of France, nearly the
+whole of Switzerland, and a large part of Austria, while its extensive
+ramifications connect it with nearly all the mountain systems of Europe.
+The culminating peak is Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the true
+centre is the St. Gothard, or the mountain mass to which it belongs, and
+from whose slopes flow, either directly or by affluents, the great rivers
+of Central Europe--the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. Round the northern
+frontier of Italy the Alps form a remarkable barrier, shutting it off from
+the mainland of Europe, so that formerly it could hardly be approached from
+France, Germany, or Switzerland, except through high and difficult passes.
+In the west this barrier approaches close to the Mediterranean coast, and
+near Nice there is left a free passage into the Italian peninsula between
+the mountains and the sea. From this point eastward the chain proceeds
+along the coast till it forms a junction with the Apennines. In the
+opposite direction it proceeds north-west, and afterwards north to Mont
+Blanc, on the boundaries of France and Italy; it then turns north-east and
+runs generally in this direction to the Gross Glockner, in Central Tyrol,
+between the Rivers Drave and the Salza, where it divides into two branches,
+the northern proceeding north-east towards Vienna, the southern towards the
+Balkan Peninsula. The principal valleys of the Alps run mostly in a
+direction nearly parallel with the principal ranges, and therefore east and
+west. The transverse valleys are commonly shorter, and frequently lead up
+through a narrow gorge to a depression in the main ridge between two
+adjacent peaks. These are the passes or _cols_, which may usually be found
+by tracing a stream which descends from the mountains up to its source.
+
+The Alps in their various great divisions receive different names. The
+_Maritime Alps_, so called from their proximity to the Mediterranean,
+extend westward from their junction with the Apennines for a distance of
+about 100 miles; culminating points Aiguille de Chambeyron, 11,155 feet,
+and Grand Rioburent, 11,142 feet; principal pass, the Col di Tende (6158
+feet), which was made practicable for carriages by Napoleon I. Proceeding
+northward the next group consists of the _Cottian Alps_, length about 60
+miles; principal peaks: Monte Viso, 12,605 feet; Pic des Écrins, 13,462;
+Pelvoux, 12,973. Next come the _Graian Alps_, 50 miles long, with extensive
+ramifications in Savoy and Piedmont; principal peaks: Aiguille de la
+Sassière, 12,326 feet; Grand Paradis, 13,300; Grande Casse, 12,780. To this
+group belongs Mont Cenis (6765 feet), over which a carriage road was
+constructed by Napoleon I, while a railway now passes through the mountain
+by a tunnel nearly 8 miles long. These three divisions of the Alps are
+often classed together as the _Western Alps_, while the portion of the
+system immediately east of this forms the _Central Alps_. The _Pennine
+Alps_ form the loftiest portion of the whole system, having Mont Blanc (in
+France) at one extremity and Monte Rosa at the other (60 miles), and
+including the Alps of Savoy and the Valais. In the east the valley of the
+Upper Rhone separates the Pennine Alps from the great chain of the _Bernese
+Alps_ running nearly parallel, the great peaks of the two ranges being
+about 20 miles apart. The principal heights of the Pennine Alps are Mont
+Blanc, 15,781 feet; Monte Rosa, 15,217; Mischabelhörner (Dom), 14,935;
+Weisshorn, 14,804; Matterhorn, 14,780. In the Bernese Alps, the
+Finsteraarhorn, 14,026; Aletschhorn, 13,803; Jungfrau, 13,671. The pass of
+Great St. Bernard is celebrated for its hospice. The most easterly pass is
+the Simplon, 6595 feet, with a carriage road made by Napoleon I, and a
+tunnel leading into Italy, fully 12 miles long. Farther east are the
+_Lepontine Alps_, which give off a number of streams that feed the Italian
+lakes--Maggiore, Como, &c. The principal pass is the St. Gothard (6936
+feet), over which a carriage road leads to Italy, while through this
+mountain mass a railway tunnel more than 9 miles long has been opened.
+Highest peaks: Tödi, 11,887 feet; Monte Leone, 11,696. The _Rhætian Alps_,
+extending east to about lat. 12° 30', are the most easterly of the Central
+Alps, and are divided into two portions by the Engadine, or valley of the
+Inn, and also broken by the valley of the Adige; principal peaks: Piz
+Bernina, 13,294 feet; Ortlerspitze, 12,814; Monte Adamello, 11,832. The
+Brenner Pass (4588 feet), from Verona to Innsbruck, and between the Central
+and the Eastern Alps, is crossed by a railway. On the railway from
+Innsbruck to the Lake of Constance is the Arlberg Tunnel, over 6 miles
+long. The _Eastern Alps_ form the broadest and lowest portion of the
+system, and embrace the _Noric Alps_, the _Carnic Alps_, the _Julian Alps_,
+&c.; highest peak, the Gross Glockner, 12,405 feet. The height of the
+south-eastern continuations of the Alps rapidly diminishes, and they lose
+themselves in ranges having nothing in common with the great mountain
+masses which distinguish the centre of the system.
+
+The Alps are very rich in lakes and streams. Among the chief of the former
+are the Lakes of Geneva, Constance, Zürich, Thun, Brienz, on the north
+side; on the south Maggiore, Como, Lugano, Garda, &c. The drainage is
+carried to the North Sea by the Rhine, to the Mediterranean by the Rhone,
+to the Adriatic by the Po, to the Black Sea by the Danube.
+
+In the lower valleys of the Alps the mean temperature ranges from 50° to
+60°. Half-way up the Alps it averages about 32°--a height which in the
+snowy regions it never reaches. But even where the temperature is lowest
+the solar radiation produced by the rocks and snow is often so great as to
+raise the photometer to 120° and even higher. The exhilarating and
+invigorating nature of the climate in the upper regions during summer has
+been acknowledged by all.
+
+In respect to vegetation the Alps have been divided into six zones,
+depending on height modified by exposure and local circumstances. The first
+is the olive region. This tree flourishes better on sheltered slopes of the
+mountains than on the plains of Northern Italy. The vine, which bears
+greater winter cold, distinguishes the second zone. On slopes exposed to
+the sun it flourishes to a considerable extent. The third is called the
+mountainous region. Cereals and deciduous trees form the distinguishing
+features of its vegetation. The mean temperature about equals that of Great
+Britain, but the extremes are greater. The fourth region is the sub-Alpine
+or coniferous. Here are vast forests of pines of various species. Most of
+the Alpine villages are in the two last regions. On the northern slopes
+pines grow to 6000, and on the southern slopes to 7000 feet above the level
+of the sea. This is also the region of the lower or permanent pastures
+where the flocks are fed in winter. The fifth is the pasture region, the
+term _alp_ being used in the local sense of high pasture grounds. It
+extends from the uppermost limit of trees to the region of perpetual snow.
+Here there are shrubs, rhododendrons, junipers, bilberries, and dwarf
+willows, &c. The sixth zone is the region of perpetual snow. The line of
+snow varies, according to seasons and localities, from 8000 to 9500 feet,
+but the line is not continuous, being often broken in upon. Few flowering
+plants extend above 10,000 feet, but they have been found as high as 12,000
+feet.
+
+At this great elevation are found the wild goat and the chamois. In summer
+the high mountain pastures are covered with large flocks of cattle, sheep,
+and goats, which are in winter removed to a lower and warmer level. The
+marmot, and white or Alpine hare, inhabit both the snowy and the woody
+regions. Lower down are found the wild-cat, fox, lynx, bear, and wolf; the
+last two are now extremely rare. The vulture, eagle, and other birds of
+prey frequent the highest elevations, the ptarmigan seeks its food and
+shelter among the diminutive plants that border upon the snow-line.
+Excellent trout and other fish are found; but the most elevated lakes are,
+from their low temperature, entirely destitute of fish.
+
+The geological structure of the Alps is highly involved, and is far, as
+yet, from being thoroughly investigated or understood. In general three
+zones can be distinguished, a central, in which crystalline rocks prevail,
+and two exterior zones, in which sedimentary rocks predominate. The rocks
+of the central zone consist of granite, gneiss, hornblende, mica slate, and
+other slates and schists. In the western Alps there are also considerable
+elevations in the central zone that belong to the Jurassic (Oolite) and
+Cretaceous formations. From the disposition of the beds, which are broken,
+tilted, and distorted on a gigantic scale, the Alps appear to have been
+formed by a succession of disruptions and elevations extending over a very
+protracted period. Among the minerals that are obtained are iron and lead,
+gold, silver, copper, zinc, alum, and coal.
+
+Extensive views of alpine scenery are now commanded by means of special
+railways climbing to the summit of Mont Blanc, the Jungfrau, and other
+mountains. The Rigi railway was one of the earliest constructed of these.
+Here there are hotels at the top, 5905 feet above the level of the sea, and
+4468 above the Lake of Lucerne. A favourite view from hence is to watch the
+sun rise over the Bernese Alps. The Becca di Nona (8415 feet), south of
+Aosta, gives, according to some authorities, the finest panoramic view to
+be obtained from any summit of the Alps. The most accessible glaciers are
+those of Aletsch, Chamonix, and Zermatt.
+
+ALPUJARRAS ([.a]l-pö-_h_[.a]r'r[.a]s), a district of Spain, in Andalusia,
+between the Sierra Nevada and the Mediterranean, mountainous, but with rich
+and well-cultivated valleys, yielding grain, vines, olives, and other
+fruits. The inhabitants are Christianized descendants of the Moors.
+
+ALQUIFOU (al'ki-fö), a sort of lead ore used by potters as a green varnish
+or glaze.
+
+ALSACE ([.a]l-s[.a]s; Ger. _Elsass_), before the French revolution a
+province of France, on the Rhine, afterwards constituting the French
+departments of Haut- and Bas-Rhin, and subsequently to the Franco-Prussian
+war of 1870-1 annexed by Germany, and incorporated in the province of
+Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine). Alsace is generally a level country,
+though there are several ranges of low hills richly wooded. The principal
+river is the Ill. Corn, flax, tobacco, grapes, and other fruits are grown.
+Area, 3202 sq. miles. Pop. 1,218,803. Alsace was originally a part of
+ancient Gaul. It afterwards became a dukedom of the German Empire. In 1268,
+the line of its dukes becoming extinct, it was parcelled out to several
+members of the empire. By the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, a great part of
+it was ceded to France, which afterwards seized the rest of it, this
+seizure being recognized by the peace of Ryswick, in 1697.
+
+ALSACE-LORRAINE, the imperial territory, or Reichsland of
+Elsass-Lothringen, taken by Germany from France in 1871, and restored to
+France in 1919. The province is partly bounded by the Rhine; area, 5605 sq.
+miles. Pop. 1,874,014. Under the German system the province was divided
+into three districts, namely, Lorraine, Upper Alsace, and Lower Alsace, and
+governed by a Statthalter, having his seat at Strassburg. By the law of
+31st May, 1911, a constitution was granted to Alsace-Lorraine, by which it
+received three votes in the Federal Council. After the signing of the
+armistice, French troops occupied Alsace-Lorraine, and the French
+Government, by a decree of 26th Nov., 1918, took over the administration of
+the restored territories, and French officials were installed. The three
+chief towns are Strassburg, Mulhausen, and Metz. About 76 per cent of the
+inhabitants are Roman Catholics, 22 per cent Evangelical, and between 1 and
+2 per cent Jews. The chief crops are wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes,
+and hay; the potash deposits of Alsace are superior to and more extensive
+than those of Strassfurt, Germany. _See France; Moselle._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M.
+Harrison, _The Stolen Lands: a Study on Alsace-Lorraine_; G. W. Edwards,
+_Alsace-Lorraine_.
+
+ALSA'TIA, formerly a cant name for Whitefriars, a district in London
+between the Thames and Fleet Street, and adjoining the Temple, which,
+possessing certain privileges of sanctuary, became for that reason a nest
+of mischievous characters who were liable to be arrested. These privileges
+were abolished in 1697. The name Alsatia is a Latinized form of Alsace,
+which, being on the frontiers of France and Germany, was a harbour for
+necessitous or troublesome characters from both countries.
+
+AL'SEN, an island on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein; length, 20
+miles, breadth, from 5 to 7 miles, diversified with forests, lakes,
+well-cultivated fields, orchards, and towns. Pop. 25,000.
+
+AL SIRAT (s[=e]'rat), in Mahommedan belief the bridge extending over the
+abyss of hell, which must be crossed by everyone on his journey to heaven.
+It is finer than a hair, as sharp as the edge of a sword, and beset with
+thorns on either side. The righteous will pass over with ease and
+swiftness, but the wicked will fall into hell below.
+
+ALSTROEME'RIA, a genus of South American plants, ord. Amaryllidaceæ, some
+of them cultivated in European greenhouses and gardens. _A. Salsilla_ and
+_A. ov[=a]ta_ are cultivated for their edible tubers.
+
+ALTAIC LANGUAGES (also called URAL-ALTAIC and TURANIAN), a family of
+languages occupying a portion of Northern and Eastern Europe, and nearly
+the whole of Northern and Central Asia, together with some other regions,
+and divided into five branches, the Ugrian or Finno-Hungarian, Samoyedic,
+Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic.
+
+ALTAI MOUNTAINS ([.a]l't[=i]), an important Asiatic system on the borders
+of Siberia and Mongolia, partly in Russian and partly in Chinese territory,
+between lat. 46° and 53° N., long. 83° and 91° E., but having great eastern
+extensions. The Russian portion is comprised in the governments of Tomsk
+and Semipalatinsk, the Chinese in Dsungaria. The rivers of this region,
+which are large and numerous, are mostly headwaters of the Obi and Irtish.
+The mountain scenery is generally grand and interesting. The highest summit
+is Byeluka ('white mountain', from its snowy top), height 11,000 feet. The
+area covered by perpetual snow is very considerable, and glaciers occupy a
+large area. In the high lands the winter is very severe, but on the whole
+the climate is comparatively mild and is also healthy. The flora of the
+Altai Mountains greatly resembles that of the Alps, about five-sixths of
+the latter being found here. The mountain forests are composed of birch,
+alder, aspen, fir, larch, stone-pine, &c. The wild sheep has here its
+native home, and several kinds of deer are found. The Altai is exceedingly
+rich in minerals, including gold, silver, copper, and iron. The name Altai
+means 'gold mountain'. The inhabitants are chiefly Russians and Kalmuks.
+The chief town is Barnaul.
+
+ALTAMU'RA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, at the foot of the
+Apennines, walled, well built, and containing a magnificent cathedral. Pop.
+25,616.
+
+ALTAR ([a:]l'tar), any pile or structure raised above the ground for
+receiving sacrifices to some divinity. Amongst the Semites the altar was
+primarily the place where the victim was slaughtered, and amongst the
+Indo-Germanic peoples the place where it was burnt. The Greek and Roman
+altars were various in form, and often highly ornamental; in temples they
+were usually placed before the statue of the god. In the Jewish ceremonial
+the altar held an important place, and was associated with many of the most
+significant rites of religion. Two altars were erected in the tabernacle in
+the wilderness, and the same number in the temple. In most sections of the
+Christian Church the communion-table, or table on which the eucharist is
+placed, is called an altar. In the primitive Church it was a table of wood,
+but subsequently stone and metal were introduced with rich ornaments,
+sculpture, and painting. After the introduction of Gothic art the altar
+frequently became a lofty and most elaborate structure. Originally there
+was but one altar in a church, but later on there might be several in a
+large church, the chief or _high altar_ standing at the east end. Over an
+altar there is often a painting (an _altar-piece_), and behind it there may
+be an ornamental _altar-screen_ separating the choir from the east end of
+the church.
+
+ALTAZ'IMUTH (also called UNIVERSAL INSTRUMENT), an astronomical instrument
+similar to a theodolite, having a telescope so mounted that it can be
+turned round in a plane perpendicular to the horizon, while it and the
+graduated vertical circle connected can also be turned horizontally to any
+point of the compass above a graduated horizontal circle. The altazimuth
+can thus determine the altitude and azimuth of objects, hence the name.
+
+ALTDORF. See _Altorf_.
+
+AL'TENA, a town of Prussia, Westphalia, 40 miles N.N.E. of Cologne; it has
+wire-works, rolling-mills, chain-works, manufactories of needles, pins,
+thimbles, &c. Pop. 14,579.
+
+AL'TENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of Saxe-Altenburg, 23 miles south of
+Leipzig. It has some fine streets and many handsome buildings, including a
+splendid palace; it manufactures cigars, woollen yarn, gloves, hats,
+musical instruments, glass, brushes, &c. Pop. 39,976.
+
+ALTERATIVES ([a:]l'-), medicines, as mercury, iodine, &c., which,
+administered in small doses, gradually induce a change in the habit or
+constitution, and imperceptibly alter disordered secretions and actions,
+and restore healthy functions without producing any sensible evacuation by
+perspiration, purging, or vomiting.
+
+ALTER EGO (Lat., 'another I'), a second self, one who represents another in
+every respect. This term was formerly given, in the official style of the
+Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, to a substitute appointed by the king to
+manage the affairs of the kingdom, with full royal power.
+
+[Illustration: Alternate leaves]
+
+ALTER'NATE, in botany, placed on opposite sides of an axis at a different
+level, as leaves.--_Alternate generation_, the reproduction of young not
+resembling their parents, but their grandparents, continuously, as in the
+jelly-fishes, &c. See _Generations, Alternation of_.
+
+ALTERNATOR. See _Electricity_.
+
+ALTHÆ'A, a genus of plants. See _Hollyhock_ and _Marsh-mallow_.
+
+ALTHORN, one of the instruments of the sax-horn family, the tenor sax-horn.
+See _Sax-horn_.
+
+AL'TISCOPE, an instrument consisting of an arrangement of mirrors in a
+vertical framework, by means of which a person is enabled to overlook an
+object (a parapet, for instance) intervening between himself and any view
+that he desires to see, the picture of the latter being reflected from a
+higher to a lower mirror, where it is seen by the observer.
+
+AL'TITUDE, in mathematics, the perpendicular height of the vertex or apex
+of a plane figure or solid above the base. In astronomy it is the vertical
+height of any point or body above the horizon. It is measured or estimated
+by the angle subtended between the object and the plane of the horizon, and
+may be either _true_ or _apparent_. The _apparent_ altitude is that which
+is obtained immediately from observation; the _true_ altitude, that which
+results from correcting the apparent altitude, by making allowance for
+parallax, refraction, &c. Altitude is one of the main determining
+influences of local climate. Its increase has the same effect on
+temperature as an increase of distance north or south of the equator.
+
+ALTITUDE-AND-AZIMUTH INSTRUMENT. See _Altazimuth_.
+
+ALTO, in music, the highest singing voice of a male adult, the lowest of a
+boy or a woman, being in the latter the same as _contralto_. The alto, or
+_counter-tenor_, is not a natural voice, but a development of the
+_falsetto_. It is almost entirely confined to English singers, and the only
+music written for it is by English composers. It is especially used in
+cathedral compositions and glees.
+
+ALTOFTS, a town of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, on the south of the
+Calder, 3 miles north-east of Wakefield, with a fourteenth-century Gothic
+church, and extensive collieries adjoining. Pop. (1921), 5050 (urban
+district).
+
+AL'TON, a town of England, in Hampshire, 16 miles north-east of Winchester,
+famous for its ale. Pop. (1921), 5580.
+
+AL'TON, a town of the United States, in Illinois, on the Mississippi near
+the mouth of the Missouri, with a state penitentiary, several mills and
+manufactories, and in the neighbourhood limestone and coal. Pop. 23,783.
+
+AL'TONA, an important commercial city of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right
+bank of the Elbe, adjoining Hamburg, with which it virtually forms one
+city. It is a free port, and its commerce, both inland and foreign, is
+large, being quite identified with that of Hamburg. Pop. (1919), 168,729.
+
+ALTOO'NA, a town of the United States, in Pennsylvania, at the eastern base
+of the Alleghanies, 244 miles west of Philadelphia, with large
+machine-shops and locomotive factories. Pop. (1920), 60,331.
+
+AL'TORF, a small town of Switzerland, capital of the canton of Uri
+beautifully situated, near the Lake of Lucerne, amid gardens and orchards,
+and memorable as the place where, according to legend, Tell shot the apple
+from his son's head. A colossal statue of Tell now stands here. The town
+possesses a beautiful church containing a remarkable organ and a picture by
+Van Dyck. Pop. 3837.
+
+[Illustration: Alto-rilievo.--Soldiers of the Prætorian Guard, the personal
+body-guard of the Emperor Augustus (in the Louvre, Paris).]
+
+ALTO-RILIEVO ([.a]l't[=o]-r[=e]-l[=e]-[=a]"vo), high relief, a term applied
+in regard to sculptured figures to express that they stand out boldly from
+the background, projecting more than half their thickness, without being
+entirely detached. In mezzo-rilievo, or middle relief, the projection is
+one-half, and in basso-rilievo, or bas-relief, less than one-half.
+Alto-rilievo is further distinguished from mezzo-rilievo by some portion of
+the figures standing usually quite free from the surface on which they are
+carved, while in the latter the figures, though rounded, are not detached
+in any part.
+
+ALTÖTTING ([.a]lt-eut'ing), a famous place of pilgrimage, in Bavaria, 52
+miles E.N.E. of Munich, near the Inn, with an ancient image of the Madonna
+(the Black Virgin) in a chapel dating from 696, and containing a rich
+treasure in gold and precious stones; and another chapel in which Tilly was
+buried. Pop. 5408.
+
+ALTRANSTÄDT ([.a]lt'-r[.a]n-stet), a village of Saxony, where a treaty was
+concluded between Charles XII, King of Sweden, and Augustus, Elector of
+Saxony and King of Poland, 24th Sept., 1706, by which the latter resigned
+the crown of Poland.
+
+ALT'RINGHAM, or ALTRINCHAM, a town of England, in Cheshire, 8 miles
+south-west of Manchester, resorted to by invalids; large quantities of
+fruit and vegetables are raised; and there are several industrial works.
+Pop. 20,461. Also a parliamentary division of the county.
+
+AL'TRUISM, a term first employed by the French philosopher Comte, to
+signify devotion to others or to humanity: the opposite of _selfishness_ or
+_egoism_. It was adopted by the English positivists and applied to
+sociological problems of the physical theory of organic evolution. Herbert
+Spencer gives considerable space to the discussion of altruism and egoism
+in his _Data of Ethics_.
+
+ALTSTÄTTEN ([.a]lt'stet-n), a town of Switzerland, canton St. Gall, in the
+valley of the Rhine, 10 miles south of the Lake of Constance, with
+manufactures of cotton and woollen goods. Pop. 8743.
+
+ALTWASSER ([.a]lt'v[.a]s-[.e]r), a town of Prussia, in Silesia, 35 miles
+south-west of Breslau; here are made porcelain, machinery, iron, yarn,
+mirrors, &c. Pop. 17,321.
+
+AL'UM, a well-known crystalline, astringent substance with a sweetish
+taste, a double sulphate of potassium and aluminium with water of
+crystallization; formula, K_2SO_4.Al_2(SO_4)_3.24 H_2O. It crystallizes in
+colourless regular octahedra. Its solution reddens vegetable blues. When
+heated, its water of crystallization is driven off, and it becomes light
+and spongy with slightly corrosive properties, and is used as a caustic
+under the name of _burnt alum_. Alum is prepared in Great Britain at Whitby
+from alum-slate--where it forms the cliffs for miles--and was once
+manufactured near Glasgow from bituminous alum-shale and slate-clay,
+obtained from old coal-pits. It is also prepared near Rome from alum-stone.
+Common alum is strictly _potash_ alum; other two varieties are _soda_ alum
+and _ammonia_ alum, both similar in properties. _Iron alum_ (pale mauve)
+and _chrome alum_ (deep purple) are compounds containing iron and chromium
+in place of aluminium. Alum is employed to harden tallow, to remove grease
+from printers' cushions and blocks in calico manufactories, and in dyeing
+as a mordant. It is also largely used in the composition of crayons, in
+tannery, and in medicine (as an astringent and styptic). Wood and paper are
+dipped in a solution of alum to render them less combustible.
+
+ALUMBAGH (_a_-l_a_m-bäg'), a palace and connected buildings in Hindustan,
+about 4 miles south of Lucknow. On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny it was
+occupied by the revolted sepoys, and converted into a fort. On the 23rd
+Sept., 1857, it was captured by the British, and during the following
+winter a British garrison, under Sir James Outram, held out there, though
+repeatedly attacked by overwhelming numbers of the rebels, till in March,
+1858, it was finally relieved. Sir Henry Havelock was buried within the
+grounds.
+
+ALU'MINA (Al_2O_3), the single oxide of the metal aluminium. As found
+native it is called corundum, when crystallized ruby or sapphire, when
+amorphous emery. It is next to the diamond in hardness. In combination with
+silica it is one of the most widely distributed of substances, as it enters
+in large quantity into the composition of granite, traps, slates, schists,
+clays, loams, and other rocks. The porcelain clays and kaolins contain
+about half their weight of this earth, to which they owe their most
+valuable properties. It forms compounds with certain colouring matters,
+which causes it to be employed in the preparation of the colours called
+_lakes_ in dyeing and calico-printing. It combines with the acids and forms
+numerous salts, the most important of which are the sulphate (see _Alum_)
+and acetate, the latter of extensive use as a mordant.
+
+ALUMIN'IUM (symbol Al, atomic weight 27.1), a metal discovered in 1827, but
+nowhere found native, although its oxide, alumina (which see), is
+abundantly distributed. The minerals _bauxite_ and _cryolite_ are sources
+of aluminium, but the chief source is the pure oxide, from which the metal
+is obtained by means of a strong electric current. It is a shining white
+metal, of a colour between that of silver and platinum, very light
+(specific gravity, 2.56 cast, 2.67 hammered), not liable to tarnish nor
+undergo oxidation in the air, very ductile and malleable, and remarkably
+sonorous. It forms several useful alloys with iron and copper; one of the
+latter (_aluminium gold_) much resembles gold, and is made into cheap
+trinkets. Another, known as _aluminium bronze_, possesses great hardness
+and tenacity. Spoons, tea and coffee pots, dish-covers, musical and
+mathematical instruments, trinkets, &c., are made of aluminium.
+
+ALUM-ROOT, the name given in America to two plants from the remarkable
+astringency of their roots, which are used for medical purposes:
+_Ger[=a]nium macul[=a]tum_ and _Heuch[)e]ra americ[=a]na_ (nat. ord.
+Saxifragaceæ).
+
+ALUM-SLATE, or ALUM-SCHIST, a slaty rock from which much alum is prepared;
+colour greyish, bluish, or iron-black; often possessed of a glossy or
+shining lustre; chiefly composed of clay (silicate of alumina), with
+variable proportions of sulphide of iron (iron-pyrites), lime, bitumen, and
+magnesia.
+
+ALUM-STONE. See _Alunite_.
+
+ALUNITE, a mineral sulphate of aluminium and potassium, greyish or
+yellowish white, from which alum is prepared in Sicily by roasting and
+lixiviation. It is regarded as a possible source of potassium for
+agriculture and also of aluminium. A considerable vein occurs in Utah.
+
+ALUN'NO, Niccolo (real name NICCOLO DE LIBERATORE), an Italian painter of
+the fifteenth century, the founder of the Umbrian School, born in Foligno
+about 1430, died 1502. Vasari, interpreting wrongly the passage "Nicholaus
+alumnus Fulginiæ", gave him the name of Alunno.
+
+AL'VA, a town of Scotland, in Clackmannanshire, 2½ miles north of Alloa,
+near the River Devon, at the foot of the Ochils. It manufactures woollen
+shawls, tweeds, yarn, &c. Pop. (1921), 4107.
+
+AL'VA, or AL'BA, Ferdinand Alvarez, Duke of, Spanish statesman and general
+under Charles V and Philip II, was born in 1508; early embraced a military
+career, and fought in the wars of Charles V in France, Italy, Africa,
+Hungary, and Germany. He is more especially remembered for his bloody and
+tyrannical government of the Netherlands (1567-73), which had revolted, and
+which he was commissioned by Philip II to reduce to entire subjection to
+Spain. Among his first proceedings was to establish the 'Council of Blood',
+a tribunal which condemned, without discrimination, all whose opinions were
+suspected, and whose riches were coveted. The present and absent, the
+living and the dead, were subjected to trial and their property
+confiscated. Many merchants and mechanics emigrated to England; people by
+hundreds of thousands abandoned their country. The Counts of Egmont and
+Horn, and other men of rank, were executed, and William and Louis of Orange
+had to save themselves in Germany. The most oppressive taxes were imposed,
+and trade was brought completely to a standstill. As a reward for his
+services to the faith the Pope presented him with a consecrated hat and
+sword, a distinction previously conferred only on princes. Resistance was
+only quelled for a time, and soon the provinces of Holland and Zealand
+revolted against his tyranny. A fleet which was fitted out at his command
+was annihilated, and he was everywhere met with insuperable courage.
+Hopeless of finally subduing the country he asked to be recalled, and
+accordingly, in Dec., 1573, Alva left the country, in which, as he himself
+boasted, he had executed 18,000 men. He was received with distinction in
+Madrid, but did not long enjoy his former credit. He had the honour,
+however, before his death (which took place in 1582) of reducing all
+Portugal to subjection to his sovereign. It is said of him that during
+sixty years of warfare he never lost a battle and was never taken by
+surprise.
+
+ALVARADO ([.a]l-v[.a]-rä'd[=o]), Pedro de, one of the Spanish
+'conquistadores', was born towards the end of the fifteenth century, and
+died in 1541. Having crossed the Atlantic, he was associated (1519) with
+Cortez in his expedition to conquer Mexico; and was entrusted with
+important operations. In July, 1520, during the disastrous retreat from the
+capital after the death of Montezuma, the perilous command of the
+rear-guard was assigned to Alvarado. On his return to Spain he was received
+with honour by Charles V, who made him governor of Guatemala, which he had
+himself conquered. To this was subsequently added Honduras. He continued to
+add to the Spanish dominions in America till his death.
+
+ALVAREZ ([.a]l-v[.a]-reth'), Don José, a Spanish sculptor, born 1768, died
+1827. His works are characterized by truth to nature, dignity, and feeling,
+one of the chief representing a scene in the defence of Saragossa. The
+Museo del Prado, in Madrid, contains some of his finest work.
+
+ALVE'OLUS, one of the sockets in which the teeth of mammals are fixed.
+Hence _alveolar arches_, the parts of the jaws containing these sockets.
+
+ALVERSTOKE. See _Gosport_.
+
+ALVERSTONE, Richard Everard Webster, first Viscount, eminent English
+lawyer, born in 1842, died in 1915. Educated at King's College School, the
+Charterhouse, and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar in
+1868, and made Q.C. in 1878. He was Member of Parliament for Launceston for
+a short time in 1885, and from that year to 1900 represented the Isle of
+Wight. He was Attorney-General from 1885-6, 1886-92, and 1895-1900, being
+then made Lord Chief Justice and elevated to the peerage: he had been
+created a baronet in 1899. He represented Britain in the arbitration with
+the United States regarding the Behring Sea (1893), in the affair of the
+Venezuelan and Guiana boundary (1898-9), and was one of three British
+commissioners who, with three from the United States, settled the Canada
+and Alaska boundary in 1903. Upon retiring in 1913 he was created viscount.
+His book _Recollections of Bar and Bench_ was published in 1914.
+
+ALWAR (_a_l-w_a_r'), a State of north-western Hindustan, in Rajputana;
+area, 3141 sq. miles; surface generally elevated and rugged, and much of it
+of an arid description, though water is generally found on the plains by
+digging a little beneath the surface, and the means of irrigation being
+thus provided, the soil, though sandy, is highly productive. This
+semi-independent State has as its ruler a rajah with a revenue of £232,000;
+military force, about 5000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. Pop.
+791,688.--_Alwar_, the capital, is situated at the base of a rocky hill
+crowned by a fort, 80 miles S.S.W. of Delhi. It is surrounded by a moat and
+rampart, and is poorly built, but has fine surroundings; it contains the
+rajah's palace and a few other good buildings. Pop. 41,305.
+
+ALYS'SUM (_A. saxatile_, L.), a native of Crete, a genus of cruciferous
+plants, several species of which are cultivated on account of their white
+or yellow coloured flowers; madwort.
+
+ALYTH ([=a]'lith), a town of Scotland, Perthshire, near the eastern
+boundary, with linen and jute manufactures. Pop. (1921), 1710.
+
+AMAD'AVAT (_Estrilda amand[=a]va_), a small Indian singing bird allied to
+the finches and buntings; the female is olive-brown, and the male, in
+summer, largely crimson.
+
+AMADE'US, the name of several counts of Savoy. The first was the son of
+Humbert I, and succeeded him in 1048, dying about 1078; others who have
+occupied an important place in history are the following:--AMADEUS V, 'the
+Great', succeeded in 1285; gained great honour in defending Rhodes against
+the Turks; increased his possessions by marriage and war; was made a prince
+of the empire; died in 1323.--AMADEUS VIII succeeded his father, Amadeus
+VII, in 1391, and had his title raised to that of duke by the Emperor
+Sigismund. He was chosen regent of Piedmont; but after this elevation
+retired from his throne and family into a religious house. He now aspired
+to the papacy, and was chosen by the Council of Basel (1439), becoming
+Pope, or rather anti-Pope, under the name of Felix V, though he had never
+taken holy orders. He was recognized as Pope by only a few princes, and
+resigned in 1449, being the last of the anti-Popes. He died in 1451.
+
+AMADE'US, Duke of Aosta, for a short time King of Spain, second son of
+Victor Emanuel of Italy, and brother of Humbert I, King of Italy. He was
+born in 1845, and, thanks to the influence of Marshals Prim and Serrano,
+was chosen by the Cortes King of Spain in 1870, Queen Isabella having had
+to leave the country in 1868. He made his entrance into Madrid as king on
+2nd Jan., 1871, and took the oath to the constitution. His position was far
+from comfortable, however, and, having little hope of becoming acceptable
+to all parties, he abdicated in 1873 (11th Feb.). He died in 1890.
+
+AMADE'US, Lake, a large salt lake or salt swamp in South Australia, and
+nearly in the centre of Australia. It was discovered by Giles in 1872, and
+is seldom visited, being in a dreary, arid region.
+
+AM'ADIS, a name belonging to a number of heroes in the romances of
+chivalry, Amadis de Gaul being the greatest among them, and represented as
+the progenitor of the whole. The Spanish series of Amadis romances is the
+oldest. It is comprised in fourteen books, of which the first four narrate
+the adventures of Amadis de Gaul, this portion of the series having
+originated about the end of the thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth
+century, and the subsequent books being added by various hands. An abridged
+English translation of _Amadis of Gaul_ was published by Southey in 1803.
+
+AMADOU (am'a-dö), a name of several fungi, genus Polyp[)o]rus, of a
+leathery appearance, growing on trees. See _German Tinder_.
+
+AMAGER ([.a]m'a-ger), a small Danish island in the Sound, opposite
+Copenhagen, part of which is situated on it. Rural pop. 25,000.
+
+AMAKO'SA, one of the Kaffir tribes of S. Africa.
+
+AMALASUN'THA, daughter of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, and after his
+death regent of Italy for her son Athalarich. Athalarich died in 534, after
+which Amalasuntha married her cousin Theodahad, but retained the power in
+her own hands. Mainly on this account she was imprisoned and strangled in
+her bath by order of her second husband, A.D. 535.
+
+AMAL'EKITES, an ancient tribe occupying the peninsula between Egypt and
+Palestine, named after a grandson of Esau. They were denounced by Moses for
+their hostility to the Israelites during their journey through the
+wilderness, and they seem to have been all but exterminated by Saul and
+David. The Kenites seem to have been a branch of the Amalekites.
+
+AMAL'FI, a seaport in Southern Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno, 23 miles from
+Naples, the seat of an archbishop. In the early part of the Middle Ages it
+was a place of great commercial importance, and it long enjoyed a
+republican constitution of its own. Quarrels with its neighbours,
+encroachments of the sea, and other causes led to its downfall, but it is
+still much visited by tourists. The road from Salerno to Amalfi is a
+magnificent carriage-way, partly hewn in the cliffs, and affords charming
+views. Amalfi is surrounded by rocky heights, and its harbour was choked up
+by a landslip in 1900. Here arose the _Amalfian Code_ of maritime law,
+composed in 1010 and containing 66 articles, which once had great influence
+in the maritime affairs of the Mediterranean trading peoples. The MS. was
+discovered by the Prince of Andorra, in 1844, in the imperial library at
+Vienna. Pop. 7472.
+
+AMAL'GAM, a name applied to the alloys of mercury with the other metals.
+One of them is the amalgam of mercury with tin, which is used to silver
+looking-glasses. Mercury unites very readily with gold and silver at
+ordinary temperatures, and advantage is taken of this to separate them from
+their ores, the process being called _amalgamation_. The mercury dissolves
+and combines with the precious metal and separates it from the waste
+matters, and is itself easily driven off by heat. An amalgam made of
+cadmium and copper is frequently used in dentistry, and an amalgam of zinc
+and tin is used for the rubbers of frictional electric machines.
+
+[Illustration: Amanita.--Two forms of fly-agaric]
+
+AMANI'TA, a genus of fungi, one species of which, _A. musc[=a]ria_, or
+fly-agaric, is extremely poisonous.
+
+AMA'NUS, a branch of the Taurus Mountains in Asia Minor.
+
+AMAPALA ([.a]-m[.a]-pä'l[.a]), a seaport of Central America, State of
+Honduras, on a small island.
+
+AMARANTHA'CEÆ, the amaranths, a nat. ord. of apetalous plants, chiefly
+found in tropical countries, where they are often troublesome weeds. They
+are remarkable for the white or sometimes reddish scales of which their
+flowers are composed. Amaranthus, the typical genus, comprises _A.
+caud[=a]tus_, or love-lies-bleeding, a common plant in gardens, with
+pendulous racemes of crimson flowers; and _A. hypochondri[)a]cus_, or
+prince's feather. The blossoms keep their bloom after being plucked and
+dried (hence the name: Gr. _a_, not, and _marain[=o]_, to wither).
+
+AMARAPURA (_a_-m_a_-r_a_-pö'r_a_), a deserted city, once the capital of the
+Burmese Empire, on the left bank of the Irawadi, quite close to Mandalay.
+In 1810, when the city had about 175,000 inhabitants, it was completely
+destroyed by fire; in 1839 it was visited by a destructive earthquake. In
+1857 the seat of government was removed to Mandalay. Pop. 6500.
+
+AMARYLLIDA'CEÆ, an order of monocotyledonous plants, generally bulbous,
+occasionally with a tall, cylindrical, woody stem (as in Agave); with a
+highly-coloured flower, six stamens, and an inferior three-celled ovary;
+natives of Europe and most of the warmer parts of the world. The order
+includes the snowdrop, the snow-flake, the daffodil, the belladonna-lily
+(belonging to the typical genus Amaryllis), the so-called Guernsey-lily
+(probably a native of Japan), the Brunsvigias, the blood-flowers
+(Hæmanthus) of the Cape of Good Hope, different species of Narcissus, Agave
+(American aloe), &c. Many are highly prized in gardens and hot-houses; the
+bulbs of some are extremely poisonous.
+
+AMASIA ([.a]-m[.a]-s[=e]'[.a]), a town in the north of Asia Minor, on the
+Irmak, 60 miles from the Black Sea, surmounted by a rocky height in which
+is a ruined fortress; has numerous mosques, richly-endowed Mahommedan
+schools, and a trade in wine, silk, &c. Amasia was a residence of the
+ancient kings of Pontus. A few miles from Amasia, on the road leading to
+Zilleh, is the famous battle-field where Cæsar defeated Pharnaces, King of
+Pontus, and whence he sent his famous message to Rome: _Veni, vidi, vici_.
+Pop. 30,000.
+
+AMA'SIS, King of Egypt from 569 to 526 B.C., obtained the throne by
+rebelling against his predecessor and benefactor Apries, and is chiefly
+known from his friendship for the Greeks, and his wise government of the
+kingdom, which, under him, was in the most prosperous condition. He was
+succeeded by his son Psammetik.
+
+AMATI ([.a]-mä't[=e]), a family, almost a dynasty, of Cremona who
+manufactured violins in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Andrea
+(about 1540-1600) was the founder of the business, which was carried on by
+his sons Geronimo and Antonio, and by Niccolo the son of Geronimo. The
+first instrument signed Amati bears the date 1546. Most of the violins made
+by them are of comparatively small size and flat model, and the tone
+produced by the fourth or G string is somewhat thin and sharp. Many of
+Niccolo Amati's violins are, however, of a larger size and have all the
+fulness and intensity of tone characteristic of those manufactured by
+Stradivario and Guarnerio.
+
+AMATIT'LAN, a town in Central America, State of Guatemala, about 15 miles
+south of the city of Guatemala, a busy modern town, the inhabitants of
+which are actively engaged in the cochineal trade. There is a small lake of
+the same name close to the town. Pop. 12,000.
+
+AMAURO'SIS (Gr. _amauros_, dark), a species of blindness, formerly called
+_gutta serena_ (the 'drop serene', as Milton, whose blindness was of this
+sort, called it), caused by disease of the nerves of vision. The most
+frequent causes are a long-continued direction of the eye on minute
+objects, long exposure to a bright light, to the fire of a forge, to snow,
+or irritating gases, overfulness of blood, disease of the brain, &c. If
+taken in time it may be cured or mitigated; but, unless caused by loss of
+blood, by lead-poisoning, or debility, it is usually incurable.
+
+AMAXICHI ([.a]-m[.a]ks'[=e]-h[=e]), the chief town and seaport of Santa
+Maura (Leukadia), one of the Ionian Isles, the seat of a Greek bishop;
+manufactures cotton and leather. Pop. 5500.
+
+AM'AZON, or AM'AZONS, a river of South America, the largest in the world,
+formed by a great number of sources which rise in the Andes, the two head
+branches being the Tunguragua or Marañon and the Ucayali, both rising in
+Peru, the former from Lake Lauricocha, in lat. 10° 29' S., the latter
+formed by the Apurimac and Urubamba, the headwaters of which are between
+lat. 14° and 16° S.; general course north of east; length, including
+windings, between 3000 and 4000 miles; area of drainage basin, 2,500,000
+sq. miles. It enters the Atlantic under the equator by a mouth 200 miles
+wide, divided into two principal and several smaller arms by the large
+island Marajo and a number of smaller islands. In its upper course
+navigation is interrupted by rapids, but from its mouth upwards for a
+distance of 3300 miles (mostly in Brazil) there is no obstruction. It
+receives the waters of about 200 tributaries, 100 of which are navigable
+and seventeen of these 1000 to 2300 miles in length; northern tributaries:
+Santiago, Morona, Pastaça, Tigre, Napo, Putumayo, Japura, Rio Negro (the
+Cassiquiare connects this stream with the Orinoco), &c.; southern:
+Huallaga, Ucayali, Javari, Jutay, Jurua, Coary, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos,
+Xingu, &c. At Tabatinga, where it enters Brazilian territory, the breadth
+is 1½ miles; below the mouth of the Madeira it is 3 miles wide, and where
+there are islands often as much as 7; from the sea to the Rio Negro, 750
+miles in a straight line, the depth is nowhere less than 30 fathoms; up to
+the junction of the Ucayale there is depth sufficient for the largest
+vessels. The Amazonian water system affords some 50,000 miles of river
+suitable for navigation. The rapidity of the river is considerable,
+especially during the rainy season (Jan. to June), when it is subject to
+floods; but there is no great fall in its course. The tides reach up as far
+as 400 miles from its mouth. The singular phenomenon of the _bore_, or as
+it is called on the Amazon the _pororoca_, occurs at the mouth of the river
+at spring-tides on a grand scale. The river swarms with alligators,
+turtles, and a great variety of fish. The country through which it flows is
+extremely fertile, and is mostly covered with immense forests; it must at
+some future time support a numerous population, and be the theatre of a
+busy commerce. Steamers and other craft ply on the river, the chief centre
+of trade being Para, at its mouth. The Amazon was discovered by Vicente
+Yañez Pinzon in 1500, but the stream was not navigated by any European till
+1541, when Francis Orellana descended it. Orellana stated that he found on
+its banks a nation of armed women, and this circumstance gave the name to
+the river.
+
+AMAZ'ONAS, the largest state of Brazil, traversed by the Amazon and its
+tributaries; area, 731,000 sq. miles. Pop. 459,309.
+
+AM'AZONS, according to an ancient Greek tradition, the name of a community
+of women, who permitted no men to reside among them, fought under the
+conduct of a queen, and long constituted a formidable State. They were said
+to burn off the right breast that it might not impede them in the use of
+the bow--a legend that arose from the Greeks supposing the name was from
+_a_, not, _mazos_, breast. It is probably from _a_, together, and _mazos_,
+breast, the name meaning therefore sisters. Several nations of Amazons are
+mentioned, the most famous being those who dwelt in Pontus, who built
+Ephesus and other cities. Their queen, Hippolyta, was vanquished by
+Hercules, who took from her the girdle of Mars. They attacked Attica in the
+time of Theseus. They came to the assistance of Troy under their queen,
+Penthesil[=e]a, who was slain by Achilles.
+
+AMAZU'LU, a branch of the Zulu Kaffir race. See _Zulus_.
+
+AMBA'LA, or UMBALL'A, a town of India, in the Punjab, in an open plain 3
+miles from the Ghaggar, consisting of an old and a new portion, with a
+flourishing trade in grain and other commodities. The military cantonment
+is several miles distant. Total pop. 80,131.
+
+AMBALE'MA, a town of S. America, Colombia, on the Magdalena; the centre of
+an important tobacco district. Pop. 6285.
+
+AM'BAREE, a fibre similar to jute largely used in India, obtained from
+_Hibiscus cannab[=i]nus_.
+
+AMBARVALIA, an ancient Roman festival held annually in May, and celebrated
+by the Arval Brothers (Fratres Arvales). Its object was to preserve the
+growing crops from harm of any kind.
+
+AMBAS'SADOR, a minister of the highest rank, employed by one prince or
+State at the Court of another to manage the public concerns, or support the
+interests of his own prince or State, and representing the power and
+dignity of his sovereign or State. Ambassadors are _ordinary_ when they
+reside permanently at a foreign Court, or _extraordinary_ when they are
+sent on a special occasion. When _ambassadors extraordinary_ have full
+powers, as of concluding peace, making treaties, and the like, they are
+called _plenipotentiaries_. Ambassadors are often called simply
+_ministers_. _Envoys_ are ministers employed on special occasions, and are
+of less dignity than ambassadors. The term _ambassador_, however, is also
+used in a more general sense for any diplomatic agent or minister. An
+ambassador and his suite are not amenable to the laws of the country in
+which they are residing. See _Diplomacy_.
+
+AM'BATCH (_Hermini[=e]ra elaphrox[)y]lon_), a thorny leguminous shrub with
+yellow flowers growing in the shallows of the Upper Nile and other rivers
+of tropical Africa, 15 to 20 feet high. Its wood is extremely light and
+spongy, and hence is made into floats or rafts. A raft capable of bearing
+eight persons can easily be carried by one.
+
+AMBA'TO, a town of Ecuador, on the side of Chimborazo, 70 miles south of
+Quito. Pop. 12,000.
+
+AM'BER, a semi-mineral substance of resinous composition, a sort of fossil
+resin, the produce of extinct Coniferæ, used for the manufacture of
+ornamental objects. It is usually of yellow or reddish-brown colour;
+brittle; yields easily to the knife; is translucent, and possessed of a
+resinous lustre. Specific gravity, 1.065. It burns with a yellow flame,
+emitting a pungent aromatic smoke, and leaving a light carbonaceous
+residue, which is employed as the basis of the finest black varnishes. By
+friction it becomes strongly electric. It is found in masses from the size
+of coarse sand to that of a man's head, and occurs in beds of bituminous
+wood situated upon the shores of the Baltic and Adriatic Seas; also in
+Poland, France, Italy, and Denmark. It is often washed up on the Prussian
+shores of the Baltic, and is also obtained by fishing for it with nets.
+Sometimes it is found on the east coast of Britain, in gravel pits round
+London, also in the United States.
+
+AM'BERG, a town of South Germany, in Bavaria, on the Vils, well built, with
+a Gothic church of the fifteenth century, royal palace, town house, &c.; it
+manufactures iron-wares, stone-ware, tobacco, beer, vinegar, and arms. Pop.
+25,242.
+
+AM'BERGRIS, a substance derived from the intestines of the sperm-whale, and
+found floating or on the shore; yellowish or blackish white; very light;
+melts at 140°, and is entirely dissipated on red-hot coals; is soluble in
+ether, volatile oils, and partially in alcohol, and is chiefly composed of
+a peculiar fatty, substance. Its odour is very agreeable, and hence it is
+used as a perfume.
+
+AMBLE, a town (urban district) of England, Northumberland, near the mouth
+of the River Coquet, with a harbour at which coal is exported, fishing also
+being carried on. Pop. 4851.
+
+AMBLESIDE, an old market-town of England, Westmorland, near the head of
+Windermere, a great tourist centre. Pop. (1921), 2878.
+
+AMBLETEUSE ([.a][n.]-bl-t_eu_z), a small seaport of France, 6 miles from
+Boulogne. After the capture of Boulogne in 1544 the English began to
+construct a military harbour here under the name of New Haven, but had to
+abandon the enterprise in 1554. Here James II landed on Christmas Day,
+1688, after his flight from England; and from its harbour Napoleon I
+prepared to dispatch a flotilla of flat-bottomed boats for the invasion of
+Britain.
+
+AMBLYOP'SIS, a genus of blind fishes, containing only one species, _A.
+spelæus_, found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.
+
+AM'BLYOPY, dullness or obscurity of eyesight without any apparent defect in
+the organs; the first stage of amaurosis.
+
+AM'BO, or AM'BON, in early Christian churches a kind of raised desk or
+pulpit, sometimes richly ornamented, from which certain parts of the
+service were read, or discourses delivered, there being sometimes two in
+one church. Some of the most ancient of these pulpits (fourth century) are
+at Salonica and at Ravenna (fifth and sixth centuries). The ambo
+constructed by Justinian in the Church of St. Sophia was destroyed by an
+earthquake.
+
+AMBOINA. See _Amboyna_.
+
+AMBOISE ([.a][n.]-bwäz), a town of France, department Indre-et-Loire, 12
+miles east of Tours, on the Loire, with an antique castle, the residence of
+several French kings, and manufactures of files and rasps. Near the Château
+d'Amboise is that of Cloux, which was given by Francis I to Leonardo da
+Vinci, and where the artist died in 1519. Pop. 4660.
+
+AMBOY'NA, AMBOINA, or APON, one of the Molucca Islands in the Indian
+Archipelago, close to the large island of Ceram; area, about 360 sq. miles.
+Here is the seat of government of the Dutch residency or province of
+Amboyna, which includes also Ceram, Buru, &c. Its surface is generally
+hilly or mountainous, its general aspect beautiful, and its climate on the
+whole salubrious, but frequently visited by earthquakes. It affords a
+variety of useful trees, including the coco-nut and sago palms. Cloves and
+nutmegs are the staple productions. The soil in the valleys and along the
+shores is very fertile, but a large portion remains uncultivated. The
+natives are mostly of Malayan race. The capital, also called _Amboyna_, is
+situated on the Bay of Amboyna, and is well built and defended by a
+citadel. The streets are planted on each side with rows of fruit-trees. It
+is a free port. Pop. 10,000. In 1607 Amboyna and the other Moluccas were
+taken by the Dutch from the Portuguese, and it was for some years the seat
+of government of the Dutch East Indies. Trade with the Moluccas was secured
+to the British by treaty in 1619, but the British establishment was
+destroyed and several persons massacred in 1623, an outrage for which no
+satisfaction was obtained till Cromwell obtained it in 1654. Amboyna was
+taken by the British in 1796 and 1810, but each time restored to the Dutch.
+Pop. about 40,000. The Dutch residency of Amboyna, including the Banda
+group, Ceram, Buru, and other islands, has an area of 19,870 sq. miles and
+a population of about 300,000.
+
+AMBOYNA WOOD, a beautiful curled orange or brownish coloured wood brought
+from the Moluccas, yielded by _Pterospermum indicum_.
+
+AMBRA'CIA. See _Arta_.
+
+AMBRINE, a preparation of paraffin, resin, and wax, used as a remedy in the
+treatment of burns and scalds and in rheumatic disorders. It was discovered
+by Barthe de Sandford, a French doctor, in 1904.
+
+AM'BROSE, Saint, a celebrated father of the Church; born in A.D. 333 or
+334, probably at Trèves, where his father was prefect; died in 397. He was
+educated at Rome, studied law, practised as a pleader at Milan, and in 369
+was appointed governor of Liguria and Æmilia (North Italy). His kindness
+and wisdom gained him the esteem and love of the people, and in 374 he was
+unanimously called to the bishopric of Milan, though not yet baptized. For
+a time he refused to accept this dignity, but he had to give way, and at
+once ranged himself against the Arians. In his struggles against the Arian
+heresy he was opposed by Justina, mother of Valentinian II, and for a time
+by the young emperor himself, together with the courtiers and the Gothic
+troops. Backed by the people of Milan, however, he felt strong enough to
+deny the Arians the use of a single church in the city, although Justina,
+in her son's name, demanded that two should be given up. He had also to
+carry on a war with paganism, Symmachus, the prefect of the city, an
+eloquent orator, having endeavoured to restore the worship of heathen
+deities. In 390, on account of the ruthless massacres at Thessalonica
+ordered by the emperor Theodosius, he refused him entrance into the church
+of Milan for eight months. The later years of his life were devoted to the
+more immediate care of his see. His writings, which are numerous, show that
+his theological knowledge extended little beyond an acquaintance with the
+works of the Greek fathers. He wrote Latin hymns, but the _Te Deum
+Laudamus_, which has been ascribed to him, was written a century later. He
+introduced the _Ambrosian Chant_, a mode of singing more monotonous than
+the Gregorian, which superseded it. He also compiled a form of ritual known
+by his name. The best edition of his works is that published in Paris,
+1686-90, in 2 vols. fol., and reissued at Lyons in 1853.
+
+AMBRO'SIA, in Greek mythology the food of the gods, as nectar was their
+drink.
+
+AMBROSIAN CHANT. See _Ambrose_.
+
+AMBROSIAN LIBRARY, a public library in Milan founded by the cardinal
+archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a relation of St. Charles Borromeo, who sent
+scholars, among them Antonio Olgiati, all over Europe to acquire books. The
+library was opened in 1609, now containing 230,000 printed books and many
+MSS., among the latter being the famous collection of Pinelli. It was named
+in honour of St. Ambrose, the patron saint of Milan.
+
+AM'BRY, a niche or recess in the wall of ancient churches near the altar,
+fitted with a door and used for keeping the sacred utensils, &c.
+
+AMBULA'CRAL SYSTEM, the locomotive apparatus of the Echinodermata
+(sea-urchins, star-fishes, &c.), the most important feature of which is the
+protrusible tube-feet that the animal can at will dilate with water and
+thus move forward.
+
+AM'BULANCE (FIELD), a military medical unit attached to an army in the
+field for the purpose of providing medical and surgical first-aid to sick
+and wounded immediately behind the fighting-line. The term field-ambulance
+was adopted in the British service in 1905-6. The chief and most important
+duty of a field-ambulance is to relieve fighting troops of their sick and
+wounded and transfer them to the rear to the collecting-hospitals, known as
+Casualty Clearing Stations, situated at the head of the line of
+communications to the army's base. Three field-ambulances are attached to
+each division in the field, one to each brigade, and their officers and men
+are divided into bearer and nursing sections and equipped with horse or
+mule and motor transport for wounded and sick. In the East sick and wounded
+are often carried in litters on camel-back, two of the cacolets being
+balanced against each other. A medical ambulance is theoretically able to
+undertake any hospital work, but in practice it confines itself when in
+action with its division to clearing the front line, and when at rest to
+treating the minor maladies such as lice, scabies, and slight illnesses
+which do not require much time or equipment. The medical and surgical
+outfit of an ambulance is carried in panniers and is usually in excess of
+its requirements. The word ambulance is often used to designate the motors
+or other vehicles employed by military or civil authorities in carrying the
+sick and wounded.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. M. Bird, _The Errand of Mercy: a
+History of Ambulance Work upon the Battle-field_; G. H. Painton, _The Field
+Ambulance Guide_.
+
+AMELAN'CHIER (-k[=e]-[.e]r), a genus of small trees natives of Europe and
+N. America, allied to the medlar. _A. vulg[=a]ris_, long cultivated in
+English gardens, has showy white flowers; _A. Botry[=a]pium_ (grape-pear)
+and _A. ov[=a]lis_, American species, yield pleasant fruits.
+
+AMELAND (ä'me-l[.a]nt), an island off the north coast of Holland, 13 miles
+long and 3 broad; flat; inhabitants (about 2000 in number) chiefly engaged
+in fishing and agriculture.
+
+AMÉLIE-LES-BAINS ([.a]-m[=a]-l[=e]-l[=a]-ba[n.]), a village of France,
+department Pyrénées-Orientales, frequented as a winter residence for
+invalids, and for its warm sulphureous springs. The place was known to the
+Romans, as it has been proved by the discovery of Roman medals there.
+
+AMEN ([=a]-men'), a Hebrew word, signifying 'verily', 'truly', transferred
+from the religious language of the Jews to that of the Christians, and used
+at the end of prayers as equivalent to 'so be it', 'may this be granted'.
+
+AMEND'MENT, a proposal brought forward in a meeting of some public or other
+body, either in order to get an alteration introduced into some proposal
+already before the meeting, or entirely to overturn such proposal. In
+Parliament an amendment denotes an alteration made in the original draft of
+a Bill whilst it is passing through the houses. Amendments may be made so
+as totally to alter the nature of the proposition; and this is a way of
+getting rid of a proposition, by making it bear a sense different from what
+was intended by the movers, who are thus compelled to abandon it.
+
+AMENO'PHIS (or AMENHOTEP) III, a king of ancient Egypt about 1500 B.C.;
+warred successfully against Syrians and Ethiopians; built magnificent
+temples and palaces at Thebes, where the so-called Memnon statue is a
+statue of this king. He was the only Egyptian king deified during his
+lifetime.
+
+AMENORRHOE'A, absence or suspension of menstruation. The former may arise
+from general debility or from defective development, the latter from
+exposure to cold, from attacks of fever or other ailment, violent
+excitement, &c.
+
+AMENTA'CEÆ, an order of plants having their flowers arranged in amenta or
+catkins; now broken up into several orders, the chief of which are
+Betulaceæ (the birch), Salicaceæ (the willow), Fagaceæ (the beech),
+Juglandaceæ (the walnut), and Myricaceæ (bog-myrtle).
+
+AMEN'TIA, imbecility from birth, especially when extreme; idiocy.
+
+[Illustration: Amentum
+Hazel (_Corylus Avellana_) showing Catkins and Nuts.]
+
+AMEN'TUM, in botany, that kind of inflorescence which is commonly known as
+a catkin (as in the birch or willow), consisting of unisexual apetalous
+flowers in the axil of scales or bracts.
+
+AMER'ICA, or the NEW WORLD, the largest of the great divisions of the globe
+except Asia, is washed on the west by the Pacific, on the east by the
+Atlantic, on the north by the Arctic Ocean, while on the south it tapers to
+a point. On the north-west it approaches within about 50 miles of Asia,
+while on the north-east the island of Greenland approaches within 370 miles
+of the European island Iceland; but in the south the distance between the
+American mainland and Europe or Africa is very great. Extreme points of the
+continent--north, Boothia Felix, at the Strait of Bellot, lat. 72° N.;
+south, Cape Horn, lat. 56° S.; west, Cape Prince of Wales, long. 168° W.;
+east, Point de Guia, long. 35° W. America as a whole forms the two
+triangular continents of North and South America, united by the narrow
+Isthmus of Panama, and having an entire length of about 10,000 miles; a
+maximum breadth (in North America) of 3500 miles; a coast-line of 44,000
+miles; and a total area, including the islands, of over 16,000,000, of
+which N. America contains about 8,300,000 sq. miles. South America is more
+compact in form than N. America, in this respect resembling Africa, while
+N. America more resembles Europe. Between the two on the east side is the
+great basin which comprises the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the
+West India Islands. Like Europe also N. America possesses numerous islands,
+while those of S. America are less important and confined almost to the
+southern extremity.
+
+Three-fourths of the area of America is comparatively flat, and this
+portion of the surface is bounded on the west by lofty mountain systems
+which stretch continuously from north to south between the extremities of
+the continent, generally at no great distance from the west shore. In North
+America the Rocky Mountains, a broad series of masses partly consisting of
+plateaux, form the most important portion of the elevated surface, being
+continued southward in the mountains and tableland of Mexico and the ranges
+of Central America. Separated by depressions from the Rocky Mountains
+proper, and running close to and parallel with the western coast, are
+several lofty ranges (Sierra Nevada, Cascade Mountains, &c.). Near the
+eastern coast, and forming an isolated mass, are the Appalachians, a system
+of much inferior magnitude. The loftiest mountains in N. America are
+McKinley (20,470 feet), in Alaska; Logan (19,514 feet), in N. W. Canada;
+and Popocatepetl (18,000 feet). The depression of the Isthmus of Panama
+(about 260 feet) forms a natural separation between the systems of the
+north and the south. In S. America the Andes form a system of greater
+elevation but less breadth than the Rocky Mountains, and consist of a
+series of ranges (_cordilleras_) closely following the line of the west
+coast from the Isthmus of Panama to Cape Horn. The highest summits are
+Aconcagua (23,080 feet), Sorata or Illampu (21,484), and Sahama (21,054).
+Volcanoes are numerous. Isolated mountain groups of minor importance are
+the highlands of Venezuela and of Brazil, the latter near the eastern
+coast, reaching a height of 10,000 feet.
+
+The fertile lowlands which lie to the east of the Rocky Mountains and the
+Andes form a depression extending through both continents from the northern
+to the southern oceans. They have somewhat different features and different
+names in different portions; in N. America are _prairies_ and _savannahs_,
+in S. America _llanos_, _selvas_, and _pampas_.
+
+Through these low grounds flow the numerous great rivers which form so
+characteristic a feature of America. The principal are the Mackenzie,
+Coppermine, and Great Fish Rivers, entering the Northern Ocean; the
+Churchill, Nelson, Severn, and Albany, entering Hudson's Bay; the St.
+Lawrence, entering the Atlantic; Mississippi and Rio del Norte, entering
+the Gulf of Mexico (all these being in N. America); the Magdalena, Orinoco,
+Amazon, Paranahiba, Rio de la Plata, Colorado, and Rio Negro, entering the
+Atlantic (all in S. America); and the Yukon, Fraser, Colombia, San Joaquin,
+Sacramento, and Colorado, entering the Pacific. The rivers which flow into
+the Pacific, however, owing to the fact that the great backbone of the
+continent, the Rocky Mountains and the Andes, lies so near the west coast,
+are of comparatively little importance, in S. America being all quite
+small. Sometimes rivers traversing the same plains, and nearly on the same
+levels, open communications with each other, a remarkable instance being
+the Cassiquiari in S. America, which, branching off from the Rio Negro and
+joining the Orinoco, forms a kind of natural canal, uniting the basins of
+the Orinoco and the Amazon. The Amazon or Marañon in S. America, the
+largest river in the world, has a course of about 3500 miles, and a basin
+of 2,300,000 sq. miles; the Mississippi-Missouri, the largest river of
+North America, runs a longer course than the Amazon, but the area of its
+basin is not nearly so great. North America has the most extensive group of
+lakes in the world--Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario,
+which through the St. Lawrence send their drainage to the Atlantic. Thus by
+means of lakes and rivers the interior of both N. and S. America is opened
+up and made accessible.
+
+In regard to climate N. America naturally differs very much from S.
+America, and has more resemblance to the continents of Europe and Asia
+(regarded as a whole). In N. America, as in the older continent, the
+eastern parts are colder than the western, and hence the towns on the
+Atlantic coast have a winter temperature about 10° lower than those in
+corresponding latitudes of Europe. The winter temperature of the greater
+part of N. America is indeed severe, though the intense cold is less felt
+on account of the dryness of the air. There is no regular season of
+rainfall unless in the south. Although two-thirds of S. America lies within
+the tropics the heat is not so great as might be expected, owing to the
+prevailing winds, the influences of the Andes, and other causes. The
+highest temperature experienced is probably not more than 100° in the
+shade; at Rio de Janeiro the mean is about 74°, at Lima 72°. Over a great
+part of S. America there is a wet and a dry season, varying in different
+regions; on the upper Amazon the rains last for ten months, being caused by
+the prevailing easterly winds bringing moisture from the Atlantic, which is
+condensed on the eastern slopes of the Andes. In each of the Americas there
+is a region in which little or no rain falls; in N. America it extends over
+a part of the United States and Northern Mexico, in S. America over a part
+of the coast region of Peru and Chile.
+
+America is rich in valuable minerals. It has supplied the world with
+immense quantities of gold and silver, which it still yields in no small
+amount, especially in the United States. It possesses inexhaustible stores
+of coal (United States), with iron, copper, lead, tin, mercury, &c.
+Petroleum may be called one of its specialities, its petroleum wells having
+caused whole towns to spring into existence. Diamonds and other precious
+stones are found.
+
+As regards vegetation America may be called a region of forests and
+verdure, vast tracts being covered by the grassy prairies, llanos, and
+pampas where the forests fail. In N. America the forests have been largely
+made use of by man; in S. America vast areas are covered with forests,
+which as yet are traversed only by the uncivilized Indian. In the north is
+the region of pines and firs; farther south come the deciduous trees, as
+the oak, beech, maple, elm, chestnut, &c. Then follow the evergreen forests
+of the tropical regions. The useful timber trees are very numerous; among
+the most characteristic of America are mahogany and other ornamental woods,
+and various dyewoods. In the tropical parts are numerous palms, cacti in
+great variety, and various species of the agave or American aloe. In the
+virgin forests of S. America the trees are often bound together into an
+impenetrable mass of vegetation by various kinds of climbing and twining
+plants. Among useful plants belonging to the American continent are maize,
+the potato, cacao, tobacco, cinchona, vanilla, Paraguay tea, &c. The most
+important plants introduced are wheat, rice, and other grains, sugar-cane,
+coffee, and cotton, with various fruits and vegetables. The vine is native
+to the continent, and both the American and introduced varieties are now
+largely cultivated.
+
+The animals of America include, among carnivora, the jaguar or American
+tiger, found only in S. America; the puma or American lion, found mostly in
+S. America; the grizzly bear of N. America, fully as powerful an animal as
+either; the black bear, the skunk, the racoon, the American or prairie
+wolf, several species of foxes, &c. The rodents are represented by the
+beaver, the porcupine, and squirrels of several species; the marsupials by
+the opossum. Among ruminants are the bison, or, as it is commonly called,
+the buffalo, the moose or elk, the Virginian stag, the musk-ox; and in S.
+America the llama (which takes the place of the camel of the Old World),
+the alpaca, and the vicuña. Other animals most distinctive of S. America
+are sloths, fitted to live only in its dense and boundless forests;
+ant-eaters and armadillos; monkeys with prehensile tails, in this and other
+respects differing from those of the Old World; the condor among the
+heights of the Andes, the nandu, rhea or three-toed ostrich, beautiful
+parrots and humming-birds. Among American reptiles are the boa-constrictor,
+the rattlesnake, the alligator or cayman, the iguana and other large
+lizards, large frogs and toads. The domestic animals of America, horses,
+cattle, and sheep, are of foreign origin. The electrical eel exists in the
+tropical waters.
+
+The population of America consists partly of an aboriginal race or races,
+partly of immigrants or their descendants. The aboriginal inhabitants are
+the American Indians or red men, being generally of a brownish-red colour,
+and now forming a very small portion of the total population, especially in
+N. America, where the white population has almost exterminated them. These
+people are divided into branches, some of which have displayed a
+considerable aptitude for civilization. When the Europeans became
+acquainted with the New World, Mexico, Central America, and part of S.
+America were inhabited by populations which had made great advances in many
+things that pertain to civilized life, dwelling in large and well-built
+cities under a settled form of government, and practising agriculture and
+the mechanical arts. Ever since the discovery of America at the close of
+the fifteenth century Europeans of all nations have crowded into it; and
+the comparatively feeble native races have rapidly diminished, or lost
+their distinctive features by intermixtures with whites, and also with
+negroes brought from Africa to work as slaves. These mixed races are
+distinguished by a variety of names, as Mestizos, Mulattoes, Zambos, &c. In
+North America the white population is mainly of British origin, though to a
+considerable extent it also consists of Germans, Scandinavians, &c., and
+the descendants of such. In Central and South America the prevailing white
+nationality is the Spanish and Portuguese. In the extreme north are the
+Eskimos--a scattered and stunted race closely allied to some of the peoples
+of Northern Asia. That the aboriginal inhabitants of America passed over
+from Asia is tolerably certain, but when and from what part we do not know.
+The total population of the New World is estimated at 180,000,000, of which
+perhaps 124,000,000 are whites, 28,000,000 mixed races, 15,000,000 negroes,
+and 13,000,000 Indians. As regards religion, the bulk of the population of
+N. America is Protestant; of Central and S. America the religion is almost
+exclusively Roman Catholic. Several millions of the Indians are
+heathens.--The independent States of America are all republican in form of
+government, Brazil having become a republic in 1889. See _North America_,
+_Central America_, _South America_, _West Indies_, &c.
+
+The merit of first opening up the American continent to modern Europe
+belongs to the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus, who discovered, in
+Oct., 1492, one of the Bahamas, and named it San Salvador. Europeans,
+however, had on different former occasions discovered the American coasts,
+and the coasts of Massachusetts and Rhode Island were visited by Northmen
+and named Vinland in the year 1000. Still these discoveries had no
+influence on the enterprise of Columbus, and cannot detract in the least
+from his merit; they were forgotten, and had never been made known to the
+inhabitants of the rest of Europe. Though Columbus was the first of his
+time who set foot in the New World, it has taken its name not from him, but
+from Amerigo Vespucci. The mainland was first seen in 1497 by Sebastian
+Cabot, who sailed under the patronage of Henry VII of England. For further
+particulars of discovery see _North America_ and _South America_.
+
+The known history of America hardly goes beyond the period of its discovery
+by Columbus; but it possesses many monuments of antiquity that might take
+us many centuries backward, could we learn anything of their origin or of
+those by whom they were produced. Among such antiquities are great
+earthworks in the form of mounds, or of raised enclosures, crowning the
+tops of hills, river peninsulas, &c., and no doubt serving for defence.
+They enclose considerable areas, are surrounded by an exterior ditch, and
+by ramparts which are composed of mingled earth and stones, and are often
+of great extent in proportion to the area enclosed. They are always
+supplied either naturally or artificially with water, and give other
+indications of having been provided for a siege. Barrows and tumuli
+containing human bones, and bearing indications of having been used both as
+places of sepulture and as temples, are also numerous. They are in
+geometrical forms--circles, squares, parallelograms, &c. A mound on the
+plain of Cahokia in Illinois, opposite the city of St. Louis, is 700 feet
+long, 500 feet broad, and 90 feet high. Earth mounds of another class
+represent gigantic animal forms in bas-relief on the ground. One is a man
+with two heads, the body 50 feet long and 25 feet broad across the breast;
+another represents a serpent 1000 feet in length, with graceful curves. The
+monuments of Mexico, Central America, and Peru are of a more advanced state
+of civilization, approach nearer to the historical period, and make the
+loss of authentic information more keenly felt. Here there are numerous
+ruined towns with most elaborate sculptures, lofty pyramidal structures
+serving as temples or forts, statues, picture writing, hieroglyphics,
+roads, aqueducts, bridges, &c. Some remarkable prehistoric remains
+discovered in recent years are what are known as the abodes of the
+'cliff-dwellers'. These consist of habitations constructed on terraces and
+in caves high up and steep sides of cañons in Colorado and other parts of
+the western states of N. America. Some of these buildings are several
+stories high. See also _Mexico_, _Peru_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Farrand,
+_The American Nation_; Prescott, _The Conquest of Mexico_ and _The Conquest
+of Peru_; Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History of America_; F. W.
+Halsey, _Great Epochs in American History_ (11 vols.).
+
+AMERICAN INDIANS. See _Indians_.
+
+AMERICANISM, a term, phrase, or idiom peculiar to the English language as
+spoken in America, and not forming part of the language as spoken in
+England. The following is a list of a few of the more noteworthy
+Americanisms, some of them being rather slangy or vulgar.
+
+    _Approbate_, to approve.
+
+    _Around_ or _round_, about or near. To _hang around_ is to loiter about
+    a place.
+
+    _Backwoods_, the partially-cleared forest regions in the western
+    States.
+
+    _Bee_, an assemblage of persons to unite their labours for the benefit
+    of an individual or family, or to carry out a joint scheme.
+
+    _Boss_, an employer or superintendent of labourers, a leader.
+
+    _Bug_, a coleopterous insect, or what in England is called a _beetle_.
+
+    _Buggy_, a four-wheeled vehicle.
+
+    _Bulldose_, to; to intimidate voters.
+
+    _Bunkum_ or _buncombe_, a speech made solely to please a constituency;
+    talk for talking's sake, and in an inflated style.
+
+    _Bureau_, a chest of drawers, a dressing-table surmounted by a mirror.
+
+    _Calculate_, to suppose, to believe, to think.
+
+    _Camp-meeting_, a meeting held in the fields or woods for religious
+    purposes, and where the assemblage encamps and remains several days.
+
+    _Cane-brake_, a thicket of canes.
+
+    _Car_, a carriage or wagon of a railway train. The Englishman 'travels
+    by rail' or 'takes the train'; the American takes or goes by the
+    _cars_.
+
+    _Carpet-bagger_, a needy political adventurer who carries all his
+    worldly goods in a carpet-bag.
+
+    _Caucus_, a private meeting of the leading politicians of a party to
+    agree upon the plans to be pursued in an approaching election.
+
+    _Chalk_: a _long chalk_ means a great distance, a good deal.
+
+    _Clever_, good-natured, obliging.
+
+    _Cocktail_, a stimulating drink made of brandy or gin mixed with
+    bitters, sugar, and water.
+
+    _Corn_, maize (in England it means wheat, or grain in general).
+
+    _Corn-husking_, or _corn-shucking_, an occasion on which a farmer
+    invites his neighbours to assist him in stripping the husks from his
+    Indian corn.
+
+    _Cow-hide_, a whip made of twisted strips of raw hide.
+
+    _Creek_, a small river or brook; not, as in England, a small arm of the
+    sea.
+
+    _Cunning_, small and pretty, nice, e.g. 'It was such a _cunning_ baby'.
+
+    _Dander_; to get one's _dander raised_, to have one's _dander up_, is
+    to have been worked into a passion.
+
+    _Dead-heads_, people who have free admission to entertainments, or who
+    have the use of public conveyances, or the like, free of charge.
+
+    _Depot_, a railway station.
+
+    _Down east_, in or into the New England States. A _down-easter_ is a
+    New Englander.
+
+    _Drummer_, a bagman or commercial traveller.
+
+    _Dry goods_, a general term for such articles as are sold by
+    linen-drapers, haberdashers, hosiers, &c.
+
+    _Dutch_, the German language.--_Dutchman_, a German.
+
+    _Fix_, to; to put in order, to prepare, to adjust. To fix the hair, the
+    table, the fire, is to dress the hair, lay the table, make up the fire.
+
+    _Fixings_, arrangements, dress, embellishments, luggage, furniture,
+    garnishings of any kind.
+
+    _Gerrymander_, to arrange political divisions so that in an election
+    one party may obtain an advantage over its opponent, even though the
+    latter may possess a majority of votes in the State; from the deviser
+    of such a scheme, named _Gerry_, governor of Massachusetts.
+
+    _Given name_, a Christian name.
+
+    _Guess_, to; to believe, to suppose, to think, to fancy; also used
+    emphatically, as 'Joe, will you liquor up?' 'I guess I will.'
+
+    _Gulch_, a deep abrupt ravine, caused by the action of water.
+
+    _Happen in_, to; to happen to come in or call.
+
+    _Help_, a servant.
+
+    _High-falutin_, inflated speech, bombast.
+
+    _Hoe-cake_, a cake of Indian meal baked on a hoe or before the fire.
+
+    _Indian summer_, the short season of pleasant weather usually occurring
+    about the middle of November.
+
+    _Johnny Cake_, a cake made of Indian corn meal mixed with milk or water
+    and sometimes a little stewed pumpkin; the term is also applied to a
+    New Englander.
+
+    _Julep_, a drink composed of brandy or whisky with sugar, pounded ice,
+    and some sprigs of mint.
+
+    _Log-rolling_, the assembly of several parties of wood-cutters to help
+    one of them in rolling their logs to the river after they are felled
+    and trimmed; also employed in politics to signify a like system of
+    mutual co-operation.
+
+    _Lot_, a piece or division of land, an allotment.
+
+    _Lumber_, timber sawed and split for use; as beams, joists, planks,
+    staves, hoops, &c.
+
+    _Lynch law_, an irregular species of justice executed by the populace
+    or a mob, without legal authority or trial.
+
+    _Mail letters_, to; to post letters.
+
+    _Make tracks_, to; to run away.
+
+    _Mitten_; to _get the mitten_ is to meet with a refusal.
+
+    _Mizzle_, to; to abscond, or run away.
+
+    _Mush_, a kind of hasty-pudding.
+
+    _Muss_, a state of confusion.
+
+    _Notions_, a term applied to every variety of small-wares.
+
+    _One-horse_: a one-horse thing is a thing of no value or importance, a
+    mean and trifling thing.
+
+    _Picaninny_, a negro child.
+
+    _Pile_, a quantity of money.
+
+    _Planks_, in a political sense, are the several principles which
+    appertain to a party; _platform_ is the collection of such principles.
+
+    _Reckon_, to; to suppose, to think.
+
+    _Rock_, a stone of any size; a pebble; as to throw _rocks_ at a dog.
+
+    _Scalawag_, a scamp, a scapegrace.
+
+    _Shanty_, a mean structure such as squatters erect; a temporary hut.
+
+    _Skedaddle_, to; to run away; a word introduced during the civil war.
+
+    _Smart_, often used in the sense of considerable, a good deal, as a
+    _smart chance_.
+
+    _Soft sawder_, flattering, coaxing talk.
+
+    _Span_ of horses, two horses as nearly as possible alike, harnessed
+    side by side.
+
+    _Spread-eagle style_, a compound of exaggeration, bombast, mixed
+    metaphor, &c.
+
+    _Store_, a shop, as a book _store_, a grocery _store_.
+
+    _Strike oil_, to; to come upon petroleum: hence to make a lucky hit,
+    especially financially.
+
+    _Stump speech_, a bombastic speech calculated to please the popular
+    ear, such speeches in newly-settled districts being often delivered
+    from stumps of trees.
+
+    _Sun-up_, sunrise.
+
+    _Tall_, great, fine (used by Shakespeare much in the same sense); _tall
+    talk_ is extravagant talk.
+
+    _Ticket_: to vote the _straight ticket_ is to vote for all the men or
+    measures your party wishes.
+
+    _Truck_, the small produce of gardens; _truck patch_, a plot in which
+    the smaller fruits and vegetables are raised.
+
+    _Ugly_, ill-tempered, vicious.
+
+    _Vamose_, to; to run off (from the Sp. _vamos_, let us go).
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Pickering, _Vocabulary of Words and Phrases Supposed to be
+Peculiar to America_; J. R. Bartlett, _Dictionary of Americanisms_; Schele
+de Vere, _Americanisms_.
+
+AMERICAN JUTE. See _Abutilon_.
+
+AMERICAN ORGAN. See _Organ_.
+
+AMER'ICUS, a town of the United States, Georgia, in a good cotton and corn
+district. Pop. 11,000.
+
+AMERIGO VESPUCCI ([.a]-mer-[=e]'go vesp[u:]t'ch[=e]), a maritime
+discoverer, after whom America has been named, born, 1451, at Florence;
+died, 1512, at Seville. In 1499 he coasted along the continent of America
+for several hundred leagues, and the publication of his narrative, while
+the prior discovery of Columbus was yet comparatively a secret, led to the
+giving of his name to the new continent.
+
+AMERONGEN, a village in Holland. Here, at the château belonging to Count
+Goddard Bentinck, the ex-Kaiser Wilhelm II took up his residence after
+signing his letters of abdication at Spa on 9th Nov., 1918.
+
+AMERSFOORT (ä'merz-f[=o]rt), a town in Holland, province of Utrecht,
+communicating by the Eem with the Zuider-Zee; manufactures woollen goods,
+tobacco, glass, and silk yarn. Pop. 28,777.
+
+AMES, Fisher, American statesman, born 1758, died 1808; studied law, and
+became prominent in his profession--distinguished as a political orator and
+essayist.
+
+AMES, Joseph, English antiquary, born at Yarmouth, 1689, died 1759. He
+became a ship-chandler at Wapping, devoted himself to antiquarian pursuits,
+and was for many years secretary to the Society of Antiquaries. His chief
+publication is, _Typographical Antiquities: being an historical account of
+Printing in England_ (1749).
+
+AMETAB'OLA (Gr. _ametabolos_, unchangeable), a division of insects,
+including only the apterous or wingless insects, as lice, spring-tails,
+&c., which do not undergo any metamorphosis, but which escape from the egg
+nearly under the same form which they preserve through life.
+
+AM'ETHYST, a violet-blue or purple variety of quartz, generally occurring
+crystallized in hexahedral prisms or pyramids, also in rolled fragments,
+composed of imperfect prismatic crystals. It is wrought into various
+articles of jewellery. The _oriental amethyst_ is a rare violet-coloured
+gem, a variety of alumina or corundum, of much brilliance and beauty. The
+name is generally said to be of Greek origin, and expresses some supposed
+quality in the stone of preventing or curing intoxication. The gem was one
+of the twelve stones in the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest.
+
+AMHARA ([.a]m-hä'r[.a]), a district of Abyssinia, lying between the Tacazzé
+and the Blue Nile, but of which the limits are not well defined. The
+Amharic language, developed from the ancient Gheez, and written since the
+sixteenth century, has gradually gained ground in Southern and Central
+Abyssinia, and has also become the Court language.
+
+AMHERST (am'[.e]rst), a seaport of Canada, in Nova Scotia, on an arm of
+Chignecto Bay, with flourishing industries, and trade by railway and sea.
+Pop. 10,320. Also a port of Burmah, 31 miles south of Moulmein, a health
+resort of Europeans. Pop. 3750.
+
+AMHERST, Jeffrey, Lord, born 1717, died 1797; distinguished British
+general, who fought at Dettingen and Fontenoy, and commanded in America,
+where he took Louisburg, Ticonderoga, and Quebec, and restored the British
+prestige in Canada. He was raised to the peerage, became
+commander-in-chief, and ultimately field-marshal.
+
+AMHERST, William Pitt, first earl, nephew of the above; Governor-General of
+India, 1823; prosecuted the first Burmese war, and suppressed the
+Barrackpore mutiny. Born 1773, died 1857.
+
+AMIAN'THUS, a kind of flexible asbestos. See _Asbestos_.
+
+AMICE (am'is), an oblong piece of linen with an embroidered apparel sewed
+upon it, worn under the alb by priests of the Roman Catholic Church when
+engaged in the sacrifice of the mass.
+
+AMIDE, or AMINE (am'id, am'in), names used in chemistry. The amines are
+compounds formed by the introduction of alcohol radicles into ammonia, e.g.
+C_2H_5NH_2, which is known as ethylamine. They closely resemble ammonia in
+properties. The amides are formed by replacing one of the hydrogen atoms of
+ammonia by an acid radicle, e.g. C_2H_3ONH_2, which is called acetamide.
+They are not strongly basic, and are usually crystalline, and have high
+boiling-points.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1
+Part 1, by Various
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 1
+       A to Amide
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34073]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h1>THE<br />
+NEW GRESHAM<br />
+ENCYCLOPEDIA</h1>
+
+<h2>VOLUME I</h2>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <div class="contents">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i16"><i>EDITORS</i></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B.ès L.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>R.&nbsp;F. PATTERSON, M.A.(Cantab.), D.Litt.(Glasgow).</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>JOHN DOUGALL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.; Gold Medallist</p>
+      <p>of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>ALGAE</h3>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image001.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image001.jpg"
+      alt="Frontispiece: Algae" title="Frontispiece: Algae" /></a>
+    <p class="poem">1, The very broad Ulva. 2, Cornucopia. 3, Caulerpa
+    Cactoides. 4, Acetabularia Mediterranea. 5, Bladder-locks. 6,
+    Long-stalked Laminaria. 7, Sugared Laminaria. 8, Bladder Wrack. 9,
+    Serrated Wrack. 10, Gulf-weed. 11, Thalassiophyllum Clathrus. 12,
+    Forked Dictyota. 13, Medicinal Coralline. 14, Corallina Rubens. 15,
+    Delesseria Lyalii. 16, Nitophyllum Crosieri. 17, Membrane-leaved
+    Phyllophira. 18, Peacock's-tail Padina. 19, Banded Taonia.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<h2>THE</h2>
+
+<h1>NEW . GRESHAM</h1>
+
+<h1>ENCYCLOPEDIA</h1>
+
+<h2>VOLUME . I</h2>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/image000.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image000.png"
+      alt="Publishers Mark" title="Publishers Mark" /></a>
+  </div>
+<h2><i>The</i> GRESHAM . PUBLISHING<br />
+COMPANY . <i>Limited</i></h2>
+
+<h3>66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND<br />
+LONDON W.C.2.<br />
+1922</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<h3>VOLUME I</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p class="cenhead">PLATES</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Plates." title="List of Plates.">
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> Page</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Algæ</span> (<i>Coloured</i>) </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <i>Frontispiece</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Aeroplane</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page44">44</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Air-ships</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page72">72</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Anatomy</span> (Human Skeleton and Muscles) </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 152</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Archæology</span> (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages) </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 220</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Architecture</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 224</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Bacteria</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 348</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="cenhead">MAPS IN COLOUR</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Maps in Colour." title="List of Maps in Colour.">
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Africa</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page52">52</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Asia</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 274</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Australia</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> 316</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I</h3>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Adolphe Abrahams</span>, O.B.E., B.A., M.D., late
+  Major, R.A.M.C.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">George E. Allan</span>, D.Sc., Lecturer in
+  Electricity, University of Glasgow.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">R.&nbsp;E. Anderson</span>, Maker of Artificial Limbs.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">F.&nbsp;L. Attenborough</span>, B.A., Emmanuel College,
+  Cambridge.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">F. F. P. Bisacre</span>, O.B.E., M.A., B.Sc.,
+  A.M.I.C.E.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">R. M. Brown</span>, B.Sc.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Grenville A. J. Cole</span>, F.R.S., Professor of
+  Geology, Royal College of Science, Ireland.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Arthur O. Cooke</span>, Author of <i>A Book of
+  Dovecotes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">J. R. Ainsworth Davis</span>, M.A., F.C.P., former
+  Principal of The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Montagu Drummond</span>, M.A., Lecturer in Botany,
+  University of Glasgow.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Charles J. Ffoulkes</span>, B.Litt., Major, R.M.;
+  Curator of the Armouries, Tower of London.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">F. Morley Fletcher</span>, Director, College of Art,
+  Edinburgh.</p>
+
+  <p>Rev. <span class="sc">William Fulton</span>, D.D., B.Sc., Professor of
+  Systematic Theology, University of Aberdeen.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">L. Haden Guest</span>, M.C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">R. N. Haygarth</span>, B.A., B.Sc., Queens' College,
+  Cambridge.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">W. A. Hislop</span>, M.B., late Captain, R.A.M.C.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Donald A. Mackenzie</span>, Folklorist; Author of
+  <i>Egyptian Myth and Legend</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Magnus Maclean</span>, M.A., D.Sc., M.Inst.E.E.,
+  M.Inst.C.E., Editor of <i>Modern Electrical Engineering</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">W. Lockwood Marsh</span>, O.B.E., M.A., A.F.R.Ae.S.,
+  Lieutenant-Colonel; late R.A.F.; Secretary of the Royal Aeronautical
+  Society.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">D. J. Mackellor</span>, B.Sc., Lecturer in Electrical
+  Engineering, Royal Technical College, Glasgow.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">R. F. Patterson</span>, M.A., D.Litt., formerly
+  Charles Oldham Shakespeare Scholar, Cambridge University.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Angelo S. Rappoport</span>, Ph.D., B. ès L.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">James Ritchie</span>, M.A., M.D., Professor of
+  Bacteriology, University of Edinburgh.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">W. D. Robieson</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">John J. Ross</span>, M.A., F.R.A.S.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">George Smith</span>, Procurator Fiscal.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">G. Elliot Smith</span>, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor
+  of Anatomy, University of London.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">C. S. Stooks</span>, D.S.O., Major, Indian Army;
+  Instructor in Military Organization, Royal Military College,
+  Sandhurst.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">M. M. J. Sutherland</span>, D.Sc., F.I.C.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Thomas G. Wright</span>, LL.B., Professor of
+  Mercantile Law, University of Glasgow.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>KEY TO PRONUNCIATION</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by
+  marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system
+  of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h3>VOWELS</h3>
+
+  <p>&#x101;, as in f<i>a</i>te, or in b<i>a</i>re.</p>
+
+  <p>ä, as in <i>a</i>lms, Fr. <i>â</i>me, Ger. B<i>a</i>hn = á of Indian
+  names.</p>
+
+  <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>, the same
+  sound short or medium, as in Fr. b<i>a</i>l, Ger. M<i>a</i>nn.</p>
+
+  <p>a, as in f<i>a</i>t.</p>
+
+  <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>, as in
+  f<i>a</i>ll.</p>
+
+  <p><i>a</i>, obscure, as in rur<i>a</i>l, similar to <i>u</i> in
+  b<i>u</i>t, &#x117; in h<i>e</i>r: common in Indian names.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x113;, as in m<i>e</i> = <i>i</i> in mach<i>i</i>ne.</p>
+
+  <p>e, as in m<i>e</i>t.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x117;, as in h<i>e</i>r.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x12B;, as in p<i>i</i>ne, or as <i>ei</i> in Ger. m<i>ei</i>n.</p>
+
+  <p>i, as in p<i>i</i>n, also used for the short sound corresponding to
+  &#x113;, as in French and Italian words.</p>
+
+  <p><i>eu</i>, a long sound as in Fr. j<i>eû</i>ne = Ger. long <i>ö</i>,
+  as in S<i>ö</i>hne, G<i>ö</i>the (Goethe).</p>
+
+  <p>eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p<i>eu</i> = Ger.
+  <i>ö</i> short.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x14D;, as in n<i>o</i>te, m<i>oa</i>n.</p>
+
+  <p>o, as in n<i>o</i>t, s<i>o</i>ft&mdash;that is, short or medium.</p>
+
+  <p>ö, as in m<i>o</i>ve, tw<i>o</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x16B; as in t<i>u</i>be.</p>
+
+  <p>u, as in t<i>u</i>b: similar to &#x117; and also to <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>, as in
+  b<i>u</i>ll.</p>
+
+  <p>ü, as in Sc. ab<i>u</i>ne = Fr. <i>û</i> as in d<i>û</i>, Ger.
+  <i>ü</i> long as in gr<i>ü</i>n, B<i>ü</i>hne.</p>
+
+  <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>, the
+  corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b<i>u</i>t, Ger.
+  M<i>ü</i>ller.</p>
+
+  <p>oi, as in <i>oi</i>l.</p>
+
+  <p>ou, as in p<i>ou</i>nd; or as <i>au</i> in Ger. H<i>au</i>s.</p>
+
+<h3>CONSONANTS</h3>
+
+  <p>Of the <i>consonants</i>, <b>b,</b> <b>d,</b> <b>f,</b> <b>h,</b>
+  <b>j,</b> <b>k,</b> <b>l,</b> <b>m,</b> <b>n,</b> <b>ng,</b> <b>p,</b>
+  <b>sh,</b> <b>t,</b> <b>v,</b> <b>z,</b> always have their common English
+  sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter <b>c</b> is
+  not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, <b>s</b> or <b>k</b>
+  being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
+  explanation are the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>ch is always as in ri<i>ch</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><i>d</i>, nearly as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is = Sp. <i>d</i> in
+  Ma<i>d</i>ri<i>d</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>g is always hard, as in <i>g</i>o.</p>
+
+  <p><i>h</i> represents the guttural in Scotch lo<i>ch</i>, Ger.
+  na<i>ch</i>, also other similar gutturals.</p>
+
+  <p>n<span class="x1"><span class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>, Fr. nasal
+  <i>n</i> as in bo<i>n</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>r represents both English <i>r</i>, and <i>r</i> in foreign words,
+  which is generally much more strongly trilled.</p>
+
+  <p>s, always as in <i>s</i>o.</p>
+
+  <p>th, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>in.</p>
+
+  <p><i>th</i>, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is.</p>
+
+  <p>w always consonantal, as in <i>w</i>e.</p>
+
+  <p>x = ks, which are used instead.</p>
+
+  <p>y always consonantal, as in <i>y</i>ea (Fr. <i>ligne</i> would be
+  re-written l&#x113;ny).</p>
+
+  <p>zh, as <i>s</i> in plea<i>s</i>ure = Fr. <i>j</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>[1]</span></p>
+
+<h1>THE NEW<br />
+GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA</h1>
+
+<h2>VOLUME I</h2>
+
+  <p><b>A,</b> the first letter in many alphabets. The sound most commonly
+  belonging to it, as in French, Italian, German, &amp;c., is that which is
+  heard in <i>father</i>, pronounced short or long. In English the letter
+  is made to represent at least seven sounds, as in <i>father</i>,
+  <i>mat</i>, <i>mate</i>, <i>mare</i>, <i>many</i>, <i>ball</i>,
+  <i>what</i>, besides being used in such digraphs as <i>ea</i> in
+  <i>heat</i>, <i>oa</i> in <i>boat</i>.&mdash;A, in music, is the sixth
+  note in the diatonic scale of C, and stands when in perfect tune to the
+  latter note in the ratio of <sup>3</sup>/<sub>5</sub> to 1. The second
+  string of the violin is tuned to this note.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A 1,</b> a symbol attached to vessels of the highest class in
+  Lloyd's register of shipping, A referring to the hull of the vessel, 1 to
+  the rigging and whole equipment. When A 1 has a number prefixed, as 100 A
+  1, 90 A 1, the number denotes that the vessel is built according to
+  certain specifications. See <i>Shipbuilding</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aa</b> (ä) (Old Ger. <i>aha</i>, water; allied to Lat. <i>aqua</i>,
+  water), the name of a great many streams of Central and Northern
+  Europe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aachen</b> (ä&prime;<i>h</i>&#x117;n). See
+  <i>Aix-la-Chapelle</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aaland Islands</b>. See <i>Aland Islands</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aalborg</b> (&#x14D;l&prime;bor<i>h</i>: 'eel-town'), a seaport of
+  Denmark, in Jutland, on the Liimfiord, see of a bishop, with
+  iron-founding, distilling, fishing, &amp;c. Pop. 33,449.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aalen</b> (ä&prime;l&#x117;n), a town of Germany in Württemberg,
+  which manufactures woollen and linen goods. It has important iron-works
+  and tanneries. Pop. 11,347.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aalesund</b> (&#x14D;&prime;le-su<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>nd), seaport and fishing centre on the
+  west coast of Norway, on a small island. Pop. 13,858.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aali Pasha</b>. See <i>Ali Pasha</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aalst</b> (älst). See <i>Alost</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aar,</b> or <b>Aare</b> (är), the name of several European rivers,
+  of which the chief (180 miles long) is a tributary of the Rhine, next to
+  it and the Rhone the longest river in Switzerland. It has its origin from
+  the Upper and Lower Glaciers of the Aar, in the Bernese Alps, traverses
+  Lakes Brienz and Thun, and receives the Saane, Reuss, Limmat, &amp;c. On
+  it are Interlaken, Thun, Bern, Solothurn, and Aarau, to which, as to the
+  canton of Aargau, it gives its name.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aarau</b> (ä&prime;rou), a well-built and finely-situated town in
+  Switzerland, capital of canton Aargau, on the River Aar. Pop. 9536.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aard-vark</b> (ärd&prime;va<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rk: earth-pig), Dutch name for a
+  burrowing insect-eating animal of South Africa, <i>Orycter&#x14F;pus
+  capensis</i>, order Edentata, resembling the ant-eater and armadillo. It
+  is called also <i>ground-hog</i> and <i>Cape pig</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image002.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image002.jpg"
+      alt="Aardwolf" title="Aardwolf" /></a>
+    Aardwolf (<i>Prot&#x115;les crist&#x101;tus</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Aardwolf</b> (ärd&prime;wu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>lf: earth-wolf) (<i>Prot&#x115;les
+  crist&#x101;tus</i>), a burrowing carnivore of S. and E. Africa, allied
+  to the hyenas and civets. It feeds on carrion, small mammals, insects,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aare</b>. See <i>Aar</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aargau</b> (är&prime;gou), or <b>Argovie</b> (a<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-go-v&#x113;), a
+  northern canton of Switzerland; area, 543 sq. miles; hilly, well wooded,
+  abundantly watered by the Aar and its tributaries, and well cultivated.
+  Pop. 236,860. German is almost universally spoken. Capital, Aarau. <!--
+  Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page2"></a>[2]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Aarhuus</b> (&#x14D;r&prime;hös), a seaport and ancient town of
+  Denmark, on the east coast of Jutland. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a
+  good harbour, and manufactures woollens, gloves, hats, tobacco, &amp;c.
+  Pop. 65,858.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aaron</b> (&#x101;&prime;ron), of the tribe of Levi, brother of
+  Moses. At Sinai, when the people became impatient at the long-continued
+  absence of Moses, he complied with their request by making a golden calf,
+  and thus became involved with them in the guilt of gross idolatry. The
+  office of high-priest, which he first filled, was made hereditary in his
+  family. He died at Mount Hor at the age of 123, and was succeeded by his
+  son Eleazer.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aaron's Beard</b>. See <i>Saint John's Wort</i> and
+  <i>Toad-flax</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aaron's Rod</b>. See <i>Golden-rod</i> and <i>Mullein</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aasen</b> (&#x14D;&prime;zen), Ivar Andreas, Norwegian poet and
+  philologist, was born in 1813 and died in 1896. He wrote miscellaneous
+  poems and a drama, but he is chiefly known as the originator of the
+  patriotic movement known as the <i>Maulstroev</i>. He endeavoured to give
+  Norway a literary language distinct from the Danish, which has long
+  served as the literary and official language of the country. This he
+  attempted to do mainly by the help of the native dialects, which he
+  studied thoroughly, setting forth their grammar in special works and
+  embodying their vocabulary in his <i>Norsk Ordbog med Dansk
+  Forklaring</i> (Norse Dictionary, with Explanations in Danish, 1873),
+  supplemented by the <i>Norsk Ordbog</i> of Hans Ross (1890-2). Numbers of
+  poems, tales, &amp;c., have been written in the language, of which Aasen
+  was in a sense the inventor.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aasvär</b> (&#x14D;s&prime;v&#x101;r), a group of small islands off
+  the Norwegian coast, under the Arctic Circle, where there is an important
+  herring-fishery.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab,</b> the eleventh month of the Jewish civil, the fifth of the
+  ecclesiastical, year&mdash;part of July and part of August.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ababda,</b> or <b>Ababdeh</b> (abab&prime;de) (<b>Gebadei</b> of
+  Pliny), a nomadic African race inhabiting Upper Egypt and part of Nubia,
+  between the Nile and the Red Sea, dark-brown in colour. Their language is
+  Arabic and they are Mahommedans in religion. They number about
+  40,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;aca,</b> or <b>Manilla Hemp,</b> a strong fibre yielded by
+  the leaf-stalks of a kind of plantain (<i>Musa text&#x12D;lis</i>) which
+  grows in the Indian Archipelago, and is cultivated in the Philippines.
+  The outer fibres of the leaf-stalks are made into strong and durable
+  ropes, the inner into various fine fabrics.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;aco,</b> <b>Great</b> and <b>Little,</b> two islands of
+  the Bahamas group, (q.v.). Pop. about 4000.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/image003.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image003.jpg"
+      alt="Abacus for Calculations" title="Abacus for Calculations" /></a>
+    Abacus for Calculations
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/image004.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image004.jpg"
+      alt="Abacus in architecture" title="Abacus in architecture" /></a>
+    Norman Capital&mdash;<i>a</i>, the Abacus
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;acus,</b> a Latin term applied to an apparatus used in
+  elementary schools for facilitating arithmetical operations, consisting
+  of a number of parallel cords or wires, upon which balls or beads are
+  strung, the uppermost wire being appropriated to units, the next to tens,
+  &amp;c.&mdash;The uppermost member or division of the capital of a
+  column, immediately under the architrave.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abad&prime;don</b> (Heb. destruction), the name given in
+  <i>Rev.</i> ix. 11 as that of the angel of the bottomless pit, otherwise
+  called <i>Apollyon</i>. In <i>Job</i>, xxvi, 6, it designates the
+  underworld, or Hades.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abakansk&prime;,</b> a fortified place in Siberia, near the Upper
+  Yenisei, founded by Peter the Great in 1707.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abalone</b> (ab-a-l&#x14D;&prime;ne), a name in California for a
+  species of ear-shell (Haliotis) that furnishes mother-of-pearl.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;ana,</b> or <b>Amanah,</b> one of the two rivers of
+  Damascus mentioned in the Bible (2 <i>Kings</i>, v, 12). See
+  <i>Barada</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aban&prime;donment,</b> a term of marine insurance, employed to
+  designate the case where the party insured gives up his whole interest in
+  the property to the insurer, and claims as for a total loss.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: G.&nbsp;G. Phillimore, <i>Marine
+  Insurance</i>, in <i>Encyclopedia of the Laws of England</i>, vol. viii;
+  C.&nbsp;R. Tyser, <i>Law relating to Losses under a Policy of Marine
+  Insurance</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;ano,</b> a village of North Italy, 5 miles from Padua,
+  famous for its mud-baths and warm springs. It is supposed to be the
+  birthplace of Livy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aba&prime;rim,</b> a mountain range of Eastern Palestine, including
+  Nebo, on which Moses died.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abatement,</b> in law, has various significations. <i>Abatement of
+  nuisances</i> is the remedy allowed to a person injured by a public or
+  private nuisance, of destroying or removing it himself. A <i>plea in
+  abatement</i> is brought <!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page3"></a>[3]</span>forward by a defendant when he wishes to
+  defeat or quash a particular action on some formal or technical ground.
+  Abatement, in mercantile law, is an allowance, deduction, or discount
+  made for prompt payment or other reason.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;attis,</b> or <b>Abatis,</b> in field engineering, a mass
+  of trees cut down and laid with their branches turned towards the enemy
+  in such a way as to form a defence for troops stationed behind them.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abattoir</b> (ab-at-wär&prime;). See <i>Slaughter-house</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abauzit,</b> Firmin (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-b&#x14D;-z&#x113;), a French Protestant
+  scholar, was born in 1679 and died in 1767. He lived chiefly at Geneva,
+  but visited England and was highly esteemed by Newton, who considered him
+  not unfit to be judge between himself and Leibnitz in the quarrel as to
+  the invention of the integral and differential calculus. Collections of
+  his works were published at Geneva (1770) and at London (1773).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abba,</b> a Syrian word equivalent to 'father', which, being
+  applied in the Eastern Church to monks, superiors of monks, and other
+  ecclesiastics, gave rise to the word <i>abbot</i>. In the Syriac and
+  Coptic Churches it is given to bishops.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbadie</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>b-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-d&#x113;), Antoine Thomson and Arnaud
+  Michel d', French travellers, born in Dublin in 1810 and 1815
+  respectively. They lived for years in Abyssinia, and published valuable
+  works on that country: Arnaud, <i>Douze Ans dans la Haute-Éthiopie</i>;
+  Antoine, <i>Géodésie de la Haute-Éthiopie</i>, &amp;c. Arnaud died in
+  1893, Antoine in 1897.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbas I,</b> the <i>Great</i>, Shah or King of Persia, born in
+  1557, ascended the throne in 1586, at a time when the Turks and hordes of
+  Usbek Tartars had made great encroachments on the country. Having
+  defeated the Usbeks, recovered the provinces overrun by them, and reduced
+  a great part of Afghanistan, he made war against the Turks, and in 1605
+  defeated them near Bussorah, thus getting back all the lost provinces. He
+  extended his rule beyond Persia proper, and at his death in 1628 his
+  dominions stretched from the Tigris to the Indus. He is looked upon by
+  the Persians as their greatest sovereign.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbas II, Hilmi,</b> ex-Khedive of Egypt, was born in 1874. He is
+  the eldest son of Tewfik Pasha, and succeeded his father in 1892. During
+  his reign he adopted an unfriendly attitude towards England, but he
+  failed in his attempt to form an anti-British Cabinet in 1893. On 19th
+  Dec., 1914, the British Government issued a proclamation deposing Abbas
+  Hilmi and conferring the title of Sultan of Egypt upon Hussein Kamil,
+  eldest living prince of the family of Mohammed Ali-Hussein Kamil, who
+  died in 1917. See <i>Egypt</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbas Mirza,</b> a Persian prince and soldier, was the son of the
+  shah Feth Ali; born 1783, died 1833; he greatly distinguished himself in
+  the wars against Russia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbasids,</b> or <b>Abbassides</b> (ab&prime;as-sidz), the name of
+  the second Arabian dynasty which supplanted the Ommiades. It traced its
+  descent from Abbas (born 566, died 652), uncle of Mahomet, and gave
+  thirty-seven caliphs to Bagdad between 749 and 1258. Harun al Rashid was
+  a member of this dynasty. See <i>Caliphs</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbate</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>b-bä&prime;t&#x101;), the Italian term
+  corresponding to <i>Abbé</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbé</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>b-&#x101;), a French word for abbot, or
+  for anyone regularly wearing the clerical dress. Before the Revolution,
+  all who had studied theology, either with the view of becoming ordained
+  clergymen or merely of obtaining some ecclesiastical appointment or
+  benefice, were generally so designated. Marked out by their special
+  dress, a short, violet-coloured robe, they were seen everywhere&mdash;at
+  court, the ball, the theatre, and in private families, where they acted
+  sometimes as tutors and sometimes as confidential advisers. Others,
+  again, adopted the literary profession or became teachers in the higher
+  educational establishments.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbe,</b> Cleveland, American meteorologist and astronomer, born at
+  New York in 1838, and educated at Harvard. He held various positions in
+  connection with observatories and other institutions in America, and was
+  for some time chief meteorologist in the United States Weather Bureau. He
+  wrote much on meteorology and kindred subjects. He died in 1916. His
+  works include: <i>The Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere</i>;
+  <i>Relations between Climates and Crops</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbeoku&prime;ta,</b> a town of West Africa, in the Lagos Province
+  of S. Nigeria, on the Ogun River, and on the railway from Lagos to N.
+  Nigeria, 45 miles north of Lagos, consists chiefly of mud houses,
+  surrounded by a mud wall. Pop. 50,000 to 100,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;bess</b>. See <i>Abbey</i> and <i>Abbot</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbeville</b> (ancient <b>Abbatis Villa</b>), a town of France,
+  department of the Somme, on the River Somme (which is here tidal), 108
+  miles <span class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Paris. The town is first
+  mentioned in the ninth century, when it belonged to the Abbey of St.
+  Riquier. It has a Gothic church (St. Vulfran) (begun in the fifteenth
+  century and completed in the seventeenth), which has a magnificent west
+  front in the Flamboyant style. It manufactures woollens, sail-cloth,
+  chemicals, &amp;c. Pop. 20,373.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;bey,</b> a monastery or religious community of the highest
+  class, governed by an <i>abbot</i>, assisted generally by a prior,
+  sub-prior, and other subordinate functionaries; or, in the case of a
+  female community, superintended by an <i>abbess</i>. An abbey invariably
+  included a church. A priory differed from an abbey only in being <!--
+  Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>[4]</span>scarcely so
+  extensive an establishment, and was governed by a <i>prior</i>. In the
+  English conventual cathedral establishments, as Canterbury, Norwich, Ely,
+  &amp;c., the archbishops or bishops held the abbot's place, the immediate
+  governor of the monastery being called a prior. Some priories sprang
+  originally from the more important abbeys, and remained under the
+  jurisdiction of the abbots; but subsequently any real distinction between
+  abbeys and priories was lost. The greater abbeys formed most complete and
+  extensive establishments, including not only the church and other
+  buildings devoted to the monastic life and its daily requirements, such
+  as the refectory or eating-room, the dormitories or sleeping-rooms, the
+  room for social intercourse, the school for novices, the scribes' cells,
+  library, &amp;c., but also workshops, storehouses, mills, cattle and
+  poultry sheds, dwellings for artisans, labourers, and other servants,
+  infirmary, guest-house, &amp;c. Among the most famous abbeys on the
+  continent of Europe were those of Cluny, Clairvaux, and Citeaux in
+  France; St. Galle in Switzerland, and Fulda in Germany; the most
+  noteworthy English abbeys were those of Westminster, St. Mary's of York,
+  Fountains, Kirkstall, Tintern, Rievaulx, Netley; and of Scotland,
+  Melrose, Paisley, and Arbroath.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:66%;">
+      <a href="images/image005.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image005.jpg"
+      alt="Plan of Fountains Abbey" title="Plan of Fountains Abbey" /></a>
+    Plan of Fountains Abbey
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Abbiategrasso</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>b-b&#x113;-ä&prime;t&#x101;-gra<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-s&#x14D;), a town in
+  the north of Italy, 15 miles <span class="scac">W.S.W.</span> of Milan.
+  Pop. 13,148.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;bot</b> (from the Syriac <i>abba</i>, father), the head of
+  an abbey (see <i>Abbey</i>), the lady of similar rank being called
+  <i>abbess</i> (<i>abbatissa</i>). An abbess, however, was not, like the
+  abbot, allowed to exercise the spiritual functions of the priesthood,
+  such as preaching, confessing, &amp;c.; nor did abbesses ever succeed in
+  freeing themselves from the control of their diocesan bishop. In the
+  early age of monastic institutions (<i>circ.</i> <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 300-600) the monks were not priests, but simply
+  laymen who retired from the world to live in common, and the abbot was
+  also a layman. In the course of time the abbots were usually ordained,
+  and when an abbey was directly attached to a cathedral the bishop was
+  also the abbot, but the functions devolving on the head of a monastery
+  were, in this case, performed by a prior. At first the abbeys were more
+  remarkable for their numbers than for their magnitude, but afterwards
+  many of them were large and richly endowed, and the heads of such
+  establishments became personages of no small influence and power, more
+  especially after the abbots succeeded (by the eleventh century) in
+  freeing themselves from the jurisdiction of the bishop of their diocese.
+  Hence families of the highest rank might be seen eagerly striving to
+  obtain the titles of abbot and abbess for their members. The great object
+  was to obtain control over the revenues of the abbeys, and for this
+  purpose recourse was had to the device of holding them under a kind of
+  trust, or, as it was called, <i>in commendam</i>. According to the
+  original idea, the abbot <i>in commendam</i>, or 'commendator', was
+  merely a temporary trustee, who drew the whole or part of the revenues
+  during a vacancy, and was bound to apply them to specific purposes; but
+  ultimately the commendator or lay abbot in many instances held the
+  appointment for life, and was allowed to apply the whole or a large
+  portion of the revenues to his own private use. Many of the abbots vied
+  with the bishops and nobility in rank and dignity. In England abbots long
+  sat in the House of Lords, ranking next after barons. Seventeen of them
+  were present on 28th June, 1539, the last occasion when the abbots as a
+  body sat in Parliament. The Reformation introduced vast changes, not <!--
+  Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"></a>[5]</span>only in
+  Protestant countries, where abbeys and all other monastic establishments
+  were generally suppressed, but even in countries which still continued
+  Roman Catholic; many sovereigns, whilst displaying their zeal for the
+  Roman Catholic Church by persecuting its opponents, did not scruple to
+  imitate them in the confiscation of Church property.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbot</b> (or Lord) <b>of Misrule,</b> the personage who took the
+  chief part in the Christmas revelries of the English populace before the
+  Reformation. In Scotland he was called Abbot of Unreason.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbot,</b> George, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in 1562 and
+  died in 1633. He studied at Oxford, assisted in the translation of the
+  Bible, was made Bishop of Lichfield in 1609, next year Bishop of London,
+  and in 1611 Archbishop of Canterbury. He retained the favour of James I
+  to the last, but after the accession of Charles I his influence at Court
+  was superseded by that of Laud. He published several works, chiefly
+  theological, and <i>A Brief Description of the Whole World</i>
+  (1599).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;botsford,</b> the country-seat of Sir Walter Scott, on the
+  south bank of the Tweed, in Roxburghshire, 3 miles from Melrose, in the
+  midst of picturesque scenery, forming an extensive and irregular pile in
+  the Scottish baronial style of architecture.&mdash;<i>Abbotsford
+  Club</i>, a club established at Edinburgh for printing works throwing
+  light on matters of history or literature connected with the writings of
+  Sir Walter Scott; issued 34 vols. 1835-64.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;bott,</b> Rev. Edwin, <span class="scac">D.D.</span>,
+  prolific writer on theological, educational, and other subjects, born in
+  London, 1838, was educated at the City of London School and St. John's
+  College, Cambridge, where he highly distinguished himself; he was head
+  master of the City of London School from 1865 to 1889, when he retired.
+  His <i>Shakespearian Grammar</i> (1870) is one of his best contributions
+  to English philology. Among his theological and kindred writings are:
+  <i>Through Nature to Christ</i>; <i>Bible Lessons</i>; <i>Cambridge
+  Sermons</i>; <i>Oxford Sermons</i>; the elaborate article <i>Gospels</i>
+  in the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> (9th edition); <i>From Letter to
+  Spirit</i>. Other works are: <i>Philochristus</i> and <i>Onesimus</i>,
+  both romances on the history of the Early Christian Church; <i>Francis
+  Bacon, an Account of his Life and Works</i>; <i>St. Thomas of Canterbury,
+  his Death and Miracles</i>; <i>The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman</i>
+  (a very depreciatory estimate); <i>Flatland, a Romance of Many
+  Dimensions</i>. He also wrote: <i>Johannine Grammar</i> (1906), <i>The
+  Message of the Son of Man</i> (1909), <i>The Fourfold Gospel</i>
+  (1913-7).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;bott,</b> Jacob, a popular American writer, especially of
+  entertaining and instructive books for the young. He was born in 1803 and
+  died in 1879. For a time he was a teacher and later a clergyman.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;bott,</b> Thomas Kingsmill, <span
+  class="scac">D.D.</span>, biblical scholar and writer on philosophic and
+  other subjects, born at Dublin, 1829, died 18th Dec., 1913. He studied
+  with distinction at Trinity College, and was successively professor in
+  Dublin University of moral philosophy, 1867-72; of biblical Greek,
+  1875-88; and of Hebrew, 1879-1900; he was at one time librarian of the
+  College. He has written <i>Sight and Touch</i>, directed against the
+  Berkeleian theory of vision; <i>Elements of Logic</i>; <i>Essays, chiefly
+  on the Original Texts of the Old and New Testaments</i>; <i>Notes on some
+  Epistles of St. Paul</i>; <i>Elementary Theory of the Tides</i>;
+  <i>Translation of Kant's Theory of Ethics</i>; <i>Kant's Introduction to
+  Logic</i>; <i>Commentary on Ephesians and Colossians</i>; &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abbrevia&prime;tions,</b> devices used in writing and printing to
+  save time and space, consisting usually of curtailments effected in words
+  and syllables by the removal of some letters, often of the whole of the
+  letters except the first. The following is a list of the more
+  important:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote class="b1n">
+
+  <p>A.B., <i>artium baccalaureus</i>, bachelor of arts (more commonly
+  B.A.); also, able-bodied seaman. Abp., archbishop. A.C., <i>ante
+  Christum</i>, before Christ. Ac., acre. Acc., A/c, or Acct., account.
+  A.D., <i>anno Domini</i>, in the year of our Lord: used also as if
+  equivalent to 'after Christ', or 'of the Christian era'. A.D.C.,
+  aide-de-camp. Ad lib., <i>ad libitum</i>, at pleasure. A.D.O.S.,
+  assistant director of ordnance stores. A.D.V.S., assistant director of
+  veterinary services. Æt. or Ætat. <i>ætatis</i> (<i>anno</i>), in the
+  year of his age. A.G., attorney-general, adjutant-general. A.H., <i>anno
+  Hegiræ</i>, in the year of the Hegira. A.I.A., associate of the Institute
+  of Actuaries. A.Inst.C.E., associate of the Institution of Civil
+  Engineers. A.I.Mech.E., associate of the Institute of Mechanical
+  Engineers. A.M., <i>ante meridiem</i>, forenoon; <i>anno mundi</i>, in
+  the year of the world; <i>artium magister</i>, master of arts.
+  A.M.I.E.E., associate member of the Institute of Electrical Engineers.
+  A.M.I.Mech.E., associate member of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers.
+  A.M.Inst.C.E., associate member of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
+  Anon., anonymous. A.P.D., army pay department. A.R.A., associate of Royal
+  Academy (London). A.R.A.M., associate of the Royal Academy of Music.
+  A.R.C.O., associate of the Royal College of Organists. A.R.I.B.A.,
+  associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects. A.R.S.A.,
+  associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. A.U.C., <i>ab urbe condita</i>,
+  from the building of Rome (753 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>). A.V.,
+  authorized version; artillery volunteers.</p>
+
+  <p>B.A., bachelor of arts. Bart, or Bt., baronet. B.C., before Christ.
+  B.C.L., bachelor of civil law. B.D., bachelor of divinity. B.L., bachelor
+  of law. B.M., bachelor of medicine. Bp., bishop. B.S., bachelor of
+  surgery. B.Sc., bachelor of science. B.V.M., blessed Virgin Mary.</p>
+
+  <p>C., cap., or chap., chapter. C.A., chartered accountant. Cantab.,
+  <i>Cantabrigiensis</i>, of Cambridge. Cantuar., <i>Cantuariensis</i>, of
+  Canterbury. C.B., companion of the Bath. C.B.E., commander of the British
+  Empire. C.C., Catholic curate; county councillor. C.D.V., <i>carte de
+  visite</i>. C.E., civil engineer. Cf., <i>confer</i>, compare. Ch.B.,
+  <i>chirurgiæ baccalaureus</i>, bachelor of surgery. C.I., order of the
+  Crown of India. C.I.E., companion of the order of the Indian Empire.
+  C.J., chief justice. C.M., <i>chirurgiæ magister</i>, master in surgery;
+  common metre. C.M.G., companion of the order of St. Michael and St.
+  George. C.M.S., Church Missionary Society. Co., company or county.
+  C.O.D., cash on delivery. Col., colonel, colony. Coll., college. Cr.,
+  creditor. C.S., civil service; clerk to the signet. C.S.I., companion of
+  the Star of India. C.T.C., Cyclists' Touring Club. Curt., current, the
+  present month. C.V.O., commander of the Royal Victorian Order. Cwt.,
+  hundredweight.</p>
+
+  <p><i>d.</i>, <i>denarius</i>, penny or pence. D.C.L., doctor of civil
+  law. D.C.M., Distinguished Conduct Medal. D.D., doctor of divinity. Del.,
+  <i>delineavit</i>, drew it. D.F., defender of the <!-- Page 6 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>[6]</span>faith. D.G., <i>Dei
+  gratia</i>, by the grace of God. D.L., deputy lieutenant. D.Lit.,
+  D.Litt., <i>doctor litterarum</i>, doctor of letters or literature. Do.,
+  <i>ditto</i>, the same. D.O.M., <i>Deo Optimo Maximo</i>, to God, the
+  best and greatest. D.P.H., diploma in public health. D.Phil., doctor of
+  philosophy. Dr., doctor, also debtor. D.Sc., doctor of science. D.S.O.,
+  Distinguished Service Order. D.V., <i>Deo volente</i>, God willing. Dwt.,
+  pennyweight.</p>
+
+  <p>E., east. Ebor., <i>Eboracensis</i>, of York. E.C., Established
+  Church. E.C.U., English Church Union. E.E., errors excepted. e.g.,
+  <i>exempli gratia</i>, for example. Etc. or &amp;c., <i>et cetera</i>,
+  and the rest.</p>
+
+  <p>F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit's thermometer. F.A., Football Association.
+  F.A.S., fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F.B.A., fellow of the British
+  Academy. F.C., Free Church. F.C.P., fellow of the College of Preceptors.
+  F.C.S., fellow of the Chemical Society. F.D., <i>fidei defensor</i>,
+  defender of the faith. Fec., <i>fecit</i>, he made or did it. F.F.A.,
+  fellow of the Faculty of Actuaries. F.F.P.S., fellow of the Faculty of
+  Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow). F.G.S., fellow of the Geological
+  Society. F.H.S., fellow of the Horticultural Society. F.I.A., fellow of
+  the Institute of Actuaries. Fl., flourished. F.L.S., fellow of the
+  Linnæan Society. F.M., field-marshal. F.O.B., free on board (goods
+  delivered). F.R.A.S., fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. F.R.C.O.,
+  fellow of the Royal College of Organists. F.R.C.P., fellow of the Royal
+  College of Physicians. F.R.C.S., fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.
+  F.R.G.S., fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. F.R.I.B.A., fellow of
+  the Royal Institute of British Architects. F.R.S., fellow of the Royal
+  Society. F.R.S.E., fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. F.S.A.,
+  fellow of the Society of Arts or Antiquaries. F.S.S., fellow of the
+  Statistical Society. Ft., foot or feet. F.Z.S., fellow of the Zoological
+  Society.</p>
+
+  <p>Gal., gallon. G.B.E., (knight) grand cross of the British Empire.
+  G.C.B., (knight) grand cross of the Bath. G.C.I.E., (knight) grand
+  commander of the Indian Empire. G.C.M.G., (knight) grand cross of St.
+  Michael and St. George. G.C.S.I., (knight) grand commander of the Star of
+  India. G.C.V.O., (knight) grand cross of the Royal Victorian Order. G.R.,
+  Georgius Rex, King George. G.R.I., Georgius Rex Imperator; George, King
+  and Emperor. G.P.O., general post office.</p>
+
+  <p>H.B.M., his or her Britannic majesty. H.E.I.C.S., honourable East
+  India Company's service. Hhd., hogshead. H.I.H., his or her imperial
+  highness. H.M.I.S., his majesty's inspector of schools. H.M.S., his or
+  her majesty's ship. Hon., honourable. H.Q., Head-quarters. H.R.H., his
+  (her) royal highness. H.S.H., his (her) serene highness.</p>
+
+  <p>Ib. or Ibid., <i>ib&#x12B;dem</i>, in the same place. Id.,
+  <i>idem</i>, the same. i.e., <i>id est</i>, that is. +I.H.S., <i>Jesus
+  hominum salvator</i>, Jesus the Saviour of men: originally it was <span
+  title="IÊS" class="grk">&Iota;&Eta;&Sigma;</span>, the first three
+  letters of <span title="IÊSOUS" class="grk"
+  >&Iota;&Eta;&Sigma;&Omicron;&Upsilon;&Sigma;</span>
+  (<i>I&#x113;sous</i>), Greek for <i>Jesus</i>. Incog., <i>incognito</i>,
+  unknown. Inf., <i>infra</i>, below. I.N.R.I., <i>Iesus Nazarenus Rex
+  Iudæorum</i>, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Inst., instant, or of
+  this month; institute. Inv., <i>invenit</i>, designed, invented.
+  I.O.G.T., Independent Order of Good Templars. I.O.U., I owe you. I.S.O.,
+  Imperial Service Order.</p>
+
+  <p>J.P., justice of the peace. Jr., junior. J.U.D., <i>juris utriusque
+  doctor</i>, doctor both of the civil and the canon law.</p>
+
+  <p>K.B.E., knight commander of the British Empire. K.C., king's counsel.
+  K.C.B., knight commander of the Bath. K.C.M.G., knight commander of St.
+  Michael and St. George. K.C.I.E., knight commander of the Indian Empire.
+  K.C.S.I., knight commander of the Star of India. K.C.V.O., knight
+  commander of the Royal Victorian Order. K.G., knight of the Garter. K.P.,
+  knight of St. Patrick. K.T., knight of the Thistle. Kt. or Knt.,
+  knight.</p>
+
+  <p>L., l, or £, pounds sterling. L.A., literate in arts. L.A.S.,
+  licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society. Lat., latitude; Latin. Lb. or
+  lb., <i>libra</i>, a pound (weight). L.C., <i>loco citato</i>, in the
+  place cited. L.C.J., lord chief-justice. L.C.P., licentiate of the
+  College of Preceptors. Ldp., lordship. L.D.S., licentiate in dental
+  surgery. Litt.D., <i>litterarum doctor</i>, doctor of literature. L.L.,
+  Low Latin. L.L.A., lady literate in arts. LL.B., <i>legum
+  baccalaureus</i>, bachelor of laws. LL.D., <i>legum doctor</i>, doctor of
+  laws (that is, the civil and the canon law). LL.M., <i>legum
+  magister</i>, master of laws. Lon. or long., longitude. Loq.,
+  <i>loquitur</i>, speaks. L.R.C.P., licentiate Royal College of Physicians
+  (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.S., licentiate Royal College of Surgeons
+  (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.V.S., licentiate of the Royal College of
+  Veterinary Surgeons. L.S., <i>locus sigilli</i>, the place of the seal
+  (on documents). L.S.A., licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries.
+  L.S.D., <i>libræ, solidi, denarii</i>, pounds, shillings, pence.</p>
+
+  <p>M.A., master of arts. M.B., <i>medicinæ baccalaureus</i>, bachelor of
+  medicine. M.B.E., member of the British Empire. M.D., <i>medicinæ
+  doctor</i>, doctor of medicine. M.E., mining engineer. Messrs.,
+  messieurs, gentlemen. M.F.H., master of fox-hounds. M.Inst.C.E., member
+  of the Institution of Civil Engineers. M.I.E.E., member of the Institute
+  of Electrical Engineers. M.I.M.E., member of the Institute of Mining and
+  Mechanical Engineers. M.I.Mech.E., member of the Institution of
+  Mechanical Engineers. Mlle., mademoiselle. Mme., madame. M.P., member of
+  Parliament. M.R.C.S., member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
+  M.R.C.V.S., member of the Royal College of Veterinary surgeons. M.R.I.A.,
+  member of the Royal Irish Academy. MS., manuscript; MSS., manuscripts.
+  Mus.D., <i>musicæ doctor</i>, doctor of music. M.V.O., member of the
+  Royal Victorian Order.</p>
+
+  <p>N., north. N.B., <i>nota bene</i>, take notice; also North Britain,
+  New Brunswick. N.D., no date. Nem. con., <i>nemine contradicente</i>, no
+  one contradicting, unanimously. No., <i>numero</i>, number. N.P., notary
+  public. N.S., new style, Nova Scotia. N.S.W., New South Wales. N.T., New
+  Testament. N.Y., New York. N.Z., New Zealand.</p>
+
+  <p>Ob., <i>obiit</i>, died. O.B.E., officer of the British Empire. Obs.,
+  obsolete. Obt., obedient. O.C., officer commanding. O.H.M.S., on his
+  majesty's service. O.M., Order of Merit. O.P., out of print. Op. cit.,
+  <i>opere citato</i>, in the work quoted. O.S., old style. O.T., Old
+  Testament. Oxon., <i>Oxoniensis</i>, of Oxford. Oz., ounce or ounces.</p>
+
+  <p>P., page; pp., pages. Par., paragraph. P.C., privy-councillor. P.E.,
+  Protestant Episcopal. Per cent., <i>per centum</i>, by the hundred.
+  Ph.D., <i>philosophiæ doctor</i>, doctor of philosophy. Pinx.,
+  <i>pinxit</i>, painted (it). P.M., <i>post meridiem</i>, afternoon. P.O.,
+  post office. P.O.O., post office order. P.P., parish priest. P.P.C.,
+  <i>pour prendre congé</i>, to take leave. Prox., <i>proximo (mense)</i>,
+  next month. P.R.A., president of the Royal Academy. P.R.S.A., president
+  of the Royal Scottish Academy. P.S., postscript. P.T.O., please turn over
+  (the leaf).</p>
+
+  <p>Q., question, queen. Q.E.D., <i>quod erat demonstrandum</i>, which was
+  to be demonstrated. Q.E.F., <i>quod erat faciendum</i>, which was to be
+  done. Q.M., quarter-master. Q.M.G., quarter-master-general. Qu., query.
+  Quant. suff., <i>quantum sufficit</i>, as much as is needful. Q.V.,
+  <i>quod vide</i>, which see.</p>
+
+  <p>R., <i>rex, regina</i>, king, queen. R.A., royal academician; Royal
+  Artillery. R.A.M., Royal Academy of Music. R.A.M.C., Royal Army Medical
+  Corps. R.A.O.D., Royal Army Ordnance Department. R.A.S.C., Royal Army
+  Service Corps. R.C., Roman Catholic. R.C.P., Royal College of Physicians.
+  R.C.S., Royal College of Surgeons. R.E., Royal Engineers. Rev., reverend.
+  R.I.P., <i>requiescat in pace</i>, may he rest in peace. R.M., Royal
+  Marines. R.N., Royal Navy. R.S.A., royal Scottish academician. R.S.E.,
+  Royal Society of Edinburgh. R.S.L., Royal Society of Literature.
+  R.S.V.P., <i>répondez s'il vous plaît</i>, reply, if you please. Rt.
+  Hon., right honourable. Rt. Wpful., right worshipful. R.V., revised
+  version.</p>
+
+  <p>S., south. S. or St., saint. Sc., <i>scilicet</i>, namely, viz. S.J.,
+  Society of Jesus (Jesuits). S.P.C.A., Society for the Prevention of
+  Cruelty to Animals. S.P.C.C., Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
+  Children. S.P.C.K., Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. S.P.G.,
+  Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. S.P.Q.R., <i>senatus
+  populusque Romanus</i>, the senate and people of Rome. S.S.C., solicitor
+  before the supreme courts. S.S.M., Society of the Sacred Mission. St.,
+  saint, street. S.T.D., <i>sacræ theologiæ doctor</i>, doctor of divinity.
+  S.T.P., <i>sacræ theologiæ professor</i>, an old-fashioned equivalent of
+  D.D.</p>
+
+  <p>T.C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. T.O., telegraph office.</p>
+
+  <p>U.F.C., United Free Church. U.K., United Kingdom. Ult., <i>ultimo</i>,
+  last (month). U.P., United Presbyterian. U.S., United States. U.S.A.,
+  United States of America. U.S.N., United States Navy.</p>
+
+  <p>V., <i>vide</i>, see; also <i>versus</i>, against. V.C., Victoria
+  Cross. Viz., <i>videlicet</i>, to wit, or namely. V.P., vice-president.
+  V.S., veterinary surgeon. W., west. W.I., West Indies. W.L.F., Women's
+  Liberal Federation. W.O., War Office. W.S.P.U., Women's Social and
+  Political Union. W.S. writer to the signet (Scotland).</p>
+
+  <p>Xmas, Christmas.</p>
+
+  <p>Y.M.C.A., Young Men's Christian Association. Y.W.C.A., Young Women's
+  Christian Association.</p>
+
+  <p>In LL.D., LL.B., &amp;c., the letter is doubled, according to the
+  Roman system, to show that the abbreviation represents a plural noun.</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+  <p><b>Abd-el-Ka&prime;der,</b> an Arab chief, born in Algeria, 1807; died
+  at Damascus, 1883. He was the chief opponent of the French in their <!--
+  Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>[7]</span>conquest of
+  Algeria, but at last surrendered to them in 1847, and was imprisoned till
+  set at liberty by Napoleon III in 1852. He afterwards resided chiefly at
+  Damascus, but made various journeys, and visited the Paris exhibition of
+  1867. He wrote a religious philosophical work in Arabic which has been
+  translated into French.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abde&prime;ra,</b> an ancient Greek city on the Thracian coast, the
+  birthplace of Democritus (the laughing philosopher), Anaxarchus, and
+  Protagoras. Its inhabitants were proverbial for stupidity.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abdica&prime;tion,</b> properly the voluntary, but sometimes also
+  the involuntary, resignation of an office or dignity, and more especially
+  that of sovereign power. Abdication does not necessarily require the
+  execution of a formal deed, but may be presumed from facts and
+  circumstances, as in the case of the English Revolution in 1688, when,
+  after long debate, it was resolved by both Houses of Parliament that King
+  James II, having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom,
+  had "<i>abdicated</i> the government, and that the throne is thereby
+  vacant". Yet the sovereign of Great Britain cannot constitutionally
+  abdicate without the consent of both Houses of Parliament. The principal
+  abdications in recent years were: Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, 14th March,
+  1917; King Constantine of Greece, 11th June, 1917; King Ferdinand of
+  Bulgaria, 6th Oct., 1918; Wilhelm II of Germany, 9th Nov., 1918; Karl I
+  of Austria, 13th Nov., 1918; and Marie Adelaide, Grand-Duchess of
+  Luxembourg, 15th Jan., 1919.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/image006.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image006.jpg"
+      alt="Abdominal Regions" title="Abdominal Regions" /></a>
+    Abdominal Regions.
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Abdo&prime;men,</b> in man, the belly, or lower cavity of the
+  trunk, separated from the upper cavity or thorax by the diaphragm or
+  midriff, and bounded below by the bones of the pelvis. It contains the
+  viscera belonging to the digestive and urinary systems. What are called
+  the <i>abdominal regions</i> will be understood from the accompanying
+  cut, in which 1 is the <i>epigastric</i> region, 2 the <i>umbilical</i>,
+  3 the <i>pubic</i>, 4 4 the right and left <i>hypochondriac</i>, 5 5 the
+  right and left <i>lumbar</i>, 6 6 right and left <i>iliac</i>. The name
+  is given to the corresponding portion of the body in other animals. In
+  insects it comprises the whole body behind the thorax, usually consisting
+  of a series of rings. See <i>Alimentary Canal</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abdom&prime;inal Fishes</b> (Abdomin&#x101;les), a group of the
+  soft-finned (or malacopterous) fishes, having fins upon the abdomen, and
+  comprising the herring, pike, salmon, carp, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abduc&prime;tion,</b> a legal term, generally applied to denote the
+  offence of carrying off a female either forcibly or by fraudulent
+  representations. Such a delinquency in regard to a man is styled
+  <i>kidnapping</i>. There are various descriptions of abduction recognized
+  in criminal jurisprudence, such as that of a child, of an heiress, or of
+  a wife.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;dul-Az&prime;iz,</b> Sultan of Turkey, was born in Feb.,
+  1830, and succeeded his brother Abdul-Mejid, in June, 1861. He concluded
+  treaties of commerce with France and England, both of which countries he
+  visited in 1867. Deposed in May, 1876, he committed suicide, or more
+  probably was assassinated, in June of the same year. He was succeeded by
+  his son Murad V. See next article.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;dul-Ham&prime;id,</b> Sultan of Turkey, younger son of
+  Abdul-Mejid, born 22nd Sept., 1842, succeeded his brother Murad V, who
+  was deposed on proof of his insanity in 1876. At that time Turkey, which
+  was at war with Serbia, was compelled to agree to an armistice at the
+  demand of Russia. The persecution and oppression of the Christian
+  population of Bulgaria had roused remonstrances from other European
+  countries, and a congress met at Constantinople to consider a
+  constitution which the Porte had proclaimed. The conference was a
+  failure, and in April, 1877, war was declared by Russia. During the
+  sanguinary struggle which ensued the Turks fought with great bravery, but
+  they had ultimately to sue for peace. A treaty was signed at San Stefano
+  in Feb., 1878, but its provisions were modified by a congress of the
+  Great Powers which met at Berlin. The island of Cyprus was ceded to
+  Britain. Serbia, Rumania, and Montenegro were freed from Turkish
+  suzerainty altogether; Bulgaria was left in nominal dependence; whilst
+  Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian administration. In 1881
+  Thessaly was transferred to Greece; in 1885 E. Roumelia became united to
+  Bulgaria. Ever since the treaty of Berlin, Abdul Hamid saw in Germany the
+  future friend of Turkey. He therefore entrusted Germans with the
+  reorganization of his army and finances. Subsequently there were
+  massacres of Christians, a war with Greece (1897), and troubles in Crete
+  and Macedonia. In April, 1909, the Sultan was deposed, and his brother,
+  Rashid Effendi, proclaimed sultan as Mohammed V. Abdul Hamid died in
+  captivity 10th Feb., 1918.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abd-ul-Lat&prime;if,</b> an Arab writer and physician, was born at
+  Bagdad in 1161 and died there in 1231. He was patronized by the
+  celebrated Saladin, and published an excellent description of Egypt,
+  which is still extant. It was translated into English by White, Oxford,
+  1800.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;dul-Mej&prime;id Khan,</b> Sultan of Turkey, born in 1823,
+  succeeded his father, Mahmud II, <!-- Page 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page8"></a>[8]</span>1st July, 1839. At the time of his accession
+  Mehemet, Pasha of Egypt, had risen a second time against the Turkish
+  yoke; his son Ibrahim had inflicted a severe defeat on the Turks at Nizib
+  (24th June, 1839), and was advancing on Constantinople. But the
+  intervention of the leading European Powers checked the designs of
+  Mehemet Ali, and saved the Turkish empire. Abdul-Mejid was desirous of
+  carrying out reforms, but most of them were not enforced, or caused
+  bloody insurrections where attempts were made to carry them out. Owing to
+  disputes between the Latin and Greek Churches regarding the rights of
+  precedence and possession of the 'holy places' in Palestine, and to
+  demands made by the Tsar virtually implying the right of protectorate
+  over the Christian subjects of the Sultan, war broke out between Turkey
+  and Russia in 1853. In the following year the Porte effected an alliance
+  with France and England (hence the Crimean War), and later on with
+  Sardinia. (See <i>Crimean War</i>.) Abdul-Mejid died 25th June, 1861, and
+  was succeeded by his brother, Abdul-Aziz.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abeceda&prime;rian,</b> a term formed from the first four letters
+  of the alphabet, and applied to the followers of Storch, a German
+  Anabaptist (1522), because they rejected all worldly knowledge, even the
+  learning of the alphabet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>À Becket,</b> Thomas. See <i>Becket</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>À Beck&prime;ett,</b> Gilbert Abbott, English writer, born near
+  London in 1811. He studied for the bar, and became one of the original
+  staff of <i>Punch</i>, was long a leader-writer to the <i>Times</i> and
+  the <i>Morning Herald</i>, and contributed articles to the <i>Illustrated
+  London News</i>. He wrote <i>Comic History of England</i>, <i>Comic
+  History of Rome</i>, and <i>Comic Blackstone</i>, and between fifty and
+  sixty plays. In 1849 he was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate,
+  which office he retained till his death in 1856.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abel,</b> properly <i>Hebel</i> (Heb. breath, vapour, vanity), the
+  second son of Adam. He was a shepherd, and was slain by his brother Cain
+  from jealousy because his sacrifice was accepted while Cain's was
+  rejected. Several of the fathers, among others St. Chrysostom and
+  Augustine, regard him as a type of the new, regenerate man.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abel,</b> Sir Frederick Augustus, chemist, was born in London,
+  1827; died 1902. Having adopted chemistry as a profession, he studied
+  under Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry, became professor of
+  chemistry at the Royal Military Academy in 1851, and was chemist to the
+  War Department and chemical adviser to the Government from 1854 to 1888.
+  He did useful work in connection with the chemistry of explosives
+  (especially gun-cotton), the flash-point of petroleum, &amp;c.; was
+  joint-inventor of cordite along with Dewar; and was also an authority on
+  the manufacture of steel. He was honoured with a baronetcy, and was also
+  a K.C.B. and a K.C.V.O. He wrote works on gunpowder, gun-cotton, and
+  explosives generally, and on electricity as applied to explosive
+  purposes. His works include: <i>The Modern History of Gunpowder</i>;
+  <i>Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abélard</b> (ab&prime;e-lärd), or <b>Abailard,</b> Peter, a
+  celebrated scholastic teacher, born near Nantes, in Brittany, in 1079. He
+  made extraordinary progress with his studies, and, ultimately eclipsing
+  his teachers, he opened a school of scholastic philosophy near Paris,
+  which attracted crowds of students from the neighbouring city. His
+  success in the fiery debates which were then the fashion in the schools
+  made him many enemies, among whom was Guillaume de Champeaux, his former
+  teacher, chief of the cathedral school of Notre-Dame, and the most
+  advanced of the Realists. Abélard succeeded his adversary in this school
+  (in 1113), and under him were trained many men who afterwards rose to
+  eminence, among them being the future Pope Celestin II, Peter Lombard,
+  and Arnold of Brescia. While he was at the height of his popularity, and
+  in his fortieth year, he fell violently in love with Heloise&mdash;then
+  eighteen years of age&mdash;niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris. They
+  obtained a home in Fulbert's house under the pretext of teaching Heloise
+  philosophy, and their intercourse at length became apparent. Abélard, who
+  had retired to Brittany, was followed by Heloise, who there gave birth to
+  a son, named Astrolabius. A private marriage took place, and Heloise
+  returned to her uncle's house, but, refusing to make public her marriage
+  (as likely to spoil Abélard's career), she was subjected to severe
+  treatment at the hands of her uncle. To save her from this Abélard
+  carried her off and placed her in a convent at Argenteuil, a proceeding
+  which so incensed Fulbert that he hired ruffians who broke into Abélard's
+  chamber and subjected him to a shameful mutilation. Abélard, filled with
+  grief and shame, became a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise
+  took the veil. When time had somewhat moderated his grief, he resumed his
+  lectures; but trouble after trouble overtook him. His theological
+  writings were condemned by the Council of Soissons, and he retired to an
+  oratory called the Paraclete, subsequently becoming head of the abbey of
+  St. Gildas-de-Rhuys in Brittany. For a short time he again lectured at
+  Paris (1136), but his doctrines once more brought persecution on him, and
+  St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the most powerful man in the Church in those
+  days, had him condemned by the Council of Sens and afterwards by the
+  Pope. Abélard did not long survive this, dying at St. <!-- Page 9
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>[9]</span>Marcel, near
+  Chalon-sur-Saône, 21st April, 1142. Heloise, who had become abbess of the
+  Paraclete, had him buried there, where she herself was afterwards laid by
+  his side. Their ashes were removed to Paris in 1800, and in 1817 they
+  were finally deposited beneath a mausoleum in the cemetery of Père la
+  Chaise. According to John of Salisbury, Abélard is credited with the
+  invention of a new philosophical system, midway between Realism and
+  Nominalism. In Ethics, Abélard seems to have attached importance to the
+  psychological element in the action, rather than to the action itself.
+  "The intention of sinning", he maintained, "is worse than the actual
+  physical sin." A complete edition of his works was published by Cousin (2
+  vols., Paris, 1849-59), and the letters of Abélard and Heloise have been
+  often published in the original and in translations. Pope's <i>Eloisa to
+  Abélard</i> is founded on them. Abélard's autobiography, entitled
+  <i>Story of my Calamities</i>, is still extant.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Charles de Rémusat, <i>Abélard</i> (2
+  vols.); J. M&lsquo;Cabe, <i>Life of Abélard</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abele</b> (a-b&#x113;l&prime;), a name of the white poplar.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;belite,</b> or Abe&prime;lian, a member of a religious sect
+  in Africa which arose in the fourth century after Christ. They married,
+  but lived in continence, after the manner, as they maintained, of Abel,
+  and attempted to keep up the sect by adopting the children of others.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abelmoschus</b> (-mos&prime;kus), a genus of tropical plants of the
+  mallow family. <i>A. esculentus</i>, cultivated in India, Algeria,
+  &amp;c., yields edible pods and also a valuable fibre. The fruit, called
+  <i>okro</i> or <i>ochro</i>, is used in soups.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abencerrages</b> (ab-en-ser&prime;a-jez), a powerful and
+  distinguished Moorish family of Granada, the chief members of which,
+  thirty-six in number, are said to have been massacred in the Alhambra by
+  the king Abu-Hassan (latter half of the fifteenth century) on account of
+  the attachment of his sister to one of them. There is a room in the
+  Alhambra which is still called 'the hall of the Abencerrages'. The legend
+  has furnished the subject of many poems both Arabic and Spanish (<i>Las
+  Guerras Civiles de Granada</i>, by Gines Perez de Hita), and formed the
+  basis for Chateaubriand's <i>Aventures du dernier des
+  Abencérages</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;en Ezra</b> (Ibn Ezra), a celebrated Jewish rabbi, born at
+  Toledo about 1093, travelled in pursuit of knowledge in England, France,
+  Italy, and Greece, and is supposed to have died in Rhodes about 1167. He
+  is best known as a commentator on Scripture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abensberg</b> (ä&prime;b&#x117;ns-ber<i>h</i>), a village of
+  Bavaria, in the Danube valley, below Ingolstadt, celebrated for
+  Napoleon's victory over the Austrians, 20th April, 1809.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abeoku&prime;ta</b>. See <i>Abbeokuta</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;er,</b> a prefix in Celtic geographical proper names
+  signifying the mouth or entrance of a river into the sea, or into another
+  stream. It is used chiefly in Wales and Scotland, having the same meaning
+  as <i>inver</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abera&prime;von,</b> a municipal borough of Wales in
+  Glamorganshire, near the mouth of the Avon in Swansea Bay, embracing
+  Aberavon proper and its harbour Port Talbot. There are collieries,
+  ironworks, copper-works, &amp;c. Since 1918 Aberavon gives its name to a
+  parliamentary division of the county. Pop. (municipal borough) (1921),
+  15,370.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aberbroth&prime;ock</b>. See <i>Arbroath</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abercarn&prime;,</b> an urban district or town of England,
+  Monmouthshire, 10½ miles north-west of Newport, with collieries,
+  ironworks, &amp;c. Pop. (1921), 20,123.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;ercrombie,</b> John, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, a
+  Scottish writer on medical and moral science, and an eminent physician,
+  born in Aberdeen, 1781, died at Edinburgh in 1844. He graduated at the
+  university of Edinburgh in 1803, and subsequently pursued his studies in
+  London, returning to Edinburgh in 1804, where he acquired an extensive
+  practice as a physician. Apart from medical treatises, he is known from
+  his <i>Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers</i> and his
+  <i>Philosophy of the Moral Feelings</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;ercrombie,</b> Patrick, a Scottish historical writer and
+  antiquary, born at Forfar, 1656; date of death uncertain. Educated at St.
+  Andrews and abroad, he took the degree of <span class="scac">M.D.</span>,
+  and practised as a physician in Edinburgh. In 1685 he was appointed
+  physician to James II. His chief work is <i>Martial Atchievements of the
+  Scots Nation</i>, 2 vols. folio, 1711-6.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;ercromby,</b> Sir Ralph, a British general, born in 1734
+  in Clackmannanshire, Scotland. He entered the army in 1756 as cornet in
+  the 3rd Dragoon Guards; and he gradually passed through all the ranks of
+  the service until he became a major-general in 1787. He served as
+  lieutenant-general in Flanders, 1793-5, and was then appointed
+  commander-in-chief of the forces in the West Indies, where he captured
+  the islands of Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad, with the
+  settlements of Demerara and Essequibo. On his return in 1798 he was
+  appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland; and he afterwards held a
+  corresponding command in Scotland. His next and concluding service was in
+  the expedition to Egypt, of which he was commander-in-chief. He landed,
+  after a severe fight, at Aboukir, 8th March, 1801; and on the 21st of the
+  same month the battle of Alexandria was fought, in which Sir Ralph was
+  mortally wounded.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aberdare</b> (-d&#x101;r&prime;), a town of South Wales, <!-- Page
+  10 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"></a>[10]</span>in
+  Glamorganshire, pleasantly situated at the junction of the Cynon and
+  Dare, 4 miles south-west of Merthyr-Tydfil, with extensive coal and iron
+  mines in the vicinity. It belongs to the parliamentary borough of
+  Merthyr-Tydfil. Pop. (1921), 55,010.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aberdeen&prime;,</b> a university city and royal, municipal, and
+  parliamentary burgh of Scotland, capital of the county of same name,
+  mainly on the north bank of the Dee at its entrance into the North Sea,
+  and between this river and the Don, with a part also on the south bank of
+  the Dee, while the municipal limits include the adjacent Woodside. The
+  site is in places somewhat hilly. Aberdeen is one of the oldest towns in
+  Scotland, and was constituted a royal burgh by William the Lion in 1179.
+  The streets are generally spacious and regular, the houses built of fine
+  grayish-white granite. There are many handsome public buildings, as the
+  County and Municipal Buildings, Marischal College, Grammar School,
+  Infirmary, Arts School, Art Gallery, Music Hall Buildings, public
+  library, &amp;c. The finest street, Union Street, made in 1800, is
+  carried over a valley by a granite bridge having an arch of 132 feet
+  span. The small portion of the city called Old Aberdeen, long a separate
+  town, consists mainly of a single street, stretching northwards to the
+  River Don. Its chief buildings are King's College and St. Machar's
+  Cathedral. Noteworthy features of the college buildings are the
+  crown-tower and the chapel, the latter containing some very fine old
+  carved woodwork. The cathedral, now used as a parish church, was
+  commenced about 1357. There are several bridges over the Dee and Don.
+  Over the latter is a fine old bridge (Brig o' Balgownie) of one arch,
+  erected according to some accounts by Robert Bruce. There are docks 34
+  acres in area, an extensive tidal harbour and basin, and a graving-dock.
+  The shipping trade is extensive. The industries embrace wool, jute,
+  linen, combs, soap, preserved provisions, chemicals, paper, shipbuilding,
+  engineering, and especially the cutting and polishing of granite. The
+  fishing industry is of great importance. The city of Aberdeen returns two
+  members to Parliament. Pop. 158,969.&mdash;<i>The County of Aberdeen</i>
+  forms the north-eastern portion of Scotland, and is bounded on the east
+  and north by the North Sea. Area, 1,261,521 acres. It is divided into six
+  districts (Mar, Formartine, Buchan, Alford, Garioch, and Strathbogie),
+  and is generally hilly, there being in the south-west some of the highest
+  mountains in Scotland, as Ben Macdhui (4295 feet), Cairntoul (4245),
+  Cairngorm (4090), Lochnagar, &amp;c. Its most valuable mineral is
+  granite, large quantities of which are exported. The principal rivers are
+  the Dee and the Don, both of which enter the sea at the town of Aberdeen.
+  Cereals (except wheat) and other crops succeed well, and the number of
+  acres under cultivation is nearly double that of any other Scottish
+  county. Great numbers of cattle are fattened and sent to London and the
+  south. On the banks of the upper Dee is situated Balmoral, a favourite
+  residence of Queen Victoria. Aberdeenshire and Kincardine unite in
+  sending three members to Parliament. Pop. 300,980.&mdash;<i>Aberdeen
+  University</i>, as now constituted, derives its origin from two different
+  foundations; one, the University and King's College (Old Aberdeen),
+  founded in 1494 by Bishop Elphinstone (who was bishop of Aberdeen from
+  1483-1514) under the authority of a papal bull obtained at the instance
+  of James IV; the other, Marischal College and University (New Aberdeen),
+  founded in 1593 by Geo. Keith, Earl Marischal, by a charter ratified by
+  act of Parliament. The two foundations existed as separate universities,
+  both having the right of conferring degrees, till 1860, when they were
+  united and incorporated into one university, the University of Aberdeen.
+  Holding the funds of both colleges and dating as from the foundation of
+  King's College in 1494, the university has about 300 bursaries or
+  exhibitions, mostly open to public competition, and a number of money
+  prizes and scholarships. The classes for arts and divinity are held in
+  King's College, and those for law and medicine in Marischal College.
+  There is a full teaching staff in the faculties of arts, medicine,
+  science, and divinity, and two professors in that of law. There are in
+  all 25 professors and some 900 matriculated students. The constitution of
+  the university is similar to that of Edinburgh and the other Scottish
+  universities. The library contains over 80,000 volumes. The university
+  unites with those of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews in sending three
+  members to Parliament.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aberdeen&prime;,</b> George Hamilton Gordon, Earl of, British
+  statesman, born 28th Jan., 1784, died 14th Dec., 1860. He began his
+  diplomatic life in 1801 as attaché to Lord Cornwallis's embassy to
+  France, which resulted in the signing of the treaty of Amiens. In 1806 he
+  entered Parliament as a Scottish representative peer, and in 1813 was
+  entrusted with a successful mission to Austria for the purpose of
+  inducing the emperor to join the coalition of sovereigns against
+  Bonaparte. In 1814 he was created a British peer, and in 1828 he became
+  foreign secretary in the Duke of Wellington's administration. During the
+  short premiership of Sir Robert Peel in 1834-5 he acted as colonial
+  secretary, and when Sir Robert again became premier in 1841 he took
+  office as Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He was a warm supporter of <!--
+  Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>[11]</span>Catholic
+  Emancipation, and endeavoured, though without result, to bring in a
+  compromise bill in 1846, during the struggle which divided the
+  Established Church of Scotland. Quitting office with his chief in 1846,
+  he came, on the death of Peel in 1850, to be regarded as the leader of
+  the Conservative free-trade party. On the Derby ministry failing to
+  maintain its place, Lord Aberdeen returned to office in the end of 1852
+  as head of a coalition ministry. The principal event which marked his
+  administration was the Crimean war; but the bad management of this
+  irritated the country, and the ministry resigned in 1855. This event
+  marks the close of Lord Aberdeen's public career. From his travels and
+  his acquaintance with Greece and its antiquities he was called by Byron
+  "the travelled thane, Athenian Aberdeen".</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;erdevine</b>. See <i>Siskin</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abergaven&prime;ny</b> (sometimes pron. ab-&#x117;r-ge&prime;ni,
+  the Roman <b>Gobannium</b>), a municipal borough and market town of
+  England, in Monmouthshire, situated amid delightful scenery in the
+  beautiful valley of the Usk. It manufactures woollens and shoes, and has
+  considerable trade. Pop. (1921), 9252.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abernethy</b> (ab-&#x117;r-neth&prime;i), John, an eminent English
+  surgeon, of somewhat eccentric habits, born in 1764 in London, a pupil of
+  the celebrated John Hunter. In 1787 he became assistant surgeon at St.
+  Bartholomew's Hospital, and shortly after lecturer on anatomy and
+  surgery. In 1815 he was elected principal surgeon, and under his auspices
+  the hospital attained a celebrity which it had never before enjoyed. He
+  published <i>Surgical Observations</i>; <i>The Constitutional Origin and
+  Treatment of Local Diseases</i>; and <i>Lectures</i>, explanatory of
+  Hunter's opinions of the vital processes; besides smaller essays. He died
+  in 1831.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aberra&prime;tion,</b> in astronomy, the difference between the
+  true and the observed position of a heavenly body, the result of the
+  combined effect of the motion of light and the motion of the eye of the
+  observer caused by the annual or diurnal motion of the earth; or of the
+  motion of light and that of the body from which the light proceeds. When
+  the auxiliary cause is the annual revolution of the earth round the sun
+  it is called <i>annual aberration</i>, in consequence of which a fixed
+  star may appear as much as 20.4" from its true position; when the
+  auxiliary cause is the diurnal rotation of the earth on its axis it is
+  called <i>diurnal aberration</i>, which amounts at the greatest to 0.3";
+  and when the auxiliary cause is the motion of the body from which the
+  light proceeds it is called <i>planetary aberration</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abersychan</b> (ab-&#x117;r-sik&prime;an), a town of Monmouthshire,
+  England, about 10 miles north of Newport, in a rich coal-mining district.
+  Pop. (1921), 27,089.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abertil&prime;lery,</b> an urban district or town of England,
+  Monmouthshire, 16 miles north-west of Newport, with tinplate works,
+  coal-mines, &amp;c. Since 1918 it gives its name to a parliamentary
+  division of the county. Pop. (1921), 38,805.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aberystwith</b> (ab-&#x117;r-ist&prime;with), a seaport and
+  fashionable watering-place of Wales, county of Cardigan, on Cardigan Bay.
+  The town is well built, and the surrounding country is picturesque. There
+  is here a University College of the University of Wales, occupying a
+  handsome Gothic building. Pop. (1921), 12,289.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abeyance,</b> in law, a legal term meaning that the title to
+  dignity, office, or real or personal property is not vested in anyone,
+  but is suspended until the right thereto is determined by the appearance
+  of the true owner. Under English law, when a nobleman dies leaving no
+  male issue, the title, if descendible to his heirs general, as in the
+  case of baronies by writ, is said to be in abeyance, until the king, by
+  his prerogative, terminates the abeyance in favour of one of the
+  co-heiresses. See <i>Property</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abgar,</b> title of the Syrian rulers at Edessa. The fourteenth
+  prince of the dynasty, a contemporary of the Roman emperor Tiberius
+  (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 14-37), is said to have written a letter
+  to our Saviour.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abhor&prime;rers,</b> in English history a name given to the Court
+  party in 1679-80, who, on petitions being presented to Charles II praying
+  him to summon Parliament, signed counter-petitions expressing
+  <i>abhorrence</i> for those who were thus attempting to encroach on the
+  royal prerogative.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;bib,</b> the first month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year,
+  and the seventh of the civil year, corresponding to the latter part of
+  March and the first of April. Also called <i>Nisan</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abies</b> (ab&prime;i-es), a genus of trees. See <i>Fir</i> and
+  <i>Spruce</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;ingdon,</b> a town of England, in Berkshire, 50 miles
+  north-west of London, on the right bank of the Thames. It was an
+  important place in Anglo-Saxon times, and Offa, King of Mercia, had a
+  palace in it. Formerly a parliamentary borough, it now gives name to a
+  parliamentary division of Berks. Pop. (1921), 7167.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abiogenesis</b> (a-b&#x12B;-o-jen&prime;e-sis), the doctrine or
+  hypothesis that living matter may be produced from non-living;
+  spontaneous generation. See <i>Generation (Spontaneous)</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abjura&prime;tion,</b> Oath of, an oath which by an English Act
+  passed in 1701 had to be taken by all holders of public offices,
+  clergymen, teachers, members of the universities, and lawyers, abjuring
+  and renouncing the exiled Stuarts: superseded in 1858 by a more
+  comprehensive oath, declaring allegiance to the present royal
+  family.&mdash;<i>Abjuration <!-- Page 12 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page12"></a>[12]</span>of the realm</i> was an oath that a person
+  guilty of felony, who had taken sanctuary, might take. This oath
+  permitted him to go into exile, and not return on pain of death, unless
+  by the king's permission. In ecclesiastical language the term is applied
+  to renunciation of heresy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abkha&prime;sia,</b> a Russian district, at the western extremity
+  and south of the Caucasus, between the mountains and the Black Sea. The
+  Abkhasians form a race distinguished from their neighbours in various
+  respects. At one time they were Christians, but afterwards adopted
+  Mahommedanism. Many of them migrated into Turkish territory in 1864 and
+  1878.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ablaincourt</b>. See <i>Somme</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;lative,</b> a term applied to a case of nouns, adjectives,
+  and pronouns in Latin, Sanskrit, and some other languages; originally
+  given to the case in Latin because separation from (<i>ab</i>, from
+  <i>latus</i>, taken) was considered to be one of the chief ideas
+  expressed by the case.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abnaki,</b> a Confederacy of Algonquin tribes, formerly occupying
+  what is now Maine and Southern New Brunswick. Their territory, to which
+  they removed after 1724, is in Canada on the St. John River and at St.
+  Francis.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Åbo</b> (&#x14D;&prime;b&#x14D;), a town and port in Finland, the
+  see of an archbishop, and the capital of Finland till 1819, when it was
+  supplanted by Helsingfors. Pop. (1919), 56,168.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abolitionists</b>. See <i>Slavery</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aboma&prime;sum,</b> or <b>Aboma&prime;sus,</b> the fourth stomach
+  of ruminating animals, next the <i>omasum</i> or third stomach.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abo&prime;mey,</b> or <b>Agbo&prime;mey,</b> the capital of the
+  French territory and former kingdom of Dahomey, in West Africa, in a
+  fertile plain, near the coast of Guinea. Pop. 11,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aborigines</b> (ab-o-rij&prime;i-n&#x113;z), the name given in
+  general to the earliest known inhabitants of a country, those who are
+  supposed to have inhabited the land from the beginning (Lat. <i>ab
+  origine</i>). (The singular of the word is <i>Aboriginal</i>, or
+  sometimes <i>Aboriginé</i>.)</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abortion,</b> in medicine, the expulsion of the f&oelig;tus before
+  it is capable of independent existence. This may take place at any period
+  of pregnancy before the completion of the twenty-eighth week. A child
+  born after that time is said to be <i>premature</i>. Abortion may be the
+  result of the general debility or ill-health of the mother, of a
+  plethoric constitution, of special affections of the uterus, of severe
+  exertions, sudden shocks, &amp;c. Various medicinal substances, generally
+  violent emmenagogues or drastic medicines, are believed to have the
+  effect of provoking abortion, and are sometimes resorted to for this
+  purpose. Attempts to procure abortion are punishable by law in all
+  civilized states. When the death of the woman ensues as a result of the
+  attempt, the crime is murder.&mdash;The term is applied in botany to
+  denote the suppression by non-development of one or more of the parts of
+  a flower, which consists normally of four whorls&mdash;namely, calyx,
+  corolla, stamens, and pistil.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>:
+  Sir W.&nbsp;O. Russell, <i>Crimes and Misdemeanours</i> (3 vols.); A.&nbsp;S.
+  Taylor, <i>Principles and Practice of Medical Jurisprudence</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aboukir</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-bö-k&#x113;r&prime;; ancient
+  <b>Zephyrion,</b> near ruins of Can&#x14D;pus), a small village on the
+  Egyptian coast, 10 miles east of Alexandria. In Aboukir Bay took place
+  the naval battle in which Nelson annihilated a French fleet on the night
+  of 1st and 2nd Aug., 1798, thus totally destroying the naval power of
+  France in the Mediterranean. Near this place, on 25th July, 1799,
+  Napoleon defeated the Turks under Mustapha; and on 8th March, 1801, Sir
+  Ralph Abercromby effected the landing of a British army against the
+  French.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abou-Simbel</b>. See <i>Ipsambul</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>About</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-bö), Edmond François Valentin, a French
+  novelist and miscellaneous writer, born 14th Feb., 1828, died 17th Jan.,
+  1885. He was educated at the Lycée Charlemagne and the École Normale,
+  Paris; and was sent at Government expense to the French school at Athens;
+  on his return to Paris, he devoted himself to literature. Principal
+  novels: <i>Tolla</i>, <i>Le Roi des Montagnes</i>, <i>Germaine</i>,
+  <i>Madelon</i>, <i>Le Fellah</i>, <i>La Vieille Roche</i>,
+  <i>L'Infâme</i>, <i>Les Mariages de Province</i>, <i>Le Roman d'un Brave
+  Homme</i> (against Zola and the naturalist school), &amp;c.;
+  miscellaneous works: <i>La Grèce Contemporaine</i>, <i>La Question
+  Romaine</i>, <i>La Prusse en 1860</i>, <i>Rome Contemporaine</i>, &amp;c.
+  In 1884 he was elected a member of the Academy. About wrote in a bright,
+  humorous, and interesting style, and his novels have been very
+  popular.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abracadab&prime;ra,</b> a word of Eastern origin used in
+  incantations. When written on paper so as to form a triangle, the first
+  line containing the word in full, the one below it omitting the last
+  letter, and so on each time until only one letter remained, and worn as
+  an amulet, it was supposed to be an antidote against certain
+  diseases.</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R &nbsp; A &nbsp; C &nbsp; A &nbsp; D &nbsp; A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R &nbsp; A<br />
+A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R &nbsp; A &nbsp; C &nbsp; A &nbsp; D &nbsp; A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R<br />
+A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R &nbsp; A &nbsp; C &nbsp; A &nbsp; D &nbsp; A &nbsp; B<br />
+A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R &nbsp; A &nbsp; C &nbsp; A &nbsp; D &nbsp; A<br />
+A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R &nbsp; A &nbsp; C &nbsp; A &nbsp; D<br />
+A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R &nbsp; A &nbsp; C &nbsp; A<br />
+A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R &nbsp; A &nbsp; C<br />
+A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R &nbsp; A<br />
+A &nbsp; B &nbsp; R<br />
+A &nbsp; B<br />
+A</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;braham,</b> originally <b>Abram</b> (Assyrian
+  <i>Aburamu</i>, lofty father), the greatest of the Hebrew patriarchs, was
+  born at Ur in Chaldea in 2153 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> according to
+  Hales, in 1996 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> according <!-- Page 13
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page13"></a>[13]</span>to Ussher, while
+  Bunsen says he lived 2850 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He migrated,
+  accompanied by his wife Sarah and his nephew Lot, to Canaan, where he led
+  a nomadic life, which extended over 175 years. His two sons, Isaac and
+  Ishmael, were the progenitors of the Jews and Arabs respectively.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abraham,</b> Heights or Plains of. See <i>Quebec</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abraham à Santa Clara,</b> a German pulpit orator, whose real name
+  was Ulrich Megerle, born in 1644. As a preacher he acquired so great a
+  reputation that, in 1669, he was appointed court-preacher in Vienna,
+  where he died in 1709. His sermons are full of homely, grotesque humour,
+  often of coarse wit, and impartial severity towards all classes of
+  society. His principal work and masterpiece is <i>Judas, the
+  Archknave</i> (4 vols.), 1686-95.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abrahamites,</b> 1, A sect of Syrian Deists of the ninth century,
+  whose doctrines were allied to those of the Paulicians.&mdash;2, A sect
+  of Bohemian Deists of the late eighteenth century, who professed to be
+  followers of John Huss and claimed that they followed the religion of
+  Abraham before his circumcision. Believing in one God, they rejected the
+  Trinity, and accepted nothing of the Bible except the Ten Commandments
+  and the Lord's Prayer. Refusing to join either the Jewish or Christian
+  folds, they were excluded from the edict of toleration promulgated by the
+  Emperor Joseph II, and expelled to Transylvania in 1783. Some were
+  martyred, others became Roman Catholics.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abraham-men,</b> originally a set of vagabonds who had been
+  discharged from Bethlehem Hospital, London; but as many assumed, without
+  right, the badge worn by them, the term came to signify an impostor who
+  travelled about the country seeking alms, under the pretence of
+  lunacy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abram,</b> a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 3½ miles
+  from Wigan; a colliery centre. Pop. (1921), 6858.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;ramis,</b> a genus of fishes. See <i>Bream</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abran&prime;tes,</b> a fortified town of Portugal, on the right
+  bank of the Tagus (here navigable), 73 miles north-east of Lisbon, with
+  which it carries on an active trade. Pop. 8000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abrantes,</b> Duke of. See <i>Junot</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abrax&prime;as</b> (or <b>Abrasax</b>) <b>Stones,</b> the name
+  given to stones or gems found in Syria, Egypt, and elsewhere, cut into
+  almost every variety of shape, but generally having a human trunk and
+  arms, with a cock's head, two serpents' tails for the legs, &amp;c., and
+  the mystico-theosophical word Abraxas or Abrasax in Greek characters
+  engraved upon them. Eventually they came to be used as charms and
+  amulets. Basilides (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 130) and other
+  gnostics gave the name of Abraxas to Almighty God, the Supreme Deity,
+  since the numerical value of its letters in Greek gave the sum of 365,
+  and they believed that 365 orders of spirits emanated from God. Not all
+  abraxas stones, however, are of gnostic origin, just as the name of
+  abraxas cannot be applied to all gnostic stones. Cf. King: <i>The
+  Gnostics and their Remains</i>, London, 1887.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abrin,</b> or <b>Abrine,</b> a poisonous substance, being the
+  active principle in the seeds of <i>Abrus precatorius</i> (see
+  <i>Abrus</i>). A minute quantity introduced into the blood is fatal to
+  many animals, but it is employed in ailments of the eyes, and as a remedy
+  for lupus and certain skin diseases.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abroga&prime;tion,</b> the repealing of a law by a competent
+  authority.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abrolhos</b> (a-brole&prime;-yoce) a group of rocky islands 50
+  miles off the east coast of Brazil, the largest of which is Santa
+  Barbara. Another group called Abrolhos lies off the west coast of
+  Australia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abro&prime;ma,</b> a genus of small trees, natives of India, Java,
+  &amp;c., one species of which, <i>A. augusta</i>, has a bark yielding a
+  strong white fibre, from which good cordage is made.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abrupt&prime;,</b> in botany, terminating suddenly, as if a part
+  were cut short off.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;rus,</b> a genus of papilionaceous plants, order
+  Leguminosæ, one species of which, <i>Abrus precatorius</i>, a delicate
+  twining shrub, a native of the East Indies, and found also in tropical
+  parts of Africa and America, has round brilliant scarlet seeds, used to
+  make necklaces and rosaries. Its root is sweetish and mucilaginous, and
+  is used as a substitute for liquorice <i>(Indian liquorice</i>). The
+  seeds yield a strong poison.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abruzzi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-bru<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>t&prime;s&#x113;), a division of Italy on
+  the Adriatic, between Umbria and the Marches on the north, and Apulia on
+  the south. It is united with Molise to form a <i>compartimento</i>,
+  comprising the four provinces of Aquila degli Abruzzi, Campobasso,
+  Chicti, and Teramo. The sea-coast of about 80 miles does not possess a
+  single harbour. The interior is rugged and mountainous, being traversed
+  throughout by the Apennines. The lower parts consist of fertile plains
+  and valleys, yielding corn, wine, oil, almonds, saffron, &amp;c.; area,
+  6387 sq. miles. Pop. 1,480,748.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;salon,</b> or <b>Axel,</b> a Danish prelate, statesman,
+  and warrior, born in 1128, died 1201. He became the intimate friend and
+  counsellor of his sovereign Waldemar I, who appointed him Archbishop of
+  Lund. He cleared the sea of the Slavonic pirates who had long infested
+  it, secured the independence of the kingdom by defeating a powerful fleet
+  of the Emperor Barbarossa, and built the castle of Axelborg, the nucleus
+  of Copenhagen. He ultimately became Primate of Denmark and Sweden.
+  Turning his thoughts to literature he caused the <i>History of
+  Denmark</i> to <!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page14"></a>[14]</span>be drawn up by Saxo Grammaticus and Svend
+  Aagesen.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;scess,</b> any collection of purulent matter or pus formed
+  in some tissue or organ of the body, and confined within some
+  circumscribed area, of varying size, but always painful and often
+  dangerous.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Absenteeism,</b> a term applied to landlords who absent themselves
+  from their estates and live and spend their money elsewhere; in its more
+  extended meaning it refers to all those whose fixed residence is outside
+  their own country but who derive their income from sources within it. The
+  social, economic, political, and moral evils resulting from such a system
+  are considerable and hurtful to the interests of a region, the absentee
+  being apt to lose his interest in things and persons and the public
+  welfare generally. Some economists, however, have adduced arguments in
+  favour of it, as it may sometimes be for the good of the community that a
+  rich and luxurious landlord should be absent from his estate.</p>
+
+  <p>The absenteeism of the Irish nobility, which became worse after the
+  Union with Great Britain and the transfer of Parliament from Dublin to
+  London, has been a constant source of mischief, whilst France before the
+  Revolution, Russia under the Tsars Alexander I and Nicholas I, and
+  Hungary in the eighteenth century suffered greatly from the practice. The
+  first statute concerning absentees was passed in the English Parliament
+  in 1379, and in 1729 a tax was levied on all moneys paid out of
+  Ireland.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;sinth,</b> French <i>Absinthe</i> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>b-san<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>t), a liqueur consisting of an alcoholic
+  solution strongly flavoured with an extract of several sorts of wormwood,
+  oil of anise, &amp;c. When taken habitually, or in excess, its effects
+  are very pernicious. A favourite drink of the Parisians, it was
+  suppressed entirely throughout France by a law passed on 12th Feb.,
+  1915.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;solute,</b> in a general sense, loosed or freed from all
+  limitations or conditions. In politics, an <i>absolute</i> monarchy is
+  that form of government in which the ruler is unlimited or uncontrolled
+  by constitutional checks. In modern metaphysics <i>the Absolute</i>
+  represents the unconditioned, infinite, and self-existent.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Absolu&prime;tion,</b> remission of a penitent's sins in the name
+  of God. It is commonly maintained that down to the twelfth century the
+  priests used only what is called the <i>precatory</i> formula, "May God
+  or Christ absolve thee", which is still the form in the Greek Church;
+  whereas the Roman Catholic uses the expression "I absolve thee", thus
+  regarding the forgiveness of sins as in the power of the priest (the
+  <i>indicative</i> form). This theory of absolution was confirmed by the
+  Council of Trent. The passages of Scripture on which the Roman Catholic
+  Church relies in laying down its doctrine of absolution are such as
+  <i>Mat.</i> xvi. 19, xviii. 18; <i>John</i>, xx. 23. Among Protestants
+  absolution properly means a sentence by which a person who stands
+  excommunicated is released from that punishment.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Absolutism,</b> a system of government in which the supreme power
+  is vested in a ruler not controlled or limited by any constitution or
+  laws. It has prevailed in Oriental countries, including Japan, until the
+  latter part of the nineteenth century. There are now no absolute
+  monarchies in Europe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Absor&prime;bents,</b> the system of minute vessels by which the
+  nutritive elements of food and other matters are carried into the
+  circulation of vertebrate animals. The vessels consist of two different
+  sets, called respectively <i>lacteals</i> and <i>lymphatics</i>. The
+  former arise from the digestive tract, the latter from the tissues
+  generally, both joining a common trunk which ultimately enters the
+  blood-vessel system. Absorbents in medicine are substances such as chalk,
+  charcoal, &amp;c., that absorb or suck up excessive secretion of fluid or
+  gas.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Absorp&prime;tion,</b> in physiology, one of the vital functions by
+  which the materials of nutrition and growth are absorbed and conveyed to
+  the organs of plants and animals. In vertebrate animals this is done by
+  the lymphatics and lacteals, in plants chiefly by the roots. See
+  <i>Absorbents</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>In physics, <i>absorption of colour</i> is the phenomenon observed
+  when certain colours are retained or prevented from passing through
+  transparent bodies; thus pieces of coloured glass are almost opaque to
+  some parts of the spectrum, while allowing other colours to pass through
+  freely. In chemistry absorption is the taking up of a gas by a liquid, or
+  by a porous solid.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ab&prime;stinence</b>. See <i>Fasting, Temperance</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abstrac&prime;tion,</b> the operation of the mind by which it
+  disregards part of what is presented to its observation in order to
+  concentrate its attention on the remainder. It is the foundation of the
+  operation of generalization, by which we arrive at general conceptions.
+  In order, for example, to form the conception of a horse, we disregard
+  the colour and other peculiarities of the particular horses observed by
+  us, and attend only to those qualities which all horses have in common.
+  In rising to the conception of an animal we disregard still more
+  qualities, and attend only to those which all animals have in common with
+  one another.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abu</b> (a-bö&prime;), a granitic mountain of India in Sirohi
+  State, Rajputána, rising precipitously from the surrounding plains, its
+  top forming a picturesque and varied tract 14 miles long and 2 to 4
+  broad; highest point 5653 ft. It is a <!-- Page 15 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page15"></a>[15]</span>hot-weather resort of
+  Europeans, and is the site of two most beautiful Jain temples, built in
+  1031 and 1200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abu-Bekr,</b> or <b>Father of the Virgin,</b> born 570 died 634,
+  the father-in-law and first successor of Mahomet. His right to the
+  succession was unsuccessfully contested by Ali, Mahomet's son-in-law, and
+  a schism took place, which divided the Mahommedans into the two great
+  sects of Sunnites and Shiites, the former maintaining the validity of
+  Abu-Bekr's and the latter that of Ali's claim.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abukir&prime;</b>. See <i>Aboukir</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abu Klea,</b> a group of wells, surrounded by steep, black
+  mountains, about 120 miles from Khartoum, in the Sudan, where, on the
+  17th Jan., 1885, Sir Herbert Stewart, with 1500 men, defeated the Mahdi's
+  troops numbering 10,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abulfara&prime;gius,</b> Gregory, a distinguished scholar, a Jew by
+  birth (hence the name of <i>Barhebræus</i>, often given him), author of
+  numerous works in Arabic and Syriac, was born in Armenia in 1226, died in
+  1286. About 1264 he was consecrated Bishop of Gubas; he was afterwards
+  translated to Aleppo and was appointed primate of the Jacobite
+  Christians. His principal work is a <i>History of the World</i> from the
+  Creation to his own day, written in Syriac, with an abridged version in
+  Arabic, entitled <i>The Abridged History of the Dynasties</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abul&prime;feda,</b> Arab writer, Prince of Hamah, in Syria, of the
+  same family as Saladin, famous as an historian and geographer, was born
+  at Damascus 1273, died 1331. Amid the cares of government he devoted
+  himself with zeal to study, drew the learned around him, and rendered his
+  power and wealth subservient to the cause of science. His most important
+  works are his <i>History of the Human Race</i> (the portion from the
+  birth of Mahomet to his own time being valuable), and his geography
+  called <i>The True Situation of Countries</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abunda,</b> a Bantu race of Angola, living on the coastlands and on
+  the terraces rising towards the interior, and divided into 'highlanders'
+  and 'lowlanders'. They speak Portuguese and Umbunda, a trade
+  language.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abushehr</b> (ä-bö-sh&#x101;r&prime;). See <i>Bushire</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abu-Simbel</b>. See <i>Ibsambul</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abu&prime;tilon,</b> a genus of plants, order Malvaceæ, sometimes
+  called Indian mallows, found in the East Indies, Australia, Brazil,
+  Siberia, &amp;c. Several of them yield a valuable hemp-like fibre, as
+  <i>A. indicum</i> and <i>A. Avicennæ</i>. The latter, now a troublesome
+  weed in the Middle United States, has been recommended for cultivation,
+  and is sometimes called American jute.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abut&prime;ment,</b> the part of a bridge which receives and
+  resists the lateral outward thrust of an arch; the masonry, rock, or
+  other solid materials from which an arch springs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aby&prime;dos,</b> 1, an ancient city of Asia Minor, on the
+  Hellespont, at the narrowest part of the strait, opposite Sestos.
+  Leander, say ancient writers, swam nightly from Abydos to Sestos to see
+  his loved Hero&mdash;a feat in swimming accomplished also by Lord
+  Byron.&mdash;2, an ancient city of Upper Egypt (Egyptian Abotu), about 6
+  miles west of the Nile, now represented only by ruins of temples, tombs,
+  &amp;c. It was celebrated as the burial-place of the god Osiris, and its
+  oldest temple was dedicated to him. Here, in 1818, was discovered the
+  famous <i>Abydos Tablet</i>, now in the British Museum, and containing a
+  list of the predecessors of Rameses the Great, which was supplemented by
+  the discovery of a similar historical tablet in 1864. The tomb of Osiris
+  was discovered in 1898 by Amélinau. Cf. Flinders Petrie, <i>The Royal
+  Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties</i> (2 vols.), London, 1900-9.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Abyssin&prime;ia</b> (Ar. <i>Habesha</i>), a country of Eastern
+  Africa, which, with dependencies, may be said to extend from lat. 5° to
+  15° <span class="scac">N.</span> and long. 35° to 42° <span
+  class="scac">E.</span>, having the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the <span
+  class="scac">W.</span>, British E. Africa on the <span
+  class="scac">S.</span>, and on the <span class="scac">S.E.</span> and
+  <span class="scac">E.</span> Somali-land and Eritrea (Italian Red Sea
+  coast); area, 350,000 sq. miles. Pop. over 8,000,000. The country is now
+  divided into 9 provinces, the principal being Harrar, Tigré, Amhara or
+  Gondar. Each province is governed by a ras, or prince, but Ras Michael,
+  the governor of Wollo and father of the deposed negus, Lij Yasu, was
+  crowned king on 1st June, 1914. Abyssinia proper is an elevated region,
+  with a general slope to the north-west. The more marked physical features
+  are a vast series of tablelands, of various and often of great
+  elevations, and numerous masses or ranges of high and rugged mountains,
+  dispersed over the surface in apparently the wildest confusion. Along the
+  deep and tremendous ravines that divide the plateaux rush innumerable
+  streams, which impart extraordinary fertility to the plains and valleys
+  below. The mountains in various parts of the country rise to 12,000 and
+  13,000 feet, while some of the peaks are over 15,000 feet (Ras Dashan
+  being 15,160), and are always covered with snow. The principal rivers
+  belong to the Nile basin, the chief being the impetuous Tacazzé ('the
+  Terrible') in the north, and the Abai in the south, the latter being
+  really the upper portion of the Blue Nile. The principal lake is Lake
+  Tzana or Dembea (from which issues the Abai), upwards of 6000 feet above
+  the sea, having a length of about 45 and a breadth of 35 miles. Round
+  this lake lies a fertile plain, deservedly called the granary of the
+  country.&mdash;According to elevation there are several zones <!-- Page
+  16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>[16]</span>of
+  vegetation. Within the lowest belt, which reaches an elevation of 4800
+  feet, cotton, wild indigo, acacias, ebony, baobabs, sugar-canes, coffee
+  trees, date palms, &amp;c., flourish, while the larger animals are lions,
+  panthers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, jackals, hyenas,
+  bears, numerous antelopes, monkeys, and crocodiles. The middle zone,
+  rising to 9000 feet, produces the grains, grasses, and fruits of southern
+  Europe, the orange, vine, peach, apricot, the bamboo, sycamore tree,
+  &amp;c. The principal grains are millet, barley, wheat, maize, and teff,
+  the latter a small seed, a favourite bread-stuff of the Abyssinians. Two,
+  and in some places three, crops are obtained in one year. All the
+  domestic animals of Europe, except swine, are known. There is a variety
+  of ox with immense horns. The highest zone, reaching to 14,000 feet, has
+  but little wood, and generally scanty vegetation, the hardier corn-plants
+  only being grown; but oxen, goats, and long-woolled sheep find abundant
+  pasture.&mdash;The climate is as various as the surface, but as a whole
+  is temperate and agreeable; in some of the valleys the heat is often
+  excessive, while on the mountains the weather is cold. In certain of the
+  lower districts malaria prevails.&mdash;The chief mineral products are
+  sulphur, copper, coal, and salt, the last-named serving to some extent as
+  money. Iron is very abundant and is manufactured into knives, hatchets,
+  and spears. There has been a great intermixture of races in Abyssinia.
+  Those who may be considered the Abyssinians proper seem to have a
+  blood-relationship with the Bedouin Arabs. Their complexion varies from
+  very dark through different shades of brown and copper to olive, and they
+  are usually well built. Other races are the black Gallas from the south;
+  the Falashas, who claim descent from Abraham and retain many Jewish
+  characteristics; the Agows, Gongas, &amp;c. The great majority of the
+  people profess Christianity, belonging, like the Copts, to the sect of
+  the Monophysites. The head of the church is called the Abuna ('our
+  father'), and is consecrated by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. Geez
+  or Ethiopian is the language of their sacred books: it has long ago
+  ceased to be spoken. The chief spoken language is the Amharic; in it some
+  books have been published. Mohammedanism appears to be gaining ground in
+  Abyssinia. A corrupt form of Judaism is professed by the
+  Falashas.&mdash;The bulk of the people are devoted to agriculture and
+  cattle-breeding. The trade and manufactures are of small importance. A
+  good deal of common cotton cloth and some finer woven fabrics are
+  produced. Leather is prepared to some extent, silver filagree-work is
+  produced, and there are manufactures of common articles of iron and
+  brass, pottery, &amp;c. Trade is carried on through Zeila and Djibouti
+  (French Ethiopian Railway was completed in 1915) on the Gulf of Aden, and
+  Massowa on the Red Sea (Italian), exports being hides, coffee, wax, gum,
+  ivory, &amp;c., imports textile fabrics, &amp;c. The Abyssinians were
+  converted to Christianity in the fourth century, by some missionaries
+  from Alexandria. In the sixth century the power of the sovereigns of
+  their kingdom, which was generally known as Ethiopia, had attained its
+  height; but before another had expired the Arabs had invaded the country,
+  and obtained a footing. For several centuries subsequently the kingdom
+  continued in a distracted state, being now torn by internal commotions
+  and now invaded by external enemies (Mahommedans and Gallas). To protect
+  himself from the latter the Emperor of Abyssinia applied, about the
+  middle of the sixteenth century, to the King of Portugal for assistance,
+  promising, at the same time, implicit submission to the Pope. The
+  solicited aid was sent, and the empire saved. The Roman Catholic priests
+  endeavoured to induce the emperor and his family to renounce the tenets
+  and rites of the Coptic Church, and to adopt those of Rome. This attempt,
+  however, was resisted by the ecclesiastics and the people, and ended,
+  after a long struggle, in the expulsion of the Catholic priests about
+  1630. The kingdom gradually fell into a state of anarchy, and was broken
+  up into several independent States. An attempt to revive the power of the
+  ancient kingdom of Ethiopia was made by King Theodore about the middle of
+  the last century. He introduced European artisans, and went to work
+  wisely in many ways, but his cruelty and tyranny counteracted his politic
+  measures. In consequence of a slight, real or fancied, which he had
+  received at the hands of the British Government, he threw Consul Cameron
+  and a number of other British subjects into prison, in 1863, and refused
+  to give them up. To effect their release an army of nearly 12,000 men,
+  under Sir Robert (afterwards Lord) Napier, was dispatched from Bombay in
+  1867. The force landed at Zoulla on the Red Sea, and marching up the
+  country came within sight of the hill-fortress of Magdala in April, 1868.
+  After being defeated in a battle, Theodore delivered up the captives and
+  shut himself up in Magdala, which was taken by storm on the 13th April,
+  Theodore being found among the slain. After the withdrawal of the
+  British, fighting immediately began among the chiefs of the different
+  provinces, but at last the country was divided between Kasa, who secured
+  the northern and larger portion (Tigré and Amhara) and assumed the name
+  of King Johannes, and Menelek, who gained possession of Shoa. Latterly
+  Johannes made himself supreme and in 1881 assumed the title of emperor
+  (<i>negus <!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page17"></a>[17]</span>negusti</i>&mdash;king of kings), having
+  under him the Kings of Shoa and Gojam. Debra Tabor, about 30 miles east
+  of Lake Dembea, was his chief residence. During the troubles in Abyssinia
+  the Egyptians annexed Massowa and the region adjacent, Abyssinia being
+  thus shut out from the sea. Afterwards the Italians gained and still hold
+  Massowa and the Red Sea littoral (Eritrea). Johannes fell at Metemmeh in
+  1889, whilst fighting against the Mahdists, and was succeeded by Menelek
+  II. In 1916 Lij Yasu, who succeeded Menelek II in 1913, was deposed and
+  Waizeru Zauditu (born 1876) became empress.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: R.&nbsp;P. Skinner, <i>Abyssinia of Today</i>.
+  A.&nbsp;B. Wylde, <i>Modern Abyssinia</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image007.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image007.jpg"
+      alt="Acacia arabica" title="Acacia arabica" /></a>
+    Acacia arabica, showing leaves, flowers, and fruit
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Aca&prime;cia,</b> a genus of plants, nat. ord. Leguminosæ,
+  sub-order Mimoseæ, consisting of trees or shrubs with compound pinnate
+  leaves and small leaflets, growing in Africa, Arabia, the East Indies,
+  Australia, &amp;c. The flowers, usually small, are arranged in spikes or
+  globular heads at the axils of the leaves near the extremity of the
+  branches. The corolla is bell- or funnel-shaped; stamens are numerous;
+  the fruit is a dry unjointed pod. Several of the species yield gum-arabic
+  and other gums; some having astringent barks and pods, used in tanning.
+  <i>A. Catechu</i>, an Indian species, yields the valuable astringent
+  called catechu; <i>A. dealb&#x101;ta</i>, the wattle tree of Australia,
+  from 15 to 30 feet in height, is the most beautiful and useful of the
+  species found there. Its bark contains a large percentage of tannin, and
+  is exported in large quantities. Some species yield valuable timber; some
+  are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acad&prime;emy,</b> an association for the promotion of literature,
+  science, or art; established sometimes by Government, sometimes by the
+  voluntary union of private individuals. The name Academy was first
+  applied to the philosophical school of Plato, from the place where he
+  used to teach, a grove or garden at Athens which was said to have
+  belonged originally to the hero Acad&#x113;mus. The home of Academies as
+  associations of learned men (not institutes for instruction), was
+  Hellenized Egypt and afterwards Italy of the Renaissance. The flourishing
+  Academies at Florence, Naples, and Rome became the models of academies in
+  other countries. Academies devote themselves either to the cultivation of
+  science generally or to the promotion of a particular branch of study, as
+  antiquities, language, and the fine arts. The most celebrated
+  institutions bearing the name of academies, and designed for the
+  encouragement of science, antiquities, and language respectively, are the
+  French Académie des Sciences (founded by Colbert in 1666), Académie des
+  Inscriptions (founded by Colbert in 1663), and Académie Française
+  (founded by Richelieu in 1635), all of which are now merged in the
+  National Institute. The most celebrated of the academies instituted for
+  the improvement of language is the Italian Accademia della Crusca, or
+  Furfuratorum (now the Florentine Academy), formed in 1582, and chiefly
+  celebrated for the compilation of an excellent dictionary of the Italian
+  language (<i>Vocabulario della Crusca</i>, Venice, 1612), and for the
+  publication of several carefully-prepared editions of ancient Italian
+  poets. The (Imperial) Academy of Science of St. Petersburg was projected
+  by Peter the Great and established by Catherine I in 1725. The Academy of
+  Science in Berlin was founded by Frederick I in 1700. It was opened in
+  1711 and had Leibnitz as its first president. In Britain the name of
+  academy, in the more dignified sense of the term, is confined almost
+  exclusively to certain institutions for the promotion of the fine arts,
+  such as the Royal Academy of Arts and the Royal Scottish Academy. The
+  Royal Academy of Arts (usually called simply the Royal Academy) was
+  founded in London in 1768, "for the purpose of cultivating and improving
+  the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture". The number of
+  academicians is now limited to forty-two, among whom are two engravers.
+  There are also thirty associates, from whom the academicians are elected.
+  Of the associates five are engravers. Any person who is possessed of <!--
+  Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page18"></a>[18]</span>sufficient proficiency may be admitted as a
+  student and receive instruction gratis, and prizes are annually bestowed
+  on meritorious students. The annual exhibition of the Academy is open to
+  all artists whose works show sufficient merit. The Royal Scottish Academy
+  of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture was founded in 1826 and
+  incorporated in 1838. It consists of thirty academicians and twenty
+  associates. The Royal Hibernian Academy at Dublin was incorporated in
+  1823 and reorganized in 1861. It consists of thirty members and ten
+  associates. A British Academy for the Promotion of Historical,
+  Philosophical, and Philological Studies was incorporated in 1902. (See
+  <i>British Academy</i>.) In the United States, the American Academy of
+  Arts and Sciences at Boston was founded in 1780, and since then various
+  other societies of similar character and name have been instituted, as
+  the New York Academy of Sciences, the Chicago Academy of Science,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aca&prime;dia</b> (Fr. <i>Acadie</i>), the name formerly given to
+  Nova Scotia. It received its first colonists from France in 1604, being
+  then a possession of that country, but it passed to Britain, by the Peace
+  of Utrecht, in 1713. In 1756, 18,000 of the French inhabitants were
+  forcibly removed from their homes on account of their hostility to the
+  British, an incident on which is based Longfellow's <i>Evangeline</i>.
+  Many Acadians afterwards wandered back to their old homes, and their
+  descendants are at present supposed to number 270,000, 100,000 of them
+  living in French Canada.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acale&prime;pha</b> (Gr. <i>akal&#x113;ph&#x113;</i>, a nettle,
+  from their stinging properties), a term formerly used to denote the
+  Medusæ, or jelly-fishes, and allied species.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acantha&prime;ceæ,</b> or <b>Acanthads,</b> a nat. ord. of
+  dicotyledonous herbaceous plants or shrubs, with opposite leaves and
+  monopetalous corolla, mostly tropical; species about 1400. See
+  <i>Acanthus</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/image008.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image008.jpg"
+      alt="Spines of Acanthopterygii" title="Spines of Acanthopterygii" /></a>
+    <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, Spines of the dorsal, anal, and ventral
+    fins of Acanthopterygii
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Acanthop&prime;teri,</b> <b>Acanthopterygii</b> (Gr.
+  <i>akantha</i>, a spine, <i>pterygion</i>, a fin), a group of fishes,
+  distinguished by the fact that at least the first rays in each fin exist
+  in the form of stiff spines; it includes the perch, mullet, mackerel,
+  gurnard, wrasse, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image009.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image009.jpg"
+      alt="Acanthus in architecture" title="Acanthus in architecture" /></a>
+    Acanthus. Examples of Greek and Roman decorative treatment
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Acanth&prime;us,</b> a genus of herbaceous plants or shrubs, order
+  Acanthaceæ, mostly tropical, two species of which, <i>A. mollis</i> and
+  <i>A. spin&#x14D;sus</i> (the bear's-breech or brankursine), are
+  characterized by large white flowers and deeply-indented shining leaves.
+  They are favourite ornamental plants in British gardens.&mdash;In
+  architecture the name is given to a kind of foliage decoration said to
+  have been suggested by this plant, and much employed in Greek, Roman, and
+  later styles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acapul&prime;co,</b> a seaport of Mexico, on the Pacific, with a
+  capacious, well-sheltered harbour; a coaling station for steamers, but
+  with no great trade. Pop. 5950.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acar&prime;ida,</b> a division of the Arachnida, including the
+  mites, ticks, and water-mites. See <i>Mite</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acarna&prime;nia,</b> the most westerly portion of Northern Greece,
+  together with Ætolia now forming a nomarchy with a pop. of 188,597. The
+  Acarnanians of ancient times were behind the other Greeks in
+  civilization, living by robbery and piracy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;arus,</b> the genus to which the mite belongs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acca&prime;dians</b> (Akkad), the primitive inhabitants of Northern
+  Babylonia (Akkad), who had descended from the mountainous region of Elam
+  on the east, and to whom the Assyrians ascribed the origin of Chaldean
+  civilization and writing. This race is believed to have belonged to the
+  Turanian family, or to have been at any rate non-Semitic. What is known
+  of them has been learned from the cuneiform inscriptions. See
+  <i>Babylonia</i> and <i>Summerians</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accelera&prime;tion</b> is the rate of change of the velocity of a
+  body under the action of a force. A body falling from a height is one of
+  the most common instances of acceleration.&mdash;<i>Acceleration of the
+  Moon</i>, the increase of the moon's mean angular velocity about the
+  earth, the moon now moving rather faster than in ancient times. This
+  phenomenon has not been fully explained, but it is known to be partly
+  owing to the slow process of diminution which the eccentricity of the
+  earth's orbit is undergoing, and from which there results a slight
+  diminution of the sun's influence on the moon's motions.&mdash;<i>Diurnal
+  acceleration of the fixed stars</i>, the apparent greater diurnal motion
+  <!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page19"></a>[19]</span>of
+  the stars than of the sun, arising from the fact that the sun's apparent
+  yearly motion takes place in a direction contrary to that of his apparent
+  daily motion. The stars thus seem each day to anticipate the sun by
+  nearly 3 minutes 56 seconds of mean time.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;cent,</b> a term used in several senses. In English it
+  commonly denotes superior stress or force of voice upon certain syllables
+  of words, which distinguishes them from the other syllables. Many English
+  words, as <i>as&prime;pi-ra&Prime;tion</i>, have two accents, a secondary
+  and primary, the latter being the fuller or stronger. Some words, as
+  <i>in-com&prime;pre-hen&prime;si-bil&Prime;i-ty</i>, have two secondary
+  or subordinate accents. When the full accent falls on a vowel, that vowel
+  has its long sound, as in <i>vo&prime;cal</i>; but when it falls on a
+  consonant, the preceding vowel is short, as in <i>hab&prime;it</i>. This
+  kind of accent alone regulates English verse, as contrasted with Latin or
+  Greek verse, in which the metre depended on <i>quantity</i> or length of
+  syllables. In books on elocution three marks or accents are generally
+  made use of, the first or <i>acute</i> (&acute;) showing when the voice
+  is to be raised, the second or <i>grave</i> (&#x60;), when it is to be
+  depressed, and the third or <i>circumflex</i> (&#x2C6;) when the vowel is
+  to be uttered with an undulating sound. In some languages there is no
+  such distinct accent as in English (or German), and this seems to be now
+  the case with French.&mdash;In music, accent is the stress or emphasis
+  laid upon certain notes of a bar. The first note of a bar has the
+  strongest accent, but weaker accents are given to the first notes of
+  subordinate parts of the bars, as to the third, fifth, and seventh in a
+  bar of eight quavers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accen&prime;tor</b> (<i>Accentor modul&#x101;ris</i>), or <b>Hedge
+  Accentor,</b> a British bird of the warbler family. See <i>Hedge
+  Warbler</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accep&prime;tance,</b> in law, the act by which a person binds
+  himself to pay a bill of exchange drawn upon him. (See <i>Bill</i>.) No
+  acceptance is valid unless made in writing on the bill, but an acceptance
+  may be either absolute or conditional, that is, stipulating some
+  alteration in the amount or date of payment, or some condition to be
+  fulfilled previous to payment.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;cessary,</b> or <b>Ac&prime;cessory,</b> in law, a person
+  guilty of an offence by connivance or participation, either before or
+  after the act committed, as by command, advice, concealment, &amp;c. An
+  accessary <i>before the fact</i> is one who procures or counsels another
+  to commit a crime, and is not present at its commission; an accessary
+  <i>after the fact</i> is one who, knowing a felony to have been
+  committed, gives assistance of any kind to the felon so as to hinder him
+  from being apprehended, tried, or suffering punishment. An accessary
+  before the fact may be tried and punished in all respects as if he were
+  the principal. In high treason, all who participate are regarded as
+  principals.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acciden&prime;tals,</b> notes introduced in the course of a piece
+  of music in a different key from that in which the passage where they
+  occur is principally written. They are represented by the sign of a
+  sharp, flat, or natural immediately before the note which is to be raised
+  or lowered.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accipitres</b> (ak-sip&prime;i-tr&#x113;z), the name given by
+  Linnæus and Cuvier to the rapacious birds now usually called Raptores
+  (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acclimatiza&prime;tion,</b> the process of accustoming plants or
+  animals to live and propagate in a climate different from that to which
+  they are indigenous, or the change which the constitution of an animal or
+  plant undergoes under new climatic conditions, in the direction of
+  adaptation to those conditions. The systematic study of acclimatization
+  has only been entered upon in very recent times, and the little progress
+  that has been made in it has been more in the direction of formulating
+  anticipative, if not arbitrary hypotheses, than of actual discovery and
+  acquisition of facts. The best-known society founded, for the purpose of
+  naturalizing animals and plants, is the Société d'Acclimatation in Paris.
+  It opened the Jardin d'Acclimatation in 1860. See <i>Tropical
+  Hygiene</i>. The term is sometimes applied to the case of animals or
+  plants taking readily to a new country with a climate and other
+  circumstances similar to what they have left, such as European animals
+  and plants in America and New Zealand: but this is more properly
+  <i>naturalization</i> than acclimatization.&mdash;In agriculture the word
+  is used with reference to stock, principally sheep, 'acclimatized' to a
+  particular area, a special allowance being made by the landlord on
+  transference of the farm and stock in respect of the acclimatization of
+  the sheep. The value assigned to the advantages resulting from
+  acclimatization of stocks varies considerably. In Argyllshire, for
+  instance, Dumbartonshire, and the western portion of Perthshire the rates
+  are high, while in the south of Scotland and the north of England they
+  are much lower.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accolade</b> (ak-o-l&#x101;d&prime;; Fr., from Lat. <i>ad</i>, to,
+  <i>collum</i>, the neck), the ceremony used in conferring knighthood,
+  anciently consisting either in the embrace given by the person who
+  conferred the honour of knighthood or in a light blow on the neck or the
+  cheek, latterly consisting in the ceremony of striking the candidate with
+  a naked sword.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accol&prime;ti,</b> Benedetto, an Italian lawyer, born at Arezzo in
+  Tuscany in 1415, died at Florence in 1466. He was secretary to the
+  Florentine republic, 1459, and author of a work on the Crusades which is
+  said to have furnished Tasso with matter for his <i>Jerusalem
+  Delivered</i>. <!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page20"></a>[20]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Accommoda&prime;tion Bill,</b> a bill of exchange drawn and
+  accepted to raise money on, and not given, like a genuine bill of
+  exchange, in payment of a debt, but merely intended to accommodate the
+  drawer: colloquially called a <i>wind bill</i> and a <i>kite</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accommoda&prime;tion Ladder,</b> a light ladder hung over the side
+  of a ship at the gangway to facilitate ascending from, or descending to,
+  boats.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accom&prime;paniment,</b> in music, is that part of music which
+  serves for the support of the principal melody.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accor&prime;dion,</b> a keyed musical wind-instrument similar to
+  the concertina, being in the form of a small box, containing a number of
+  metallic reeds fixed at one of their extremities, the sides of the box
+  forming a folding apparatus which acts as a bellows to supply the wind,
+  and thus set the reeds in vibration, and produce the notes both of melody
+  and harmony. The accordion was invented by Damian of Vienna in 1829.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accountant,</b> a person whose chief business is with accounts and
+  the drawing up of financial statements and balance-sheets. An accountant
+  is an important official in banks, railways, and certain other
+  institutions, and many persons carry on the business of accountant as a
+  distinct profession, auditing the books of merchants, joint-stock
+  companies, &amp;c. There are several bodies of accountants in the United
+  Kingdom incorporated by royal charter, and hence specially distinguished
+  as 'chartered accountants' (C.A.). Since 1919 women are admitted as
+  members of the Society of Incorporated Accountants.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L.&nbsp;R. Dicksee, <i>Advanced
+  Accounting</i>; G. Lisle, <i>Encyclopædia of Accounting</i> (8
+  vols.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;cra,</b> a British settlement in Africa, in a swampy
+  situation, capital of Gold Coast, about 75 miles east of Cape Coast
+  Castle. Exports gold-dust, ivory, gums, palm-oil; imports cottons,
+  cutlery, &amp;c. Pop. 20,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;crington,</b> a municipal borough of England, Lancashire,
+  5 miles east of Blackburn, with large cotton factories, print-works and
+  bleaching-greens, and coal-mines. Pop. 43,610. Accrington was created a
+  parliamentary borough in 1918.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accu&prime;mulator,</b> a name applied to a kind of electric
+  battery by means of which electric energy can be stored and rendered
+  portable. In the usual form each battery forms a cylindrical leaden
+  vessel, containing alternate sheets of metallic lead and minium wrapped
+  in felt and rolled into a spiral wetted with acidulated water. On being
+  charged with electricity the energy may be preserved till required for
+  use.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Accu&prime;sative Case,</b> in Latin and some other languages, the
+  term applied to the case which designates the object to which the action
+  of any verb is immediately directed, corresponding, generally speaking,
+  to the <i>objective</i> in English.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ace,</b> in aviation the name 'ace' is given to a flying-man who
+  has distinguished himself by bringing down a large number (sometimes
+  given as ten) of enemy machines. The word is used colloquially, and was
+  borrowed from the French Air Force during the European War.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aceph&prime;ala,</b> in zoology, the headless Mollusca or those
+  which want a distinct head, corresponding to those that have bivalve
+  shells and are also called <i>Lamellibranchiata</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;cer,</b> the genus of plants (nat. ord. Aceraceæ) to which
+  belongs the maple.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acerra</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-cher&prime;a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town in South Italy, 9 miles
+  north-east of Naples, the see of a bishop, in a fertile but unhealthy
+  region. Pop. 17,878.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acetab&prime;ulum,</b> an anatomical term applied to any cup-like
+  cavity, as that of a bone to receive the protuberant end of another bone,
+  the cavity, for instance, that receives the end of the thigh-bone.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acetates</b> (as&prime;e-t&#x101;ts), salts of acetic acid. The
+  acetates of most commercial or manufacturing importance are those of
+  aluminium and iron, which are used in calico-printing; of copper, which
+  as verdigris is used as a colour; and of lead, best known as sugar of
+  lead. The acetates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium, of iron, zinc, and
+  lead, and the acetate of morphia, are employed in medicine.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acet&prime;ic Acid,</b> an acid produced by the oxidation of common
+  alcohol, and of many other organic substances. Pure acetic acid has a
+  very sour taste and pungent smell, burns the skin, and is poisonous. From
+  freezing at ordinary temperatures (58° or 59°) it is known as <i>glacial
+  acetic acid</i>. Vinegar is simply dilute acetic acid. Acetic acid is
+  largely used in the arts, in medicine, and for domestic purposes. See
+  <i>Vinegar</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acet&prime;ic Ethers,</b> or <b>Acetic Esters,</b> acetates of
+  alcohol radicals. The common ester&mdash;ethyl acetate&mdash;is a
+  volatile colourless liquid, manufactured by distilling a mixture of
+  alcohol, oil of vitriol, and acetic acid, and used for flavouring
+  purposes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acetone</b> (as&prime;), a constituent of ordinary wood spirit, a
+  colourless volatile liquid used as a solvent, the simplest of the
+  <i>ketones</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acet&prime;ylene,</b> C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>, is a substance
+  composed of two elements, carbon and hydrogen, and belonging to a class
+  of compounds known as hydrocarbons. It is formed in the incomplete
+  combustion of many hydrocarbons and also of coal-gas, and may be produced
+  in a variety of ways, but is now made almost entirely from calcium
+  carbide. Acetylene has been known for a long time, but only since 1870
+  has it been produced in any quantity. After the development of the
+  electric furnace it was found that calcium oxide, <!-- Page 21 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>[21]</span>quicklime, heated with
+  carbon to the high temperature possible in such a furnace, is transformed
+  into calcium carbide, and this compound reacts with water, generating
+  acetylene. A great deal of heat is developed on adding water to calcium
+  carbide, so that care has to be taken in generating acetylene. Various
+  devices are in use for bringing the two substances in contact slowly, and
+  for keeping the temperature low. When carbon and hydrogen combine to form
+  acetylene a large amount of heat is used up, so that much heat is evolved
+  when acetylene decomposes again, and once decomposition starts sufficient
+  heat is developed to decompose the whole volume of gas.</p>
+
+  <p>Acetylene is a colourless gas slightly soluble in water and very
+  sparingly soluble in brine. When pure it has little or no odour, but as
+  ordinarily prepared it has a strong unpleasant odour due to traces of
+  impurities such as sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphine, &amp;c. The gas can
+  be liquefied easily, and in the liquid state is highly explosive. It
+  burns with an exceedingly sooty flame, but if it is allowed to pass
+  through a very small orifice the carbon liberated becomes incandescent
+  and acetylene burns with an intense white flame. It is largely used as an
+  illuminant and for the production of great heat. As an illuminant the gas
+  is produced in specially-constructed generators. It is led through iron
+  pipes and burned from an acetylene burner, or it may be used with special
+  types of incandescent mantles. Acetylene readily combines with copper and
+  with silver to form metallic acetylides which are very explosive, hence
+  pipes through which acetylene is passing must not be made of brass or
+  copper. Acetylene mixed with air and brought in contact with an ignited
+  body explodes even more violently than a mixture of air and coal-gas.</p>
+
+  <p>Large quantities of acetylene are generated and stored for
+  oxy-acetylene welding. Acetylene, burning in oxygen, gives an intensely
+  hot flame (about 2000°-3000° C.), sufficiently hot to melt iron. Although
+  liquid acetylene is unstable, and even the gas, under slight pressure, is
+  also unstable, it may be transported safely if dissolved in acetone.
+  Acetone dissolves a large volume of acetylene, and this solution is quite
+  stable and may be stored in iron cylinders and used for various purposes.
+  If it is to be stored it must be carefully purified from phosphine, which
+  is apt to cause sudden decomposition. Recently, numerous patents have
+  been taken out for the preparation of compounds such as acetaldehyde,
+  acetic acid, acetic anhydride, &amp;c., using acetylene as
+  starting-point, so that many substances may be prepared from acetylene
+  just as many substances may be prepared from benzene.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achæans</b> (a-k&#x113;&prime;anz), one of the four races into
+  which the ancient Greeks were divided. In early times they inhabited a
+  part of Northern Greece and of the Peloponnesus. They are represented by
+  Homer as a brave and warlike people, and so distinguished were they that
+  he usually calls the Greeks in general Achæans. Afterwards they settled
+  in the district of the Peloponnesus, called after them Achaia, and
+  forming a narrow belt of coast on the south side of the Gulf of Corinth.
+  From very early times a confederacy or league existed among the twelve
+  towns of this region. After the death of Alexander the Great it was
+  broken up, but was revived again, 280 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and
+  from this time grew in power till it spread over the whole Peloponnesus.
+  It was finally dissolved by the Romans, 147 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and after this the whole of Greece, except
+  Thessaly, was called Achaia or Achæa. Achaia with Elis now forms a
+  nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. Pop. 254,728. Cf. Freeman, <i>History
+  of Federal Government in Greece and Italy</i>, London, 1893.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achæmenidæ</b> (ak-&#x113;-men&prime;i-d&#x113;) a dynasty of
+  ancient Persian kings, being that to which the great Cyrus belonged.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achaia</b> (a-k&#x101;&prime;ya). See <i>Achæans</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achalzik</b>. See <i>Akhalzik</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achard</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span><i>h</i>&prime;a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rt), Franz Karl, a German chemist, born
+  1753, died 1821, principally known by his invention (1789-1800) of a
+  process for manufacturing sugar from beetroot. In 1801 the first
+  beet-sugar factory ever established was started by him in Silesia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achard</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-shär), Louis Amédée Eugène, born 1814,
+  died 1875, French journalist, novelist, and playwright. He was best known
+  as a novelist; wrote the novels <i>Belle Rose</i>, <i>La Chasse
+  royale</i>, <i>Châteaux en Espagne</i>, <i>Robe de Nessus</i>, <i>Chaînes
+  de fer</i>, &amp;c. His <i>Lettres Parisiennes</i> were published in 1838
+  under the pseudonym of Grimm.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achates</b> (a-k&#x101;&prime;t&#x113;z), a companion of Æneas in
+  his wanderings subsequent to his flight from Troy. He is always
+  distinguished in Virgil's <i>Æneid</i> by the epithet <i>fidus</i>,
+  'faithful', and has become typical of a faithful friend and
+  companion.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acheen,</b> or <b>Atchin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ch&#x113;n&prime;) (Du. <i>Atjeh</i>), a
+  native State of Sumatra, with a capital of the same name, in the
+  north-western extremity of the island, now nominally under Dutch
+  administration. Though largely mountainous, it has also undulating tracts
+  and low fertile plains. By treaty with Britain the Dutch were prevented
+  from extending their territory in Sumatra by conquest; but this obstacle
+  being removed, in 1871 they proceeded to occupy Acheen. It was not till
+  1879, however, after a great waste of blood and treasure, that they
+  obtained a general recognition of their authority. But they have not been
+  able to establish it firmly, and have had <!-- Page 22 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page22"></a>[22]</span>to put down many
+  determined risings, sometimes costing them losses both in men and guns.
+  In the seventeenth century Acheen was a powerful State, and carried on
+  hostilities successfully against the Portuguese, but its influence
+  decreased with the increase of the Dutch power. The principal exports are
+  rice and pepper. Area, 20,471 sq. miles; pop. 789,664.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achelous</b> (ak-e-l&#x14D;&prime;us) (now
+  <b>Aspropot&#x103;mo</b>), the largest river of Greece, rising on Mount
+  Pindus, separating Ætolia and Acarnania, and flowing into the Ionian Sea.
+  In Greek legend, Achel&#x14D;us, the son of Oceanus and Tethys, was the
+  river-god.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achenbach</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>&prime;<i>h</i>en-ba<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>ch), Andreas, was a
+  distinguished German landscape and marine painter, born in 1815, died in
+  1910.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achenbach,</b> Oswald, born 1827, died 1905, brother of above, was
+  also a distinguished landscape painter. Both are of the Düsseldorf
+  school, and pupils of the famous painter Schadow.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/image010.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image010.jpg"
+      alt="Achene" title="Achene" /></a>
+    Achene of Buttercup (magnified)
+
+    <p class="poem">E, Embryo. En, Endosperm. T, Testa and pericarp.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Achene,</b> or <b>Achenium</b> (a-k&#x113;n&prime;,
+  a-k&#x113;&prime;ni-um), in botany, a small, dry carpel containing a
+  single seed, the pericarp of which is closely applied but separable, and
+  which does not open when ripe. It is either solitary, or several achenia
+  may be placed on a common receptacle as in the buttercup.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achensee,</b> a lake in Tyrol, 20 miles north-east of Innsbruck and
+  3018 feet above sea-level. On its shores are beautiful villas and hotels
+  frequented as summer resorts.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acheron</b> (ak&prime;e-ron) (modern <b>Fanarioticos</b>), the
+  ancient name of several rivers in Greece and Italy, all of which were
+  connected by legend with the lower world. The principal was a river of
+  Thesprotia in Epirus, which passes through Lake Acherusia and flows into
+  the Ionian Sea. Homer speaks of Acheron as a river of the lower world,
+  and late Greek writers use the name to designate the lower world.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acheulian,</b> a term applied by archæologists to the late stage of
+  Chellean civilization in the Pleistocene Age. It is named after St.
+  Acheul in the Somme valley, where relics of it were found. The geological
+  horizon, according to Professor James Geikie, is late Second Interglacial
+  and Third Glacial periods.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ach&prime;iar,</b> or <b>At&prime;char,</b> an Indian condiment
+  made of the young shoots of the bamboo pickled.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achievement</b> (a-ch&#x113;v&prime;ment), in heraldry, a term
+  applied to the shield of armorial bearings generally, or to a hatchment
+  (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achill</b> (ak&prime;il), the largest island on the Irish coast,
+  separated from the mainland of Mayo by a narrow sound, now bridged over.
+  The chief occupation is fishing. The island is mountainous, has fine
+  scenery, and is visited by many tourists, there being now a railway
+  terminus here, and many recent improvements. Pop. nearly 7000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achillæ&prime;a,</b> the milfoil genus of plants.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achilleion,</b> famous castle at Corfu, which used to belong to the
+  Empress Elizabeth of Austria. It was acquired by the ex-Kaiser William
+  II, who bought it from the Archduchess Giséla, wife of Prince Leopold of
+  Bavaria.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achilles</b> (a-kil&prime;&#x113;z), a Greek legendary hero, the
+  chief character in Homer's <i>Iliad</i>. His father was Peleus, ruler of
+  Phthia in Thessaly, his mother the sea-goddess Thetis. When only six
+  years of age he was able to overcome lions and bears. His guardian,
+  Cheiron the Centaur, having declared that Troy could not be taken without
+  his aid, his mother, fearing for his safety, disguised him as a girl, and
+  introduced him among the daughters of Lycomedes of Scyros. Her desire for
+  his safety made her also try to make him invulnerable when a child by
+  anointing him with ambrosia, and again by dipping him in the River Styx,
+  from which he came out proof against wounds, all but the heel, by which
+  she held him. His place of concealment was discovered by Odysseus
+  (Ulysses), and he promised his assistance to the Greeks against Troy.
+  Accompanied by his close friend, Patroclus, he joined the expedition with
+  a body of followers (Myrmidons) in fifty ships, and occupied nine years
+  in raids upon the towns neighbouring to Troy, after which the siege
+  proper commenced. On being deprived of his prize, the maiden Briseïs, by
+  Agamemnon, he refused to take any further part in the war, and disaster
+  attended the Greeks. Patroclus now persuaded Achilles to allow him to
+  lead the Myrmidons to battle dressed in his armour, and he having been
+  slain by Hector, Achilles vowed revenge on the Trojans, and forgot his
+  anger against the Greeks. He attacked the Trojans and drove them back to
+  their walls, slaying them in great numbers, chased Hector, who fled
+  before him three times round the walls of Troy, slew him, and dragged his
+  body at his chariot-wheels, but afterwards gave it up to Priam, who came
+  in person to beg for it. He then performed the funeral rites of
+  Patroclus, with which the <i>Iliad</i> closes. He was killed in a battle
+  at the Scæan Gate of Troy by an arrow from the bow of Paris which struck
+  his vulnerable heel. In discussions on the origin of the Homeric poems
+  the term <i>Achilleid</i> is often applied to those books (i, viii, and
+  xi-xxii) of the <i>Iliad</i> in which Achilles is prominent, and which
+  some suppose to have formed the original nucleus of the poem. See
+  <i>Iphigenia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achilles' Tendon,</b> or <b>Tendon of Achilles,</b> <!-- Page 23
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>[23]</span>the strong
+  tendon which connects the muscles of the calf with the heel, and which
+  may be easily felt with the hand. The origin of the name will be
+  understood from the above article.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achilles Tatius</b> (a-kil&prime;&#x113;z t&#x101;&prime;shi-us), a
+  Greek romance writer of the fifth century <span class="scac">A.D.</span>,
+  belonging to Alexandria; wrote a love story in 8 books called
+  <i>Leucipp&#x113; and Cleitophon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achimenes</b> (a-kim&prime;e-n&#x113;z), a genus of tropical
+  American plants, with scaly underground tubers, nat. ord. Gesneraceæ, now
+  cultivated in European greenhouses on account of their white, blue, and
+  red flowers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achlamydeous</b> (ak-la-mid&prime;i-us), in botany, wanting the
+  floral envelopes, that is, having neither calyx nor corolla, as the
+  willow.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achor</b> (&#x101;&prime;kor), a disease of infants, in which the
+  head, the face, and often the neck and breast become incrusted with thin,
+  yellowish or greenish scabs, arising from minute, whitish pustules, which
+  discharge a viscid fluid.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Achromat&prime;ic</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, priv., and <i>chr&#x14D;ma,
+  chr&#x14D;matos</i>, colour), in optics, transmitting colourless light,
+  that is, not decomposed into the primary colours, though having passed
+  through a refracting medium. A single convex lens does not give an image
+  free from the prismatic colours, because the rays of different colour
+  making up white light are not equally refrangible, and thus do not all
+  come to a focus together, the violet, for instance, being nearest the
+  lens, the red farthest off. If such a lens of crown-glass, however, is
+  combined with a concave lens of flint-glass&mdash;the curvatures of both
+  being properly adjusted&mdash;as the two materials have somewhat
+  different optical properties, the latter will neutralize the chromatic
+  aberration of the former, and a satisfactory image will be produced.
+  Telescopes, microscopes, &amp;c., in which the glasses are thus composed
+  are called <i>achromatic</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acid</b> (Lat. <i>acidus</i>, sour), a name applied to a number of
+  compounds, having more or less the qualities of vinegar (itself a diluted
+  form of acetic acid). Their general properties are sour taste, the power
+  of changing vegetable blues into reds, of evolving hydrogen in presence
+  of magnesium, of decomposing chalk with effervescence, and of being in
+  various degrees neutralized by alkalies. An acid has been defined as a
+  compound of hydrogen, the whole or a part of which is replaceable by a
+  metal when this is presented in the form of a hydroxide; being
+  <i>monobasic</i>, <i>dibasic</i>, or <i>tribasic</i>, according to the
+  number of replaceable hydrogen atoms in a molecule. See
+  <i>Chemistry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acierage</b> (&#x101;&prime;s&#x113;-&#x117;r-&#x101;j), (Fr.
+  <i>acier</i>, steel), a process by which an engraved copper-plate or an
+  electrotype from an engraved plate of steel or copper has a film of iron
+  deposited over its surface by electricity in order to protect the
+  engraving from wear in printing. By this means an electrotype of a fine
+  engraving, which, if printed directly from the copper, would not yield
+  500 good impressions, can be made to yield 3000 or more; and when the
+  film of iron becomes so worn as to reveal any part of the copper, it may
+  be removed and a fresh coating deposited so that 20,000 good impressions
+  may be got.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acipenser</b> (as-i-pen&prime;s&#x117;r), the genus of
+  cartilaginous ganoid fishes to which the sturgeon belongs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aci Reale</b> (ä&prime;ch&#x113; r&#x101;-ä&prime;l&#x101;), a
+  seaport of Sicily, north-east of Catania, a well-built town, with a trade
+  in corn, wine, fruit, &amp;c. Pop. 35,587.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;cis,</b> according to Ovid, a beautiful shepherd of Sicily,
+  loved by Galatea, and crushed to death by his rival the Cyclops
+  Polyphemus. His blood, flowing from beneath the rock which crushed him,
+  was changed into a river bearing his name, and renowned for the coldness
+  of its water. It has been identified as the Fiume di Jaci.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aclin&prime;ic Line</b> (Gr. priv. <i>a, klin&#x14D;</i>, to
+  incline), the magnetic equator, an irregular curve in the neighbourhood
+  of the terrestrial equator, where the magnetic needle balances itself
+  horizontally, having no dip. See <i>Magnetism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acne</b> (ak&prime;n&#x113;), a skin disease, consisting of small
+  hard pimples, usually on the face, caused by congestion of the follicles
+  of the skin.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:27%;">
+      <a href="images/image011.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image011.jpg"
+      alt="Acolyte" title="Acolyte" /></a>
+    Acolyte
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Acolytes</b> (ak&prime;o-l&#x12B;ts), in the ancient Latin and
+  Greek Churches, persons of ecclesiastical rank next in order below the
+  subdeacons, whose office it was to attend the officiating priest. The
+  name is still retained in the Roman Church. Cf. Duchesne, <i>Christian
+  Worship, its Origin and Evolution</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aconcagua</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-kon-kä&prime;gwa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a province, a river, and a mountain of
+  Chile. The peak of <!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page24"></a>[24]</span>Aconcagua, whose summit is just within the
+  Argentine Republic, rises to the height of 23,080 feet, and is probably
+  the highest mountain of the western hemisphere. Area of province, 5406
+  sq. miles. Pop. (1919), 132,165.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;onite</b> (<i>Acon&#x12B;tum</i>), a genus of hardy
+  herbaceous plants, nat. ord. Ranunculaceæ, represented by the well-known
+  wolf's-bane or monk's-hood, and remarkable for their poisonous properties
+  and medicinal qualities, being used internally as well as externally in
+  rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acon&prime;itine,</b> an alkaloid extracted from monk's-hood and
+  some other species of aconite; used medicinally, though a virulent
+  poison.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aconquija</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-kon-k&#x113;&prime;<i>h</i>a<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a range of mountains
+  in the Argentine Republic; the name also of a single peak, 17,000 feet
+  high.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;corn,</b> the fruit of the different kinds of oak. The
+  acorn-cups of one species are brought from the Levant under the name of
+  <i>valonia</i>, and used in tanning.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acorn-shell</b>. See <i>Balanus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;orus,</b> a genus of plants, including the sweet-flag. See
+  <i>Sweet-flag</i> and <i>Calamus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acos&prime;ta,</b> Gabriel, afterwards Uriel, a Portuguese of
+  Jewish descent, born at Oporto in 1590, died by his own hand 1640.
+  Brought up a Christian, he afterwards embraced Judaism. Having gone to
+  Amsterdam, where he attacked the practices of the Jews, and denied the
+  divine mission of Moses, he suffered much persecution at the hands of the
+  Jews. He left an autobiography, published in 1687, under the title
+  <i>Exemplar Humanæ Vitæ</i>. He is the hero of a novel, <i>Die Sadducäer
+  von Amsterdam</i>, and of a tragedy, <i>Uriel Acosta</i>, both by
+  Gutzkow.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acotyle&prime;dons,</b> plants not furnished with cotyledons or
+  seed-lobes. They include ferns, mosses, seaweeds, &amp;c., and are also
+  called flowerless plants or cryptogams.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acousimeter,</b> or <b>Acoumeter</b> (Gr. <i>akouein</i>, to hear,
+  and <i>metron</i>, measure), an instrument used to determine the
+  acuteness of hearing. It consists of a small bar which gives a uniform
+  sound when struck by a hammer.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acoustics</b> (a-kou&prime;stiks), the science of sound. It deals
+  with the production of sound, its propagation and velocity in various
+  media; the reflection, refraction, and interference of sound waves; the
+  properties of musical notes; and the general phenomena of such vibrations
+  of elastic bodies as affect the organ of hearing.</p>
+
+  <p>In order that a sound may be heard, it is necessary that an
+  uninterrupted series of particles of elastic matter should extend from
+  the sounding body to our ear. Sound is propagated by a longitudinal
+  wave-motion in the medium (gaseous, liquid, or solid), that is, the
+  particles oscillate along the line in which the wave is travelling,
+  giving rise to regular series of condensations and rarefactions.</p>
+
+  <p>The velocity of sound varies directly as the square root of the
+  elasticity, and inversely as the square root of the density, of the
+  medium in which it is propagated. The velocity of sound in air at 0° C.
+  is 330.6 metres per second, or 1085 feet per second; in water 1.49
+  kilometres per second, or 0.926 mile per second; in copper 5.01
+  kilometres per second, or 3.12 miles per second.</p>
+
+  <p>The intensity of sound varies inversely as the square of the distance
+  from the sounding body. Recently sound-ranging instruments have been
+  produced by means of which the position of a gun can be determined.</p>
+
+  <p>A note produced by a musical instrument consists of a
+  <i>fundamental</i> of a certain frequency, together with a number of
+  <i>overtones</i> of various higher frequencies and much smaller
+  amplitude. The <i>timbre</i> of a note depends on the overtones present,
+  the <i>loudness</i> depends on the amplitude of the vibrations, and the
+  <i>pitch</i> depends on the frequency. The musical scale consists of
+  eight notes, C D E F G A B C, whose frequencies are in the proportion of
+  the numbers 24, 27, 30, 32, 36, 40, 45 and 48. The interval between two
+  notes is the ratio of the frequency of the higher note to the frequency
+  of the lower note. In order that the intervals may be the same in all
+  keys, a tempered scale is used in music. (See Table, p. 25.)</p>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Lord Rayleigh, <i>Theory of
+  Sound</i>; H. Smith, <i>The Making of Sound in the Organ and
+  Orchestra</i>; J.&nbsp;W. Capstick, <i>Sound</i> (Cambridge Natural Science
+  Manuals); E.&nbsp;H. Barton, <i>Text-book of Sound</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acqui</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k&prime;w&#x113;), a town of Northern
+  Italy, 18 miles <span class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of Alessandria, a
+  bishop's see. It has warm sulphurous baths, which were known to the
+  Romans, and which still attract a great many visitors. Pop. 16,500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acre,</b> a standard British measure of land, also used in the
+  colonies and the United States. The imperial statute acre consists of
+  4840 sq. yards, divided into 4 roods. The old Scotch acre contains 6146.8
+  sq. yards, the old Irish acre 7840 sq. yards.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acre</b> (&#x101;&prime;k&#x117;r) (ancient <b>Accho</b> and
+  <b>Ptolemais</b>), a seaport of Syria, in Northern Palestine, on the Bay
+  of Acre, early a place of great strength and importance. Taken from the
+  Saracens under Saladin in 1191 by Richard I of England and Philip of
+  France; bravely defended by the Turks, assisted by Sir Sidney Smith, in
+  1799 against Napoleon; in 1832, taken by Ibrahim Pasha; in 1840,
+  bombarded by a British, Austrian, and Turkish fleet, and restored to the
+  Sultan of Turkey. The town was occupied by British troops under General
+  Allenby in September, 1918. Pop. 10,000.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"></a>[25]</span></p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">MUSICAL INTERVALS.&mdash;See <i>Acoustics</i></p>
+
+<table class="allbctr" summary="Musical Intervals." title="Musical Intervals.">
+<tr><td class="allb" align="center">Intervals in <br />
+Perfect Diatonic<br />
+Scale.
+</td><td class="allb" align="center">
+</td><td class="allb" align="center">
+Perfect<br />
+Diatonic Scale
+</td><td class="allb" align="center">
+Diatonic Scale.<br />
+on System of<br />
+Equal<br />
+Temperament.<br />
+</td><td class="allb" align="center">
+Intervals in<br />
+Tempered Scale&mdash;<br />
+Mean tone.<br />
+(2<sup><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></sup> = 1.123).<br />
+Semitone.<br />
+(2<sup><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></sup>= 1.059).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> C </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> 1 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 1.000 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> major tone </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">tone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> D </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> = 1.125 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>2</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.123 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>10</sup>/<sub>9</sub> minor tone </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">tone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> E </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>5</sup>/<sub>4</sub> = 1.250 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>4</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.260 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>16</sup>/<sub>15</sub> limma </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">semitone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> F </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>4</sup>/<sub>3</sub> = 1.333 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>5</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.335 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> major tone </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">tone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> G </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>3</sup>/<sub>2</sub> = 1.500 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>7</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.498 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>10</sup>/<sub>9</sub> minor tone </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">tone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> A </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>5</sup>/<sub>3</sub> = 1.667 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>9</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.682 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> minor tone </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">tone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> B </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> <sup>15</sup>/<sub>8</sub> = 1.875 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2<sup>11</sup>/<sub>12</sub> = 1.888 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"><sup>16</sup>/<sub>15</sub> limma </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;">semitone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> </td><td class="vertb" align="center"> C&prime;</td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"> 2 </td><td class="vertb" align="right" style="padding-right: 2em;"> 2.000 </td><td class="vertb" style="padding-left: 1em;"></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Tone ratios." title="Tone ratios.">
+<tr><td class="nspac">Major </td><td class="nspac" align="center">&nbsp;tone&nbsp;</td><td class="nspac" align="center">ratio&nbsp;</td><td class="hspcsingle">= </td><td class="nspac" align="right"> <sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="hspcsingle">= 1.125</td><td class="rightbsing"></td><td class="hspcsingle"></td>
+   <td class="nspac">Limma </td><td class="nspac" align="center">&nbsp;tone&nbsp;</td><td class="nspac" align="center">ratio&nbsp;</td><td class="hspcsingle">= </td><td class="nspac" align="right"><sup>16</sup>/<sub>15</sub> </td><td class="hspcsingle">= 1.067</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nspac">Minor </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> " </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> " </td><td class="hspcsingle">= </td><td class="nspac" align="right"><sup>10</sup>/<sub>9</sub> </td><td class="hspcsingle">= 1.111</td><td class="rightbsing"></td><td class="hspcsingle"></td>
+   <td class="nspac" colspan="2">Semitone </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> " </td><td class="hspcsingle">= </td><td class="nspac" align="right">2<sup><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></sup></td><td class="hspcsingle">= 1.059</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nspac">Mean </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> " </td><td class="nspac" align="center"> " </td><td class="hspcsingle">= </td><td class="nspac" align="right">2<sup><sup>2</sup>/<sub>12</sub></sup></td><td class="hspcsingle">= 1.123</td><td class="rightbsing"></td><td class="hspcsingle"></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="cenhead">NOTES OF PERFECT DIATONIC SCALE (<span class="sc">with their Frequencies</span>)</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Notes of Perfect Diatonic Scale." title="Notes of Perfect Diatonic Scale.">
+<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">C<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&Prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 64. Ut<sub>1</sub> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> C<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">128. Ut<sub>2</sub> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> C&nbsp; </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">256. Ut<sub>3</sub> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> C&prime; </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 512. Ut<sub>4</sub></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">D<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&Prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 72 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> D<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">144 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> D </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">288 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> D&prime; </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 576</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">E<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&Prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 80 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> E<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">160 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> E </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">320 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> E&prime; </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 640</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">F<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&Prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 85.3 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> F<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">170.7 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> F </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">341.3 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> F&prime; </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 682.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">G<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&Prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 96 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> G<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">192 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> G </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">384 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> G&prime; </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 768</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">A<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&Prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">106.6 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> A<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">213.3 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> A </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">426.7 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> A&prime; </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 853.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;">B<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&Prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">120 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> B<span style="position:relative; top:1.25ex;">&prime;</span> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">240 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> B </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">480 </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> B&prime; </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">&nbsp; 960</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac" style=" vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;"> </td><td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.2em; border-left:1px solid black; vertical-align:top;"> C&Prime; </td><td style="padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align:top;">1024. Ut<sub>5</sub></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="cenhead">PERFECT DIATONIC SCALES (<span class="sc">Transition to Key of Dominant</span>)</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead"><i>Example</i>&mdash;Key of C to Key of G</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Transition to Key of Dominant." title="Transition to Key of Dominant.">
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle" align="center">C </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> D </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> E </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> F </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> G </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> A </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> B </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> C&prime; </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> D&prime; </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> E&prime; </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> F&prime; </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> G&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle" align="center">1 </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>5</sup>/<sub>4</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>4</sup>/<sub>3</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>3</sup>/<sub>2</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>5</sup>/<sub>3</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>15</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> 2 </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>9</sup>/<sub>4</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>5</sup>/<sub>2</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> <sup>8</sup>/<sub>3</sub> </td><td class="leftbsing" align="center"> 3</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Key of Dominant." title="Key of Dominant.">
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center">G</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">A&rsquo;</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">B</td> <td class="spacsingle" align="center">C&prime;</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">D&prime;</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">E&prime;</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">F&prime;#</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">G&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center">1</td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>5</sup>/<sub>4</sub></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>4</sup>/<sub>3</sub> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>3</sup>/<sub>2</sub> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>5</sup>/<sub>3</sub> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"><sup>15</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center">2</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Novel Notes in Key of Dominant." title="Novel Notes in Key of Dominant.">
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac">A </td><td class="muspac" align="center">= <sup>10</sup>/<sub>9</sub> </td><td class="muspac">G.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td class="muspac">F&prime; </td><td class="muspac">= <sup>16</sup>/<sub>9</sub> G.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac">A&rsquo; </td><td class="muspac" align="center">= <sup>9</sup>/<sub>8</sub> </td><td class="muspac">G. </td><td class="muspac">F&prime;# </td><td class="muspac">= <sup>15</sup>/<sub>8</sub> G.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac">A&rsquo; </td><td class="muspac" align="center">= <sup>81</sup>/<sub>80</sub> </td><td class="muspac">A. </td><td class="muspac"> </td><td class="muspac">= <sup>15</sup>/<sub>8</sub> × <sup>9</sup>/<sub>16</sub> F&prime;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="muspac"> </td><td class="muspac" align="center"> </td><td class="muspac"> </td><td class="muspac"> </td><td class="muspac">= (1 + 1/18<sup>2</sup>/<sub>7</sub>) F&prime;.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"></a>[26]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Acri</b> (&#x101;&prime;kr&#x113;), a town of S. Italy, province of
+  Cosenza. Pop. 4000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;rita</b> (Gr. <i>akritos</i>, undistinguishable,
+  doubtful), a name sometimes given to the animals otherwise called
+  Protozoa.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acroceph&prime;ali,</b> tribes of men distinguished by pyramidal or
+  high skulls.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acrocerau&prime;nia</b> (thunder-smitten peaks) (now <b>Cape
+  Glossa</b> or <b>Linguetta</b>), a promontory of Western Greece, in
+  Epirus, running into the Adriatic.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acrocorin&prime;thus,</b> a steep rock in Greece, nearly 1900 feet
+  high, overhanging ancient Corinth, and on which stood the acropolis or
+  citadel, the sacred fountain of Pir&#x113;n&#x113; being also here. This
+  natural fortress has proved itself of importance in the modern history of
+  Greece.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;rogens</b> (-jenz), lit. summit-growers, a term applied to
+  the ferns, mosses, and lichens (cryptogams), as growing by extension
+  upwards, in contradistinction to endogens and exogens.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;rolith,</b> an early form of Greek statuary in which the
+  head, hands, and feet only were of stone, the trunk of the figure being
+  of wood draped or gilded.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acrop&prime;olis</b> (Gr. <i>akros</i>, high, and <i>polis</i>, a
+  city), the citadel or chief place of a Grecian city, usually on an
+  eminence commanding the town. That of Athens contained some of the finest
+  buildings in the world, such as the Parthenon, Erechth&#x113;um,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acros&prime;tic,</b> a poem of which the first or last, or certain
+  other, letters of the line, taken in order, form some name, motto, or
+  sentence. A poem of which both first and last letters are thus arranged
+  is called a double acrostic. In Hebrew poetry, the term is given to a
+  poem of which the initial letters of the lines or stanzas were made to
+  run over the letters of the alphabet in their order, as in <i>Psalm</i>
+  cxix.&mdash;Acrostics have been much used in complimentary verses, the
+  initial letters giving the name of the person eulogized. They were very
+  popular among French poets of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In
+  modern times Edgar Allen Poe has written quite remarkable acrostic
+  verses.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Act,</b> in special senses: (1) In dramatic poetry, one of the
+  principal divisions of a drama, in which a definite and coherent portion
+  of the plot is represented; generally subdivided into smaller portions
+  called <i>scenes</i>. The Greek dramas were not divided into acts. The
+  dictum that a drama should consist of five acts was first formally laid
+  down by Horace, and is generally adhered to by modern dramatists in
+  tragedy. In comedy, especially since the time of Molière, more freedom is
+  allowed, and a division into two or three acts is common.&mdash;(2)
+  Something formally done by a legislative or judicial body; a statute or
+  law passed.&mdash;(3) In universities, a thesis maintained in public by a
+  candidate for a degree. See <i>Act of God</i>, <i>of Parliament</i>,
+  <i>of Settlement</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acta Diur&prime;na</b> (Lat., proceedings of the day), a daily
+  Roman newspaper which appeared under both the republic and the
+  empire.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Actæ&prime;a.</b> See <i>Baneberry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Actæ&prime;on,</b> in Greek mythology, a great hunter, turned into
+  a stag by Art&#x115;mis (Diana) for looking on her when she was bathing,
+  and torn to pieces by his own dogs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acta Erudito&prime;rum</b> (Lat., acts of the learned), the first
+  literary journal that appeared in Germany (1682-1782). It was started by
+  Otto Mencke, after the model of the <i>Journal des Savants</i>. Among the
+  contributors, the most distinguished was Leibnitz.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acta Sanctorum</b> (Lat., acts of the saints), a name applied to
+  all collections of accounts of ancient martyrs and saints, both of the
+  Greek and Roman Churches, more particularly to the valuable collection
+  begun by John Bolland, a Jesuit of Antwerp, in 1643, and which, being
+  continued by other divines of the same order (<i>Bollandists</i>), now
+  extends to sixty volumes, the lives following each other in the order of
+  the calendar.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Actin&prime;ia,</b> the genus of animals to which the typical
+  sea-anemones belong. See <i>Sea-anemone</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;tinism,</b> the property of those rays of light which
+  produce chemical changes, as in photography, in contradistinction to the
+  light rays and heat rays. The actinic property or force begins among the
+  green rays, is strongest in the violet rays, and extends a long way
+  beyond the visible spectrum.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Actinium,</b> an element or elementary substance obtained in minute
+  quantities in connection with the study of radioactivity. It was
+  discovered by Debierne in 1899. In 1902 Giesel discovered another
+  substance which he called <i>emanium</i>, and which was considered to be
+  identical with <i>actinium</i>. Marckwald, however, came to the
+  conclusion that these two substances are not identical but closely
+  related to each other. See <i>Radium</i>, <i>Chemistry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Actin&prime;olite,</b> a mineral nearly allied to hornblende.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Actinom&prime;eter,</b> an instrument for measuring the intensity
+  of the sun's actinic rays. See <i>Actinism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Actinozo&prime;a</b> (lit. ray-animals), a class of animals
+  belonging to the sub-kingdom C&oelig;lenterata, and including
+  sea-anemones, corals, &amp;c., all having rayed tentacles round the
+  mouth.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Action,</b> the mode of seeking redress at law for any wrong,
+  injury, or deprivation. Actions are divided into civil and criminal, the
+  former again being divided into real, personal, and mixed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;tium</b> (now <b>La Punta</b>), a promontory on <!-- Page
+  27 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"></a>[27]</span>the western
+  coast of Northern Greece, not far from the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf
+  (Gulf of Arta), memorable on account of the naval victory gained here by
+  Octavianus (afterwards the Emperor Augustus) over Antony and Cleopatra,
+  2nd Sept., 31 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, in sight of their armies
+  encamped on the opposite shores of the Ambracian Gulf. Soon after the
+  beginning of the battle Cleopatra escaped with sixty Egyptian ships, and
+  Antony basely followed her, and fled with her to Egypt. The deserted
+  fleet was not overcome without making a brave resistance. Antony's land
+  forces soon went over to the enemy, and the Roman world fell to
+  Octavianus. In 1538 a victory was gained at Actium by the Turks over the
+  Spanish and Venetian fleets.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Act of God,</b> a legal term defined as "a direct, violent, sudden,
+  and irresistible act of nature, which could not, by any reasonable cause,
+  have been foreseen or resisted". No one can be legally called upon to
+  make good loss so arising.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Act of Parliament,</b> a law or statute proceeding from the
+  Parliament of the United Kingdom passed in both houses, and having
+  received the royal assent. Before it is passed it is a <i>Bill</i> and
+  not an Act. Acts are either public or private, the former affecting the
+  whole community, the latter only special persons and private concerns.
+  The whole body of public Acts constitutes the <i>statute law</i>. An Act
+  of Parliament can only be altered or repealed by the authority of
+  Parliament. Acts are usually cited in this way, "13 and 14 Vict. c. (or
+  chap.) 21", which means the 21st Act in succession passed in year
+  13th-14th of the queen's reign (that is, 1850). Short titles, such as
+  "the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854", are also used. Up to the time of
+  Edward I Acts of Parliament were in Latin; then French was introduced,
+  and for some time was exclusively employed. It was not till Henry VII's
+  reign that all Acts were in English.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Act of Settlement,</b> an Act passed by the English Parliament in
+  1700, by which the succession to the throne of the three kingdoms, in the
+  event of King William and Princess (afterwards Queen) Anne dying without
+  issue, was settled on the Princess Sophia, electress of Hanover, and the
+  heirs of her body, being Protestants. The Princess Sophia was the
+  youngest daughter of Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, daughter of James I. By
+  this act George I, son of the Princess Sophia, succeeded to the crown on
+  the death of Queen Anne.&mdash;Another Act of Settlement was that by
+  which, under Cromwell's government, a new allotment was made of almost
+  all landed property in Ireland, in 1652.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Act of Toleration,</b> an Act of Parliament Passed in 1689, by
+  which Protestant dissenters from the Church of England, on condition of
+  their taking the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, and repudiating the
+  doctrine of transubstantiation, were relieved from the restrictions under
+  which they had formerly lain with regard to the exercise of their
+  religion according to their own forms.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Act of Uniformity,</b> an English Act passed in 1662, enjoining
+  upon all ministers to use the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> on pain of
+  forfeiture of their livings. See <i>Nonconformity</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/image012.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image012.jpg"
+      alt="Acton" title="Acton" /></a>
+    Quilted Acton of the fifteenth century
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Acton,</b> a kind of padded or quilted vest or tunic formerly worn
+  under a coat of mail to save the body from bruises, or used by itself as
+  a defensive garment. Jackets of leather or other material plated with
+  mail were also so called. <i>Gambeson</i> was an equivalent term.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acton,</b> a name of various places in England, one of them a
+  western suburb of London, pop. (1921), 61,314. Since 1918 Acton gives its
+  name to a parliamentary division of Middlesex, returning one member to
+  Parliament.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acton,</b> John Emerich Edward Dalberg, first Baron Acton, born
+  1834, died 1902, was son of Richard Acton (seventh baronet) and the
+  daughter of the Duc de Dalberg, afterwards wife of Earl Granville, Mr.
+  Gladstone's colleague. As a Roman Catholic he was educated at Oscott, and
+  afterwards on the Continent, partly under Döllinger, and acquired a
+  special taste for and profound knowledge of history. He conducted the
+  <i>Home and Foreign Review</i> from 1862 to 1864, and, in doing so,
+  showed himself a strong opponent of ultramontane pretensions. He next
+  edited the <i>North British Review</i>, which under him was rather
+  overweighted with learning, and soon came to an end. In 1869 he was
+  raised to the peerage. He strongly opposed the papal-infallibility
+  movement, and took the side of Mr. Gladstone in his attacks on
+  Vaticanism. In 1895 he accepted the professorship of modern history at
+  Cambridge, delivered lectures, and planned and undertook the editorship
+  of the great work on modern history, <i>The Cambridge Modern History</i>,
+  comprising a series of contributions by various scholars, and issued by
+  the university press. Except essays, letters, or articles for
+  periodicals, he himself wrote little. Since his death have been
+  published: <i>Lectures in Modern History</i> (1906); <i>The History of
+  Freedom and other Essays</i> (1907); <i>Lectures on the French
+  Revolution</i> (1910). His library of 60,000 volumes he left to Mr. (now
+  Lord) Morley, who handed it over to the University of Cambridge. <!--
+  Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>[28]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Actor,</b> one who represents some part or character on the stage.
+  Actresses were unknown to the Greeks and Romans in the earliest times,
+  men or boys always performing the female parts. They appeared under the
+  Roman empire, however. Charles II first encouraged the public appearance
+  of actresses in England; in Shakespeare's time there were none. See
+  <i>Drama</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C.&nbsp;F.
+  Armstrong, <i>Century of Great Actors</i>; H. Simpson, <i>Century of
+  Great Actresses</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acts of the Apostles,</b> fifth of the books of the New Testament,
+  written in Greek and assigned to the author of the gospel of St. Luke.
+  Its date is probably <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 63 or 64. It embraces
+  a period of about thirty years, beginning immediately after the
+  resurrection, and extending to the second year of the imprisonment of St.
+  Paul in Rome. Very little information is given regarding any of the
+  apostles, excepting St. Peter and St. Paul, and the accounts of them are
+  far from being complete. It describes the gathering of the infant Church;
+  the fulfilment of the promise of Christ to his apostles in the descent of
+  the Holy Ghost; the choice of Matthias in the place of Judas, the
+  betrayer; the testimony of the apostles to the resurrection of Jesus in
+  their discourses; their preaching in Jerusalem and in Judea, and
+  afterwards to the Gentiles; the conversion of Paul, his preaching in Asia
+  Minor, Greece, and Italy, his miracles and labours.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: R.&nbsp;T. Knowling, <i>The Expositor's Greek
+  Testament</i>; J. Moffatt, <i>The Historical New Testament</i>; J.&nbsp;M.
+  Wilson, <i>Origin and Aim of the Acts of the Apostles</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ac&prime;tuary,</b> an accountant whose business is to make the
+  necessary computations in regard to a basis for life assurance,
+  annuities, reversions, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acu&prime;leus,</b> in botany, a prickle, or sharp-pointed process
+  of the epidermis, as distinguished from a thorn or spine, which is of a
+  woody nature.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acupress&prime;ure,</b> a means of arresting bleeding from a cut
+  artery introduced by Sir James Simpson in 1859, and consisting in
+  compressing the artery above the orifice, that is, on the side nearest
+  the heart, with the middle of a needle (Lat. <i>acus</i>, a needle)
+  introduced through the tissues.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Acupunc&prime;ture,</b> a surgical operation, consisting in the
+  insertion of needles into certain parts of the body for alleviating pain,
+  or for the cure of different species of rheumatism, neuralgia, eye
+  diseases, &amp;c. It is easily performed, gives little pain, causes
+  neither bleeding nor inflammation, and seems at times of surprising
+  efficacy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adagio</b> (It. a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-dä&prime;j&#x14D;), a musical term,
+  expressing a slow time, slower than <i>andante</i> and less so than
+  <i>largo<i>, </i>lento</i>, and <i>grave</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adâl&prime;,</b> a country in Africa, east of Abyssinia and
+  north-westward of Tajurrah Bay, inhabited by a dark-brown race of the
+  same name, a tribe of the Danakils, Mahommedans in religion; towns Aussa
+  and Tajurrah. Part of the coast here is held by the French.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;albert of Prague,</b> called the apostle of the Prussians,
+  son of a Bohemian nobleman named Slavnik, born about 939. His real name
+  was Voitech, but he assumed the name of the Archbishop Adalbert, under
+  whom he studied at Magdeburg. He was appointed Bishop of Prague in 983,
+  laboured in vain among the heathenish Bohemians, resolved to convert the
+  pagans of Prussia, but was murdered in the attempt (997).
+  <i>Boga-Rodzica</i>, a Polish war-song, is said to have been composed by
+  him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ada&prime;lia,</b> a seaport on the south coast of Asia Minor. Pop.
+  28,000. The district of Adalia has a population of over 200,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-da<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Adolphe Charles, a French composer,
+  more especially of comic operas; born 1803, died 1856. Wrote <i>Le
+  postillon de Longjumeau</i>, <i>Le Brasseur de Preston</i> (Brewer of
+  Preston), <i>La Rose de Peronne</i>, <i>Le roi d'Yvetot</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam,</b> Albrecht, a German painter of battles and animals, born
+  1786, died 1862. Three sons of his have also distinguished themselves as
+  painters, especially Franz, born 1815, died 1886, among whose best
+  pictures are several representing scenes of the Franco-Prussian war.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam,</b> Alexander, a Scottish classical scholar, born in 1741;
+  became in 1768 rector of the High School of Edinburgh, and died there in
+  1809. Wrote <i>Principles of Latin and English Grammar</i>; <i>Roman
+  Antiquities</i>, a useful school-book; <i>Summary of Geography and
+  History</i>; <i>Classical Biography</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam,</b> Robert, an eminent Scottish architect, born in 1728, a
+  son of William Adam, architect. He resided several years in Italy,
+  visited Spalatro, in Dalmatia, and published a work on the ruined palace
+  of Diocletian there. In conjunction with his brother James he was much
+  employed by the English nobility and gentry in constructing modern and
+  embellishing ancient mansions. Among their works are the Register House
+  and the University Buildings, Edinburgh, and the Adelphi Buildings,
+  London. Robert Adam died in 1792, and was buried in Westminster Abbey;
+  his brother James died in 1794.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam and Eve,</b> the names given in Scripture to our first
+  parents, an account of whom and their immediate descendants is given in
+  the early chapters of <i>Genesis</i>. Cain, Abel, and Seth are all their
+  sons that are mentioned by name; but we are told that they had other sons
+  as well as daughters. There are numerous Rabbinical additions to the
+  Scripture narrative of an extravagant character, such as the myth of Adam
+  having a wife before Eve, named <i>Lilith</i>, who became the mother of
+  giants and evil spirits. <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page29"></a>[29]</span>Other legends or inventions are contained in
+  the Koran.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam de la Hale,</b> an early French writer and musician, born
+  1235, died 1287. His <i>Jeu de Robin et de Marion</i> (first produced at
+  Naples), may be regarded as the first comic opera ever written. Cf. H.
+  Guy, <i>Bibliographie Critique du Trouvère</i>, Paris, 1900.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;amant,</b> an old name for the diamond; also used in a
+  vague way to imply a substance of impenetrable hardness.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adaman&prime;tine Spar,</b> a name of the mineral corundum or of a
+  brownish variety of it.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adama&prime;wa</b> (also called <b>Fumbina</b>), a region of West
+  Africa, between lat. 6° and 10° <span class="scac">N.</span>, and lon.
+  11° and 17° <span class="scac">E.</span> Much of the surface is hilly or
+  mountainous, Mount Atlantika being 9000 or 10,000 feet. The principal
+  river is the Benue. A great part of the country is covered with thick
+  forests. The oil palm and bananas are staple products. Chief town Yola
+  (Nigeria).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adamello.</b> See <i>European War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;amites,</b> a religious sect dating from the second
+  century, probably of Gnostic origin. It was so called because both men
+  and women were said to appear naked in their assemblies, either to
+  imitate Adam in the state of innocence or to prove the control which they
+  possessed over their passions. Practices similar to those of the Adamites
+  arose several times in later ages. See <i>Beghards</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam&prime;nan,</b> St., born in Ireland about 624, was elected
+  abbot of Iona in 679, and died there about 703 or 704. He is best known
+  from his <i>Life of St. Columba</i>, valuable as throwing light on the
+  early ecclesiastical history of Scotland. (There are editions by Reeves,
+  1857; reissued with English translation 1874; and by Fowler, 1895.) His
+  feast is celebrated on 23rd Sept.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adams,</b> Charles Francis, American litterateur and statesman, was
+  a son of John Quincy Adams, and was born in 1807. His boyhood was spent
+  in Europe, partly in England; but he finished his education at Harvard,
+  and afterwards studied law. After serving some years in the Massachusetts
+  legislature he was sent to Congress in 1859. In 1861 Lincoln sent him to
+  England as American minister, and here he remained for seven years,
+  performing the arduous duties of his office with the utmost tact and
+  ability. Between 1874 and 1877 he edited a complete edition of his
+  grandfather's works in 12 vols. He was one of the arbitrators on the
+  <i>Alabama</i> claims. Died in 1886.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adams,</b> John, second president of the United States, was born at
+  Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts, 19th Oct., 1735. He was educated
+  at Harvard University, and adopted the law as a profession. His attention
+  was directed to politics by the question as to the right of the English
+  Parliament to tax the colonies, and in 1765 he published some essays
+  strongly opposed to the claims of the mother country. As a member of the
+  new American congress in 1774, 1775, and 1776 he was strenuous in his
+  opposition to the home Government, and in organizing the various
+  departments of the colonial Government. On 13th May, 1776, he seconded
+  the motion for a declaration of independence proposed by Lee of Virginia,
+  and was appointed a member of committee to draw it up. The declaration
+  was actually drawn up by Jefferson, but it was Adams who fought it
+  through Congress. In 1778 he went to France on a special mission, but
+  soon came back and again returned, and for nine years resided abroad as
+  representative of his country in France, Holland, and England. After
+  taking part in the peace negotiations he was appointed, in 1785, the
+  first ambassador of the United States to the Court of St. James. He was
+  recalled in 1788, and the following year elected vice-president of the
+  republic under Washington. In 1792 he was re-elected vice-president, and
+  at the following election in 1797 he became president in succession to
+  Washington. The commonwealth was then divided into two parties, the
+  Federalists, who favoured aristocratic and were suspected of monarchic
+  views, and the Republicans. Adams adhered to the former party, with which
+  his views of government had always been in accordance, but the real
+  leader of the party was Hamilton, with whom Adams did not agree, and who
+  tried to prevent his election. His term of office proved a stormy one,
+  which broke up and dissolved the Federalist party. His re-election in
+  1801 was again opposed by the efforts of Hamilton, which ended in
+  effecting the return of the Republican candidate Jefferson. Thus it
+  happened that when Adams retired from office his influence and popularity
+  with both parties were at an end, and he sunk at once into the obscurity
+  of private life. He had the consolation, however, of living to see his
+  son president. He died 4th July, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the
+  declaration of independence, and on the same day as Jefferson. His works
+  have been ably edited by his grandson Charles Francis Adams.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adams,</b> John Couch, English astronomer, born 1819, died 1892,
+  studied at Cambridge, and was senior wrangler in 1843. His investigations
+  into the irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus led him to the
+  conclusion that they must be caused by another more distant planet, and
+  the results of his labours were communicated in September and October,
+  1845, to Professor Challis and Airy the Astronomer Royal. The French
+  astronomer Leverrier had by this time been engaged in the same line of
+  research, and had come to substantially the same results, <!-- Page 30
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>[30]</span>which, being
+  published in 1846, led to the actual discovery of the planet Neptune by
+  Galle of Berlin. In 1858 Adams was professor of mathematics at Aberdeen
+  University, and in 1859 was appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy and
+  geometry at Cambridge.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adams,</b> John Quincy, sixth president of the United States, son
+  of John Adams, second president, was born 11th July, 1767. Accompanying
+  his father to Europe he received part of his education there, but
+  graduated at Harvard in 1788. Having adopted the legal profession, in
+  1791 he was admitted to the bar. He now began to take an active interest
+  in politics, and some letters that he wrote having attracted general
+  attention, in 1794 Washington appointed him minister to the Hague. He
+  afterwards was sent to Berlin, and also on a mission to Sweden. In 1798
+  he received a commission to negotiate a treaty of commerce with Sweden.
+  On the accession of Jefferson to the presidency in 1801 he was recalled.
+  The Federalist party (that of his father), which was now declining, had
+  sufficient influence in Massachusetts to elect him to the senate in 1803.
+  On an important question of foreign policy, that of embargo, he abandoned
+  his party, and having lost his re-election on this account, he retired to
+  the professorship of rhetoric at Cambridge, which he held from 1806 to
+  1809. In 1809 he went as ambassador to Russia. He assisted in negotiating
+  the peace of 1814 with England, and was afterwards appointed resident
+  minister at London. Under Monroe as president he was secretary of state,
+  and at the expiration of Monroe's double term of office he succeeded him
+  in the presidency (1825). He was not very successful as president, and at
+  the end of his term (1829) he was not re-elected. In 1831 he was returned
+  to Congress by Massachusetts, and continued to represent this State till
+  his death, his efforts being now chiefly on behalf of the Abolitionist
+  party. He died 21st Feb., 1848.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adams,</b> Samuel, an American statesman, second cousin of
+  President John Adams, was born in Boston, 27th Sept., 1722, and was
+  educated at Harvard College. He early devoted himself to politics, and in
+  connection with the dispute between America and the mother country he
+  showed himself one of the most unwearied, efficient, and disinterested
+  assertors of American freedom and independence. He was one of the signers
+  of the declaration of 1776, which he laboured most indefatigably to bring
+  forward. He sat in congress eight years; from 1789-94 was
+  lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts; from 1794-7 governor, when he
+  retired from public life. He died 2nd Oct., 1803.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam's Apple,</b> the popular name of the prominence seen in the
+  front of the throat in man, and which is formed by the portion of the
+  larynx known as the <i>thyroid cartilage</i>. It is much smaller and less
+  visible in females than in males, and is so named from the supposition
+  that it was caused by a piece of the forbidden fruit having stuck in
+  Adam's throat. In botany it is the name given to the plantain tree and
+  the <i>Citrus pomum</i>. It is the Heb. <i>Ethrog</i>, which, according
+  to Hebrew legend, was the fruit Adam and Eve ate in the garden of
+  Eden.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam's Bridge,</b> a chain of reefs, sandbanks, and islands
+  stretching between India and Ceylon; so called because the Mohammedans
+  believe that when Adam was driven from paradise he had to pass by this
+  way to Ceylon (where is also Adam's Peak). The Brahmans call it the
+  bridge of Rama, the hero of the Indian Epic, the <i>Ramayana</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam's Needle,</b> a popular name of the Yucca plant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adam's Peak,</b> one of the highest mountains in Ceylon, 45 miles
+  east-south-east of Colombo, conical, isolated, and 7420 feet high. On the
+  top, a rocky area of 64 feet by 45, is a hollow in the rock 5 feet long
+  bearing a rude resemblance to a human foot, which the Brahmans believe to
+  be the footprint of Siva; the Buddhists, who call it Sri-pada (sacred
+  footmark), that of Buddha; the Mahommedans that of Adam. The last-named
+  believe that Adam stood here on one foot for a thousand years, lamenting
+  his exclusion from Eden. Devotees of all creeds meet here and present
+  their offerings (chiefly rhododendron flowers) to the sacred footprint.
+  The ascent is very steep, and towards the summit is assisted by steps cut
+  and iron chains riveted in the rock.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adamson,</b> Patrick, a Scottish divine and Latin poet, born 15th
+  March, 1536, died 19th Feb., 1592. He was educated at St. Andrews, lived
+  some years in France, was minister of Paisley, and afterwards Archbishop
+  of St. Andrews, in which position he made himself very obnoxious to the
+  Presbyterian party. Deprived of the revenues of the see, he died in
+  indigence. He turned portions of the Bible into Latin verse.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;ana,</b> town and capital of Adana vilayet, Asia Minor, on
+  the Seihun-Irmak; served by the Bagdad Railway. The district is claimed
+  by Armenia. Cotton, rice, wine, and fruit are exported. Pop. (town),
+  70,000; (vilayet), 1,000,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adanson</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-da<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-s&#x14D;n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Michel, French naturalist and
+  traveller (of Scottish extraction), born 1727; died 1806. He lived five
+  years in Senegal, and wrote a natural history of this region as well as
+  works on botany. The baobab genus is named <i>Adansonia</i> after him.
+  Adanson's statue was erected in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, in
+  1856.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adanso&prime;nia.</b> See preceding article and <i>Baobab</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adaptation</b> (from the Lat. <i>ad</i>, to, and
+  <i>apt&#x101;re</i>, to fit), the process of modification or alteration
+  <!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>[31]</span>of
+  a thing so as to change its original purpose and adapt it to other uses.
+  Adaptation in biology is the power and process by which an organism or
+  species of animals or plants changes and becomes modified, so as to suit
+  the conditions of its life. In other words it is the adjustment, or
+  favourable reaction, of the living world to its environment, the
+  advantageous variation of animals and plants under changed conditions.
+  The term now includes both that which is hereditary and that which is
+  acquired. The powers of lower forms of life to adapt themselves to
+  changes of environment are limited, and frequently, when the conditions
+  vary suddenly, they are either arrested in their development or die
+  altogether.&mdash;In literature it is the process by which an author
+  modifies the work of another not in its essence but in its form and
+  details, either in the original or in a foreign language.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;dar,</b> the twelfth month of the Hebrew sacred and sixth
+  of the civil year, answering to part of February and part of March.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adda</b> (ancient <b>Addua</b>), a river of North Italy, which,
+  descending from the Rhætian Alps, falls into Lake Como, and leaving this
+  joins the Po, after a course of about 170 miles. On the banks of the Adda
+  Napoleon won the battle of Lodi in 1796.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adda,</b> a species of lizard, more commonly called Skink.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;dax,</b> a species of antelope (<i>Hippotr&#x103;gus
+  nasomacul&#x101;tus</i>) of the size of a large ass, with much of its
+  make. The horns of the male are about 4 feet long, beautifully twisted
+  into a wide-sweeping spiral of two turns and a half, with the points
+  directed outwards. It has tufts of hair on the forehead and throat, and
+  large broad hoofs. It inhabits the sandy regions of Nubia and Kordofan,
+  and is also found in Caffraria.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image013.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image013.jpg"
+      alt="Adder" title="Adder" /></a>
+    Adder (<i>Vipera communis</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Adder,</b> a name often applied to the common viper as well as to
+  other kinds of venomous serpents. See <i>Viper</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adder-pike</b> (<i>Trach&#x12B;nus vip&#x115;ra</i>), a small
+  species of the weever fish, called also the Lesser Weever or Sting-fish.
+  See <i>Weever</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adder-stone,</b> the name given in different parts of Britain to
+  certain rounded perforated stones or glass beads found occasionally, and
+  supposed to have a kind of supernatural efficacy in curing the bites of
+  adders. They are believed to have been anciently used as spindle-whorls,
+  that is, a kind of small fly-wheels to keep up the rotatory motion of the
+  spindle.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adder's-tongue,</b> a species of British fern (<i>Ophioglossum
+  vulg&#x101;tum</i>), whose spores are produced on a spike, supposed to
+  resemble a serpent's tongue.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adder's-wort,</b> a name of snakeweed or bistort
+  (<i>Polyg&#x14F;num Bistorta</i>), from its supposed virtue in curing the
+  bite of serpents.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;dington,</b> Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, born 1757, died
+  1844. Entered Parliament, 1783, as a warm supporter of Pitt. Was elected
+  speaker of the House of Commons, 1789, and in 1801 invited by the king to
+  form an administration, chiefly signalized by the conclusion of the Peace
+  of Amiens. Quarrelled with Pitt, whom he bitterly attacked. Was home
+  secretary from 1812 till 1822, his repressive policy making him
+  remarkably unpopular with the nation at large. Retired from official life
+  in 1824.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Addis Abe&prime;ba,</b> or <b>Adis Abba&prime;ba,</b> a town in the
+  south of Abyssinia, in Shoa, ranking as capital of the country, being
+  chief residence of the negus or sovereign. It stands among mountains, at
+  the height of 10,000 feet, and is a primitive place, but now has
+  telegraphic connection with Jibouti and Massawa, and since 1917 is the
+  terminus of the railway running inland from Jibouti by way of Harar. Pop.
+  50,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;dison,</b> Rt. Hon. Christopher, <span class="scac">P.C.,
+  M.D.,</span> Cabinet Minister. Dr. Addison was born 19th June, 1869, and
+  educated at Trinity College, Harrogate, and St. Bartholomew's Hospital,
+  London, where he was a lecturer for a time. He was elected Member of
+  Parliament for the Hoxton Division, Shoreditch, in 1910, and was
+  parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education from 1914 to 1915. From
+  1916 to 1917 he was Minister of Munitions; he was President of the Local
+  Government Board from January to June, 1919, when he became Minister of
+  Health. He has written and edited several works on medical subjects.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;dison,</b> Joseph, an eminent English essayist, son of the
+  Rev. Lancelot Addison, afterwards Dean of Lichfield, born at Milston,
+  Wiltshire, 1st May, 1672, died 17th June, 1719. He was educated at the
+  Charterhouse, where he became acquainted with Steele, and afterwards at
+  Oxford. He held a fellowship from 1697 till 1711, and gained much praise
+  for his Latin verse. He secured as his earliest patron the poet Dryden,
+  who inserted some of his verses in his <i>Miscellanies</i> in 1693. A
+  translation of the fourth <i>Georgic</i>, with the exception of the story
+  of <i>Aristæus</i>, by Addison, appeared in the same collection in 1694,
+  and he subsequently translated for it two and <!-- Page 32 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>[32]</span>a half books of Ovid.
+  Dryden also prefixed his prose essay on Virgil's <i>Georgics</i> to his
+  own translation of that poem, which appeared in 1697. An early patron of
+  his was Charles Montague, afterwards Earl of Halifax; another was Lord
+  Somers, who procured him a pension of £300 a year to enable him to
+  qualify for diplomatic employments by foreign travels. He spent from the
+  autumn of 1699 to that of 1703 on the Continent, where he became
+  acquainted with Malebranche, Boileau, &amp;c. During his residence abroad
+  his tragedy of <i>Cato</i> is supposed to have been written. During his
+  journey across Mont Cenis he wrote his <i>Letter from Italy</i>, esteemed
+  the best of his poems, and in Germany his <i>Dialogues on Medals</i>,
+  which was not published till after his death. His <i>Remarks on Several
+  Parts of Italy in the Years 1701-3</i> was published in 1705. His
+  political friends lost power on the death of William III, but <i>The
+  Campaign</i>, a poem on the battle of Blenheim, procured him an
+  appointment as a commissioner of appeal on excise. In 1706 he received an
+  under-secretaryship, in 1707 accompanied Halifax on a mission to Hanover,
+  in 1709 became secretary to the Viceroy of Ireland, and keeper of the
+  records. In 1708 he was elected Member of Parliament for Lostwithiel, a
+  seat he exchanged in 1710 for Malmesbury, which place he continued to
+  represent till his death. From Oct., 1709, to Jan., 1711, he contributed
+  75 papers to the <i>Tatler</i>, either wholly by himself or in
+  conjunction with Steele, thus founding the new literary school of the
+  Essayists. For the <i>Spectator</i> (2nd Jan., 1711, to 6th Dec., 1712)
+  he wrote 274 papers, all signed by one of the four letters C., L., I., O.
+  His tragedy of <i>Cato</i>, produced April, 1713, ran for twenty nights,
+  and was translated into French, Italian, German, and Latin. His other
+  contributions to periodicals included 51 papers to the <i>Guardian</i>
+  (May to Sept., 1713), 24 papers to a revived <i>Spectator</i> conducted
+  by Budgell, and 2 papers to Steele's <i>Lover</i>. On the death of Queen
+  Anne he successively became secretary to the lords justices, secretary to
+  the Irish viceroy, and one of the lords commissioners of trade. He
+  published the <i>Freeholder</i> (23rd Dec., 1715, to 9th June, 1716), a
+  political <i>Spectator</i>. In August, 1716, he married the Countess of
+  Warwick, a marriage which did not increase his happiness. He retired from
+  public life, March, 1718, with a pension of £1500 a year. He formed a
+  close friendship with Swift, and was chief of a distinguished literary
+  circle. He had literary quarrels with Pope and Gay, the former of whom in
+  revenge wrote the satire contained in his lines on Atticus in the
+  <i>Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot</i>. He also had a paltry quarrel over
+  politics with his old friend Steele. His death took place at Holland
+  House, its cause being dropsy and asthma. He was buried in Westminster
+  Abbey. Of his style as a writer so much has been said that nothing
+  remains to say but to quote the dictum of Johnson: "Whoever wishes to
+  attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not
+  ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison".
+  He had great conversational powers, and his intimates speak in the
+  strongest terms of the enjoyment derived from his society, but he was
+  extremely reserved before strangers. His <i>Dialogues on Medals</i> and
+  <i>Evidences of the Christian Religion</i> were published posthumously in
+  Tickell's collected edition of his works.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: W.&nbsp;J. Courthope, <i>Addison</i> (English
+  Men of Letters Series); <i>Essays from the Spectator</i>, edited by Henry
+  Morley.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Addison's Disease</b> (from Dr. Addison, Guy's Hospital, London,
+  who traced the disease to its source), a fatal disease, the seat of which
+  is the two glandular bodies placed one at the front of the upper part of
+  each kidney, and called <i>suprarenal capsules</i>. It is characterized
+  by anæmia or bloodlessness, extreme prostration, and the brownish or
+  olive-green colour of the skin. Death usually results from weakness, and
+  commonly takes place within a year.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Addled Parliament,</b> a Parliament called 5th April, 1614, in
+  order to legalize the customs duties imposed by James I, but which,
+  proceeding to the redress of grievances instead of granting supply, was
+  dissolved, 7th June, without passing a single Bill.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Address,</b> a document containing an expression of thanks,
+  congratulation, satisfaction, or dissatisfaction, &amp;c. It is the
+  custom of the British Parliament to return an address to the speech
+  delivered by the Sovereign at the commencement of every session.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Address,</b> Forms of. The following are the principal modes of
+  formally addressing titled personages or persons holding official rank in
+  Great Britain:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote class="b1n">
+
+  <p><i>The King or Queen.</i>&mdash;Address in writing: To the King's
+  (Queen's) most excellent Majesty. Say: Sire or Madam, Your Majesty.</p>
+
+  <p><i>The Royal Family.</i>&mdash;His Royal Highness (H.R.H.) the Prince
+  of Wales, His Royal Highness the Duke of C&mdash;&mdash;, His Royal
+  Highness Prince A&mdash;&mdash;. A royal duke should be addressed as Sir,
+  not My Lord Duke; and referred to as Your Royal Highness. A princess is
+  addressed Her Royal Highness the Duchess of &mdash;&mdash;, Her Royal
+  Highness Princess A&mdash;&mdash;; and personally as Madam, Your Royal
+  Highness.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Duke and Ducal Family.</i>&mdash;His Grace the Duke of
+  &mdash;&mdash;; My Lord Duke, Your Grace. Her Grace the Duchess of
+  &mdash;&mdash;; Madam, Your Grace. The duke's eldest son is in law only
+  an esquire, but in courtesy takes a secondary title of his father, and is
+  addressed as if he held it by right. A younger son is addressed Lord
+  J&mdash;&mdash; B&mdash;&mdash;; My Lord, Your Lordship; a daughter, Lady
+  M&mdash;&mdash; B&mdash;&mdash; (Christian and surname); Madam, Your
+  Ladyship. A duke's, marquis's, or earl's daughter marrying a commoner
+  simply changes her surname for his.</p>
+
+  <p><i>The Lord-lieutenant of Ireland</i> is styled His Excellency, or, if
+  a duke, His Grace, and addressed according to his titular rank.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Marquess.</i>&mdash;The Most Honourable the Marquess of
+  &mdash;&mdash;; <!-- Page 33 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page33"></a>[33]</span>My Lord Marquess, My Lord. The eldest son
+  has a secondary title of his father, as in the case of a duke's eldest
+  son; the younger sons and the daughters are all addressed as the younger
+  sons and daughters of a duke.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Earl.</i>&mdash;The Right Honourable the Earl of &mdash;&mdash;; My
+  Lord, Your Lordship. The Right Honourable the Countess of&mdash;&mdash;;
+  Madam, Your Ladyship. The eldest son is addressed by a secondary title of
+  his father; younger son, The Honourable G&mdash;&mdash; T&mdash;&mdash;;
+  Sir; the daughter, as duke's and marquess's daughter.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Viscount.</i>&mdash;The Right Honourable the Viscount
+  &mdash;&mdash;; My Lord, Your Lordship. The Right Honourable the
+  Viscountess &mdash;&mdash;; Madam, Your Ladyship. Son: The Honourable
+  A&mdash;&mdash; B&mdash;&mdash; (Christian and surname); Sir. Daughter:
+  The Honourable J&mdash;&mdash; C&mdash;&mdash; (Christian and surname);
+  Madame; if married, The Honourable Mrs. &mdash;&mdash; (married
+  name).</p>
+
+  <p><i>Baron.</i>&mdash;The Right Honourable Lord &mdash;&mdash;; My Lord,
+  Your Lordship. The Right Honourable the Lady &mdash;&mdash;; Madam, your
+  Ladyship. Son: The Honourable J&mdash;&mdash; C&mdash;&mdash;; Sir.
+  Daughter: The Honourable M&mdash;&mdash; H&mdash;&mdash;; if married, The
+  Honourable Mrs. &mdash;&mdash;, same as viscount's daughter.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Baronet.</i>&mdash;Sir A&mdash;&mdash; B&mdash;&mdash;, Baronet;
+  Sir; more familiarly Dear Sir A&mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Knight.</i>&mdash;Sir C&mdash;&mdash; D&mdash;&mdash;, Kt., or
+  K.C.S.I., K.C.B., G.C.B., &amp;c., according to rank. The wives of
+  baronets and knights are styled Lady, Lady &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Archbishop.</i>&mdash;His Grace the Lord Archbishop of
+  &mdash;&mdash;; My Lord Archbishop; Your Grace. An archbishop is also
+  styled Most Reverend.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Bishop.</i>&mdash;The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of &mdash;&mdash;;
+  My Lord. The wives of prelates have no special title. Bishops not
+  connected with the English established church may be addressed&mdash;The
+  Right Reverend Bishop &mdash;&mdash;; Right Reverend Sir.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Dean.</i>&mdash;The Very Reverend; Sir; Mr. Dean.</p>
+
+  <p>Members of the Privy Council, members and ex-members of cabinet, the
+  Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief
+  Justice and the Lords Justices, the Lord Advocate, the lords of the
+  treasury and admiralty, are called Right Honourable; the justices (not
+  being <i>lords</i> justices) are styled Honourable. Ambassadors,
+  governors of colonies, &amp;c., are styled Excellency.</p>
+
+  <p>The Lord Mayors of London, York, Dublin, &amp;c., and the Lord Provost
+  of Edinburgh, are styled Right Honourable; the Lord Provost of Glasgow,
+  Honourable. A Mayor is addressed as Right Worshipful. Lords of Session
+  (Scotland) have the courtesy title of Lord, are addressed as My Lord,
+  Your Lordship, and also called Honourable. Sheriffs and their substitutes
+  are addressed in their courts in Scotland as My Lord.</p>
+
+  <p>In the United States persons holding official rank are similarly
+  addressed; thus the President is styled His Excellency, as are also
+  governors of states and foreign ministers; the vice-president,
+  lieutenant-governors, senators, representatives, judges, and mayors are
+  styled Honourable.</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+  <p><b>Adduc&prime;tor,</b> a muscle which draws one part of the body
+  towards another: applied in zoology to one of the muscles which bring
+  together the valves of the shell of the bivalve molluscs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adel&prime;.</b> See <i>Adal.</i></p>
+
+  <p><b>Adela,</b> born 1062, died 1137, fourth daughter of William the
+  Conqueror, wife of Stephen, Count of Blois and Chartres, and mother of
+  Stephen, King of England. She proved herself an able ruler and a generous
+  patroness of learning while her husband was abroad with the First
+  Crusade; and after his death she acted as regent for his sons.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adelaide</b> (ad'e-l&#x101;d), the capital of South Australia, 6
+  miles east from Port Adelaide (on St. Vincent Gulf), its port, with which
+  it is united by railway, founded in 1837, and named after the queen of
+  William IV. Situated on a large plain, it is built nearly in the form of
+  a square, with the streets at right angles, and is divided into North and
+  South Adelaide, separated by the river Torrens, which is crossed by
+  several bridges, and by means of a dam is converted into a fine sheet of
+  water. The public buildings comprise the Government House, the town hall,
+  the post and telegraph offices, the Government offices, court-houses, the
+  houses of legislature, the University, South Australian Institute,
+  &amp;c. There is a good service of tramway cars. Adelaide is connected by
+  railway with Melbourne, and is the terminus of the overland telegraph to
+  Port Darwin. It has a large trade. Pop. (including suburbs), (1919),
+  256,660.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adelaide,</b> daughter of George, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Meiningen,
+  and wife of the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV, King of England;
+  born 1792, died 1849; married 11th July, 1818, had two daughters, who
+  died in infancy. She became queen-consort on William attaining the throne
+  in 1830, and was for a time unpopular from being supposed to be averse to
+  reform. On the death of William she passed into private life, with an
+  allowance of £100,000 a year.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adelard of Bath,</b> an English philosophical writer of the twelfth
+  century. He travelled through Spain, the north of Africa, Greece, and
+  Asia Minor, and acquired from the Arabs much knowledge, which he put in
+  systematic shape. Chief works, <i>Perdifficiles Quæstiones Naturales</i>
+  and <i>De Eodem et Diverso.</i></p>
+
+  <p><b>Adelsberg</b> (ä'd&#x117;lz-ber<i>h</i>), a small town of North
+  Italy, in Carniola, midway between Trieste and Laibach, remarkable for
+  the wonderful stalactite cave in its vicinity. The most extended of the
+  ramifications which compose it reaches to over 2 miles from the entrance,
+  at which the River Poik disappears, and is heard rushing below. The
+  stalactites and stalagmites are of the most varied and often beautiful
+  forms, and have received fanciful appellations, as they resemble columns,
+  statues, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adelung</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>d'e-lu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>ng), Friedrich von, nephew of J.&nbsp;C.
+  Adelung, was a distinguished philologist. He was tutor to the Grand-duke
+  Nicholas, afterwards Emperor of Russia, and became president of the
+  Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg (now Petrograd). Born 1768, died
+  1843.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adelung,</b> Johann Christoph, a German philologist, born 1732,
+  died 1806. In 1759 he was appointed professor in the Protestant academy
+  at Erfurt, and two years after removed to Leipzig, where he applied
+  himself to the works by which he made so great a name, particularly his
+  German dictionary, <i>Grammatisch-kritisches Wörterbuch der hochdeutschen
+  Mundart</i> (Leipzig, 1774-86), and his <i>Mithridates</i>, a work on
+  general philology. In 1787 he was appointed librarian of the public
+  library in Dresden&mdash;an office which he held till his death.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;den,</b> a seaport town and territory belonging to Britain,
+  on the south-west coast of Arabia, in <!-- Page 34 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>[34]</span>a dry and barren
+  district, the town being almost entirely closed in by an amphitheatre of
+  rocks, and possessing an admirable harbour. Occupying an important
+  military position, Aden is strongly fortified and permanently garrisoned.
+  It is of importance also as a coaling station for steamers, and carries
+  on a great amount of commerce, forming an entrepôt and place of
+  transhipment for goods valued at £6,000,000 a year. Its greatest drawback
+  is the scarcity of fresh water, which is obtained partly from wells,
+  partly from rock-cisterns that receive the rain, and partly by
+  condensation from salt water&mdash;the only unfailing means of supply.
+  The peninsula on which it stands somewhat resembles the rock of
+  Gibraltar, and could be rendered as formidable. Aden was a Roman colony,
+  and in the Middle Ages it was a great entrepôt of the Eastern trade. It
+  was acquired by Britain in 1839, after which it was attacked repeatedly
+  by the Arabs. With the additional territory latterly acquired, the total
+  British area is 75 sq. miles (or with the island of Perim, 80); while a
+  large tract is under British influence. Aden is attached to the Bombay
+  Presidency. Pop. 46,165.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adenanthe&prime;ra,</b> a genus of trees and shrubs, natives of the
+  East Indies, nat. ord. Leguminosæ. <i>A. pavon&#x12B;na</i> is one of the
+  largest and handsomest trees of India, and yields hard solid timber
+  called red sandal-wood. The bright scarlet seeds, from their equality in
+  weight (each=4 grains), are used by goldsmiths in the East as
+  weights.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adeni&prime;tis</b> (Gr. <i>ad&#x113;n</i>, a gland), in medicine,
+  inflammation of one or more of the lymphatic glands.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;enoids,</b> small growths often occurring in the back wall
+  of the throat in children, blocking the nostrils and commonly causing
+  deafness. They can be removed by a simple operation.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aderer&prime;</b>. See <i>Adrar</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aderno&prime;,</b> a town of Sicily, 18 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> of Catania and about 10 miles <span
+  class="scac">W.S.W.</span> of Mount Etna. Pop. 25,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adessena&prime;rian,</b> one of a sect of Christians which holds
+  that there is a real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but denying
+  that it is effected by transubstantiation.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adhesion,</b> the tendency of two bodies to stick together when put
+  in close contact, or the mutual attraction of their surfaces;
+  distinguished from <i>cohesion</i>, which denotes the mutual attraction
+  between the particles of a homogeneous body. Adhesion may exist between
+  two solids, between a solid and a fluid, or between two fluids. A plate
+  of glass or of polished metal laid on the surface of water and attached
+  to one arm of a balance will support much more than its own weight in the
+  opposite scale from the force of adhesion between the water and the
+  plate. From the same force arises the tendency of most liquids, when
+  gently poured from a jar, to run down the exterior of a vessel or along
+  any other surface they meet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adian&prime;tum,</b> a genus of ferns; the maiden-hair fern.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adiaph&prime;orist</b> (Gr. <i>adiaphoros</i>, indifferent), a name
+  given in the sixteenth century to Melanchthon's party, who held some
+  opinions and ceremonies to be indifferent which Luther condemned as
+  sinful or heretical.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adige</b> (ä&prime;d&#x113;-j&#x101;), Ger. <i>Etsch</i> (ancient
+  <b>Ath&#x115;sis</b>), a river of Northern Italy, which rises in the
+  Rhætian Alps, and after a south and east course of about 180 miles,
+  during which it passes Verona and Legnago, falls into the Adriatic,
+  forming a delta connected with that of the Po.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;ipocere</b> (-s&#x113;r) (Lat. <i>adeps</i>, fat, and
+  <i>cera</i>, wax), a substance of a light-brown colour formed by animal
+  matter when protected from atmospheric air, and under certain
+  circumstances of temperature and humidity. It was first observed by
+  Fourcroy, and a quantity discovered at the Cimetière des Innocents,
+  Paris. A similar substance is found in peat-bogs in Wales and
+  Ireland.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;ipose tissue,</b> the cellular tissue containing the oily
+  or fatty matter of the body. It underlies the skin, surrounds the large
+  vessels and nerves, invests the kidneys, &amp;c., and sometimes
+  accumulates in large masses.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adiron&prime;dack Mountains,</b> in the United States, a group
+  belonging to the Appalachian chain, extending from the <span
+  class="scac">N.E.</span> corner of the State of New York to near its
+  centre. The scenery is wild and grand, diversified by numerous beautiful
+  lakes, and the whole region is a favourite resort of sportsmen and
+  tourists.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;it,</b> a more or less horizontal opening, giving access
+  to the shaft of a mine. It is made to slope gradually from the farthest
+  point in the interior to the mouth, and by means of it the principal
+  drainage is usually carried on. See <i>Mine</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;jective,</b> in grammar, a word used to denote some
+  quality in the noun or substantive to which it is accessory. The
+  adjective is indeclinable in English (but has <i>degrees</i> of
+  comparison), and generally precedes the noun, while in most other
+  European languages it follows the inflections of the substantive, and is
+  more commonly placed after it, though in German it precedes it, as in
+  English.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adjudica&prime;tion,</b> in English law, is the decree of the court
+  in bankruptcy declaring a person bankrupt.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adjust&prime;ment,</b> in marine insurance, is the settling of the
+  amount of the loss which the insurer is entitled under a particular
+  policy to recover, and if the policy is subscribed by more <!-- Page 35
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>[35]</span>than one
+  underwriter, of the amounts which the underwriters respectively are
+  liable to pay.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;jutant,</b> an officer appointed to each regiment or
+  battalion, whose duty is to assist the commander. He is charged with
+  instruction in drill, and all the interior discipline, duties, and
+  efficiency of the corps. He has the charge of all documents and
+  correspondence, and is the channel of communication for all orders.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:27%;">
+      <a href="images/image014.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image014.jpg"
+      alt="Adjutant-bird" title="Adjutant-bird" /></a>
+    Adjutant-bird (<i>Leptopt&#x12D;lus arg&#x103;la</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Adjutant-bird</b> (<i>Leptopt&#x12D;lus arg&#x103;la</i>), a large
+  grallatorial or wading bird of the stork family, native of the warmer
+  parts of India, where it is known as Hurg&#x12D;la or Arg&#x103;la. It
+  stands about five feet high, has an enormous bill, nearly bare head and
+  neck, and a pouch hanging from the under part of the neck. It is one of
+  the most voracious carnivorous birds known, and in India, from its
+  devouring all sorts of carrion and noxious animals, is protected by law.
+  From underneath the wings are obtained those light downy feathers known
+  as <i>marabou</i> feathers, from the name of an allied species of bird
+  (<i>L. marabou</i>) inhabiting Western Africa, and also producing
+  them.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adjutant-general,</b> in Great Britain the second military member
+  of the Army Council, and styled Adjutant-general to the Forces. He is a
+  general officer, and at the head of his department at the War Office,
+  which is charged with all duties relative to personnel.&mdash;Among the
+  Jesuits this name was given to a select number of fathers, who resided
+  with the general of the order, and had each a province or country
+  assigned to him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;jutators,</b> in English history, representatives elected
+  by the parliamentary forces in 1647 to act with the officers in
+  compelling Parliament to satisfy the demands of the army.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adler,</b> Victor, Austrian socialist leader, born in 1852.
+  Educated as a physician, he gave up his profession for socialist
+  propaganda. He visited England, and wrote a book on factory inspection in
+  this country. He was the founder and editor of the
+  <i>Arbeiter-Zeitung</i>; was a member of the Lower Austrian Diet and of
+  the Imperial Council in 1907. His son, Dr. Friedrich Adler, assassinated
+  Count Stuergkh, the Austrian premier, on 20th Oct., 1916. He died in
+  1918.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;lington,</b> a straggling place in Lancashire to the
+  south-east of Chorley, engaged in the cotton manufacture. Pop. (1921),
+  4393.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adme&prime;tus,</b> in Greek mythology, King of Pheræ, in Thessaly,
+  and husband of Alcestis, who gave signal proof of her attachment by
+  consenting to die in order to prolong her husband's life. See
+  <i>Alcestis</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Administra&prime;tion,</b> in politics, the executive power or
+  body, the ministry or cabinet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Admin&prime;istrator,</b> in law, the person to whom the goods of a
+  man dying intestate are committed by the proper authority, and who is
+  bound to account for them when required.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;miral,</b> the commander-in-chief of a squadron or fleet
+  of ships of war, or of the entire naval force of a country, or simply a
+  naval officer of the highest rank. In the British navy admirals are of
+  four ranks&mdash;admiral of the fleet, admiral, vice-admiral, and
+  rear-admiral. They were also divided formerly into three classes, named
+  after the colours of their respective flags, admirals of the <i>red</i>,
+  of the <i>white</i>, and of the <i>blue</i>. In 1864, however, this
+  distinction was given up, and now there is one flag common to all ships
+  of war, namely, the white ensign divided into four quarters by the cross
+  of St. George, and having the union in the upper corner next the
+  staff.&mdash;The title <i>admiral of the fleet</i> is conferred on a few
+  admirals, and carries an increase of pay along with it.&mdash;A
+  <i>vice-admiral</i> is next in rank and command to the admiral: he
+  carries his flag at the foretop-gallant-mast head, while an admiral
+  carries his at the main. A <i>rear-admiral</i>, next in rank to the
+  vice-admiral, carries his flag at the mizzentop-gallant-mast
+  head.&mdash;<i>Lord high admiral</i>, in Great Britain, an officer who
+  (when this rare dignity is conferred) is at the head of the naval
+  administration of Great Britain. There have been few high admirals since
+  1632, when the office was first put in commission. James Duke of York
+  (afterwards James II) held it for several years during Charles II's
+  reign. In the reign of William and Mary it was vested in lords
+  commissioners of the admiralty, and since that time it has been held for
+  short periods only by Prince George of Denmark (1702-8) in the time of
+  Queen Anne, and by William IV, then Duke of Clarence, in 1827-8.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;miralty,</b> that department of the Government of a
+  country that is at the head of its naval service. In Britain the board of
+  Admiralty now consists of the First Lord of the Admiralty and <!-- Page
+  36 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page36"></a>[36]</span>seven other
+  commissioners, four of them being Sea Lords, and one a Civil Lord. The
+  First Lord is always a member of the cabinet, and it is he who
+  principally exercises the powers of the department. Under the 1912
+  Admiralty Organization Scheme, the various members of the board are
+  responsible for special business. Several changes in Admiralty
+  organization were made during the European War, but after the cessation
+  of hostilities the system reverted to that of peace time.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Admiralty Charts</b> are charts issued by the hydrographic
+  department of the Admiralty of Britain; they are prepared by specially
+  appointed surveyors and draughtsmen, and besides being supplied to every
+  ship in the fleet, are sold to the general public at prices much less
+  than their cost. In connection with these charts there are published
+  books of sailing directions, lists of lights, &amp;c. The navigating
+  charts are generally on the scale of half an inch to a mile, and show all
+  the dangers of the coasts with sufficient distinctness to enable the
+  seamen to avoid them; the charts of larger size exhibit all the
+  intricacies of the coast.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Admiralty Court,</b> a court which takes cognizance of civil and
+  criminal causes of a maritime nature, including captures made in war, and
+  offences committed on the high seas, and has to do with many matters
+  connected with maritime affairs. In England the Admiralty Court was once
+  held before the Lord High Admiral, and at a later period was presided
+  over by his deputy or the deputy of the Lords Commissioners. It now forms
+  a branch of the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division of the High
+  Court of Justice. There is a separate Irish Admiralty Court. In Scotland
+  Admiralty cases are now prosecuted in the Court of Session, or in the
+  Sheriff Court. In the United States, Admiralty cases are taken up in the
+  first instance by the district courts.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Admiralty Island,</b> an island belonging to the United States off
+  the north-west coast of North America, 80 or 90 miles long and about 20
+  broad, covered with fine timber and inhabited by Sitka Indians.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Admiralty Islands,</b> a cluster of 40 islands, north of New
+  Guinea, in what was once called the Bismarck Archipelago. Discovered by
+  the Dutch explorer Shouten in 1616, they were in German possession from
+  1884 to 12th Sept., 1914, when they were occupied by an Australian force.
+  They have since been in British occupation. The largest is about 60 miles
+  in length; the rest are much smaller. They are covered with a luxuriant
+  vegetation, and possess dense groves of coco-nut trees. There are
+  valuable pearl and other shell fisheries. Capital, Lorengau. Pop.
+  (native), 4000; (European), 50.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/image015.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image015.jpg"
+      alt="Stipule adnated to Leaf-stalk" title="Stipule adnated to Leaf-stalk" /></a>
+    Stipule adnated to Leaf-stalk of Rose
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;nate,</b> in botany, applied to a part growing attached to
+  another and principal part by its whole length, as stipules adnated to
+  the leaf-stalk.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adobe</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-d&#x14D;&prime;b&#x101;), the Spanish
+  name for a brick made of loamy earth, containing about two-thirds fine
+  sand and one-third clayey dust, sun-dried; in common use for building in
+  Mexico, Texas, and Central America. Building material in ancient Egypt
+  and Assyria was adobe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adol&prime;phus,</b> John, 1768-1845, an able English criminal
+  lawyer, and author of the <i>History of England from the Accession of
+  George III</i> and <i>Biographical Memoirs of the French
+  Revolution</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adolphus of Nassau,</b> elected Emperor of Germany, 1292. In 1298
+  the college of electors transferred the crown to Albert of Austria, but,
+  Adolphus refusing to abdicate, a war ensued in which he fell, after a
+  heroic resistance, 2nd July, 1298.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adonai</b> (ad&prime;o-n&#x12B;), a name bestowed upon God in the
+  Old Testament. See <i>Jehovah</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ado&prime;ni,</b> a town and district in Madras; pop. of former
+  30,416, of latter 179,418. It is well known for excellent silk and cotton
+  fabrics.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ado&prime;nis,</b> son of Myrrha, a mythological personage,
+  originally a deity of the Ph&oelig;nicians, but borrowed into Greek
+  mythology. He was represented as being a great favourite of
+  Aphrodit&#x113; (Venus), who accompanied him when engaged in hunting, of
+  which he was very fond. He received a mortal wound from the tusk of a
+  wild boar, and when the goddess hurried to his assistance she found him
+  lifeless, whereupon she caused his blood to give rise to the anemone. The
+  worship of Adonis, which arose in Ph&oelig;nicia, was afterwards widely
+  spread round the Mediterranean. He is the reproductive principle,
+  nature's decay in winter and its revival in spring. The name Adonis is
+  akin to the Heb. <i>Adonai</i>, Lord. See <i>Tammuz</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ado&prime;nis,</b> a small river rising in Lebanon and flowing to
+  the Mediterranean. When in flood it is tinged with a red colour, and so
+  is connected with the legend of Adonis.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ado&prime;nis,</b> a genus of ranunculaceous plants. In the
+  corn-adonis or pheasant's eye (<i>A. autumn&#x101;lis</i>) the petals are
+  bright scarlet like the blood of Adonis, from which the plant is fabled
+  to have sprung.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adoptianism,</b> the theory according to which <!-- Page 37
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>[37]</span>Christ as a man
+  is the adopted Son of God. Elipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix,
+  Bishop of Urgella, asserted this double sonship in Christ, maintaining
+  that He was indeed the Son of God in His divine nature, but as man He was
+  the Son of God only by grace and adoption. 'The Man Christ' is therefore
+  only the adopted and not the natural Son of God. The doctrine was
+  vigorously opposed by Alcuin, and condemned by the councils of Ratisbon
+  (792) and Frankfort (794). The theory, however, found advocates during
+  the Middle Ages, and has given rise to theological disputes in modern
+  times. Adoptianism was attributed both to Abelard and Duns Scotus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adop&prime;tion,</b> the admission of a stranger by birth to the
+  privileges of a child. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and also some
+  modern nations, adoption is placed under legal regulation. In Rome the
+  effect of adoption was to create the legal relation of father and son,
+  just as if the person adopted was born of the blood of the adopter in
+  lawful marriage. The adopted son took the name of his adopter, and was
+  bound to perform his new father's religious duties. Adoption is not
+  recognized by the law of England and Scotland; there are legal means to
+  enable a person to assume the name and arms, and to inherit the property
+  of another. In some of the United States adoption is regulated by laws
+  not very dissimilar to those which prevailed among the Romans.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adour</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-dör), a river of France, rising in the
+  Hautes Pyrenees, and falling into the sea a little below Bayonne; length
+  about 200 miles; partly navigable.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ado&prime;wa,</b> a town of Abyssinia, in Tigré, at an elevation of
+  6270 feet; the chief commercial depot on the caravan route from Massawa
+  to Gondar. Pop. about 4000. Here the Italians suffered a crushing defeat
+  at the hands of the Abyssinians, 1st March, 1896.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adra</b> (ä&prime;<i>d</i>ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a seaport of Southern Spain, in
+  Andalusia, near the mouth of the Adra, on the Mediterranean; with marble
+  quarries and lead works. Pop. 9000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adramit&prime;ti</b> (ancient <b>Adramyttium</b>; Turk.
+  <i>Edremid</i>), a town of Turkey in Asia, near the head of the gulf of
+  the same name, 80 miles north of Smyrna. Pop. about 5000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adrar&prime;,</b> a district in the Western Sahara, peopled by
+  Berbers possessing camels, sheep, and oxen, and cultivating dates, wheat,
+  barley, and melons. Chief towns, Wadan and Shingit, which has
+  inexhaustible beds of rock-salt.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adren&prime;alin,</b> or <b>Suprarenin,</b> a crystalline substance
+  obtained from the adrenals or suprarenal capsules of cattle and sheep,
+  which possesses the property of checking bleeding by its styptic or
+  contractive powers, and is used in medical practice, more especially in
+  the case of bleeding at the nose and nervous catarrh.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adria</b> (ä&prime;dri-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a cathedral city of Northern Italy,
+  province of Rovigo, between the Po and the Adige, on the site of the
+  ancient town of same name, whence the Adriatic derives its appellation.
+  Owing to alluvial deposits the sea is now 17 miles distant. Pop.
+  11,878.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;drian,</b> the name of six Popes. The first, a Roman, ruled
+  from 772-795; a contemporary and friend of Charlemagne. He expended vast
+  sums in rebuilding the walls and restoring the aqueducts of
+  Rome.&mdash;<b>Adrian II,</b> a Roman, was elected Pope in 867, at the
+  age of seventy-five years. He died in 872, in the midst of conflicts with
+  the Greek Church.&mdash;<b>Adrian III,</b> a Roman, elected 884, was Pope
+  for one year and four months only. He was the first Pope who changed his
+  name on the occasion of his exaltation.&mdash;<b>Adrian IV,</b>
+  originally named <b>Nicolas Breakspear,</b> the only Englishman who ever
+  occupied the papal chair, was born about 1100, and died 1159. He is said
+  to have been a native of Hertfordshire, studied in France, and became
+  abbot of St. Rufus in Provence, cardinal and legate to Norway. Chosen
+  Pope in 1154, his reign is chiefly remarkable for his almost constant
+  struggle for supremacy with Frederick Barbarossa, who on one occasion had
+  been forced to hold his stirrup, and had been crowned by him at Rome
+  (1155). He issued the famous bull (1158) granting the sovereignty of
+  Ireland, on condition of the payment of Peter's pence, to Henry
+  II.&mdash;<b>Adrian V,</b> previously called <b>Ottobuono Fieschi,</b> of
+  Genoa, settled, as legate of the Pope, the dispute between King Henry III
+  of England and his nobles, in favour of the former; but died a month
+  after his election to the papal chair (1276).&mdash;<b>Adrian VI</b> (the
+  last pontifice barbaro), born at Utrecht in 1459, was elected to the
+  papal chair, 9th Jan., 1522. He tried to reform abuses in the Church, but
+  opposed the zeal of Luther with reproaches and threats, and even
+  attempted to excite Erasmus and Zuinglius against him. Died 1523, after a
+  reign of one year and a half.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;drian,</b> a town of the United States, in Michigan, 70
+  miles <span class="scac">W.S.W.</span> of Detroit. Its extensive
+  water-power is employed in works of various kinds. Pop. 9654.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;drian,</b> Publius Ælius Hadrianus. See <i>Hadrian</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adriano&prime;ple</b> (Turk. <i>Edreneh</i>), an important city in
+  the Balkans, about 135 miles <span class="scac">W.N.W.</span> from
+  Constantinople, on the Maritza (ancient <i>Hebrus</i>), at its junction
+  with the Tundja and the Arda. It has a great mosque, among the most
+  magnificent in the world; a palace, now in a state of decay; a grand
+  aqueduct, and a splendid bazaar; manufactures of silk, woollen, and
+  cotton stuffs, otto of roses, leather, &amp;c., and an important <!--
+  Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page38"></a>[38]</span>trade.
+  Adrianople received its present name from the Roman emperor Adrian
+  (Hadrian). In 1361 it was taken by Amurath I, and was the residence of
+  the Turkish sovereigns till the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. In
+  1829 it was taken by the Russians, and here was then concluded the peace
+  of Adrianople, by which Russia received important accessions of territory
+  in the Caucasus and on the coast of the Black Sea. The Russians occupied
+  it also in 1878. Adrianople was bombarded by the Balkan allied forces in
+  Feb., 1913, and fell 28th March; it was recaptured by the Turks, under
+  Enver Bey, 20th July. Pop. 83,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adrian's</b> (or <b>Hadrian's</b>) <b>Wall</b>. See <i>Roman
+  Walls</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adriat&prime;ic Sea,</b> or <b>Gulf of Venice,</b> an arm of the
+  Mediterranean, stretching in a north-westerly direction from the Straits
+  of Otranto, between Italy and the Balkan Peninsula (Yugo-Slavia). Length,
+  about 480 miles; average breadth, about 100; area, about 60,000 sq.
+  miles. The rivers which it receives, particularly the Po, its principal
+  feeder, have produced, and are still producing, great geological changes
+  in its basin by their alluvial deposits. Hence Adria, between the Po and
+  the Adige, which gives the sea its name, though once a flourishing
+  seaport, is now 17 miles inland. An oceanographic investigation of the
+  Adriatic Sea took place in Feb. and March, 1911. The principal trading
+  ports on the Italian side are Brindisi, Bari, Ancona, Sinigaglia, and
+  Venice; on the east side Ragusa, Fiume, Pirano, Pola, and Trieste
+  (Italian).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adscripti Glebæ</b> (Lat., persons attached to the soil), a term
+  applied to a class of Roman slaves attached in perpetuity to and
+  transferred with the land they cultivated. Colliers and salt workers in
+  Scotland were in a similar position till 1775.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adula&prime;ria,</b> a very pure, limpid, translucent variety of
+  the common felspar, called by lapidaries <i>moonstone</i>, on account of
+  the play of light exhibited by the arrangement of its crystalline
+  structure. It is found on the Alps, but the best specimens are brought
+  from Ceylon. It is so called from <i>Adula</i>, one of the peaks of St.
+  Gothard, where fine specimens are got.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adul&prime;lam, Cave of,</b> a cave to which David fled when
+  persecuted by Saul, and whither he was followed by "every one who was in
+  distress, in debt, or discontented" (1 <i>Sam.</i> xxii, 1, 2).&mdash;The
+  name <i>Adullamites</i> was given to an English political party,
+  consisting of R. Lowe, Lord Elcho, and other Liberals, who opposed the
+  majority of their party on the Franchise Bill of 1866. The term
+  originated from a speech of John Bright on 13th March, 1866.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adultera&prime;tion,</b> a term applied to the fraudulent mixture
+  of articles of commerce, foods, drugs, beverages, seeds, &amp;c., with
+  inferior ingredients, and also to any accidental impurity found in a
+  substance. The chief objects of adulteration are to render a substance
+  more pleasing in appearance, to increase the weight, to make an inferior
+  article appear as good as the article of superior quality. Any substance
+  added to an article to increase its bulk, weight, colour, &amp;c., is
+  spoken of as an adulterant. Milk is often adulterated with water and with
+  colouring-matter. Butter may be adulterated by mixing with it other fats
+  or by the addition of colouring-matter. Nearly every article of food can
+  be adulterated in some way to make it appear of finer quality.
+  <i>Preservatives</i> added to foods and drugs generally may be classed as
+  adulterants. Thus cream is preserved by adding small quantities of boric
+  acid. Beer sometimes contains salicylic acid added as a preservative.
+  Chloroform contains a small quantity of alcohol to prevent decomposition.
+  Methylated spirits is alcohol adulterated in several ways to render it
+  unfit for human consumption. Tobacco contains benzoic acid as
+  preservative, and sometimes saltpetre to aid burning. Many of these
+  adulterants are harmful, so that such added to foods and beverages must
+  be present only in very small quantities. Food and Drug Acts lay down the
+  limits of the quantities of foreign matter permitted either as
+  preservative or impurity. Practically every article of commerce is
+  adulterated in some way, and pure substances are seldom used. Cf. Walker,
+  <i>The Food Inspector's Encyclopædia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adul&prime;tery,</b> the voluntary sexual intercourse of a married
+  person with any other than the offender's husband or wife; when committed
+  between two married persons, the offence is called double, and when
+  between a married and single person, single adultery. The Mosaic, Greek,
+  and early Roman law only recognized the offence when a married woman was
+  the offender. By the Jewish law it was punished with death. In Greece the
+  laws against it were severe. By the laws of Draco and Solon adulterers,
+  when caught in the act, were at the mercy of the injured party. In early
+  Rome the punishment was left to the discretion of the husband and parents
+  of the adulteress. The punishment assigned by the Lex Julia, under
+  Augustus, was banishment or a heavy fine. Under Constantius and Constans,
+  adulterers were burned or sewed in sacks and thrown into the sea; under
+  Justinian the wife was to be scourged, lose her dower, and be shut up in
+  a monastery; at the expiration of two years the husband might take her
+  again; if he refused she was shaven and made a nun for life. By the
+  ancient laws of France this crime was punishable with death. In Spain
+  personal mutilation was frequently the punishment adopted. In several
+  European countries adultery is regarded as a <!-- Page 39 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>[39]</span>criminal offence, but in
+  none does the punishment exceed imprisonment for a short period,
+  accompanied by a fine. In England formerly it was punishable with fine
+  and imprisonment, and in Scotland it was frequently made a capital
+  offence. In Great Britain at the present day, however, it is punishable
+  only by ecclesiastical censure. The aggrieved husband, however, can
+  obtain damages against his wife's seducer. In England a man can obtain a
+  dissolution of his marriage on the ground of his wife's adultery, and a
+  wife can obtain a judicial separation on the ground of her husband's
+  adultery, or a dissolution of the marriage if the offence is coupled with
+  cruelty, desertion, or bigamy. In Scotland it is not necessary to prove
+  cruelty. In the United States the punishment of adultery has varied
+  materially at different times. It is, however, very seldom punished
+  criminally in the States. A person divorced for adultery is by the laws
+  of France and Scotland prohibited from intermarrying with the
+  co-respondent.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad valo&prime;rem</b> (Lat., according to the value), a term
+  applied to customs or duties levied according to the worth of the goods,
+  as sworn to by the owner, and not according to number, weight, measure,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Advance-note,</b> a draft on the owner of a vessel, generally for
+  one month's wages, given by the master to the sailors on their signing
+  the articles of agreement. The granting of such notes to British sailors
+  was made illegal by an Act passed in 1880.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;vent</b> (Lat. <i>adventus</i>, an arrival, 'the coming of
+  our Saviour'), the name applied to the holy season which occupies the
+  four or, according to the Greek Church, six weeks preceding Christmas,
+  and which forms the first portion of the ecclesiastical year, as observed
+  by the Anglican, the Roman Catholic, and the Greek Church.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;ventists,</b> a group of six American religious sects who
+  believe in the speedy coming of Christ, and generally practise adult
+  immersion. The first sect of Adventists was founded by William Miller in
+  1831.&mdash;There is also a sect called <i>Seventh-day Adventists</i>,
+  who hold that the coming of Christ is at hand, and maintain that the
+  Sabbath is still the seventh day of the week.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;verb,</b> one of the parts of speech used to limit or
+  qualify the signification of an adjective, verb, or other adverb; as,
+  <i>very cold</i>, <i>naturally brave</i>, <i>much more clearly</i>,
+  <i>readily agreed</i>. Adverbs may be classified as follows: (1) Adverbs
+  of time, as, <i>now</i>, <i>then</i>, <i>never</i>, &amp;c.; (2) of
+  place, as, <i>here</i>, <i>there</i>, <i>where</i>, &amp;c.; (3) of
+  degree, as, <i>very</i>, <i>much</i>, <i>nearly</i>, <i>almost</i>,
+  &amp;c.; (4) of affirmation, negation, or doubt, as, <i>yes</i>,
+  <i>no</i>, <i>certainly</i>, <i>perhaps</i>, &amp;c.; (5) of manner, as,
+  <i>well</i>, <i>badly</i>, <i>clearly</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Advertis&prime;ing.</b> Advertising on a small scale is a practice
+  as old as commerce; but modern advertising on a large scale cannot be
+  dated further back than 1785, when the <i>Times</i> was founded. The last
+  thirty years have witnessed a great increase in the importance of
+  advertisements as part of the policy of a progressive business. Much more
+  intelligence and vastly more money is now spent on advertising than ever
+  was before. America led the way, but the British are not now far behind
+  in the number and ingenuity of their advertisements.</p>
+
+  <p>There are roughly speaking five distinct types of
+  advertisement:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>(1) Press advertising, under which heading is included daily and
+  weekly newspapers, monthly magazines and year books, directories,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>(2) Mail-order advertising, which comprises form-letters,
+  catalogues.</p>
+
+  <p>(3) Poster and showcard advertising. This includes large and small
+  posters, on hoardings, in railway stations or tubes, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>(4) Illuminated signs either outside buildings on a large scale or in
+  frames of various sizes inside business premises, theatres, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>(5) Cinema advertising&mdash;a recent development which has proved
+  extremely effective.</p>
+
+  <p>Advertising to be successful must be carefully organized. A firm
+  wishing to advertise must first of all settle how much money it is
+  willing to spend on this object. A common practice is to devote a fixed
+  proportion of the profits&mdash;at least five per cent&mdash;to
+  advertising. The firm must then carefully consider the period of time
+  over which the expenditure agreed upon is to be spread. Occasional or
+  spasmodic advertising does not produce satisfactory results; advertising
+  must be constant and must move with the times in order to be effective. A
+  firm not uncommonly reviews the results of its advertising every six
+  months, when it also arranges its plans for future advertisements.
+  Mistakes in policy can thus be corrected and successful schemes can be
+  readopted or improved upon. Advertising on any large scale must be
+  handled by experts. Many thousands of pounds are wasted yearly by firms
+  which hand over this work to a director who has no knowledge of how to
+  advertise. The proper way for a firm to act, if it wishes to enter upon a
+  campaign of publicity, is to engage an efficient advertising staff or to
+  employ a reliable advertising agent. These agents in many cases obtain
+  their profits from the commission given to them by newspapers&mdash;this
+  often being about ten per cent of the cost of the space booked. In return
+  for this they give their advice and copy&mdash;everything, indeed, except
+  blocks and sketches.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Henry
+  Sampson, <i>A History of Advertising</i>; <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, Feb.,
+  1843, <i>On the Advertising System</i>. A good account of the <!-- Page
+  40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>[40]</span>more recent
+  developments of advertising is to be found in H.&nbsp;G. Wells's novel
+  <i>Tono-Bungay</i>; T. Russell, <i>Commercial Advertising</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad vitam aut culpam</b> (Lat., for life or till a fault), a formula
+  often used in regard to appointments to posts or offices, intimating that
+  they are held for life or till the person forfeits his position by some
+  fault or misdeed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;vocate</b> (Lat., <i>advocatus</i>&mdash;<i>ad</i>, to,
+  <i>voco</i>, to call), a lawyer authorized to plead the cause of his
+  clients before a court of law. It is only in Scotland that this word
+  seems to denote a distinct class belonging to the legal profession, the
+  advocates of Scotland being the pleaders before the supreme courts, and
+  corresponding to the <i>barristers</i> of England and Ireland. These
+  advocates all belong to the <i>Faculty of Advocates</i>, Edinburgh, to
+  whom the oral pleadings in the Court of Session are for the most part
+  limited, while they are also competent to plead in all the inferior
+  Scottish courts and in the House of Lords in cases of appeal from the
+  Court of Session. The supreme judges in Scotland, as well as the sheriffs
+  of the various counties, are always selected from among them. Candidates
+  for admission must undergo two separate examinations, one in general
+  scholarship and the other in law.&mdash;The <i>Lord-Advocate</i>, called
+  also the <i>King's</i> or <i>Queen's Advocate</i>, is the principal law
+  officer of the crown in Scotland. He is the public prosecutor of crimes
+  in the Supreme Court, and senior counsel for the crown in civil causes.
+  Being appointed by the crown, he goes out of office with the
+  administration to which he belongs. As public prosecutor he is assisted
+  by the solicitor-general and by four junior counsel called
+  advocates-depute. The lord-advocate and the solicitor-general, in
+  addition to their official duties, accept of ordinary bar practice.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Advocates' Library,</b> the chief library in Scotland, located in
+  Edinburgh, and founded about 1682 by the Faculty of Advocates. It was
+  increased by donations and by sums granted by the Faculty from time to
+  time. As the donations were not confined to advocates the library was
+  considered a kind of public library, and it has continued to retain this
+  character. In 1709 it obtained, along with eight other libraries, the
+  right to demand a copy of every new book published in Britain, which
+  right it still possesses. The number of volumes is over 600,000 and MSS.
+  over 3200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Advoca&prime;tus Diab&prime;oli</b> (Devil's advocate), in the
+  Roman Catholic Church, a functionary who, when a deceased person is
+  proposed for canonization, brings forward and insists upon all the weak
+  points of the character and life of the deceased, endeavouring to show
+  that he is not worthy of sainthood. The first formal mention of such an
+  officer occurs under Pope Leo X (1513-21). The opposite side is taken by
+  the <i>Advocatus Dei</i> (God's advocate).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Advow&prime;son,</b> in English law, a right of presentation to a
+  vacant benefice, or, in other words, a right of nominating a person to
+  officiate in a vacant church. Those who have this right are styled
+  <i>patrons</i>. Advowsons are of three kinds&mdash;<i>presentative</i>,
+  <i>collative</i>, and <i>donative</i>: <i>presentative</i>, when the
+  patron presents his clerk to the bishop of the diocese to be instituted;
+  <i>collative</i>, when the bishop is the patron, and institutes or
+  <i>collates</i> his clerk by a single act; <i>donative</i>, when a church
+  is founded by the king, or any person licensed by him, without being
+  subject to the ordinary, so that the patron confers the benefice on his
+  clerk without presentation, institution, or induction. An advowson cannot
+  be held by either a Roman Catholic or an alien.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ad&prime;ytum,</b> a secret place of retirement in the ancient
+  temples, esteemed the most sacred spot; the innermost sanctuary or
+  shrine. From this place the oracles were given, and none but the priests
+  were permitted to enter it. The Holy of Holies or Sanctum Sanctorum of
+  the Temple at Jerusalem was of a similar character.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Adze,</b> a cutting instrument used for chipping the surface of
+  timber, somewhat of a mattock shape, and having a blade of steel forming
+  a portion of a cylindrical surface, with a cutting edge at right angles
+  to the length of the handle.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ædiles</b> (&#x113;&prime;d&#x12B;lz), Roman magistrates who had
+  the supervision of the national games and spectacles; of the public
+  edifices, such as temples (the name comes from <i>ædes</i>, a temple); of
+  private buildings, of the markets, cleansing and draining the city,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æ&prime;dui,</b> one of the most powerful nations of Gaul, between
+  the Liger (Loire) and the Arar (Saône). On the arrival of Julius Cæsar in
+  Gaul (58 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) they were subject to Ariovistus,
+  but their independence was restored by Cæsar. Their chief town was
+  Bibracte (Mont Beuvray, near Autun).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ægade&prime;an Islands,</b> a group of small islands lying off the
+  western extremity of Sicily, and consisting of Maritimo, Favignana,
+  Levanso, and Le Formiche.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:34%;">
+      <a href="images/image016.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image016.jpg"
+      alt="Grecian Ibex" title="Grecian Ibex" /></a>
+    Grecian Ibex (<i>Capra ægagrus</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ægag&prime;rus,</b> a wild species of ibex (<i>Capra ægagrus</i>),
+  found in herds on the Caucasus, and many Asiatic mountains, believed to
+  be the original source of at least one variety of the domestic goat.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ægean Civilization,</b> a term applied to the pre-Hellenic
+  civilization of south-eastern Europe, including Crete, Greece and the
+  Cyclades, and the Danubian or Mid-European area. See <i>Crete</i> and
+  <i>Danubian Civilization</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ægean Sea</b> (&#x113;-j&#x113;&prime;an), that part of the
+  Mediterranean which washes the eastern shores of <!-- Page 41 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>[41]</span>Greece, and the western
+  coast of Asia Minor. See <i>Archipelago</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æ&prime;gilops,</b> a genus of grasses, very closely allied to
+  wheat, and somewhat remarkable from the alleged fact that by cultivation
+  one of the species becomes a kind of wheat.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ægina</b> (&#x113;-j&#x12B;&prime;na), a Greek island in the Gulf
+  of Ægina, south of Athens, triangular in form; area about 32 sq. miles;
+  pop. 8500. It forms part of the nomarchy of Attica and B&oelig;otia.
+  Except in the west, where the surface is more level, the island is
+  mountainous and unproductive. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in
+  trade, seafaring, and agriculture, the chief crops being almonds, olives,
+  and grain. The greater number of them reside in the seaport town of
+  Ægina. Ægina was anciently colonized by Dorians from the opposite coast
+  of Peloponnesus. In the latter half of the sixth century <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> it had a flourishing commerce, a large navy, and
+  was the seat of a distinct school of art. At the battle of Salamis (480
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) the Æginetans behaved with great valour.
+  In 456 the island fell under the power of the Athenians, and in 431 the
+  Æginetans were expelled to make room for Athenian settlers, but were
+  afterwards restored. On a hill are the remains of a splendid temple of
+  Athena (Minerva), many of the columns of which are still standing. Here
+  was found in 1811 a considerable amount of sculpture from the pediments
+  (the <i>Æginetan marbles</i>), which is now at the Glyptothek at Munich,
+  and is prized as throwing light on the early history of Greek art. Though
+  in these figures there is a wonderfully exact imitation of nature, yet
+  there is a certain stiffness about them and an unnatural sameness of
+  expression in all. They should probably be assigned to the period 500-480
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ægis</b> (&#x113;&prime;jis), the shield of Zeus, according to
+  Homer, but according to later writers and artists a metal cuirass or
+  breastplate, in which was set the head of the Gorgon Medusa, and with
+  which Athena (Minerva) is often represented as being protected. In a
+  figurative sense the word is used to denote some shielding or protecting
+  power.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ægle</b> (&#x113;&prime;gl&#x113;), a genus of plants. See
+  <i>Bel.</i></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ægospot&prime;ami</b> ('goat-rivers'), a place on the Hellespont,
+  of some note in Greek history, the Athenian fleet being here completely
+  defeated in 405 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> by the Spartan Lysander,
+  thus ending the Peloponnesian war.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ælfric</b> (al&prime;frik), Abbot, called <i>Grammaticus</i> (the
+  grammarian), was a celebrated English author of the eleventh century. He
+  became a monk of Abingdon, was afterwards connected with Winchester, and
+  died Abbot of Eynsham. His principal works are two books of homilies, a
+  <i>Treatise on the Old and New Testaments</i>, a translation and
+  abridgment of the first seven books of the Bible, a <i>Latin Grammar and
+  Glossary</i>, &amp;c. He has been frequently confounded both with Ælfric,
+  Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ælfric, Archbishop of York, surnamed Putta,
+  who lived about the same time. There was also an Ælfric of
+  Malmesbury.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ælia&prime;nus,</b> Claudius, often called simply <b>Ælian,</b> a
+  Roman author who lived about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 221, and
+  wrote in Greek a collection of stories and anecdotes and a natural
+  history of animals.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ælia&prime;nus Tacticus,</b> so called to distinguish him from
+  Claudius Ælianus, lived at Rome, and wrote a work <i>On the Military
+  Tactics of the Greeks</i>, which he dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian, who
+  was emperor from <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 117 to 138. This book was
+  closely studied by soldiers of the sixteenth and seventeenth
+  centuries.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aelst</b> (älst), Belgian town, same as <b>Alost</b>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æne&prime;as,</b> the hero of Virgil's <i>Æn&#x113;id</i>, a
+  Trojan, who, according to Homer, was, next to Hector, the bravest of the
+  warriors of Troy. When that town was taken and set on fire, Æneas,
+  according to the narrative of Virgil, with his father, son, and wife
+  Creusa, fled, but the latter was lost in the confusion of the flight.
+  Having collected a fleet he sailed for Italy, but after numerous
+  adventures he was driven by a tempest to the coast of Africa, where Queen
+  Dido of Carthage received him kindly, and would have married him.
+  Jupiter, however, sent Mercury to Æneas, and commanded him to sail to
+  Italy. Whilst the deserted Dido ended her life on the funeral pile, Æneas
+  set sail with his companions, and after further adventures by land and
+  sea reached the <!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page42"></a>[42]</span>country of King Latinus, in Italy. The
+  king's daughter Lavinia was destined by an oracle to wed a stranger, this
+  stranger being Æneas, but was promised by her mother to Turnus, King of
+  the R&#x16D;t&#x16D;li. This occasioned a war, which was ended by Æneas
+  slaying Turnus and marrying Lavinia. His son by Lavinia, Æneas Sylvius,
+  was the ancestor of the kings of Alba Longa, and of Romulus and Remus,
+  the founders of the city of Rome.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æolian Harp,</b> or <b>Æolus' Harp,</b> a musical instrument,
+  generally consisting of a box of thin fibrous wood (often of deal), to
+  which are attached from eight to fifteen fine catgut strings or wires,
+  stretched on low bridges at either end, and tuned in unison. Its length
+  is made to correspond with the size of the window or other aperture in
+  which it is intended to be placed. When the wind blows athwart the
+  strings it produces very beautiful sounds, sweetly mingling all the
+  harmonic tones, and swelling or diminishing according to the strength or
+  weakness of the blast.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æolians</b> (Gr. <i>Aioleis</i>), one of the four races into which
+  the ancient Greeks were divided, originally inhabiting the district of
+  Æ&#x14F;lis, in Thessaly, from which they spread over other parts of
+  Greece. In early times they were the most numerous and powerful of the
+  Hellenic races, chiefly inhabiting Northern Greece and the western side
+  of Peloponnesus, though latterly a portion of them went to Lesbos and
+  Tenedos and the north-west shores of Asia Minor, where they possessed a
+  number of cities. Their language, the Æolian dialect, was one of the
+  three principal dialects of the Greek. It was cultivated for literary
+  purposes chiefly at Lesbos, and was the dialect in which Alcæus and
+  Sappho wrote.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æol&prime;ipile</b> (Lat. <i>Æ&#x14F;li pila</i>, the ball of
+  Æ&#x14F;lus), a spherical vessel of metal, with a pipe of small aperture,
+  through which the vapour of heated water in the ball passes out with
+  considerable noise; or having two nozzles so placed that the steam
+  rushing out causes it to revolve on the principle of the Barker's mill.
+  It was known to the ancient Greeks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æ&prime;olus,</b> in Greek mythology, the god of the winds, which
+  he kept confined in a cave in the Æolian Islands, releasing them when he
+  wished or was commanded by the superior gods.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æ&prime;on,</b> a Greek word signifying life, an age, and sometimes
+  eternity, but used by the Gnostics to express spirits or powers that had
+  emanated from the Supreme Mind before the beginning of time. They held
+  both Christ and the Holy Spirit to be æons; but as they denied the divine
+  origin of the books of Moses, they said that the spirit which had
+  inspired him and the prophets was not that exalted æon whom God sent
+  forth after the ascension of Christ, but an æon very much inferior, and
+  removed at a great distance from the Supreme Being.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æpyor&prime;nis,</b> a genus of gigantic birds whose remains have
+  been found in Madagascar, where they are supposed to have lived perhaps
+  not longer than 200 years ago. It had three toes, and is classed with the
+  cursorial birds (ostrich, &amp;c.). Its eggs measured 14 inches in
+  length, being about six times the bulk of those of the ostrich. The bird
+  which laid them may well have been the roc of Eastern tradition.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æ&prime;qui,</b> an ancient people of Italy, conspicuous in the
+  early wars of Rome, and inhabiting the mountain district between the
+  upper valley of the Anio (Teverone) and Lake Fuc&#x12D;nus. They were
+  probably akin to the Volscians, with whom they were in constant alliance.
+  They were defeated by Cincinnatus in 458 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>,
+  and again by the dictator Postumius Tubertus in 428 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and were finally subdued about 304-302 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> Soon after they were admitted to Roman
+  citizenship.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;erated Bread,</b> bread which receives its sponginess or
+  porosity from carbonic acid supplied artificially, and not produced by
+  the fermentation caused by leaven or yeast.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;erated Waters,</b> waters impregnated with carbonic acid
+  gas, and forming effervescing beverages. Some mineral waters are
+  naturally aerated, as Vichy, Apollinaris, Rosbach, &amp;c.; others,
+  especially such as are used for medicinal purposes, are frequently
+  aerated to render them more palatable and exhilarating. Water simply
+  aerated, as soda-water, or aerated and flavoured with lemon or fruit
+  syrups, is largely used, especially in summer, as a refreshing beverage.
+  There are numerous varieties of apparatus for manufacturing aerated
+  waters. The essential parts of an aerated-water machine are a generator
+  in which the gas is produced, a vessel containing the water to be
+  impregnated, and an apparatus for forcing the gas into the water. This
+  last may be effected by force-pumps or by the high pressure of the
+  impregnating gas itself. The quantity of gas with which the water is
+  charged is usually equal to a pressure of 5 atmospheres. See also
+  <i>Mineral Waters</i>.&mdash;Cf. W. Kirkby, <i>Evolution of Artificial
+  Mineral Waters</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aerial Ropeways</b> or <b>Cableways,</b> a means of transport or
+  carriage in which a great rope or cable, elevated above the ground on
+  fixed supports, is made use of in conveying from place to place materials
+  or articles of various kinds. Such a cable may be said to serve the
+  purpose of a rail, from which are suspended the carriages, buckets, or
+  carriers of whatever sort are employed to convey the materials dealt
+  with, the cable being actuated by means of a steam-engine and
+  winding-gear of suitable construction. Such cables are now much used in
+  carrying materials <!-- Page 43 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page43"></a>[43]</span>over a comparatively short space, as in
+  quarries, excavations for canals, docks, &amp;c.; in the construction of
+  bridges, in shipbuilding, &amp;c. Besides being employed in such
+  works&mdash;not to mention the coaling of a battleship at sea from a coal
+  transport standing by&mdash;elevated ropeways miles in length have also
+  been constructed between places where no roads exist, or where road
+  carriage is much more expensive. The greatest aerial line yet in
+  existence is in the Argentine Republic, being built to connect a mining
+  locality in the Andes, about 15,000 feet above sea-level, with a station
+  on the Northern Railway 11,500 feet lower down and about 22 miles off,
+  the line running across deep chasms and hollows, and being in places
+  supported on iron towers 130 feet high. The wire rope is said to have a
+  length of 87 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aë&prime;rians,</b> the followers of Aërius of Pontus, who in the
+  fourth century originated a small heretical sect, objecting to the
+  established feast-days, fasts or abstinences, the distinction between
+  bishops and presbyters, prayers for the dead, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aerodynam&prime;ics,</b> a branch of physical science which treats
+  of the properties and motions of elastic fluids (air, gases), and of the
+  appliances by which these are exemplified. This subject is often
+  explained in connection with hydrodynamics. See also
+  <i>Meteorology</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aeröe,</b> or <b>Arröe</b> (är&prime;eu-e), an island of Denmark,
+  in the Little Belt, 15 miles long by 5 broad, with 12,000 inhabitants.
+  Though hilly, it is very fertile.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;erolite,</b> a meteoric stone, meteorite, or shooting-star.
+  See <i>Meteoric Stones</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image017.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image017.jpg"
+      alt="Hot-air Balloon" title="Hot-air Balloon" /></a>
+    "Montgolfière", or Hot-air Balloon, above Furnace
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Aeronau&prime;tics,</b> the art or science of navigating the air,
+  including Aviation (see <i>Aeroplane</i> and <i>Sea-planes</i>) and
+  Aerostation (see <i>Balloons</i> and <i>Air-ships</i>). From the days of
+  the mythical exploit of Dædalus and Icarus, students of 'experimental
+  philosophy', or scientists, of all ages, turned their thoughts and
+  inventive genius to the evolution of a machine by means of which man
+  could fly. Most of the early schemes of which any details have survived
+  were based upon the observation of birds and embodied the flapping of
+  wings affixed to the arms or legs. Among the very early experimenters may
+  be mentioned the monk Oliver of Malmesbury (<span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 1050), de Pérouse (1420), who is said to have
+  succeeded in flying over Lake Trasimene, and the great Leonardo da Vinci.
+  All these produced designs for what are known as Ornithopters, or
+  flapping-wing machines. There was, however, another school which believed
+  in the future of machines which would be themselves lighter than air. The
+  idea in the minds of the experimenters of this school was in the early
+  days the replacing of the air in brass globes by a vacuum. If the brass
+  were thin enough it was believed that the globe would then be
+  sufficiently light to rise. It was, however, not realized that under such
+  circumstances the globe would inevitably collapse under the pressure of
+  the atmosphere with no corresponding internal pressure to withstand it.
+  Among this 'lighter-than-air' school of experimenters were the famous
+  Roger Bacon (twelfth century), Robert Hooke of the Royal Society (1644),
+  and Francesco de Lana, a Jesuit priest (1660). It was this school which
+  ultimately achieved success by providing the first machine of any sort to
+  leave the ground and rise into the air. On 5th June, 1783, the first
+  balloon ascended from the village of Annonay in France. It owed its
+  inception to the genius of two brothers, paper-makers by trade, named
+  Etienne and Joseph Montgolfier. Struck by the sight of smoke ascending
+  from a chimney, after many failures with flapping-wing models, they
+  conceived the idea of filling a receptacle with smoke and seeing if it
+  would rise. They built a balloon or 'globe' of paper and canvas, and lit
+  a fire of wood and straw below the aperture in it. The balloon gradually
+  filled and rose into the air to a height reported to be 6000 feet, though
+  this is probably an exaggeration. It remained in the air for ten minutes
+  and landed 1½ miles away. This was the forerunner of the <!-- Page 44
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page44"></a>[44]</span>'Montgolfières',
+  or hot-air balloons, which are a feature of fêtes and Guy Fawkes' Day
+  celebrations. It was followed by the sending up of a 'Montgolfière' from
+  Versailles on 18th Sept. of the same year, carrying a basket containing a
+  sheep, a cock, and a duck. The first human beings to make an ascent were
+  Pilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlande, who went away from Paris on
+  21st Nov., 1783. They passed right over Paris, and were in the air for
+  twenty-five minutes, during which time they replenished the fire
+  suspended in a brazier below the neck of the balloon.</p>
+
+  <p>The real genesis of the balloon, or air-ship as we know it to-day, was
+  due to the discovery of hydrogen as the lightest gas, which discovery was
+  made in 1766 by an English chemist, Henry Cavendish. Various people claim
+  the credit of having been the first to call attention to the
+  possibilities of this gas for aerial navigation. In 1781 Dr. Joseph Black
+  of Edinburgh suggested to his pupils that a thin bladder filled with 'the
+  inflammable gas' (hydrogen) would rise into the air, but it appears
+  doubtful whether he ever actually made the experiment. Tiberius Cavallo
+  the same year, before the Royal Society, demonstrated that soap-bubbles
+  filled with hydrogen would rise and float in the air. The honour of
+  building the first hydrogen balloon belongs, however, to three
+  Frenchmen&mdash;the brothers Robert, and Charles, a physicist. They sent
+  up a hydrogen-filled balloon of varnished silk from the Champ de Mars,
+  Paris, on 7th Aug., 1783. One of the Roberts and Charles themselves made
+  the second human ascent in their balloon&mdash;the first in a hydrogen
+  balloon as opposed to a Montgolfière (as above)&mdash;on 1st Dec. the
+  same year. In 1784 the same Frenchmen constructed the first 'air-ship' or
+  navigable balloon to the order of the Duc de Chartres (Philippe Egalité).
+  The gas container of this was elongated in form, and it could be
+  propelled to some small extent by means of oars, and steered by a rudder.
+  In the same year a French military officer, named Meusnier, produced a
+  completely detailed design for an air-ship. This embodied the first
+  suggestion of screw-propellers, to be worked by man-power, and also
+  provided for a 'ballonet' into which air could be driven to replace
+  hydrogen lost owing to expansion during the ascent. Meusnier's design was
+  the genesis of the modern non-rigid air-ship, all the essential features
+  remaining. This air-ship was, however, never built.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image018.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image018.jpg"
+      alt="Steam-driven Air-ship" title="Steam-driven Air-ship" /></a>
+    Giffard's Steam-driven Air-ship
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The first ascent in the British Isles was made in a Montgolfière by
+  James Tytler at Edinburgh, on 27th Aug., 1784, though he travelled only a
+  few hundred yards. He was followed by Vincent Lunardi, an Italian, who
+  ascended from the artillery ground in London three weeks later (Sept.,
+  1784), landing near Ware in Hertfordshire. The first Channel crossing by
+  air was made in a hydrogen balloon from Dover to Calais on 7th Jan.,
+  1785, by Blanchard and Dr. Jeffries.</p>
+
+  <p>Subsequent developments in air-ships are due to the pioneer work of
+  Giffard (1852) (the first steam-driven air-ship), Dupuy de Lôme (1872),
+  the brothers Tissandier (electric propulsion) (1883), Rénard and Krebbs
+  (1884), Wölfert (1897), Santos Dumont (1898-1905), Zeppelin (1900),
+  Lebaudy (1903), Barton (English) (1905), Willows (English) (1910).</p>
+
+  <p>In the meantime experimental work was being carried on by the
+  exponents of the heavier-than-air school, who soon abandoned the
+  flapping-wing principle and eventually evolved the modern aeroplane. The
+  modern aeroplane was evolved from the brain of an Englishman, Sir George
+  Cayley, who in 1809 contributed an article to <i>Nicholson's Journal</i>
+  in which he outlined the outstretched wings, vertical and horizontal
+  steering surfaces, screw-propeller, 'explosion' motor, and 'stream-line'
+  form of the modern aeroplane. In 1842 Henson and Stringfellow, both
+  Englishmen, constructed a steam-driven model on this principle, which is
+  now in the South Kensington Museum. Wenham in 1866 contributed a valuable
+  paper to the Royal Aeronautical Society on the subject. In 1896
+  Lillienthal in Germany carried out a number of glides with rigid wings,
+  provided with a movable tail, fixed to his body. He was followed by
+  Chanute, who in America emphasized the biplane principle in his glider.
+  In 1896 Ader, a Frenchman, built an 'avion' which is claimed to have
+  risen from the ground at Satory, but this is doubtful. In 1895 a huge
+  steam-propelled aeroplane built by Sir Hiram Maxim burst the rails
+  holding it down and lifted for a few feet.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:92%;">
+      <a href="images/image019.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image019.jpg"
+      alt="A Handley Page Biplane" title="A Handley Page Biplane" /></a>
+    A Handley Page Biplane, showing the principal parts
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image020.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image020.jpg"
+      alt="Wright's Biplane Glider" title="Wright's Biplane Glider" /></a>
+    Wright's Biplane Glider
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The real credit for the evolution of a man-carrying aeroplane is,
+  however, due to the American brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright of
+  Dayton, Ohio. Encouraged by the <!-- Page 45 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page45"></a>[45]</span>advice of Chanute, they commenced
+  experimenting with biplane gliders on the sand-hills at Kittyhawk.
+  Meeting with considerable success, they fitted a petrol motor of their
+  own design in 1903 and made several straight flights during the same
+  year. In 1904 they succeeded in making the first turn in the air. These
+  experiments were carried out in great secrecy, and it was not until 1908
+  that their first public flights were made in France, the first taking
+  place in October of that year. The first aviator to fly in Europe was
+  Santos Dumont, who, on 12th Nov., 1906, covered 220 metres, having
+  previously in the same year flown for shorter distances. At this time and
+  during the two or three ensuing years many experiments were carried out,
+  and flights made, by Farman, Voisin, Esnault-Pelterie, and Blériot in
+  France; Wright and Curtiss in America; and Roe, Ogilvie, and
+  Moore-Brabazon in England. A prize of £2000 offered by MM. Deutsch de la
+  Meurthe and Ernest Archdeacon for the first circular flight over a
+  distance of 1 kilometre, returning to the point of starting, was won in
+  Jan., 1908, by Henry Farman.</p>
+
+  <p>The second crossing of the Channel, and the first by a
+  'heavier-than-air' machine, was effected by Louis Blériot in a machine of
+  his own construction with an Anzani engine from Calais to Dover on 25th
+  July, 1909. From that date the science of aviation (flight by
+  heavier-than-air machines) may be said to have begun, and progress was
+  merely a record of improvements. By the end of 1919 the Atlantic had been
+  crossed four times; once by sea-plane, once by a non-stop aeroplane
+  flight, and twice (outward and return) by non-stop air-ship flights.
+  Aeroplanes had achieved a speed of 190 miles an hour, had attained to a
+  height of over 34,000 feet, and had covered upwards of 1900 miles in one
+  non-stop flight.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: De St. Fond,
+  <i>Description de la Machine Aerostatique</i>; Cavallo, <i>History and
+  Practice of Aerostation</i>; Lunardi, <i>The First Aerial Voyage in
+  England</i>; Moedebeck, <i>Pocket Book of Aeronautics</i>; Santos Dumont,
+  <i>My Air-ships</i>; <i>The Aeronautical Classics</i> (Aeronautical
+  Society); G. Tissandier, <i>Histoire des Ballons</i>; A. Berget, <i>The
+  Conquest of the Air</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image021.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image021.jpg"
+      alt="altcaption" title="altcaption" /></a>
+    Early Types of Aeroplanes<br />
+    (<i>a</i>) Wright Biplane (1908). (<i>b</i>) Blériot Monoplane
+    (1909).<br />
+    (<i>c</i>) Santos Dumont Biplane (1906).
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Aeroplane,</b> a flying-machine deriving its power of sustentation
+  from the reaction of the air driven downwards by the rapid transit of
+  fixed wings or 'planes' through the air. The term 'plane' for the wing of
+  an aeroplane is strictly a misnomer, as the word implies a flat plate,
+  whereas a wing is 'cambered' or curved in section from front to back.
+  This is due to the discovery of Lillienthal (see <i>Aeronautics</i>) that
+  a cambered 'aerofoil' when set at an angle to a wind current gives more
+  'lift' than a flat plane. The wing of an aeroplane is normally set at an
+  angle horizontally (or rather at an angle to the relative wind) varying
+  from 0° to 4°. This angle is known as the 'angle of incidence'. As the
+  wing is driven through the air under the influence of the propeller, the
+  air meets the 'leading' or 'entering' edge and is divided into two
+  streams <!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page46"></a>[46]</span>along the top and bottom surfaces. It does
+  not, however, follow the surface closely, but in the case of the lower
+  stratum is deflected downwards at an angle to the surface, which results
+  in an upward reaction. The upper of the two streams of air is
+  correspondingly deflected upwards at an angle to the surface for a short
+  distance. This causes an 'area of discontinuity of flow', or eddy, which
+  results in 'negative pressure', causing an upward suction. This fact was
+  first discovered by Sir Hiram Maxim, though it was G. Eiffel who measured
+  the effects of the positive pressure on the lower surface and the
+  negative pressure on the upper surface, and found, contrary to all
+  expectation, that the latter is responsible for three-quarters of the
+  total lifting effect of the wing. In addition to the lift, the wings
+  offer resistance to progress through the air, which effect is known as
+  'drag'. The ratio of lift to drag is a measure of the efficiency of a
+  wing-section. A well-designed wing will have a L/D ratio at an angle of
+  incidence of 4° of about 16, i.e. the lift effect in pounds will be 16
+  times that of the drag. The fundamental equation of an aeroplane is R =
+  KSV<sup>2</sup>, where R = the resistance, K = a constant (usually
+  0.003), S = area of surface, and V = the velocity in feet per second.
+  From this it will be seen that the resistance for the same area increases
+  as the square of the speed, which shows the importance of reducing the
+  resistance to the lowest possible degree if high speeds are to be
+  obtained. For this purpose it is necessary that the flow of air round the
+  component parts of the aeroplane caused by its passage should be as
+  little disturbed and broken up into eddies as possible. It is found that
+  the best theoretical shape for this purpose is a body of circular
+  cross-section tapering from front to rear, with the maximum cross-section
+  toward the <i>front</i>. The 'fineness ratio' (ratio of length to maximum
+  diameter) should be about 6 to 1, and the maximum cross-section situated
+  about one-third of the distance from the nose. Such a form will offer
+  only about <sup>1</sup>/<sub>20</sub> the resistance of a flat plate of
+  similar cross-section, and is known as a 'stream-line form'. The width of
+  a wing from side to side at right angles to the wind is known as the
+  'span', and the breadth from front to back as the 'chord'. The ratio of
+  span to chord is the 'aspect ratio'. Owing to the increase in drag
+  resulting from low aspect ratio (large chord relative to span) the higher
+  the aspect ratio the more efficient the wing. This is in practice about
+  6, owing to structural difficulties in constructing a wing of larger
+  relative span. The essential parts of an aeroplane are the wings,
+  fuselage (body), tail (comprising fixed vertical and horizontal surfaces
+  behind which are hinged movable rudders and elevators), and chassis, or
+  landing-carriage. The majority of modern machines are biplanes, i.e. with
+  one set of wings superposed on the other and connected by upright wooden
+  members called 'struts'. Aeroplanes with one set of wings only are called
+  'monoplanes'; those with three, 'triplanes'; with four, 'quadruplanes';
+  and with more than four, 'multiplanes'. Aeroplanes are also divided into
+  'tractor' and 'pusher', according to whether the propeller is situated in
+  front or rear of the wings.</p>
+
+  <p>When the engine is started, the revolution of the propeller causes the
+  aeroplane to move along the ground until such a speed is reached (usually
+  about 35-50 miles per hour) that it is able to support its own weight in
+  the air when it leaves the ground. When in the air it is made to ascend
+  or descend by moving the elevators, which are operated by a vertical
+  stick in front of the pilot through control cables or levers. Steering to
+  right or left is effected by the rudder, which is operated by a foot-bar
+  through cables or levers. Lateral balance is obtained by means of
+  'ailerons' or flaps on the outer extremities of the wings. If one wing
+  tends to dip, the aileron on that side is depressed. This increases the
+  resistance of that wing and so causes it to rise. By a combination of
+  movements of the elevators, rudder, and ailerons almost any evolution can
+  be performed with a modern aeroplane. A well-designed machine will, on
+  cutting off the engine-power, turn its nose slightly down and
+  automatically assume its own 'gliding-angle' to the ground. The
+  gliding-angle is the ratio of descent to forward travel and is usually 1
+  in 12 to 1 in 14.</p>
+
+  <p>Speeds of 190 miles per hour have been attained and a height of 34,600
+  feet reached. The greatest distance covered in one flight is the crossing
+  of the Atlantic&mdash;slightly more than 1900 miles&mdash;while an
+  aeroplane has remained in the air for 24 hours. Aeroplanes range in size
+  from small single-seater 'scouts' with a duration of only some three
+  hours, to large multiple-engined machines with a weight, fully loaded, of
+  from 15 to 20 tons. The essential feature of the aeroplane is, as already
+  stated, that it is heavier than air and therefore subject to the laws of
+  gravity in the event of engine failure. Its choice of a landing-ground is
+  then dependent upon its height at the moment and gliding-angle.</p>
+
+  <p>Aeroplanes are normally constructed throughout of wood, though steel
+  is occasionally used. The wings are built of wooden 'spars', of which
+  there are usually two along the length of each wing, connected together
+  by wooden 'ribs'. The wings of a biplane are braced by the struts (see
+  above) and by wires. 'Landing-wires' support the weight of the wing on
+  the ground, while 'flying-wires' prevent them folding upwards under the
+  influence of the lift in flight. 'Drift-wires' are to prevent the wings
+  folding <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page47"></a>[47]</span>backwards under the pressure of the air in
+  flight. See also <i>Aeronautics</i>, <i>Sea-planes</i>.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H. Barber, <i>The Aeroplane Speaks</i>;
+  H. Barber, <i>Aerobatics</i>; Hamel and Turner, <i>Flying</i>; Borlase
+  Mathews, <i>Aviation Pocket Book</i>; Pippard and Pritchard, <i>Aeroplane
+  Structures</i>; Judge, <i>Design of Aeroplanes</i>; Judge, <i>Properties
+  of Aerofoils</i>; Loening, <i>Military Aeroplanes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aerostatic Press,</b> a contrivance for extracting the colouring
+  matter from dye-woods and for similar purposes. A liquid intended to
+  carry with it the extract is brought into contact with the substance
+  containing it, and a vacuum being made by an air-pump suitably applied,
+  the pressure of the atmosphere forces the liquid through the intervening
+  mass, carrying the colour or other soluble matter with it.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aerostat&prime;ics,</b> that branch of physics which treats of the
+  weight, pressure, and equilibrium of air and gases. See <i>Air</i>;
+  <i>Air-pump</i>; <i>Barometer</i>; <i>Gases, Properties of</i>;
+  <i>Hydrostatics</i>; <i>Meteorology</i>; &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aerotherapeutics</b> is the treatment of disease by atmospheres
+  artificially prepared and differing from the normal in compression or
+  pressure or temperature. It is divided into:</p>
+
+  <p>1. <i>Medical atmospheres</i> artificially produced by changing the
+  proportions of the normal gases of the atmosphere, or by adding gases to
+  the atmosphere. These are applied by inhalation in various ways:</p>
+
+  <p>(<i>a</i>) By the inhalation of gases&mdash;<i>ether</i>;
+  <i>chloroform</i>; <i>nitrous oxide</i> (see <i>Anæsthetics</i>).
+  <i>Oxygen</i> under pressure in a cylinder, with outlet applied close to
+  the patient's mouth and nose, is used in severe cases of pneumonia,
+  cardiac disease, or wherever breathing is difficult. <i>Amyl nitrate</i>
+  is inhaled on the breaking of the glass capsules in which it is contained
+  close to the patient's mouth; this treatment is used in cardiac disease
+  and other conditions to recover blood pressure. <i>Chlorine</i> and
+  <i>iodine</i> are used in cases of throat and bronchial affections by
+  inhaling the vapour itself for a short time, or by inhaling air strongly
+  impregnated with the substance.</p>
+
+  <p>(<i>b</i>) By inhalation of substances requiring heat for
+  volatilization, e.g. <i>mercury</i> and <i>sulphur</i>. The patient,
+  enveloped in a sheet, sits on a chair, while the substance, placed in a
+  vessel on the floor inside the enveloping sheet near the patient, is
+  heated by a spirit lamp or similar method. <i>Mercury</i> is used for
+  chronic and syphilitic laryngitis and pharyngitis; <i>sulphur</i> for
+  scabies and other skin diseases.</p>
+
+  <p>(<i>c</i>) By inhalation of steam or warm-water vapour with a drug
+  added. Apparatus of various kinds is used, the simplest of which is a
+  wide-mouthed jug filled with boiling water to which the drug has been
+  added. The patient takes a deep breath, drawing the vapour into his mouth
+  up a napkin arranged in the form of a tube. More complicated forms of
+  apparatus are steam-sprays and nebulizers for laryngeal and bronchial
+  troubles.</p>
+
+  <p>(<i>d</i>) Cold medicated sprays and inhalations. Throat- and
+  nose-sprays are much used, also sprays for the administration of local
+  anæsthetics (ethyl chloride). Respirators are made of wire gauze with
+  cotton wool or a sponge; the substance is poured on and inhaled by the
+  patient.</p>
+
+  <p>For (<i>c</i>) and (<i>d</i>) the following drugs are used: carbolic
+  acid, creosote, terebine, thymol, eucalyptol, zinc sulphate, in phthisis
+  and bronchial affections; and eusol, izal, lysol, &amp;c., for
+  disinfection and fumigation.</p>
+
+  <p>2. <i>Changes produced by variation in barometric pressure considered
+  in treatment of disease</i>:</p>
+
+  <p>Normal barometric pressure at sea-level, 29-30 inches; at Davos (5200
+  feet), 25 inches; at summit of Pike's Peak, Colorado (14,000 feet), 17½
+  inches; in balloon ascent (Glaisher and Coxwell) of 29,000 feet, 9¾
+  inches.</p>
+
+  <p>The effects of high pressure are seen in divers, caisson workers,
+  miners. The effects of low pressure are seen in balloonists, airmen. The
+  effect of sudden return to normal from high pressure is seen in cases of
+  caisson disease (q.v.). The effects of low pressure were first applied to
+  the human body in 1835 by V.T. Junot. He contrived a hollow copper ball,
+  4 yards in diameter, capable of containing a man, and by pumping out air
+  gradually, produced the effects of low pressure. This principle was then
+  applied by him locally by cupping-glasses similar in shape to the upper
+  part of a wineglass. There are two types of cupping:</p>
+
+  <p>(<i>a</i>) In <i>wet cupping</i> an incision is made in the skin of
+  the part to be treated. The air inside the glass is exhausted by
+  introducing a lighted match, then the open end of the glass is
+  immediately applied to the surface of the skin.</p>
+
+  <p>(<i>b</i>) In <i>dry cupping</i> the treatment is similarly carried
+  out, but no incision is made.</p>
+
+  <p>The low pressure (partial vacuum) draws blood to the part. Cupping is
+  used in congestion of internal organs, e.g. lungs, kidneys.</p>
+
+  <p>The artificial application of air to lungs at varying pressure is
+  carried out by inspiring rarefied air or compressed air and expiring into
+  rarefied air or into compressed air. Only inspiring compressed air, or
+  expiring into rarefied air, can be practically applied. There are many
+  kinds of apparatus for this. The best is the compressed-air bath (seen at
+  Brompton Hospital, London), consisting of three parts&mdash;the engine,
+  receiver, and air-chamber.</p>
+
+  <p>The patient is placed in this air-chamber, where he remains for two
+  hours, during which time the pressure is usually raised from half again
+  to double normal. For the first half-hour the pressure is gradually
+  raised, and is maintained <!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page48"></a>[48]</span>at the same abnormal height for one hour;
+  for the last half-hour it is reduced again gradually to normal. The
+  patient first experiences an unpleasant sensation in the throat. This is
+  relieved by swallowing or by drinking water; then pain in the ear-drums;
+  the voice becomes shriller. These are early signs of the effects of high
+  pressure, and are seen to a more marked degree in cases where a man has
+  descended suddenly into a mine, caisson, &amp;c. Compressed air-baths are
+  used in cases of asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, anæmia.</p>
+
+  <p>Respiratory gymnastics are of value for defective breathing due to
+  badly formed chests or injury and disease of the lungs. There are various
+  forms of artificial breathing exercises and many ways of using artificial
+  aids, e.g. breathing into bottles connected together by tubes and partly
+  filled with water. The water is forced from one bottle to another by the
+  respiratory effort of the patient.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aerschot,</b> town in Belgium, province of Brabant, on the Demer, a
+  tributary of the Dyle. It was occupied by the Germans in Aug., 1914. Pop.
+  7800.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æschines</b> (es&prime;ki-n&#x113;z), a celebrated Athenian orator,
+  the rival and opponent of Demosthenes, was born in 389 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> and died in 314. He headed the Macedonian party
+  in Greece, or those in favour of an alliance with Philip, while
+  Demosthenes took the opposite side. Having failed in 330 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> in a prosecution against Ctesiphon for proposing
+  to bestow a crown of gold upon Demosthenes for his services to the State
+  (whence the oration of Demosthenes 'On the Crown') he left Athens, and
+  subsequently established a school of eloquence at Rhodes. Three of his
+  orations are extant. Æschines should not be confounded with his namesake,
+  the Athenian philosopher and intimate friend of Socrates.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æschylus</b> (es&prime;ki-lus), the first in time of the three
+  great tragic poets of Greece, born at Eleusis, in Attica, 525 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, died in Sicily 456. Before he gained
+  distinction as a dramatist he had fought at the battle of Marathon (490),
+  as he afterwards did at Artemisium, Salamis, and Platæa. He first gained
+  the prize for tragedy in 484 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> <i>The
+  Persians</i>, the earliest of his extant pieces, formed part of a trilogy
+  which gained the prize in 472 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In 468 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> he was defeated by Sophocles, and then is said
+  to have gone to the Court of Hiero, King of Syracuse. Altogether he is
+  reputed to have composed ninety plays and gained thirteen triumphs. Only
+  seven of his tragedies are extant: <i>The Persians</i>, <i>Seven against
+  Thebes</i>, <i>Suppliants</i>, <i>Prometheus</i>, <i>Agamemnon</i>,
+  <i>Choephori</i>, and <i>Eumenides</i>, the last three forming a trilogy
+  on the story of Orestes, represented in 458 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> Æschylus may be called the creator of Greek
+  tragedy, both from the splendour of his dramatic writings and from the
+  scenic improvements and accessories he introduced. Till his time only one
+  actor had appeared on the stage at a time, and by bringing on a second he
+  was really the founder of dramatic dialogue. His style was grand, daring,
+  and full of energy, and his choruses, though difficult, are among the
+  noblest pieces of poetry in the world. His plays have little or no plot,
+  and his characters are drawn by a few powerful strokes. There are English
+  poetical translations of his plays by Blackie, Plumptre, Swanwick,
+  Campbell, Robert Browning, and Elizabeth Barrett Browning.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Bishop Copleston, <i>Æschylus</i>, in
+  English Classics for Modern Readers Series (Blackwood &amp; Son); Miss J.
+  Case, Translation of <i>Prometheus Vinctus</i> (Dent).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æscula&prime;pius</b> (Gr. <i>Askl&#x113;pios</i>), the god of
+  medicine among the Greeks and afterwards adopted by the Romans, usually
+  said to have been a son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. He was
+  worshipped in particular at Epidaurus, in the Peloponnesus, where a
+  temple with a grove was dedicated to him. The sick who visited his temple
+  had to spend one or more nights in the sanctuary, after which the
+  remedies to be used were revealed in a dream. Those who were cured
+  offered a sacrifice to Æsculapius, commonly a cock. He is often
+  represented with a large beard, holding a knotty staff, round which is
+  entwined a serpent, the serpent being specially his symbol. The staff and
+  serpent have been adopted as a badge by the Royal Army Medical Corps.
+  Sometimes Æsculapius is represented under the image of a serpent
+  only.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L. Dyer, <i>The Gods of
+  Greece</i>; W.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;D. Rouse, <i>Greek Votive Offerings</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æs&prime;culus,</b> the genus of plants to which belongs the
+  horse-chestnut.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æsir,</b> in Scandinavian mythology, the eleven chief gods, besides
+  Odin. They are: Thor, Balder, Ty or Tyr, Bragi, Heimdal, Hod, Vidar,
+  Vali, Ull, Forseti, and Loki or Lopt. See <i>Scandinavian
+  Mythology</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æ&prime;sop,</b> the Greek fabulist, is said to have been a
+  contemporary of Cr&oelig;sus and Solon, and thus probably lived about the
+  middle of the sixth century (620-550) <span class="scac">B.C.</span> But
+  so little is known of his life that his existence has been called in
+  question. He is said to have been originally a slave, and to have
+  received his freedom from a Samian master, Iadmon. He then visited the
+  court of Cr&oelig;sus, and is also said to have visited Pisistratus at
+  Athens. Finally he was sent by Cr&oelig;sus to Delphi to distribute a sum
+  of money to each of the citizens. For some reason he refused to
+  distribute the money, whereupon the Delphians, enraged, threw him from a
+  precipice and killed him. No works of Æsop are extant, and it is doubtful
+  whether he wrote any. Bentley <!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page49"></a>[49]</span>inclined to the supposition that his fables
+  were delivered orally and perpetuated by repetition. Such fables are
+  spoken of both by Aristophanes and Plato. Phædrus turned into Latin verse
+  the Æsopian fables current in his day, with additions of his own. In
+  modern times several collections claiming to be Æsop's fables have been
+  published. Cf. J. Jacobs, <i>The Fables of Æsop</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æsthet&prime;ics</b> (Gr. <i>aisth&#x113;tikos</i>, pertaining to
+  perception), the philosophy of the beautiful; the name given to the
+  branch of philosophy or of science which is concerned with that class of
+  emotions, or with those attributes, real or apparent, of objects
+  generally comprehended under the term <i>beauty</i>, and other related
+  expressions. The term æsthetics first received this application from
+  Baumgarten (1714-62), a German philosopher, who was the first modern
+  writer to deal systematically with the subject, though the beautiful had
+  received attention at the hands of philosophers from early times.
+  Socrates, according to Xenophon, regarded the beautiful as coincident
+  with the good, and both as resolvable into the useful. Plato, in
+  accordance with his idealistic theory, held the existence of an absolute
+  beauty, which is the ground of beauty in all things. He also asserted the
+  intimate union of the good, the beautiful, and the true. Aristotle
+  treated of the subject in much more detail than Plato, but chiefly from
+  the scientific or critical point of view. In his treatises on
+  <i>Poetics</i> and <i>Rhetoric</i> he lays down a theory of art, and
+  establishes principles of beauty. His philosophical views were in many
+  respects opposed to those of Plato. He does not admit an absolute
+  conception of the beautiful; but he distinguishes beauty from the good,
+  the useful, the fit, and the necessary. He resolves beauty into certain
+  elements, as order, symmetry, definiteness. A distinction of beauty,
+  according to him, is the absence of lust or desire in the pleasure it
+  excites. Beauty has no utilitarian or ethical object; the aim of art is
+  merely to give immediate pleasure; its essence is imitation. Plotinus
+  agrees with Plato, and disagrees with Aristotle, in holding that beauty
+  may subsist in single and simple objects, and consequently in restoring
+  the absolute conception of beauty. He differs from Plato and Aristotle in
+  raising art above nature. Baumgarten's treatment of æsthetics is
+  essentially Platonic. He made the division of philosophy into logic,
+  ethics, and æsthetics; the first dealing with knowledge, the second with
+  action (will and desire), the third with beauty. He limits æsthetics to
+  the conceptions derived from the senses, and makes them consist in
+  confused or obscured conceptions, in contradistinction to logical
+  knowledge, which consists in clear conceptions. Kant, in his <i>Critique
+  of the Power of Judgment</i>, defines beauty in reference to his four
+  categories, quantity, quality, relation, and modality. In accordance with
+  the subjective character of his system he denies an absolute conception
+  of beauty, but his detailed treatment of the subject is inconsistent with
+  the denial. Thus he attributes a beauty to single colours and tones, not
+  on any plea of complexity, but on the ground of purity. He holds also
+  that the highest meaning of beauty is to symbolize moral good, and
+  arbitrarily attaches moral characters to the seven primary colours. The
+  value of art is mediate, and the beauty of art is inferior to that of
+  nature. The treatment of beauty in the systems of Schelling and Hegel
+  could with difficulty be made comprehensible without a detailed reference
+  to the principles of these remarkable speculations. English writers on
+  beauty are numerous, but they rarely ascend to the heights of German
+  speculation. Shaftesbury adopted the notion that beauty is perceived by a
+  special internal sense; in which he was followed by Hutcheson, who held
+  that beauty existed only in the perceiving mind, and not in the object.
+  Numerous English writers, among whom the principal are Alison and
+  Jeffrey, have supported the theory that the source of beauty is to be
+  found in association&mdash;a theory analogous to that which places
+  morality in sympathy. The ability of its supporters gave this view a
+  temporary popularity, but its baselessness has been effectively exposed
+  by successive critics. Dugald Stewart attempted to show that there is no
+  common quality in the beautiful beyond that of producing a certain
+  refined pleasure; and Bain agrees with this criticism, but endeavours to
+  restrict the beautiful within a group of emotions chiefly excited by
+  association or combination of simpler elementary feelings. Herbert
+  Spencer has a theory of beauty which is subservient to the theory of
+  evolution. He makes beauty consist in the play of the higher powers of
+  perception and emotion, defined as an activity not directly subservient
+  to any processes conducive to life, but being gratifications sought for
+  themselves alone. He classifies æsthetic pleasures according to the
+  complexity of the emotions excited, or the number of powers duly
+  exercised; and he attributes the depth and apparent vagueness of musical
+  emotions to associations with vocal tones built up during vast ages.
+  Among numerous writers who have made valuable contributions to the
+  scientific discussion of æsthetics may be mentioned Winckelmann, Lessing,
+  Richter, the Schlegels, Gervinus, Helmholtz, Ruskin, Home, Hogarth,
+  Burke, Taine, and others.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>:
+  Herbert Spencer, <i>Principles of Psychology</i>; Grant Allen,
+  <i>Physiological Æsthetics</i>; A. Bain, <i>Emotions and Will</i>; B.
+  Bosanquet, <!-- Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page50"></a>[50]</span><i>History of Æsthetics</i>; W. Knight,
+  <i>Philosophy of the Beautiful</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æstiva&prime;tion,</b> a botanical term applied to the arrangement
+  of the parts of a flower in the flower-bud previous to the opening of the
+  bud.&mdash;The term is also applied to the summer sleep of animals. See
+  <i>Dormant State</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æth&prime;eling.</b> See <i>Atheling</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æ&prime;ther.</b> See <i>Ether</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æthio&prime;pia.</b> See <i>Ethiopia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æ&prime;thrioscope</b> (Gr. <i>aithrios</i>, clear, cloudless), an
+  instrument (devised by Sir John Leslie) for measuring radiation towards a
+  clear sky, consisting of a metallic cup with a highly-polished interior
+  of paraboloid shape, in the focus of which is placed one bulb of a
+  differential thermometer, the other being outside. The inside bulb at
+  once begins to radiate heat when exposed to a clear sky, and the extent
+  to which this takes place is shown by the scale of the thermometer. The
+  æthrioscope also indicates the presence of invisible aqueous vapour in
+  the atmosphere, radiation being less than when the air is dry.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æthu&prime;sa,</b> a genus of umbelliferous plants. See <i>Fool's
+  Parsley</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ætiology</b> (Gr. <i>aitia</i>, cause, and <i>logos</i>,
+  discourse), the theory of the physical causes of any class of phenomena,
+  or the science of causation. It is, however, mainly used in medicine, and
+  deals with the causes and origin of disease.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aë&prime;tius,</b> a general of the western Roman Empire, born
+  <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 396; murdered 454. As commander in the
+  reign of Valentinian III he defended the empire against the Huns,
+  Visigoths, Franks, Burgundians, &amp;c., completely defeating the Huns
+  under Attila in a great battle at Châlons in 451. For twenty years he was
+  at the head of public affairs, and in the end was murdered by
+  Valentinian, who was jealous of his power.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æt&prime;na.</b> See <i>Etna</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Æto&prime;lia,</b> a western division of northern Greece, separated
+  on the west by the Achelous from Acarnania and washed by the Corinthian
+  Gulf on the south. The inhabitants are little heard of in Greek history
+  till the Peloponnesian war, at which time they were notorious among the
+  Greeks for the rudeness of their manners. Ætolia, in conjunction with
+  Acarnania, now forms a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Afanasiev,</b> Alexander Nicolaievitsh, Russian folklorist, born in
+  1826. Besides numerous articles and essays he wrote several monumental
+  works: <i>The Ancient Slav's Poetic View of Nature</i> (3 vols., 1866-9),
+  <i>Russian Tales and Fables for Children</i> (3 vols., 1870), &amp;c. He
+  died in 1871.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Affida&prime;vit,</b> a written statement of facts upon oath or
+  affirmation. Affidavits are generally made use of when evidence is to be
+  laid before a judge or a court, while evidence brought before a jury is
+  delivered orally. The person making the affidavit signs his name at the
+  bottom of it, and swears that the statements contained in it are true.
+  The affidavit may be sworn to in open court, or before a magistrate or
+  other duly qualified person; it may be made abroad before a qualified
+  British state official.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Affin&prime;ity,</b> in chemistry, the force by which unlike kinds
+  of matter combine so intimately that the properties of the constituents
+  are lost, and a compound with new properties is produced. Of the force
+  itself we know little or nothing. It is not the same under all
+  conditions, being very much modified by circumstances, especially
+  temperature. The usual effect of increase of temperature is to diminish
+  affinity and ultimately to cause the separation of a compound into its
+  constituents; and there is probably for every compound a temperature
+  above which it could not exist, but would be broken up. Where two
+  elements combine to form a compound, heat is almost always evolved, and
+  the amount evolved serves as a measure of the affinity. In order that
+  chemical affinity may come into play it is necessary that the substances
+  should be in contact, and usually one of them at least is a fluid or a
+  gas. The results produced by chemical combination are endlessly varied.
+  Colour, taste, and smell are changed, destroyed, or created; harmless
+  constituents produce strong poisons, strong poisons produce harmless
+  compounds.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Affinity,</b> in law, is that degree of connection which subsists
+  between one of two married persons and the blood relations of the other.
+  It is no real kindred (consanguinity). A person cannot, by legal
+  succession, receive an inheritance from a relation by affinity; neither
+  does it extend to the nearest relations of husband and wife so as to
+  create a mutual relation between them. The degrees of affinity are
+  computed in the same way as those of consanguinity or blood. All legal
+  impediments arising from affinity cease upon the death of the husband or
+  wife, excepting those which relate to the marriage of the survivor.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Affirma&prime;tion,</b> a solemn declaration by Quakers, Moravians,
+  Dunkers, and others, who object to taking an oath, in confirmation of
+  their testimony in courts of law, or of their statements on other
+  occasions on which the sanction of an oath is required of other persons.
+  In England the form for Quakers is, 'I do solemnly, sincerely, and truly
+  declare and affirm'. Affirmation is generally allowed to be substituted
+  for an oath in all cases where a person refuses to take an oath from
+  conscientious motives, if the judge is satisfied that the motives are
+  conscientious. False affirmation is subjected to the same penalties as
+  perjury.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Affreightment</b> means the contract of carriage of goods by sea,
+  by which the shipowner <!-- Page 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page51"></a>[51]</span>undertakes to carry goods in his ship for
+  hire or <i>freight</i>. Unless otherwise stipulated, the merchant or
+  freighter is only bound to pay the freight upon delivery of the goods at
+  the agreed destination. If the voyage is abandoned, the merchant may
+  claim his goods without any payment. The merchant must load and discharge
+  his cargo within the <i>lay-days</i> or stipulated time, if any;
+  otherwise within a reasonable time. Failure entails liability in
+  damages&mdash;known as <i>demurrage</i>&mdash;for undue detention of the
+  ship. The merchant will also be liable in damages&mdash;known as
+  <i>dead-freight</i>&mdash;if he fails to furnish the full cargo promised.
+  The shipowner has a lien on the goods for their own freight and charges,
+  but not for a general balance. Nor has he any lien for dead-freight or
+  demurrage. All such liens may be validly stipulated for in the contract.
+  They are purely possessory as contrasted with the so-called maritime
+  liens for seamen's and shipmasters' wages, which are valid without
+  possession. There is no lien for <i>advance freight</i>, which in
+  Scotland is repayable if the cargo is lost at sea or delivery otherwise
+  prevented, but not so in England. In Scotland, accordingly, the burden of
+  insuring advance freight falls upon the shipowner, in England upon the
+  merchant.</p>
+
+  <p>The main obligations upon the shipowner are to provide a seaworthy
+  vessel, carry without undue delay, and deliver the goods in the same
+  condition as they were shipped. Unless otherwise agreed, he is liable for
+  damage or loss through negligence, and if he be a common carrier, as he
+  frequently is, even the absence of negligence may not save him. There is
+  nothing in British law, however, to prevent him from contracting out of
+  all responsibility for the safety of goods committed to his care, and he
+  generally does so, either by inserting what is known as an 'exception
+  clause' in the document evidencing the contract, viz. the Bill of Lading,
+  or by giving public notice that he only accepts goods upon that footing.
+  In this respect the position of shipowners is more favourable than that
+  of railway companies and other land carriers, whose freedom of contract
+  is curtailed by statute.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>:
+  T.&nbsp;G. Carver, <i>Carriage by Sea</i>; Sir T.&nbsp;E. Scrutton, <i>Contract of
+  Affreightment</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Affrique</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>f-r&#x113;k), St., a town of southern
+  France, department of Aveyron.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Afghanistan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>f-gän&prime;i-stän), that is, the land of
+  the Afghans, a country in Asia, bounded on the east by the N.&nbsp;W. Frontier
+  Province, &amp;c., on the south by Baluchistan, on the west by the
+  Persian province of Khorasan, and on the north by Bukhara and Russian
+  Turkestan. The eastern and southern boundaries were settled in 1893,
+  whilst the boundary towards Persia was demarcated between March, 1903,
+  and May, 1905. The area may be set down at about 250,000 sq. miles. The
+  population is estimated at 6,000,000. Afghanistan consists chiefly of
+  lofty, bare, uninhabited tablelands, sandy barren plains, ranges of
+  snow-covered mountains, offsets of the Hindu Kush or the Himálaya, and
+  deep ravines and valleys. Many of the last are well watered and very
+  fertile, but about four-fifths of the whole surface is rocky,
+  mountainous, and unproductive. The surface on the north-east is covered
+  with lofty ranges belonging to the Hindu Kush, whose heights are often
+  18,000 and sometimes reach perhaps 25,000 feet. The whole north-eastern
+  portion of the country has a general elevation of over 6000 feet; but
+  towards the south-west, in which direction the principal mountain chains
+  of the interior run, the general elevation declines to not more than 1600
+  feet. In the interior the mountains sometimes reach the height of 15,000
+  feet. Great part of the frontier towards India consists of the Suleiman
+  range, 12,000 feet high. There are numerous practicable avenues of
+  communication between Afghanistan and India, among the most extensively
+  used being the famous Khyber Pass, by which the River Kabul enters the
+  Punjab; the Gomul Pass, also leading to the Punjab; and the Bolan Pass on
+  the south, through which the route passes to Sind. Of the rivers the
+  largest is the Helmund, which flows in a south-westerly direction more
+  than 400 miles, till it enters the Hamoon or Seistan swamp. It receives
+  the Arghandab, a considerable stream. Next in importance are the Kabul in
+  the north-east, which drains to the Indus, and the Hari Rud in the
+  north-west, which, like other Afghan streams, loses itself in the sand.
+  The climate is extremely cold in the higher, and intensely hot in the
+  lower regions, yet on the whole it is salubrious. The most common trees
+  are the pine, oak, birch, and walnut. In the valleys fruits, in the
+  greatest variety and abundance, grow wild. The principal crops are wheat
+  (forming the staple food of the people), barley, rice, and maize. Other
+  crops are tobacco, sugar-cane, and cotton. The chief domestic animals are
+  the dromedary, the horse, ass, and mule, the ox, sheep with large fine
+  fleeces and enormous fat tails, and goats; of wild animals there are the
+  tiger, bears, leopards, wolves, jackal, hyena, foxes, &amp;c. The chief
+  towns are Kabul (the capital), Kandahar, Ghuzni, and Herat. The
+  inhabitants belong to different races, but the Afghans proper form the
+  great mass of the people. They are allied in blood to the Persians, and
+  are divided into a number of tribes, among which the Duranis and Ghiljis
+  are the most important. The Afghans, claiming descent from King Saul, are
+  called by their own ancient chroniclers Beni-Israel. They are bold,
+  hardy, and warlike, fond of freedom and resolute in maintaining it, but
+  of a restless, turbulent temper, and much given <!-- Page 52 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page52"></a>[52]</span>to plunder. Tribal
+  dissensions are constantly in existence, and seldom or never do all the
+  Afghans pay allegiance to the nominal ruler of their country. Their
+  language (Pushtu) is distinct from the Persian, though it contains a
+  great number of Persian words, and is written, like the Persian, with the
+  Arabic characters. In religion they are Mahommedans of the Sunnite
+  sect.</p>
+
+  <p>After having been subjugated by Alexander the Great, the country of
+  the Afghans fell successively under the sway, actual or nominal, of
+  Parthians, Seleucidæ, Persians, and Arabs. Djinghiz Khan conquered
+  Afghanistan in the twelfth century and Timur in the fourteenth. In 1504
+  Sultan Baber took Cabul and founded the Mogul dynasty in India;
+  Afghanistan thus formed part of the great empire of Delhi. In 1738 the
+  country was conquered by the Persians under Nadir Shah. On his death in
+  1747 Ahmed Shah, one of his generals, obtained the sovereignty of
+  Afghanistan, and became the founder of a dynasty which lasted about
+  eighty years. At the end of that time Dost Mohammed, the ruler of Cabul,
+  had acquired a preponderating influence in the country. On account of his
+  dealings with the Russians the British resolved to dethrone him and
+  restore Shah Shuja, a former ruler. In April, 1839, a British army under
+  Sir John Keane entered Afghanistan, occupied Cabul, and placed Shah Shuja
+  on the throne, a force of 8000 being left to support the new sovereign.
+  Sir W. Macnaghten remained as envoy at Cabul, with Sir Alexander Burnes
+  as assistant envoy. The Afghans soon organized a widespread insurrection,
+  which came to a head on 2nd Nov., 1841, when Burnes and a number of
+  British officers, besides women and children, were murdered, Macnaghten
+  being murdered not long after. The other British leaders now made a
+  treaty with the Afghans, at whose head was Akbar, son of Dost Mohammed,
+  agreeing to withdraw the forces from the country, while the Afghans were
+  to furnish them with provisions and escort them on their way. On 6th
+  Jan., 1842, the British left Cabul and began their most disastrous
+  retreat. The cold was intense, they had almost no food&mdash;for the
+  treacherous Afghans did not fulfil their promises&mdash;and day after day
+  they were assailed by bodies of the enemy. By the 13th 26,000 persons,
+  including camp-followers, women and children, were destroyed. Some were
+  kept as prisoners, but only one man, Dr. Brydon, reached Jelalabad,
+  which, as well as Kandahar, was still held by British troops. In a few
+  months General Pollock, with a fresh army from India, retook Cabul and
+  soon finished the war. Shah Shuja having been assassinated, Dost Mohammed
+  again obtained the throne of Cabul, and acquired extensive power in
+  Afghanistan. He joined with the Sikhs against the British, but afterwards
+  made an offensive and defensive alliance with the latter. He died in
+  1863, having nominated his son Shere Ali his successor. Shere Ali entered
+  into friendly relations with the British, but in 1878, having repulsed a
+  British envoy and refused to receive a British mission (a Russian mission
+  being meantime at his Court), war was declared against him, and the
+  British troops entered Afghanistan. They met with comparatively little
+  resistance; the Ameer fled to Turkestan, where he soon after died; and
+  his son Yakoob Khan having succeeded him concluded a treaty with the
+  British (at Gandamak, May, 1879), in which a certain extension of the
+  British frontier, the control by Britain of the foreign policy of
+  Afghanistan, and the residence of a British envoy in Cabul, were the
+  chief stipulations. Not long after this settlement, the British resident
+  at Cabul, Sir Louis P. Cavagnari, and the other members of the mission
+  were treacherously attacked and slain by the Afghans, and troops had
+  again to be sent into the country. Cabul was again occupied, and Kandahar
+  and Ghazni were also relieved; while Yakoob Khan was sent to imprisonment
+  in India. In 1880 Abdur-Rahman, a grandson of Dost Mohammed, was
+  recognized by Britain as ameer of the country. He was on friendly terms
+  with the British during his reign, which ended with his death in 1901,
+  his son Habibullah being his successor. He had adopted the title of
+  Sirajul-Millat wa ud-din, 'Lamp of the Nation and Religion'. In a treaty
+  signed on 21st March, 1905, the Ameer recognized the engagements which
+  his father had entered into with the British Government. Encroachments by
+  the Russians on territory claimed by Afghanistan almost brought about a
+  rupture between Britain and Russia in 1885, and led to the delimitation
+  of the frontier of Afghanistan on the side next Russia. On 31st Aug.,
+  1907, an Anglo-Russian Convention relating to Afghanistan was signed. The
+  Russian Government recognized Afghanistan as outside the Russian sphere
+  of influence, whilst Great Britain undertook neither to annex nor occupy
+  any portion of Afghanistan. In spite of German intrigues, the Ameer
+  refused, in 1915, the inducements held out to him to abandon his British
+  ally. He was assassinated on 20th Feb., 1919, and was succeeded by his
+  third son Amanullah. The new Ameer sought to gain popularity with his
+  subjects by embarking on an unprovoked war of aggression upon India.
+  Hostilities broke out in May, 1919, and ended with a peace treaty signed
+  at Rawalpindi on 8th Aug., 1919. In 1922 the first Afghan minister was
+  appointed to London (instead of to Delhi).&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: MacGregor, <i>Gazetteer of
+  Afghanistan</i>; Malleson, <i>History of Afghanistan</i>; Forbes, <i>The
+  Afghan Wars</i>; Field-Marshal Earl Roberts, <!-- Page 53 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>[53]</span><i>Forty-one Years in
+  India</i>; J.&nbsp;G. Lyons, <i>Afghanistan: the Buffer State</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Afium-Kara-Hissar</b> ('opium-black-castle'), a city of Asia Minor,
+  170 miles <span class="scac">E.S.E.</span> of Constantinople, with
+  manufactures of woollen goods, and a trade in opium (<i>afium</i>),
+  &amp;c. Pop. about 20,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Afrag&prime;ola,</b> a town of Italy, about 6 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Naples. Pop. 23,155.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Afra&prime;nius,</b> Lucius, a Roman comic dramatist who flourished
+  about the beginning of the first century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>,
+  and of whose writings only fragments remain.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;">
+      <a href="images/image022.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image022.jpg"
+      alt="Map of Africa" title="Map of Africa" /></a>
+  </div>
+  <p><b>Af&prime;rica,</b> one of the three great divisions of the Old
+  World, and the second in extent of the five principal continents of the
+  globe, forming a vast peninsula joined to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. It
+  is of a compact form, with few important projections or indentations, and
+  having therefore a very small extent of coast-line (about 16,000 miles,
+  or much less than that of Europe) in proportion to its area. This
+  continent extends from 37° 21&prime; <span class="scac">N.</span> lat. to
+  34° 51&prime; <span class="scac">S.</span> lat., and the extreme points,
+  Cape Blanco and Cape Agulhas, are nearly 5000 miles apart. From west to
+  east, between Cape Verde, lon. 17° 34&prime; <span
+  class="scac">W.</span>, and Cape Guardafui, lon. 51° 16&prime; <span
+  class="scac">E.</span>, the distance is about 4600 miles. The area is
+  estimated at 11,500,000 sq. miles, or more than three times that of
+  Europe. The islands belonging to Africa are not numerous, and, except
+  Madagascar, none of them are large. They include Madeira, the Canaries,
+  Cape Verde Islands, Fernando Po, Principe, São Thomé, Ascension, St.
+  Helena, Mauritius, Réunion, the Comoros, Socotra, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>The interior of Africa is as yet imperfectly known, but we know enough
+  of the continent as a whole to be able to point to some general features
+  that characterize it. One of these is that almost all round it at no
+  great distance from the sea, and, roughly speaking, parallel with the
+  coast-line, we find ranges of mountains or elevated lands forming the
+  outer edges of interior plateaux. The most striking feature of Northern
+  Africa is the immense tract known as the Sahara or Great Desert, which is
+  enclosed on the north by the Atlas Mountains (greatest height, 12,000 to
+  15,000 feet), the plateau of Barbary and that of Barqa, on the east by
+  the mountains along the west coast of the Red Sea, on the west by the
+  Atlantic Ocean, and on the south by the Sudan. The Sahara is by no means
+  the sea of sand it has sometimes been represented: it contains elevated
+  plateaux and even mountains radiating in all directions, with habitable
+  valleys between. A considerable nomadic population is scattered over the
+  habitable parts, and in the more favoured regions there are settled
+  communities. The Sudan, which lies to the south of the Sahara, and
+  separates it from the more elevated plateau of Southern Africa, forms a
+  belt of pastoral country across Africa, and includes the countries on the
+  Niger, around Lake Tchad (or Chad), and eastwards to the elevated region
+  of Abyssinia. Southern Africa as a whole is much more fertile and well
+  watered than Northern Africa, though it also has a desert tract of
+  considerable extent (the Kalahari Desert). This division of the continent
+  consists of a tableland, or series of tablelands, of considerable
+  elevation and great diversity of surface, exhibiting hollows filled with
+  great lakes, and terraces over which the rivers break in falls and
+  rapids, as they find their way to the low-lying coast tracts. The
+  mountains which enclose Southern Africa are mostly much higher on the
+  east than on the west, the most northerly of the former being those of
+  Abyssinia, with heights of 10,000 to 14,000 or 16,000 feet, while the
+  eastern edge of the Abyssinian plateau presents a steep unbroken line of
+  7000 feet in height for many hundred miles. Farther south, and between
+  the great lakes and the Indian Ocean, we find Mounts Kenya and
+  Kilimanjaro (19,500 feet), the loftiest in Africa, covered with perpetual
+  snow. Of the continuation of this mountain boundary we shall only mention
+  the Drakenberg Mountains, which stretch to the southern extremity of the
+  continent, reaching, in Cathkin Peak, Natal, the height of over 10,000
+  feet. Of the mountains that form the western border the highest are the
+  Cameroon Mountains, which rise to a height of 13,000 feet at the inner
+  angle of the Gulf of Guinea. The average elevation of the southern
+  plateau is from 3000 to 4000 feet.</p>
+
+  <p>The Nile is the only great river of Africa which flows into the
+  Mediterranean. It receives its waters primarily from the great lake
+  Victoria Nyanza, which lies under the equator, and in its upper course is
+  fed by tributary streams of great size, but for the last 1200 miles of
+  its course it has not a single affluent. It drains an area of more than
+  1,000,000 sq. miles. The Indian Ocean receives numerous rivers; but the
+  only great river of South Africa which enters that ocean is the Zambezi,
+  the fourth in size of the continent, and having in its course the
+  Victoria Falls, one of the greatest waterfalls in the world. In Southern
+  Africa also, but flowing westward and entering the Atlantic, is the
+  Congo, which takes its origin from a series of lakes and marshes in the
+  interior, is fed by great tributaries, and is the first in volume of all
+  the African rivers, carrying to the ocean more water than the
+  Mississippi. Unlike most of the African rivers, the mouth of the Congo
+  forms an estuary. Of the other Atlantic rivers, the Senegal, the Gambia,
+  and the Niger are the largest, the last being third among African
+  streams. <!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page54"></a>[54]</span></p>
+
+  <p>With the exception of Lake Tchad there are no great lakes in the
+  northern division of Africa, whereas in the number and magnificence of
+  its lakes the southern division almost rivals North America. Here are the
+  Victoria and Albert Nyanza, Lakes Tanganyika, Nyasa, Shirwa, Bangweulu,
+  Moero, and other lakes. Of these the Victoria and Albert belong to the
+  basin of the Nile; Tanganyika, Bangweulu, and Moero to that of the Congo;
+  Nyasa, by its affluent the Shiré, to the Zambezi. Lake Tchad on the
+  borders of the northern desert region is now known to be much smaller
+  than was formerly believed, but varies in area according to the season.
+  Lake Ngami in the far south is now a mere swamp.</p>
+
+  <p>The climate of Africa is mainly influenced by the fact that it lies
+  almost entirely within the tropics. In the equatorial belt, both north
+  and south, rain is abundant and vegetation very luxuriant, dense tropical
+  forests prevailing for about 10° on either side of the line. To the north
+  and south of the equatorial belt the rainfall diminishes, and the forest
+  region is succeeded by an open pastoral and agricultural country. This is
+  followed by the rainless regions of the Sahara on the north and the
+  Kalahari Desert on the south, extending beyond the tropics, and bordering
+  on the agricultural and pastoral countries of the north and south coasts,
+  which lie entirely in the temperate zone. The low coast regions of Africa
+  are almost everywhere unhealthy, the Atlantic coast within the tropics
+  being the most fatal region to Europeans.</p>
+
+  <p>Among mineral productions may be mentioned gold, which is found in the
+  rivers of West Africa (hence the name Gold Coast), and in Southern
+  Africa, most abundantly in the Transvaal; diamonds have been found in
+  large numbers in recent years in the south; iron, copper, lead, tin, and
+  coal are also found.&mdash;Among plants are the baobab, the date-palm
+  (important as a food plant in the north), the doum-palm, the oil-palm,
+  the wax-palm, the shea-butter tree, trees yielding caoutchouc, the
+  papyrus, the castor-oil plant, indigo, the coffee-plant, heaths with
+  beautiful flowers, aloes, &amp;c. Among cultivated plants are wheat,
+  maize, millet, and other grains, cotton, coffee, cassava, ground-nut,
+  yam, banana, tobacco, various fruits, &amp;c. As regards both plants and
+  animals, Northern Africa, adjoining the Mediterranean, is distinguished
+  from the rest of Africa in its great agreement with Southern
+  Europe.&mdash;Among the most characteristic African animals are the lion,
+  hyena, jackal, gorilla, chimpanzee, baboon, African elephant (never
+  domesticated, yielding much ivory to trade), hippopotamus, rhinoceros,
+  giraffe, zebra, quagga, antelopes in great variety and immense
+  numbers.&mdash;Among birds are the ostrich, the secretary-bird or
+  serpent-eater, the honey-guide cuckoo, sacred ibis, guinea
+  fowl.&mdash;The reptiles include the crocodile, chameleon, and serpents
+  of various kinds, some of them very venomous. Among insects are locusts,
+  scorpions, the tsetse-fly whose bite is so fatal to cattle, and
+  white-ants.</p>
+
+  <p>The great races of which the population of Africa mainly consists are
+  the Eastern Hamites (who are not a distinct race but a blend), the
+  Semites, the Negroes, and the Bantus. To the Semitic stock belong the
+  Arabs, who form a considerable portion of the population in Egypt and
+  along the north coast, while a portion of the inhabitants of Abyssinia is
+  of the same race. The Hamites are represented, according to Sergi, by the
+  Copts of Egypt, the Berbers, Kabyles, &amp;c., of Northern Africa, and
+  the Somâli, Danâkil, &amp;c., of East Africa. The Negro races occupy a
+  vast territory in the Sudan and Central Africa, while the Bantus occupy
+  the greater part of Southern Africa from a short distance north of the
+  equator, and include the Kaffirs, Bechuanas, Swahili, and allied races.
+  In the extreme south-west are the Hottentots and Bushmen (the latter a
+  dwarfish race), distinct from the other races as well as, probably, from
+  each other. In Madagascar there is a large Malay element. To these may be
+  added the Fulahs on the Niger and the Nubians on the Nile and elsewhere,
+  who are of a brownish colour, and are often regarded as distinct from the
+  other races, though sometimes classed with the Negroes. In religion a
+  great proportion of the inhabitants are heathens of the lowest type;
+  Mohammedanism numbers a large number of adherents in North Africa, and is
+  rapidly spreading in the Sudan; Christianity prevails only among the
+  Copts, the Abyssinians, and the natives of Madagascar, the last-named
+  having been converted in recent times. Elsewhere the missionaries seem to
+  have made but little progress. Over a great part of the continent
+  civilization is at a low ebb, yet in some parts the natives have shown
+  considerable skill in agriculture and various mechanical arts, as in
+  weaving and metal working. Of African trade two features are the caravans
+  that traverse great distances, and the trade in slaves that still widely
+  prevails, though it has been greatly restricted in recent years. Among
+  articles exported from Africa are palm-oil, diamonds, ivory, ostrich
+  feathers, wool, cotton, gold, esparto, caoutchouc, &amp;c. The population
+  is estimated at 180,000,000. Of these a small number are of European
+  origin&mdash;French in Algeria and Morocco, British and Dutch at the
+  southern extremity.</p>
+
+  <p>Great areas in Africa have been apportioned among European Powers as
+  protectorates or spheres of influence. Among native States still more or
+  less independent are Egypt, Abyssinia, Waday, Bagirmi, Liberia. To
+  Britain belong the Cape Province, Natal, the Orange Free State and
+  Transvaal, with Rhodesia, <!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page55"></a>[55]</span>&amp;c., farther north, a region in Eastern
+  Africa extending from the sea to Lake Victoria and the headwaters of the
+  Nile, Nigeria, Gold Coast, and other tracts on the west, with Mauritius,
+  &amp;c.; to France belong Algeria and Tunis, Senegambia, Zone of Morocco,
+  territory north of the Lower Congo, Madagascar, &amp;c.; the Portuguese
+  possess Angola on the west coast and Mozambique on the east; Italy has a
+  territory on the Red Sea, and part of Somaliland; Spain has a part of the
+  coast of the Sahara; the Congo State is a colony of Belgium; Zanzibar is
+  merged in Kenya Colony. Germany was deprived of her possessions in Africa
+  during the European War, and the Peace Conference of 1919 appointed Great
+  Britain, France, and Belgium to act as mandatories of the League of
+  Nations.</p>
+
+  <p>The name Africa was given by the Romans at first only to a small
+  district in the immediate neighbourhood of Carthage. The Greeks called
+  Africa Libya, and the Romans often used the same name. The first African
+  exploring expedition on record was sent by Pharaoh Necho about the end of
+  the seventh century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> to circumnavigate the
+  continent. The navigators, who were Ph&oelig;nicians, were absent three
+  years, and according to report they accomplished their object. Fifty or a
+  hundred years later, Hanno, a Carthaginian, made a voyage down the west
+  coast and seems to have got as far as the Bight of Benin. The east coast
+  was probably known to the ancients as far as Mozambique and the island of
+  Madagascar. Of modern nations the Portuguese were the first to take in
+  hand the exploration of Africa. In 1433 they doubled Cape Bojador, in
+  1441 reached Cape Blanco, in 1442 Cape Verde, in 1462 they discovered
+  Sierra Leone. In 1484 the Portuguese Diego Cam discovered the mouth of
+  the Congo. In 1486 Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope and
+  reached Algoa Bay. A few years later a Portuguese traveller visited
+  Abyssinia. In 1497 Vasco da Gama, who was commissioned to find a route by
+  sea to India, sailed round the southern extremity as far as Zanzibar,
+  discovering Natal on his way. The first European settlements were those
+  of the Portuguese in Angola and Mozambique, soon after 1500. In 1650 the
+  Dutch made a settlement at the Cape. In 1770 James Bruce reached the
+  source of the Blue Nile in Abyssinia. For the exploration of the interior
+  of Africa, however, little was done before the close of the eighteenth
+  century.</p>
+
+  <p>Modern African exploration may be said to begin with Mungo Park, who
+  reached the upper course of the Niger (1795-1805). Dr. Lacerda, a
+  Portuguese, about the same time reached the capital of the Cazembe, in
+  the centre of South Africa, where he died. During 1802-6 two Portuguese
+  traders crossed the continent from Angola, through the Cazembe's
+  dominions, to the Portuguese possessions on the Zambezi. During 1822-4
+  extensive explorations were made in Northern and Western Africa by
+  Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, who proceeded from Tripoli by Murzuq to
+  Lake Tchad, and explored the adjacent regions; Laing, in 1826, crossed
+  the desert from Tripoli to Timbuktu; Caillié, leaving Senegal, made in
+  1827-8 a journey to Timbuktu, and thence through the desert to Morocco.
+  In 1830 Lander traced a large part of the course of the Niger downward to
+  its mouth, discovering its tributary the Benue. In the south Livingstone,
+  who was stationed as a missionary at Kolobeng, setting out from that
+  place in 1849 discovered Lake Ngami. In 1851 he went north again, and
+  came upon numerous rivers flowing north, affluents of the Zambezi. In
+  1848 and 1849 Krapf and Rebmann, missionaries in East Africa, discovered
+  the mountains Kilimanjaro and Kenya. An expedition sent out by the
+  British Government started from Tripoli in 1850 to visit the Sahara and
+  the regions around Lake Tchad, the chiefs being Richardson, Overweg, and
+  Barth. The last alone returned in 1855, having carried his explorations
+  over 2,000,000 sq. miles of this part of Africa, hitherto almost unknown.
+  During 1853-6 Livingstone made an important series of explorations. He
+  first went north-westwards, tracing part of the Upper Zambezi, and
+  reached St. Paul de Loanda on the west coast in 1854. On his return
+  journey he followed pretty nearly the same route till he reached the
+  Zambezi, and proceeding down the river, and visiting its falls, called by
+  him the Victoria Falls, he arrived at Quelimane at its mouth on 20th May,
+  1856, thus crossing the continent from sea to sea. In 1858 he resumed his
+  exploration of the Zambezi regions, and in various journeys visited Lakes
+  Shirwa and Nyasa, sailed up the Shiré to the latter lake, and established
+  the general features of the geography of this part of Africa, returning
+  to England in 1864. By this time the great lakes of equatorial Africa
+  were becoming known, Tanganyika and Victoria having been discovered by
+  Burton and Speke in 1858, and the latter having been visited by Speke and
+  Grant in 1862 and found to give rise to the Nile, while the Albert Nyanza
+  was discovered by Baker in 1864. In 1866 Livingstone entered on his last
+  great series of explorations, the main object of which was to settle the
+  position of the watersheds in the interior of the continent, and which he
+  carried on till his death in 1873. His most important explorations on
+  this occasion were west and south-west of Tanganyika, including the
+  discovery of Lakes Bangweulu and Moero, and part of the upper course of
+  the River Congo (here called Lualaba). For over two years he <!-- Page 56
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"></a>[56]</span>was lost to the
+  knowledge of Europe till met with by H.&nbsp;M. Stanley at Tanganyika in 1871.
+  Gerhard Rohlfs, in a succession of journeys from 1861 to 1874, traversed
+  the Sahara in different directions, and also crossed the continent
+  entirely from Tripoli to Lagos by way of Murzuq, Bornu, &amp;c. During
+  1873-5 Lieutenant Cameron, who had been sent in search of Livingstone,
+  surveyed Lake Tanganyika, explored the country to the west of it, and
+  then travelling to the south-west, finally reached Benguella on the
+  Atlantic coast. During 1874-7 Stanley surveyed Lakes Victoria Nyanza and
+  Tanganyika and explored the intervening country; then going westward to
+  where Livingstone had struck the Congo he followed the river down to its
+  mouth, thus finally settling its course and completing a remarkable and
+  valuable series of explorations. In 1879 Serpa Pinto completed a journey
+  across the continent from Benguella to Natal, and in 1881-2 Wissman and
+  Pogge crossed it again from St. Paul de Loanda to Zanzibar. In recent
+  years our knowledge of all parts of Africa has been greatly increased,
+  thanks to the efforts of travellers, missionaries, and commercial agents.
+  Steamers now ply on the Congo, and on Lakes Tanganyika, Nyasa, and
+  Victoria, and numerous railways ('Cape to Cairo', &amp;c.) extend far
+  into the continent.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Mungo
+  Park, <i>Travels</i>; D. Livingstone, <i>Missionary Travels</i>; Sir
+  H.&nbsp;M. Stanley, <i>In Darkest Africa</i>; Sir H.&nbsp;H. Johnston,
+  <i>Africa</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Afridis</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-fr&#x113;&prime;diz), a tribe or clan on
+  the north-west frontier of India, about the Khyber Pass, who have at
+  various times given trouble to the British, and are included in a new
+  (1922) scheme of Khassadars (irregulars). In 1897-8 a campaign ('the
+  Tirah campaign') had to be undertaken against them, costly both in men
+  and money, before British authority was asserted. In 1905 the Afridis of
+  the force called the Khyber Rifles formed an escort for the Prince and
+  Princess of Wales on their visit to the famous pass, which was long in
+  their charge.&mdash;Cf. Holdich, <i>The Indian Borderland</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Afrikander Bund,</b> an association dating from 1880 and founded
+  for the purpose of consolidating Afrikander influence in South Africa.
+  For a time it supported the policy of Cecil Rhodes, but after 1895
+  separated itself from him. After the war in 1902 the Bund was
+  reorganized, and identified with the South African party whose policy is
+  to further the federation of the South African colonies under the British
+  crown.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;ga,</b> formerly title of Turkish officers of a lower
+  military rank, now of men of great wealth and influence except learned
+  men and ecclesiastics, to whom the corresponding title of <i>effendi</i>,
+  meaning 'elder brother' and subsequently 'master', is given.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;ades,</b> a town of Africa, near the middle of the Sahara,
+  capital of the Saharan oasis of Aïr or Asben; at one time a seat of great
+  traffic, probably containing 60,000 inhabitants, now with a pop. of about
+  7000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agadir,</b> a little town on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, the
+  Santa Cruz May of the Spaniards. It was seized by the Portuguese in the
+  sixteenth century, and captured by Mulai Ahmed in 1536. It was once one
+  of the most important seaports of Morocco, but is now closed to commerce
+  and only used as a customs station, its place being taken by Mogador. In
+  July, 1910, the appearance of a French cruiser in the port of Agadir gave
+  rise to a Franco-German dispute, and in 1911 Germany sent the gunboat
+  <i>Panther</i>, and a few days later the <i>Berlin</i>, to Agadir for the
+  protection of German subjects. See <i>France</i>, <i>Germany</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agallochum</b> (a-gal&prime;o-kum), a fragrant wood obtained from
+  <i>Aloex&#x45E;lon Agall&#x14F;chum</i>, a leguminous tree of
+  Cochin-China, and <i>Aquil&#x101;ria Agall&#x14F;cha</i>, a large tree
+  found in north-east Bengal, abounding in resin and an essential oil which
+  yields a perfume used as incense.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agal&prime;matolite</b> (Gr. <i>agalma</i>, image), a kind of
+  stone, a clay-slate altered by heat and by the addition of alkalies,
+  which is carved into images, &amp;c., by the Chinese.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;ama,</b> a name of several lizards allied to the iguana,
+  natives of both hemispheres.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agamem&prime;non,</b> in Greek mythology, son of Atreus, King of
+  Mycenæ and Argos, brother of Menelaus, and commander of the allied Greeks
+  at the siege of Troy. Returning home after the fall of Troy, he was
+  treacherously assassinated by his wife, Clytemnestra, and her paramour,
+  Ægisthus, Agamemnon's cousin. He was the father of Orestes,
+  Iphigen&#x12B;a, and Electra.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;ami.</b> See <i>Trumpeter</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agamogenesis</b> (-jen&prime;e-sis; Gr. <i>a</i>, priv.,
+  <i>gamos</i>, marriage, <i>genesis</i>, reproduction), the production of
+  young without the congress of the sexes, one of the phenomena of
+  alternate generation. See <i>Generation</i> and
+  <i>Parthenogenesis</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aganippe</b> (-nip&prime;&#x113;), daughter of the river-god
+  Parmessos, or Termessos, nymph of a fountain on Mount Helicon, in Greece,
+  sacred to the Muses, which had the property of inspiring with poetic fire
+  whoever drank of it. The name is often given to the wife of Acrisius and
+  mother of Danae.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agape</b> (ag&prime;a-p&#x113;; Gr. <i>agap&#x113;</i>, love), in
+  ecclesiastical history, the love-feast or feast of charity, in use among
+  the primitive Christians, when a liberal contribution was made by the
+  rich to feed the poor. For a time the agape coincided with the
+  <i>eucharist</i>, which, at its origin, was clearly funerary in its
+  intention. "For as often as ye eat this bread and drink this cup, ye do
+  show the Lord's death till he come." During the first <!-- Page 57
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"></a>[57]</span>three centuries
+  love-feasts were held in the churches without scandal, but in after-times
+  they acquired a bad reputation, not undeservedly, and they were condemned
+  at the Council of Carthage in 397. Some modern sects, as the Wesleyans,
+  Sandemanians, Moravians, &amp;c., have attempted to revive this
+  feast.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agapemone</b> (ag-a-pem&prime;o-n&#x113;; lit. 'the abode of
+  love'), the name of a singular conventual establishment which has existed
+  at Spaxton, near Bridgewater, Somersetshire, since 1859, the originator
+  of it being a certain Henry James Prince, at one time a clergyman of the
+  Church of England, who called himself the Witness of the First
+  Resurrection. The life spent by the inmates appears to be a sort of
+  religious epicureanism. Some of the proceedings of the inmates of the
+  'Abode of Love' have resulted in applications to the courts of law, where
+  parties formerly members of the society have returned to the world and
+  sought to regain their rights from Prince and his followers, and such
+  cases have caused some scandal. In 1902 Prince was succeeded by T.&nbsp;H.
+  Smyth-Pigott.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;gar-a&prime;gar,</b> a dried seaweed of the Asiatic
+  Archipelago, the <i>Gracilaria lichenoides</i>, much used in the East for
+  soups and jellies, and also by paper and silk manufacturers.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image023.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image023.jpg"
+      alt="Agaricus campestris" title="Agaricus campestris" /></a>
+    <i>Agaricus campestris</i>, the Common Mushroom
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Agar&prime;ic</b> (<i>Agar&#x12D;cus</i>), a large and important
+  genus of fungi, characterized by having a fleshy cap or pileus, and a
+  number of radiating plates or gills on which are produced the naked
+  spores. The majority of the species are furnished with stems, but some
+  are attached to the objects on which they grow by their pileus. Over a
+  thousand species are known, and are arranged in five sections according
+  to whether the colour of their spores is white, pink, brown, purple, or
+  black. The chief British representatives are the common wild mushroom
+  (<i>A. campestris</i>, L.), the Horse mushroom (<i>A. arvensis</i>,
+  Schæff.), <i>A. elvensis</i>, B. and Br., <i>A. silvaticus</i>, Schæff.,
+  &amp;c. Many of the species are edible, like the common mushroom, and
+  supply a delicious article of food, while others are deleterious and even
+  poisonous.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agaric Mineral,</b> or <b>Mountain-meal,</b> one of the purest of
+  the native carbonates of lime, found chiefly in the clefts of rocks and
+  at the bottom of some lakes in a loose or semi-indurated form resembling
+  a fungus. The name is also applied to a stone of loose consistence found
+  in Tuscany, of which bricks may be made so light as to float in water,
+  and of which the ancients are supposed to have made their floating
+  bricks. It is a hydrated silicate of magnesium, mixed with lime, alumina,
+  and a small quantity of iron.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aga&prime;sias,</b> a Greek sculptor of Ephesus, about 400 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, whose celebrated statue, known as the Borghese
+  Gladiator, representing a soldier contending with a horseman, is now in
+  the Louvre, Paris.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agassiz</b> (ag&prime;as-&#x113;), Louis John Rudolph, an eminent
+  naturalist, born 1807, died 1873, son of a Swiss Protestant clergyman at
+  Motiers, near the eastern extremity of the Lake of Neufchâtel. He
+  completed his education at Lausanne, and early developed a love of the
+  natural sciences. He studied medicine at Zürich, Heidelberg, and Munich.
+  His attention was first specially directed to ichthyology by being called
+  on to describe the Brazilian fishes brought to Europe from Brazil by
+  Martius and Spix. This work was published in 1829, and was followed in
+  1830 by <i>Histoire Naturelle des Poissons d'eaux douces de l'Europe
+  Centrale</i> (Fresh-water Fishes of Central Europe). Directing his
+  attention to fossil ichthyology, five volumes of his <i>Recherches sur
+  les Poissons Fossiles</i> appeared between 1834 and 1844. His researches
+  led him to propose a new classification of fishes, which he divided into
+  four classes, distinguished by the characters of the skin, as ganoids,
+  placoids, cycloids, and ctenoids. His system has not been generally
+  adopted, but the names of his classes have been taken as useful terms. In
+  1836 he began the study of glaciers, and in 1840 he published his
+  <i>Études sur les Glaciers</i>, in 1847 his <i>Système Glaciaire</i>.
+  From 1838 he had been professor of natural history at Neufchâtel, when in
+  1846 pressing solicitations and attractive offers induced him to settle
+  in America, where he was connected as a teacher first with Harvard
+  University, Cambridge, and afterwards with Cornell University as well as
+  Harvard. After his arrival in America he engaged in various
+  investigations and explorations, and published numerous works, including:
+  <i>Principles of Zoology</i>, in connection with Dr. A. Gould (1848);
+  <i>Contributions to the Natural History of the United States</i> (4
+  vols., 1857-62); <i>Zoologie Générale</i> (1854); <i>Methods of Study in
+  Natural History</i> (1863). In 1865-6 he made zoological excursions and
+  investigations in Brazil, which were productive of most valuable results.
+  <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page58"></a>[58]</span>Agassiz held views on many important points
+  in science different from those which prevailed among the scientific men
+  of the day, and in particular he strongly opposed the evolution theory.
+  Cf. <i>Letters and Recollections</i>, edited by G.&nbsp;R. Agassiz.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agassiz</b> (ag&prime;a-s&#x113;), Mount, an extinct volcano in
+  Arizona, United States, 10,000 feet in height; a place of summer resort,
+  near the Great Cañon of the Colorado.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;ate,</b> a semi-translucent compound mineral mass formed
+  in the cavities of rocks by the successive deposition of various types of
+  silica, or by the staining of a siliceous mass thus deposited along
+  concentric zones. Bands or layers of various colours blended together,
+  the base generally being chalcedony, and this mixed with variable
+  proportions of jasper, amethyst, quartz, opal, heliotrope, and carnelian.
+  The varying manner in which these materials are arranged causes the agate
+  when polished to assume some characteristic appearances, and thus certain
+  varieties are distinguished, as the ribbon agate, the fortification
+  agate, the zone agate, the star agate, the moss agate, the clouded agate,
+  &amp;c. In Scotland they are cut and polished under the name of Scottish
+  pebbles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agathar&prime;chus,</b> a Greek painter, native of Samos, the first
+  to paint a scene for the acting of tragedies. The view, however, that he
+  applied the rules of perspective to theatrical scene-painting is
+  doubtful. He flourished about 480 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Agath&prime;ias,</b> a Greek poet and historian, born at Myrina,
+  Asia Minor, about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 530; author of an
+  anthology, a collection of love poems, and a history of his own times,
+  which is our chief authority for the period 552-8, during which time the
+  Byzantine army was struggling against the Goths, Vandals, and Franks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agathocles</b> (a-gath&prime;o-kl&#x113;z), a Sicilian Greek, one
+  of the boldest adventurers of antiquity, born 361 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> By his ability and energy, and being entirely
+  unscrupulous, he raised himself from being a potter to being tyrant of
+  Syracuse and master of Sicily. Wars with the Carthaginians were the chief
+  events of his life. He died at the age of seventy-two.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;athon,</b> a Greek tragic poet, a friend of Euripides, and
+  contemporary with Socrates and Alcibiades, born about 445 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, died about 402 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>
+  The banquet which he gave to celebrate his first dramatic victory was
+  made the groundwork of Plato's <i>Symposium</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image024.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image024.jpg"
+      alt="Agave" title="Agave" /></a>
+    Agave (<i>Agave americana</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Agave</b> (a-g&#x101;&prime;v&#x113;), a genus of plants, nat. ord.
+  Amaryllidaceæ (which includes the daffodil and narcissus), popularly
+  known as American aloes. They are generally large, and have a massive
+  tuft of fleshy leaves with a spiny apex. They live for many
+  years&mdash;ten to seventy according to treatment&mdash;before flowering.
+  When this takes place, the tall flowering stem springs from the centre of
+  the tuft of leaves, and grows very rapidly until it reaches a height of
+  15, 20, or even 40 feet, bearing towards the end a large number of
+  flowers. The best-known species is <i>A. americ&#x101;na</i>, known as
+  the Maguey or 'tree of wonders', introduced into Spain in 1561, and now
+  extensively grown in the warmer parts of this continent as well as in
+  Asia (India in particular). This and other species yield various
+  important products, the chief being the fibre obtained by maceration from
+  the leaves and roots, and known commercially as American aloe, pita flax,
+  or vegetable silk. The sap when fermented yields a beverage resembling
+  cider, the <i>pulque</i> beer of the Spaniards, or is distilled into an
+  intoxicating spirit (Mezcal or Aguardiente). The leaves are used for
+  feeding cattle; the fibres of the leaves are formed into thread, cord,
+  and ropes, and are also good material for paper-making; an extract from
+  the leaves is used as a substitute for soap; slices of the withered
+  flower-stem are used as razor-strops.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agde</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>gd), a seaport of southern France,
+  department of Hérault, with a cathedral, an ancient and remarkable
+  structure. The trade, chiefly coasting, is extensive. Pop. 9265.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Age,</b> a period of time representing the whole <!-- Page 59
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>[59]</span>or a part of the
+  duration of any individual thing or being, but used more specifically in
+  a variety of senses. In law <i>age</i> is applied to the periods of life
+  when men and women are enabled to do that which before, for want of years
+  and consequently of judgment, they could not legally do. A male at twelve
+  years old may take the oath of allegiance; at fourteen is at years of
+  discretion, and therefore may choose his guardian or be an executor,
+  although he cannot act until of age; and at twenty-one is at his own
+  disposal, and may alienate and devise his lands, goods, and chattels. In
+  English law a male at fourteen and a female at twelve may consent or
+  disagree to marriage, but it cannot be celebrated without the consent of
+  the parents or guardians until the parties are of age. A female at
+  fourteen is at years of legal discretion, and may choose a guardian; at
+  seventeen may be an executrix; and at twenty-one may dispose of herself
+  and her lands. So that full age in male or female is twenty-one years,
+  which age is completed on the day preceding the anniversary of a person's
+  birth, who till that time is an infant, and so styled in law. In France
+  majority is attained at twenty-one, whilst the marriageable age is
+  eighteen for males and fifteen for females, subject to consent of parents
+  or guardians. In England no one can take a seat in Parliament under
+  twenty-one, be ordained a priest under twenty-four, nor made a bishop
+  under thirty. In France a seat in the Chamber of Deputies may be taken
+  only at twenty-five and in the Senate at forty. The law of Scotland
+  divides life into three periods&mdash;pupilarity, minority, and majority.
+  The first extends up to the time of legal puberty, that is, twelve years
+  for a female and fourteen for a male, when they may marry; the second
+  extends from this point up to twenty-one years, which is the time when
+  majority is attained.</p>
+
+  <p>The term is also applied to designate the successive epochs or stages
+  of civilization in history or mythology. Hesiod speaks of five distinct
+  ages:&mdash;1. The <i>golden</i> or <i>Saturnian age</i>, a patriarchal
+  and peaceful age. 2. The <i>silver age</i>, licentious and wicked. 3. The
+  <i>brazen age</i>, violent, savage, and warlike. 4. The <i>heroic
+  age</i>, which seemed an approximation to a better state of things. 5.
+  The <i>iron age</i>, when justice and honour had left the earth. The term
+  is also used in such expressions as the <i>dark ages</i>, the <i>middle
+  ages</i>, the <i>Elizabethan age</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>The <i>Archæological Ages</i> or <i>Periods</i> are three&mdash;the
+  Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age, these names being given in
+  accordance with the materials chiefly employed for weapons, implements,
+  &amp;c., during the particular period. The Stone Age of Europe has been
+  subdivided into two&mdash;the Palæolithic or earlier, and Neolithic or
+  later. The word <i>age</i> in this sense has no reference to the lapse of
+  time&mdash;or not necessarily so&mdash;but simply refers to the stage at
+  which a people has arrived in its progress towards civilization; thus
+  there are races still in their stone age. The Palæolithic or earlier
+  stone age in Europe was doubtless immensely earlier than the Neolithic,
+  the latter being marked by implements of much greater finish than the
+  former. See <i>Stone Age</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agen</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-zhan<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), one of the oldest towns in France,
+  capital of department Lot-et-Garonne on the Garonne, 74 miles south-east
+  of Bordeaux; see of a bishop; manufactures sailcloth and other articles,
+  and has an extensive trade. The river is here crossed by a stone bridge,
+  a suspension bridge, and a canal aqueduct. Pop. 23,294.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agenor</b> (a-j&#x113;&prime;nor), a mythical Greek hero, King of
+  Ph&oelig;nicia, and father of Europa and Cadmus. Also one of the bravest
+  among the Trojans, slain by Neoptolemus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;gent,</b> a person appointed by another to act for or
+  perform any kind of business for him, the latter being called in relation
+  to the former the <i>principal</i>. Ambassadors were originally styled
+  diplomatic agents.&mdash;In India, it is the name for an officer to whom
+  political power is given to deal with native states.&mdash;<i>Army
+  Agent</i> is a kind of military banker, authorized by the Government to
+  manage the monetary affairs of a regiment. There are only a few of these
+  agents, and consequently each has in charge the affairs of a number of
+  different regiments.&mdash;<i>Crown Agents</i> are officials appointed by
+  the secretary of state for the colonies to act as commercial and
+  financial agents in this country for the different British colonies that
+  are not self-governing; those that are self-governing appoint their own
+  agents, who are designated <i>agents-general</i>.&mdash;<i>Agent</i> in
+  mechanics is the general force producing a movement.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ageratum</b> (a-jer&prime;a-tum), a genus of composite plants of
+  the warmer parts of America, one species of which, <i>A.
+  mexic&#x101;num</i>, is a well-known flower-border annual with dense
+  lavender-blue heads. From it have been derived several varieties with
+  flowers of different colours used chiefly as bedding plants.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ager Publicus.</b> See <i>Agrarian Law</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agesilaus</b> (a-jes-i-l&#x101;&prime;us), a king of Sparta, born
+  in 444 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and elevated to the throne after
+  the death of his brother Agis II. He acquired renown by his exploits
+  against the Persians, Thebans, and Athenians. Though a vigorous ruler,
+  and almost adored by his soldiers, he was of small stature and lame from
+  his birth. He died in Egypt in the winter of 361-360 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> His life has been written by Xenophon, Plutarch,
+  and Cornelius Nepos.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agglom&prime;erate,</b> in geology, a collective name for masses
+  consisting of angular fragments ejected <!-- Page 60 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>[60]</span>from volcanoes. When a
+  rock mass consists largely of fragments worn and rounded by water it is
+  called a <i>conglomerate</i>, and such masses were originally, no doubt,
+  gravels and shingles on sea beaches and river channels.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agglu&prime;tinate Languages,</b> languages in which the modifying
+  suffixes are, as it were, glued on to the root, both it and the suffixes
+  retaining a kind of distinctive independence and individuality, as in the
+  Japanese, Turkish, and other Turanian languages, and the Basque
+  language.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agg&prime;regate,</b> a term applied in geology to rocks composed
+  of several different mineral constituents capable of being separated by
+  mechanical means, as granite, where the quartz, felspar, and mica can be
+  separated mechanically.&mdash;In botany it is applied to flowers composed
+  of many small florets having a common undivided receptacle, the anthers
+  being distinct and separate, the florets commonly standing on stalks, and
+  each having a partial calyx.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aggry Beads,</b> glass beads of various forms and colours, prized
+  by the natives of West Africa as ornaments, and as having magical and
+  medicinal virtues. Their origin and history are not well known. Such
+  beads have been found in various parts of the world, including North and
+  South America, and often in graves. Some authorities believe that the
+  oldest of them are the work of the ancient Egyptians, or the
+  Ph&oelig;nicians, while the later are probably of Venetian origin.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agha,</b> see <i>Aga</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aghrim,</b> see <i>Aughrim</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agincourt</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-zhan<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-kör), a village of Northern France,
+  department Pas de Calais, famous for the battle of 25th Oct., 1415,
+  between the French and English. Henry V, King of England, eager to
+  conquer France, landed at Harfleur, took the place by storm, and wished
+  to march through Picardy to Calais, but was met by a French army under
+  the Constable d'Albret. The English numbered about 15,000 men, while the
+  French numbers are variously given as from 50,000 to 150,000. The
+  confined nature and softness of the ground were to the disadvantage of
+  the French, who were drawn up in three columns unnecessarily deep. The
+  English archers attacked the first division in front and in flank, and
+  soon threw them into disorder. The second division fled on the fall of
+  the Duc d'Alençon, who was struck down by Henry himself; and the third
+  division fled without striking a blow. Of the French 10,000 were killed,
+  including the Constable d'Albret, with six dukes and princes. The English
+  lost 1600 men killed, among them the Duke of York, Henry's uncle. After
+  the battle the English continued their march to Calais.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agio</b> (&#x101;&prime;ji-&#x14D;), the difference between the
+  real and the nominal value of money, as between paper money and actual
+  coin. It is used to denote both the difference between two currencies in
+  the same country and the variations in the currencies of different
+  countries. The term is derived from the It. <i>aggiungere</i>, to add,
+  augment, hence <i>agiotage</i>. See <i>Disagio</i> and <i>Balance of
+  Trade</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agira</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-j&#x113;&prime;ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), (ancient <b>Agyrium</b>), a town of
+  Sicily south-west of Etna. Pop. 22,485.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agis</b> (&#x101;&prime;jis), the name of four Spartan kings, the
+  most important of whom was Agis IV, who succeeded to the throne in 244
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and reigned four years. He attempted a
+  reform of the abuses which had crept into the State&mdash;his plan
+  comprehending a redistribution of the land, a division of wealth, and the
+  cancelling of all debts. Opposed by his colleague Leonidas, advantage was
+  taken of his absence, in an expedition against the Ætolians, to depose
+  him. Agis at first took sanctuary in a temple, but he was treacherously
+  seized and strangled, after going through the form of a trial.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agistment</b> (from the Lat. <i>ad</i>, to, and Fr. <i>giste</i>,
+  lodging), a term designating the pasturing of horses, cattle, or sheep of
+  another. See <i>Bailment</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agitators,</b> an alternative form of <i>Adjutators</i>, a name
+  given to the representatives elected in 1647 by the different regiments
+  of the English parliamentary army.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aglaia</b> (a-gl&#x101;&prime;ya), wife of Hephaistos, in Greek
+  mythology, one of the three Graces, the other two being Euphrosyne and
+  Thalia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aglossa,</b> a sub-order of anurous amphibia, the frogs, without a
+  tongue.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agnano</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-nyä&prime;n&#x14D;), until 1870 a lake
+  of Italy, west of Naples, occupying probably the crater of an extinct
+  volcano, but now drained.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;nates,</b> in the civil law, relations on the male side,
+  in opposition to <i>cognates</i>, relations on the female side.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agnello Pass,</b> see <i>European War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agnes,</b> St., a virgin martyr who, according to the story,
+  suffered martyrdom because she steadfastly refused to marry Sempronius,
+  the prefect of Rome, and adhered to her religion in spite of repeated
+  temptations and threats, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 303. She was
+  first led to the stake, but as the flames did not injure her she was
+  beheaded. Her festival is celebrated on 21st Jan. For superstitions
+  connected with St. Agnes' Eve see Keats's poem <i>The Eve of St.
+  Agnes</i>. Tintoret's most remarkable picture is <i>The Martyrdom of St.
+  Agnes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agnes,</b> St., the most southerly of the Scilly Islands. A
+  lighthouse was erected here as early as 1680; another on the Wolf Rock
+  near the island was completed in 1858.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agnesi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ny&#x101;&prime;s&#x113;), Maria
+  Gaetana, a learned <!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page61"></a>[61]</span>Italian lady, born at Milan in 1718. In her
+  ninth year she was able to speak Latin, in her eleventh Greek; she then
+  studied the oriental languages, and at the age of thirteen mastered
+  Hebrew, besides French, Spanish, and German. She was called the 'Walking
+  Polyglot'. She next studied geometry, philosophy, and mathematics. She
+  was appointed, in 1750, professor of mathematics in the University of
+  Bologna, ultimately took the veil, and died in 1799. Her sister, Maria
+  Theresa, composed several cantatas and three operas.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/image025.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image025.jpg"
+      alt="Agni" title="Agni" /></a>
+    Agni&mdash;Moore's <i>Hindoo Pantheon</i>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;ni,</b> the Hindu god of fire, second only to Indra, and
+  one of the eight guardians of the world, and especially the lord of the
+  south-east quarter. He is celebrated in many of the hymns of the Rig
+  Veda. He is often represented as of a red or flame colour, and rides on a
+  ram or a goat. He is still worshipped as the personification of fire, and
+  the friction of two sticks for procuring the temple fire is still
+  regarded as the symbol of Agni's miraculous rebirth.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agn&oelig;tæ,</b> a monophysitic sect of the sixth century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agnolo,</b> Baccio d' (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>ch&prime;&#x14D; da<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n&prime;yo-l&#x14D;), a Florentine
+  wood-carver, sculptor, and architect; designed some of the finest
+  palaces, &amp;c., in Florence, such as the Villa Borghese, the Palais
+  Bartolini, &amp;c.; born 1460, died 1543.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agno&prime;men</b> (Lat.), an additional name given by the Romans
+  to an individual in allusion to some quality, circumstance, or
+  achievement by which he was distinguished, as <i>Africanus</i> added to
+  P. Cornelius Scipio.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agnone</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ny&#x14D;&prime;n&#x101;), a town of S.
+  Italy, province of Molise, famous for the excellence of its copper wares.
+  Pop. 6000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agnostics</b> (ag-nos&prime;tiks; Gr. <i>a</i>, not,
+  <i>gign&#x14D;skein</i>, to know), a modern term invented by Huxley in
+  1869 and applied to those who disclaim any knowledge of God, the origin
+  of the universe, immortality, &amp;c. The agnostics, or adherents of this
+  doctrine, hold that the mind of man is limited to a knowledge of
+  phenomena and of what is relative, and that, therefore, the infinite, the
+  absolute, and the unconditioned, being beyond all experience, are
+  consequently beyond its range. Agnosticism is therefore the attitude of
+  'solemnly suspended judgment', and cannot be identified with atheism. The
+  agnostics do not deny the existence of a Divine Being, but merely
+  maintain that we have no scientific ground for either belief or
+  denial.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir Leslie Stephen,
+  <i>An Agnostic's Apology</i>; R. Flint, <i>Agnosticism</i>; J. Ward,
+  <i>Naturalism and Agnosticism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agnus Castus,</b> a shrub, <i>Vitex Agnuscastus</i>, nat. ord.
+  Verbenaceæ, a native of the Mediterranean countries, with white flowers
+  and acrid, aromatic fruits. It had anciently the imagined virtue of
+  preserving chastity&mdash;hence the term <i>castus</i> (Lat.,
+  chaste).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agnus Dei</b> (d&#x113;&prime;&#x12B;; Lat., 'the Lamb of God'), a
+  term applied to Christ in <i>John</i>, i, 29, and in the Roman Catholic
+  liturgy a prayer beginning with the words 'Agnus Dei', generally sung
+  before the communion. The term is also commonly given to a medal, or more
+  frequently a disk of wax, round, oblong, or oval, consecrated by the
+  pope, stamped with the figure of a lamb supporting the banner of the
+  cross; supposed to possess great virtues, such as preserving those who
+  carry it in faith from accidents, &amp;c. Jean Châtel, the assassin of
+  Henri IV, was found covered with such medals.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agon&prime;ic Line</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, not, and <i>g&#x14D;nia</i>,
+  an angle), in terrestrial magnetism a name applied to the line which
+  joins all the places on the earth's surface at which the needle of the
+  compass points due north and south, without any declination. See
+  <i>Magnetism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;ony Column,</b> a column in the advertising sheet of some
+  of the daily journals, in which disappearances, losses, mysterious
+  appeals and correspondence, and generally any advertising eccentricity
+  appear.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;ora,</b> the market-place of a Greek town, corresponding
+  to the Roman <i>forum</i>. The Agora of Athens is situated in a valley
+  partially enclosed by the Acropolis, Areopagus, Pnyx, and Museum.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agos&prime;ta</b>. See <i>Augusta</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agouara</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-gu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>-ä&prime;ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a name given to the crab-eating racoon
+  (<i>Proc&#x45E;on cancriv&#x14F;rus</i>) of S. America.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agoult</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-gö), Marie de Flavigny, Comtesse d', a
+  French writer of fiction, history, politics, philosophy, and art;
+  daughter of Vicomte de Flavigny; born at Frankfort in 1805, died at Paris
+  1876. She contributed many articles to the <i>Revue des Deux-Mondes</i>,
+  &amp;c., under the pseudonym of <i>Daniel Stern</i>, and wrote <i>Lettres
+  Républicaines</i> (1848); <i>Histoire de la Révolution <!-- Page 62
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page62"></a>[62]</span>de 1848</i>;
+  <i>Esquisses Morales et Politiques</i>; <i>Trois Journées de la Vie de
+  Marie Stuart</i>; <i>Florence et Turin</i> (a series of artistic and
+  political studies); <i>Dante et Goethe</i>; dialogues, and numerous
+  romances, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agouta</b> (a-gö&prime;ta), <i>Solen&#x14F;don paradoxus</i>, an
+  insectivorous mammal peculiar to Hayti, of the tanrec family, somewhat
+  larger than a rat. It has its tail devoid of hair and covered with
+  scales, its eyes small, and an elongated nose like the shrews. Another
+  species (<i>S. cub&#x101;nus</i>) belongs to Cuba.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agouti</b> (a-gö&prime;ti), the name of several rodent mammals,
+  forming a family by themselves, genus Dasyprocta. There are eight or nine
+  species, all belonging to S. America and the W. Indies. The common
+  agouti, or yellow-rumped cavy (<i>D. agouti</i>), is of the size of a
+  rabbit. It burrows in the ground or in hollow trees, lives on vegetables,
+  doing much injury to the sugar-cane, is as voracious as a pig, and makes
+  a similar grunting noise. Its flesh is white and good to eat.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agra</b> (ä&prime;gra), a city of India, in the United Provinces,
+  on the right bank of the Jumna, 841 miles by rail from Calcutta. It is a
+  well-built and handsome town and has various interesting structures,
+  among which are the imperial palace, a mass of buildings erected by
+  several emperors; the Motí Masjid or Pearl Mosque (both within the old
+  and extensive fort); the mosque called the Jama Masjid (a cenotaph of
+  white marble); and, above all, the Taj Mahal, 'a dream in marble', a
+  mausoleum of the seventeenth century, built by the Emperor Shah Jehan
+  (1628-58) for his favourite queen, Mumtaz Mahal. It is made of white
+  marble, and is adorned throughout with exquisite mosaics. Its cost is
+  estimated at £800,000, and 20,000 workmen, under the direction of Austin
+  of Bordeaux, were engaged on it for twenty-two years. There are several
+  Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, a government college, and three
+  other colleges or high schools, besides a medical college. Agra has a
+  trade in grain, sugar, &amp;c., and some manufactures, including
+  beautiful inlaid mosaics. It was founded in 1566 by the Emperor Akbar,
+  and was a residence of the emperors for over a century. Pop. 185,449. The
+  Agra division has an area of 10,078 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+  5,007,900.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agraffe&prime;,</b> a sort of ornamental buckle, clasp, or similar
+  fastening for holding together articles of dress, &amp;c., often adorned
+  with precious stones.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agram,</b> or <b>Zagreb,</b> a city in Yugo-Slavia, capital of the
+  former Hungarian province of Croatia and Slavonia, near the River Save;
+  contains the residence of the ban or governor of Croatia and Slavonia,
+  Government buildings, cathedral (being the see of a Roman Catholic
+  archbishop), university, theatre, &amp;c.; carries on an active trade,
+  and manufactures tobacco, leather, and linens. Pop. 79,038.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agra&prime;phia</b>. See <i>Aphasia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agrarian Laws,</b> laws enacted in ancient Rome for the division of
+  the public lands, that is, the lands belonging to the State (<i>ager
+  publicus</i>). As the territory of Rome increased, the public land
+  increased, the land of conquered peoples being always regarded as the
+  property of the conqueror. The right to the use of this public land
+  belonged originally only to the patricians or ruling class, but
+  afterwards the claims of the plebeians on it were also admitted, though
+  they were often unfairly treated in the sharing of it. Hence arose much
+  discontent among the plebeians, and various remedial laws were passed
+  with more or less success. Indeed an equitable adjustment of the land
+  question between the aristocracy and the common people was never
+  attained.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agravaine,</b> Sir, one of the knights of the Round Table.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agreement of the People.</b> See <i>Levellers</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agric&prime;ola,</b> Gnæus Julius, lived from <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 37 to 93, a Roman consul under the Emperor
+  Vespasian, and governor in Britain, the greater part of which he reduced
+  to the dominion of Rome; distinguished as a statesman and general. His
+  life, written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, gives the best
+  extant account of Britain in the early part of the period of the Roman
+  rule. He was the twelfth Roman general who had been in Britain, but was
+  the only one who effectually subdued the southern portion of it and
+  reconciled the Britons to the Roman yoke. This he did by teaching them
+  the arts of civilization and to settle in towns. He constructed the chain
+  of forts between the Forth and the Clyde, defeated Galgacus at the battle
+  of Mons Graupius, and sailed round the island, discovering the
+  Orkneys.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agric&prime;ola,</b> Georg (originally Bauer, that is, peasant =
+  Lat. <i>agricola</i>), born in Saxony 1490, died at Chemnitz 1555, German
+  physician and mineralogist. Though tinged with the superstitions of his
+  age, he made the first successful attempt to reduce mineralogy to a
+  science, and introduced many improvements in the art of mining. A
+  complete edition of his works was published at Basel in 1550 and
+  1558.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agricola,</b> Johann, the son of a tailor at Eisleben, was born in
+  1492, and called, from his native city, <i>master of Eisleben</i>
+  (<i>magister Islebius</i>); one of the most active among the theologians
+  who propagated the doctrines of Luther. In 1537, when professor in
+  Wittenberg, he stirred up the Antinomian controversy with Luther and
+  Melanchthon. He afterwards lived at Berlin, where he died in 1566, after
+  a life of controversy. Besides his theological works he composed a work
+  explaining the common German proverbs. <!-- Page 63 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page63"></a>[63]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Agricola,</b> Johann Friedrich, German musician and composer, born
+  near Altenburg 1720, died at Berlin 1774; pupil of Sebastian Bach; wrote
+  several operas, including <i>Iphigenia in Tauris</i>. He wrote under the
+  pseudonym of 'Olibrio'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agricola,</b> Rodolphus, German scholar, born at Groningen 1443,
+  died at Heidelberg 1485. After travelling in France and Italy he was
+  appointed professor of philosophy at Heidelberg, and did good service in
+  transplanting the revived classical learning into Germany.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;riculture</b> is the art of cultivating the ground, more
+  especially with the plough and in large areas or fields, in order to
+  raise grain and other crops for man and beast; including the art of
+  preparing the soil, sowing and planting seeds, removing the crops, and
+  also the raising and feeding of cattle or other live stock. This art is
+  the basis of all other arts, and in all countries coeval with the first
+  dawn of civilization. At how remote a period it must have been
+  successfully practised in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China we have no means
+  of knowing, but there is sufficient evidence of agriculture having
+  attained considerable development many centuries before the Christian
+  era. Egypt was renowned as a corn country in the time of the Jewish
+  patriarchs, and had probably been so for centuries before. The
+  hieroglyphics on ancient monuments furnish records of the early
+  development of agriculture in Egypt and of the use of the plough and
+  other agricultural implements. The advanced methods of the Egyptians and
+  Syrians were introduced into Europe by the Saracens. Land culture also
+  attained a more or less considerable development in ancient China and
+  Hindustan. Among the ancient Greeks the implements of agriculture were
+  very few and simple. Hesiod, who wrote a poem on agriculture as early as
+  the eighth century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, mentions a plough
+  consisting of three parts, the share-beam, the draught-pole, and the
+  plough-tail, but antiquarians are not agreed as to its exact form. The
+  ground received three ploughings, one in autumn, another in spring, and a
+  third immediately before sowing the seed. Manures were applied, and the
+  advantage of mixing soils, as sand with clay or clay with sand, was
+  understood. Seed was sown by hand, and covered with a rake. Grain was
+  reaped with a sickle, bound in sheaves, thrashed, then winnowed by wind,
+  laid in chests, bins, or granaries, and taken out as wanted by the
+  family, to be ground. Agriculture was highly esteemed among the ancient
+  Romans, and very full accounts are contained in the works of Pliny,
+  Virgil, Cato, Varro, and Palladius. The Romans used a great many
+  different implements of agriculture. The plough is represented by Cato as
+  of two kinds, one for strong, the other for light soils. Varro mentions
+  one with two mould-boards, with which, he says, "when they plough, after
+  sowing the seed, they are said to ridge". Pliny mentions a plough with
+  one mould-board, and others with a coulter, of which he says there were
+  many kinds. Fallowing was a practice rarely deviated from by the Romans.
+  In most cases a fallow and a year's crop succeeded each other. Manure was
+  collected from various sources, and irrigation was practised on a large
+  scale.</p>
+
+  <p>The Romans introduced their agricultural knowledge among the Britons,
+  and during the most flourishing period of the Roman occupation large
+  quantities of corn were exported from Britain to the Continent. During
+  the time that the Angles and Saxons were extending their conquests over
+  the country agriculture must have been greatly neglected; but afterwards
+  it was practised with some success among the Anglo-Saxon population,
+  especially, as was generally the case during the Middle Ages, on lands
+  belonging to the Church. Swine formed at this time a most important
+  portion of the live stock, finding plenty of oak and beech mast to eat.
+  The feudal system introduced by the Normans, though beneficial in some
+  respects as tending to ensure the personal security of individuals,
+  operated powerfully against progress in agricultural improvements. War
+  and the chase, the two ancient and deadliest foes of husbandry, formed
+  the most prominent occupations of the Norman princes and nobles. Thriving
+  villages and smiling fields were converted into deer forests, vexatious
+  imposts were laid on the farmers, and the serfs had no interest in the
+  cultivation of the soil. But the monks of every monastery retained such
+  of their lands as they could most conveniently take charge of, and these
+  they cultivated with great care, under their own inspection, and
+  frequently with their own hands. The various operations of husbandry,
+  such as manuring, ploughing, sowing, harrowing;, reaping, thrashing,
+  winnowing, &amp;c., are incidentally mentioned by the writers of those
+  days; but it is impossible to collect from them a definite account of the
+  manner in which those operations were performed.</p>
+
+  <p>While there is much in the writings of the old English chroniclers
+  concerning the tenure of land, upon which subject the <i>Domesday
+  Book</i> gives much enlightenment, there is a great lack of information
+  as to the manner in which the land was cultivated. Information began to
+  be recorded in the middle of the thirteenth century, but only one
+  treatise is known to have been written, namely, <i>La Dite de
+  Husbanderye</i>, an essay in Norman French by Walter de Henley. This work
+  was superseded by another treatise, the best of the early works on the
+  subject, and published in the reign of Henry VIII (in 1523) <!-- Page 64
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>[64]</span>by Sir A.
+  Fitzherbert, judge of the Common Pleas. It is entitled the <i>Book of
+  Husbandry</i>, and contains directions for draining, clearing, and
+  enclosing a farm, for enriching the soil, and rendering it fit for
+  tillage. Lime, marl, and fallowing are strongly recommended. The subject
+  of agriculture attained some prominence during the reign of Elizabeth.
+  The principal writers of that period were Tusser, Googe, and Sir Hugh
+  Platt. Tusser's <i>Five Hundreth Pointes of Good Husbandry</i> (first
+  complete edition published in 1580) conveys much useful instruction in
+  metre, but few works of this time contain much that is original or
+  valuable. The first half of the seventeenth century produced no
+  systematic work on agriculture, though several on different branches of
+  the subject. About 1645 the field cultivation of red clover was
+  introduced into England, the merit of this improvement being due to Sir
+  Richard Weston, author of a <i>Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant and
+  Flanders</i>, to whom also belongs the credit of first growing turnips in
+  England. The Dutch had devoted much attention to the improvement of
+  winter roots, and also to the cultivation of clover and other artificial
+  grasses, and the farmers and proprietors of England soon saw the
+  advantages to be derived from their introduction. Potatoes had been
+  introduced during the latter part of the sixteenth century, but were not
+  for long in general cultivation. A number of writers on agriculture
+  appeared in England during the Commonwealth, the most important works on
+  the subject being Blythe's <i>Improver Improved</i> and Hartlib's
+  <i>Legacy</i>. The former writer speaks of a rotation, or rather
+  alternation of crops, and well knew the use of lime, as also of other
+  manures. In the eighteenth century the first name of importance in
+  British agriculture is that of Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, who
+  began to drill wheat and other crops about the year 1701, and whose
+  <i>Horse-hoeing Husbandry</i> was published in 1731. Tull was a great
+  advocate of the system of sowing crops in rows or drills with an interval
+  between every two or three rows wide enough to allow of ploughing or
+  hoeing to be carried on. This enabled the ground to be cleared with crops
+  still growing, thus obviating the necessity for 'bare fallow' and leading
+  to the <i>four-course</i> or Norfolk Rotation of Charles, second Viscount
+  Townshend, the first agriculturist to cultivate turnips on a large scale.
+  After the time of Tull and Townshend no great alteration in British
+  agriculture took place till Robert Bakewell and others effected some
+  important improvements in the breeds of cattle, sheep, and swine in the
+  latter half of the eighteenth century. The raising and maintenance of
+  live stock, especially of sheep, was a characteristic of English farming
+  from a very early time, and for several centuries the country had almost
+  a monopoly in the supply of wool. To Bakewell we owe the well-known breed
+  of Leicester sheep. By the end of the century it was a common practice to
+  alternate green crops with grain crops, instead of exhausting the land
+  with a number of successive crops of corn. A well-known writer on
+  agriculture at this period, and one who did a great deal of good in
+  diffusing a knowledge of the subject, was Arthur Young. Scotland was for
+  a long time behind England in agricultural progress. Great progress was
+  made during the eighteenth century, however, especially in the latter
+  half of it, turnips being introduced as a field-crop, and new implements
+  such as the swing-plough and the thrashing-machine coming into general
+  use. The construction of good roads through the country also gave
+  agriculture a great impulse. During the wars caused by the French
+  revolution (1795-1815) the high price of agricultural produce led to an
+  extraordinary improvement in agriculture all over Britain. The
+  establishment of the institution called the National Board of Agriculture
+  was also of very great service to British husbandry at this period.
+  Though a private association, it was assisted by an annual parliamentary
+  grant, and prizes were given by it for the encouragement of experiments
+  and improvements in agriculture. It existed from 1793 to 1816.</p>
+
+  <p>Among other societies which have greatly furthered the progress of
+  agriculture in Britain, the chief in existence at the present day are the
+  Smithfield Club, inaugurated in 1798; the Royal Agricultural Society of
+  England, established in 1838; the Highland and Agricultural Society of
+  Scotland, founded in 1783; and the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland,
+  instituted in 1841. The objects of these and similar societies are such
+  as the following: To encourage the introduction of improvements in
+  agriculture; to encourage the improvement of agricultural implements and
+  farm buildings; the application of chemistry to agriculture; the
+  destruction of insects injurious to vegetation; to promote the discovery
+  and adoption of new varieties of grain, or other useful vegetables; to
+  collect information regarding the management of woods, plantations, and
+  fences; to improve the education of those supported by the cultivation of
+  the soil; to improve the veterinary art; to improve the breeds of live
+  stock, &amp;c. Shows are held, at which prizes are distributed for live
+  stock, implements, and farm produce.</p>
+
+  <p>Through the efforts of the above-mentioned and other societies, the
+  investigations of scientific men, the general diffusion of knowledge
+  among all classes, and the necessity of competing with producers in
+  foreign countries, agriculture made <!-- Page 65 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>[65]</span>vast strides in Britain
+  during the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth. Among
+  the chief improvements we may mention deep ploughing and thorough
+  draining. By the introduction of new or improved implements the labour
+  necessary to the carrying out of agricultural operations has been greatly
+  diminished, and advancement in this direction has been promoted by the
+  necessities of the Great War. Labour-saving machinery is likely to be
+  used in future on an increasingly large scale. Science, too, has been
+  called in to act as the handmaid of art, and in its application we owe
+  very much to the researches conducted at the Rothamsted Experimental
+  Station, founded in 1834 by Lawes, who endowed the Lawes Trust in 1889.
+  Gilbert and he worked together from 1843 to the end of last century. It
+  is primarily by the investigations of the chemist and physicist that
+  agriculture has been put on a really scientific basis. The physiology of
+  plants and animals, and the complex properties of soils, have all been
+  investigated, and most important results obtained. Artificial manures, in
+  great variety to supply the elements wanted for plant growth, have come
+  into common use, and the free nitrogen of the air is now worked up into
+  various substances by which the nitrate of soda imported from South
+  America can be replaced. An improvement in all kinds of stock is becoming
+  more and more general, feeding is conducted on more scientific
+  principles, and improved varieties of crop-plants are created by applying
+  the principles of Mendel and other scientists. Much attention is also
+  devoted to seed-testing, and the applications of electricity to
+  agriculture are being developed.</p>
+
+  <p>As a result of the new conditions, to be a thoroughly-trained and
+  competent agriculturist requires a special education, partly theoretical,
+  partly practical. In many countries there are now agricultural schools or
+  colleges supported by the State, and many such institutions exist in
+  Britain. In Scotland, the Edinburgh chair of Rural Economy was founded in
+  1790; in Ireland, the Glasnevin Institution was inaugurated in 1838; and
+  the establishment of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, dates
+  from 1845. In the United States nearly all the States have now colleges,
+  or departments of colleges, devoted to the teaching of agriculture, and
+  large allotments of public land have been made for their support. There
+  are also numerous experimental stations. In Britain there has been a
+  Board of Agriculture since 1889, under a cabinet minister, which was
+  constituted a ministry in 1919; previously there was only a department
+  under a committee of the Privy Council.</p>
+
+  <p>It is probable that on the whole the agriculture of Britain is farther
+  advanced than that of any other region of similar size. Wheat, barley,
+  and oats are the chief cereals in Britain; the chief roots are turnips
+  and potatoes; other crops (besides grass and clover) are beans, peas,
+  mangold, hops, and flax. In Europe at large the principal cereals are
+  wheat, oats, barley, and rye, wheat being mostly grown in the middle and
+  southern regions, such as France, Spain, part of Germany, Austria,
+  Hungary, Italy, and southern Russia, the others in the more northern
+  portion, while maize is grown in the warmest parts. Turnips are
+  comparatively little grown out of Britain, beet-root in some sense taking
+  their place; potatoes, however, are largely cultivated, except in the
+  south. In the United States maize is the chief corn crop, next to which
+  comes wheat, then oats; potatoes are an important crop, but turnips are
+  only grown to a very small extent. In Canada large quantities of wheat
+  are grown (more especially in Manitoba and the North-West), much is also
+  now produced in the Australian colonies, in India, Argentina,
+  &amp;c.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: W. Fream, <i>Elements
+  of Agriculture</i>; C.&nbsp;W. Burkett, <i>Agriculture for Beginners</i>;
+  <i>Encyclopædia of Agriculture</i> (Gresham Publishing Company).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agrigentum</b> (-jen&prime;tum) (modern <b>Girgenti</b>), an
+  ancient Greek city of Sicily, founded about 580 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and long one of the most important places on
+  the island. The town is also famous as the birthplace of the philosopher
+  Empedocles. Extensive ruins of splendid temples and public buildings yet
+  attest its ancient magnificence. See <i>Girgenti</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;rimony</b> (Agrimonia), a genus of plants, nat. ord.
+  Rosaceæ, consisting of slender perennial herbs found in temperate
+  regions. <i>A. Eupatoria</i>, or common agrimony, was formerly of much
+  repute as a medicine in England. Its leaves and rootstock are astringent,
+  and the latter yields a yellow dye. The plant is a common weed on the
+  borders of cornfields and on roadsides.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agrippa,</b> Herod. See <i>Herod Agrippa</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agrippa,</b> Marcus Vipsanius, a Roman statesman and general, the
+  son-in-law of Augustus; born 63 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, died 12
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He was prætor in 41 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>; consul in 37, 28, and 27; ædile in 33; and
+  tribune from 18 till his death. He commanded the fleet of Augustus in the
+  battle of Actium. To him Rome is indebted for three of her principal
+  aqueducts, the Pantheon, and several other works of public use and
+  ornament.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agrip&prime;pa,</b> von Nettesheim, Cornelius Henry, born in 1486
+  at Cologne, soldier, doctor, and, by common reputation, a magician. In
+  his youth he was secretary to the Emperor Maximilian I; he subsequently
+  served seven years in Italy, and was knighted. On quitting the army he
+  devoted himself to science, became famous as <!-- Page 66 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>[66]</span>a magician and alchemist,
+  and was involved in disputes with the churchmen. After an active, varied,
+  and eventful life he died at Grenoble in 1534 or 1535. His works were
+  published at Lyons in 1550.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agrippi&prime;na,</b> the name of several Roman women, among whom
+  we may mention: 1. The youngest daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and
+  wife of C. Germanicus; a heroic woman, adorned with great virtues.
+  Tiberius, who hated her for her virtues and popularity, banished her to
+  the Island of Pandataria, where she starved herself to death in <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 33. 2. A daughter of the last mentioned, and the
+  mother of Nero, by Domitius Ahenobarbus. Her third husband was her uncle,
+  the Emperor Claudius, whom she subsequently poisoned to secure the
+  government of the Empire through her son Nero. After ruling a few years
+  in her son's name he became tired of her ascendency, and caused her to be
+  assassinated (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 60).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agropyron,</b> a genus of grasses most of which are perennials. The
+  root-stalks of <i>Agropyron repens</i> (<i>Radix Graminis</i>) have
+  aperient and diuretic properties.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agrostem&prime;ma.</b> See <i>Corncockle</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agros&prime;tis,</b> a genus of grasses, consisting of many
+  species, and valuable as pasture-grasses. The bent-grasses belong to the
+  genus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ag&prime;telek,</b> a village in Hungary, near the road from Pesth
+  to Kassa, with about 600 inhabitants, celebrated for one of the largest
+  and most remarkable stalactitic caverns in Europe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agua</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>g&prime;wa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), an active volcano of Central America,
+  in Guatemala, rising to the height of 15,000 feet. It has twice destroyed
+  the old city of Guatemala, in its immediate vicinity.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aguara</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-gwä&prime;ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>). See <i>Agouara</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aguardiente</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-gwär-d&#x113;-en&prime;te), a popular
+  spirituous beverage of Spain and Portugal, a kind of coarse brandy, made
+  from red wine, from the refuse of the grapes left in the wine-press,
+  &amp;c., generally flavoured with anise; also a Mexican alcoholic drink
+  distilled from the fermented juice of the agave.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aguas Calientes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>g&prime;wa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x113;-en&prime;t&#x101;s; lit. 'warm
+  waters'), a town 270 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of Mexico,
+  capital of the State of its own name, named from the thermal springs near
+  it; has manufactures of cottons and a considerable trade. Pop.
+  45,198.&mdash;Aguas Calientes State has an area of 2,968 sq. miles, and a
+  pop. of 124,500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ague</b> (&#x101;&prime;g&#x16B;), a kind of fever, which may be
+  followed by serious consequences, but generally is more troublesome than
+  dangerous. According to the length of the interval between one febrile
+  paroxysm and another, agues are denominated <i>quotidian</i> when they
+  occur once in twenty-four hours, <i>tertian</i> when they come on every
+  forty-eight hours, <i>quartan</i> when they visit the patient once in
+  seventy-two hours. Ague arises from marsh miasmata, a temperature above
+  60° being, however, apparently required to produce it. To cure the
+  disease and prevent the recurrence, quinine and various other bitter and
+  astringent drugs are given with complete success in the majority of
+  cases.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ague-cake,</b> a tumour caused by enlargement and hardening of the
+  spleen, often the consequence of ague or intermittent fever.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aguesseau</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ges-&#x14D;), Henri François d', a
+  distinguished French jurist and statesman, born at Limoges in 1668; was
+  in 1690 advocate-general at Paris, and at the age of thirty-two
+  procureur-général of the Parliament. He risked disgrace with Louis XIV by
+  successfully opposing the famous papal bull <i>Unigenitus</i>. He was
+  made chancellor in 1717, was deprived of his office in 1718 on account of
+  his opposition to Law's system of finance, but had to be recalled in
+  1720. In 1722 he had to retire a second time; but was recalled in 1727 by
+  Cardinal Fleury, and in 1737 again got the chancellorship, which he held
+  till 1750. He died in 1751.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aguilar</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-g&#x113;-lär&prime;), a town of Spain,
+  province of Cordova, in Andalusia, in a good wine-producing district, and
+  with a trade in corn and wine. Pop. 12,635.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aguilar</b> (a-gi-lär&prime;), Grace, an English writer, born at
+  Hackney 1816, died at Frankfort 1847. Of Jewish parentage, she at first
+  devoted herself to Jewish subjects, such as <i>The Women of Israel</i>,
+  <i>The Jewish Faith</i>, &amp;c.; but her fame rests on her novels,
+  <i>Home Influence</i>, <i>A Mother's Recompense</i>, <i>Home Scenes and
+  Heart Studies</i>, &amp;c., most of which were published posthumously by
+  her mother.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aguilas</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-g&#x113;&prime;la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s), a flourishing seaport of Southern
+  Spain, province of Murcia, with copper and lead smelting works. Pop.
+  15,967.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agulhas</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-gu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>l&prime;ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s), Cape, a promontory, forming the most
+  southern extremity of Africa, about 90 miles south-east of the Cape of
+  Good Hope, rising to 455 feet above the sea, with a lighthouse.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Agu&prime;ti.</b> See <i>Agouti</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;hab,</b> the seventh King of Israel, succeeded his father
+  Omri, 918-897 or 875-853 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> At the
+  instigation of his wife Jezebel he erected a temple to Baal, and became a
+  cruel persecutor of the true prophets. He was killed by an arrow at the
+  siege of Ramoth-Gilead. He was succeeded by his son Ahaziah.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ahag&prime;gar,</b> a mountainous region of the Sahara, south of
+  Algeria, with some fertile valleys, inhabited by the Tuaregs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ahanta.</b> See <i>Gold Coast</i>, <i>West Africa</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ahasue&prime;rus,</b> in Scripture history, a king of Persia,
+  probably the same as Xerxes, the husband of Esther, to whom the
+  Scriptures ascribe a <!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page67"></a>[67]</span>singular deliverance of the Jews from
+  extirpation.&mdash;<i>Ahasuerus</i> is also a Scripture name for
+  Cambyses, the son of Cyrus (<i>Ezra</i>, iv, 6), and for Astyages, King
+  of the Medes (<i>Dan.</i> ix, 1). Ahasuerus is also the traditional name
+  of the wandering Jew.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;haz,</b> the twelfth King of Judah, succeeded his father
+  Jotham, 742-727 or 734-715 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Forsaking the
+  true religion, he gave himself up completely to idolatry, and plundered
+  the temple to obtain presents for Tiglath-Pileser, King of Assyria.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ahazi&prime;ah.</b>&mdash;1. Son of Ahab and Jezebel, and eighth
+  King of Israel, died from a fall through a lattice in his palace at
+  Samaria after reigning two years (896, 895 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>).&mdash;2. Fifth or sixth King of Judah, and
+  nephew of the above. He reigned but one year, and was slain (884 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) by Jehu.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ahith&prime;ophel,</b> privy-councillor to David, and confederate
+  and adviser of Absalom in his rebellion against his father. When Hushai's
+  advice prevailed, Ahithophel, despairing of success, hanged himself.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ahmedabad,</b> or <b>Ahmadabad</b> (ä-m<i>a</i>d-ä-bäd), a town of
+  India, presidency of Bombay, in district of its own name, on the left
+  bank of the Sábarmatí, 310 miles north of Bombay. It was founded in 1412
+  by Ahmed Shah, and was converted by him into a great capital, adorned
+  with splendid edifices. It came finally into the hands of the British in
+  1818. It is still a handsome and populous place, enclosed by a wall, with
+  many noteworthy buildings; manufactures of fine silk and cotton fabrics,
+  cloths of gold and silver, pottery, paper, enamel, mother-of-pearl,
+  &amp;c. There were disturbances here in 1919. (See <i>Rowlatt Act</i>.)
+  Pop. 216,777.&mdash;Area of district, 3949 sq. miles; pop. 795,094.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ahmed Mirza,</b> Shah of Persia, born in 1898. He succeeded his
+  father, Mohammed Ali, when the latter was deposed on 16th July, 1909.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ahmednag&prime;ar,</b> a town of India, presidency of Bombay, in
+  district of its own name, surrounded by an earthen wall; with
+  manufactures of cotton and silk cloths. Near the city is the fort, built
+  of stone and 1½ miles round. Pop. (including military) 42,032.&mdash;Area
+  of district, 6645 sq. miles; pop. 945,305.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ahmed Shah,</b> born 1724, died 1773, founder of the Durâni dynasty
+  in Afghanistan. On the assassination of Nadir he proclaimed himself shah,
+  and set about subduing the provinces surrounding his realm. Among his
+  first acts was the securing of the famed Koh-i-noor diamond, which had
+  fallen into the hands of his predecessor. He crossed the Indus in 1748,
+  and his conquests in Northern India culminated in the defeat of the
+  Mahrattas at Panipat (6th Jan., 1761). Affairs in his own country
+  necessitated his withdrawal from India, but he extended his empire vastly
+  in other directions far beyond the limits of modern Afghanistan. He was
+  succeeded by his son Timur.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ahriman</b> (ä&prime;ri-man; in the Zend <i>Angromainyus</i>,
+  'spirit of evil or annihilation'), according to the dualistic doctrine of
+  Zoroaster, the origin or the personification of evil, sovereign of the
+  Devas or evil spirits, lord of darkness and of death, being thus opposed
+  to Ormuzd (<i>Ahuramazda</i>), the spirit of good and of light.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ah&prime;waz,</b> a small Persian town on the River Karun, province
+  of Khuzistan, at the head of river navigation, a place of some commercial
+  note. In the neighbourhood are the vast ruins of a city supposed to date
+  from the time of the Parthian Empire.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ai</b> (ä&prime;&#x113;). See <i>Sloth</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aid,</b> a subsidy paid in ancient feudal times by vassals to their
+  lords on certain occasions, the chief of which were: when their lord was
+  taken prisoner and required to be ransomed, when his eldest son was to be
+  made a knight, and when his eldest daughter was to be married and
+  required a dowry. From the Norman Conquest to the fourteenth century the
+  collecting of aids by the Crown was one of the forms of taxation, being
+  afterwards regulated by Parliament.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ai&prime;dan,</b> Saint, Bishop of Lindisfarne, was originally a
+  monk of Iona, in which monastery Oswald I, who became king of
+  Northumberland in 635, had been educated. At the request of Oswald, Aidan
+  was sent to preach Christianity to his subjects, and established himself
+  in Lindisfarne as the first Bishop of Durham. He died in 651.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aide-de-camp</b> (&#x101;d-d&#x117;-ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a military officer who conveys the
+  orders of a general to the various divisions of the army on the field of
+  battle, and at other times acts as his secretary and general confidential
+  agent.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aidin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-i-d&#x113;n&prime;), or <b>Guzel
+  Hissar,</b> a town in Asia Minor, about 60 miles south-east of Smyrna,
+  with which it is connected by rail; has fine mosques and bazaars, is the
+  residence of a pasha, and has an extensive trade in cotton, leather,
+  figs, grapes, &amp;c. Pop. 35,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aigrette&prime;</b> (French), a term used to denote the feathery
+  crown attached to the seeds of various plants, such as the thistle,
+  dandelion, &amp;c. (called in botany <i>pappus</i>).&mdash;It is also
+  applied to any head-dress in the form of a plume, whether composed of
+  feathers, flowers, or precious stones.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aigues Mortes</b> (&#x101;g mort; Lat. <i>Aquæ Mortuæ</i>, 'dead
+  waters'), a small town of Southern France, near the mouths of the Rhone,
+  department of Gard; with ancient walls and castle; near it are lagoons,
+  from which great quantities of salt are extracted. Pop. 4000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aiguille</b> (&#x101;&prime;gwil; Fr., lit. a needle), a name given
+  in the Alps to the needle-like points or tops <!-- Page 68 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>[68]</span>of granite, gneiss,
+  quartz, and other crystalline rocks and mountain masses; also applied to
+  sharp-pointed masses of ice on glaciers and elsewhere.&mdash;It is also
+  the name given to a peculiarly-shaped French mountain in Isère, 6500 feet
+  high.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aigun</b> (&#x12B;-gu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>n&prime;), a town of China, in Manchuria,
+  on the Amur, with a good trade. Pop. 15,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ai&prime;kin,</b> John, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, an English
+  miscellaneous writer, born 1747, died 1822. He practised as physician at
+  Chester, Warrington (where he taught physiology and chemistry at the
+  Dissenters' Academy), and London; turned his attention to literature and
+  published various works of a miscellaneous description, some in
+  conjunction with his sister Mrs. Barbauld, including the popular
+  <i>Evenings at Home</i> (1792-5), written with the view of popularizing
+  scientific subjects. His <i>General Biographical Dictionary</i> (in 10
+  vols.) was begun in 1799 and finished in 1815. He was editor of the
+  <i>Monthly Magazine</i> from 1796 till 1807.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ai&prime;kin,</b> Lucy, daughter of the preceding, was born in
+  1781, and died 1864. In 1810 she published <i>Poetical Epistles on
+  Women</i>, which was followed by a number of books for the young and a
+  novel <i>Lorimer</i> (1814). In 1818 appeared her <i>Memoirs of the Court
+  of Queen Elizabeth</i>, a very popular work. She afterwards produced
+  similar works on the reigns of James I (1822) and Charles I (1833), and a
+  <i>Life of Addison</i> (1843). In 1824 she had published the literary
+  remains and biography of her father. She carried on an interesting
+  correspondence with Dr. Channing from 1826-42, which was published in
+  1874.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aikman,</b> William, an eminent Scottish portrait-painter, born in
+  Forfarshire in 1682, died in 1731. He studied at Edinburgh and in Italy,
+  visited Turkey, and spent the later portion of his life in London, where
+  he enjoyed the friendship of most of the distinguished men of Queen
+  Anne's time. The portrait of President Duncan Forbes (1685-1747) in the
+  National Gallery is attributed to him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ailan&prime;to,</b> or <b>Ailanthus</b> (meaning tree of the gods),
+  a tree, genus Ailantus, nat. ord. Simarubaceæ. The <i>A.
+  glandul&#x14D;sa</i>, a large and handsome tree, with pinnate leaves 1 or
+  2 feet long, is a native of China, but has been introduced into Europe
+  and North America. A species of silk-worm, the ailanthus silk-worm
+  (<i>Saturnia cynthia</i>), feeds on its leaves, and the material
+  produced, though wanting the fineness and gloss of mulberry silk, is
+  produced at less cost, and is more durable. The wood is hard, heavy,
+  yellowish-white, and will take a fine polish. The tree has been in
+  cultivation in England since 1751.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aileron</b>. See <i>Aeronautics</i>, <i>Aeroplane</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ail&prime;red</b> (contracted form of <b>Ethelred</b>), a religious
+  and historical writer, supposed to have been born in 1097, but whether in
+  Scotland or in England is not known, died 1166; abbot of Rievaulx, in the
+  North Riding of Yorkshire. Wrote lives of Edward the Confessor and St.
+  Margaret, Queen of Scotland, <i>Genealogy of the Kings of England</i>,
+  <i>The Battle of the Standard</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ailsa Craig,</b> a rocky islet in the Firth of Clyde, 10 miles from
+  the coast of Ayr, of a conical form, 1097 feet high, and about 2 miles in
+  circumference, precipitous on all sides except the north-east, where
+  alone it is accessible, frequented by innumerable sea-fowl, including
+  solan-geese, and covered with grass. On it is a lighthouse.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ailu&prime;rus.</b> See <i>Panda</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aimard</b> (&#x101;-mär), Gustave, French novelist, born 1818, died
+  1883. He lived for ten years among the Indians of North America, and
+  wrote a number of stories dealing with Indian life, such as <i>Les
+  Trappeurs de l'Arkansas</i> (1858), <i>La Loi de Lynch</i> (1859), <i>Les
+  Nuits Mexicaines</i> (1863), <i>Les Bohèmes de la Mer</i> (1865), which
+  have been popular in English translations. His work is not unlike that of
+  Fenimore Cooper.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ain</b> (an<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a south-eastern frontier department of
+  France, mountainous in the east (ridges of the Jura), flat or undulating
+  in the west, divided into two nearly equal parts by the River Ain, a
+  tributary of the Rhône; area, 2248 sq. miles; pop. (1921), 315,757.
+  Capital, Bourg.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ainger</b> (&#x101;n&prime;j&#x117;r), Rev. Alfred, born in 1837,
+  died in 1904, was educated at King's College, London, and Trinity Hall,
+  Cambridge, took orders after gaining his degree, and in 1866 was
+  appointed reader of the Temple Church, London. He was made Master of the
+  Temple in 1893, while holding also a canonry in Bristol Cathedral, to
+  which he had been appointed in 1887. He was highly successful as a
+  preacher, but is chiefly known by his literary labours, especially those
+  connected with Lamb and Hood, whose works he edited. The volumes on Lamb
+  and on Crabbe in the 'English Men of Letters' series are by him, and he
+  wrote a memoir of Hood for his edition of the works. A volume of his
+  sermons under the title of <i>The Gospel of Human Life</i> was published
+  after his death in 1904. Cf. Edith Sichel, <i>Life and Letters of Canon
+  Ainger</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ainmiller</b> (&#x12B;n&prime;mil-er), Max Emanuel, a German artist
+  who may be regarded as the restorer of the art of glass-painting, born
+  1807, died 1870. As inspector of the State institute of glass-painting at
+  Munich he raised this art to a high degree of perfection by the new or
+  improved processes introduced by him. Under his supervision this
+  establishment (which afterwards became his own) produced a vast number of
+  painted windows for ecclesiastical and other buildings, among the
+  principal being a series of <!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page69"></a>[69]</span>forty windows, containing a hundred
+  historical and scriptural pictures, in Glasgow Cathedral. Some of his
+  work is in St. Paul's Cathedral, and his finest productions are the
+  windows in the Cathedrals of Cologne and Regensburg.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ainos</b> (&#x12B;&prime;n&#x14D;z; that is, men), the native name
+  of an uncivilized race of people inhabiting the Japanese island of Yesso,
+  as also Sakhalien, and the Kurile Islands, and believed to be the
+  aboriginal inhabitants of Japan. They do not average over 5 feet in
+  height, but are strong and active. They are very hairy, wear matted
+  beards, and have black hair which they allow to grow till it falls over
+  their shoulders. Their complexion is dark brown, approaching to black.
+  They support themselves by hunting and fishing. There are numerous
+  legends relating to the Ainos. According to one of these, of Japanese
+  origin, they descended from the constellation of the Bear, whilst another
+  mentions as their ancestor a certain Okikurumi who came down from heaven.
+  The Ainos call themselves Ainu Utara, and the Chinese refer to them as
+  the Tungi (barbarians of the East). They are very superstitious, and
+  worship a number of gods, such as the universal god (Opitta-Kamui), the
+  sun (Tsup-Kamui), the bear (Isho-Kamui), &amp;c. Cf. J. Batchelor, <i>The
+  Ainu and their Folklore</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ainsworth,</b> Henry, a Puritan divine and scholar, born 1571, died
+  1622. He passed great part of his life in Amsterdam, being from 1610
+  pastor of a 'Brownist' church there (the Brownists being forerunners of
+  the Independents). He was a voluminous writer, a controversialist and
+  commentator, and a thorough Hebrew scholar.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ainsworth,</b> Robert, born in Lancashire, 1660, earned his living
+  by keeping a private school in or near London, and died there in 1743.
+  Among other learned works he compiled the well-known <i>Latin and English
+  Dictionary</i>, first published in 1736, which passed through many
+  editions, but is now entirely superseded.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ainsworth,</b> William Francis, an English physician, geologist,
+  and traveller, born 1807. He was surgeon and geologist to the Euphrates
+  expedition under Colonel Chesney, and published <i>Researches in Assyria,
+  Babylonia, and Chaldæa</i> (1838); <i>Travels in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia,
+  and Armenia</i> (1842); <i>Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand
+  Greeks</i> (1844), &amp;c. Died 1896.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ainsworth,</b> William Harrison, an English novelist, born 1805,
+  died 1882. He was the son of a Manchester solicitor and intended for the
+  profession of law, but devoted himself to literature. He wrote
+  <i>Rookwood</i> (1834), <i>Jack Sheppard</i>, illustrated by Cruickshank
+  (1839), and about forty other novels, including <i>Guy Fawkes</i>,
+  <i>Tower of London</i>, <i>Windsor Castle</i>, <i>Lancashire Witches</i>,
+  <i>Flitch of Bacon</i>, &amp;c. His literary models were at first Sir
+  Walter Scott and afterwards Victor Hugo's <i>Nôtre Dame de Paris</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ain-Tab</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-in-täb&prime;), a town of Northern
+  Syria, 60 miles north of Aleppo; with manufactures of cottons, woollens,
+  leather, &amp;c., and an extensive trade. There is here an American
+  Protestant mission. Pop. 45,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ainu.</b> See <i>Ainos</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Air,</b> the gaseous substance of which our atmosphere consists,
+  being a mixture mainly of about 78 per cent by volume of nitrogen and 21
+  per cent of oxygen. The latter is absolutely essential to animal life,
+  while the purpose chiefly served by the nitrogen appears to be to dilute
+  the oxygen. Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen, and hence the
+  air dissolved in water contains about 10 per cent more oxygen than
+  atmospheric air. The oxygen therefore available for those animals which
+  breathe by gills is somewhat less diluted with nitrogen, but it is very
+  much diluted with water. For the various properties and phenomena
+  connected with air see such articles as <i>Atmosphere</i>,
+  <i>Aeronautics</i>, <i>Air-pump</i>, <i>Barometer</i>, <i>Combustion</i>,
+  <i>Respiration</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Air,</b> in music (in It. <i>aria</i>), a continuous melody, in
+  which some lyric subject or passion is expressed. The lyric melody of a
+  single voice, accompanied by instruments, is its proper form of
+  composition. Thus we find it in the higher order of musical works; as in
+  cantatas, oratorios, operas, and also independently in
+  concertos.&mdash;<i>Air</i> is also the name often given to the upper or
+  most prominent part in a concerted piece, and is thus equivalent to
+  <i>treble</i>, <i>soprano</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aïr,</b> or <b>Asben</b>. See <i>Asben</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aira.</b> See <i>Hair-grass</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Air Beds and Cushions,</b> often used by the sick and invalids, are
+  composed of india-rubber or of cloth made air-tight by a solution of
+  india-rubber, and when required for use filled with air, which thus
+  supplies the place of the usual stuffing materials. They tend to prevent
+  bed-sores from continuous lying in one position. They are also cheap and
+  easily transported, as the bed or cushion, when not in use, can be packed
+  in small compass, to be again inflated with air when wanted.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Air-bladder.</b> See <i>Swimming-bladder</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Air-brake,</b> a brake operated by air pressure, usually applied to
+  brake, simultaneously, all the wheels of a moving train. In the
+  Westinghouse type, by means of an ingenious 'triple valve' carried one on
+  each carriage, the train pipe is made to serve the dual purpose of supply
+  and control. An air-pump on the engine compresses air into the main
+  receiver, from which it flows through a reducing valve into the train
+  pipe. The pressure, acting on the under side of the triple valve, moves
+  the valve to its extreme <!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page70"></a>[70]</span>position, thereby opening a passage to an
+  auxiliary receiver on the carriage and also putting the brake cylinder
+  into communication with the atmosphere. A spring in the brake cylinder
+  keeps the brakes in the 'off' position.</p>
+
+  <p>To apply the brakes, the pressure is lowered in the train pipe. The
+  air pressure in the auxiliary receiver reverses the triple valve, thus
+  admitting air to the brake cylinder and closing the outlet to
+  atmosphere.</p>
+
+  <p>To remove the brakes, air from the main receiver is passed into the
+  train pipe, and the triple valve is restored to the 'off' position. See
+  <i>Traction</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: W.&nbsp;W. Wood,
+  <i>Westinghouse Air-brake</i>; R.&nbsp;H. Blackhall, <i>Air-brake
+  Catechism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Air-cells,</b> cavities in the cellular tissue of the stems and
+  leaves of plants which contain air only, the juices of the plants being
+  contained in separate vessels. They are largest and most numerous in
+  aquatic plants, as in the <i>Vallisneria spir&#x101;lis</i> and the
+  <i>Victoria regia</i>, the gigantic leaves of which latter are buoyed up
+  on the surface of the water by their means.&mdash;The minute cells in the
+  lungs of animals are also called air-cells. There are also air-cells in
+  the bodies of birds. They are connected with the respiratory system, and
+  are situated in the cavity of the thorax and abdomen, and sometimes
+  extend into the bones. They are most fully developed in birds of powerful
+  and rapid flight, such as the albatross.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aird,</b> Thomas, a Scottish poet and miscellaneous writer, friend
+  of Professor Wilson, De Quincey, and Carlyle, long editor of a newspaper
+  in Dumfries; born 1802, died 1876. He wrote <i>The Devil's Dream on Mount
+  Aksbeck</i>; <i>The Old Bachelor</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Airdrie,</b> a municipal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, in
+  Lanarkshire, near the Monkland Canal, 11 miles east of Glasgow, in the
+  centre of a rich mining district, with a large cotton-mill, foundries and
+  machine shops, breweries, &amp;c., and collieries and ironworks in its
+  vicinity. Pop. 24,160.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Air-engine,</b> an engine in which air heated, and so expanded, or
+  compressed air is used as the motive power. A great many engines of the
+  former kind have been invented, some of which have been found to work
+  pretty well where no great power is required. They may be said to be
+  essentially similar in construction to the steam-engine, though of course
+  the expansibility of air by heat is small compared with the expansion
+  that takes place when water is converted into steam. Engines working by
+  compressed air have been found very useful in mining, tunnelling,
+  &amp;c., and the compressed air may be conveyed to its destination by
+  means of pipes. In such cases the waste air serves for ventilation and
+  for reducing the oppressive heat.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aire</b> (&#x101;r), a river of England, W. Riding of Yorkshire,
+  rising to the south-east of Penyghent and flowing in a south-easterly
+  direction to join the Ouse above Goole, having passed through Leeds on
+  its way; length, 70 miles. It is navigable up to Leeds, and forms an
+  important portion of the Aire and Calder Navigation system, which
+  connects Goole, Hull, &amp;c., with Liverpool. The Calder enters the Aire
+  at Castleford. The district specially known as <i>Airedale</i> is the
+  valley of the Aire above Leeds.&mdash;A large breed of terrier, of which
+  there are several varieties, is known as the <i>Airedale terrier</i>, a
+  strongly-built animal, rather long in the legs, with a hard, close
+  coat.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aire,</b> a river of France, in the Argonne region, a tributary of
+  the Aisne.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aire-sur-l'Adour</b> (&#x101;r-su<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-dör), a small but ancient town of
+  France, department of Landes, the see of a bishop. Pop. 3000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aire-sur-la-Lys</b> (&#x101;r-su<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x113;), an old fortified town of
+  France, department of Pas de Calais, 10 miles south-east of St. Omer.
+  Pop. 5000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Air-gun,</b> a gun from which the bullet is propelled by means of
+  compressed air. Until about the middle of the nineteenth century air-guns
+  were made with a metal reservoir in the butt; this reservoir was charged
+  with air by means of a pump, and although one pumping put in enough air
+  for six or seven shots, the process of loading was awkward and laborious.
+  The well-known 'Gem' air-gun was worked by means of a spring, which
+  compressed the air; the great defect of this gun was that the barrel was
+  used as a cocking-lever, and so was apt to become bent and inaccurate.
+  The 'Gem' was a smooth-bore gun, and early attempts at rifled air-guns
+  failed, as the pellet was apt to stick in the barrel, owing to the low
+  velocity not allowing it to take the grooves. The 'Quackenbush' air-gun
+  made an attempt to get over this difficulty; its slugs were felted, and
+  the felt took the rifling and greatly increased the accuracy of the
+  weapon, but, of course, the ammunition was much more expensive than
+  ordinary air-gun pellets. The B.S.A. air-rifle is an excellent weapon
+  which has overcome all the early difficulties of construction. It has a
+  fixed barrel, a separate cocking-lever, and a rotating breech-plug, and
+  the muzzle velocity of its 16-grain pellet is 600 feet per second, which
+  compares not unfavourably with the 1000 feet per second of the 40-grain
+  bullet of a .22 long-rifle cartridge. An air-gun is a splendid weapon for
+  practising markmanship, as it is almost noiseless, and as its ammunition
+  costs little. It does not need to be elaborately cleaned, as a miniature
+  rifle does; an occasional oiling is all that it requires to keep it in
+  order, and with care it should fire an indefinite number of shots without
+  losing its accuracy. <!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page71"></a>[71]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Airolo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-i-r&#x14D;&prime;l&#x14D;), a small town
+  of Switzerland, canton Ticino, at the southern end of the St. Gothard
+  Tunnel, and the first place on this route at which Italian is spoken.
+  Pop. 2000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Air-plants,</b> or <b>Epiphytes,</b> are plants that grow upon
+  other plants or trees, apparently without receiving any nutriment
+  otherwise than from the air. The name is restricted to flowering plants
+  (mosses or lichens being excluded) and is suitably applied to many
+  species of orchids. The conditions necessary to the growth of such plants
+  are excessive heat and moisture, and hence their chief localities are the
+  damp and shady tropical forests of Africa, Asia, and America. They are
+  particularly abundant in Java and tropical America.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image026.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image026.jpg"
+      alt="Air-pump" title="Air-pump" /></a>
+    Fig. 1.&mdash;Air-pump (sectional view)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Air-pump,</b> an apparatus by means of which air or other gas may
+  be removed from or compressed into an enclosed space. It was invented by
+  Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about the year 1654, and described in 1657
+  by Gaspar Schott. An ordinary suction-pump for water is on the same
+  principle as the air-pump; indeed, before water reaches the top of the
+  pipe the air has been pumped out by the same machinery which pumps the
+  water. An ordinary air-pump (see fig. 1) consists essentially of a
+  cylinder or barrel with a piston and valves. The barrel is connected to
+  the vessel from which the air is to be pumped. <span
+  class="scac">A</span> is the vessel to be exhausted, <span
+  class="scac">C</span> the air-pump cylinder, <span class="scac">P</span>
+  the piston, <span class="scac">VV</span> valves in the piston, and <span
+  class="scac">O</span> the connection to the vessel <span
+  class="scac">A</span>. When the piston moves downwards from the position
+  shown, it cuts off the connection with <span class="scac">A</span> by
+  passing over <span class="scac">O</span>. The length <span
+  class="scac">L</span> is made long enough so that <span
+  class="scac">O</span> is kept covered up during the downstroke. The air
+  filling the space <span class="scac">D</span> is compressed, and so lifts
+  the valves <span class="scac">VV</span> and passes out through them. This
+  goes on till the end of the downward stroke, when the volume is very
+  small indeed. When the upward motion begins, the valves <span
+  class="scac">VV</span> close, and the piston rises and creates a vacuum
+  in <span class="scac">D</span>. When the piston rises sufficiently to
+  uncover <span class="scac">O</span> (as in figure), air rushes from <span
+  class="scac">A</span> into the highly-exhausted space <span
+  class="scac">D</span> and fills it. The process is repeated indefinitely,
+  and <span class="scac">A</span> is gradually exhausted.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image027.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image027.jpg"
+      alt="Toepler and Sprengel Pumps" title="Toepler and Sprengel Pumps" /></a>
+    Fig. 2.&mdash;Toepler Pump &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Fig.
+    3.&mdash;Sprengel Pump
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Air-pumps for compressing air are constructed on the same principle,
+  but the valves act the reverse way. The bicycle pump is a well-known
+  example of this form of pump. In the Fleuss or Geryk pump greater
+  efficiency is attained by having layers of oil in the barrel and above
+  the piston. In nearly all pumps for producing the high vacua necessary,
+  e.g. for the electric glow-lamp and the X-ray tube, mercury is employed.
+  In one form, the Toepler pump, a reservoir containing mercury is
+  connected by a flexible tube to the receiver. (See fig 2. <span
+  class="scac">T</span> tube connecting pump to vessel to be exhausted;
+  <span class="scac">R</span>, reservoir, raised above <span
+  class="scac">A</span> to drive air in <span class="scac">B</span> and
+  <span class="scac">C</span> through <span class="scac">D</span> and out
+  into open air; <span class="scac">R</span> is then lowered, and <span
+  class="scac">B</span> and <span class="scac">C</span> fill with air from
+  receiver. Process then repeated.) By alternately lowering and raising the
+  reservoir, gas is first withdrawn from the receiver and then expelled
+  through <span class="scac">D</span>, which also acts as a barometer. The
+  process is repeated until the desired degree of exhaustion is reached. In
+  a second type, the Sprengel pump, a stream of mercury from a reservoir
+  situated above the vessel to be exhausted falls in drops through a narrow
+  vertical tube which communicates with the vessel. (See fig. 3. <span
+  class="scac">A</span>, reservoir; <span class="scac">B</span>, tube
+  leading to vessel to be exhausted; <span class="scac">C</span>, bubbles
+  of air carried down by mercury.) The air is entrapped between the falling
+  drops of mercury, <!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page72"></a>[72]</span>and is carried down and expelled with it. In
+  the filter-pump, water is used instead of mercury, the pump being
+  connected to an ordinary water-tap.</p>
+
+  <p>A more recent form, the Gaede pump, is of the rotary type. (See fig.
+  4. <span class="scac">C</span>, iron case; <span class="scac">G</span>,
+  glass front; <span class="scac">P</span> two-chamber porcelain drum
+  rotated counter-clockwise about axle <span class="scac">A</span>. As
+  mercury leaves chamber <span class="scac">R</span>, air enters from
+  receiver by tube <span class="scac">T</span> and opening <span
+  class="scac">B</span>. When <span class="scac">B</span> is immersed,
+  mercury enters and air is driven into case <span class="scac">C</span>
+  and removed through tube <span class="scac">S</span>.) A porcelain drum,
+  divided into two cells, rotates within an air-tight case more than half
+  filled with mercury. Each cell has an opening which, when above the
+  mercury surface, places the cell in communication with the receiver. When
+  the opening is immersed, the entrapped air passes by another channel into
+  the outer case, from which it is removed by another less efficient pump.
+  The pump will reduce the pressure within a 6-litre bulb from 10
+  millimetres to .00001 millimetre of mercury in fifteen minutes.
+  Langmuir's pump employs the principle of the aspirator. A current of
+  mercury vapour passes from a mercury boiler past a tube communicating
+  with the apparatus to be exhausted, and sucks the air from it; the
+  mercury is condensed in the upper part of the pump, returns by side tubes
+  to the boiler and leaves the extracted air in this condenser. A less
+  efficient pump is employed to remove the air from the mercury condenser
+  as it accumulates. This pump is said to be simple and rapid in action,
+  and capable of exhausting an 11-litre bulb from atmospheric pressure to
+  .00001 millimetre in eighty seconds.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image028.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image028.jpg"
+      alt="Gaede Pump" title="Gaede Pump" /></a>
+    Fig. 4.&mdash;Gaede Pump
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Air-pumps are largely used in steam engineering, both on land and at
+  sea, to extract the air which enters the condenser with the steam (see
+  <i>Condenser</i>). Several varieties of air-pumps are in use. 1. The
+  ordinary piston-pump (fig. 1) in which the piston extracts air by first
+  sucking it into the cylinder and then expelling it to the atmosphere. The
+  opening leading to the condenser is closed during the stroke in which the
+  air is expelled. Two or three cylinders are usually provided on each
+  air-pump set, the former type being known as a 2-throw pump and the
+  latter a 3-throw pump. One of the best-known makes is the <i>Edwards</i>
+  air-pump. Piston air-pumps are driven either by the main engine through a
+  suitable mechanism, or by a separate electric motor. The amount of power
+  required to drive them varies with the size of the set, and with large
+  engines of over 10,000 h.p. it is about ½ per cent or less. Vacua as high
+  as 29 inches (Bar. 30 inches) can be readily maintained on large plants
+  by this type of pump, provided the condenser is suitably designed. In
+  well-maintained plants bad vacua are commonly due to deficient air
+  extraction, which may arise from the low-pressure air-piping not being
+  air-tight, or from the air-pump being too small. 2. The water-ejector
+  type uses the momentum of a jet of water to extract the air entrained
+  with it. Well-known types of this plant are the ordinary barometric
+  jet-condenser and the <i>Leblanc</i> air-pump. In the latter type, a
+  rotating wheel, which carries vanes, forcibly throws sheets of water into
+  a pipe communicating with the condenser. The sheets of water lie across
+  the pipe, and the space between them is filled up with air sucked from
+  the condenser. This water, with the entrained air, is thrown out, against
+  the atmospheric pressure, by the momentum imparted to the water sheets by
+  the rotating wheel. Very high vacua can be obtained with the Leblanc
+  pump, but the power required to drive it is more than is required with a
+  3-throw piston-pump. (Cp. Sprengel pump above). 3. A steam-ejector is
+  also used, a jet of steam taking the place of the sheets of water in the
+  Leblanc type. Parsons' <i>augmentor condenser</i> works on this
+  principle. A small jet of steam sucks the air from the main condenser and
+  compresses it into a small so-called augmentor condenser. The pressure in
+  this condenser is a little higher than the pressure in the main
+  condenser, but it is sufficient to enable an ordinary 3-throw pump to be
+  used efficiently. The steam used to extract the air is condensed in the
+  augmentor condenser by cold water, and the interior of the augmentor
+  condenser is connected to the inlet of an ordinary 3-throw pump. The
+  3-throw pump is called upon to deal with the air at a slightly higher
+  pressure than the condenser pressure, and the vacuum in the main
+  condenser is improved by the drop of pressure which exists between the
+  augmentor condenser and the main condenser. In a well-designed plant, for
+  instance, a 3-throw pump might be used to maintain a vacuum of 29 inches
+  in the augmentor condenser, while the steam jet would provide another ½
+  inch of vacuum, giving 29½ inches vacuum in the main condenser. The
+  <i>pressure</i> in the main condenser is thereby reduced from 1 inch Hg.
+  to ½ inch Hg.; a reduction of <i>one-half</i>. (Cp. Langmuir's pump
+  above&mdash;using a <!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page73"></a>[73]</span>mercury-vapour jet instead of a steam
+  jet.)&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: S.&nbsp;P. Thompson, <i>The
+  Development of the Mercurial Air-Pump</i>; E. Hausbrand, <i>Evaporating,
+  Condensing, and Cooling Apparatus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Air-raids.</b> Apart from various sporadic bomb-dropping attacks by
+  the Italians in Tripoli in 1913, the first air-raid proper was made by a
+  Zeppelin on Antwerp during the investiture of that city by the Germans in
+  1914. Later on this new method of warfare was developed to a considerable
+  extent by both sides during the Great European War, both air-ships and
+  aeroplanes being used. Air-craft for this purpose have been likened to
+  long-range guns, with the advantage of greater precision, because the
+  target is in view, and very much longer effective range&mdash;the
+  Germans, for example, used to raid London, and on one occasion Edinburgh,
+  from bases situated in North Germany and on the Schleswig coast.
+  Air-raids are of great value in affecting the <i>moral</i> of the enemy
+  country by bringing home the effects of war in its most terrifying aspect
+  to the civilian population at home, and thus causing the dislocation of
+  traffic and diminishing the output of munitions. Their practical value is
+  in attacking and destroying munition-factories, army head-quarters, naval
+  bases, &amp;c., in addition to such important work as the demolition of
+  ammunition-dumps, and cutting lines of communication behind the
+  front.</p>
+
+  <p>Various protective devices against raiding aircraft have been
+  invented. Among these are high-angle guns, capable of throwing shells to
+  a height of some 30,000 feet, though possibly the most effective defence
+  is small high-speed aeroplanes armed with machine-guns and capable of
+  reaching great heights in a short space of time. For use at night,
+  kite-balloons (see <i>Balloons</i>) are sent up in clumps connected
+  together by cables. From the cables is suspended a network of steel
+  wires, which is invisible to the hostile air-craft, and in which they may
+  become entangled and so brought down. These have been raised to a height
+  of as much as 12,000 feet. For raiding purposes two types of
+  aeroplane&mdash;in addition to air-ships&mdash;have been developed. 'Day
+  bombers' carry out raids in daylight at heights of 12,000 to 20,000 feet
+  on points from 50 to 100 miles behind the lines. 'Night-bombers' are
+  slower machines which raid well into the enemy's territory&mdash;up to
+  200 or more miles&mdash;at heights varying from 8000 to 12,000 feet. It
+  is usual for night-raids to be carried out by squadrons of machines
+  flying in formation, each machine carrying about a ton of bombs (in
+  1918). Air-ships can carry 5-10 tons of bombs to places up to 1000 miles
+  distant from their bases.</p>
+
+  <p>During the last months of the war, our Independent Air Force dropped
+  500 tons of bombs on German objectives, and this raiding over a wide area
+  of industrial Germany played no small part in causing that loss of spirit
+  among the enemy which led eventually to their request for an armistice,
+  and their virtual capitulation.</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">AIR-SHIPS</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:65%;">
+      <a href="images/image029.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image029.jpg"
+      alt="Air-ships" title="Air-ships" /></a>
+  </div>
+  <p><b>Air-ships,</b> lighter-than-air craft provided with means of
+  propulsion and steering. The air-ship, unlike the aeroplane, is not
+  dependent upon its engines for its power to remain in flight, but derives
+  its sustentation from the hydrogen gas with which it is filled. Hydrogen,
+  first weighed by Henry Cavendish in 1766, is the lightest gas known,
+  being 14.47 times lighter than air. In the pure state it has a lifting
+  force of 71.155 lb. per 1000 cu. feet, but for calculation purposes is
+  usually assumed to contain 5 per cent of impurities, giving a 'lift' of
+  approximately 68 lb. per 1000 cu. feet. Hydrogen is, when mixed with air,
+  highly inflammable, and helium has therefore been suggested as a
+  substitute. This has a lift, when pure, of about 65 lb. per 1000 cu.
+  feet, but is only found in a few places in America and is therefore at
+  present too expensive to be used in quantities. The lift of any given
+  quantity of hydrogen depends upon the difference between its weight and
+  that of an equal volume of air. As the amount, and therefore weight, of
+  air contained in a given space varies with the barometric pressure and
+  temperature, the lift of hydrogen given above varies also. These figures
+  are based upon a temperature of 60° F. and a barometric pressure of 30
+  inches. As an air-ship rises from the ground, the density, and therefore
+  pressure, of the air decreases, which causes the hydrogen in the envelope
+  to expand proportionately. Rise in temperature has the same effect. When
+  an air-ship ascends, the gas therefore expands, and at a certain point
+  would burst the envelope were valves not provided to allow some of the
+  gas to escape. It is important to realize that as the expansion occurs at
+  a rate corresponding to the decrease in density no alteration in lift
+  occurs so long as gas is not lost through the valves. This would continue
+  indefinitely if the gas-chamber were capable of stretching indefinitely,
+  but with the cotton-fabric used in practice a height is reached when gas
+  commences to escape from the automatic valves. From this moment the lift
+  of the air-ship begins to decrease. At a certain point this decrease will
+  have reached such a point that the air-ship is 'in equilibrium', i.e. she
+  weighs precisely the same as the volume of air she displaces. This is
+  known as the 'maximum height'. Up to 10,000 feet it is roughly true that
+  <sup>1</sup>/<sub>30</sub> of the lift is lost per 1000 foot rise.</p>
+
+  <p>The simplest form of air-ship is the <i>non-rigid</i>, which consists
+  of a rubberized cotton-fabric gas-container (the 'envelope'), from which
+  the 'car', <!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page74"></a>[74]</span>containing engines, crew, &amp;c., is hung
+  by flexible steel-wire ropes. To resist the bending moment introduced by
+  the weight of the car, the envelope is inflated with hydrogen under
+  pressure&mdash;usually about 25 mm. of water. So long as this pressure is
+  greater than any local compression due to bending or loading in the
+  fabric, the envelope will retain its shape. On coming down from a height,
+  owing to the loss of gas, as already explained, the pressure will be
+  reduced, and something must be done to restore it or the envelope will
+  buckle. Fabric bags, known as 'ballonets', are therefore fitted inside
+  the envelope, and as the air-ship descends air is forced into these bags,
+  which supplies the lost pressure and maintains the shape of the envelope.
+  The height to which a non-rigid air-ship can go, on returning from which
+  the ballonets will be just full of air and the pressure the same as at
+  starting, is known as the 'maximum ballonet height'. Ballonets are
+  usually equivalent in volume to rather less than a quarter of the total
+  volume of the air-ship&mdash;giving a maximum ballonet height of 6000 to
+  7000 feet. Usually from two to three ballonets are provided, according to
+  the size of the air-ship. During the Great European War British non-rigid
+  air-ships were constructed varying in size from a capacity of 70,000 cu.
+  feet to 360,000 cu. feet. The former had one 75-h.p. engine, and the
+  latter two of 375 h.p. each. Owing to difficulties in maintaining the
+  shape and distributing the weight of the car over a long envelope, it is
+  generally considered that 500,000 cu. feet probably represents the
+  maximum size in which the non-rigid form of construction can be used.
+  Above this size the <i>semi-rigid</i> type is used. In this case the
+  envelope remains as in the non-rigid, but a girder or 'keel' is
+  introduced between the envelope and the car, the weight of which is
+  therefore taken by the keel and thence distributed to the envelope
+  instead of being taken direct from the envelope as in non-rigids. There
+  has been little development of non-rigids in Great Britain. The most
+  prominent types are the Italian 'Forlanini', 'Verduzzio', and military
+  air-ships. The keel, in all these examples, is not a rigid girder in the
+  vertical sense, as it consists of a number of sections connected together
+  by links. It is designed to resist compression only so long as it is held
+  straight by the pressure of the envelope, and is not capable of taking a
+  bending moment. When a size of about 1,000,000-cu.-foot-hydrogen capacity
+  is reached it becomes economical to use the <i>rigid</i> method of
+  construction. This is totally distinct from the other two types, as the
+  non-rigid envelope is replaced by a rigid hull of sufficient strength to
+  retain its shape without the assistance of any internal gas-pressure. The
+  hull consists of a number of longitudinal members&mdash;usually built-up
+  girders of 'duralumin', an aluminium alloy&mdash;connected together at
+  distances of 25-30 feet by a number of 'transverse frames', or rings,
+  forming bulkheads. The transverse frames are also of duralumin girders,
+  and are braced by 'radical wires' running from the joints of these
+  girders to a ring in the centre. Between each pair of these transverse
+  frames is a gas-bag containing hydrogen. The gas-bags are made of
+  rubberized cotton on to which is stuck 'gold-beater's skin', made from
+  the lining of the intestines of an ox. This is done to prevent hydrogen
+  leakage. This is necessary, as the fabric of the gas-bags of a rigid
+  air-ship is lighter and contains less rubber than the envelope of a
+  non-rigid.</p>
+
+  <p>A '<span class="grk">&Delta;</span>'-shaped keel runs along the
+  interior of the ship, its weight being taken on the two bottom
+  longitudinal girders. The chief function of the keel is to distribute the
+  load of the various weights to the transverse frames of the air-ship. In
+  it are slung the petrol-tanks, water-ballast tanks, bombs, &amp;c., and
+  living accommodation for the crew is also provided there. Along the
+  bottom runs a walking-way from which access is gained to the cars and
+  various parts of the air-ship. The cars containing the engines,
+  wireless-cabin, and pilot's cabin are suspended from the transverse
+  frames. Some of the cars, instead of being slung below the centre-line,
+  are slung in pairs some little way up the side of the air-ship.</p>
+
+  <p>All air-ships are steered by means of rudders and, in the vertical
+  sense, elevators, in precisely the same way as aeroplanes. Up to the end
+  of 1919 speeds of 84 miles per hour had been reached and air-ships had
+  climbed to 24,000 feet. The greatest distance covered in one flight was
+  4500 miles, while the longest time in the air was effected by R34 on her
+  voyage to America, which occupied 108 hours&mdash;4 days 8 hours. Rigid
+  air-ships of 2,750,000-cu.-foot capacity had been built with a length of
+  nearly 300 feet and a gross lift of 60 tons. See also <i>Aeronautics</i>,
+  <i>Balloons</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L. Sazerac
+  de Forges, <i>La Conquête de l'Air</i>; Santos Dumont, <i>My
+  Airships</i>; Hildebrandt, <i>Airships: Past and Present</i>; Major G.
+  Whale, <i>British Airships: Past, Present, and Future</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Airy,</b> Sir George Biddell, a distinguished English astronomer,
+  was born at Alnwick, 27th July, 1801, and educated at Hereford,
+  Colchester, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was senior wrangler
+  in 1823. At Cambridge he was Lucasian professor of mathematics, and
+  subsequently Plumian professor of astronomy and experimental philosophy,
+  in the latter capacity having charge of the observatory. In 1835 he was
+  appointed Astronomer Royal, and as such <!-- Page 75 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>[75]</span>his superintendence of
+  the observatory at Greenwich was able and successful. He resigned this
+  post with a pension in 1881. His important achievement is the discovery
+  of a new inequality in the motions of Venus and the earth. He wrote much
+  and made numerous valuable investigations on subjects connected with
+  astronomy, physics, and mathematics. Among separate works published by
+  him may be mentioned <i>Popular Astronomy</i>, <i>On Sound and
+  Atmospheric Vibrations</i>, <i>A Treatise on Magnetism</i>, <i>On the
+  Undulatory Theory of Optics</i>, <i>On Gravitation</i>. He died 2nd Jan.,
+  1892. He left an autobiography, published in 1896.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aisle</b> (&#x12B;l; from Lat. <i>ala</i>, a wing), in
+  architecture, one of the lateral divisions of a church in the direction
+  of its length, separated from the central portion or nave by piers or
+  pillars. There may be one aisle or more on each side of the nave. The
+  cathedrals at Chichester, Milan, and Amiens have five aisles, Antwerp and
+  Paris seven, and that of Cordova nineteen aisles in all. The nave is
+  sometimes called the central aisle. See <i>Cathedral</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aisne</b> (&#x101;n), a north-eastern frontier department of
+  France; area, 2838 sq. miles. It is an undulating, well-cultivated, and
+  well-wooded region, chiefly watered by the Oise in the north, its
+  tributary the Aisne in the centre, and the Marne in the south. It
+  contains the important towns of St. Quentin, Laon (the capital),
+  Soissons, and Château Thierry. In the European War (1914-18) severe
+  fighting took place on the Aisne, and a great battle was fought on 12th
+  Sep., 1914. General Nivelle's offensive on the Aisne began in April,
+  1917. Pop. (1921), 421,575.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aïva&prime;lik,</b> or <b>Kidonia,</b> a seaport of Asia Minor, on
+  the Gulf of Adramyti, 66 miles north by west of Smyrna, carrying on an
+  extensive commerce in olive-oil, soap, cotton, &amp;c. Pop. 21,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aix</b> (&#x101;ks), a town of Southern France, department
+  Bouches-du-Rhône, on the River Arc, the seat of an archbishop. It is well
+  built, has an old cathedral and other interesting buildings, including a
+  university, a library (over 100,000 vols.), museum, &amp;c.; manufactures
+  cotton and woollen goods, oil, soap, hats, flour, &amp;c.; warm springs,
+  now less visited than formerly. Aix was founded in 123 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> by the Roman consul Gaius Sextius Calvinus, and
+  from its mineral springs was called <i>Aquæ Sextiæ</i> (Sextian Waters).
+  Between this town and Arles, Marius gained his great victory over the
+  Teutons, 102 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In the Middle Ages the counts
+  of Provence held their court here, to which the troubadours used to
+  resort. Pop. 29,836.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aix,</b> or <b>Aix-les-Bains</b> (&#x101;ks-l&#x101;-ban<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a finely-situated
+  village of France, department of Savoie, 8 miles north of Chambéry, on
+  the side of a fertile valley, with much-frequented hot springs known to
+  the Romans by the name of <i>Aquæ Gratianæ</i>, and with ruins of a Roman
+  triumphal arch, and of a temple of Diana. Pop. 8900.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aix-la-Chapelle</b> (&#x101;ks-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-sha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-pel; Ger. <i>Aachen</i>), a city of
+  Rhenish Prussia, 38 miles west by south of Cologne, pleasantly situated
+  in a fine vale watered by the Wurm, formerly surrounded by ramparts, now
+  converted into pleasant promenades. It is well built, and though an
+  ancient town has now quite a modern appearance. The most important
+  building is the cathedral, the oldest portion of which, often called the
+  nave, was erected in the time of Charles the Great (Charlemagne) as the
+  palace chapel about 796. It is in the Byzantine style, and consists of an
+  octagon, surrounded by a sixteen-sided gallery and surmounted by a
+  cupola, in the middle being the tomb of Charlemagne. The adjoining Gothic
+  choir, begun in 1353 and finished in 1413, forms the other chief division
+  of the cathedral; it is lofty and of great elegance, and has fine painted
+  windows. Another noteworthy building is the Rathaus (town hall), erected
+  in the fourteenth century. Aix-la-Chapelle, with the adjoining
+  Burtscheid, which may be considered a suburb, is a place of great
+  commerce and manufacturing industry, the chief productions being woollen
+  yarns and cloths, needles, machinery, cards (for the woollen
+  manufacture), railway and other carriages, cigars, chemicals, silk goods,
+  hosiery, glass, soap, &amp;c. A considerable portion of its importance
+  and prosperity arises from the influx of visitors to its sulphur and
+  chalybeate springs and baths.&mdash;Aix-la-Chapelle was known to the
+  Romans as <i>Aquisgranum</i>. It was the favourite residence of Charles
+  the Great, who made it the capital of all his dominions north of the
+  Alps, and who died here in 814. During the Middle Ages it was a free
+  imperial city and very flourishing. Thirty-seven German emperors and
+  eleven empresses have been crowned in it, and the imperial insignia were
+  preserved here till 1795, when they were carried to Vienna. The town was
+  in possession of France from 1794 to 1814. Pop.
+  156,143.&mdash;<i>Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle</i>, a congress held in
+  1818, by which the army of the allies in France was withdrawn after
+  France had paid the contribution imposed at the peace of 1815, and by
+  which independence was restored to France.&mdash;A <i>treaty</i> of peace
+  concluded at this city, 2nd May, 1668, as a result of the Triple
+  Alliance, put an end to the war carried on against Spain by Louis XIV in
+  1667, after the death of his father-in-law, Philip IV, in support of his
+  claims to a great part of the Spanish Netherlands, which he urged in the
+  name of his queen, the infanta Maria Theresa. By this France obtained
+  Lille, Charleroi, Douai, Tournai, Oudenarde, &amp;c. The <i>second
+  peace</i> of Aix-la-Chapelle, 18th Oct., 1748, terminated the Austrian
+  war of succession. <!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page76"></a>[76]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ajaccio</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>ch&prime;&#x14D;), the capital of
+  Corsica, on the south-west coast of the island, on a tongue of land
+  projecting into the Gulf of Ajaccio, the birthplace of Napoleon and the
+  seat of a bishop, with coral and sardine fisheries, and a considerable
+  trade. There are here a cathedral, a college with library and museum,
+  marble statue of Napoleon, monument of the Bonaparte family, &amp;c.
+  Ajaccio is connected by railway with Bastia and other places, and is
+  becoming a winter resort for people with weak lungs. Pop. 20,946.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ajan&prime;ta,</b> a village and ravine of India, in the north-west
+  of the Nizam's dominions, about 50 miles north-north-east of Aurangabad.
+  The ravine, 4 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of the village, is
+  celebrated for its cave temples and monasteries, twenty-nine in number,
+  excavated out of a wall of almost perpendicular rock about 250 feet high.
+  They are all richly ornamented with sculpture, and covered with
+  highly-finished paintings, representing subjects of almost all kinds. The
+  oldest are assigned to about 200 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the most
+  modern to about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 600, and they may be said
+  to furnish a continuous record of Buddhist art during 800 years, the
+  faith at the latter date being practically expelled from India.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;jax</b> (Gr. <i>Aias</i>), the name of two Grecian chiefs
+  who fought against Troy, the one being son of O&#x12D;leus, King of
+  Locris, surnamed the Little, the other son of Telamon, the Great or
+  Telamonian Ajax. The latter was from Salamis, and sailed with twelve
+  ships to Troy, where he is represented by Homer as the boldest and
+  handsomest of the Greeks, after Achilles. He had more than one combat
+  with Hector, against whom he was well matched. On the death of Achilles,
+  when his arms, which Ajax claimed, were awarded to Ulysses, he became
+  insane and killed himself. This is the subject of Sophocles' tragedy
+  <i>Ajax</i>. The other Ajax was hardly of less importance as a champion
+  on the Greek side in the Trojan war. At the fall of Troy he entered the
+  temple of Pallas Athena and seized Cassandra. He lost his life during his
+  homeward voyage, either by shipwreck or by a flash of lightning sent by
+  Athena, who was offended at the violation of her temple.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ajmere,</b> <b>Ajmir,</b> or <b>Ajmer,</b> a British
+  commissionership or province in India, Rajputána, divided into the two
+  districts of Ajmere and Mairwara (or Merwara); area, 2711 sq. miles. The
+  surface of the province, which is entirely surrounded by native States,
+  is hilly in the north and west, where there is a branch of the Aravali
+  range, but level in the south and east. The soil is partly fertile, but
+  there are large barren sandy plains, and there are no rivers of any
+  importance. There are a large number of tanks which collect the water of
+  small streams, and are useful for irrigation. The province suffered
+  severely from famine in 1899-1900, the population being reduced by 12 or
+  13 per cent. Pop. 501,395.&mdash;<i>Ajmere</i>, the capital, an ancient
+  city, a favourite residence of the Mogul emperors, is 279 miles <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> of Delhi, at the foot of Taragarh Hill (2853
+  feet), on which is a fort. It is surrounded by a wall, has well-built
+  streets, and possesses a Government college, as also Mayo College for
+  Rajput nobles, a Scottish mission, a mosque that forms one of the finest
+  specimens of early Mahommedan architecture extant, and an old palace of
+  Akbar, now the treasury. There is a trade in cotton, sugar, salt,
+  &amp;c., and the town is an important station on the Rajputána railway.
+  Pop. 86,200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ajowan&prime;</b> (<i>Ptych&#x14D;tis Ajowan</i>), an umbelliferous
+  plant cultivated in India, Persia, and Egypt, the seeds of which are used
+  in cookery and in medicine, having carminative properties. The seeds much
+  resemble caraway seeds, have a strong smell of thyme, and are exported in
+  some quantity to Europe as a source of <i>thymol</i>, now so well
+  known.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aju&prime;ga,</b> a genus of plants belonging to the labiate
+  family. See <i>Bugle</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aj&prime;utage,</b> a short tube of a tapering shape fitting into
+  the side of a reservoir or vessel to regulate the discharge of water from
+  it. Also, the nozzle of a tube for regulating the discharge of water to
+  form a <i>jet d'eau</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akabah&prime;,</b> Gulf of, an arm of the Red Sea, on the east side
+  of the Peninsula of Sinai, which separates it from the Gulf of Suez;
+  nearly 100 miles long. The village of Akabah, at the northern extremity
+  of the gulf, is supposed to be near the site of the <i>Ezion-geber</i> of
+  the Old Testament; and here also was Elath, long a place of note. Akabah
+  still carries on a small trade. It was captured by the Arabs in 1917.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akagamaseki.</b> Same as <i>Simonoseki</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akaroid Resin,</b> a resin obtained from some of the grass-trees of
+  Australia, used in varnishes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akassa,</b> a seaport of Southern Nigeria, on a small island nearly
+  opposite the chief mouth of the Niger. There are here engineering and
+  other works, at which ships may be repaired, belonging to the
+  Government.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ak&prime;bar</b> (that is 'very great'), a Mogul emperor, the
+  greatest Asiatic prince of modern times. He was born at Amerkote, in
+  Sind, in 1542, succeeded his father, Humayun, a grandson of Sultan Baber,
+  at the age of thirteen, and governed first under the guardianship of his
+  minister, Beyram, but took the chief power into his own hands in 1560. He
+  fought with distinguished valour against his foreign foes and rebellious
+  subjects, conquering all his enemies, and extending the limits of the
+  empire farther than they had ever been before, although on his accession
+  they embraced only a small part of the former <!-- Page 77 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page77"></a>[77]</span>Mogul Empire. Although a
+  Mohammedan by birth, he abandoned Islam and founded a new religion which
+  he called 'Divine Faith' (<i>Diu-i-Olahi</i>). His contemporaries
+  bestowed upon him the title of 'Guardian of Mankind'. He was also a
+  generous patron of literature, and commissioned the Jesuit missionary,
+  Jerome Xavier, to translate the four gospels into Persian. His government
+  was remarkable for its mildness and tolerance towards all sects; he was
+  indefatigable in his attention to the internal administration of his
+  empire, and instituted inquiries into the population, character, and
+  productions of each province. The result of his statistical labours, as
+  well as a history of his reign, were collected by his minister, Abul
+  Fazl, in a work called <i>Akbar-Nameh</i> (Book of Akbar), the third part
+  of which, entitled <i>Ayini-Akbari</i> (Institutes of Akbar), was
+  published in an English translation at Calcutta (1783-6, 3 vols.), and
+  reprinted in London. He died in 1605. His mausoleum at Secundra, near
+  Agra, is a fine example of Mohammedan architecture. Cf. V.&nbsp;A. Smith,
+  <i>Akbar, The Great Mogul</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akee&prime;</b> (<i>Blighia sap&#x12D;da</i>), a tree of the nat.
+  ord. Sapindaceæ, much esteemed for its fruit. The leaves are somewhat
+  similar to those of the ash; the flowers are small and white, and
+  produced in branched spikes. The fruit is lobed and ribbed, of a dull
+  orange colour, and contains several large black seeds, embedded in a
+  succulent and slightly bitter arillus of a pale straw colour, which is
+  eaten when cooked. The akee is a native of Guinea, from whence it was
+  carried to the West Indies by Captain Bligh in 1793.</p>
+
+  <p><b>À Kempis,</b> Thomas. See <i>Thomas à Kempis</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aken</b> (ä&prime;ken), a Prussian town, province of Saxony, on the
+  left bank of the Elbe, with manufactures of tobacco, cloth, beetroot
+  sugar, leather, &amp;c. Pop. 7358.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;kenside,</b> Mark, a poet and physician, born in 1721, at
+  Newcastle-upon-Tyne, died in London in 1770. He was the son of a butcher,
+  and was sent to the University of Edinburgh to qualify for the ministry,
+  but chose the study of medicine instead. After three years' residence at
+  Edinburgh he went to Leyden, and in 1744 became Doctor of Physic. In the
+  same year he published the <i>Pleasures of Imagination</i>, which he is
+  said to have written in Edinburgh, and which was translated into French
+  by Baron d'Holbach (1769). In 1746 he wrote his much-praised <i>Hymn to
+  the Naiads</i>. Having settled in London, he became a fellow of the Royal
+  Society, and was admitted into the College of Physicians. In 1759 he was
+  appointed first assistant and afterwards head physician to St. Thomas's
+  Hospital. In his later days he wrote little poetry, but published several
+  medical essays and observations. The place of Akenside as a poet is not
+  very high, though Dr. Johnson praised the blank verse of his poems, and
+  his somewhat cumbrous <i>Pleasures of Imagination</i> was once considered
+  one of the most pleasing didactic poems in our language.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akermann&prime;,</b> a fortified town and seaport in Bessarabia,
+  near the mouth of the Dniester, with a good port. The vicinity produces
+  quantities of salt, and also fine grapes from which excellent wine is
+  made. A treaty was signed here, 6th Oct., 1826, between Russia and the
+  Porte, by which Moldavia, Walachia, and Serbia were released from all but
+  nominal dependence on Turkey. Pop. 40,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akhalzik,</b> or <b>Achalzik</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-<i>h</i>a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l&prime;tsik), a town of Russia in Asia,
+  in the Trans-Caucasian government of Tiflis, 97 miles west of Tiflis,
+  with a citadel. It was taken by the Russians in 1828. Pop. 15,977.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ak-Hissar</b> ('white castle'), a town in Asia Minor, 46 miles
+  <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of Smyrna, occupying the site of the
+  ancient Thyatira, relics of which city are here abundant. Here the
+  Emperor Valens defeated the usurper Procopius in 366, and Murad defeated
+  the Prince of Aïdin in 1425. Pop. 20,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akhtyrka</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span><i>h</i>-tir&prime;ka<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a cathedral town of
+  the Ukraine, government of Kharkov, with a good trade and some
+  manufactures. Pop. 31,918.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akjermann</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k-yer-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n&prime;). Same as <i>Akermann</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akkad,</b> the northern portion of ancient Babylonia occupied by
+  the earliest Semitic invaders when the southern portion was Sumer (or
+  Sumeria) and occupied by non-Semites. There was also a city of the same
+  name, the Biblical Accad (<i>Gen.</i> x), which was prominent before 2000
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Its ruins were unearthed between 1917 and
+  1919. See <i>Babylonia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akkas,</b> a dwarfish race of Central Africa, dwelling in scattered
+  settlements to the north-west of Lake Albert Nyanza, about lat. 3° <span
+  class="scac">N.</span>, lon. 29° <span class="scac">E.</span> Their
+  height averages about 4½ feet; they are of a brownish or coffee colour;
+  head large, jaws projecting (or prognathous), ears large, hands small.
+  They are timid and suspicious, and live almost entirely by the chase,
+  being exceedingly skilful with the bow and arrow. They were first seen by
+  the traveller G.&nbsp;A. Schweinfurth in 1870.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akmolinsk&prime;,</b> a Russian province in Central Asia, largely
+  consisting of steppes and wastes; the chief rivers are the Ishim and
+  Sari-Su; and it contains the larger part of Lake Balkash. Capital, Omsk.
+  Area, about 225,070 sq. miles. Pop. 1,523,700.&mdash;<i>Akmolinsk</i> is
+  a place of some importance for its caravan trade. Pop. 11,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ako&prime;la,</b> a town of India, in Berar, the residence of the
+  commissioner of Berar, on the River Morna, <!-- Page 78 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page78"></a>[78]</span>150 miles W. by S. of
+  Nagpur; with walls and a fort, and some trade in cotton. Pop. 29,289.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ak&prime;ron,</b> a town of the United States, in Ohio, 100 miles
+  <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of Columbus, on an elevated site. Being
+  furnished with ample water-power by the Little Cuyahoga, it possesses
+  large flour-mills, woollen factories, manufactures of iron goods, &amp;c.
+  In the vicinity extensive beds of mineral paint are worked. Pop. (1920),
+  208,435.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aksu&prime;</b> ('white water'), a town of Eastern or Chinese
+  Turkestan, 300 miles from Kashgar, in the valley of the Aksu. It is an
+  important centre of trade between Russia, China, and Tartary, and has
+  manufactures of cotton cloth, leather, and metal goods. Formerly the
+  residence of the kings of Kashgar and Yarkand. Pop. 30,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Akyab&prime;,</b> a seaport of Lower Burmah, capital of the
+  province of Arracan, at the mouth of the River Kuladan or Akyab, of
+  recent upgrowth, well built, possessing a good harbour, and carrying on
+  an important trade, its chief exports being rice and petroleum. Pop.
+  35,680.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al,</b> the article in the Arabic language. It appears in English
+  words derived from the Arabic, such as Algebra, Alchemy, Alcove.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alabama</b> (al-a-ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>&prime;ma), one of the United States,
+  bounded by Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and
+  Mississippi; area, 51,998 sq. miles. The southern part, bordering on the
+  Gulf of Mexico and Florida, is low and level, and wooded largely with
+  pine, hence known as the 'pine-woods region'; the middle is hilly, with
+  some tracts of level sand or prairies; the north is broken and
+  mountainous. The State is intersected by the Rivers Alabama, Tombigbee,
+  Mobile, Coosa, Tallapoosa, Tennessee, &amp;c., some of them navigable for
+  several hundred miles. The soil is various, being in some places,
+  particularly in the south, sandy and barren, but in most parts is
+  fertile, especially in the river valleys and in the centre, where there
+  is a very fertile tract known as the 'cotton belt'. The climate in
+  general is warm, and in the lowlying lands skirting the rivers is rather
+  unhealthy. In the more elevated parts it is healthy and agreeable, the
+  winters being mild and the summers tempered by breezes from the Gulf of
+  Mexico. The staple production is cotton, especially in the middle and
+  south, where rice and sugar are also grown; in the north the cereals
+  (above all maize) are the principal crops. Alabama possesses extensive
+  beds of iron ore and coal, with marble, granite, and other minerals; and
+  coal and iron mining, and the smelting and working of iron, are now
+  important industries. The manufacture of cotton goods is extensively
+  carried on. The foreign trade is concentrated in Mobile, whence cotton is
+  the principal export. The State sends eight representatives to Congress.
+  Its principal towns are Montgomery, the seat of government, and Mobile,
+  the chief port. There is a State university at Tuscaloosa, a university
+  connected with the Methodist Episcopal body, several State normal
+  colleges, besides professional schools, &amp;c., in the principal towns.
+  Alabama became a State in 1819. It was one of the slave States. Pop.
+  (1920), 2,348,174.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alabama,</b> a river of the United States, in the State of Alabama,
+  formed by the junction of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa. After a course of
+  300 miles it joins the Tombigbee and assumes the name of the Mobile.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alabama,</b> The, a ship built at Birkenhead to act as a privateer
+  in the service of the Confederate States of North America during the
+  civil war begun in 1861. She was a wooden screw steamer with two engines
+  of 350 h.p. each, 1040 tons burden, and carried eight 32-pounders. Before
+  she was launched her destination was made known to the British
+  Government, but owing to some legal formalities the orders given for her
+  detention did not reach Liverpool till the day after she had left that
+  port (29th July, 1862). She received her armament and stores at the
+  Azores, and entered on her destructive career, capturing and burning
+  merchant vessels, till she was sunk in a fight with the Federal war
+  steamer <i>Kearsarge</i>, off Cherbourg, 19th June, 1864. As early as the
+  winter of 1862 the United States Government declared that they held
+  themselves entitled at a suitable period to demand full compensation from
+  Britain for the damages inflicted on American property by the
+  <i>Alabama</i> and several other cruisers that had been built, supplied,
+  or recruited in British ports or waters. After a long series of
+  negotiations it was agreed to submit the final settlement of the question
+  to a court of arbitration, consisting of representatives of Britain and
+  the United States, and of three other members, appointed by the King of
+  Italy, the President of Switzerland, and the Emperor of Brazil. This
+  court met at Geneva, 17th Dec., 1871, and a claim for indirect damages to
+  American commerce having been abandoned by the United States Government,
+  the decree was given in Sept., 1872, that Britain was liable to the
+  United States in damages to the amount of 15,500,000 dollars (about
+  £3,229,200). After all awards were made to private claimants about
+  8,000,000 dollars still remain unclaimed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alabandite,</b> or <b>Manganblende,</b> a black submetallic
+  mineral.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alabas&prime;ter,</b> a name applied to a granular variety of
+  gypsum or hydrated sulphate of lime. It was much used by the ancients for
+  the manufacture of ointment and perfume boxes, vases, and the like. It
+  has a fine granular texture, is usually of a pure white colour, and is so
+  soft that it can be scratched with the nail. It is found in <!-- Page 79
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page79"></a>[79]</span>many parts of
+  Europe; in great abundance and of peculiarly excellent quality in
+  Tuscany. From the finer and more compact kinds, vases, clock-stands,
+  statuettes, and other ornamental articles are made, and from inferior
+  kinds the cement known as plaster of Paris. A variety of carbonate of
+  lime, closely resembling alabaster in appearance, is used for similar
+  purposes under the name of <i>Oriental alabaster</i>. It is usually
+  stalagmitic or stalactitic in origin and is often of a yellowish colour.
+  It may be distinguished from true alabaster by being too hard to be
+  scratched with the nail.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alac&prime;taga</b> (<i>Alact&#x103;ga jac&#x16D;lus</i>), a rodent
+  mammal, closely allied to the jerboa, but somewhat larger in size, with a
+  still longer tail. Its range extends from the Crimea and the steppes of
+  the Don across Central Asia to the Chinese frontier.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aladdin,</b> son of Mustafa, a poor tailor of China. A magician,
+  who pretended to be his uncle, gave him a magic ring and sent him to
+  fetch 'the wonderful lamp' from a cave. Aladdin secured the lamp, but
+  refused to give it to the magician, who shut him in the cave. Aladdin was
+  rescued by the Genie of the Ring, and by means of the Genie of the Lamp
+  acquired great wealth, built a magnificent palace, and married the
+  Sultan's daughter. Afterwards the magician got possession of the lamp,
+  and caused the palace to be transported into Africa. Aladdin was
+  arrested, but was again saved by the Genie of the Ring. He poisoned the
+  magician, recovered the lamp, and by its means restored his palace to its
+  original site.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alago&prime;as,</b> a maritime State of Brazil; area, 22,577 sq.
+  miles; pop. 946,617.&mdash;<i>Alagoas</i>, the former capital of the
+  province, is situated on the south side of an arm of the sea, about 20
+  miles distant from Maceio, to which the seat of government was
+  transferred in 1839. Pop. about 4000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alais</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x101;), a town of Southern France,
+  department of Gard, 87 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of
+  Marseilles, with coal, iron, and lead mines, which are actively worked,
+  and chalybeate springs, which have many visitors during the autumn
+  months. The treaty of Alais, signed on 28th June, 1629, ended the
+  Huguenot wars in France. Pop. 29,800.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alajuela</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-<i>h</i>u-&#x101;&prime;la<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of Central
+  America, in the State of Costa Rica. Pop. 12,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ala-Kul,</b> a lake in Russian Central Asia, near the borders of
+  Mongolia, in lat. 46° <span class="scac">N.</span> lon. 81° 40&prime;
+  <span class="scac">E.</span>; area, 660 sq. miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alamanni.</b> See <i>Alemanni</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alaman&prime;ni,</b> Luigi, an Italian poet, of noble family, born
+  at Florence in 1495. Suspected of conspiring against the life of Cardinal
+  Giulio de' Medici, who then governed Florence in the name of Pope Leo X,
+  he fled to Venice, and when the cardinal ascended the papal chair under
+  the name of Clement VII he took refuge in France, where he henceforth
+  lived, being employed by Francis I and Henry II in several important
+  negotiations. He died in 1556. His principal works are a didactic poem,
+  <i>La Coltivazione</i>, a splendid imitation of Virgil's <i>Georgics</i>
+  (1546); a comedy entitled <i>Flora</i>; two epics, <i>Girone il
+  Cortese</i> (1548) and <i>L'Avarchide</i>, an imitation of the
+  <i>Iliad</i> (1570); and a collection of eclogues, satires, psalms,
+  &amp;c., partly in blank verse, the invention of which is contested with
+  him by Trissino, a contemporary.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;amo,</b> a fort in Bexar county, Texas, United States,
+  celebrated for the resistance its occupants (140 Texans) made to a
+  Mexican force of 4000 from 23rd Feb. to 6th March, 1836. At the latter
+  date only six Texans remained alive, and on their surrendering they were
+  slaughtered by the Mexicans.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;amos,</b> a town of Mexico, State of Sonora, the capital
+  of a mining district. Pop. 12,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Åland</b> (o&prime;land) <b>Islands,</b> a numerous group of
+  islands and islets, about eighty of which are inhabited, formerly in
+  Russia, situated in the Baltic Sea, near the mouth of the Gulf of
+  Finland; area, 468 sq. miles. The principal island, Åland, distant about
+  30 miles from the Swedish coast, is 18 miles long and about 14 broad. The
+  fortress of Bomarsund, here situated, was destroyed by an Anglo-French
+  force in Aug., 1854. The inhabitants, who are of Swedish extraction,
+  employ themselves mostly in fishing. The islands were ceded by Sweden to
+  Russia in 1809, and proclaimed a province of Finland in 1918. A
+  referendum of the inhabitants, taken in Dec., 1918, decided in favour of
+  union with Sweden, but on 22nd Oct., 1921, an agreement for the
+  neutralization of the islands was signed at Genoa. Pop. 18,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ala&prime;ni,</b> or <b>Alans,</b> one of the warlike tribes which
+  migrated from Asia westward at the time of the decline of the Roman
+  Empire. They are first met with in the region of the Caucasus, where
+  Pompey fought with them. From this centre they spread over the south of
+  modern Russia to the confines of the Roman Empire. About the middle of
+  the fifth century they joined the Vandals, among whom they became lost to
+  history.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alarcon&prime; Y Mendo&prime;za,</b> Don Juan Ruiz de, one of the
+  most distinguished dramatic poets of Spain, born in Mexico about the end
+  of the sixteenth or the beginning of the seventeenth century. He came to
+  Europe about 1622, and in 1628 he published a volume containing eight
+  comedies, and in 1634 another containing twelve. One of them, called
+  <i>La Verdad Sospechosa</i> (The Truth Suspected), published in 1630 in a
+  collection bearing the name of Lope de Vega, furnished Corneille with the
+  groundwork and greater part of the substance of his <i>Menteur</i>. Hence
+  <!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page80"></a>[80]</span>Corneille's declaration in the preface to
+  that play that he had borrowed the subject from Lope de Vega. His
+  <i>Tejedor de Segovia</i> (Weaver of Segovia) and <i>Las Paredes Oyen</i>
+  (Walls have Ears) are still performed on the Spanish stage. He died in
+  1639.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;aric I,</b> King of the Visigoths, was born about the
+  middle of the fourth century, probably in 370, and is first mentioned in
+  history in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 394, when Theodosius the Great
+  gave him the command of his Gothic auxiliaries. The dissensions between
+  Arcadius and Honorius, the sons of Theodosius, inspired Alaric with the
+  intention of attacking the Roman Empire. In 396 he ravaged Greece, from
+  which he was driven by the Roman general Stilicho, but made a masterly
+  retreat to Illyria, of which Arcadius, frightened at his successes,
+  appointed him governor. In 400 he invaded Italy, but was defeated by
+  Stilicho at Pollentia (403), and induced to transfer his services from
+  Arcadius to Honorius on condition of receiving 4000 lb. of gold. Honorius
+  having failed to fulfil this condition, Alaric made a second invasion of
+  Italy, during which he besieged Rome three times. The first time (408)
+  the city was saved by paying a heavy ransom; the second (409) it
+  capitulated, and Honorius was deposed, but shortly afterwards restored.
+  His sanction of a treacherous attack on the forces of Alaric brought
+  about the third siege, and the city was taken 24th Aug., 410, and sacked
+  for six days, Alaric, however, doing everything in his power to restrain
+  the violence of his followers. He quitted Rome with the intention of
+  reducing Sicily and Africa, but died at Cosenza in 410. Legend has it
+  that he was buried beneath the river-bed of the Busenzo, the course of
+  which was temporarily turned aside for the purpose.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;aric II,</b> King of the Visigoths from <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 484 to 507. At the beginning of his reign the
+  dominions of the Visigoths were at their greatest extent, embracing
+  three-fourths of the modern Spain and all Western Gaul to the south of
+  the Loire. His unwarlike character induced Clovis, King of the Franks, to
+  invade the kingdom of the Visigoths. In a battle near Poitiers (507)
+  Alaric was slain and his army completely defeated. The <i>Breviarium
+  Alaricianum</i>, a code of laws derived exclusively from Roman sources,
+  was compiled by a body of Roman jurists at the command of this King
+  Alaric.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alarm,</b> in military language, a signal, given by beat of drum,
+  bugle-call, or firing of a gun, to warn a camp or garrison of a surprise
+  intended or actually made by the enemy. A place, called the
+  <i>alarm-post</i>, is generally appointed at which the troops are to
+  assemble when an alarm is given.&mdash;<i>Alarm</i> is also the name
+  given to several contrivances in which electricity is made use of, as a
+  <i>fire-alarm</i>, by which intelligence is at once conveyed to the
+  proper quarter when a fire breaks out; a <i>burglar-alarm</i>, an
+  arrangement of wires and a battery in a house intended to set a bell or
+  bells ringing should a burglar attempt to gain entrance.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alarm-clock,</b> one which can be set so as to ring loudly at a
+  certain hour to wake from sleep or excite attention.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ala-Shehr</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-sh&#x101;r&prime;) (ancient
+  <b>Philadelphia</b>), a town in Asia Minor, 100 miles east of Smyrna,
+  famous as the seat of one of the first Christian churches, and still
+  having a vast number of interesting remains of antiquity, consisting of
+  fragments of beautiful columns, sarcophagi, fountains, &amp;c. It is a
+  place of some importance, carrying on a thriving trade, chiefly with
+  Smyrna, to which runs a railway. Pop. 15,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alas&prime;ka,</b> a territory belonging to the United States,
+  comprising all that portion of the north-west of North America which lies
+  west of the 141st meridian of west longitude, together with an irregular
+  strip of coast-land (and the adjacent islands), extending south to lat.
+  54° 40&prime; <span class="scac">N.</span>, and lying between Canada and
+  the Pacific (the boundary being adjusted in 1903); total area, about
+  590,884 sq. miles. The chief river is the Yukon, a great stream, now
+  navigated in summer for most of its course. The principal mountains
+  (among which are several volcanoes) are Mounts M&lsquo;Kinley (20,470
+  feet) and Wrangell (17,400 feet). The climate of the interior is very
+  severe in winter, but in summer the heat is intense; on the Pacific coast
+  it is mild but moist. Alaska produces excellent timber. Numbers of
+  fur-bearing animals abound, such as the fur-seal, sea-otter, beaver, fox,
+  mink, marten, &amp;c.; and the fur trade has long been valuable. The
+  coasts and rivers swarm with fish, and salmon and cod are caught and
+  exported. Gold is now mined in several localities, especially Cape Nome,
+  where a town has sprung up. The aboriginal inhabitants consist of
+  Esquimaux and Indians. Alaska, called Russian America until 1867, was
+  sold to the United States for 7,200,000 dollars, the acquisition being
+  ratified by Congress on 20th June, 1867. It has a legislative assembly
+  consisting of eight senators and sixteen representatives, and the
+  legislature meets biennially since 1913. The capital was formerly Sitka,
+  on Baranoff Island, but is now Juneau, on Gastineau Channel. Pop. 64,356,
+  latest estimate being 75,000.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>:
+  A.&nbsp;W. Greely, <i>Handbook of Alaska</i>; J. Muir, <i>Travels in
+  Alaska</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alaskite,</b> an igneous rock consisting of quartz and felspar. See
+  <i>Granite</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alas&prime;sio,</b> a seaport of North Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa,
+  a winter resort of people from England. Pop. 5000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alastor,</b> in Greek mythology, is a surname of <!-- Page 81
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>[81]</span>Zeus (cf. Lat.
+  Jupiter <i>Vindex</i>) describing him as the avenger of evil deeds. The
+  name or epithet is also used to designate any deity or demon who avenges
+  wrongs committed by men. <i>Alastor</i> is the title of a poem by
+  Shelley.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alatau</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-tou&prime;), the name of three
+  considerable mountain ranges of Central Asia, on the Russian and Chinese
+  frontiers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alatyr</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-tir&prime;), a town in Russia,
+  government Simbirsk, at the confluence of the Alatyr with the Sura, with
+  a considerable trade. Pop. 11,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alau&prime;da,</b> a genus of insessorial birds, which includes the
+  larks. See <i>Lark</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;lava,</b> a hilly province in the north of Spain, one of
+  the three Basque provinces; area, 1175 sq. miles; covered by branches of
+  the Pyrenees, the mountains being clothed with oak, chestnut, and other
+  timber, and the valleys yielding grain, vegetables, and abundance of
+  fruits. There are iron and copper mines, and inexhaustible salt springs.
+  Capital, Vittoria. Pop. 97,692.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:14%;">
+      <a href="images/image030.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image030.jpg"
+      alt="Alb" title="Alb" /></a>
+    A, Alb with its Apparels <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and Girdle <i>c</i>; B,
+    Amice; C, Stole
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Alb</b> (from Lat. <i>albus</i>, white), a clerical vestment of the
+  Catholic Church worn by priests while officiating in the more solemn
+  functions of divine service. It is a long robe of white linen reaching to
+  the feet, bound round the waist by a cincture, and fitting more closely
+  to the body than the surplice. It is now little used except during Mass.
+  After the Reformation the <i>alb</i> was not used in the Church of
+  England, but since the ritualistic revival in the nineteenth century it
+  has again been introduced into a number of churches.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alba,</b> the name of several towns in ancient Italy, the most
+  celebrated of which was Alba Longa, a city of Latium, according to
+  tradition built by Ascanius, the son of Æneas, 300 years before the
+  foundation of Rome, at one time the most powerful city of Latium. It
+  ultimately fell under the dominion of Rome, when the town was destroyed,
+  it is said. In later times its site became covered with villas of wealthy
+  Romans.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alba</b> (anciently <b>Alba Pompeia</b>), a town of Northern Italy,
+  about 30 miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of Turin, is the see of a
+  bishop, has a cathedral, bishop's palace, church with fresco paintings by
+  Perugino, &amp;c. Pop. 6872.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alba,</b> Duke of. See <i>Alva</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albacete</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-th&#x101;&prime;t&#x101;), a town in
+  Southern Spain, capital of the province of the same name, 106 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Cartagena, with a considerable trade, both
+  direct and transit, and manufactures of knives, daggers, &amp;c. Pop.
+  24,805.&mdash;The province has an area of 5737 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+  273,380.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alba Longa.</b> See <i>Alba</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alban,</b> St., the earliest British martyr, flourished in the
+  third century, and was, it is said, converted from Paganism by a
+  confessor whom he had saved from his persecutors. He refused to sacrifice
+  to the gods, and was executed outside the city of Verulamium (St. Albans)
+  in 285 or 305.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albani</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-bä&prime;n&#x113;), Francesco, a famous
+  Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1578, died in 1660. He studied with
+  Guido Reni under the Flemish painter Calvaert and the Caracci. It is said
+  that his second wife, Doralice Fioraventi, bore him twelve children of
+  such beauty that they served him as models for his paintings. Among the
+  best known of his compositions are <i>The Sleeping Venus</i>, <i>Diana in
+  the Bath</i>, <i>Danaë Reclining</i>, <i>Galatea on the Sea</i>,
+  <i>Europa on the Bull</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alba&prime;ni,</b> Madame, maiden name Marie Louise Emma Cecile
+  Lajeunesse, famous singer, was born near Montreal in 1852, was trained at
+  home by her father, and studied also in Paris and Milan. She made her
+  first public appearance in Europe at Messina, in Bellini's <i>La
+  Sonnambula</i>, and in 1872 sang in the Royal Italian Opera in London.
+  Since then she has attained the position of one of the world's foremost
+  singers, both in opera and oratorio. In 1878 she was married to Mr.
+  Ernest Gye, the operatic manager. She adopted the professional name of
+  Albani from Albany, in the United States, where as a girl she sang in the
+  Roman Catholic cathedral. In 1911 she published her memoirs under the
+  title of <i>Forty Years of Song</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alba&prime;nia,</b> an extensive region stretching along the coast
+  of the Adriatic for about 290 miles, and having a breadth varying from
+  about 90 to about 50 miles. The boundary on the east is formed by a range
+  of mountains, and the country is composed of at least nine ridges of
+  hills, of which six are in Lower or Southern Albania (ancient Epirus) and
+  the remainder in Central and Upper or Northern Albania. There are no
+  large rivers, and in summer many of the streams are completely dry. The
+  Drin or Drino is the largest. The most beautiful lake is that of Ochrida,
+  20 miles long, 8 broad at the widest part. The Lake of Scutari, in Upper
+  Albania, is the largest. Among trees Albania has many species of oak, the
+  poplar, hazel, plane, chestnut, cypress, and laurel. The vine flourishes,
+  together with the orange, almond, fig, mulberry, and citron; <!-- Page 82
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>[82]</span>maize, wheat,
+  and barley are cultivated. Its fauna comprises bears, wolves, and
+  chamois; sheep, goats, horses, asses, and mules are plentiful. The chief
+  exports are live stock, wool, hides, timber, oil, salt-fish, cheese, and
+  tobacco. The chief ports are Prevesa, Valona, and Durazzo. The
+  population, about 850,000, consists chiefly of Albanians or Arnauts, or,
+  as they call themselves, Skupetars, i.e. inhabitants of the mountains (by
+  the Turks they are called Arnauts, by the Greeks Arbanites, and by the
+  Serbs Arbanasi). They are spread along the coasts of the Adriatic and
+  Ionian Seas. History and legend afford little or no record of the arrival
+  of the Albanian race in the Balkan Peninsula. It may, however, be safely
+  asserted that the Albanians are the direct descendants of the earliest
+  Aryan immigrants, who were represented in historical times by the kindred
+  Illyrians, Macedonians, and Epirots. The majority live in Albania, the
+  rest in Montenegro, Greece, Southern Italy, Sicily, Bessarabia, and Asia
+  Minor. As regards religion they are either Christians or Mohammedans.
+  They are divided into several tribes, among whom the Suliotes are partly
+  of Greek origin. The Albanian language is a branch of the Indo-European
+  languages, and related to the long-ago extinct language of the
+  Messapians. The language consists of numerous dialects, which may be
+  divided into those of the Tosks in the south and the Gheggas in the
+  north. Though their country became a province of the Turkish dominions in
+  1431, they maintained for centuries a certain degree of independence,
+  which the Porte never found it possible to overcome. On 28th Nov., 1912,
+  the complete independence of Albania was proclaimed at Valona, a
+  provisional government was founded under Ismail Kemal Bey, and Albanian
+  autonomy was agreed to at the Ambassadorial Conference in London on 20th
+  Dec. On 21st Feb., 1914, the crown was offered to Prince William of Wied,
+  who arrived at Durazzo on 7th March. The prince was supported and advised
+  by an International Commission of Control, but he left the country at the
+  outbreak of hostilities in 1914. Attempts made by Essad Pasha to
+  establish a military government failed, and the country was overrun by
+  the Austrians, who captured Durazzo on 28th Feb., 1916. On 3rd June,
+  1917, the general in charge of the Italian forces proclaimed Albania an
+  independent country, and a provisional government was set up at Durazzo.
+  Albanian independence was recognized by the Powers and Albania admitted
+  to the League of Nations in Dec., 1920.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H.&nbsp;F. Tozer, <i>Researches in the
+  Highlands of Turkey</i>; W. Peacock, <i>Albania, The Foundling
+  State</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alba&prime;no,</b> a city and lake in Italy, the former about 15
+  miles south-east of Rome, and on the west border of the lake, amid
+  beautiful scenery. An ancient tomb in the Etruscan style was for a long
+  time looked upon as the sepulchre of the Horatii and Curiatii. Here are
+  also the ruins of the villas of Pompey and Domitian. Pop. 8000.&mdash;The
+  lake, situated immediately beneath the Alban Hill, is of an oval form, 6
+  miles in circumference, surrounded by steep banks of volcanic tufa 300 or
+  400 feet high, and discharges its superfluous waters by an artificial
+  tunnel at least 2000 years old.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albans,</b> St. See <i>St. Albans</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;bany,</b> the original Celtic name probably at first
+  applied to the whole of Britain, but afterwards restricted to the
+  Highlands of Scotland. It gave the title of duke formerly to a prince of
+  the blood-royal of Scotland. The first duke was Robert Stuart
+  (1345-1420), son of Robert II by his mistress Elizabeth Mure, and brother
+  of Robert III. He was virtual ruler of the kingdom during the latter
+  years of his brother's reign, and acted as regent for his nephew James I
+  (kept a prisoner in England) till his own death. Another nephew, David,
+  Duke of Rothesay, is said to have been starved to death in Falkland
+  Castle at his instigation. His son Murdoch, second duke, succeeded him as
+  regent, and was put to death by James for maladministration. The third
+  duke was Alexander, second son of James II and brother of James III. A
+  large part of his life was passed in France. His son John was the fourth
+  who bore the title. He was regent of Scotland during the minority of
+  James V (1515-23).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;bany,</b> a city of the United States, capital of the
+  State of New York on the west bank of the Hudson, 132 miles north of New
+  York city, from and to which steamboats run daily. The Erie Canal and the
+  numerous railway lines centring here from all directions greatly
+  contribute to the growth and prosperity of the city, which carries on an
+  extensive trade. It is a great mart for timber, and has foundries,
+  breweries, tanneries, &amp;c. Albany was settled by the Dutch between
+  1610 and 1614, and the older houses are in the Dutch style, with the
+  gable-ends to the streets. There is a university, an observatory, and a
+  State library with 90,000 volumes. The principal public buildings are the
+  capitol or State-house, which cost about £5,000,000, and the State-hall
+  for the public offices, a State arsenal, and numerous churches. Pop.
+  (1920), 113,344.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;bany,</b> Louisa Maria Caroline, Countess of, a princess
+  of the Stolberg-Gedern family, was born in 1753, and married, in 1772,
+  the pretender, Charles Edward Stuart, after which event she bore the
+  above title. To escape from the ill-treatment of her husband she retired,
+  in 1780, to the house of her brother-in-law at Rome, <!-- Page 83
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"></a>[83]</span>where she met
+  the poet Alfieri, whose mistress she became. After the death of Alfieri
+  in 1793 she opened her famous political and literary salon frequented by
+  the Duchess of Devonshire, the Duchess of Hamilton, Cardinal Consalvi,
+  Samuel Rogers, Thomas Moore, Lamartine, and Chateaubriand. She died at
+  Florence in 1824, where she was buried at the Church of Sta Croce, by the
+  side of Alfieri, whom she is supposed to have married secretly.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alba&prime;ta,</b> a name sometimes given to German silver.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:54%;">
+      <a href="images/image031.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image031.jpg"
+      alt="Wandering Albatross" title="Wandering Albatross" /></a>
+    Wandering Albatross (<i>Diom&#x113;dea ex&#x16D;lans</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;batross,</b> a large marine swimming bird of several
+  species, of which the wandering albatross (<i>Diomed&#x113;a
+  ex&#x16D;lans</i>) is the best known. The bill is straight and strong,
+  the upper mandible hooked at the point and the lower one truncated; there
+  are three webbed toes on each foot. The upper part of the body is of a
+  greyish brown, and the belly white. It is the largest sea-bird known,
+  some measuring 17½ feet from tip to tip of their expanded wings. They
+  abound at the Cape of Good Hope and in other parts of the southern seas,
+  and in Behring's Straits, and have been known to accompany ships for
+  whole days without ever resting on the waves. From this habit the bird is
+  regarded with feelings of attachment and superstitious awe by sailors, it
+  being reckoned unlucky to kill one. Coleridge has availed himself of this
+  feeling in his <i>Ancient Mariner</i>. The albatross is met with at great
+  distances from the land, settling down on the waves at night to sleep. It
+  is exceedingly voracious, whenever food is abundant, gorging to such a
+  degree as to be unable to fly or swim. It feeds on fish, carrion,
+  fish-spawn, oceanic mollusca, and other small marine animals. Its cry is
+  harsh and disagreeable. Its nest is a heap of earth; its eggs are larger
+  than those of a goose.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albatross,</b> a name applied to a certain type of German
+  aeroplanes, much used for scouting purposes during the European War.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albay</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-b&#x12B;&prime;), a province, town,
+  bay, and volcano in the south-east part of the Island of Luzon, one of
+  the Philippines. The province is mountainous but fertile; the town
+  regularly built, with a pop. of 34,000; the bay capacious, secure, and
+  almost landlocked; and the volcano, which is always in activity, forms a
+  conspicuous landmark.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albemarle,</b> Duke of. See <i>Monk, George</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;bendorf,</b> a village in Prussia, province of Silesia, 50
+  miles <span class="scac">S.W.</span> of Breslau, remarkable for the
+  pilgrimages made to its church, chapels, statues, &amp;c. Pop. 1800.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alberoni,</b> Cardinal Giulio (j&#x16B;&prime;li-o a<span
+  class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-b&#x101;-r&#x14D;&prime;n&#x113;), born
+  in 1664 in North Italy, and educated for the Church. In his youth he
+  laboured as a gardener, but thanks to the protection of the Duc de
+  Vendôme, whose secretary he became, and afterwards of the Duc de Parma,
+  he rose to high position. The latter sent him as his minister to Madrid,
+  where he gained the affection of Philip V. He rose by cunning and
+  intrigue to the position of Prime Minister, became a cardinal, was
+  all-powerful in Spain after the year 1715, and endeavoured to restore it
+  to its ancient splendour. In pursuance of this object he invaded Sardinia
+  and Sicily, and indeed entertained the idea of stirring up a general war
+  in Europe. The alliance of France and England, however, rendered his
+  schemes abortive, and led to his dismissal and exile in 1720. He wandered
+  about a long time under false names, but on the accession of Pope
+  Innocent XIII he was restored to all the rights and honours of a
+  cardinal. He died in 1752, and was buried at Piacenza.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albert,</b> Prince, Albert Francis Augustus Charles Emmanuel,
+  Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Prince Consort of England, second son of
+  Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg, was born at the Rosenau, a castle near
+  Coburg, on 26th Aug., 1819. In 1837 he entered the University of Bonn,
+  where he devoted himself to the studies of political and natural science,
+  history, philosophy, &amp;c., as well as to those of music and painting.
+  On leaving the university he made a tour through the chief cities of
+  Italy with <!-- Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page84"></a>[84]</span>Baron Stockmar. On 10th Feb., 1840, he
+  married his cousin, Queen Victoria of England. Leopold I, King of the
+  Belgians and uncle of Queen Victoria, was greatly instrumental in
+  bringing about the marriage. An allowance of £30,000 a year was settled
+  upon the prince, who was naturalized by Act of Parliament, received the
+  title of Royal Highness by patent, was made a field-marshal, a Knight of
+  the Garter, of the Bath, &amp;c. Other honours were subsequently bestowed
+  upon him, the chief of which was the title of Prince Consort (1857). His
+  foreign birth at first caused him to be regarded with some suspicion, but
+  his unfailing tact and genuine ability were not long in gaining their due
+  recognition. He always carefully abstained from party politics, but his
+  knowledge of the politics of his adopted country, both domestic and
+  foreign, was profound and accurate, and must often have been of service
+  to the queen and her advisers. He always took a deep and active interest
+  in the welfare of the people in general. His services to the cause of
+  science and art were very important; he presided over the commission
+  appointed in 1841 to consider the best means of rebuilding the Houses of
+  Parliament, and the great exhibition of 1851 owed much of its success to
+  his activity, knowledge, and judgment. The amendment of the Articles of
+  War in 1844 which ultimately put an end to duelling was due to his
+  suggestion. Cambridge University conferred upon him the degree of <span
+  class="scac">LL.D.</span>, and in 1847 he was elected Chancellor. He
+  presided and delivered the inaugural address at the meeting of the
+  British Association at Aberdeen in 1859. He died of typhoid fever on 14th
+  Dec., 1861, after a short illness. A collection of his speeches and
+  addresses was published in 1862. A biography of the prince by Sir
+  Theodore Martin was published in 5 volumes, London, 1875-80.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albert,</b> first Duke of Prussia, and last grand-master of the
+  Teutonic Order, was born in 1490; died in 1568. In 1511 he was chosen by
+  the Teutonic knights grand-master of their order. Being nephew of
+  Sigismund, King of Poland, the knights hoped by his means to be freed
+  from the feudal superiority of Poland, and placed under the protection of
+  the empire. This superiority, however, Sigismund refused to surrender,
+  and war broke out between uncle and nephew. He subsequently became
+  reconciled to his uncle, and obtained his investiture as hereditary Duke
+  of Prussia under the Polish Crown, the territorial rights of the Teutonic
+  Order being thus set aside. The latter years of his reign were spent in
+  organizing the government and promoting the prosperity of his duchy; he
+  founded schools and churches, established a ducal library, and opened the
+  University of Königsberg in 1543.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;bert I,</b> Duke of Austria, and afterwards Emperor of
+  Germany, son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, was born in 1248. On the death of
+  his father in 1292 he claimed the Empire, but his arrogant conduct drove
+  the electors to choose Adolphus of Nassau emperor. Adolphus, after a
+  reign of six years, having lost the regard of all the princes of the
+  Empire, Albert was elected to succeed him. A battle ensued near Göllheim,
+  in which Adolphus was slain by his adversary, who was elected and
+  crowned. Pope Boniface VIII, however, refused to acknowledge him as
+  emperor, and ordered the electoral princes to renounce their allegiance
+  to him. On the other hand, Albert formed an alliance with Philip le Bel
+  of France, and offered so determined and successful a resistance to the
+  papal authority that Boniface was induced to withdraw his opposition, on
+  condition that Albert would break with his French ally. During the
+  subsequent years of his reign the Emperor was engaged in unsuccessful
+  wars with Holland, Hungary, Bohemia, and other States. His measures still
+  further to strengthen his authority over the Swiss Forest Cantons of
+  Unterwalden, Schwyz, and Uri drove the inhabitants into open revolt in
+  Jan. 1308. While on his way to crush the Swiss he was assassinated, at
+  Windisch in May, 1308, by his nephew John, Duke of Suabia, called
+  afterwards the Parricide, whose inheritance he had seized upon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albert I,</b> King of the Belgians, born on 8th April, 1875, at
+  Brussels. He is the son of Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders (died 17th
+  Nov., 1905), and of Princess Marie of Hohenzollern (born 17th Nov.,
+  1845). After the death of his cousin, the Duke of Brabant, and of his
+  father in 1905, Prince Albert became heir apparent. In 1906 he became
+  member of the Belgian Senate and in 1907 was appointed by his uncle,
+  Leopold II, Lieutenant-General. On 2nd Oct., 1900, he married Princess
+  Elizabeth, daughter of Duke Charles Theodor of Bavaria; there are three
+  children. He ascended the Belgian throne in Nov., 1909, after the death
+  of his uncle Leopold II.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albert Edward,</b> or simply <b>Edward,</b> one of the equatorial
+  lakes of Africa, otherwise known as <i>Muta Nzige</i> (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albert Hall,</b> an amphitheatre in the Italian Renaissance style
+  in Kensington, London, built during 1867-71 for concerts and assemblies.
+  It can seat 9000 people, and its organ, which has nearly 9000 pipes, is
+  one of the largest in the world.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albert Memorial,</b> the monument erected in Kensington Gardens,
+  London, in memory of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. It is the
+  work of Sir Gilbert Scott, and its style is Victorian Gothic.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albert Nyan&prime;za,</b> a lake of Africa, one of the <!-- Page 85
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>[85]</span>headwaters of
+  the Nile, lying (approximately) between lat. 2° 30&prime; and 1°
+  10&prime; <span class="scac">N.</span>, and with its north-east extremity
+  in about lon. 28° <span class="scac">E.</span>; general direction from
+  north-east to south-west, surface about 2500 feet above sea-level. It is
+  surrounded by precipitous cliffs, and bounded on the west and south-west
+  by great ranges of mountains. It abounds with fish, and its shores are
+  infested with crocodiles and hippopotami. It receives the Victoria Nile
+  from the Victoria Nyanza, and the White Nile issues from its northern
+  extremity.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albert-Bapaume.</b> Along the great trunk road from Albert to
+  Bapaume and on either side of it, fierce fighting took place during the
+  Somme offensive of 1916, marked by the stages La Boiselle, Pozières and
+  Le Sars. When, in Feb., 1917, the Germans began the great retreat, the
+  fortified village of Pys on the left of the road was seized at a rush. On
+  the 26th the village of Warlencourt fell, and two days later Thilley
+  village 1½ miles from Bapaume, was taken. The British troops, avoiding
+  direct assaults, gradually encircled the town, forcing the Germans to
+  withdraw. It was entered on 17th March.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alberta,</b> a province of Canada, established on 1st Sept., 1905,
+  and comprising the former territory of Alberta and the part of the former
+  territory of Athabasca lying west of the meridian 110°, and having the
+  new province of Saskatchewan on the east, British Columbia on the west,
+  the United States on the south, and Mackenzie territory on the north;
+  area, 255,285 sq. miles. A large part of the area on the west is occupied
+  by the Rocky Mountains, which are shared in common with Alberta and
+  British Columbia, and consist mostly of a series of more or less parallel
+  ridges. One or two of the loftier summits are in the province, others on
+  the boundary. There is much valuable timber in this district. The general
+  slope of the surface is from west to east and north-east. The province is
+  intersected by numerous rivers and streams that have their sources in the
+  Rockies, some of them, such as the Peace River and the Athabasca, sending
+  their waters to the Arctic Ocean, while the others, such as the North and
+  South Saskatchewan and their tributaries, belong to the Hudson Bay basin.
+  In the extreme south are one or two small tributaries of the Missouri.
+  There are a number of lakes, the largest being the Lesser Slave Lake and
+  Lake Athabasca (partly in this province). Notwithstanding the number of
+  the streams, there are districts, especially in the south, where
+  agriculture cannot be successfully carried on without irrigation. Farther
+  to the north there are areas highly suitable for agriculture, and timber
+  is also abundant. Cattle ranching is successfully carried on in the
+  south, but tillage, with and even without irrigation, is also carried on,
+  fine crops of wheat being grown. The most valuable mineral is coal, which
+  is found at various places, but is chiefly mined in the south at
+  Lethbridge, and farther north in the Banff district. Here there are hot
+  springs and grand scenery, and a large tract of land has been set apart
+  as a national park. Near Edmonton, the capital, coal is found on the bank
+  of the North Saskatchewan, and is readily worked. Iron, petroleum, and
+  other minerals are found. The climate is very warm in summer, and in
+  winter less severe and prolonged than might be supposed. The warm
+  <i>chinook</i> winds from the Pacific often blow in winter, and speedily
+  melt the snow. The province is crossed in the south by the Canadian
+  Pacific Railway, running by way of Calgary and Banff, and crossing the
+  Rockies. From Calgary one branch runs north to Edmonton, another runs
+  south to M&lsquo;Leod, where other lines make a connection with the
+  States railroads and British Columbia. Edmonton, being also on the
+  Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific, is bound to become a great
+  centre of trade and provincial development. It and Calgary are the chief
+  towns. The population in 1911 was returned at 374,663, the latest
+  estimate being nearly 500,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albertite,</b> an asphaltic hydrocarbon compound, a soft black
+  material, obtained in Canada.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alber&prime;tus Magnus,</b> or <b>Albert the Great,</b> Count of
+  Bollstädt, a distinguished German scholar of the thirteenth century, born
+  in 1193, or 1205, studied at Padua, became a monk of the Dominican order,
+  teaching in the schools of Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where
+  Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. In 1245 he went to Paris and publicly
+  expounded the doctrines of Aristotle, notwithstanding the prohibition of
+  the Church. He is called Doctor Universalis, for he was one of the most
+  proficient scholars of his day, second only to Roger Bacon in his
+  knowledge of nature. He became rector of the school of Cologne in 1249;
+  in 1254 he was made provincial of his order in Germany; and in 1260 he
+  received from Pope Alexander IV the appointment of Bishop of Ratisbon. In
+  1263 he retired to his convent at Cologne, where he composed many works,
+  especially commentaries on Aristotle. He died in 1280. Owing to his
+  profound knowledge he did not escape the imputation of using magical arts
+  and trafficking with the Evil One.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;bi.</b> See <i>Alby</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albigenses</b> (al-bi-jen&prime;s&#x113;z), a neo-Manichæan sect
+  which spread widely in the south of France and elsewhere about the
+  twelfth century, and which differed in doctrine and practice from the
+  Roman Catholic Church, by which they were subjected to severe
+  persecution. They are said to have been so named from Albi, on the banks
+  of the Tarn, a tributary of the Garonne, where, <!-- Page 86 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>[86]</span>and about Toulouse,
+  Narbonne, &amp;c., they were numerous. They were also known as Catharists
+  (q.v.) and their doctrines were similar to those of several other
+  religious sects such as the Gnostics, Manichæans, and Bogomils. Among the
+  principal doctrines of the Albigenses was the belief in the existence of
+  two principles, good and evil, the creators of the spiritual and material
+  worlds. Since all matter is under the control of the evil principle,
+  maintained the Albigenses, all flesh is evil. The extinction of bodily
+  life, therefore, the deliverance of the soul from the prison-house of the
+  body, should be the aim of man. Suicide by means of starvation was
+  consequently highly meritorious. It is admitted even by Catholic writers
+  (see <i>Catholic Encyclopædia</i>, vol. i, p. 268) that the Albigenses
+  were principally antisacerdotal and opposed to the Roman Church on
+  account of the scandalous life led by the Catholic clergy. A crusade was
+  begun against them, and Count Raymond VI of Toulouse for tolerating them,
+  in 1209, the army of the cross being called together by Pope Innocent
+  III. The war was carried on with a cruelty which reflected deep disgrace
+  upon the Catholic Church. Béziers, the capital of Raymond's nephew Roger,
+  was taken by storm, and 20,000 of the inhabitants, without distinction of
+  creed, were put to the sword. Simon de Montfort, the military leader of
+  the crusade, was equally severe towards other places in the territory of
+  Raymond and his allies. After the death of Raymond VI, in 1222, his son,
+  Raymond VII, was obliged, notwithstanding his readiness to do penance, to
+  defend his inheritance against the papal legates and Louis VIII of
+  France. When hundreds of thousands had fallen on both sides, a peace was
+  made in 1229, by which Raymond was obliged to cede Narbonne with other
+  territories to Louis IX, and make his son-in-law, a brother of Louis, his
+  heir. The heretics were now delivered up to the proselytizing zeal of the
+  Dominicans, and to the courts of the Inquisition, by which means it was
+  brought about that the Albigenses disappeared after the middle of the
+  thirteenth century. Cf. C. Schmidt, <i>Histoire et doctrine de la Secte
+  des Cathares ou Albigeois</i> (2 vols.)</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albinos</b> (al-b&#x12B;&prime;n&#x14D;z), the name given to those
+  persons from whose skin, hair, and eyes, in consequence of some defect in
+  their organization, the dark colouring matter is absent. The skin of
+  albinos, therefore, whether they belong to the white, Indian, or negro
+  races, is of a uniform pale milky colour, their hair is white, while the
+  iris of their eyes is pale rose colour, and the pupil intensely red, the
+  absence of the dark pigment allowing the multitude of blood-vessels in
+  these parts of the eye to be seen. For the same reason their eyes are not
+  well suited to endure the bright light of day, and they see best in shade
+  or by moonlight. The peculiarity of <i>albinism</i> or <i>leucopathy</i>
+  is hereditary and not confined to the human race, having been observed
+  also in horses, rabbits, rats, mice, &amp;c., birds (white crows or
+  blackbirds are not particularly uncommon), and fishes. Albinos are not of
+  necessity lacking in mental vigour or capacity. Cf. Karl Pearson, <i>A
+  Monograph on Albinism in Man</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;bion</b> (Celtic <i>Albainn</i>), the earliest name by
+  which the island of Great Britain was known, employed already by writers
+  of the sixth century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, who speak not of
+  Britannia but of the land of the Albiones, and in poetry still used for
+  Great Britain. It is connected with Lat. <i>albus</i>, white, on account,
+  perhaps, of the chalk cliffs of Dover. The same word as <i>Albany</i>,
+  <i>Albyn</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;bite,</b> or <b>Soda-felspar,</b> a mineral, a kind of
+  felspar, usually of a white colour, to which property it owes its name
+  (Lat. <i>albus</i>, white), but occasionally bluish, greyish, greenish,
+  or reddish white.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albizzia</b> (al-bit&prime;si-a), a genus of leguminous trees and
+  shrubs, allied to the genus Acacia, with doubly-pinnate leaves and white,
+  yellow, or red flowers often in globular heads, and broad, straight, flat
+  pods. They number over fifty species, and inhabit tropical and
+  subtropical Asia, Africa, and Australia. <i>A. lophanta</i>, a native of
+  south-western Australia, has a bark that contains tannin. <i>A.
+  Lebbek</i>, a native of Asia and Africa, yields valuable timber, and in
+  Egypt is much cultivated as a shade tree. <i>A. Julibrissin</i>, a tree
+  with rose-red flowers, is found in Asia and Africa, and has been
+  introduced into Southern Europe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;boin,</b> King of the Lombards, succeeded his father
+  Audoin in 561, and reigned in Noricum and Pannonia. Narses, the general
+  of Justinian, sought his alliance, and received his aid, in the war
+  against Totila, King of the Ostrogoths. Alboin afterwards (in 568)
+  undertook the conquest of Italy, where Narses, who had subjected this
+  country to Justinian, offended by an ungrateful Court, sought an avenger
+  in Alboin, and offered him his co-operation. After a victorious career in
+  Italy he was slain at Verona, in 573 or 574, by an assassin, instigated
+  by his wife Rosamond, whose hatred he had incurred by sending her, in one
+  of his fits of intoxication, a cup wrought from the skull of her father,
+  and forcing her to drink from it.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alborak,</b> in Mohammedan mythology, the animal said to have been
+  brought by the angel Gabriel to carry Mohammed to the seventh heaven. It
+  had the face of a man, the body of a horse, the wings of an eagle, and
+  spoke with a human voice.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albrecht</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l&prime;bre<i>h</i>t), the German form of
+  <i>Albert</i> (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albrechtsberger</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l&prime;bre<i>h</i>ts-ber-g&#x117;r),
+  Johann Georg, a German composer and writer on music; <!-- Page 87
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>[87]</span>a teacher of
+  Beethoven, Moscheles, &amp;c. Born 1736, died 1809.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albret,</b> Jeanne d' (zha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n da<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-br&#x101;), Queen of Navarre, wife of
+  Antoine de Bourbon and mother of Henri IV of France, a zealous supporter
+  of the reformed religion, which she established in her kingdom; born
+  1528, died (probably poisoned) 1572, shortly before the massacre of St.
+  Bartholomew.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albuera</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-bu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>-&#x101;&prime;ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a village of Spain, in Estremadura, 12
+  miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> of Badajoz. A battle was fought
+  here, 16th May, 1811, between the army of Marshal Beresford (30,000) and
+  that of Marshal Soult (25,000), when the latter was obliged to retreat to
+  Seville, leaving Badajoz to fall into the hands of the allies.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albu&prime;go,</b> an affection of the eye, consisting of a white
+  opacity in the cornea; called also <i>leucoma</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;bum,</b> in ancient Rome a board painted white, on which
+  edicts and public notices were inscribed in black. It is now a name
+  generally given to a blank book for the reception of pieces of poetry,
+  autographs, engravings, photographs, &amp;c. In law it is applied to rent
+  paid in silver (white money).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albu&prime;men,</b> or <b>Albumin</b> (Lat., from <i>albus</i>,
+  white), a substance, or rather group of substances, so named from the
+  Latin for the white of an egg, which is one of its most abundant known
+  forms. It may be taken as the type of the protein compounds or the
+  nitrogenous class of food-stuffs. One variety enters largely into the
+  composition of the animal fluids and solids, is coagulable by heat at and
+  above 160°, and is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen,
+  with a little sulphur. It abounds in the serum of the blood, the vitreous
+  and crystalline humours of the eye, the fluid of dropsy, the substance
+  called coagulable lymph, in nutritive matters, the juice of flesh,
+  &amp;c. The blood contains about 7 per cent of albumen. Another variety,
+  called vegetable albumen, exists in most vegetable juices and many seeds,
+  and has nearly the same composition and properties as egg albumen. When
+  albumen coagulates in any fluid it readily encloses any substances that
+  may be suspended in the fluid. Hence it is used to clarify syrupy
+  liquors. In cookery, white of eggs is employed for clarifying, but in
+  large operations, like sugar-refining, the serum of blood is used. From
+  its being coagulable by various salts, and especially by corrosive
+  sublimate, with which it forms an insoluble compound, white of egg is a
+  convenient antidote in cases of poisoning by that substance. With lime it
+  forms a cement to mend broken ware.</p>
+
+  <p>In botany the name albumen is given to the farinaceous matter which
+  surrounds the embryo, the term in this case having no reference to
+  chemical composition. It constitutes the meat of the coco-nut, the flour
+  or meal of cereals, the roasted part of coffee, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albuminu&prime;ria,</b> a condition in which the urine contains
+  albumen, evidencing a diseased state of the kidneys.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albuñol</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-bu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>-nyol&prime;), a seaport of Southern
+  Spain, province Granada, on the Mediterranean. Pop. 7451.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albuquerque</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-bu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>-kerk&prime;&#x101;), Affonso de, surnamed
+  'the Great', an eminent Portuguese admiral, born 1453, died in 1515.
+  Portugal having subjected to its power a large part of the western coast
+  of Africa, and begun to extend its sway in the East Indies, Albuquerque
+  was appointed viceroy of the Portuguese acquisitions in this quarter, and
+  arrived in 1503 with a fleet on the coast of Malabar. His career here was
+  extremely successful, he having extended the Portuguese power over
+  Malabar, Ceylon, the Sunda Islands, and the Peninsula of Malacca, and
+  made the Portuguese name respected by all the nations and princes of
+  India. Notwithstanding his services and his virtues, he was unjustly
+  superseded in his commands by his personal enemy Lopez Soarez, and so
+  severely did he feel the ingratitude of his sovereign, King Emanuel, that
+  he died a few days after receiving the intelligence. His famous letter to
+  the king was discovered and published in 1542 by J.&nbsp;M. de Fonseca. The
+  first volume of his letters was published in 1884 by the Royal Academy of
+  Lisbon.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image032.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image032.jpg"
+      alt="Alburnum" title="Alburnum" /></a>
+    Alburnum<br />
+    <i>a a</i>, Alburnum or sapwood. <i>b b</i>, Heart-wood. <i>c</i>,
+    Pith. <i>d</i>, Bark
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Albur&prime;num,</b> the soft white substance which, in trees, is
+  found between the liber or inner bark and the wood, and, in progress of
+  time acquiring solidity, becomes itself the wood. A new layer of wood, or
+  rather of alburnum, is added annually to the tree in every part just
+  under the bark.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Albury</b> (al&prime;ber-i), a rising town of New South Wales on
+  the borders of Victoria, on the right bank of the Murray, 190 miles
+  north-east of <!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page88"></a>[88]</span>Melbourne, in a good agricultural and
+  wine-producing district. Pop. 6750.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alby,</b> or <b>Albi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l&prime;b&#x113;), an old town of
+  southern France, department of Tarn, 42 miles north-east of Toulouse, on
+  the Tarn, in an extensive plain. It has a cathedral, a Gothic structure,
+  begun in 1282. It manufactures linens, cottons, leather, &amp;c. Alby is
+  said to have given the Albigenses their name. Pop. 18,262.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcæ&prime;us,</b> one of the greatest Grecian lyric poets, was
+  born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, and flourished there at the close of the
+  seventh and beginning of the sixth centuries <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>; but of his life little is known. A strong manly
+  enthusiasm for freedom and justice pervades his lyrics, of which only a
+  few fragments are left. He wrote in the Æolic dialect, and was the
+  inventor of a metre that bears his name (Alcaics), which Horace has
+  employed in many of his odes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcala&prime; de Guadaira</b> (gwa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-d&#x12B;&prime;ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>; 'the castle of Guadaira'), a town of
+  southern Spain, on the Guadaira, 7 miles east of Seville, chiefly
+  celebrated for its manufacture of bread, with which it supplies a large
+  part of the population of Seville. Pop. 8930.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcala&prime; de Henares</b> (en-ä&prime;res), a beautiful city of
+  Spain, 16 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of Madrid, 1 mile from
+  the Henares. It has an imposing appearance when seen from some distance,
+  but on nearer inspection is found to be in a state of decay. There was
+  formerly a university here, at one time attended by 10,000 students; but
+  in 1836 it was removed with its library to Madrid. Cervantes was born
+  here. Pop. 11,728.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcala&prime; la Real</b> (r&#x101;-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l&prime;), a town of Spain, 18 miles
+  south-east of Jaen, with a fine abbey and some trade. It was captured in
+  1340 by Alphonso XI of Leon, from whence it derives the epithet Real
+  ('Royal'). Pop. 15,901.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcalde</b> (Sp.; a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-d&#x101;), or <b>Alcaide</b> (Port.;
+  al-k&#x12B;&prime;d&#x101;; Ar. <i>alqadi</i> (Cadi), the judge, not to
+  be confused with <i>alcaide</i>, the governor of a fortress), the name of
+  a magistrate in the Spanish and Portuguese towns, to whom the
+  administration of justice and the regulation of the police is committed.
+  His office nearly corresponds to that of justice of the peace. The name
+  and the office are of Moorish origin.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;camo,</b> a city in the west of Sicily, 2½ miles south of
+  the Gulf of Castellamare, near the site of the ancient Segesta, the ruins
+  of which, including a well-preserved Doric temple and a theatre, as well
+  as the remains of Moorish occupation, are still to be found here. The
+  district is celebrated for its wine. Pop. 32,200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcañiz</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-y&#x113;th&prime;), a town of
+  north-eastern Spain (Aragon). Pop. 8750.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcan&prime;tara</b> (Ar., 'the bridge'), an ancient town and
+  frontier fortress of Spain, on the Tagus, on a rocky acclivity, and
+  enclosed by ancient walls. Pop. 3224.&mdash;<i>Order of Alcantara</i>, an
+  ancient Spanish order of knighthood instituted for defence against the
+  Moors in 1156, and made a military religious order in 1197.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcarraza</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-rä&prime;tha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a vessel made of a kind of porous,
+  unglazed pottery, used in Spain to hold drinking-water, which, oozing
+  slightly through the vessel, is kept cool by the evaporation that takes
+  place at the surface. Similar vessels have been long used in Egypt and
+  elsewhere.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcazar de San Juan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-kä&prime;tha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r d&#x101; sa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-<i>h</i>wän), a town of Spain, province
+  of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), with manufactures of soap, saltpetre,
+  gunpowder, chocolate, &amp;c. Pop. 13,645.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alce&prime;do.</b> See <i>Kingfisher</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alces&prime;tis,</b> in Greek mythology, wife of Admetus, King of
+  Thessaly. Her husband was ill, and, according to an oracle, would die
+  unless someone made a vow to meet death in his stead. This was secretly
+  done by Alcestis, and Admetus recovered. After her decease Hercules
+  brought her back from the infernal regions.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;chemy,</b> or <b>Alchymy,</b> the art which in former
+  times occupied the place of and paved the way for the modern science of
+  chemistry (as astrology did for astronomy), but whose aims were not
+  scientific, being confined solely to the discovery of the means of
+  indefinitely prolonging human life, and of transmuting the baser metals
+  into gold and silver. Among the alchemists it was generally thought
+  necessary to find a substance which, containing the original principle of
+  all matter, should possess the power of dissolving all substances into
+  their elements. This general solvent, or <i>menstruum universale</i>,
+  which at the same time was to possess the power of removing all the seeds
+  of disease out of the human body and renewing life, was called the
+  <i>philosophers' stone</i>, <i>lapis philosophorum</i>, and its pretended
+  possessors were known as <i>adepts</i>. Alchemy flourished chiefly in the
+  Middle Ages, though how old such notions might be as those by which the
+  alchemists were inspired it is difficult to say. There are many stories
+  about the mystic origin of alchemy. The art is said to have been taught
+  by the fallen angels, by Isis, or by Miriam, sister of Moses, or by John
+  the Baptist. According to Suidas, Egypt was the home of alchemy, and the
+  mythical Hermes Trismegistus of pre-Christian times was said to have left
+  behind him many books of magical and alchemical learning, and after him
+  alchemy received the name of the <i>hermetic art</i>. At a later period
+  chemistry and alchemy were cultivated among the Arabians, and by them the
+  pursuit was introduced into Europe. Many of the monks devoted themselves
+  to alchemy, although they were afterwards prohibited from studying it by
+  the popes. Thus Albertus Magnus is said to have been the author <!-- Page
+  89 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page89"></a>[89]</span>of a work
+  <i>De Alchimia</i>, and several treatises on the subject are attributed
+  to Thomas Aquinas. But even Pope John XXII is said to have worked at the
+  science at Avignon. Raymond Lully, or Lullius, a famous alchemist of the
+  thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, is said to have changed for King
+  Edward I a mass of 50,000 lb. of quicksilver into gold, of which the
+  first rose-nobles were coined. Among other alchemists may be mentioned
+  John Cremer, Abbot of Westminster (1327-77), Nicholas Flamel (1330-80),
+  Basilius Valentinus, Isaac of Holland, and Paracelsus (1493-1541). With
+  the growth of chemistry, the recognition of the chemical elements as
+  forming a large number of distinct substances, and the conception of the
+  fixed unalterable nature of the atoms, attempts to transform the base
+  metals into gold were largely abandoned as being unscientific. But the
+  most modern view of matter, namely, that the atoms of all elements are
+  composed of numerous electrons, favours the idea of the transmutability
+  of elements, and the production of helium from radium (see these
+  articles) by Ramsay shows the possibility of this
+  transmutation.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Pattison-Muir,
+  <i>Alchemy, or the Beginnings of Chemistry</i> (Hodder &amp; Stoughton:
+  Useful Knowledge Series); H.&nbsp;S. Redgrove, <i>Alchemy, Ancient and
+  Modern</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcibi&prime;ades</b> (-d&#x113;z), a famous Athenian statesman and
+  general of high family and of great abilities, but of no principle, was
+  born at Athens in the 82nd Olympiad, 450 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>,
+  being the son of Cleinias, and a relative of Pericles, who also was his
+  guardian. In youth he was remarkable for the beauty of his person, no
+  less than for the dissoluteness of his manners. He came under the
+  influence of Socrates, but little permanent effect was produced on his
+  character by the precepts of the sage. He acquired great popularity by
+  his liberality in providing for the amusements of the people, and after
+  the death of Cleon attained a political ascendancy which left him no
+  rival but Nicias. Thus he played an important part in the long-continued
+  Peloponnesian war. In 415 he advocated the expedition against Sicily, and
+  was chosen one of the leaders, but before the expedition sailed he was
+  charged with profaning and divulging the Eleusinian mysteries, and
+  mutilating the busts of Hermes, which were set up in public all through
+  Athens. Rather than stand his trial he went over to Sparta, divulged the
+  plans of the Athenians, and assisted the Spartans to defeat them.
+  Sentence of death and confiscation was pronounced against him at Athens,
+  and he was cursed by the ministers of religion. He soon left Sparta and
+  took refuge with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, ingratiating himself by
+  his affectation of Persian manners, as he had previously done at Sparta
+  by a similar affectation of Spartan simplicity. He now began to intrigue
+  for his return to Athens, offering to bring Tissaphernes over to the
+  Athenian alliance, and after a while he was recalled and his banishment
+  cancelled. He, however, remained abroad for some years in command of the
+  Athenian forces, gained several victories, and took Chalcedon and
+  Byzantium. In 407 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he returned to Athens,
+  but in 406, the fleet which he commanded having suffered a severe defeat,
+  he was deprived of his command. He once more went over to the Persians,
+  taking refuge with the satrap Pharnabazus of Phrygia, and here he was
+  assassinated in 404 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> The authorities for
+  his life are Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcinous</b> (al-sin&prime;o-us), King of the Phæacians. See
+  <i>Ulysses</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcira</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-th&#x113;&prime;ra<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of Spain,
+  province of Valencia, on the Jucar, founded by the Carthaginians. Fruits,
+  rice, &amp;c., are grown. Pop. 22,050.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alc&prime;man,</b> the chief lyric poet of Sparta, a Lydian by
+  birth, flourished between 671 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> and 631, and
+  wrote (in the Doric dialect) love songs, hymns, pæans, &amp;c., of which
+  only fragments remain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcme&prime;na</b>. See <i>Amphitryon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alco,</b> a small variety of dog, with a small head and large
+  pendulous ears, found wild in Mexico and Peru, and also domesticated.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcobaça</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-k&#x14D;-bä&prime;sa<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a small town of
+  Portugal, 50 miles north of Lisbon, celebrated for a magnificent
+  Cistercian monastery founded in 1148 by Don Alphonso I, and completed in
+  1222. It contains the tombs of Alphonso II, Alphonso III, Pedro I and his
+  wife Ines de Castro.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;cohol,</b> or <b>Ethyl Alcohol,</b>
+  C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O, is a substance obtained by allowing the
+  juice of the grape to undergo a change known as fermentation. It is only
+  in modern times that alcohol has been isolated and its properties
+  examined. Alcohol is now prepared in enormous quantities, both for
+  industrial purposes and for the preparation of alcoholic beverages, from
+  substances rich in sugar or in starch. Potatoes and maize form the main
+  source of alcohol. These are treated with steam under pressure in
+  specially-constructed tanks to extract starchy materials. The starch so
+  liberated is then fermented by means of a substance diastase. This
+  treatment transforms sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The
+  solution is then filtered to remove all insoluble matter, proteids,
+  &amp;c., and from this solid residue, cattle-feeding cakes are made. This
+  treatment yields a solution containing 9-10 per cent alcohol. The
+  solution is fractionally distilled, using a special form of distilling
+  column. The most volatile part of the distillate, first runnings,
+  contains acetaldehyde, the second fraction contains the bulk of the
+  alcohol and <!-- Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page90"></a>[90]</span>some water, and the least volatile portion,
+  last runnings, fusel oil and higher alcohols. By this means a liquid
+  containing 80-95 per cent alcohol, rectified spirits, is obtained. For
+  preparation of beverages, fusel oil must be carefully separated from
+  alcohol, as fusel oil has an injurious effect physiologically. The
+  removal of the last traces of water from alcohol is very troublesome. It
+  is repeatedly distilled over quicklime or freshly-ignited potassium
+  carbonate, giving an alcohol containing 98-99 per cent alcohol. The small
+  quantity of water still contained is removed by leaving it in contact
+  with metallic calcium. An alcohol containing more than 96 per cent
+  alcohol is known as <i>absolute</i>. Pure alcohol is a colourless
+  poisonous liquid boiling at 78° C., possessing a strong odour and a
+  burning taste. It is inflammable and mixes with water in all proportions
+  and has a specific gravity 0.80625 at 0° C. Very low temperatures convert
+  it into a glassy solid, melting at -117° C., hence it may be used in
+  thermometers for low-temperature measurements. Alcohol burns with a
+  non-luminous flame and gives out great heat; it is used, therefore, in
+  various types of lamps for heating purposes. It is also used as a fuel
+  for motors and is a very valuable solvent for many substances such as
+  resin, oils, colouring-matter, varnishes, and ethereal essences. The
+  so-called 'solid alcohol' can be obtained by dissolving 30 to 40 parts of
+  collodion in 100 parts of alcohol, a solid which separates and burns like
+  alcohol, leaving no residue. Alcohol is the important constituent of all
+  alcoholic beverages and it is due to its presence that wine, whisky,
+  &amp;c., have a stimulating and intoxicating effect on the nervous
+  system. Beverages such as beer, wine, cider, &amp;c., are prepared by
+  direct fermentation of sugars obtained in fruit juices in the case of
+  wine and cider and from barley in the case of beer. These contain varying
+  amounts of alcohol, thus wine may contain from 8 to 10 per cent of
+  alcohol, whilst beer contains 3 to 5 per cent. Whisky, brandy, &amp;c.,
+  contain more alcohol, 50-70 per cent, and for the preparation of these
+  the alcohol used must be distilled and purified after fermentation. The
+  alcohol content of an aqueous solution may be deduced from a
+  determination of the specific gravity of the solution or directly by the
+  Alcoholometer. This gives percentage by volume. The amount of alcohol
+  present in any alcoholic beverage cannot be obtained directly, but if
+  &#x2153; of the liquid be distilled and the distillate made up to the
+  original volume, then the alcohol may be determined by the Alcoholometer.
+  The name alcohol is applied generally in chemistry to a large group of
+  substances, containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which have chemical
+  properties analogous to those of ethyl alcohol.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;coholism,</b> a morbid condition of the body (especially
+  of the nervous system) brought on by the immoderate use of alcoholic
+  liquors.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcoholom&prime;eter,</b> an instrument constructed on the
+  principle of the hydrometer, to determine from the specific gravity of
+  spirituous liquors the percentage of alcohol they contain, the scale
+  marking directly the required proportion. If the liquor contain anything
+  besides water and alcohol, previous distillation is necessary.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alco&prime;ran</b>. See <i>Koran</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;cott, Louisa May,</b> a distinguished American authoress,
+  born in 1833. She wrote a number of books chiefly intended for the young:
+  <i>Little Women</i> (1867), <i>An Old-fashioned Girl</i> (1869),
+  <i>Little Men</i> (1871), <i>Jack and Jill</i> (1880), &amp;c. Died in
+  1888.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image033.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image033.jpg"
+      alt="Alcove" title="Alcove" /></a>
+    Alcove. French; late sixteenth century
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;cove,</b> a recess in a room, usually separated from the
+  rest of the room by columns, a balustrade, or by curtains, and often
+  containing a bed or seats.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcoy&prime;,</b> a town of Spain, in Valencia, 24 miles north by
+  west of Alicante, in a richly-cultivated district. There is a Roman
+  bridge over the river, and the town has a very picturesque appearance;
+  its chief manufactures are paper and woollen goods. On the 22nd of April
+  an annual feast is celebrated by the inhabitants of the town
+  commemorating a victory over the Moors in 1257. Pop. 33,896.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcudia,</b> Duke of. See <i>Godoy</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcuin</b> (alk&prime;win; in his native tongue <i>Ealhwine</i>), a
+  learned Englishman, the confidant, instructor, and adviser of Charles the
+  Great (Charlemagne). He was born at York in 735, and was educated at York
+  School, of which he subsequently was head master. Alcuin having gone to
+  Rome, Charlemagne became acquainted with <!-- Page 91 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page91"></a>[91]</span>him at Parma, invited him
+  in 782 to his Court, and made use of his services in his endeavours to
+  civilize his subjects. To secure the benefit of his instructions,
+  Charlemagne established at his Court a school, called <i>Schola
+  Palatina</i>, or the Palace School. In the royal academy Alcuin was
+  called <i>Flaccus Albinus</i>. Most of the schools in France were either
+  founded or improved by him; thus he founded the school in the abbey of
+  St. Martin of Tours, in 796, after the plan of the school in York. Alcuin
+  left the Court in 801, and retired to the abbey of St. Martin of Tours,
+  but kept up a constant correspondence with Charles to his death in 804.
+  He left works on theology, philosophy, rhetoric, also poems and letters,
+  all of which have been published. His letters, 232 of which were
+  addressed to Charlemagne, form the most important part of his work. As a
+  philosopher, Alcuin, though lacking in originality, exercised a
+  considerable influence over his contemporaries. The expression of
+  'scholasticism' is attributed to him.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;B. Gaskoin, <i>Alcuin, His Life and
+  his Work</i>, J.&nbsp;B. Mullinger, <i>The Schools of Charles the
+  Great</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcyona&prime;ria,</b> c&oelig;lenterate animals forming a great
+  division of the class Actinozoa (see <i>Sea-anemone</i>). These animals
+  are nearly all composite, and the individual polyps have mostly eight
+  tentacles. They include the organ-pipe corals, sea-pens, fan-corals,
+  &amp;c., as also the red coral of commerce. The polyps resemble those of
+  the genus Alcyonium in structure, and in the number and arrangement of
+  the tentacles. See <i>Alcyonium</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alcyo&prime;nium,</b> a genus of c&oelig;lenterate animals, one
+  familiar species of which, dredged around the British coasts&mdash;<i>A.
+  digit&#x101;tum</i>&mdash;is named 'Dead-Men's Fingers', or 'Cow's Paps',
+  from its lobed or digitate appearance. It grows attached to stones,
+  shells, and other objects. It consists of a mass of little polyps, each
+  polyp possessing eight little fringed tentacles disposed around a central
+  mouth. The Alcyonium forms the type of the <i>Alcyonaria</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;dan,</b> a river of Eastern Siberia, a tributary of the
+  Lena, 1200 miles in length. The Aldan Mountains run along parallel to it
+  on the left for 400 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aldeb&prime;aran,</b> a star of the first magnitude, forming the
+  eye of the constellation Taurus or the Bull, the brightest of the five
+  stars known to the Greeks as the Hyades. Spectrum analysis has shown it
+  to contain antimony, bismuth, iron, mercury, hydrogen, sodium, calcium,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aldeburgh</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>ld&prime;bu-ru), a municipal borough of
+  England, on the coast of Suffolk, more important formerly than it is now,
+  having suffered from encroachments of the sea. The poet Crabbe was born
+  there in 1754. Pop. 2892.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;dehyde,</b> in chemistry, the generic name given to the
+  compounds of alcohol intermediate between the alcohols and the acids.
+  Common aldehyde (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O) is derived from spirit of
+  wine by oxidation, and is a colourless, limpid, volatile, and inflammable
+  liquid, with a peculiar ethereal odour, which is suffocating when strong;
+  specific gravity, 0.79. Atmospheric oxygen converts it into acetic acid.
+  It decomposes oxide of silver, depositing a brilliant film of metallic
+  silver; hence it is used in silvering curved glass surfaces.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:29%;">
+      <a href="images/image034.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image034.jpg"
+      alt="Alder" title="Alder" /></a>
+    Common Alder (<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Alder</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>l&prime;d&#x117;r; Alnus), a genus of
+  plants of the sub-ord. Betulaceæ (Birch), (nat. ord. Amentaceæ). Fourteen
+  species are known as small trees or shrubs indigenous to temperate and
+  colder regions of the globe; eight of these are found in Central and
+  Western Europe. The only species indigenous to Britain is the common
+  alder (<i>Alnus glutin&#x14D;sa</i>), a tree growing in wet situations in
+  Europe, Asia, and the United States. Its wood, light and soft and of a
+  reddish colour, is used for a variety of purposes, and is well adapted
+  for work which is to be kept constantly in water. Alder is still largely
+  used in gunpowder manufacture, and the roots and knots furnish a
+  beautifully-veined wood well suited for cabinet work; it is used for
+  cigar-boxes in East Prussia and West Russia. The bark is used in tanning
+  and leather-dressing, and by fishermen for staining their nets. This and
+  the young twigs are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield different
+  shades of yellow and red. With the addition of copperas it yields a black
+  dye.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alderley Edge,</b> a town of England, Cheshire, about 8 miles
+  south-west of Stockport. Pop. (1921), 3072. <!-- Page 92 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>[92]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;derman</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>l&prime;d&#x117;r-; Anglo-Saxon
+  <i>ealdorman</i>, from <i>ealdor</i>, older, and <i>man</i>), among the
+  Anglo-Saxons a person of a rank equivalent to that of an earl or count,
+  the governor of a shire or county, and member of the <i>witena-gemót</i>
+  or great council of the nation. Aldermen played an important rôle already
+  before the Constitution of Egbert, but reached their highest power during
+  the reign of Alfred the Great, who had married the daughter of an
+  alderman. Aldermen, at present, are officers associated with the mayor of
+  a city for the administration of the municipal government in England and
+  the United States.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;derney</b> (Fr. <i>Aurigny</i>), an island belonging to
+  Britain, off the coast of Normandy, 10 miles due west of Cape La Hogue,
+  and 60 from the nearest point of England, the most northerly of the
+  Channel Islands, between 3 and 4 miles long, and about 1¼ broad. The
+  coast is bold and rocky; the interior is fertile. About a third of the
+  island is occupied by grass lands; and the Alderney cows, a small-sized
+  but handsome breed, are famous for the richness of their milk. The
+  climate is mild and healthy. A judge, with six 'jurats', chosen by the
+  people for life, and twelve 'douzainiers', representatives of the people,
+  form a kind of local legislature. The French language still prevails
+  among the inhabitants, but all understand and many speak English. The
+  <i>Race of Alderney</i> is the strait between the coast of France and
+  this island. Pop. 2561.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aldershot</b> (äl&prime;d&#x117;r-), a town and military station in
+  England, the latter having given rise to the former. The 'camp' was
+  originated in 1854 by the purchase by Government of a tract of moorland
+  known as Aldershot Heath, on the confines of Surrey, Hampshire, and
+  Berkshire. The object was to accustom both officers and soldiers to act
+  more readily when drawn up in brigades and divisions, their practice
+  having been limited for the most part, since the termination of the
+  French war, to the movements of battalions and companies. It was also
+  deemed advisable to accustom the army to camp life, and to exercise the
+  men in all the evolutions and movements which they might be required to
+  perform when brought into actual contact with the enemy. The
+  accommodation provided for the army, officers as well as men, consisted
+  at first of wooden huts; but these have been superseded by brick
+  barracks, and altogether the money expended on the camp has amounted to
+  over £3,000,000. The men are exercised in marching, skirmishing, and
+  similar field operations, which are carried on during the summer months
+  with great activity; they are also instructed in the camp in cooking and
+  other duties. The troops at Aldershot in summer include a number of
+  Territorials, Senior and Junior O.T.C., &amp;c. The town is in the
+  neighbourhood of the barracks, immediately beyond the Government ground,
+  and in Hampshire. It contains several churches, and has schools,
+  newspapers, literary institutes, music-halls &amp;c. Aldershot gives its
+  name to a parliamentary division of Hants. Pop. (1921), 28,756.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ald&prime;helm,</b> an Anglo-Saxon scholar and prelate, Abbot of
+  Malmesbury and Bishop of Sherborne, born 640 (?), died 709. He was a
+  great fosterer of learning and builder of churches, and has left Latin
+  writings on theological subjects.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;dine Editions,</b> the name given to the works which
+  proceeded from the press of Aldus Manutius and his family at Venice
+  (1494-1592), Rome (1562-70), and Bologna. (See <i>Manutius</i>.)
+  Recommended by their value, as well as by a splendid exterior, they have
+  gained the respect of scholars and the attention of book-collectors. Many
+  of them are the first printed editions (<i>editiones principes</i>) of
+  Greek and Latin classics. Others are texts of the modern Italian authors.
+  These editions are of importance in the history of printing. The editions
+  printed by Aldus Manutius the Elder are, however, much more valuable than
+  those issued by his descendants. Among the former are the first edition
+  of the works of Aristotle in 5 vols., and the works of Virgil, Horace,
+  and Petrarch. Aldus had nine kinds of Greek type, and no one before him
+  printed so much and so beautifully in this language. Of the Latin
+  character he procured fourteen kinds of type.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aldobrandi&prime;ni,</b> the name of a Florentine family,
+  subsequently of princely rank (now extinct), which produced one Pope
+  (Clement VIII) and several cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and men of
+  learning.&mdash;<i>Aldobrandini Marriage</i>, one of the most beautiful
+  ancient fresco paintings, belonging probably to the time of Augustus,
+  discovered in 1606 on Mount Aquilinus at the very spot where once were
+  the gardens of Mæcenas, and acquired by Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of
+  Clement VIII, now in the Vatican. It represents a marriage scene in which
+  ten persons are portrayed. There is a beautiful copy of this fresco by
+  Poussin in the Galleria Doria at Rome.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;dred,</b> or <b>Ealdred,</b> Anglo-Saxon prelate, Bishop
+  of Worcester and Archbishop of York, born 1000(?), died 1069. He improved
+  the discipline of the Church and built several monastic churches. On the
+  death of Edward the Confessor he is said to have crowned Harold. Having
+  submitted to the Conqueror, whose esteem he enjoyed and whose power he
+  made subservient to the views of the Church, he also crowned him as well
+  as Matilda.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ald&prime;rich,</b> Henry, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; born in
+  1647, died in 1710; distinguished as a philosopher, an architect, and as
+  a musician. <!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page93"></a>[93]</span>His <i>Compendium of Logic</i> was a
+  textbook till long past the middle of last century. He adapted many of
+  the works of the older musicians, such as Palestrina and Carissimi, to
+  the liturgy of the Church of England, and composed many services and
+  anthems, some of which are still heard in English cathedrals.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aldrich,</b> Thomas Bailey, the most conspicuous American poet of
+  his generation. Born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on 11th Nov., 1836;
+  died at Boston in March, 1907. He edited <i>Every Saturday</i> in Boston
+  from 1865 to 1874, and the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> from 1881 to 1890. He
+  was a poet of some skill, the chief characteristic of his lyrics being
+  refinement and finish. Some of his short stories have been rarely
+  surpassed by other American writers. Among his volumes of verse are:
+  <i>The Ballad of Babie Bell</i> (1856); <i>Cloth of Gold</i> (1874);
+  <i>Lyrics and Sonnets</i> (1880); <i>Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book</i>
+  (1881); <i>Unguarded Gates and other Poems</i> (1895), &amp;c. His prose
+  works include: <i>Story of a Bad Boy</i> (1870); <i>Marjorie Daw and
+  other People</i> (1873); <i>The Stillwater Tragedy</i> (1880); <i>Two
+  Bites of a Cherry</i> (1893).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aldrovan&prime;di,</b> Ulysses, a distinguished Italian naturalist;
+  born 1522, died 1607. He was professor at Bologna, and established
+  botanical gardens and a museum of natural history there; wrote a work on
+  natural history in 14 vols. His <i>Antidotarii Bononiensis epitome</i>
+  (1574) has served as a model for all Pharmacop&oelig;ias published in
+  later years.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ale</b> and <b>Beer,</b> well-known and extensively-used fermented
+  liquors, the principle of which is extracted from several sorts of grain
+  but most commonly from barley, after it has undergone the process termed
+  malting. Beer is a more general term than ale, being often used for any
+  kind of fermented malt liquor, including porter, though it is also used
+  in a more special signification. See <i>Brewing</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aleardi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x101;-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r&prime;d&#x113;), <b>Aleardo,</b> a
+  distinguished Italian lyrical and political poet and patriot, born 1812,
+  died 1878; he was a member of the Italian board of higher education and a
+  senator. His best work is his poem <i>Il Monte Circello</i> (1844).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ale-conner,</b> formerly an officer in England appointed to assay
+  ale and beer, and to take care that they were good and wholesome, and
+  sold at a proper price. The duty of the ale-conners of London was to
+  inspect the measures used in public-houses, to prevent frauds in selling
+  liquors. Four of these were chosen annually by the liverymen, in common
+  hall, on Mid-summer's Day.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ale-cost.</b> See <i>Costmary</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alec&prime;to,</b> in Greek mythology, one of the Furies
+  (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aleman</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-le-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n&prime;), Mateo, a Spanish novelist,
+  born about the middle of the sixteenth century, died in 1610. His fame
+  rests on his <i>Life and Adventures of the Rogue Guzman de Alfarache</i>
+  (translated into French in 1600 and into English in 1623), one of the
+  best of the <i>picaresque</i> or rogue novels, which give such a lively
+  picture of the shady classes of society in Spain during the sixteenth and
+  seventeenth centuries. The hero becomes in succession stable-boy, beggar,
+  porter, thief, man of fashion, soldier, valet, merchant, student, robber,
+  galley-slave, and lastly his own biographer.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aleman&prime;ni,</b> or <b>Alamanni,</b> a confederacy of several
+  German tribes which, at the commencement of the third century after
+  Christ, lived near the Roman territory, and came then and subsequently
+  into conflict with the imperial troops. Caracalla first fought with them
+  in 213, but did not conquer them; Severus was likewise unsuccessful.
+  About 250 they began to cross the Rhine westwards, and in 255 they
+  overran Gaul along with the Franks. In 259 a body of them was defeated in
+  Italy at Milan, and in the following year they were driven out of Gaul by
+  Postumus. But the Alemanni did not desist from their incursions,
+  notwithstanding the numerous defeats they suffered at the hands of the
+  Roman troops. In the fourth century they crossed the Rhine and ravaged
+  Gaul, but were severely defeated by the Emperor Julian and driven back.
+  Subsequently they occupied a considerable territory on both sides of the
+  Rhine; but at last Clovis broke their power in 496 and deprived them of a
+  large portion of their possessions. Part of their territory was formed
+  into a duchy called Alemannia or Swabia, this name being derived from
+  Suevi or Swabians, the name which they gave themselves. It is from the
+  Alemanni that the French have derived their names for Germans and Germany
+  in general, namely, <i>Allemands</i> and <i>Allemagne</i>, though
+  strictly speaking only the modern Swabians and northern Swiss are the
+  proper descendants of that ancient race.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alembert</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-b&#x101;r), Jean le Rond d', a French
+  mathematician and philosopher, born in Paris, 16th Nov., 1717, and died
+  there 29th Oct., 1783. He was the illegitimate son of Madame de Tencin
+  and Chevalier Destouches, and was exposed at the Church of St. Jean le
+  Rond (hence his name) soon after birth. He was brought up by the wife of
+  a poor glazier, and with her he lived for more than forty years. His
+  parents never publicly acknowledged him, but his father settled upon him
+  an income of 1200 livres. He showed much quickness in learning, entered
+  the College Mazarin at the age of twelve, and studied mathematics with
+  enthusiasm and success, but received little encouragement from his
+  teachers. Having left college he studied law and became an advocate, but
+  did not practise, and long <!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page94"></a>[94]</span>continued to occupy himself with
+  mathematics, in which he made immense advances by his own efforts, often
+  arriving at results that other mathematicians had previously arrived at
+  unknown to him. A pamphlet on the motion of solid bodies in a fluid, and
+  another on the integral calculus, which he laid before the Academy of
+  Sciences in 1739 and 1740, showed him in so favourable a light that the
+  Academy received him in 1741 into the number of its members. He soon
+  after published his famous work on dynamics, <i>Traité de Dynamique</i>
+  (1743) and another work dealing with fluids, <i>Traité des Fluides</i>.
+  His <i>Réflexion sur la cause générale des vents</i> was also a work that
+  added to D'Alembert's reputation. He also took a part in the
+  investigations which completed the discoveries of Newton respecting the
+  motion of the heavenly bodies, and published at intervals various
+  important astronomical dissertations&mdash;on the perturbations of the
+  planets, for instance, and on the precession of the equinoxes&mdash;as
+  well as on other subjects. He also took part, with Diderot and others, in
+  the celebrated <i>Encyclopédie</i> in 33 vols., for which he wrote the
+  <i>Discours Préliminaire</i>, as well as many philosophical and almost
+  all the mathematical articles. Literature, history, and philosophy also
+  received attention from him, and his <i>Éléments de Philosophie</i>
+  (1759), in which he agrees with the theories of Condillac and Locke, was
+  a work of much value. His great philosophical aim seems to have been the
+  idea of secularizing morality upon a rational basis. Among his
+  miscellaneous works are <i>Mélanges de Philosophie, d'Histoire, et de
+  Littérature</i>; <i>Traduction de quelques Morceaux choisis de
+  Tacite</i>; <i>Sur la Destruction des Jésuites</i>; <i>Histoire des
+  Membres de l'Académie Française</i>; <i>Éléments de Musique théorique et
+  pratique</i>. He received an invitation from the Russian empress
+  Catherine II to go to St. Petersburg (now Petrograd) as tutor to her son,
+  a very large sum being offered; and Frederick the Great invited him to
+  settle in Berlin, but in vain. From Frederick, however, he accepted a
+  pension, and he also paid a visit to Berlin. There was an intimate
+  friendship between him and Voltaire. He never married, but he was on
+  terms of the closest friendship with Madame L'Espinasse, and they
+  occupied the same house for a number of years. He was held in high esteem
+  by David Hume, who left him a legacy of £200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alem&prime;bic,</b> a simple apparatus sometimes used by chemists
+  for distillation, and consisting of three main parts, body, head, and
+  receiver. The <i>cucurbit</i>, or body, contains the substance to be
+  distilled, and is usually somewhat like a bottle, bulging below and
+  narrowing towards the top; the <i>head</i>, of a globular form, with a
+  flat under-ring, fits on to the neck of the cucurbit, condenses the
+  vapour from the heated liquid, and receives the distilled liquid on the
+  ring enclosing the neck of the lower vessel, and thus causes it to find
+  egress by a discharging-pipe into the third section, called the
+  <i>receiver</i>. See <i>Distillation</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alemtejo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x101;n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-t&#x101;&prime;zh&#x14D;; 'beyond the
+  Tagus'), the largest province of Portugal, and the most southern except
+  Algarve; area, 9219 sq. miles; pop. 478,584. The capital is Evora. It has
+  about 30 miles of coast, but no good harbour and no navigable river.
+  Large areas are devoted to pasturage, and the cultivated portions are
+  comparatively limited, though in the east there are fertile valleys where
+  grain, fruits, &amp;c., are cultivated. There are valuable cork forests
+  in this portion also. Excellent horses are reared. Copper and iron mines
+  are worked; but on the whole this province is in a backward condition,
+  and is the most thinly inhabited in the country.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alençon</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-s&#x14D;n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of France, capital of
+  department Orne, and formerly of the Duchy of Alençon, on the right bank
+  of the Sarthe, 105 miles west by south of Paris; well built; has a fine
+  Gothic church (fifteenth century) and interesting remains of the old
+  castle of the ducs d'Alençon. Alençon was long famed for its point-lace,
+  called 'point d'Alençon', an industry established at the instigation of
+  Colbert in 1673 but now much fallen off; it has cotton and flax spinning
+  and weaving, &amp;c. Fine rock-crystal, yielding the so-called 'diamants
+  d'Alençon', is found in the neighbouring granite quarries. Alençon is
+  mentioned as a city for the first time in 717. Pop.
+  16,590.&mdash;<i>Alençon</i>, originally a county, later a dukedom,
+  became united with the crown in 1221, and was given by Louis XI as an
+  appanage to his fifth son, with whom the branch of the Alençon-Valois
+  commenced. The first duke of the name lost his life at the battle of
+  Agincourt in 1415; another, called Charles IV, married the celebrated
+  Margaret of Valois, sister of Francis I. He commanded the left wing of
+  the French army at the battle of Pavia, where, instead of supporting the
+  king at a critical moment, he fled at the head of his troops, the
+  consequence of which was the loss of the battle and the capture of the
+  king.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alep&prime;po,</b> a city in North Syria, on the River Koik, in a
+  fine plain 60 miles south-east of Alexandretta, which is its port, and
+  129 miles <span class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Damascus. It has a
+  circumference of about 7 miles, and consists of the old town and numerous
+  suburbs. Its appearance at a distance is striking, and the houses are
+  well built of stone. On a hill stands the citadel, and at its foot the
+  governor's palace. Previous to 1822 Aleppo contained about 100 mosques,
+  but in that year an earthquake laid the greater part of them in ruins,
+  and destroyed nearly the whole city. The aqueduct built by the Romans is
+  the oldest monument of <!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page95"></a>[95]</span>the town. Among the chief attractions of
+  Aleppo are its gardens, in which the pistachio-nut is extensively
+  cultivated. The branch railway to Hamah from the Beyrout-Damascus line
+  has been continued to Aleppo. Formerly the city was a great centre of
+  trade and manufactures, but the earthquake and other causes have combined
+  greatly to lessen its prosperity. It has still a trade, however, in the
+  products of the country, such as wool, cotton, silk, wax, skins, soap,
+  tobacco, &amp;c., and imports a certain quantity of European
+  manufactures.&mdash;Aleppo was a place of considerable importance in very
+  remote times. By the Greeks and Romans it was called <i>Ber&oelig;a</i>.
+  It was conquered by the Arabs in 638, and its original name
+  <i>Chalybon</i> was then turned into <i>Haleb</i>, whence the Italian
+  form <i>Aleppo</i>. The town was occupied by British troops on 27th Oct.,
+  1918. Its population, 200,000 at the beginning of last century, is now
+  estimated at over 250,000. The language generally spoken is Arabic. The
+  vilayet of Aleppo has a pop. of 1,500,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alesh&prime;ki,</b> a town of Southern Russia, government Taurida.
+  Pop. 8915.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ale&prime;sia,</b> a town and fortress of ancient Gaul, at which in
+  52 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Julius Cæsar inflicted a crushing
+  defeat on the Gauls under Vercingetorix. It is now represented by the
+  village of Alise, department Côte d'Or, near which Napoleon III erected a
+  colossal statue of Vercingetorix in 1865.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alessan&prime;dria,</b> a town and fortress in North Italy, capital
+  of the province of the same name, in a marshy country, near the junction
+  of the Bormida and the Tanaro. It was built in 1168 by the Cremonese and
+  Milanese, and was named in honour of Pope Alexander III, who made it a
+  bishop's see. It has a cathedral, important manufactures of linen,
+  woollen, and silk goods, and an active trade. It ranks as one of the
+  first fortresses of Europe, the fortifications including a surrounding
+  wall and bastions, and a strong citadel on the opposite side of the
+  Tanaro, connected by a bridge with the town. Pop. (with suburbs)
+  78,159.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ales&prime;si,</b> Galeazzo, a distinguished Italian architect,
+  born at Perugia, 1512, died there in 1572. Many palaces, villas, and
+  churches were erected after his designs, and at the request of Philip II
+  of Spain he drew a plan for the Escurial.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aletsch&prime;-glacier,</b> the greatest glacier in Switzerland,
+  canton Valais, a prolongation of the immense mass of glaciers connected
+  with the Jungfrau, the Aletschhorn (14,000 feet), and other peaks; about
+  15 miles long.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aleurites,</b> a tree belonging to the nat. ord. Euphorbiaceæ, is
+  found in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. <i>Aleurites
+  triloba</i>, the 'candleberry tree', is cultivated in the Moluccan
+  Islands for its fruit. The oil extracted from its seeds is valuable both
+  for food and light.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aleurom&prime;eter,</b> an instrument for indicating the
+  bread-making qualities of wheaten flour. The indications depend upon the
+  expansion of the gluten contained in a given quantity of flour when freed
+  of its starch by pulverization and repeated washings with water.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aleu&prime;tian Islands,</b> a chain of about eighty small islands
+  belonging to the United States, separating the Sea of Kamchatka from the
+  northern part of the Pacific Ocean, and extending nearly 1000 miles from
+  east to west between lon. 172° <span class="scac">E.</span> and 163°
+  <span class="scac">W.</span>; total area, 6391 sq. miles; pop. 1220. They
+  are of volcanic formation, and in a number of them there are volcanoes
+  still in activity. Their general appearance is dismal and barren, yet
+  grassy valleys capable of supporting cattle throughout the year are met
+  with, and potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables are successfully
+  cultivated. They afford also an abundance of valuable fur and of fish.
+  The natives belong to the same stock with those of Kamchatka.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ale&prime;wife</b> (corruption of the Indian name), the
+  <i>Al&#x14D;sa tyrannus</i>, a fish of the same genus as the shad,
+  growing to the length of 12 inches, and caught in great quantities in the
+  mouths of the rivers of New England, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia,
+  being salted and exported.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/image035.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image035.jpg"
+      alt="Coin of Alexander the Great" title="Coin of Alexander the Great" /></a>
+    Coin of Alexander the Great
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander,</b> surnamed <b>the Great,</b> was the son of Philip of
+  Macedon and his queen Olympias, and was born at Pella, 356 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> In youth he had Aristotle as instructor, and he
+  early displayed uncommon abilities. The victory of Chæronea in 338, which
+  brought Greece entirely under Macedonia, was mainly decided by his
+  efforts. Philip having been assassinated, 336 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, Alexander, not yet twenty years of age,
+  ascended the throne. His father had been preparing an expedition against
+  the Persians, and Alexander determined to carry it out; but before doing
+  so he had to chastise the barbarian tribes on the frontiers of Macedon as
+  well as quell a rising in Greece, in which he took and destroyed Thebes,
+  put 6000 of the inhabitants to the sword, and carried 30,000 into
+  captivity. Leaving Antipater to govern in his stead in Europe, and being
+  confirmed as commander-in-chief of the Greek forces in the general
+  assembly of the Greeks, he crossed over the Hellespont into Asia, in the
+  spring of 334, with 30,000 foot and 5000 horse. His first encounter with
+  the Persian forces (assisted by Greek mercenaries) was at the small river
+  Gran&#x12B;cus, where he gained a complete victory. Most of the cities of
+  Asia Minor now opened their gates to the victor, and Alexander restored
+  democracy in all the Greek cities. In passing through Gordium he cut the
+  Gordian knot, on which it was believed the fate <!-- Page 96 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page96"></a>[96]</span>of Asia depended, and
+  then conquered Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, and Cappadocia. A
+  sickness, caused by bathing in the Cydnus (333 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>), checked his progress; but scarcely was he
+  restored to health when he continued his advance, and this same year
+  defeated the Persian emperor Darius and his army of 500,000 or 600,000
+  men (including 50,000 Greek mercenaries) near Issus (inner angle of the
+  Gulf of Alexandretta). Darius fled towards the interior of his dominions,
+  leaving his family and treasures to fall into the hands of the conqueror.
+  Alexander did not pursue Darius, but proceeded southwards, and secured
+  all the towns along the Mediterranean Sea, though he only got possession
+  of Tyre (taken 332 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) after besieging it for
+  seven months. Palestine and Egypt now fell before him, and in the latter
+  he founded Alexandria, which became one of the first cities of ancient
+  times. Hence he went through the desert of Libya, to consult the oracle
+  of Zeus Ammon, and it was said that the god recognized him as his son. On
+  his return Alexander marched against Darius, who had collected an immense
+  army in Assyria, and rejected the proposals of his rival for peace. A
+  battle was fought at Gaugamela, about 50 miles from Arbela, 331 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and notwithstanding the immense numerical
+  superiority of his enemy, Alexander (who had but 40,000 men and 7000
+  horse) gained a complete victory. Babylon and Susa opened their gates to
+  the conqueror, who marched towards Persepolis, the capital of Persia, and
+  entered it in triumph. He now seems for a time to have lost his
+  self-command. He gave himself up to arrogance and dissipation, and is
+  said in a fit of intoxication to have set fire to the palace of
+  Persepolis, one of the wonders of the world. Rousing himself up, however,
+  he set out in pursuit of Darius, who, having lost his throne, was kept
+  prisoner by Bessus, satrap of Bactriana. Bessus, on seeing himself
+  closely pursued, caused Darius to be assassinated (330 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>). Continuing his progress he subdued Bessus, and
+  advanced to the Jaxartes, the extreme eastern limit of the empire, but
+  did not fully subdue the whole of this region till 328, some fortresses
+  holding out with great tenacity. In one of these he took prisoner the
+  beautiful Roxana, daughter of Oxyartes, a nobleman of Sogdiana, and
+  having fallen in love with her he married her. Meantime disaffection had
+  once or twice manifested itself among his Macedonian followers and had
+  been cruelly punished; and he had also, to his lasting remorse, killed
+  his faithful friend Cleitus in a fit of drunken rage. Alexander now
+  formed the idea of conquering India, then scarcely known even by name. He
+  passed the Indus (326 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), marched towards
+  the Hydaspes (Jhelum), at the passage of which he conquered a king named
+  Porus in a fierce battle, and advanced victoriously through the
+  north-west of India, and intended to proceed as far as the Ganges, when
+  the murmurs of his army compelled him to return. On the Hydaspes he built
+  a fleet, in which he sent a part of his army down the river, while the
+  rest proceeded along the banks. By the Hydaspes he reached the Acesines
+  (Chenab), and thus the Indus, down which he sailed to the sea. Nearchus,
+  his admiral, sailed hence to the Persian Gulf, while Alexander directed
+  his march by land to Babylon, losing a great part of his troops in the
+  desert through which he had to pass. In Susa he married Statira, the
+  eldest daughter of Darius, and rewarded those of his Macedonians who had
+  married Persian women, because it was his intention to unite the two
+  nations as closely as possible. At Opis, on the Tigris, a mutiny arose
+  among his Macedonians (in 324), who thought he showed too much favour to
+  the Asiatics; by firmness and policy he succeeded in quelling this
+  rising, and sent home 10,000 veterans with rich rewards. Soon after, his
+  favourite, Hephæstion, died at Ecbatana, and Alexander's grief was
+  unbounded. The favourite was royally buried at Babylon, and here
+  Alexander was engaged in extensive plans for the future, when he became
+  suddenly sick, after a banquet, and died in a few days (323 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>), in his thirty-third year, after a reign of
+  twelve years and eight months. His body was after a time conveyed to
+  Egypt with great splendour by his general Ptolemy. He left behind him an
+  immense empire, which was divided among his chief generals, and became
+  the scene of continual wars. The reign of Alexander constitutes an
+  important period in the history of humanity. His career was not merely a
+  series of empty conquests, but was attended with the most important
+  results. The language, and much of the civilization of Greece, followed
+  in his track; large additions were made to the sciences of geography,
+  natural history, &amp;c.; a road was opened to India; and the products of
+  the farthest east were introduced into Europe. Greek kingdoms, under his
+  generals and their successors, continued to exist in Asia for
+  centuries.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: B.&nbsp;I. Wheeler,
+  <i>Alexander the Great</i> (Heroes of the Nations Series: Putnam); Grote,
+  <i>History of Greece</i>; Holm, <i>History of Greece</i>; Dodge,
+  <i>Alexander</i> (Great Captains Series).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander,</b> the name of eight popes, the <!-- Page 97 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page97"></a>[97]</span>earliest of whom,
+  <b>Alexander I,</b> is said to have reigned from 108 to 119. <b>Alexander
+  III,</b> elected 1159, died 1181, exercised his authority with great
+  vigour against Henry II when the latter was accused of the assassination
+  of Thomas Becket. The most famous (or infamous) is <b>Alexander VI</b>
+  (Borgia), who was born at Valencia, in Spain, in 1431, and died in 1503.
+  When he was only twenty-five years of age his uncle, Pope Calixtus III,
+  made him a cardinal, and shortly afterwards appointed him to the
+  dignified and lucrative office of vice-chancellor. By bribery he prepared
+  his way to the papal throne, which he attained in 1492, after the death
+  of Innocent VIII. Both the authority and revenues of the popes being at
+  this time much impaired, he set himself to reduce the power of the
+  Italian princes, and seize upon their possessions for the benefit of his
+  own family. To effect this end he is said not to have scrupled to use the
+  vilest means, including poison and assassination. His policy, foreign as
+  well as domestic, was faithless and base, and his private life was
+  stained by immorality. He understood how to extract immense sums of money
+  from all Christian countries under various pretexts. He sold indulgences,
+  and set aside, in favour of himself, the wills of several cardinals. His
+  excesses roused against him the powerful eloquence of Savonarola, who, by
+  pen and pulpit, urged his deposition, but had to meet his death at the
+  stake in 1498. Not long after his election Alexander had the honour of
+  deciding the dispute between the kings of Portugal and Castile concerning
+  their respective claims to the foreign countries recently discovered. It
+  must, however, be admitted that Pope Alexander, whilst striking the
+  wealthy and powerful, interested himself in the welfare of the people,
+  and that he was a patron of arts and letters. His son, Cesare Borgia, and
+  his daughter, Lucrezia, are equally notorious with himself.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander,</b> the name of three Scottish kings. <b>Alexander
+  I,</b> a son of Malcolm III, Canmore, and Margaret of England, succeeded
+  his brother Edgar in 1107, and governed with great ability till his death
+  in 1124. He was a great benefactor of the Church, and a firm vindicator
+  of the national independence.&mdash;<b>Alexander II</b> was born in 1198,
+  and succeeded his father, William the Lion, in 1214. He was a wise and
+  energetic prince, and Scotland prospered greatly under him, though
+  disturbed by the Norsemen, by the restlessness of some of the Celtic
+  chiefs, and by the attempts of Henry III of England to make Alexander do
+  homage to him. He helped Robert FitzWilliam to capture London and compel
+  King John to sign Magna Charta. Alexander married Henry's sister, Joan,
+  in 1221, who lived till 1238. In 1244 war with England almost broke out,
+  but was fortunately averted. Alexander died in 1248 at Kerrera, an island
+  opposite Oban, when on an expedition in which he hoped to wrest the
+  Hebrides from Norway. He was succeeded by his son, <b>Alexander III,</b>
+  a boy of eight, who in 1251 married Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry
+  III of England. Like his father, he was eager to bring the Hebrides under
+  his sway, and this he was enabled to accomplish in a few years after the
+  defeat of the Norse King Haco at Largs, in 1263. The mainland and islands
+  of Scotland were now under one sovereign, though Orkney and Shetland
+  still belonged to Norway. Alexander was strenuous in asserting the
+  independence both of the Scottish kingdom and the Scottish Church against
+  England. He died in 1285 by the falling of his horse while he was riding
+  in the dark between Burntisland and Kinghorn. He left as his heiress
+  Margaret, the Maid of Norway, daughter of Eric of Norway, and of
+  Alexander's daughter, Margaret. Under him Scotland enjoyed greater
+  prosperity than for generations afterwards.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander I,</b> Emperor of Russia, son of Paul I and Maria,
+  daughter of Prince Eugene of Würtemberg, was born in 1777, and died in
+  1825. On the assassination of his father, in 1801, Alexander ascended the
+  throne, and one of his first acts was to conclude peace with Britain,
+  against which his predecessor had declared war. In 1803 he offered his
+  services as mediator between England and France, and two years later a
+  convention was entered into between Russia, England, Austria, and Sweden
+  for the purpose of resisting the encroachments of France on the
+  territories of independent States. He was present at the battle of
+  Austerlitz (1805), when the combined armies of Russia and Austria were
+  defeated by Napoleon. In the succeeding campaign the Russians were again
+  beaten at Eylau (8th Feb., 1807) and Friedland (14th June), the result of
+  which was an interview between Alexander and Napoleon, and the treaty at
+  Tilsit. The Russian emperor now for a time identified himself with the
+  Napoleonic schemes, and soon obtained possession of Finland and an
+  extended territory on the Danube. The French alliance, however, he found
+  to be too oppressive, and his having separated himself from Napoleon led
+  to the disastrous French invasion of 1812. In 1813 he published a
+  manifesto which served as the basis of the coalition of the other
+  European powers against France, which was followed by the capture of
+  Paris (in 1814), the abdication of Napoleon and the restoration of the
+  Bourbons, and the utter overthrow of Napoleon the following year. After
+  Waterloo, Alexander, accompanied by the Emperor of Austria and the King
+  of Prussia, made his second entrance into Paris, where they concluded the
+  treaty known as the <!-- Page 98 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page98"></a>[98]</span>Holy Alliance. The remaining part of his
+  reign was chiefly taken up with measures of internal reform, including
+  the gradual abolition of serfdom, and the promotion of education,
+  agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, as well as literature and the
+  fine arts.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander II,</b> Emperor of Russia, was born 29th April, 1818, and
+  succeeded his father Nicholas in 1855, before the end of the Crimean war.
+  After peace was concluded, the new emperor set about effecting reforms in
+  the empire, the greatest of all being the emancipation of the serfs in
+  1861, a measure which gave freedom, on certain conditions, to 50,000,000
+  of human beings who were previously in a state little removed from that
+  of slavery. Under him, too, representative assemblies in the provinces
+  were introduced, and he also did much to improve education, and to
+  reorganize the judicial system. During his reign the Russian dominions in
+  Central Asia were extended, a piece of territory south of the Caucasus,
+  formerly belonging to Turkey, was acquired, and a part of Bessarabia
+  restored to Russia. The latter additions resulted from the Russo-Turkish
+  war of 1877-8. He was killed by an explosive missile flung at him by a
+  Nihilist in a street in St. Petersburg (now Petrograd), 13th March, 1881.
+  He was succeeded by his son, Alexander III. His only daughter was married
+  to the Duke of Edinburgh.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander III,</b> Emperor of Russia, son of Alexander II, born in
+  1845, became heir to the throne on the death of his eldest brother,
+  Nicholas (1865). In 1863 he married Princess Dagmar of Denmark; he
+  succeeded to the throne in 1881, on the assassination of his father,
+  being crowned in Moscow in 1883. He gave up the reforms begun by his
+  father, and ruled in the old autocratic fashion, restricting the
+  liberties of Finland and the Baltic Provinces, and encouraging
+  persecution of the Jews. He spent much time in the closely-guarded castle
+  of Gatchina, to be safe from Nihilistic attempts, several of which he
+  narrowly escaped. He endeavoured to put down corruption and underhand
+  dealing among the bureaucracy, and in his own habits gave an example of
+  simplicity and economy. While showing himself suspicious of Germany and
+  Austria-Hungary, he entered on friendly relations with France. He began
+  to suffer from disease of the kidneys in 1893, and died at Livadia on 1st
+  Nov., 1894. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicholas II.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander I,</b> King of Serbia, born in 1876. He was the son of
+  King Milan, and on the abdication of his father in 1889 was proclaimed
+  king under a regency. He married Madame Draga Mashin, a widow, who was
+  much older than himself. Both were assassinated on 11th June, 1903.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander of Hales.</b> See <i>Hales, Alexander de.</i></p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander,</b> Boyd, British explorer and naturalist, born in 1873.
+  He led many expeditions for research and exploration to the Cape Verde
+  Islands, the Zambesi River, and various parts of the world. He also
+  discovered many new birds when he ascended the Mount St. Isabel. In 1908
+  he received the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. He was
+  murdered by natives in May, 1910, while exploring the French Congo. He
+  wrote <i>From the Niger to the Nile</i> (1907), &amp;c. <i>Boyd
+  Alexander's Last Journey</i> was published in 1912.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander Nevskoi,</b> a Russian hero and saint, son of the
+  Grand-Duke Jaroslav, born in 1219, died in 1263. He fought valiantly
+  against assaults of the Mongols, the Danes, Swedes, and Knights of the
+  Teutonic Order. He gained the name of <i>Nevskoi</i> in 1240, for a
+  splendid victory, on the Neva, over the Swedes. The gratitude of his
+  countrymen commemorated the hero in popular songs, and raised him to the
+  dignity of a saint. Peter the Great built a splendid monastery at St.
+  Petersburg (Petrograd) in his honour, and in memory of him established
+  the Order of Alexander Nevskoi.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexander Seve&prime;rus,</b> a Roman emperor, born in 208, died
+  <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 235. He was raised to the imperial dignity
+  in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 222 by the prætorian guards, after they
+  had put his cousin the Emperor Heliogabalus to death. He governed ably
+  both in peace and war; and also occupied himself in poetry, philosophy,
+  and literature. He was very tolerant in religious matters, and although
+  not professing Christianity intended to erect a temple to Christ, but was
+  prevented by the pagan priests from carrying out this plan. In 232 he
+  defeated the Persians under Artaxerxes, who wished to drive the Romans
+  from Asia. When on an expedition into Gaul, to repress an incursion of
+  the Germans, he was murdered with his mother in an insurrection of his
+  troops, headed by the brutal Maximin, who succeeded him as emperor.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexanders</b> (<i>Smyrnium Olus&#x101;trum</i>), an umbelliferous
+  biennial plant, a native of the Mediterranean region, but found in Great
+  Britain and Ireland. It was formerly cultivated for its leaf-stalks,
+  which, having a pleasant aromatic flavour, were blanched and used instead
+  of celery&mdash;a vegetable that has taken its place.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexandra,</b> the queen mother, widow of Edward VII, daughter of
+  Christian IX, King of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen on 1st Dec., 1844,
+  and was married on 10th March, 1863, being Princess of Wales up to the
+  death of Queen Victoria and the accession of King Edward in Jan., 1901.
+  She was highly popular from the first in the country of her husband, as
+  she constantly showed an interest in all <!-- Page 99 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page99"></a>[99]</span>benevolent causes. She
+  has been the mother of six children, one of whom died in infancy, while
+  the eldest, Edward, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, died in 1892 at the
+  age of twenty-eight. Cf. S.&nbsp;A. Tooley, <i>Queen Alexandra</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexandret&prime;ta,</b> or <b>Iskanderoon</b> (ancient
+  <b>Alexandria ad Issum</b>), a small seaport in Asia Minor, on the Gulf
+  of Iskanderoon, the port of Aleppo and Northern Syria. Named after
+  Alexander the Great, and founded in memory of the battle of Issus. In
+  1832 Mehemet Ali won a victory over the Turks near Alexandretta. There is
+  a large export and import trade. It was occupied by British and French
+  troops in Nov., 1918. Pop. 10,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexan&prime;dria,</b> an ancient city and seaport in Egypt, at the
+  north-west angle of the Nile delta, on a ridge of land between the sea
+  and Lake Mareotis. Ancient Alexandria was founded by, and named in honour
+  of, Alexander the Great, in 332 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and was
+  long a great and splendid city, the centre of commerce between the east
+  and west, as well as of Greek learning and civilization, with a
+  population at one time of perhaps 1,000,000. It was especially celebrated
+  for its great library, and also for its famous lighthouse, one of the
+  wonders of the world, standing upon the little island of Pharos, which
+  was connected with the city by a mole. Under Roman rule it was the second
+  city of the empire, and when Constantinople became the capital of the
+  East it still remained the chief centre of trade; but it received a blow
+  from which it never recovered when captured by Amru, general of Caliph
+  Omar, in 641, after a siege of fourteen months. Its ruin was finally
+  completed by the building of Cairo (969) and the discovery of the passage
+  to India by the Cape of Good Hope (1498) which opened up a new route for
+  the Asiatic trade. See <i>Alexandrian Library</i>, <i>Alexandrian
+  School</i>.&mdash;Modern Alexandria stands partly on what was formerly
+  the island of Pharos, partly on the peninsula which now connects it with
+  the mainland and which was formed by the accumulation of soil, and partly
+  on the mainland. The streets in the Turkish quarter are narrow, dirty,
+  and irregular; in the foreign quarter they are regular and wide, and it
+  is here that the finest houses are situated. Here also are the principal
+  shops and hotels, banks, offices of companies, &amp;c.; this part of the
+  city being supplied with gas, and with water brought by the Mahmudieh
+  Canal from the western branch of the Nile. Alexandria is connected by
+  railway with Cairo, Rosetta, and Suez. A little to the south of the city
+  are the catacombs, which now serve as a quarry. Another relic of
+  antiquity is Pompey's Pillar, 98 feet 9 inches high. Alexandria has two
+  ports, on the east and west respectively of the isthmus of the Pharos
+  peninsula, the latter having a breakwater over 3000 yards in length, with
+  fine quays and suitable railway and other accommodation. The trade of
+  Alexandria is large and varied, the exports being cotton, beans, pease,
+  rice, wheat, &amp;c.; the imports chiefly manufactured goods, machinery,
+  timber, and coal. The origin of its more recent career of prosperity it
+  owes to Mohammed Ali. In 1882 the insurrection of Arabi Pasha and the
+  massacre of Europeans led to the intervention of the British, and the
+  bombardment of the forts by the British fleet in July. The administrative
+  district has an area of 19 sq. miles; pop. 444,617 (or 23,401 per square
+  mile).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexandria,</b> a town and port of the United States, in Virginia,
+  on the right bank of the Potomac (which is of sufficient depth for large
+  vessels), 7 miles south of Washington, carries on a considerable trade,
+  chiefly in flour. Pop. (1920), 18,060.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexandria,</b> a town of Scotland, in Dumbartonshire, on the
+  Leven, 4 miles north of Dumbarton, with extensive cotton-printing and
+  bleaching works. Pop. 9850.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexandria,</b> a town of the Ukraine, in the former Russian
+  government of Kherson, on a tributary of the Dnieper. Pop. 10,521.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexandrian Library,</b> the largest and most famous of all the
+  ancient collections of books, founded by Ptolemy Soter (died 283 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>), King of Egypt, and greatly enlarged by
+  succeeding Ptolemies. The first librarian was Zenodotus (234 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>). At its most flourishing period it is said to
+  have numbered 700,000 volumes, accommodated in two different buildings,
+  one of them being the Serapeion, or temple of Jupiter Serapis. The other
+  collection was burned during Julius Cæsar's siege of the city, but the
+  Serapeion library existed to the time of the Emperor Theodosius the
+  Great, when, at the general destruction of the heathen temples, the
+  splendid temple of Jupiter Serapis was gutted (<span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 391) by a fanatical crowd of Christians, and its
+  literary treasures destroyed or scattered. A library was again
+  accumulated, but was burned by the Arabs when they captured the city
+  under the caliph Omar in 641. Amru, the captain of the caliph's army,
+  would have been willing to spare the library, but Omar is said to have
+  disposed of the matter in the famous words: "If these writings of the
+  Greeks agree with the Koran they are useless, and need not be preserved;
+  if they disagree they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed". This
+  story, however, which rests solely on the authority of Abulfaragius, a
+  writer who lived six centuries later, is now generally discredited.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexandrian School</b> or <b>Age,</b> the school or period of Greek
+  literature and learning that existed at Alexandria in Egypt during the
+  three <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page100"></a>[100]</span>hundred years that the rule of the
+  Ptolemies lasted (323-30 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), and continued
+  under the Roman supremacy. Ptolemy Soter founded the famous library of
+  Alexandria (see above) and his son, Philadelphus, established a kind of
+  academy of sciences and arts. Many scholars and men of genius were thus
+  attracted to Alexandria, and a period of literary activity set in, which
+  made Alexandria for long the focus and centre of Greek culture and
+  intellectual effort. It must be admitted, however, that originality was
+  not a characteristic of the Alexandrian age, which was stronger in
+  criticism, grammar, and science than in pure literature. Among the
+  grammarians and critics were Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristophanes,
+  Aristarchus, and Zoilus, proverbial as a captious critic. Their merit is
+  to have collected, edited, and preserved the existing monuments of Greek
+  literature. To the poets belong Apollonius, Lycophron, Aratus, Nicander,
+  Euphorion, Callimachus, Theocritus, Philetas, &amp;c. Among those who
+  pursued mathematics, physics, and astronomy was Euclid, the father of
+  scientific geometry; Archimedes, great in physics and mechanics;
+  Apollonius of Perga, whose work on conic sections still exists;
+  Nicomachus, the first scientific arithmetician; and (under the Romans)
+  the astronomer and geographer Ptolemy. Alexandria also was distinguished
+  in philosophical speculation, and it was here that the New Platonic
+  school was established by Ammonius of Alexandria (about <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 193), whose disciples were Plotinus and Origen.
+  Being for the most part Orientals, formed by the study of Greek learning,
+  the writings of the New Platonists are strikingly characterized&mdash;for
+  example, those of Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus, Iamblicus,
+  Porphyrius&mdash;by a mixture of Asiatic and European elements. The
+  connection of Neo-Platonism with Alexandria is, however, less than is
+  commonly supposed.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Mahaffy,
+  <i>Greek Life and Thought from the Age of Alexander to the Roman
+  Empire</i>; Kingsley, <i>Alexandria and her Schools</i>; Vacherot,
+  <i>Histoire critique de l'école d'Alexandrie</i> (3 vols.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexandrian Version.</b> See <i>Codex Alexandrinus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexandrine,</b> in prosody, the name given, from an old French
+  poem on Alexander the Great, to a species of verse, which consists of six
+  iambic feet, or twelve syllables, the pause being, in correct
+  Alexandrines, always on the sixth syllable; for example, the second of
+  the following verses:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>A needless Alexandrine ends the song,</p>
+      <p>That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In English Drayton's <i>Polyolbion</i> is written in this measure, and
+  the concluding line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In France
+  the verse fell into disuse during the early part of the sixteenth
+  century, but was again revived by Jean Antoine de Baïf, one of the poets
+  of the Pléiade. Jodelle introduced the verse into the drama, and Ronsard
+  made it very popular. French epics and dramas being confined to this
+  verse, it is therefore called the <i>heroic</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexandro&prime;pol,</b> formerly a Russian town and fortress in
+  the Transcaucasian government of Erivan, near the highway from Erivan to
+  Kars; now belonging to Armenia; it has silk manufactories. Pop.
+  48,938.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexan&prime;drov,</b> a town of Russia, government of Vladimir,
+  with a famous convent, in the church of which are interred two sisters of
+  Peter the Great; manufactures of steel and cotton goods. Pop. 7179.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alex&prime;isbad,</b> a bathing-place of Germany, Anhalt, in the
+  Harz Mountains, with two mineral springs strongly impregnated with
+  iron.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alex&prime;is Mikhai&prime;lovitsh</b> (son of Michael), second
+  Russian Tsar of the line of Romanov, born in 1629, succeeded his father
+  Mikhail Feodorovitsh in 1645, and died in 1676. He did much for the
+  internal administration and for the enlargement of the empire;
+  reconquered Little Russia from Poland, and carried his authority to the
+  extreme east of Siberia. He was father of sixteen children, the most
+  famous of them being Peter the Great and his sister Sophia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alexis Petro&prime;vitsh,</b> eldest son of Peter the Great and
+  Eudoxia Lopukhina, repudiated in 1698, was born in Moscow, 1690, and died
+  in 1718. He opposed the innovations introduced by his father, who on this
+  account disinherited him by a ukase in 1718, and when he discovered that
+  Alexis was paving the way to succeed to the crown he had his son tried
+  and condemned to death. A few days afterwards Alexis died, after having
+  received twenty-five strokes with the knout, leaving a son, afterwards
+  the Emperor Peter II.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alex&prime;ius Comne&prime;nus,</b> Byzantine Emperor, was born in
+  1048, and died in 1118. He was a nephew of Isaac the first emperor of the
+  Comneni, and attained the throne in 1081, at a time when the Empire was
+  menaced from various sides, especially by the Turks and the Normans. From
+  these dangers he managed to extricate himself by policy or warlike
+  measures, and maintained his position till the age of seventy, during a
+  reign of thirty-seven years. His daughter Anna wrote a life of him
+  (<i>The Alexiad</i>), which is one continuous eulogy, but all the Latin
+  historians are very severe on him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;fa.</b> See <i>Esparto</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alfal&prime;fa,</b> generally known in Britain as lucerne, a
+  prolific forage plant largely grown in California, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alfara&prime;bi,</b> an eminent Arabian scholar of the <!-- Page
+  101 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page101"></a>[101]</span>tenth
+  century; died at Damascus in 950; wrote on Aristotelian philosophy, and
+  compiled a kind of encyclopedia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;fenid,</b> an alloy of nickel plated with silver, used for
+  spoons, forks, candlesticks, tea services, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alfieri</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-f&#x113;-&#x101;&prime;r&#x113;),
+  Vittorio, Count, Italian poet, was born at Asti in 1749, and died in
+  1803. After extensive European travels he began to write, and his first
+  play, <i>Cleopatra</i> (1775), being received with general applause he
+  determined to devote all his efforts to attaining a position among
+  writers of dramatic poetry. At Florence he became intimate with the
+  Countess of Albany, wife of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, and on the
+  death of the prince she lived with him as his mistress. This connection
+  he believed to have served to stimulate and elevate his poetic powers. He
+  died at Florence and was buried in the church of Santa Croce, between
+  Macchiavelli and Michael Angelo, where a beautiful monument by Canova
+  covers his remains. He wrote twenty-one tragedies and six comedies. His
+  theatrical work has been rightly styled a creation of his pride as much
+  as of his genius; he endeavoured to turn the theatre into a platform and
+  was constantly preaching from the stage. Anxious to use his characters as
+  exponents of his theories, and to make them <i>talk</i>, he often forgot
+  to make them <i>act</i>. Alfieri himself admitted that he was writing
+  with a view to "teaching men how to become free, strong, generous, and
+  passionate for real virtue", but such an attitude is opposed to true art.
+  His tragedies are full of lofty and patriotic sentiments, but the
+  language is stiff and without poetic grace, and the plots poor.
+  Nevertheless he is considered the first tragic writer of Italy, and has
+  served as a model for his successors. Alfieri composed also an epic,
+  lyrics, satires, and poetical translations from the ancient classics. He
+  left an interesting autobiography. The best edition of his works is that
+  published at Pisa (1805-13) in 22 vols.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alfon&prime;so</b>. See <i>Alphonso</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;ford,</b> Henry, <span class="scac">D.D.</span>, Dean of
+  Canterbury, an English poet, scholar, and miscellaneous writer, was born
+  in London in 1810. After attending various schools he entered Trinity
+  College, Cambridge, in 1827, graduated <span class="scac">B.A.</span> in
+  1832, was elected fellow in 1834, and next year became vicar of
+  Wymeswold, Leicestershire. In 1842 he was appointed examiner in logic and
+  moral philosophy to the University of London, and held the appointment
+  till 1857. He early began the great work of his life, his edition of the
+  Greek Testament with commentary, which occupied him for twenty years, the
+  first volumes being published in 1849, the fourth and last in 1861. In
+  1853 he was transferred to Quebec Chapel, London, and in 1857 was
+  appointed Dean of Canterbury. He was the first editor of the
+  <i>Contemporary Review</i> (1866-70). He died in 1871. Among other works
+  he wrote <i>Chapters on the Poets of Ancient Greece</i>, <i>Sermons</i>,
+  <i>Psalms and Hymns</i>, <i>Homilies on the Acts of the Apostles</i>,
+  <i>Letters from Abroad</i>, <i>Poetical Works</i>, <i>Plea for the
+  Queen's English</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;fred</b> (or <b>Æl&prime;fred</b>) <b>the Great,</b> King
+  of England, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 849, his father being Ethelwulf, son of Egbert,
+  King of the West Saxons. He succeeded his brother Ethelred in 872, at a
+  time when the Danes, or Northmen, had extended their conquests widely
+  over the country, and they had completely overrun the kingdom of the West
+  Saxons by 878. Alfred was obliged to flee in disguise. At length he
+  gathered a small force, and having fortified himself on the Isle of
+  Athelney, formed by the confluence of the Rivers Parret and Tone, amid
+  the marshes of Somerset, he was able to make frequent sallies against the
+  enemy. It was during his abode here that he went, according to legend,
+  disguised as a harper into the camp of King Guthrum (or Guthorm), and,
+  having ascertained that the Danes felt themselves secure, hastened back
+  to his troops, led them against the enemy, and gained such a decided
+  victory that fourteen days afterwards the Danes begged for peace. This
+  battle took place in May, 878, near Edington, in Wiltshire. Alfred
+  allowed the Danes who were already in the country to remain, on condition
+  that they gave hostages, took a solemn oath to quit Wessex, and embraced
+  Christianity. Their king, Guthrum, was baptized, with thirty of his
+  followers, and ever afterward remained faithful to Alfred. They received
+  that portion of the east of England now occupied by the counties of
+  Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge, as a place of residence. The few years
+  of tranquillity (886-93) which followed were employed by Alfred in
+  rebuilding the towns that had suffered most during the war, particularly
+  London; in training his people in arms and no less in agriculture; in
+  improving the navy; in systematizing the laws and internal
+  administration; and in literary labours and the advancement of learning.
+  He caused many manuscripts to be translated from Latin, and himself
+  translated several works into Anglo-Saxon, such as the <i>Psalms</i>,
+  <i>Æsop's Fables</i>, <i>Boethius on the Consolation of Philosophy</i>,
+  the <i>History of Orosius</i>, <i>Bede's Ecclesiastical History</i>,
+  &amp;c. He also drew up several original works in Anglo-Saxon. These
+  peaceful labours were interrupted, about 894, by an invasion of the
+  Northmen, who, after a struggle of three years, were finally driven out.
+  Alfred died in 901. He had married, in 868, Alswith or Ealhswith, the
+  daughter of a Mercian nobleman, and left two sons: Edward, who succeeded
+  him, and <!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page102"></a>[102]</span>Ethelwerd, who died in 922.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Plummer, <i>Life and Times of Alfred the
+  Great</i>; A. Bowker, <i>Alfred the Great, Chapters on his Life and
+  Times</i>; B.&nbsp;A. Lees, <i>Alfred the Great</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algæ</b> (al&prime;j&#x113;), a nat. ord. of cryptogamic or
+  thallogenous plants, found for the most part in the sea and fresh water,
+  or on the surface of damp walls, rocks, the bark of trees, and in similar
+  moist situations. They are either some shade of bluish-green, green,
+  brown, or red colour. The higher forms have stems bearing leaf-like
+  expansions, and they are often attached to the rocks by roots, which,
+  however, do not derive nutriment from the rocks. A stem, however, is most
+  frequently absent. The plants are nourished through their whole surface
+  by the medium in which they live. They vary in size from the microscopic
+  diatoms to forms whose stems resemble those of forest trees, and whose
+  fronds rival the leaves of the palm. They are entirely composed of
+  cellular tissue, and many are edible and nutritious, as carrageen or
+  Irish-moss, dulse, &amp;c. Kelp, iodine, and bromine are products of
+  various species. The Algæ are also valuable as manure. They are often
+  divided into five orders: Diatomaceæ, Confervaceæ, Fucaceæ, Ceramiaceæ,
+  and Characeæ.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algar&prime;di,</b> Alessandro, one of the chief Italian sculptors
+  of the seventeenth century; born 1602, died 1654. He lived and worked
+  chiefly at Rome; executed the tomb of Leo XI in St. Peter's, a bronze
+  statue of Innocent X, and a marble relief with life-size figures over the
+  altar of St. Leo there.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algaro&prime;ba-bean.</b> See <i>Carob Tree</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;garot,</b> a violently purgative and emetic white powder,
+  precipitated from chloride of antimony in water; it was used in medicine
+  by the physician Victor Algarotus in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algarot&prime;ti,</b> Francesco, Count, born in 1712, died in 1764,
+  an Italian writer on science, the fine arts, &amp;c. He lived for some
+  years in France and for a long time in Germany, Frederick the Great of
+  Prussia having made him chamberlain and count. He wrote <i>Neutonianismo
+  per le donne</i>; <i>Saggi sopra le belle arti</i>, his principal work on
+  art; poems, letters, &amp;c. Algarotti's works published at Venice in 17
+  vols. (1791-4) and illustrated by Tesi and Novelli are a
+  <i>chef-d'&oelig;uvre</i> of typography. Frederick the Great erected at
+  Pisa a monument to his memory.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algarve</b> (al-ga<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r&prime;v&#x101;, meaning the land
+  situated in the west), a maritime province of Portugal occupying the
+  southern portion of the country, mountainous but with some fertile
+  tracts. The title King of Algarve was held by the Kings of Portugal.
+  Area, 1937 sq. miles; pop. 274,122.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algau</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l&prime;gou), a name for the
+  south-western portion of Bavaria and the adjacent parts of Würtemberg and
+  Tyrol, intersected by the Algau Alps. The Algau breed of cattle is one of
+  the best in Germany.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algazzali</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-ga<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>z-ä&prime;l&#x113;), Abu Hamed Mohammed,
+  an Arabian philosopher, Persian by birth; born 1058, died 1111. He was a
+  most prolific author; an opponent of the prevailing Aristotelian
+  philosophy of the day, and wrote against it the <i>Destruction of the
+  Philosophers</i>, answered by Averroes in his <i>Destruction of the
+  Destruction</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;gebra</b> (from the Arabic <i>al</i>, definite article,
+  and <i>jabbara</i>, to make equal), a kind of generalized arithmetic, in
+  which numbers or quantities and operations, often also the results of
+  operations, are represented by symbols. Thus the expression <i>xy</i> +
+  <i>cz</i> + <i>dy</i><sup>2</sup> denotes that a number represented by
+  <i>x</i> is to be multiplied by a number represented by <i>y</i>, a
+  number <i>c</i> multiplied by a number <i>z</i>, a number <i>d</i> by a
+  number <i>y</i> multiplied by itself (or squared), and the sum taken of
+  these three products. So the <i>equation</i> (as it is called)
+  <i>x<sup>2</sup></i> - 7<i>x</i> + 12 = 0 expresses the fact that if a
+  certain number <i>x</i> is multiplied by itself, and this result made
+  less by seven times the number and greater by twelve, the result is 0. In
+  this case <i>x</i> must either be 3 or 4 to produce the given result; but
+  such an equation (or formula) as (<i>a</i> + <i>b</i>)(<i>a</i> -
+  <i>b</i>) = <i>a</i><sup>2</sup> - <i>b</i><sup>2</sup> is always true
+  whatever values may be assigned to <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>. Algebra is an
+  invaluable instrument in intricate calculations of all kinds, and enables
+  operations to be performed and results obtained that by arithmetic would
+  be impossible, and its scope is still being extended.</p>
+
+  <p>The beginnings of algebraic method are to be found in Diophantus, a
+  Greek of the fourth century of our era, but it was the Arabians that
+  introduced algebra to Europe, and from them it received its name. The
+  first Arabian treatise on algebra was published in the reign of the great
+  Caliph Al Mamun (813-33) by Mohammed Ben Musa. Italian merchants were the
+  first algebraists in Europe, and in 1202 Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa, who
+  had travelled and studied in the East, published a work treating of
+  algebra as then understood in the Arabian school. From this time to the
+  discovery of printing considerable attention was given to algebra, and
+  the work of Ben Musa and another Arabian treatise, called the <i>Rule of
+  Algebra</i>, were translated into Italian. The first printed work
+  treating on algebra (also on arithmetic, &amp;c.) appeared at Venice in
+  1494, the author being a monk called Luca Pacioli da Bergo, a Minorite
+  friar. Rapid progress now began to be made, and among the names of those
+  to whom advances are to be attributed are Tartaglia and Geronimo Cardano.
+  About the middle of the sixteenth century the German Stifel introduced
+  the signs +, -, &radic;, and Robert Recorde the sign =. The last-named
+  wrote the first English work on algebra in 1557. François <!-- Page 103
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>[103]</span>Vieta, a
+  French mathematician (1540-1603), first adopted the method which has led
+  to so great an extension of modern algebra, by being the first who used
+  general symbols for known quantities as well as for unknown. It was he
+  also who first made the application of algebra to geometry. Albert
+  Girard, a Flemish mathematician in the seventeenth century, extended the
+  theory of equations by the introduction of imaginary quantities. The
+  Englishman Harriot, early in the seventeenth century, discovered negative
+  roots, and established the equality between the number of roots and the
+  units in the degree of the equation. He also invented the signs &lt; >,
+  and Oughtred that of ×. Descartes, though not the first to apply algebra
+  to geometry, has, by the extent and importance of his applications,
+  commonly acquired the credit of being so. The same discoveries have also
+  been attributed to him as to Harriot, and their respective claims have
+  caused much controversy. He obtained by means of algebra the definition
+  and description of curves. Since his time algebra has been applied so
+  widely in geometry and higher mathematics that we need only mention the
+  names of Fermat, Wallis, Newton, Leibnitz, De Moivre, MacLaurin, Taylor,
+  Euler, D'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Fourier, Poisson, Gauss, Horner, De
+  Morgan, Sylvester, Cayley. Boole, Jevons, and others have applied the
+  algebraic method not only to formal logic but to political
+  economy.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Chrystal,
+  <i>Algebra</i> (2 vols.); Hobson, <i>Trigonometry</i>; Hardy, <i>Pure
+  Mathematics</i>; Whittaker and Watson, <i>Modern Analysis</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algeciras</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-<i>h</i>e-th&#x113;&prime;ra<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s) (perhaps Portus Albus
+  of the Romans), a seaport of Spain, on the west side of the Bay of
+  Gibraltar, a well-built town carrying on a brisk coasting trade. It was
+  the first conquest of the Arabs in Spain (711), and was held by them till
+  1344, when it was taken by Alphonso XI of Castile after a long siege.
+  Near it, in 1801, Admiral Sir James Saumarez defeated a Franco-Spanish
+  fleet. Differences between France and Germany regarding Morocco led to a
+  conference of European Powers here from 16th Jan.-7th April, 1906. Pop.
+  15,800.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alge&prime;ria,</b> a French dependency in N. Africa, having on the
+  north the Mediterranean, on the east Tunis, on the west Morocco, and on
+  the south the Desert of Sahara; area, 122,878 sq. miles, or including the
+  Algerian Sahara 343,500. The country is divided into three
+  departments&mdash;Algiers, Oran, and Constantine. The coastline is about
+  550 miles in length, steep and rocky, and though the indentations are
+  numerous, the harbours are much exposed to the north wind. The country is
+  traversed by the Atlas Mountains, two chains of which&mdash;the Great
+  Atlas, bordering on the Sahara, and the Little, or Maritime Atlas,
+  between it and the sea&mdash;run parallel to the coast, the former
+  attaining a height of 7000 feet. The intervals are filled with lower
+  ranges, and numerous transverse ranges connect the principal ones and run
+  from them to the coast, forming elevated tablelands and enclosed valleys.
+  The rivers are numerous, but many of them are mere torrents rising in the
+  mountains near the coast. The Shelif is much the largest. Some of the
+  rivers are largely used for irrigation, and artesian wells have been sunk
+  in some places for the same purpose. There are, both on the coast and in
+  the interior, extensive salt lakes or marshes (<i>Shotts</i>), which dry
+  up to a great extent in summer. The country bordering on the coast,
+  called the <i>Tell</i>, is generally hilly, with fertile valleys; in some
+  places a flat and fertile plain extends between the hills and the sea. In
+  the east there are <i>Shotts</i> that sink below the sea-level, and into
+  these it has been proposed to introduce the waters of the Mediterranean.
+  The climate varies considerably according to elevation and local
+  peculiarities. There are three seasons: winter from November to February,
+  spring from March to June, and summer from July to October. The summer is
+  very hot and dry. In many parts of the coast the temperature is moderate
+  and the climate so healthy that Algeria is now a winter resort for
+  invalids.</p>
+
+  <p>The chief products of cultivation are wheat, barley, and oats,
+  tobacco, cotton, wine, silk, and dates. Early vegetables, especially
+  potatoes and pease, are exported to France and England. A fibre called
+  <i>alfa</i>, a variety of esparto, which grows wild on the high plateaux,
+  is exported in large quantities. Cork is also exported. There are
+  valuable forests, in which grow various sorts of pines and oaks, ash,
+  cedar, myrtle, pistachio-nut, mastic, carob, &amp;c. The Australian
+  <i>Eucalyptus glob&#x16D;lus</i> (a gum tree) has been successfully
+  introduced. Agriculture often suffers much from the ravages of locusts.
+  Among wild animals are the lion, panther, hyena, and jackal; the domestic
+  quadrupeds include the horse, the mule, cattle, sheep, and pigs
+  (introduced by the French). Algeria possesses valuable minerals,
+  including iron, copper, lead, sulphur, zinc, antimony, marble (white and
+  red), phosphate, and lithographic stone.</p>
+
+  <p>The trade of Algeria has greatly increased under French rule, France,
+  Spain, and England being the countries with which it is principally
+  carried on, and three-fourths of the whole being with France. The exports
+  (besides those mentioned above) are olive-oil, raw hides, wood, wool,
+  tobacco, oranges, &amp;c.; the imports, manufactured goods, wines,
+  spirits, coffee, &amp;c. The manufacturing industries are unimportant,
+  and include morocco leather, carpets, muslins, and silks. French money,
+  weights, and measures are <!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page104"></a>[104]</span>generally used. The chief towns are
+  Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Bona, and Tlemsen. There are about 2800 miles
+  of railways opened; there is also a considerable network of telegraph
+  lines.</p>
+
+  <p>The two principal native races inhabiting Algeria are Arabs and
+  Berbers. The former are mostly nomads, dwelling in tents and wandering
+  from place to place, though a large number of them are settled in the
+  Tell, where they carry on agriculture and have formed numerous villages.
+  The Berbers, here called Kabyles, are the original inhabitants of the
+  territory and still form a considerable part of the population. They
+  speak the Berber language, but use Arabic characters in writing. The Jews
+  form a small but influential part of the population. Various other races
+  also exist. Except the Jews, all the native races are Mahommedans. There
+  are now a considerable number of French and other colonists, provision
+  being made for granting them concessions of land on certain conditions.
+  There are over 260,000 colonists of French origin in Algeria, and over
+  200,000 colonists natives of other European countries (chiefly Spaniards
+  and Italians). Algeria is governed by a governor-general, who is assisted
+  by a council appointed by the French Government. The settled portion of
+  the country, in the three departments of Algiers, Constantine, and Oran,
+  is treated much as if it were a part of France, and each department sends
+  two deputies and one senator to the French chambers. The rest of the
+  territory is under military rule. The colony costs France a considerable
+  sum every year. Pop. of Algeria proper in 1911, 5,523,449; of the
+  Algerian Sahara, 40,379.</p>
+
+  <p>The country now called Algeria was known to the Romans as Numidia. It
+  flourished greatly under their rule, and early received the Christian
+  religion. It was conquered by the Vandals in <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 430-1, and recovered by Belisarius for the
+  Byzantine Empire in 533-4. About the middle of the seventh century it was
+  overrun by the Saracens. The town of Algiers was founded about 935 by
+  Yussef Ibn Zeiri, and the country was subsequently ruled by his
+  successors and the dynasties of the Almoravides and Almohades. After the
+  overthrow of the latter, about 1269, it broke up into a number of small
+  independent territories. The Moors and Jews, who were driven out of Spain
+  by Ferdinand and Isabella at the end of the fifteenth century, settled in
+  large numbers in Algeria, and revenged themselves on their persecutors by
+  the practice of piracy. On this account various expeditions were made by
+  Spain against Algeria, and by 1510 the greater part of the country was
+  made tributary. A few years later the Algerians invited to their
+  assistance the Turkish pirate Horush (or Haruj) Barbarossa, who made
+  himself Sultan of Algiers in 1516, but was not long in being taken by the
+  Spaniards and beheaded. His brother and successor put Algiers under the
+  protection of Turkey (about 1520), and organized the system of piracy
+  which was long the terror of European commerce, and was never wholly
+  suppressed till the French occupation. Henceforth the country belonged to
+  the Turkish Empire, though from 1710 the connection was little more than
+  nominal. The depredations of the Algerian pirates were a continual source
+  of irritation to the Christian Powers, who sent a long series of
+  expeditions against them. For instance, in 1815 a United States fleet
+  defeated an Algerian one and forced the Dey to agree to a peace in which
+  he recognized the American flag as inviolable. In 1816 Lord Exmouth with
+  an English fleet bombarded Algiers, and exacted a treaty by which all the
+  Christian slaves were at once released, and the Dey undertook for the
+  future to treat all his prisoners of war as the European law of nations
+  demanded. But the piratical practices of the Algerians were soon
+  renewed.</p>
+
+  <p>At last the French determined on more vigorous measures, and in 1830
+  sent a force of over 40,000 men against the country. Algiers was speedily
+  occupied, the Dey retired, and the country was without a government, but
+  resistance was organized by Abd-el-Kader, an Arab chief whom the
+  emergency had raised up. He began his warlike career of fifteen years by
+  an attack on Oran in 1832, and after an obstinate struggle the French, in
+  Feb., 1834, consented to a peace, acknowledging him as ruling over all
+  the Arab tribes west of the Shelif by the title of Emir of Maskara. War
+  was soon again renewed with varying fortune, and in 1837, in order to
+  have their hands free in attacking Constantine, the French made peace
+  with Abd-el-Kader, leaving to him the whole of Western Algeria except
+  some coast towns. Constantine was now taken, and the subjugation of the
+  province of Constantine followed. Meanwhile Abd-el-Kader was preparing
+  for another conflict, and in Nov., 1838, he suddenly broke into French
+  territory with a strong force, and for a time the supremacy of the French
+  was endangered. Matters took a more favourable turn for them when General
+  Bugeaud was appointed governor-general in Feb., 1841. In the autumn of
+  1841 Saida, the last fortress of Abd-el-Kader, fell into his hands, after
+  which the only region that held out against the French was that bordering
+  on Morocco. Early in the following year this also was conquered, and
+  Abd-el-Kader found himself compelled to seek refuge in the adjoining
+  empire. From Morocco Abd-el-Kader twice made a descent upon Algeria, on
+  the second occasion defeating the French in two battles; and in 1844 he
+  even succeeded in raising an army in Morocco to withstand the <!-- Page
+  105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>[105]</span>French.
+  Bugeaud, however, crossed the frontier, and inflicted a severe defeat on
+  this army, while a French fleet bombarded the towns on the coast. The
+  Emperor of Morocco was at length compelled to agree to a treaty, in which
+  he not only promised to refuse Abd-el-Kader his assistance, but even
+  engaged to lend his assistance against him. Reduced to extremities
+  Abd-el-Kader surrendered on 27th Dec., 1847, and was at first taken to
+  France a prisoner, but was afterwards released on his promise not to
+  return to Algeria. The country was yet far from subdued. The Kabyles, and
+  the Arabs in the south, made protracted resistance, and rose again and
+  again against the yoke which it was attempted to impose upon them. The
+  numerous risings that successively took place thus rendered Algeria a
+  school for French generals, such as Pélissier, Canrobert, St. Arnaud, and
+  MacMahon. In 1864 MacMahon succeeded Pélissier as governor-general, and
+  had as his first work to put down an insurrection. About this time the
+  Emperor Napoleon III, who had visited the colony, introduced considerable
+  modifications into the government, recognizing that the native races had
+  grievances to complain of, and that the French rulers were in various
+  ways astray in the methods of government adopted. Fresh disturbances
+  broke out in the south nearly every year till 1871, when, owing to the
+  Franco-Prussian war, a great effort was made to throw off the French
+  yoke, the colony being nearly denuded of French soldiers. It was,
+  however, completely suppressed, and in order to remove what was believed
+  to be one principal cause of the frequent insurrections, a civil
+  government was established instead of the military government in the
+  northern parts of the colony. The southern parts, inhabited by nomadic
+  tribes, are still subject to military rule. When the French took in hand
+  the occupation of Tunis, a rising took place (in 1881) in the west of
+  Algeria, under a chieftain who was able to inflict some loss and damage
+  on the French forces and colonists, but with no permanent result. Since
+  then quietness has generally prevailed in the colony, where the French,
+  however, continue to maintain a considerable military force. Owing to
+  this and other expenditure Algeria has always formed a burden on the
+  resources of France. The great aid rendered by Algeria to France during
+  the European War led the French Government to introduce new laws. The law
+  of 4th Feb., 1919, gives French citizenship to all Algerian natives under
+  certain conditions.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: M.&nbsp;D.
+  Stott, <i>The Real Algeria</i>; Sir R. Lambert Playfair, <i>Handbook for
+  Travellers in Algeria</i> (Murray's Handbooks).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algesi&prime;ras.</b> See <i>Algeciras</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alghero,</b> or <b>Algheri</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-g&#x101;&prime;r&#x14D;, a<span
+  class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-g&#x101;&prime;r&#x113;), a fortified
+  town and seaport on the north-west coast of the island of Sardinia, 15
+  miles south-west of Sassari; the seat of a bishop, with a handsome
+  cathedral. One of the remarkable edifices of Alghero is the Casa Arbia,
+  where Charles V was lodged. The necropolis of Anghelu Ruju, situated in
+  the vicinity, was excavated in 1904.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algiers</b> (al&prime;j&#x113;rz; Fr., <i>Alger</i>), a city and
+  seaport on the Mediterranean, capital of the French colony of Algeria, is
+  situated on the west side of the Bay of Algiers, partly on the slope of a
+  hill facing the sea. The old town, which is the higher, is oriental in
+  appearance, with narrow, crooked streets, and houses that are strong,
+  prison-like edifices. Its crowning point is the Kasbah, or ancient
+  fortress of the Deys, about 500 feet above the sea, now serving as
+  barracks. The modern French town, which occupies the lower slope and
+  spreads along the shore, is handsomely built, with broad streets and
+  elegant squares. It contains the Government buildings, the central
+  military and civil establishments, the residence of the governor-general
+  and the officials of the general and provincial Government, the superior
+  courts of justice, the archbishop's palace and the cathedral, various
+  other churches, including an English church and library, the great
+  commercial establishments, &amp;c. A fine boulevard built on a series of
+  arches, and bordered on one side by handsome buildings, runs along the
+  sea-front of the town overlooking the bay, harbour, and shipping. Forty
+  feet below are the quay and railway-station, reached by inclined roads
+  leading from the centre of the boulevard. The harbour is good and
+  capacious, enclosed by piers or jetties, and otherwise improved at great
+  expense, and it and the city are defended by a strong series of
+  fortifications. Algiers is well provided with educational institutions,
+  including high schools or colleges for law, medicine, literature,
+  mathematics, and natural science; besides normal schools, an observatory,
+  public library, &amp;c. Algiers is in every way far the most important
+  place in Algeria. There is a large shipping trade carried on, especially
+  with Marseilles, Cette, and some of the Spanish ports. Trade routes from
+  the interior and also railways centre in Algiers, and the exports include
+  grain, wine, cattle, wool, ore, tobacco, fruit, olive-oil, &amp;c.
+  Algiers is now an important coaling station The city possesses
+  widely-extended suburbs. The climate, though variable, makes it a very
+  desirable winter residence for invalids and others from colder regions.
+  Though warm, it is bracing. There is a considerable rainfall (average 29
+  inches), but the dry air and absorbent soil prevent it from being
+  disagreeable. The winter months resemble a bright, sunny English autumn,
+  while the heat of summer is not so intense as that of <!-- Page 106
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>[106]</span>Egypt. The
+  sirocco or desert wind is troublesome, however, during summer, but in the
+  winter it is merely a pleasant, warm, dry breeze. Hailstorms are not
+  infrequent, but frost and snow in Algiers are so rare as to be almost
+  unknown. Pop. 172,397.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algin,</b> a viscous, gummy substance obtained from certain
+  seaweeds, more especially those of the genus Laminaria. It can be
+  utilized for all purposes where starch or gum is now required; may be
+  used in cookery for soups and jellies; and in an insoluble form it can be
+  cut, turned, and polished, like horn or vulcanite.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algo&prime;a Bay,</b> a bay on the south coast of the Cape
+  Province, 425 miles east of the Cape of Good Hope, the only place of
+  shelter on this coast for vessels during the prevailing north-west gales.
+  It was the first landing-place of British immigrants in 1820. The usual
+  anchorage is off Port Elizabeth, on its west coast, a place of large and
+  increasing trade, but open on the east and south-east.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algol&prime;,</b> Arabic name of a star in the constellation
+  Perseus (head of Medusa), remarkable as a variable star, changing in
+  brightness from the second to the fifth magnitude.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algo&prime;ma,</b> a district of Canada, on the north of Lake
+  Superior, forming part of the north-west portion of Ontario, rich in
+  silver, copper, iron, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algon&prime;kins,</b> or <b>Algonquins,</b> a family of North
+  American Indians, formerly spread over a great extent of territory, and
+  still forming a large proportion of the Indians of Canada. They consisted
+  of four groups, namely&mdash;(1) the eastern group, comprising the
+  Massachusetts, Narragansets, Mohicans, Delawares, and other tribes; (2)
+  the north-eastern group, consisting of the Abenakis, &amp;c.; (3) the
+  western group, made up of the Shawnees, Miamis, Illinois, &amp;c.; and
+  (4) the north-western group, including the Chippewas or Ojibbewas, the
+  largest of all the tribes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algorism,</b> or <b>Algorithmus,</b> in arithmetic, a word derived
+  from the name of Algoritmi or Al-Khowarizmi, from whose works European
+  scholars received much of their early information concerning Hindu
+  numerals. The word is now used to designate any particular arrangement of
+  numerical work.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algraphy.</b> See <i>Lithography</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alguacil,</b> or <b>Alguazil</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-gwa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-th&#x113;l&prime;), in Spain, an officer
+  whose business it is to execute the decrees of a judge; a sort of
+  constable. In ancient times the Alguacil was the great provost of the
+  palace.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Algum.</b> See <i>Almug</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alha&prime;gi.</b> See <i>Camel's-thorn</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alhama</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-lä&prime;ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>; that is, 'the bath'), a town of
+  Southern Spain, province of Granada, on the Marchan, 25 miles south-west
+  of Granada, celebrated for its warm medicinal (sulphur) baths and
+  drinking waters. It formed a Moorish fortress, the recovery of which in
+  1482 by the Spaniards led to the entire conquest of Granada. It was
+  occupied by the French from Feb., 1810-Aug., 1812, and thrown into ruins
+  by an earthquake in Dec., 1884. Pop. 8000.&mdash;There is also an
+  <i>Alhama</i> in the province of Murcia, with a warm mineral spring. Pop.
+  6000.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:64%;">
+      <a href="images/image036.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image036.jpg"
+      alt="Alhambra: The Court of the Lions" title="Alhambra: The Court of the Lions" /></a>
+    Alhambra&mdash;The Court of the Lions
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Alham&prime;bra</b> (Ar. <i>al</i> and <i>hamrah</i>, 'the' and
+  'red'), a famous group of buildings in Spain, forming the citadel of
+  Granada when that city was one of the principal seats of the empire of
+  the Moors in Spain, situated on a height, surrounded by a wall flanked by
+  many towers, and having a circuit of 2¼ miles. Within the circuit of the
+  walls are two churches, a number of mean houses, and some straggling
+  gardens, besides the palace of Charles V and the celebrated Moorish
+  palace which is often distinctively spoken of as the Alhambra. This
+  building, to which the celebrity of the site is entirely due, was the
+  royal palace of the Kings of Granada. The greater part of the present
+  building belongs to the first half of the fourteenth century. In the
+  course of centuries, both through neglect and acts of vandalism, the
+  beauty of the Alhambra has suffered considerably. The work of restoration
+  was, however, undertaken in 1824 by the architect José Contreras, and
+  continued by his son Rafael from 1847-90. It consists mainly of buildings
+  surrounding two oblong courts, the one, called the Court of the Fishpond
+  (or of the Myrtles), 138 by 74 feet, lying north and south; the other,
+  called the Court of the Lions, from a fountain ornamented with twelve
+  lions in marble, 115 by 66 feet, lying east and west, described as being,
+  with the apartments that surround it, "the gem of Arabian art in Spain,
+  its most beautiful and most perfect example". Its design is elaborate,
+  exhibiting a profusion of exquisite detail gorgeous in colouring, but the
+  smallness of its size deprives it of the element of majesty. The
+  peristyle or portico on each side is supported by 128 pillars of white
+  marble, 11 feet high, sometimes placed singly and sometimes in groups.
+  Two pavilions project into the court at each end, the domed roof of one
+  having been restored. Some of the finest chambers of the Alhambra open
+  into this court, and near the entrance a museum of Moorish remains has
+  been formed. On the opposite side of the Court of the Lions is the Hall
+  of the Abencerrages. The prevalence of stucco or plaster ornamentation is
+  one of the features of the Alhambra, which becomes especially remarkable
+  in the beautiful honeycomb 'stalactite vaulting'. Arabesques and
+  geometrical designs with interwoven inscriptions are present in the
+  richest profusion. Cf. Owen <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page107"></a>[107]</span>Jones's work, <i>The Alhambra</i> (2
+  vols., London, 1842-5.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alhaurin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-ou-r&#x113;n&prime;), a town of
+  Southern Spain, province of Malaga, with sulphureous baths. Pop.
+  7000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ali</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>&prime;l&#x113;), cousin and son-in-law
+  of Mahomet, the first of his converts, and the bravest and most faithful
+  of his adherents, born <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 602. He married
+  Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, but after the death of Mahomet (632)
+  his claims to the caliphate were set aside in favour successively of
+  Abu-Bekr, Omar, and Othman. On the assassination of Othman, in <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 656, he became caliph, and after a series of
+  struggles with his opponents, including Ayesha, widow of Mahomet, finally
+  lost his life by assassination at Kufa in 661. A Mahommedan schism arose
+  after his death, and has produced two sects. One sect, called the
+  Shiites, put Ali on a level with Mahomet, and do not acknowledge the
+  three caliphs who preceded Ali. They are regarded as heretics by the
+  other sect, called Sunnites. The Turks hold his memory in abhorrence,
+  whilst the Persians call him the Lion of God, and venerate him as second
+  only to the prophet. The <i>Maxims</i> and <i>Hymns</i> of Ali are yet
+  extant. See <i>Caliph</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ali,</b> Pasha of Yan&#x12D;na, generally called <i>Ali Pasha</i>,
+  a bold and able, but ferocious and unscrupulous Albanian, born in 1741,
+  son of an Albanian chief, who was deprived of his territories by
+  rapacious neighbours. Ali by his enterprise and success, and by his
+  entire want of scruple, got possession of more than his father had lost,
+  and made himself master of a large part of Albania, including
+  Yan&#x12D;na, which the Porte sanctioned his holding, with the title of
+  pasha. Among the travellers who visited his Court at Yan&#x12D;na was
+  Byron, who has left a record of his impressions in <i>Childe Harold's
+  Pilgrimage</i>. Ali Pasha was an apostle of European culture in the East,
+  and the first to feel the necessity for energetic reforms in the old
+  Moslem institutions. He displayed excellent qualities, putting an end to
+  brigandage and anarchy, making roads, and encouraging commerce. He still
+  farther extended his sway by subduing the brave Suliotes of Epirus, whom
+  he conquered in 1803, after a three years' war. Aiming at independent
+  sovereignty, he intrigued alternately with England, France, and Russia,
+  and became almost independent of the Porte, which at length determined,
+  in 1820, to pronounce his <!-- Page 108 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page108"></a>[108]</span>deposition. Ali resisted several pashas
+  who were sent to carry out this decision, only surrendering at last in
+  1822, on receiving assurances that his life and property would be granted
+  him. Faith was not kept with him, however; he was killed, and his head
+  was cut off and conveyed to Constantinople, while his treasures were
+  seized by the Porte.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;ias</b> (Lat., 'at another time'), a word often used in
+  judicial proceedings in connection with the different names that persons
+  have assumed, most likely for prudential reasons, at different times, and
+  in order to conceal identity, as Joseph Smith <i>alias</i> Thomas
+  Jones.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alibert</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x113;-b&#x101;r), Jean Louis, Baron,
+  a distinguished French physician, born 1766, died 1837. He was a
+  professor in Paris, and chief physician at the Hospital St. Louis. He
+  wrote many valuable works on medical subjects, such as <i>Description des
+  maladies de la peau</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ali Bey,</b> a ruler of Egypt, born in the Caucasus in 1728, was
+  taken to Cairo and sold as a slave, but having entered the force of the
+  Mamelukes, and attained the first dignity among them, he succeeded in
+  making himself virtual governor of Egypt. He then refused the customary
+  tribute to the Porte, and coined money in his own name. In 1769 he took
+  advantage of a war, in which the Porte was then engaged with Russia, to
+  endeavour to add Syria and Palestine to his Egyptian dominion, and in
+  this he had almost succeeded, when the defection of his own adopted son
+  Mohammed Bey drove him from Egypt. Joining his ally Sheikh Daher in
+  Syria, he still pursued his plans of conquest with remarkable success,
+  till in 1773 he was induced to make the attempt to recover Egypt with
+  insufficient means. In a battle near Cairo his army was completely
+  defeated and he himself taken prisoner, dying a few days afterwards
+  either of his wounds or by poison.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;ibi</b> (Lat., 'elsewhere'), a defence in criminal
+  procedure, by which the accused endeavours to prove that when the alleged
+  crime was committed he was present in a different place.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alicante</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x113;-ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n&prime;t&#x101;), a fortified town and
+  Mediterranean seaport in Spain, capital of the province of the same name,
+  picturesquely situated partly on the slope of a hill, partly on the plain
+  at the foot, about 80 miles south by west of Valencia. The lower town has
+  wide and well-built streets; the upper town is old and irregularly built.
+  The principal manufactures are cotton, linen, and cigars; the chief
+  export is wine, which largely goes to England. Alicante is an ancient
+  town. In 718 it was taken by the Moors, from whom it was wrested about
+  1240. In modern times it has been several times besieged and bombarded,
+  as by the French in 1709, and in 1812, and by the federalists of
+  Cartagena in 1873. Pop. 58,088.&mdash;The province is very fruitful and
+  well cultivated, producing wine, silk, fruits, &amp;c. The wine is of a
+  dark colour (hence called <i>vino tinto</i>, deep-coloured wine), and is
+  heavy and sweet. Area, 2185 sq. miles. Pop. 502,607.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alicata,</b> or <b>Licata</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x113;-kä&prime;ta<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>,
+  l&#x113;-kä&prime;ta<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), the most important commercial town on
+  the <span class="scac">S.</span> coast of Sicily, at the mouth of the
+  Salso, 24 miles <span class="scac">E.S.E.</span> of Girgenti, with a
+  considerable trade in sulphur, grain, wine, oil, nuts, almonds, and soda.
+  It occupies the site of the town which the Tyrant Phintias of Acragas
+  erected and named after himself, when Gela was destroyed in 280. Pop.
+  22,931.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alice Maud Mary,</b> Princess, second daughter of Queen Victoria,
+  Duchess of Saxony, and Grand-duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, born 1843, died
+  1878. In 1862 she married Frederick William Louis of Hesse, nephew of the
+  grand-duke, whom he succeeded in 1877. She showed exemplary devotion to
+  her father Prince Albert during his fatal illness and to the Prince of
+  Wales during his attack of fever in 1871. During the Franco-Prussian war
+  she organized hospitals for the relief of the sick and wounded. She died
+  from diphtheria caught while nursing her husband and children. A
+  selection of her letters to her mother was published in 1883 by Dr. Carl
+  Sell.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A&prime;lien,</b> in relation to any country, a person born out of
+  the jurisdiction of the country, and not having acquired the full rights
+  of a citizen of it. The position of aliens depends upon the laws of the
+  respective countries, but generally speaking aliens owe a local
+  allegiance, and are bound equally with natives to obey all general rules
+  for the preservation of order which do not relate specially to citizens.
+  Aliens have been often treated with great harshness by the laws of some
+  States. Thus in France there long existed what was known as the <i>droit
+  d'aubaine</i>, a law which claimed for the benefit of the State the
+  effects of deceased foreigners leaving no heirs who were natives. Aliens
+  have been repeatedly the objects of legislation in Britain, and the
+  tendency at the present day is to communicate some of the rights of
+  citizenship to aliens, and to widen the definition of subjects. According
+  to the Act of 1870 that now regulates the matter, real and personal
+  property of every description may be acquired, held, and disposed of by
+  an alien, in the same manner in all respects as by a natural-born British
+  subject. No other right or privilege (such as the right to hold any
+  office or any municipal, parliamentary, or other franchise) is by this
+  Act conferred on an alien except such as are expressly given in respect
+  of property. Previously aliens could hold only personal property; they
+  were incompetent to hold landed property, except under certain conditions
+  of residence or <!-- Page 109 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page109"></a>[109]</span>business occupancy for a term of years not
+  exceeding twenty-one. The children of aliens born in Britain are
+  natural-born subjects. Formerly the only mode of naturalization was by
+  Act of Parliament; but now an alien who has resided in the United Kingdom
+  for not less than one year immediately preceding his application, and has
+  previously resided in any part of His Majesty's dominions for four years
+  during the last eight years before the application, or who has been in
+  the service of the Crown for not less than five years, and intends to
+  reside in the kingdom, or to serve the British Crown, may apply to the
+  Secretary of State for a certificate of naturalization, and on giving
+  evidence of particulars may obtain it, being thereby entitled to almost
+  all the political and other rights of a natural-born British subject. At
+  present the law is laid down in the British Nationality and Status of
+  Aliens Act, 1914 and 1918. It used to be a principle in English law, that
+  a natural-born subject could not divest himself of his allegiance by
+  becoming naturalized in a foreign State (<i>nemo potest exuere
+  patriam</i>); but it is now laid down that a British subject who has
+  voluntarily become naturalized in a foreign State thereby ceases to be a
+  British subject. Any British subject who has become an alien may apply
+  for a certificate of readmission to British nationality on the same terms
+  as those provided for aliens in general. In the United States the
+  position of aliens as regards acquisition and holding of real property
+  differs somewhat in the different States, though in recent times the
+  disabilities of aliens have been removed in most of them. Personal
+  property they can take, hold, and dispose of like native citizens.
+  Individual States have no jurisdiction on the subject of naturalization,
+  though they may pass laws admitting aliens to any privilege short of
+  citizenship. A naturalized citizen is not eligible for election as
+  president or vice-president of the United States, and cannot serve as
+  senator until after nine years' citizenship, nor as a member of the House
+  of Representatives until after seven years' citizenship. Five years'
+  residence in the United States and one year's permanent residence in the
+  particular State are necessary for the attainment of citizenship.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alien Immigration.</b> In various countries certain classes of
+  aliens have long been prohibited from gaining admission. In the United
+  States, for instance, admission is refused to such persons as idiots,
+  epileptics, persons suffering from loathsome or dangerous contagious
+  diseases, paupers, criminals (except political criminals), illiterate
+  persons, &amp;c. Chinese labourers as a whole are excluded, and even any
+  persons coming to America under a definite agreement to engage in any
+  kind of labour or service. Similar laws are in force in Australia, where
+  there is a test that a person proposing to settle in the country must be
+  able to write fifty words of a European language. Towards the end of last
+  century the great influx of foreigners into Britain, and into London in
+  particular, drew public attention to the matter. A select committee
+  appointed in 1888 reported in favour of the exclusion of destitute
+  aliens, in 1894 a bill was introduced into the House of Lords, while in
+  1898 a bill to regulate the immigration of aliens was passed in the
+  Lords, but made no further progress. In 1902 a royal commission was
+  appointed, and drew up a report, published in 1903, containing valuable
+  information and various recommendations. Among these were the
+  establishment of an immigration department, and the granting of powers to
+  deport criminals, prostitutes, and other undesirable aliens, and to
+  prevent the landing of persons mentally unfit or suffering from
+  infectious or loathsome diseases. In 1904 an Aliens Immigration Bill was
+  introduced and read a second time in the House of Commons. It was based
+  on the recommendations of the commission, and in its favour it was argued
+  that a large amount of British labour had been displaced by aliens, in
+  London especially, that the prevalence of crime among aliens was out of
+  proportion to their numbers, that many of them were paupers, criminals
+  convicted in their own country, or other undesirables. In 1905 another
+  bill on the subject was introduced by the Government, which succeeded in
+  passing it, so that the matter can now be dealt with, and undesirable
+  aliens kept out. Since the European War (1914-8) and the new passport
+  regulations it is easy to ascertain the number of aliens that enter the
+  country and settle. At the census of 1901 the whole alien population was
+  set down at 286,925, as against 219,523 in 1891, but there has been a
+  very large influx from 1901 to 1914, by far the largest number consisting
+  of Russian and Polish Jews. The restrictions imposed upon aliens during
+  the European War are still in force, so far as they prohibit landing by
+  any alien, except at specified ports by leave of an immigration officer,
+  and, in case of former enemy aliens, by special permission of the Home
+  Secretary. Cf. J.&nbsp;M. Landa, <i>The Alien Problem</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aliganj</b> (<i>a</i>-l&#x113;-g<i>a</i>nj'), a town of Bengal, 54
+  miles from Dinapur, noted for its pottery. It has a trade in grain,
+  indigo-seed, and cotton, and contains two mosques, and a large mud fort.
+  Pop. 7436.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aligarh</b> (<i>a</i>-l&#x113;-g<i>a</i>r'), a fort and town in
+  India, in the United Provinces, on the East Indian railway, 84 miles
+  south-east of Delhi. The town, properly called Koel or Coel, is distant
+  about 2 miles from the fort, and is connected with it by a beautiful
+  avenue. It is handsome and well <!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page110"></a>[110]</span>situated, and has a trade in cotton,
+  &amp;c. The fort, which had been skilfully strengthened by French
+  engineers in the service of the Mahrattas, was taken by storm after a
+  desperate resistance in 1803 by the British forces under Lord Lake, when
+  the whole district was added to the British possessions. Pop. 64,825. The
+  district has an area of 1946 sq. miles. Pop. 1,165,680.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Align&prime;ment</b> (a-l&#x12B;n&prime;ment), a military term,
+  signifying the act of adjusting to a straight line or in regular straight
+  lines, or the state of being so adjusted.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;iment,</b> food, a term which includes everything, solid
+  or liquid, serving as nutriment for the bodily system. Aliments are of
+  the most diverse character, but all of them must contain nutritious
+  matter of some kind, which, being extracted by the act of digestion,
+  enters the blood, and effects by assimilation the repair of the body.
+  Alimentary matter, therefore, must be similar to animal substance, or
+  transmutable into such. All alimentary substances must, therefore, be
+  composed in a greater or less degree of soluble parts, which easily lose
+  their peculiar qualities in the process of digestion, and correspond to
+  the elements of the body. The food of animals consists for the most part
+  of substances containing little oxygen and exhibiting a high degree of
+  chemical combination, in which respects they differ from most substances
+  that serve as sustenance for plants, which are generally highly oxidized
+  and exhibit little chemical combination. According to the nature of their
+  constituents most of the aliments of animals are divided into nitrogenous
+  (consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen along with nitrogen, and also
+  of sulphur and phosphorus) and non-nitrogenous (consisting of carbon,
+  hydrogen, and oxygen without nitrogen). Water and salts are usually
+  considered as forming a third group, and, in the widest sense of the word
+  aliment, oxygen alone, which enters the blood in the lungs, forms the
+  fourth. The articles used as food by man do not consist entirely of
+  nutritious substances, but with few exceptions are compounds of various
+  nutritious with indigestible and accordingly innutritious substances. The
+  only nitrogenous aliments are albuminous substances, and these are
+  contained largely in animal food (flesh, eggs, milk, cheese). The
+  principal non-nitrogenous substance obtained as food from animals is fat.
+  Sugar is so obtained in smaller quantities (in milk). While some
+  vegetable substances also contain much albumen, very many of them are
+  rich in starch. Among vegetable substances the richest in albumen are the
+  legumes (peas, beans, and lentils), and following them come the cereals
+  (wheat, oats, &amp;c.). Sugar, water, and salts may pass without any
+  change into the circulatory system; but albuminous substances cannot do
+  so without being first rendered soluble and capable of absorption (in the
+  stomach and intestines); starch must be converted into sugar and fat
+  emulsified (chiefly by the action of the pancreatic juice). One of the
+  objects of cooking is to make our food more susceptible of the operation
+  of the digestive fluids.</p>
+
+  <p>The relative importance of the various nutritious substances that are
+  taken into the system and enter the blood depends upon their chemical
+  constitution. The albuminous substances are the most indispensable,
+  inasmuch as they form the material by which the constant waste of the
+  body is repaired, whence they are called by Liebig the substance-formers.
+  But a part of the operation of albuminous nutriments may be performed
+  equally well, and at less cost, by non-nitrogenous substances, that part
+  being the maintenance of the temperature of the body. As is well known,
+  the temperature of warm-blooded animals is considerably higher than the
+  ordinary temperature of the surrounding air, in man about 98° F., and the
+  uniformity of this temperature is maintained by the heat which is set
+  free by the chemical processes (of oxidation) which go on within the
+  body. Now these processes take place as well with non-nitrogenous as with
+  nitrogenous substances. The former are even preferable to the latter for
+  the keeping up of these processes; by oxidation they yield larger
+  quantities of heat with less labour to the body, and they are hence
+  called the heat-givers. The best heat-giver is fat. Albuminous matters
+  are not only the tissue-formers of the body; they also supply the vehicle
+  for the oxygen, inasmuch as it is of such matters that the blood
+  corpuscles are formed. The more red blood corpuscles an animal possesses,
+  the more oxygen can it take into its system, and the more easily and
+  rapidly can it carry on the process of oxidation and develop heat. Now
+  only a part of the heat so developed passes away into the environment of
+  the animal; another part is transformed within the body (in the muscles)
+  into mechanical work. Hence it follows that the non-nitrogenous articles
+  of food produce not merely heat but also work, but only with the
+  assistance of albuminous matters, which, on the one hand, compose the
+  working machine, and, on the other hand, convey the oxygen necessary for
+  oxidation.</p>
+
+  <p>The wholesome or unwholesome character of any aliment depends, in a
+  great measure, on the state of the digestive organs in any given case, as
+  also on the method in which it is cooked. Very often a simple aliment is
+  made indigestible by artificial cookery. In any given case the digestive
+  power of the individual is to be considered in order to determine whether
+  a particular aliment is wholesome or not. In general, therefore, we can
+  only say that that aliment is healthy <!-- Page 111 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page111"></a>[111]</span>which is easily
+  soluble, and is suited to the power of digestion of the individual. Man
+  is fitted to derive nourishment both from animal and vegetable aliment,
+  but can live exclusively on either. The nations of the North incline
+  generally more to animal aliments; those of the South, and the Orientals,
+  more to vegetable. The inhabitants of the most northerly regions live
+  almost entirely upon animal food, and very largely on fat on account of
+  its heat-giving property. See <i>Dietetics</i>, <i>Digestion</i>,
+  <i>Adulteration</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alimentary Canal,</b> a common name given to the &oelig;sophagus,
+  stomach, and intestines of animals. See <i>&OElig;sophagus</i>,
+  <i>Intestine</i>, <i>Stomach</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ali-Mirza,</b> Shah of Persia, son of Muzaffar-ed-Din, born in
+  1872. He succeeded his father on 8th Jan., 1907. Although his European
+  education had given him sympathies for Western civilization, he showed
+  himself despotic, and became very unpopular. He was deposed by the
+  National Assembly or Mejliss in July, 1909, and his son proclaimed Shah
+  in his place.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;imony</b> (Lat. <i>alere</i>, to nourish), in law, the
+  allowance to which a woman is entitled while a matrimonial suit is
+  pending between her and her husband, or after a legal separation from her
+  husband, not occasioned by adultery or elopement on her part. It is
+  either temporary or permanent, the former being the provision made by the
+  husband pending the suit, the latter after the decree.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;iquot Part</b> is such part of a number as will divide and
+  measure it exactly without any remainder. For instance, 2 is an aliquot
+  part of 4, 3 of 12, and 4 of 20.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alisma&prime;ceæ,</b> the water-plantain family, a natural order of
+  endogenous plants, the members of which are herbaceous, annual or
+  perennial; with petiolate leaves sheathing at the base, hermaphrodite
+  (rarely unisexual) flowers, disposed in spikes, panicles, or racemes.
+  They are floating or marsh plants, and many have edible fleshy rhizomes.
+  They are found in all countries, but especially in Europe and North
+  America, where their rather brilliant flowers adorn the pools and
+  streams. The principal genera are <i>Alisma</i> (water-plantain)
+  <i>Sagittaria</i> (arrow-head), <i>Damasonium</i> (star-fruit), and
+  <i>Butomus</i> (flowering-rush).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;ison,</b> Rev. Archibald, a theologian and writer on
+  æsthetics, born at Edinburgh in 1757; died there in 1839. He studied at
+  Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, entered the English Church, and
+  finally (1800) settled as the minister of an Episcopal chapel at
+  Edinburgh. He published 2 volumes of sermons, and a work entitled
+  <i>Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste</i> (1790), in which he
+  maintains that all the beauty of material objects depends upon the
+  associations connected with them.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;ison,</b> Sir Archibald, lawyer and writer of history, son
+  of the above, was born in Shropshire in 1792, and died in 1867, near
+  Glasgow. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh, and in 1814 was
+  admitted to the Scottish bar. He spent the next eight years in
+  Continental travel. On his return he was appointed advocate depute, which
+  post he held till 1830. In 1832 he published <i>Principles of the
+  Criminal Law of Scotland</i>, and in 1833 <i>The Practice of the Criminal
+  Law</i>. He was appointed sheriff of Lanarkshire in 1834, and retained
+  this post till his death. He was made a baronet in 1852. His chief
+  work&mdash;<i>The History of Europe, from 1789 to 1815</i>&mdash;was
+  first issued in 10 vols., 1833-42, the narrative being subsequently
+  brought down to 1852, the beginning of the second French Empire. This
+  work displays industry and research, and is generally accurate, but not
+  very readable. It has been translated into French, German, Arabic,
+  Hindustani, &amp;c. Among Sir Archibald's other productions are
+  <i>Principles of Population</i>; <i>Free-trade and Protection</i>;
+  <i>England in 1815 and 1845</i>; <i>Life of the Duke of Marlborough</i>,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;ison,</b> General Sir Archibald, <span
+  class="scac">G.C.B.</span>, son of the above, was born 1826, entered the
+  army in 1846, and served in the Crimea, in India during the mutiny, and
+  in the Ashantee expedition of 1873-4. In Egypt, in 1882, he led the
+  Highland Brigade at the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, and in 1882-3 remained in
+  command of the army of occupation (of 12,000 men). He retired from the
+  army in 1893, and died in 1907.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aliwal&prime;,</b> a village of Hindustan in the Punjab, on the
+  left bank of the Sutlej, celebrated from the battle fought in its
+  vicinity, 28th Jan., 1846, between the Sikhs and a British army commanded
+  by Sir Harry Smith, resulting in the total defeat of the Sikhs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aliwal North,</b> a town in the eastern part of Cape Province, on
+  the Orange River, which here forms the boundary with the Orange Free
+  State, and is crossed by a fine bridge&mdash;the Frere Bridge. It stands
+  at the height of 4350 feet, in a locality said to be highly suitable for
+  consumptives, and the warm sulphur springs in the neighbourhood also
+  attract many invalids. It is a well-built place, with churches, hotels,
+  golf links, race-course, &amp;c.; and has railway connection with East
+  London, Port Elizabeth, &amp;c. Pop. 5557.&mdash;<i>Aliwal South</i> was
+  a name formerly given to Mossel Bay, the small seaport midway between
+  Cape Town and Port Elizabeth.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aliz&prime;arine,</b> a substance contained in the madder root
+  (<i>Rubia tinctorum</i>), and largely used in dyeing reds of various
+  shades, as Turkey red, &amp;c. Until 1868 it was obtained entirely from
+  madder root, but the use of the root has been almost superseded by the
+  employment of alizarine itself, prepared artificially from one of the
+  <!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page112"></a>[112]</span>constituents of coal-tar. It forms
+  yellowish-red prismatic crystals, nearly insoluble in cold, but dissolved
+  to a small extent by boiling water, and readily soluble in alcohol and
+  ether. It possesses exceedingly strong tinctorial powers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;kahest,</b> the so-called universal solvent or menstruum
+  of the alchemists. The word is believed to have been invented by
+  Paracelsus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;kali</b> (from Ar. <i>al-qali</i>, the ashes of the plant
+  from which soda was first obtained, or the plant itself), a term first
+  used to designate the soluble parts of the ashes of plants, especially of
+  seaweed, and designated <i>fixed alkali</i>, as marking a distinction
+  from ammonia, which was termed <i>volatile alkali</i>. Now the term is
+  applied to various classes of bodies having the following properties in
+  common: (1) solubility in water; (2) the power of neutralizing acids, and
+  forming salts with them; (3) the property of corroding animal and
+  vegetable substances; (4) the property of altering the tint of many
+  colouring matters&mdash;thus, they turn litmus, reddened by an acid, into
+  blue; turmeric, brown; and syrup of violets and infusion of red cabbages,
+  green. The alkalies may be regarded as water in which part of the
+  hydrogen is replaced by a metallic radicle. The caustic alkalies are
+  strong alkalies which have a powerful corrosive action on the skin, and
+  the common ones are potassic hydroxide or caustic potash, sodic hydroxide
+  or caustic soda, and lithic hydroxide. <i>Volatile Alkali</i>, or ammonic
+  hydroxide, is a much feebler alkali than the others, and when the
+  solution is heated all the ammonia is driven off. Other alkalies are
+  calcic hydroxide or slaked lime, a solution of which in water is known as
+  <i>lime-water</i>; baric hydroxide and strontic hydroxide, derived from
+  the metals barium and strontium. Quicklime is the only alkali extensively
+  used in agriculture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alkalim&prime;eter,</b> an instrument for ascertaining the quantity
+  of free alkali in any impure specimen, as in the potashes of commerce.
+  These, besides the carbonate of potash, of which they principally
+  consist, usually contain a portion of foreign salts, as sulphate and
+  chloride of potassium, and as the true worth of the substance, or price
+  for which it ought to sell, depends entirely on the quantity of
+  carbonate, it is of importance to be able to measure it accurately by
+  some easy process. This process depends on the neutralization of the
+  alkali by an acid of known strength, the point of neutralization being
+  determined by the fact that neutral liquids are without action on either
+  red or blue litmus solution. The alkalimeter is merely a graduated
+  tube&mdash;a burette&mdash;with a stopcock at the lower extremity, from
+  which the standard acid is dropped into water in which a known weight of
+  the substance is dissolved. The quantity required to produce
+  neutralization being noted, the strength of the liquid tested is easily
+  arrived at. A process of neutralization, exactly the same in principle,
+  may be employed to test the strength of acids by alkalies, the one
+  process being called <i>alkalimetry</i> the other <i>acidimetry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;kaloid,</b> a term applied to a class of nitrogenous
+  compounds having basic properties, found in living plants, usually in
+  combination with organic acids. They are usually given names ending in
+  <i>-ine</i>, as <i>morphine</i>, <i>quinine</i>, <i>aconitine</i>,
+  <i>nicotine</i>, <i>caffeine</i>, &amp;c. Most alkaloids occur in plants,
+  but some are formed by decomposition. Most natural alkaloids contain
+  carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, but a few contain no oxygen. The
+  nitrogen they contain imparts to them basic properties&mdash;they are
+  organic bases&mdash;and hence they all form salts with acids. They all
+  possess a pronounced bitter taste, and the poisonous nature of many
+  plants, e.g. hemlock, yew, deadly nightshade, &amp;c., are due to the
+  alkaloids they contain. Although formed originally within the plant, it
+  has been found possible to prepare several of these alkaloids by
+  artificial means.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;kanet,</b> a dyeing drug, the bark of the root of the
+  <i>Anch&#x16B;sa</i> or <i>Alkanna tinctoria</i>, a plant of the order
+  Boraginaceæ, with downy and spear-shaped leaves, and clusters of small
+  purple or reddish flowers. The plant is sometimes cultivated in Britain,
+  chiefly on the east coast of England, but most of the alkanet of commerce
+  is imported from the Levant or from southern France. It imparts a fine
+  deep-red colour to all unctuous substances and is used for colouring
+  oils, plasters, lip-salve, confections, &amp;c.; also in compositions for
+  rubbing and giving colour to mahogany furniture, and to colour spurious
+  port-wine.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alkan&prime;na,</b> a name of henna. See also <i>Alkanet</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alkar&prime;sin,</b> an extremely poisonous liquid containing
+  kakodyle, together with oxidation products of this substance, and
+  formerly known as <i>Cadet's fuming liquor</i>, characterized by its
+  insupportable smell and high degree of spontaneous combustibility when
+  exposed to air.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al-katif,</b> a town of Arabia, on the Persian Gulf, carrying on a
+  considerable trade. Pop. 6000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alkmaar</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>lk&prime;mär), a town of the Netherlands,
+  province of North Holland, on the North Holland Canal, and 20 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Amsterdam; regularly built, with a fine
+  church (St. Lawrence) and a richly decorated Gothic town-house;
+  manufactures of salt, sail-cloth, vinegar, leather, &amp;c., and an
+  extensive trade in cattle, corn, butter, and cheese. Pop. 22,685.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al-Ko&prime;ran,</b> or <b>Qu&#x201B;ran</b>. See <i>Koran</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alla breve</b> (br&#x101;&prime;v&#x101;), a musical direction
+  expressing that a breve is to be played as fast as a semibreve, a
+  semibreve as fast as a minim, and <!-- Page 113 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>[113]</span>so on. It is also
+  called a capella, as it is employed in church music.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;lah,</b> in Arabic, the name of God, a word of kindred
+  origin with the Hebrew word <i>Elohim</i>. <i>Alla Akbar</i> (God is
+  great) is a Mahommedan war-cry.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allahab&#x101;d&prime;</b> ('city of Allah'), an ancient city of
+  India, capital of the United Provinces, on the wedge of land formed by
+  the Jumna and the Ganges, largely built of mud houses, though the English
+  quarter has more of a European aspect. Among the remarkable buildings are
+  the fort, occupying the angle between the rivers, and containing the
+  remains of an ancient palace, and now also the barracks, &amp;c.; the
+  mausoleum and garden of Khosru, the tomb being a handsome domed building;
+  the Government offices and courts; Government house; the Roman Catholic
+  cathedral; the Central College for the United Provinces; the Mayo
+  Memorial and town hall. Allahabad is one of the chief resorts of Hindu
+  pilgrims, who have their sins washed away by bathing in the waters of the
+  sacred rivers Ganges and Jumna at their junction; and is also the scene
+  of a great fair in December and January. There are no manufactures of
+  importance, but a large general and transit trade is carried on. The town
+  is as old as the third century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In the
+  mutiny of 1857 it was the scene of a serious outbreak and massacre. Pop.
+  171,697.&mdash;The division of <i>Allahabad</i> contains the districts of
+  Cawnpur, Futtehpur, Hamirpur, Banda, Jaunpur, and Allahabad; area, 17,265
+  sq. miles. Pop. 5,535,803.&mdash;The district contains an area of 2852
+  sq. miles, about five-sixths being under cultivation. Pop. 1,487,904.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allaman&prime;da,</b> a genus of American tropical plants, ord.
+  Apocynaceæ, with large yellow or violet flowers; some of them are grown
+  in European greenhouses. <i>A. cathartica</i> has strong emetic and
+  purgative properties.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allan,</b> David, a Scottish painter, born 1744, died 1796. He
+  studied in Foulis's academy of painting and engraving in Glasgow, and for
+  sixteen years in Italy; finally establishing himself at Edinburgh, where
+  he succeeded Runciman as master of the Trustees' Academy. His
+  illustrations of the <i>Gentle Shepherd</i>, <i>The Cotter's Saturday
+  Night</i>, and other sketches of rustic life and manners in Scotland are
+  his best-known works.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allan,</b> Sir William, a distinguished Scottish artist, born in
+  1782, died in 1850. He was a fellow student with Wilkie in Edinburgh,
+  afterwards a student of the Royal Academy, London. After residing in
+  Russia for ten years, he returned to Scotland, and publicly exhibited his
+  pictures, one of which (<i>Circassian Captives</i>) made his reputation.
+  He now turned his attention to historical painting, and produced <i>Knox
+  admonishing Mary Queen of Scots</i>, <i>Murder of Rizzio</i>, <i>Exiles
+  on their way to Siberia</i>, <i>The Slave Market at Constantinople</i>,
+  &amp;c.; and afterwards also battle scenes, as the <i>Battle of
+  Prestonpans</i>, <i>Nelson boarding the San Nicolas</i>, and two pictures
+  of <i>The Battle of Waterloo</i>, the one from the British, the other
+  from the French position, and delineating the actual scene and the
+  incidents therein taking place at the moment chosen for the
+  representation. One of these Waterloo pictures was purchased by the Duke
+  of Wellington. He travelled extensively, visiting Italy, Greece, Asia
+  Minor, Spain, and Barbary. In 1835 he became a Royal Academician, in 1838
+  president of the Scottish Academy, and in 1842 he was knighted.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allan&prime;tois,</b> a structure appearing during the early
+  development of vertebrate animals&mdash;Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia. It
+  is largely made up of blood-vessels, and, especially in Birds, attains a
+  large size. It forms the inner lining to the shell, and may thus be
+  viewed as the surface by means of which the respiration of the embryo is
+  carried on. In Mammalia the allantois is not so largely developed as in
+  Birds, and it enters largely into the formation of the placenta.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alleghany</b> (al-le-g&#x101;&prime;ni), a river of Pennsylvania
+  and New York, which unites with the Monongahela at Pittsburg to form the
+  Ohio; navigable nearly 200 miles above Pittsburg.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alleghany Mountains,</b> or the <b>Alleghanies,</b> a name
+  sometimes used as synonymous with Appalachians, but also often restricted
+  to the portion of those mountains that traverses the states of Virginia,
+  Maryland, and Pennsylvania from south-west to north-east, and consists of
+  a series of parallel ridges for the most part wooded to the summit, and
+  with some fertile valleys between. Their mean elevation is about 2500
+  feet; but in Virginia they rise to 4473.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allegheny</b> (al-le-gen&prime;i), a city of the United States, in
+  Pennsylvania, on the River Allegheny, opposite Pittsburg, of which it may
+  be considered virtually to be a suburb, and with which it is connected by
+  six bridges. The principal industries are connected with iron and
+  machinery. Pop. 132,283. Also called Allegheny City.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alle&prime;giance</b> (from mid-Eng. <i>ligeaunce</i>, formed from
+  <i>liege</i>), according to Blackstone, is "the tie or <i>ligamen</i>
+  which binds the subject to the sovereign in return for that protection
+  which the sovereign affords the subject", or, generally, the obedience
+  which every subject or citizen owes to the Government of his country. It
+  used to be the doctrine of the English law that natural-born subjects owe
+  an allegiance which is intrinsic and perpetual, and which cannot be
+  divested by any act of their own (<i>Nemo potest exuere patriam</i>); but
+  this is no longer the case since the Naturalization Act passed in 1870, A
+  British subject, however, or <!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page114"></a>[114]</span>a child who has acquired a British
+  domicile by the naturalization of an alien parent, cannot in time of war
+  divest himself of British nationality for the purpose of becoming an
+  enemy alien. Aliens owe a temporary or local allegiance to the Government
+  under which they for the time reside. Usurpers in undisturbed possession
+  of the Crown are entitled to allegiance; and thus treasons against Henry
+  VI were punished in the reign of Edward IV, though the former had, by Act
+  of Parliament, been declared a usurper.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;legory,</b> a figurative representation in which the signs
+  (words or forms) signify something besides their literal or direct
+  meaning. In rhetoric, allegory is often but a continued simile. Parables
+  and fables are a species of allegory. Sometimes long works are throughout
+  allegorical, as Spenser's <i>Faerie Queene</i> and Bunyan's <i>Pilgrim's
+  Progress</i>. When an allegory is thus continued it is indispensable to
+  its success that not only the allegorical meaning should be appropriate,
+  but that the story should have an interest of its own in the direct
+  meaning apart from the allegorical significance. Allegories are frequent
+  in the Old Testament, whilst in the New they take the form of parables.
+  One of the best-known allegories in classical literature is the story of
+  the stomach and the members of the body in the speech attributed to
+  Menenius Agrippa by Plutarch and Livy. (Cf. Shakespeare,
+  <i>Coriolanus</i>, i, 1.) Allegory is often made use of in painting and
+  sculpture as well as in literature.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allegri</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-l&#x101;&prime;gr&#x113;), Gregorio, an
+  Italian composer, born at Rome in 1560 or 1585, died there about 1650;
+  celebrated for his <i>Miserere</i>, a setting of the fifty-first psalm
+  (the fiftieth in the <i>Vulgate</i>), which in the Latin version begins
+  with that word. Allegri's <i>Miserere</i> is annually performed in the
+  Sistine Chapel at Rome.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allegro</b> (It., a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-l&#x101;&prime;gr&#x14D;), a musical
+  term expressing a more or less quick rate of movement, or a piece of
+  music or movement in lively time. <i>Allegro moderato</i>, moderately
+  quick; <i>allegro maestoso</i>, quick but with dignity; <i>allegro
+  assai</i> and <i>allegro molto</i>, very quick; <i>allegro con brio</i>
+  or <i>con fuoco</i>, with fire and energy; <i>allegrissimo</i>, with the
+  utmost rapidity.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allein</b> (al&prime;en), Joseph, English Nonconformist divine;
+  born 1633, died 1668; the author of a popular religious book entitled,
+  <i>An Alarm to Unconverted Sinners, or The Sure Guide to Heaven</i>
+  (1672).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allein</b> (al&prime;en), Richard, English Nonconformist divine;
+  born in 1611, died 1681; rector for twenty years of Batcombe (Somerset);
+  deprived of his living at the Restoration, and imprisoned for preaching.
+  He wrote, among other things, <i>Vindiciæ Pietatis</i> ('A Vindication of
+  Godliness'), published in 1660, which was condemned to be burned in the
+  royal kitchen.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alleluia.</b> See <i>Halleluia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allemande</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>d), a kind of slow, graceful dance,
+  invented in France in the time of Louis XIV, and again in vogue in the
+  time of the First Empire. The name is also given to pieces of music based
+  on the dance movement. Bach and Handel have composed a great number of
+  Allemandes, and Beethoven has written twelve for orchestra.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allen,</b> Bog of, the name applied to a series of bogs in Ireland
+  (not to one continuous morass), dispersed, often widely apart, with
+  extensive tracts of dry cultivated soil between, over a broad belt of
+  land stretching across the centre of the country, the bogs being,
+  however, all on the east side of the Shannon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allen,</b> Ethan, an American revolutionary partisan and general;
+  born 1737, died 1789. He surprised and captured Ticonderoga Fort (1775);
+  attacked Montreal, and was captured and sent to England, being exchanged
+  in 1778; wrote against Christianity, <i>Reason, the only Oracle of
+  Man</i> (1784).&mdash;His younger brother, Ira (1751-1814), was also
+  prominent in the revolutionary era.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allen,</b> Grant, writer on scientific subjects and novelist, was
+  born at Kingston, Canada, 1848, died in 1899. His earlier education he
+  received in America, but he also studied in France and graduated at
+  Oxford with honours in 1870. From 1873 to 1879 he was connected with
+  Queen's College, Jamaica, but afterwards resided chiefly in England, and
+  became well known as an exponent of evolutionary science, and as a
+  novelist. His first important work, <i>Physiological Æsthetics</i>,
+  appeared in 1877; his other scientific or semi-scientific works include
+  <i>The Colour Sense</i>; <i>The Evolutionist at Large</i>; <i>Colin
+  Clouts Calendar (the record of a summer)</i>; <i>Vignettes from
+  Nature</i>; <i>The Colours of Flowers</i>; <i>Flowers and their
+  Pedigrees</i>; and <i>Force and Energy, a Theory of Dynamics</i>. Other
+  works by him are: <i>Anglo-Saxon Britain</i>; <i>Charles Darwin</i>; and
+  <i>The Evolution of the Idea of God</i>. His novels, about thirty in
+  number, include: <i>The Devil's Die</i>; <i>The Woman Who Did</i>,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allen,</b> John, a Scottish political and historical writer; born
+  in 1771, died in 1843. He studied medicine, and became M.D. of Edinburgh
+  University. In 1801 he went abroad with Lord Holland and family, and
+  henceforth he maintained this connection, being long an inmate of Holland
+  House (London) and a member of the brilliant society that assembled
+  there. He contributed many articles to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>; and
+  wrote <i>An Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the Royal Prerogative in
+  England</i>; <i>Vindication of the Ancient Independence of Scotland</i>;
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allen,</b> Ralph, celebrated as a philanthropist, and as the friend
+  of Pope, Fielding, and the elder <!-- Page 115 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>[115]</span>Pitt, was born in 1694,
+  died in 1764. He lived mostly at Bath, where he made a large income as
+  farmer of a system of posts and as owner of quarries. He is the prototype
+  of Squire Allworthy in Fielding's <i>Tom Jones</i>; and after the
+  novelist's death he took charge of his family. Pope, who received many
+  kindnesses at his hands, referred to him in the lines:</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Let humble Allen, with an awkward shame,</p>
+      <p>Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame.</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>With Pitt he was on intimate terms, and left him £1000 in his will.
+  Hurd, Sherlock, and Warburton were also his friends.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allen,</b> Thomas, an English mathematician, philosopher,
+  antiquarian, and astrologer, born in 1542, died in 1632. He studied at
+  Oxford, and lived the greater part of his life in learned retirement,
+  corresponding with many of the famous men of his time. In his own day he
+  was generally reputed a dealer in the black art.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allen,</b> William, cardinal, an English Roman Catholic of the time
+  of Queen Elizabeth. Influenced by the Jesuit Robert Parsons, he became a
+  strenuous opponent of Protestantism and supporter of the claims of Philip
+  II to the English throne; born 1532, died 1594. It was by his efforts
+  that the English college for Catholics at Douai was established. He was
+  made cardinal in 1587. His numerous writings include: <i>The Declaration
+  of the Sentence of Sixtus V</i>, and <i>An Admonition to the Nobility and
+  People of England</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allen,</b> William, <span class="scac">D.D.</span>, American
+  clergyman and author; born 1784, died 1868. He was president of Bowdoin
+  College, 1820-39; author of <i>American Biographical and Historical
+  Dictionary</i>; <i>Junius Unmasked</i>; &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allenby, Viscount,</b> Edmund Henry Hynman, British soldier, born
+  on 23rd April, 1861, and educated at Haileybury. He joined the
+  Inniskilling Dragoons, and in 1884 served with that regiment in the
+  Bechuanaland Expedition. He was with the British forces in Zululand in
+  1888, took part in the South African war, and commanded the 4th Cavalry
+  Brigade, 1905-10. In the European War he at first commanded the British
+  Third Army, contributing largely to the victories of the Somme and the
+  Aisne. After a reverse, south of Gaza, suffered on 26th March, 1917, by
+  the British troops under the command of Sir Archibald Murray, the latter
+  was relieved, and General Allenby was placed in command of the
+  operations. He made thorough preparations for the next offensive, and his
+  progress was very rapid. Beersheba and Gaza were captured, and on 9th
+  Dec., 1917 Jerusalem, the Holy City, was surrendered to the general by
+  the mayor. His formal entry took place on the 11th. He was awarded the
+  <span class="scac">G.C.M.G.</span> on 16th Dec., 1917, and is a Grand
+  Officer of the Legion of Honour. In Aug., 1919, he was voted a sum of
+  £50,000 and created a viscount, adopting the title of Viscount Allenby of
+  Megiddo and of Felixstowe in Suffolk. In Oct., 1919, he was appointed
+  High Commissioner for Egypt.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allenstein</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l&prime;len-st&#x12B;n), a town in East
+  Prussia, 65 miles south of Königsberg, on the Alle, with breweries and
+  manufactures of iron and lucifer matches. Pop. 24,295.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allentown,</b> a town in the United States, Pennsylvania, on Lehigh
+  River, 18 miles above its junction with the Delaware. It has an important
+  trade in coal and iron ore, with large blast-furnaces, rolling-mills,
+  &amp;c. Pop. (1920), 73,502.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allep&prime;pi.</b> See <i>Aulapolay</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alleyn</b> (al&prime;len), Edward, an actor and theatre proprietor
+  in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I, friend of Ben Jonson and
+  Shakespeare; born 1566, died 1626. Nashe called him "the famous Ned".
+  Having become wealthy, he built Dulwich College, under the name of "The
+  College of God's Gift", between 1613-17, at a cost of £10,000. See
+  <i>Dulwich</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>All-fours,</b> a game at cards, which derives its name from the
+  four chances of which it consists, for each of which a point is scored.
+  These chances are <i>high</i>, or the ace of trumps, or next best trump
+  out; <i>low</i>, or the deuce of trumps, or next lowest trump out;
+  <i>jack</i>, or the knave of trumps; <i>game</i>, the majority of pips
+  collected from the tricks taken by the respective players. The player who
+  has all these is said to have <i>all-fours</i>. It is played by two or
+  four persons with the full pack. The ace counts four, the king three,
+  queen two, knave one, ten ten. The game is known in America as
+  <i>Seven-up</i>, <i>Old-sledge</i>, or <i>High-low Jack</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>All-hallows,</b> or <b>All-hallowmas,</b> a name for All-saints'
+  Day.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;lia,</b> a small affluent of the Tiber, joining it about
+  12 miles from Rome, famous for the victory won by the Gauls, under
+  Brennus, over the Roman army. This battle resulted in the capture and
+  sack of Rome in 390 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Allia&prime;ceous Plants,</b> plants belonging to the genus Allium
+  (ord. Liliaceæ), that to which the onion, leek, garlic, shallot, &amp;c.,
+  belong, or to other allied genera, and distinguished by a certain
+  peculiar pungent smell and taste characterized as <i>alliaceous</i>. This
+  flavour is also found in a few plants having no botanical affinities with
+  the above, as in the <i>Alliaria officin&#x101;lis</i>, or
+  Jack-by-the-hedge, a plant of the order Cruciferæ.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alli&prime;ance,</b> a league between two or more Powers. Alliances
+  are divided into offensive and defensive. The former are for the purpose
+  of attacking a common enemy, and the latter for mutual defence. An
+  alliance often unites both of these conditions. Offensive alliances, of
+  course, are usually directed against some particular enemy; defensive
+  alliances against anyone from <!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page116"></a>[116]</span>whom an attack may come. Among the more
+  famous alliances in history are: The Triple Alliance of 1688 between
+  Great Britain, Sweden, and the Netherlands; The Grand Alliance of 1689
+  between the Emperor, Holland, England, Spain, and Saxony; The Quadruple
+  Alliance of 1814 between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia; The
+  Triple Alliance of 1882 between Germany, Austria, and Italy; and The Dual
+  Alliance between Russia and France.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alliance, Holy.</b> See <i>Holy Alliance</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alliance Israélite Universelle,</b> an association founded in Paris
+  in 1860 for the protection of the Jews all over the world, but
+  particularly with a view to advocating by various means the emancipation
+  of the Jews in those countries where they did not enjoy equal civil and
+  political rights with the other inhabitants. It was established by six
+  Jews of Paris: Aristide Astruc, Isidore Cahen, Jules Carvallo, Narcisse
+  Leven, Eugène Manuel, and Charles Netter. Adolphe Crémieux and Salomon
+  Munk were among the first presidents of the association. It is managed by
+  a central committee resident in Paris, and consisting of 62 members, 23
+  of whom live in Paris. The Alliance has done a great deal towards raising
+  the status of the Jews in the East by establishing educational
+  institutions and industrial and agricultural schools, especially in
+  Turkey, Egypt, Morocco, Persia, Bulgaria, Tunis, and Abyssinia. The chief
+  sources of its income are the subscriptions and donations of the members.
+  Its annual income amounts to about 200,000 francs. It also manages a fund
+  of about £400,000 founded by Baron and Baroness de Hirsch for the
+  establishment of Jewish Schools in Turkey. The Alliance Israélite works
+  in unison with the Anglo-Jewish Association and the Board of Deputies in
+  London, two organizations pursuing the same aims.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allia&prime;ria,</b> a genus of plants, ord. Cruciferæ, containing
+  two species, one of which (<i>A. officin&#x101;lis</i>), commonly called
+  Jack-by-the-hedge, is widely spread in Europe, and often used as a
+  pot-herb. See <i>Alliaceous Plants</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;libone,</b> Samuel Austin, <span
+  class="scac">LL.D.</span>, American author, born 1816, died 1889. He
+  compiled a most useful <i>Critical Dictionary of English Literature and
+  British and American Authors</i> (3 vols., 1859, 1870, 1871, containing
+  50,000 biographies, 2 vols. of supplement by J.&nbsp;F. Kirk, 1891).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allice,</b> a name of the common shad.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allier</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-l&#x113;-&#x101;), a central department
+  of France, intersected by the River Allier, and partly bounded by the
+  Loire; its surface is diversified by offsets of the Cevennes and other
+  ranges, rising in the south to over 4000 feet, and in general richly
+  wooded. It has extensive beds of coal as well as other minerals, which
+  are actively worked, there being several flourishing centres of mining
+  and manufacturing enterprise; mineral waters at Vichy, Bourbon,
+  L'Archambault, &amp;c. Large numbers of sheep and cattle are bred. Area,
+  2848 sq. miles. Capital, Moulins. Pop. (1921), 370,950.&mdash;The River
+  Allier flows northward for 200 miles through Lozère, Upper Loire, Puy de
+  Dôme, and Allier, and enters the Loire, of which it is the chief
+  tributary.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alliga&prime;tion,</b> a rule of arithmetic, chiefly found in the
+  older books, relating to the solution of questions concerning the
+  compounding or mixing together of different ingredients, or ingredients
+  of different qualities or values. Thus if a quantity of tea worth
+  10<i>d</i>. the pound and another quantity worth 18<i>d</i>. are mixed,
+  the question to be solved by alligation is, what is the value of the
+  mixture by the pound?</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:57%;">
+      <a href="images/image037.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image037.jpg"
+      alt="Alligators" title="Alligators" /></a>
+    Alligators&mdash;1, Mississippi Alligator; 2, Banded Cayman; 3, Chinese
+    Alligator
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Alliga&prime;tor</b> (a corruption of Sp. <i>el lagarto</i>, lit.
+  the lizard&mdash;Lat. <i>lacertus</i>), a genus of reptiles of the family
+  Crocodilidæ, differing from the true crocodiles in having a shorter and
+  flatter head, in having cavities or pits in the upper jaw, into which the
+  long canine teeth of the under jaw fit, and in having the feet much less
+  webbed. Their habits are less perfectly aquatic. They are confined to the
+  warmer parts of America, where they frequent swamps and marshes, and may
+  be seen basking on the dry ground during the day in the heat of the sun.
+  They are most active during the night, when they make a loud bellowing.
+  The largest of these animals grow to the length of 18 or 20 feet. They
+  are covered by a dense armour of horny scales, impenetrable to a bullet,
+  and have a large mouth, armed with strong, conical teeth. They swim with
+  wonderful celerity, impelled by their long, laterally-compressed, and
+  powerful tails. On land their motions are proportionally slow and
+  embarrassed because of the length and unwieldiness of their bodies and
+  the shortness of their limbs. They live on fish, and any small animals or
+  carrion, and sometimes catch pigs on the shore, or dogs which are
+  swimming. They even sometimes make man their prey. In winter they burrow
+  in the mud of swamps and marshes, lying torpid till the warm weather. The
+  female lays a great number of eggs, which are deposited in the sand or
+  mud, and left to be hatched by the heat of the sun, but after this has
+  taken place the mother alligator is very attentive to her young. The most
+  fierce and dangerous species is that found in the southern parts of the
+  United States (<i>Alligator Lucius</i>), having the snout a little turned
+  up, slightly resembling that of the pike. The alligators of South America
+  are there very often called <i>Caymans</i>. <i>A. sclerops</i> is known
+  also as the <i>Spectacled Cayman</i>, from the prominent bony rim
+  surrounding the orbit of each eye. The flesh of the alligator is
+  sometimes eaten, the tail being considered a great delicacy by the <!--
+  Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page117"></a>[117]</span>negroes. Among the fossils of the south of
+  England are remains of a true alligator (<i>A. Hantoniensis</i>) in the
+  Eocene beds of the Hampshire basin.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alligator-apple</b> (<i>An&#x14D;na palustris</i>), a fruit allied
+  to the custard-apple, growing in marshy districts in Jamaica, little
+  eaten on account of its narcotic properties.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alligator-pear</b> (<i>Pers&#x113;a gratissima</i>), an evergreen
+  tree of the nat. ord. Lauraceæ, with a fruit resembling a large pear, 1
+  to 2 lb. in weight, with a firm marrow-like pulp of a delicate flavour;
+  called also avocado-pear, or subaltern's butter. It is a native of
+  tropical America and the West Indies.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;lingham,</b> William, an Irish poet, born in Ireland in
+  1824 or 1828, died in 1889. He published his first volume (<i>Poems</i>)
+  in 1850; <i>Day and Night Songs</i> in 1855; <i>Lawrence Bloomfield in
+  Ireland</i>, narrative poem, in 1864; <i>Songs, Poems, and Ballads</i> in
+  1877 (including a number of new poems). He was a frequent contributor to
+  periodicals, and for some time edited <i>Fraser's Magazine</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allitera&prime;tion,</b> the repetition of the same letter at the
+  beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, or at
+  short intervals; as "<i>m</i>any <i>m</i>en <i>m</i>any <i>m</i>inds";
+  "<i>d</i>eath <i>d</i>efies the <i>d</i>octor". "<i>A</i>pt
+  <i>a</i>lliteration's <i>a</i>rtful <i>a</i>id" (<i>Churchill</i>).
+  "<i>P</i>uffs, <i>p</i>owders, <i>p</i>atches, <i>b</i>ibles,
+  <i>b</i>illet-doux" (<i>Pope</i>). "<i>W</i>eave the <i>w</i>arp and
+  <i>w</i>eave the <i>w</i>oof" (<i>Gray</i>). In the ancient German and
+  Scandinavian and in early English poetry alliteration took the place of
+  terminal rhymes, the alliterative syllables being made to recur with a
+  certain regularity in the same position in successive verses. In the
+  <i>Vision of William Concerning Piers the Ploughman</i>, for instance, it
+  is regularly employed as in the following lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Hire <i>r</i>obe was ful <i>r</i>iche . of <i>r</i>ed scarlet engreyned,</p>
+      <p>With <i>r</i>ibanes of <i>r</i>ed gold . and of <i>r</i>iche stones;</p>
+      <p>Hire a<i>rr</i>aye me <i>r</i>avysshed . such <i>r</i>icchesse saw I nevere;</p>
+      <p>I had <i>w</i>ondre <i>w</i>hat she <i>w</i>as . and <i>w</i>has <i>w</i>yf she <i>w</i>ere.</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Alliteration was known to the Latin authors: "O <i>T</i>ite
+  <i>t</i>ute, <i>T</i>ati, <i>t</i>ibi <i>t</i>anta, <i>t</i>yranne
+  <i>t</i>ulisti" (<i>Ennius</i>). In the hands of some English poets and
+  prose writers of later times alliteration became a mere conceit. It is
+  still employed in Icelandic and Finnish poetry. So far has alliteration
+  sometimes been carried that long compositions have been written every
+  word of which commenced with the same letter. It may also be employed in
+  the middle of words: "Un <i>f</i>rais par<i>f</i>um sortait des
+  tou<i>ff</i>es d'as<i>f</i>odile" (<i>Victor Hugo</i>).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;lium,</b> a genus of plants, ord. Liliaceæ;, containing
+  numerous well-known species of pot-herbs. They are umbelliferous, and
+  mostly perennial, herbaceous plants, but a few are biennial. Among them
+  are garlic (<i>A. sat&#x12B;vum</i>), onion (<i>A. Cepa</i>), leek (<i>A.
+  Porrum</i>), chives (<i>A. Sch&oelig;nopr&#x103;sum</i>), shallot (<i>A.
+  ascalon&#x12D;cum</i>). The peculiar alliaceous flavour that belongs to
+  them is well known.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;loa,</b> a river port of Scotland, on the north bank of
+  the Forth (where there is now a bridge), 7 miles from Stirling, county of
+  Clackmannan. It carries on brewing, distilling, and shipbuilding; has
+  manufactures of woollens, bottles, &amp;c., and a shipping trade. Pop.
+  (1921), 12,421. <!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page118"></a>[118]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Allocu&prime;tion,</b> an address, a term particularly applied to
+  certain addresses on important occasions made by the Pope to the
+  cardinals, and through them to the Church in general.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allo&prime;dium</b> (probably derived from <i>all</i> and
+  <i>odh</i>, property), land held in one's own right, without any feudal
+  obligation to a superior or lord. In England, according to the theory of
+  the British constitution, all land is held of the crown (by <i>feudal</i>
+  tenure); the word <i>allodial</i> is, therefore, never applied to landed
+  property there.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allogamy</b> (from the Gr. <i>allos</i>, other, and <i>gamos</i>,
+  wedding), meaning the transfer of the pollen of one flower to the pistil
+  of another. The opposite of allogamy is <i>autogamy</i>, or
+  self-pollination.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allophane,</b> a hydrous aluminium silicate, with the composition
+  Al<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>5</sub> + 5H<sub>2</sub>O, forming crusts in the
+  cavities of various rocks and commonly of a delicate blue colour.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allot&prime;ment System,</b> the system of allotting small portions
+  of land (an acre or less) to farm-labourers or other workers, to be
+  cultivated after their regular work by themselves and their families, a
+  system believed by many to be calculated greatly to improve their
+  condition. An Allotment Act for England, passed in 1887, authorizes the
+  sanitary authorities in any locality to determine if there is a
+  sufficient demand for allotments there, and to acquire land to be let to
+  the labouring population resident in their district. Such land may be
+  compulsorily acquired, due compensation being given; but land belonging
+  to a park, pleasure-ground, &amp;c., is not to be so acquired. No person
+  is to hold more than 1 acre as an allotment; and the rents are to be
+  fixed at such amount as may reasonably be deemed sufficient to guarantee
+  the sanitary authority from loss. No building is to be erected on any
+  allotment other than a tool-house, pig-sty, shed, or the like. In the
+  Allotment Acts of 1887 and 1892 (Scotland) the definition is applied to a
+  plot of land not exceeding 1 acre, but the Local Government Act of 1894
+  authorized the letting of an allotment up to the area of 4 acres to one
+  person, while the Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907 definitely
+  extends the limit of an allotment to 5 acres. The distinction between
+  allotments and small holdings has therefore been obliterated, at least as
+  far as England and Wales are concerned. County councils will let plots of
+  1 to 5 acres as small holdings, and parish councils as allotments. During
+  the European War 183,000 allotments were registered under the Cultivation
+  of Lands Order, and the number of allotments in Great Britain not
+  exceeding 1 acre now amounts to over 1,000,000. In proportion to the
+  total agricultural area or population it is much smaller in Scotland than
+  in England. The rents of allotments vary greatly, and near towns, or even
+  villages, they are very high, often from £4 to £8 per acre. A measure
+  corresponding to the English Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907
+  was passed for Scotland in 1911, and came into operation in 1912. In
+  recent years a large number of co-operative allotment associations have
+  come into existence.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allot&prime;ropy</b> (Gr. <i>allos</i>, other, <i>tropos</i>,
+  manner), a term used by Berzelius to express the fact that one and the
+  same element may exist in different forms, differing widely in external
+  physical properties. Thus carbon occurs as the diamond, and as charcoal
+  and plumbago, and is therefore regarded as a substance subject to
+  allotropy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;loway,</b> a parish of Scotland, now included in Ayr
+  parish. Here Burns was born in 1759, and the "auld haunted kirk", near
+  his birthplace, was the scene of the dance of witches in <i>Tam o'
+  Shanter</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alloy&prime;</b> is the substance produced by melting together two
+  or more metals. Sometimes a chemical compound is formed, but more
+  generally one metal is interspersed throughout the other, much as sugar
+  is through water in which it is dissolved. In this case the alloy is
+  called a 'solid solution' of one metal in another. Many metals mix
+  together in all proportions, others only in certain proportions, while
+  some will not mix in any proportion.</p>
+
+  <p>Scientific research has led to great advances in the use of alloys
+  industrially. An alloy differs from its components in most of its
+  physical properties, such as its hardness, ductility, strength,
+  melting-point, and colour. The minutest trace of certain metals
+  frequently produces an extraordinary change in the property of the body
+  with which it is mixed. For instance, if bismuth is present in copper to
+  the extent of more than 0.5 per cent, the copper cannot be used
+  successfully in the construction of electrical machinery. Frequently the
+  addition of a small proportion of a metal produces highly-desirable
+  effects in one direction, but is deleterious in other directions. For
+  instance, the presence of a small amount of manganese in cast-iron gives
+  clean castings, but the magnetic qualities of the material are
+  impaired.</p>
+
+  <p>Alloys are classified as ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Ferrous Alloys.</i>&mdash;These alloys are of great industrial
+  importance, as they include cast irons and steels. Pure iron is very
+  little used in industry. Ordinary <i>cast iron</i> contains iron and
+  about 3 per cent of carbon. The ordinary wrought iron of the blacksmith
+  contains less than 0.25 per cent of carbon. Cast iron is brittle, and
+  unreliable when used to sustain tensile stresses, and it cannot be
+  forged; but wrought iron can be safely used in tension, is not brittle,
+  and can be forged. The raw material from which steel is <!-- Page 119
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page119"></a>[119]</span>made is cast
+  iron or wrought iron. (For manufacture of steel see <i>Steel</i>.) The
+  properties of steel can be varied within very wide limits by adding to it
+  traces of certain metals. For instance, the addition of nickel up to 5
+  per cent makes the steel much stronger and tougher; the addition of
+  tungsten up to about 19 per cent makes it hard (tool-steel, magnet
+  steel), while molybdenum has a similar effect. Chromium and vanadium have
+  a 'stabilizing' effect, i.e. tend to make large masses of the alloy
+  homogeneous, and to make the alloy retain its hardness over wide ranges
+  of temperature. Cobalt has a similar stabilizing effect. Molybdenum
+  high-speed steel is more expensive than tungsten high-speed steel, but is
+  said to wear better.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Non-ferrous Alloys.</i>&mdash;Of the non-ferrous alloys the most
+  important have copper as the basic metal. They do not become rusty on
+  exposure. Copper, when used for electrical purposes, must be nearly pure.
+  It is deposited electrolytically (see <i>Electrolysis</i>) and then made
+  into bars (electrolytic copper).</p>
+
+  <p><i>Brass</i> is an alloy of copper and zinc and varies much in
+  composition. The best-known varieties are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Novel Notes in Key of Dominant." title="Novel Notes in Key of Dominant.">
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Best brass </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Copper 70%, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Zinc 30%.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Admiralty brass </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Copper 70%, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Zinc 29%, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Tin &nbsp; &nbsp;1%.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Ordinary brass </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Copper 67%, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Zinc 30%, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Lead 3%.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p>Gun-metal is a mixture of copper, tin, and zinc. The standard
+  Admiralty mixture is copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2. It possesses a tensile
+  strength of 14 tons per sq. inch.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Bronzes.</i>&mdash;The bronzes are alloys of copper, with zinc or
+  tin mainly. They can be cast easily, and when heated to a dull red the
+  metal can be forged, stamped, rolled, pressed, or extruded. They are
+  largely free from corrosion.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Phosphor Bronze.</i>&mdash;This is a specially strong bronze. A
+  typical composition is copper 89.5, tin 10, phosphorus 0.5. The tensile
+  strength is higher than that of pure copper or brass (about 15 tons per
+  sq. inch), and it has about one-half the electrical conductivity of pure
+  copper. It is used for small castings, and it can be drawn into wire,
+  which is used in alternating-current electric-railway construction for
+  the overhead conductor.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Delta metals</i> are bronzes of specially high tensile strength
+  (30-50 tons per sq. inch).</p>
+
+  <p><i>Manganese bronzes</i> are bronzes of high tensile strength and
+  ductility, and are largely used for marine propellers. Manganese bronze
+  is not affected by sea-water. It usually contains copper, zinc, and
+  manganese, with a little aluminium and tin.</p>
+
+  <p>A recently-discovered copper alloy is known as <i>monel metal</i>. It
+  is a naturally-occurring alloy of copper, nickel, iron, and manganese
+  (copper 27-29 per cent, nickel 68-70 per cent, iron and manganese 4-5 per
+  cent), and possesses, roughly, the qualities of a mild steel and copper.
+  It has a high tensile strength, which it retains over a wide range of
+  temperature change. It is ductile, is not affected by immersion in
+  sea-water, and can be machined. It is used for pump-valves, pump-pistons,
+  turbine blading, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>In the British silver coinage silver is alloyed with 7.5 per cent
+  copper, which renders it harder and more durable. British gold coinage
+  contains 8.3 per cent of copper.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Law, <i>Alloys</i>; Osmond and Stead,
+  <i>Microscopic Analysis of Metals</i>; Mellor, <i>Crystallization of Iron
+  and Steel</i>; Desch, <i>Metallography</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>All Saints' Day,</b> a festival of the Christian Church, instituted
+  in 835, and celebrated on 1st Nov. in honour of the saints in
+  general.</p>
+
+  <p><b>All Souls' College,</b> a college of Oxford University, founded in
+  1437 by Henry Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury. Attached to it are the
+  Chichele Professorship of International Law and the Chichele
+  Professorship of Modern History.</p>
+
+  <p><b>All Souls' Day,</b> a festival of the Roman Catholic Church,
+  instituted in 998, and observed on 2nd Nov. for the relief of souls in
+  purgatory.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image038.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image038.jpg"
+      alt="Allspice" title="Allspice" /></a>
+    Allspice (<i>Myrtus Pimenta</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Allspice</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>l&prime;sp&#x12B;s), or <b>Pimenta,</b> is
+  the dried and ground berry of a West Indian species of myrtle (<i>Myrtus
+  Pimenta</i>), a beautiful tree with white and fragrant aromatic flowers
+  and leaves of a deep shining green. The tree is often 30 feet high, and
+  may yield 150 lb. of raw berries, <!-- Page 120 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page120"></a>[120]</span>equivalent to 100 lb.
+  of dried spice. Pimenta is thought to resemble in flavour a mixture of
+  cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence the popular name of
+  <i>allspice</i>; it is also called Jamaica pepper, the trees being
+  cultivated there extensively. It is employed in cookery, also in medicine
+  as an agreeable aromatic, and forms the basis of a distilled water, a
+  spirit, and an essential oil.</p>
+
+  <p><b>All&prime;ston</b> (äl&prime;stun), Washington, an American
+  painter, born 1779, died 1843. He studied in London and Rome, and is most
+  celebrated for his pictures on scriptural subjects. Among his pictures
+  <i>The Angel Uriel</i> is at Stafford House; <i>The Prophet Jeremiah</i>
+  at Yale College, Newport. A portrait of Coleridge by Allston is in the
+  National Gallery. He also wrote poems and a tragical romance
+  (<i>Monaldi</i>).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allu&prime;vium</b> (Lat. <i>alluvium</i>&mdash;<i>ad</i>, to, and
+  <i>luo</i>, to wash), deposits of soil collected by the action of water,
+  such as are found in valleys and plains, consisting of loam, clay,
+  gravel, &amp;c., washed down from the higher grounds. Great alterations
+  are often produced by alluvium&mdash;deltas and whole islands being often
+  formed by this cause. Much of the rich land along the banks of rivers is
+  alluvial in its origin. There are great tracts of alluviums lying along
+  the banks of the Derwent, the Ouse, and the Trent, and the Romney Marsh
+  of Kent along the banks of the Thames.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Allygurh.</b> See <i>Aligarh</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alma,</b> a small river of Russia, in the Crimea, celebrated from
+  the victory gained by the allied British and French over the Russians,
+  20th Sept., 1854.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;mack's,</b> the name formerly given to certain
+  assembly-rooms in King Street, St. James's, London, derived from Almack,
+  a tavern-keeper, by whom they were built, and whose real name is said to
+  have been M&lsquo;Call, of which Almack is an anagram; afterwards called
+  <i>Willis's Rooms</i>. They were first opened about 1770, and became
+  famous for the extreme exclusiveness displayed by the lady patronesses in
+  regard to the admission of applicants for tickets to the balls held
+  here&mdash;only those of the most assured social standing being admitted.
+  They were turned into a restaurant in 1890.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alma&prime;da,</b> a town of Portugal, on the Tagus, opposite
+  Lisbon. Pop. 7913.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;maden,</b> a place in California, United States, about 60
+  miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of San Francisco, with rich
+  quicksilver-mines, the product of which has been largely employed in gold
+  and silver mining.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almaden&prime;,</b> a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real,
+  celebrated both in ancient and modern times for its mines of quicksilver
+  (in the form of cinnabar). Pop. 7410.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almaden Process.</b> See <i>Mercury</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;magest</b> (Ar. <i>al</i>, the, and Gr.
+  <i>megist&#x113;</i>, greatest, <i>sc.</i> 'treatise') the name of a
+  celebrated astronomical work composed by Claudius Ptolemy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alma&prime;gro,</b> an old town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real
+  (New Castile), with important lace manufactures. Pop. 7700.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alma&prime;gro,</b> Diego de, Spanish 'Conquistador', a foundling,
+  born in 1475, killed 1538. He took part with Pizarro in the conquest of
+  Peru, and after frequent disputes with Pizarro about their respective
+  shares in their conquests led an expedition against Chile, which he
+  failed to conquer. On his return a struggle took place between him and
+  Pizarro, in which Almagro was finally overcome, taken prisoner,
+  strangled, and afterwards beheaded. He was avenged by his son, born in
+  1520, who raised an insurrection, in which Pizarro was assassinated, in
+  1541. The younger Almagro was put to death at Cuzco in 1542 by De Castro,
+  the new Viceroy of Peru.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almalee&prime;,</b> a town of Asia Minor, 50 miles from Adalia,
+  with thriving manufactures and a considerable trade. Pop. 3500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;ma Ma&prime;ter</b> (Lat., fostering or bounteous mother),
+  a term familiarly applied to their own university by those who have had a
+  university education.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al-Mamun</b> (ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-mön&prime;), a caliph of the Abasside
+  dynasty, son of Harun-al-Rashid, born 786, died 833. Under him Bagdad
+  became a great centre of art and science.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;manac,</b> a calendar, in which are set down the rising
+  and setting of the sun, the phases of the moon, the most remarkable
+  positions and phenomena of the heavenly bodies, for every month and day
+  of the year; also the several fasts and feasts to be observed in the
+  Church and State, &amp;c., and often much miscellaneous information
+  likely to be useful to the public. The term is of Arabic origin, but the
+  Arabs were not the first to use almanacs, which indeed existed from
+  remote ages. In England they are known from the fourteenth century, there
+  being several English almanacs of this century existing in MS. They
+  became generally used in Europe within a short time after the invention
+  of printing; and they were very early remarkable, as some are still, for
+  the mixture of truth and falsehood which they contained. Their effects in
+  France were found so mischievous, from the pretended prophecies which
+  they published, that an edict was promulgated by Henry III in 1579
+  forbidding any predictions to be inserted in them relating to civil
+  affairs, whether those of the State or of private persons. In the reign
+  of James I of England letters-patent were granted to the two universities
+  and the Stationers' Company for an exclusive right of printing almanacs,
+  but in 1775 this monopoly was abolished. During the civil war of Charles
+  I, and thence onward, English <!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page121"></a>[121]</span>almanacs were conspicuous for the
+  unblushing boldness of their astrological predictions, and their
+  determined perpetuation of popular errors. The most famous English
+  almanac was <i>Poor Robin's Almanack</i>, which was published from 1663
+  to 1775. Gradually, however, a better taste began to prevail, and in 1828
+  the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, by publishing the
+  <i>British Almanac</i>, had the merit of taking the lead in the
+  production of an unexceptionable almanac in Great Britain. The example
+  thus set has been almost universally adopted. The circulation of almanacs
+  continued to be much cramped by the very heavy duty of one shilling and
+  threepence per copy till 1834, when this duty was abolished. About 200
+  new almanacs were started immediately on the repeal. Almanacs, from their
+  periodical character, and the frequency with which they are referred to,
+  are now more and more used as vehicles for conveying statistical and
+  other useful information, some being intended for the inhabitants of a
+  particular country or district, others for a particular class or party.
+  Some of the almanacs that are regularly published every year are
+  extremely useful, and are indeed almost indispensable to men engaged in
+  official, mercantile, literary, or professional business. Such in Great
+  Britain are <i>Thom's Official Directory of the United Kingdom</i>,
+  <i>The British Almanac</i>, <i>Oliver and Boyd's New Edinburgh
+  Almanac</i>, and <i>Whitaker's Almanac</i>, started in 1868. In the
+  United States is published <i>The American Almanac</i>, a useful
+  compilation. The <i>Almanach de Gotha</i>, which has appeared at Gotha
+  since 1764, contains in small bulk a wonderful quantity of information
+  regarding the reigning families and Governments, the finances, commerce,
+  population, &amp;c., of the different States throughout the world. Since
+  1871 it is published both in a French and in a German edition. Among
+  French almanacs the most famous was the <i>Almanach Liégeois</i>, whilst
+  the <i>Almanach National</i>, first published in 1679 as <i>Almanach
+  Royal</i>, is the most important of modern almanacs in France. Almanacs
+  that pretend to foretell the weather and occurrences of various kinds are
+  still popular in Britain, France, and elsewhere.&mdash;<i>The Nautical
+  Almanac</i> is an important work published annually by the British
+  Government, two or three years in advance, in which is contained much
+  useful astronomical matter, more especially the distances of the moon
+  from the sun, and from certain fixed stars, for every three hours of
+  apparent time, adapted to the meridian of the Royal Observatory,
+  Greenwich. By comparing these with the distances carefully observed at
+  sea the mariner may, with comparative ease, infer his longitude to a
+  degree of accuracy unattainable in any other way, and sufficient for most
+  nautical purposes. This almanac was commenced in 1767 by Dr. Maskelyne,
+  Astronomer Royal. The French <i>Connaissance des Temps</i> is published
+  for the same purpose as the English <i>Nautical Almanac</i>, and nearly
+  on the same plan. It commenced in 1679. Of a similar character is the
+  <i>Astronomisches Jahrbuch</i> published at Berlin.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alman&prime;dine,</b> a mineral of a reddish or violet colour, a
+  variety of precious or noble garnet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alman&prime;sa,</b> a town of south-eastern Spain (Murcia), near
+  which was fought (25th April, 1707) a decisive battle in the War of the
+  Spanish Succession, when the French, under the Duke of Berwick, defeated
+  the Anglo-Spanish army under the Earl of Galway. Pop. 11,887.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alman&prime;zur,</b> or <b>Almansur,</b> a caliph of the Abasside
+  dynasty, reigned 754-75. He was cruel and treacherous and a persecutor of
+  the Christians, but a patron of learning.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alma-Tad&prime;ema,</b> Sir Lawrence, Dutch painter, born in 1836,
+  resided since 1870 in England, where he became a naturalized subject. He
+  was made A.R.A. in 1876, R.A. in 1879, knighted in 1899, and awarded the
+  Order of Merit in 1905. He died at Wiesbaden, 25th June, 1912. He is
+  especially celebrated for his pictures of ancient Roman, Greek, and
+  Egyptian life, which are painted with great realism and archæological
+  correctness.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;meh,</b> the name given in Egypt to a class of girls whose
+  profession is to sing for the amusement of the upper classes, as
+  distinguished from the <i>gawasi</i>, who perform before the lower
+  classes. They perform at feasts and other entertainments (including
+  funerals), and many of them are skilful improvisatrici. One of their most
+  famous dances is called 'The Bee'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almeida</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-m&#x101;&prime;i-da<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), one of the strongest
+  fortresses in Portugal, in the province of Beira, near the Spanish
+  border, on the Coa. Pop. 2350. Taken by Masséna from the English in 1810,
+  retaken by Wellington in 1811.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almeida</b> (da<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-m&#x101;&prime;i-da<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Francisco d', first
+  Portuguese viceroy of India, son of the Conde de Abrantes, born about the
+  middle of the fifteenth century. He fought with renown against the Moors,
+  and being appointed governor of the new Portuguese settlements on the
+  African and Indian coasts, he sailed for India in 1505, accompanied by
+  his son Lorenzo and other eminent men. In Africa he took possession of
+  Quiloa and Mombas, and in the East he conquered Cananor, Cochin, Calicut,
+  &amp;c., and established forts and factories. His son Lorenzo discovered
+  the Maldives and Madagascar, but perished in an attack made on him by a
+  fleet sent by the Sultan of Egypt, with the aid of the Porte and the
+  Republic of Venice. Having signally defeated the Mussulmans (1508), and
+  avenged his son, and being superseded by Albuquerque, he sailed for <!--
+  Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page122"></a>[122]</span>Portugal, but was killed in a skirmish on
+  the African coast in 1510.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almelo&prime;,</b> a town of Holland, province of Overyssel, on the
+  Vechte; with manufactures of linen. Pop. 7360.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almendralejo</b> (-&#x101;&prime;h&#x14D;), a town of Spain,
+  province of Badajoz, in a district rich in grain, wine, and fruits, with
+  many brandy distilleries. Pop. 12,587.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almeria</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-m&#x101;-r&#x113;&prime;a<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a fortified seaport
+  of Southern Spain, capital of province of Almeria, near the mouth of a
+  river and on the gulf of same name, with no building of consequence
+  except a Gothic cathedral, but with a large trade, exporting grapes, iron
+  ore, lead, esparto, &amp;c. The province, which has an area of 3360 sq.
+  miles, is generally mountainous, and rich in minerals. Pop. of town,
+  48,614; of province, 393,689.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almodo&prime;var,</b> a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New
+  Castile), near the Sierra Morena. Pop. 12,640.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almohades</b> (al&prime;mo-h&#x101;dz), a Moorish dynasty that
+  ruled in Africa and Spain in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
+  founded by Mohammed Ibn Tumart, a religious enthusiast, who assumed the
+  title of <i>Mahdi</i>. They overthrew the Almoravides in Spain, but
+  themselves received a defeat in 1212 from which they did not recover, and
+  in 1269 were overthrown in Africa, when Idris El-Wathik, their last emir,
+  was murdered by a slave.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al-mokanna.</b> See <i>Mokanna</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almond</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>&prime;mund), the fruit of the almond
+  tree (<i>Amygd&#x103;lus comm&#x16B;nis</i>), a tree which grows usually
+  to the height of 20 feet, and is akin to the peach, nectarine, &amp;c.
+  (ord. Rosaceæ). It has beautiful pinkish flowers that appear before the
+  leaves, which are oval, pointed, and delicately serrated. It is a native
+  of Africa and Asia, naturalized in Southern Europe, and cultivated in
+  England for its beauty, as it seldom produces edible fruit even in the
+  warmer portions of Southern England. The fruit is a drupe, ovoid, and
+  with downy outer surface; the fleshy covering is tough and fibrous; it
+  covers the compressed wrinkled stone enclosing the seed or almond within
+  it. There are two varieties, one sweet and the other bitter; both are
+  produced from <i>A. communis</i>, though from different varieties. Most
+  of the sweet almonds imported into Britain come from Southern Europe, the
+  Levant, and California, the finest being the Valencian, Jordan, and
+  Malaga. They contain a bland fixed oil, consisting chiefly of olein.
+  Bitter almonds come from Mogador, and besides a fixed oil they contain a
+  substance called <i>emulsin</i>, and also a bitter crystalline substance
+  called <i>amygdalin</i>, which, acting on the emulsin, produces prussic
+  acid, whence the aroma of bitter almonds when mixed with water.
+  <i>Almond-oil</i>, a bland fixed oil, is expressed from the kernels of
+  either sweet or bitter almonds, and is used by perfumers and in medicine.
+  A poisonous essential oil is obtained from bitter almonds, which is used
+  for flavouring by cooks and confectioners, also by perfumers and in
+  medicine. The name <i>almond</i>, with a qualifying word prefixed, is
+  also given to the seeds of other species of plants; thus <i>Java
+  almonds</i> are the kernels of <i>Canarium commune</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almondbury</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>&prime;mund-be-ri), a town of England,
+  West Riding of Yorkshire, <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of Huddersfield,
+  in which it is now included, with manufactures of woollens, cotton and
+  silk goods.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;moner,</b> an officer of a religious establishment to whom
+  belonged the distribution of alms. The grand almoner (<i>grand
+  aumonier</i>) of France was the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in that
+  kingdom before the revolution. The lord almoner, or lord high almoner of
+  England, is generally a bishop, whose office is well-nigh a sinecure. He
+  distributes the sovereign's doles to the poor on Maundy Thursday.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almo&prime;ra,</b> a town and fortress of India, in the United
+  Provinces, capital of Kumaon, 170 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span>
+  of Delhi, a thriving little place. Pop. about 10,560.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almo&prime;ravides</b> (-v&#x12B;dz), a Moorish dynasty which arose
+  in North-Western Africa in the eleventh century, and reigned from
+  1055-1147. The town of Marrakesh, built in 1062, became the capital of
+  this dynasty. Having crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, the family gained
+  possession of all Arabic Spain, but was overthrown by the Almohades in
+  the following century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;mug</b> (or <b>Al&prime;gum</b>) <b>tree,</b> names which
+  occur in <i>1 Kings</i>, x, 11, 12, and <i>2 Chron</i>., ii, 8, and ix,
+  10, 11, as the names of trees of which the wood was used for pillars in
+  the temple and the king's house, for harps and psalteries, &amp;c. They
+  are said in one passage to be hewn in Lebanon, in another to be brought
+  from Ophir. They have been identified by critics with the red sandalwood
+  of India. Some of them may possibly have been transplanted to Lebanon by
+  the Phoenicians.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Almuñecar</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-mu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>n-ye-kär&prime;), a seaport of Spain,
+  Granada, on the Mediterranean. Pop. 8000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;nager,</b> formerly, in England, an official whose duty it
+  was to inspect, measure, and stamp woollen cloth.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;nus.</b> See <i>Alder</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alnwick</b> (an&prime;ik), a town of England, county town of
+  Northumberland, 34 miles north of Newcastle, near the Aln. It is well
+  built, and carries on tanning, brewing, and a general trade. The town is
+  famous for the curious ceremonies which take place there annually during
+  the election of the common council (25th March). Alnwick Castle,
+  residence of the Dukes of Northumberland, for many centuries a fortress
+  <!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page123"></a>[123]</span>of great strength, stands close to the
+  town. Pop. (1921), 6991.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image039.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image039.jpg"
+      alt="Socotrine Aloe" title="Socotrine Aloe" /></a>
+    Socotrine Aloe (<i>Aloe socotr&#x12B;na</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Aloe</b> (al&prime;&#x14D;), the name of a number of plants
+  belonging to the genus Aloë (ord. Liliaceæ), some of which are not more
+  than a few inches, whilst others are 30 feet and upwards in height;
+  natives of South Africa and Socotra; leaves fleshy, thick, and more or
+  less spinous at the edges or extremity; flowers with a tubular corolla.
+  Some of the larger kinds are of great use, the fibrous parts of the
+  leaves being made into cordage, fishing nets and lines, cloth, &amp;c.
+  The inspissated juice of several species is used in medicine, under the
+  name of <i>aloes</i>, forming a bitter purgative. The medicinal value of
+  bitter aloes was known to the Greeks in the fourth century <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> According to the Arabian historian Edrisi, the
+  occupation of Socotra by the Macedonians was due to Aristotle's
+  persuading Alexander the Great to secure the monopoly of the supplies of
+  the drug. The drug is said to have been commended to Alfred the Great by
+  the Patriarch of Jerusalem, but a direct trade in it between Socotra and
+  Britain was opened only in the seventeenth century. The principal
+  drug-producing species are the Socotrine aloe (<i>A.
+  Socotr&#x12B;na</i>); the Barbados aloe (<i>A. vulg&#x101;ris</i>), first
+  imported into Britain in 1693; the Cape aloe (<i>A. spic&#x101;ta</i>),
+  1780; and Natal aloes, 1870; &amp;c. A beautiful violet colour is yielded
+  by the leaves of the Socotrine aloe. The American aloe (see <i>Agave</i>)
+  is a different plant altogether; as are also the aloes or lign-aloes of
+  Scripture, which are supposed to be the <i>Aquilaria
+  Agall&#x14F;chum</i>, or aloes-wood (q. v.). <i>Aloe fibre</i> is
+  obtained from species of Aloë, Agave, Yucca, &amp;c., and is made into
+  coarse fabrics, ropes, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aloes-wood,</b> <b>Eagle-wood,</b> or <b>Agilawood,</b> the inner
+  portion of the trunk of <i>Aquil&#x101;ria ov&#x101;ta</i> and <i>A.
+  Agall&#x14F;chum</i>, forest trees belonging to the ord. Aquilariaceæ,
+  found in tropical Asia, and yielding a fragrant resinous substance,
+  which, as well as the wood, is burned for its perfume. Another tree, the
+  <i>Aloex&#x45E;lon Agall&#x14F;chum</i> (ord. Leguminosæ), also produces
+  aloes-wood. This wood is supposed to be the lign-aloes (a corruption of
+  the Lat. <i>lignum aloe</i>) of the Bible.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alope&prime;cia,</b> a variety of baldness in which the hair falls
+  off from the beard and eyebrows, as well as the scalp.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alopecu&prime;rus,</b> a genus of grasses. See
+  <i>Foxtail-grass</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alo&prime;ra,</b> a town of Southern Spain, province of Malaga.
+  Pop. 6200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alost,</b> or <b>Aalst</b> (ä&prime;lost, älst), a town of Belgium,
+  15 miles <span class="scac">W.N.W.</span> of Brussels, on the Dender
+  (here navigable), with a beautiful, though unfinished, church, and an
+  ancient town hall (thirteenth century); manufactures of lace, thread,
+  linen and cotton goods, &amp;c., and a considerable trade. In the
+  market-place stands a statue of Thierry Maartens, who introduced the art
+  of typography into the Netherlands in 1473. The town was occupied by the
+  Germans in 1914. Pop. 35,603.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:28%;">
+      <a href="images/image040.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image040.jpg"
+      alt="Alpaca" title="Alpaca" /></a>
+    Alpaca (<i>Auch&#x113;nia Paco</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Alpac&prime;a,</b> a ruminant mammal of the camel tribe, and genus
+  Auch&#x113;nia (<i>A. Paco</i>), a native of the Andes, especially of the
+  mountains of Chile and Peru, and closely allied to the llama. Llamas <!--
+  Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>[124]</span>and
+  alpacas are mutually fertile when crossed, and this explains the
+  existence of intermediate forms between the two breeds. It has been
+  domesticated, and remains also in a wild state. In form and size it
+  approaches the sheep, but has a longer neck. It is valued chiefly for its
+  long, soft, and silky wool, which is straighter than that of the sheep,
+  and very strong, and is woven into fabrics of great beauty, used for
+  shawls, clothing for warm climates, coat-linings, and umbrellas, and
+  known by the same name. Cloth made from imported alpaca wool is
+  manufactured in England, principally in Yorkshire. Attempts have been
+  made to introduce and acclimatize the alpaca in Europe and in Australia,
+  but no measure of success has attended the experiments. Its flesh is
+  pleasant and wholesome.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpe&prime;na,</b> a town of the United States, Michigan, at the
+  entrance of the Thunder into Lake Huron, with saw-mills, woollen
+  factories, &amp;c. Pop. 12,706.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpen-horn,</b> or <b>Alp-horn</b> (Ger.), a long, nearly-straight
+  horn, curving slightly, and widening towards its extremity, used in the
+  Alps to convey signals, or notice of something.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpen-stock</b> (Ger.), a strong, tall stick shod with iron,
+  pointed at the end so as to take hold in, and give support on, ice and
+  other dangerous places in climbing the Alps and other high mountains.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>lp), the name of three departments in the
+  south-east of France, all more or less covered by the Alps or their
+  offshoots:&mdash;<i>Basses-Alpes</i> (bäs-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>lp; Lower Alps) has mountains rising to a
+  height of 8000 to 10,000 feet, is drained by the Durance and its
+  tributaries, and is the most thinly-peopled department in France; area,
+  2697 sq. miles; capital, Digne. Pop. (1921),
+  91,882.&mdash;<i>Hautes-Alpes</i> (&#x14D;t-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>lp; Upper Alps), mostly formed out of
+  ancient Dauphiné, traversed by the Cottian and Dauphiné Alps (highest
+  summits 12,000 feet), drained chiefly by the Durance and its tributaries.
+  It is the lowest department in France in point of absolute population;
+  area, 2178 sq. miles; capital, Gap. Pop. (1921),
+  89,275.&mdash;<i>Alpes-Maritimes</i> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>lp-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ri-t&#x113;m; Maritime Alps) has the
+  Mediterranean on the south, and mainly consists of the territory of Nice,
+  ceded to France by Italy in 1860. The greater part of the surface is
+  covered by the Maritime Alps; the principal river is the Var. It produces
+  in the south, cereals, vines, olives, oranges, citrons, and other fruits;
+  and there are manufactories of perfumes, liqueurs, soap, &amp;c., and
+  valuable fisheries. It is a favourite resort for invalids; area, 1443 sq.
+  miles; capital, Nice. Pop. 357,759.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;pha</b> and <b>O&prime;mega,</b> the first and last
+  letters of the Greek alphabet, sometimes used to signify the beginning
+  and the end, or the first and the last of anything; also as a symbol of
+  the Divine Being (<i>Rev.</i> i, 8; xxi, 6; xxii, 13). They were also
+  formerly the symbol of Christianity, and engraved accordingly on the
+  tombs of the ancient Christians. Some of these engravings are to be seen
+  in the Louvre.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;phabet</b> (from <i>Alpha</i> and <i>Beta</i>, the two
+  first letters of the Greek alphabet), the series of characters used in
+  writing a language, and intended to represent the sounds of which it
+  consists. The English alphabet, like most of those of modern Europe, is
+  derived directly from the Latin, the Latin from the ancient Greek, and
+  that from the Ph&oelig;nician, which again is believed to have had its
+  origin in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, although Egyptologists are not
+  unanimous on this point. There is little evidence in support of the
+  theory that the Ph&oelig;nician alphabet had developed from the Assyrian
+  cuneiform. Some scholars, like Sir Arthur Evans, are of opinion that the
+  Philistines established on the coast of Palestine had brought the
+  alphabet over from Crete, and that from them it passed to the
+  Ph&oelig;nicians. The names of the letters in Ph&oelig;nician and Hebrew
+  must have been almost the same, for the Greek names, which, with the
+  letters, were borrowed from the former, differ little from the Hebrew. By
+  means of the names we may trace the process by which the Egyptian
+  characters were transformed into letters by the Ph&oelig;nicians. Some
+  Egyptian character would, by its form, recall the idea of a house, for
+  example, in Ph&oelig;nician or Hebrew <i>beth</i>. This character would
+  subsequently come to be used wherever the sound <i>b</i> occurred. Its
+  form might be afterwards simplified, or even completely modified, but the
+  name would still remain, as <i>beth</i> still continues the Hebrew name
+  for <i>b</i>, and <i>beta</i> the Greek. Our letter <i>m</i>, which in
+  Hebrew was called <i>mim</i>, water, has still a considerable resemblance
+  to the zig-zag wavy line which had been chosen to represent water, as in
+  the zodiacal symbol for <i>Aquarius</i>. The letter <i>o</i>, of which
+  the Hebrew name means eye, no doubt was originally intended to represent
+  that organ. While the ancient Greek alphabet gave rise to the ordinary
+  Greek alphabet and the Latin, the Greek alphabet of later times furnished
+  elements for the Coptic, the Gothic, and the old Slavic alphabets. The
+  Latin characters are now employed by a great many nations, such as the
+  Italian, the French, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the English, the Dutch,
+  the German, the Hungarian, the Polish, &amp;c., each nation having
+  introduced such modifications or additions as are necessary to express
+  the sound of the language peculiar to it. The Greek alphabet originally
+  possessed only sixteen letters, though the Ph&oelig;nician had
+  twenty-two. The original Latin alphabet, as it is found in the oldest
+  inscriptions, consisted of twenty-one letters; namely, the <!-- Page 125
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page125"></a>[125]</span>vowels
+  <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, and <i>u</i> (<i>v</i>), and the
+  consonants <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>k</i>,
+  <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>q</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>s</i>,
+  <i>t</i>, <i>x</i>, <i>z</i>. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet had two characters
+  for the digraph <i>th</i>, which were unfortunately not retained in later
+  English; it had also the character <i>æ</i>. It wanted <i>j</i>,
+  <i>v</i>, <i>y</i> (consonant), and <i>z</i>. The German alphabet
+  consists of the same letters as the English, but the sounds of some of
+  them are different. Anciently certain characters called <i>Runic</i> were
+  made use of by the Teutonic nations, to which some would attribute an
+  origin independent of the Greek and Latin alphabets. Wimmer, the Danish
+  scholar, is, however, of opinion that the <i>runes</i> were developed
+  from the Latin alphabet. While the alphabets of the west of Europe are
+  derived from the Latin, the Russian, which is very complete, is based on
+  the Greek, with some characters borrowed from the Armenian, &amp;c; it is
+  called <i>azbouka</i>, from the first two letters <i>az</i>, a, and
+  <i>bouki</i>, b. Among Asiatic alphabets, the Arabian (ultimately of
+  Ph&oelig;nician origin) has played a part analogous to that of the Latin
+  in Europe, the conquests of Mohammedanism having imposed it on the
+  Persian, the Turkish, the Hindustani, &amp;c. The Sanskrit or
+  Devan&#x101;gari alphabet is one of the most remarkable alphabets of the
+  world. As now used it has fourteen characters for the vowels and
+  diphthongs, and thirty-three for the consonants, besides two other
+  symbols. Our alphabet is a very imperfect instrument for what it has to
+  perform, being both defective and redundant. An alphabet is not essential
+  to the writing of a language, since ideograms or symbols may be used
+  instead, as in Chinese. See <i>Writing</i>.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. Clodd, <i>The Alphabet</i> (Useful
+  Knowledge Series, Hodder &amp; Stoughton); Canon J. Taylor, <i>The
+  Alphabet</i>; Philippe Berger, <i>Histoire de l'Écriture dans
+  l'Antiquité</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alph&#x113;&prime;us</b> (now <b>Rufia</b>), the largest river of
+  Peloponnesus, flowing westwards into the Ionian Sea. In Greek mythology
+  Alph&#x113;us is supposed to have been the son of Oceanus and Tethys.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alphon&prime;so,</b> the name of a number of Portuguese and Spanish
+  kings. Among the former may be mentioned <b>Alphonso I,</b> the
+  Conqueror, first King of Portugal, son of Henry of Burgundy, the
+  Conqueror and first Count of Portugal; born 1110, fought successfully
+  against the Spaniards and the Moors, named himself King of Portugal, and
+  was as such recognized by the Pope; died 1185.&mdash;<b>Alphonso V,</b>
+  the African, born in 1432; succeeded his father, Edward I, 1438;
+  conquered Tangiers in 1471; died 1481. During his reign Prince Henry the
+  Navigator continued the important voyages of discovery already begun by
+  the Portuguese. Under him was drawn up an important code of
+  laws.&mdash;Among kings of Spain may be mentioned <b>Alphonso X,</b> King
+  of Castile and Leon, surnamed the <i>Astronomer</i>, the
+  <i>Philosopher</i>, or the <i>Wise</i> (El Sabio); born in 1226;
+  succeeded in 1252. Being grandson of Philip of Hohenstaufen, son of
+  Frederick Barbarossa, he endeavoured to have himself elected Emperor of
+  Germany, and in 1257 succeeded in dividing the election with Richard,
+  Earl of Cornwall. On Richard's death in 1272 he again unsuccessfully
+  contested the imperial crown. Meantime his throne was endangered by
+  conspiracies of the nobles and the attacks of the Moors. The Moors he
+  conquered, but his domestic troubles were less easily overcome, and he
+  was finally dethroned by his son Sancho, and died two years after, 1284.
+  Alphonso was the most learned prince of his age. Under his direction or
+  superintendence were drawn up a celebrated code of laws, valuable
+  astronomical tables which go under his name (<i>Alphonsine Tables</i>),
+  the first general history of Spain in the Castilian tongue, and a Spanish
+  translation of the Bible.&mdash;<b>Alphonso V</b> of Aragon, I of Naples
+  and Sicily, born in 1385, was the son of Ferdinand I of Aragon, the
+  throne of which he ascended in 1416, ruling also over Sicily and the
+  Island of Sardinia. Queen Joanna of Naples made him her heir, but after
+  her death in 1435 her will was disputed by René of Anjou. Alphonso now
+  proceeded to take possession of Naples by force, which he succeeded in
+  doing in 1442, and reigned till his death in 1458. He was an enlightened
+  patron of literary men, by whom, in the latter part of his reign, his
+  Court was thronged.&mdash;<b>Alphonso XII,</b> King of Spain, the only
+  son of Queen Isabella II and her cousin Francis of Assisi, was born in
+  1857 and died in 1885. He left Spain with his mother when she was driven
+  from the throne by the revolution of 1868, and till 1874 resided partly
+  in France, partly in Austria. In the latter year he studied for a time at
+  the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, being then known as Prince of the
+  Asturias. His mother had given up her claims to the throne in 1870 in his
+  favour, and in 1874 Alphonso came forward himself as claimant, and in the
+  end of the year was proclaimed by General Martinez Campos as king. He now
+  passed over into Spain and was enthusiastically received, most of the
+  Spaniards being by this time tired of the republican Government, which
+  had failed to put down the Carlist party. Alphonso was successful in
+  bringing the Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and henceforth he reigned
+  with little disturbance. His minister Canovas del Castillo ruined,
+  however, Alphonso's popularity when he advised the king to conclude an
+  alliance with Bismarck and Germany. He married first his cousin Maria de
+  las Mercedes, daughter of the Duc de Montpensier; second, Maria
+  Christina, Archduchess of Austria, whom he left a widow with two
+  daughters and a son.&mdash;<b>Alphonso XIII,</b> King of Spain, born in
+  1886, the posthumous son of <!-- Page 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page126"></a>[126]</span>Alphonso XII. His mother was appointed
+  regent during his minority, and acted as such until 1902. On attaining
+  his sixteenth year, the king assumed personal charge of the Government.
+  In 1906 (31st May) he married Princess Ena, daughter of Princess Henry of
+  Battenberg, a daughter of Queen Victoria.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpine Club,</b> an association of English gentlemen, originating
+  in 1856 or 1857, having as their common bond of union a delight in making
+  the ascent of mountains, in the Alps or elsewhere, difficult to ascend,
+  and in investigating everything connected with mountains. Similar
+  associations now exist in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpine Crow,</b> or <b>Alpine Chough</b> (<i>Pyrrhoc&#x14F;rax
+  alp&#x12B;nus</i>), a European bird closely akin to the chough of
+  England.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpine Museum,</b> a museum established at Munich in 1911 by the
+  German and Austrian Alpine Club. Its purpose is to spread knowledge about
+  the Alps, and to disseminate the results of scientific research by means
+  of exhibits and literary publications. Not only alpine geology, botany,
+  and zoology, but also industry, custom, and costumes are well
+  demonstrated in the exhibits.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpine Plants,</b> the name given to those plants whose habitat is
+  in the neighbourhood of the snow, on mountains partly covered with it all
+  the year round. As the height of the snow-line varies according to the
+  latitude and local conditions, so also does the height at which these
+  plants grow. The mean height for the alpine plants of Central Europe is
+  about 6000 feet; but it rises in parts of the Alps and in the Pyrenees to
+  9000 feet, or even more. The high grounds clear of snow among these
+  mountains present a very well marked flora, the general characters of the
+  plants being a low dwarfish habit, a tendency to form thick turfs, stems
+  partly or wholly woody, and large brilliantly-coloured and often very
+  sweet-smelling flowers. They are also often closely covered with woolly
+  hairs. In the Alps of Middle Europe the eye is at once attracted by
+  gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, primroses of different kinds,
+  &amp;c. Ferns and mosses of many kinds also characterize these regions.
+  Some alpine plants are found only in one locality. Considerable success
+  has attended the attempt to grow alpine plants in gardens, the first
+  necessity being a situation where there is plenty of sunlight, and which
+  is free from the shade of trees.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpine Warbler</b> (<i>Accentor alp&#x12B;nus</i>), a European bird
+  of the same genus as the hedge-sparrow.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpin&prime;ia,</b> a genus of plants. See <i>Galanga</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alps,</b> the highest and most extensive system of mountains in
+  Europe, included between lat. 44° and 48° <span class="scac">N.</span>,
+  and long. 5° and 18° <span class="scac">E.</span>, covering great part of
+  Northern Italy, several departments of France, nearly the whole of
+  Switzerland, and a large part of Austria, while its extensive
+  ramifications connect it with nearly all the mountain systems of Europe.
+  The culminating peak is Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the true
+  centre is the St. Gothard, or the mountain mass to which it belongs, and
+  from whose slopes flow, either directly or by affluents, the great rivers
+  of Central Europe&mdash;the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. Round the
+  northern frontier of Italy the Alps form a remarkable barrier, shutting
+  it off from the mainland of Europe, so that formerly it could hardly be
+  approached from France, Germany, or Switzerland, except through high and
+  difficult passes. In the west this barrier approaches close to the
+  Mediterranean coast, and near Nice there is left a free passage into the
+  Italian peninsula between the mountains and the sea. From this point
+  eastward the chain proceeds along the coast till it forms a junction with
+  the Apennines. In the opposite direction it proceeds north-west, and
+  afterwards north to Mont Blanc, on the boundaries of France and Italy; it
+  then turns north-east and runs generally in this direction to the Gross
+  Glockner, in Central Tyrol, between the Rivers Drave and the Salza, where
+  it divides into two branches, the northern proceeding north-east towards
+  Vienna, the southern towards the Balkan Peninsula. The principal valleys
+  of the Alps run mostly in a direction nearly parallel with the principal
+  ranges, and therefore east and west. The transverse valleys are commonly
+  shorter, and frequently lead up through a narrow gorge to a depression in
+  the main ridge between two adjacent peaks. These are the passes or
+  <i>cols</i>, which may usually be found by tracing a stream which
+  descends from the mountains up to its source.</p>
+
+  <p>The Alps in their various great divisions receive different names. The
+  <i>Maritime Alps</i>, so called from their proximity to the
+  Mediterranean, extend westward from their junction with the Apennines for
+  a distance of about 100 miles; culminating points Aiguille de Chambeyron,
+  11,155 feet, and Grand Rioburent, 11,142 feet; principal pass, the Col di
+  Tende (6158 feet), which was made practicable for carriages by Napoleon
+  I. Proceeding northward the next group consists of the <i>Cottian
+  Alps</i>, length about 60 miles; principal peaks: Monte Viso, 12,605
+  feet; Pic des Écrins, 13,462; Pelvoux, 12,973. Next come the <i>Graian
+  Alps</i>, 50 miles long, with extensive ramifications in Savoy and
+  Piedmont; principal peaks: Aiguille de la Sassière, 12,326 feet; Grand
+  Paradis, 13,300; Grande Casse, 12,780. To this group belongs Mont Cenis
+  (6765 feet), over which a carriage road was constructed by Napoleon I,
+  while a railway now passes through <!-- Page 127 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>[127]</span>the mountain by a
+  tunnel nearly 8 miles long. These three divisions of the Alps are often
+  classed together as the <i>Western Alps</i>, while the portion of the
+  system immediately east of this forms the <i>Central Alps</i>. The
+  <i>Pennine Alps</i> form the loftiest portion of the whole system, having
+  Mont Blanc (in France) at one extremity and Monte Rosa at the other (60
+  miles), and including the Alps of Savoy and the Valais. In the east the
+  valley of the Upper Rhone separates the Pennine Alps from the great chain
+  of the <i>Bernese Alps</i> running nearly parallel, the great peaks of
+  the two ranges being about 20 miles apart. The principal heights of the
+  Pennine Alps are Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet; Monte Rosa, 15,217;
+  Mischabelhörner (Dom), 14,935; Weisshorn, 14,804; Matterhorn, 14,780. In
+  the Bernese Alps, the Finsteraarhorn, 14,026; Aletschhorn, 13,803;
+  Jungfrau, 13,671. The pass of Great St. Bernard is celebrated for its
+  hospice. The most easterly pass is the Simplon, 6595 feet, with a
+  carriage road made by Napoleon I, and a tunnel leading into Italy, fully
+  12 miles long. Farther east are the <i>Lepontine Alps</i>, which give off
+  a number of streams that feed the Italian lakes&mdash;Maggiore, Como,
+  &amp;c. The principal pass is the St. Gothard (6936 feet), over which a
+  carriage road leads to Italy, while through this mountain mass a railway
+  tunnel more than 9 miles long has been opened. Highest peaks: Tödi,
+  11,887 feet; Monte Leone, 11,696. The <i>Rhætian Alps</i>, extending east
+  to about lat. 12° 30&prime;, are the most easterly of the Central Alps,
+  and are divided into two portions by the Engadine, or valley of the Inn,
+  and also broken by the valley of the Adige; principal peaks: Piz Bernina,
+  13,294 feet; Ortlerspitze, 12,814; Monte Adamello, 11,832. The Brenner
+  Pass (4588 feet), from Verona to Innsbruck, and between the Central and
+  the Eastern Alps, is crossed by a railway. On the railway from Innsbruck
+  to the Lake of Constance is the Arlberg Tunnel, over 6 miles long. The
+  <i>Eastern Alps</i> form the broadest and lowest portion of the system,
+  and embrace the <i>Noric Alps</i>, the <i>Carnic Alps</i>, the <i>Julian
+  Alps</i>, &amp;c.; highest peak, the Gross Glockner, 12,405 feet. The
+  height of the south-eastern continuations of the Alps rapidly diminishes,
+  and they lose themselves in ranges having nothing in common with the
+  great mountain masses which distinguish the centre of the system.</p>
+
+  <p>The Alps are very rich in lakes and streams. Among the chief of the
+  former are the Lakes of Geneva, Constance, Zürich, Thun, Brienz, on the
+  north side; on the south Maggiore, Como, Lugano, Garda, &amp;c. The
+  drainage is carried to the North Sea by the Rhine, to the Mediterranean
+  by the Rhone, to the Adriatic by the Po, to the Black Sea by the
+  Danube.</p>
+
+  <p>In the lower valleys of the Alps the mean temperature ranges from 50°
+  to 60°. Half-way up the Alps it averages about 32°&mdash;a height which
+  in the snowy regions it never reaches. But even where the temperature is
+  lowest the solar radiation produced by the rocks and snow is often so
+  great as to raise the photometer to 120° and even higher. The
+  exhilarating and invigorating nature of the climate in the upper regions
+  during summer has been acknowledged by all.</p>
+
+  <p>In respect to vegetation the Alps have been divided into six zones,
+  depending on height modified by exposure and local circumstances. The
+  first is the olive region. This tree flourishes better on sheltered
+  slopes of the mountains than on the plains of Northern Italy. The vine,
+  which bears greater winter cold, distinguishes the second zone. On slopes
+  exposed to the sun it flourishes to a considerable extent. The third is
+  called the mountainous region. Cereals and deciduous trees form the
+  distinguishing features of its vegetation. The mean temperature about
+  equals that of Great Britain, but the extremes are greater. The fourth
+  region is the sub-Alpine or coniferous. Here are vast forests of pines of
+  various species. Most of the Alpine villages are in the two last regions.
+  On the northern slopes pines grow to 6000, and on the southern slopes to
+  7000 feet above the level of the sea. This is also the region of the
+  lower or permanent pastures where the flocks are fed in winter. The fifth
+  is the pasture region, the term <i>alp</i> being used in the local sense
+  of high pasture grounds. It extends from the uppermost limit of trees to
+  the region of perpetual snow. Here there are shrubs, rhododendrons,
+  junipers, bilberries, and dwarf willows, &amp;c. The sixth zone is the
+  region of perpetual snow. The line of snow varies, according to seasons
+  and localities, from 8000 to 9500 feet, but the line is not continuous,
+  being often broken in upon. Few flowering plants extend above 10,000
+  feet, but they have been found as high as 12,000 feet.</p>
+
+  <p>At this great elevation are found the wild goat and the chamois. In
+  summer the high mountain pastures are covered with large flocks of
+  cattle, sheep, and goats, which are in winter removed to a lower and
+  warmer level. The marmot, and white or Alpine hare, inhabit both the
+  snowy and the woody regions. Lower down are found the wild-cat, fox,
+  lynx, bear, and wolf; the last two are now extremely rare. The vulture,
+  eagle, and other birds of prey frequent the highest elevations, the
+  ptarmigan seeks its food and shelter among the diminutive plants that
+  border upon the snow-line. Excellent trout and other fish are found; but
+  the most elevated lakes are, from their low temperature, entirely
+  destitute of fish. <!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page128"></a>[128]</span></p>
+
+  <p>The geological structure of the Alps is highly involved, and is far,
+  as yet, from being thoroughly investigated or understood. In general
+  three zones can be distinguished, a central, in which crystalline rocks
+  prevail, and two exterior zones, in which sedimentary rocks predominate.
+  The rocks of the central zone consist of granite, gneiss, hornblende,
+  mica slate, and other slates and schists. In the western Alps there are
+  also considerable elevations in the central zone that belong to the
+  Jurassic (Oolite) and Cretaceous formations. From the disposition of the
+  beds, which are broken, tilted, and distorted on a gigantic scale, the
+  Alps appear to have been formed by a succession of disruptions and
+  elevations extending over a very protracted period. Among the minerals
+  that are obtained are iron and lead, gold, silver, copper, zinc, alum,
+  and coal.</p>
+
+  <p>Extensive views of alpine scenery are now commanded by means of
+  special railways climbing to the summit of Mont Blanc, the Jungfrau, and
+  other mountains. The Rigi railway was one of the earliest constructed of
+  these. Here there are hotels at the top, 5905 feet above the level of the
+  sea, and 4468 above the Lake of Lucerne. A favourite view from hence is
+  to watch the sun rise over the Bernese Alps. The Becca di Nona (8415
+  feet), south of Aosta, gives, according to some authorities, the finest
+  panoramic view to be obtained from any summit of the Alps. The most
+  accessible glaciers are those of Aletsch, Chamonix, and Zermatt.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alpujarras</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-pö-<i>h</i>a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r&prime;ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s), a district of Spain, in Andalusia,
+  between the Sierra Nevada and the Mediterranean, mountainous, but with
+  rich and well-cultivated valleys, yielding grain, vines, olives, and
+  other fruits. The inhabitants are Christianized descendants of the
+  Moors.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alquifou</b> (al&prime;ki-fö), a sort of lead ore used by potters
+  as a green varnish or glaze.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alsace</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-sa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s; Ger. <i>Elsass</i>), before the French
+  revolution a province of France, on the Rhine, afterwards constituting
+  the French departments of Haut- and Bas-Rhin, and subsequently to the
+  Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1 annexed by Germany, and incorporated in the
+  province of Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine). Alsace is generally a
+  level country, though there are several ranges of low hills richly
+  wooded. The principal river is the Ill. Corn, flax, tobacco, grapes, and
+  other fruits are grown. Area, 3202 sq. miles. Pop. 1,218,803. Alsace was
+  originally a part of ancient Gaul. It afterwards became a dukedom of the
+  German Empire. In 1268, the line of its dukes becoming extinct, it was
+  parcelled out to several members of the empire. By the peace of
+  Westphalia, in 1648, a great part of it was ceded to France, which
+  afterwards seized the rest of it, this seizure being recognized by the
+  peace of Ryswick, in 1697.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alsace-Lorraine,</b> the imperial territory, or Reichsland of
+  Elsass-Lothringen, taken by Germany from France in 1871, and restored to
+  France in 1919. The province is partly bounded by the Rhine; area, 5605
+  sq. miles. Pop. 1,874,014. Under the German system the province was
+  divided into three districts, namely, Lorraine, Upper Alsace, and Lower
+  Alsace, and governed by a Statthalter, having his seat at Strassburg. By
+  the law of 31st May, 1911, a constitution was granted to Alsace-Lorraine,
+  by which it received three votes in the Federal Council. After the
+  signing of the armistice, French troops occupied Alsace-Lorraine, and the
+  French Government, by a decree of 26th Nov., 1918, took over the
+  administration of the restored territories, and French officials were
+  installed. The three chief towns are Strassburg, Mulhausen, and Metz.
+  About 76 per cent of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, 22 per cent
+  Evangelical, and between 1 and 2 per cent Jews. The chief crops are
+  wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes, and hay; the potash deposits of
+  Alsace are superior to and more extensive than those of Strassfurt,
+  Germany. <i>See France; Moselle.</i>&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: M. Harrison, <i>The Stolen Lands: a Study
+  on Alsace-Lorraine</i>; G.&nbsp;W. Edwards, <i>Alsace-Lorraine</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alsa&prime;tia,</b> formerly a cant name for Whitefriars, a
+  district in London between the Thames and Fleet Street, and adjoining the
+  Temple, which, possessing certain privileges of sanctuary, became for
+  that reason a nest of mischievous characters who were liable to be
+  arrested. These privileges were abolished in 1697. The name Alsatia is a
+  Latinized form of Alsace, which, being on the frontiers of France and
+  Germany, was a harbour for necessitous or troublesome characters from
+  both countries.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;sen,</b> an island on the east coast of
+  Schleswig-Holstein; length, 20 miles, breadth, from 5 to 7 miles,
+  diversified with forests, lakes, well-cultivated fields, orchards, and
+  towns. Pop. 25,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al Sirat</b> (s&#x113;&prime;rat), in Mahommedan belief the bridge
+  extending over the abyss of hell, which must be crossed by everyone on
+  his journey to heaven. It is finer than a hair, as sharp as the edge of a
+  sword, and beset with thorns on either side. The righteous will pass over
+  with ease and swiftness, but the wicked will fall into hell below.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alstr&oelig;me&prime;ria,</b> a genus of South American plants,
+  ord. Amaryllidaceæ, some of them cultivated in European greenhouses and
+  gardens. <i>A. Salsilla</i> and <i>A. ov&#x101;ta</i> are cultivated for
+  their edible tubers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altaic Languages</b> (also called <b>Ural-Altaic</b> and
+  <b>Turanian</b>), a family of languages occupying a portion of Northern
+  and Eastern Europe, and nearly the whole of Northern and Central Asia,
+  <!-- Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page129"></a>[129]</span>together with some other regions, and
+  divided into five branches, the Ugrian or Finno-Hungarian, Samoyedic,
+  Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altai Mountains</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l&prime;t&#x12B;), an important Asiatic
+  system on the borders of Siberia and Mongolia, partly in Russian and
+  partly in Chinese territory, between lat. 46° and 53° <span
+  class="scac">N.</span>, long. 83° and 91° <span class="scac">E.</span>,
+  but having great eastern extensions. The Russian portion is comprised in
+  the governments of Tomsk and Semipalatinsk, the Chinese in Dsungaria. The
+  rivers of this region, which are large and numerous, are mostly
+  headwaters of the Obi and Irtish. The mountain scenery is generally grand
+  and interesting. The highest summit is Byeluka ('white mountain', from
+  its snowy top), height 11,000 feet. The area covered by perpetual snow is
+  very considerable, and glaciers occupy a large area. In the high lands
+  the winter is very severe, but on the whole the climate is comparatively
+  mild and is also healthy. The flora of the Altai Mountains greatly
+  resembles that of the Alps, about five-sixths of the latter being found
+  here. The mountain forests are composed of birch, alder, aspen, fir,
+  larch, stone-pine, &amp;c. The wild sheep has here its native home, and
+  several kinds of deer are found. The Altai is exceedingly rich in
+  minerals, including gold, silver, copper, and iron. The name Altai means
+  'gold mountain'. The inhabitants are chiefly Russians and Kalmuks. The
+  chief town is Barnaul.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altamu&prime;ra,</b> a town of South Italy, province of Bari, at
+  the foot of the Apennines, walled, well built, and containing a
+  magnificent cathedral. Pop. 25,616.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altar</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>l&prime;tar), any pile or structure raised
+  above the ground for receiving sacrifices to some divinity. Amongst the
+  Semites the altar was primarily the place where the victim was
+  slaughtered, and amongst the Indo-Germanic peoples the place where it was
+  burnt. The Greek and Roman altars were various in form, and often highly
+  ornamental; in temples they were usually placed before the statue of the
+  god. In the Jewish ceremonial the altar held an important place, and was
+  associated with many of the most significant rites of religion. Two
+  altars were erected in the tabernacle in the wilderness, and the same
+  number in the temple. In most sections of the Christian Church the
+  communion-table, or table on which the eucharist is placed, is called an
+  altar. In the primitive Church it was a table of wood, but subsequently
+  stone and metal were introduced with rich ornaments, sculpture, and
+  painting. After the introduction of Gothic art the altar frequently
+  became a lofty and most elaborate structure. Originally there was but one
+  altar in a church, but later on there might be several in a large church,
+  the chief or <i>high altar</i> standing at the east end. Over an altar
+  there is often a painting (an <i>altar-piece</i>), and behind it there
+  may be an ornamental <i>altar-screen</i> separating the choir from the
+  east end of the church.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altaz&prime;imuth</b> (also called <b>Universal Instrument</b>), an
+  astronomical instrument similar to a theodolite, having a telescope so
+  mounted that it can be turned round in a plane perpendicular to the
+  horizon, while it and the graduated vertical circle connected can also be
+  turned horizontally to any point of the compass above a graduated
+  horizontal circle. The altazimuth can thus determine the altitude and
+  azimuth of objects, hence the name.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altdorf</b>. See <i>Altorf</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;tena,</b> a town of Prussia, Westphalia, 40 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Cologne; it has wire-works, rolling-mills,
+  chain-works, manufactories of needles, pins, thimbles, &amp;c. Pop.
+  14,579.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;tenburg,</b> a town of Germany, capital of Saxe-Altenburg,
+  23 miles south of Leipzig. It has some fine streets and many handsome
+  buildings, including a splendid palace; it manufactures cigars, woollen
+  yarn, gloves, hats, musical instruments, glass, brushes, &amp;c. Pop.
+  39,976.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alteratives</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>l&prime;-), medicines, as mercury, iodine,
+  &amp;c., which, administered in small doses, gradually induce a change in
+  the habit or constitution, and imperceptibly alter disordered secretions
+  and actions, and restore healthy functions without producing any sensible
+  evacuation by perspiration, purging, or vomiting.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alter ego</b> (Lat., 'another I'), a second self, one who
+  represents another in every respect. This term was formerly given, in the
+  official style of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, to a substitute
+  appointed by the king to manage the affairs of the kingdom, with full
+  royal power.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/image041.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image041.jpg"
+      alt="Alternate leaves" title="Alternate leaves" /></a>
+    Alternate leaves
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Alter&prime;nate,</b> in botany, placed on opposite sides of an
+  axis at a different level, as leaves.&mdash;<i>Alternate generation</i>,
+  the reproduction of young not resembling their parents, but their
+  grandparents, continuously, as in the jelly-fishes, &amp;c. See
+  <i>Generations, Alternation of</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alternator</b>. See <i>Electricity</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Althæ&prime;a,</b> a genus of plants. See <i>Hollyhock</i> and
+  <i>Marsh-mallow</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Althorn,</b> one of the instruments of the sax-horn family, the
+  tenor sax-horn. See <i>Sax-horn</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;tiscope,</b> an instrument consisting of an arrangement of
+  mirrors in a vertical framework, <!-- Page 130 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>[130]</span>by means of which a
+  person is enabled to overlook an object (a parapet, for instance)
+  intervening between himself and any view that he desires to see, the
+  picture of the latter being reflected from a higher to a lower mirror,
+  where it is seen by the observer.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;titude,</b> in mathematics, the perpendicular height of
+  the vertex or apex of a plane figure or solid above the base. In
+  astronomy it is the vertical height of any point or body above the
+  horizon. It is measured or estimated by the angle subtended between the
+  object and the plane of the horizon, and may be either <i>true</i> or
+  <i>apparent</i>. The <i>apparent</i> altitude is that which is obtained
+  immediately from observation; the <i>true</i> altitude, that which
+  results from correcting the apparent altitude, by making allowance for
+  parallax, refraction, &amp;c. Altitude is one of the main determining
+  influences of local climate. Its increase has the same effect on
+  temperature as an increase of distance north or south of the equator.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altitude-and-azimuth Instrument.</b> See <i>Altazimuth</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alto,</b> in music, the highest singing voice of a male adult, the
+  lowest of a boy or a woman, being in the latter the same as
+  <i>contralto</i>. The alto, or <i>counter-tenor</i>, is not a natural
+  voice, but a development of the <i>falsetto</i>. It is almost entirely
+  confined to English singers, and the only music written for it is by
+  English composers. It is especially used in cathedral compositions and
+  glees.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altofts,</b> a town of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, on the
+  south of the Calder, 3 miles north-east of Wakefield, with a
+  fourteenth-century Gothic church, and extensive collieries adjoining.
+  Pop. (1921), 5050 (urban district).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;ton,</b> a town of England, in Hampshire, 16 miles
+  north-east of Winchester, famous for its ale. Pop. (1921), 5580.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;ton,</b> a town of the United States, in Illinois, on the
+  Mississippi near the mouth of the Missouri, with a state penitentiary,
+  several mills and manufactories, and in the neighbourhood limestone and
+  coal. Pop. 23,783.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;tona,</b> an important commercial city of
+  Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, adjoining Hamburg,
+  with which it virtually forms one city. It is a free port, and its
+  commerce, both inland and foreign, is large, being quite identified with
+  that of Hamburg. Pop. (1919), 168,729.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altoo&prime;na,</b> a town of the United States, in Pennsylvania,
+  at the eastern base of the Alleghanies, 244 miles west of Philadelphia,
+  with large machine-shops and locomotive factories. Pop. (1920),
+  60,331.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;torf,</b> a small town of Switzerland, capital of the
+  canton of Uri beautifully situated, near the Lake of Lucerne, amid
+  gardens and orchards, and memorable as the place where, according to
+  legend, Tell shot the apple from his son's head. A colossal statue of
+  Tell now stands here. The town possesses a beautiful church containing a
+  remarkable organ and a picture by Van Dyck. Pop. 3837.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:28%;">
+      <a href="images/image042.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image042.jpg"
+      alt="Alto-rilievo" title="Alto-rilievo" /></a>
+    Alto-rilievo.&mdash;Soldiers of the Prætorian Guard, the personal
+    body-guard of the Emperor Augustus (in the Louvre, Paris).
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Alto-rilievo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l&prime;t&#x14D;-r&#x113;-l&#x113;-&#x101;&Prime;vo),
+  high relief, a term applied in regard to sculptured figures to express
+  that they stand out boldly from the background, projecting more than half
+  their thickness, without being entirely detached. In mezzo-rilievo, or
+  middle relief, the projection is one-half, and in basso-rilievo, or
+  bas-relief, less than one-half. Alto-rilievo is further distinguished
+  from mezzo-rilievo by some portion of the figures standing usually quite
+  free from the surface on which they are carved, while in the latter the
+  figures, though rounded, are not detached in any part.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altötting</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>lt-eut&prime;ing), a famous place of
+  pilgrimage, in Bavaria, 52 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of
+  Munich, near the Inn, with an ancient image of the Madonna (the Black
+  Virgin) in a chapel dating from 696, and containing a rich treasure in
+  gold and precious stones; and another chapel in which Tilly was buried.
+  Pop. 5408.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altranstädt</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>lt&prime;-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-stet), a village of Saxony, where a
+  treaty was concluded between Charles XII, King of Sweden, and Augustus,
+  Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, 24th Sept., 1706, by which the
+  latter resigned the crown of Poland. <!-- Page 131 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page131"></a>[131]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Alt&prime;ringham,</b> or <b>Altrincham,</b> a town of England, in
+  Cheshire, 8 miles south-west of Manchester, resorted to by invalids;
+  large quantities of fruit and vegetables are raised; and there are
+  several industrial works. Pop. 20,461. Also a parliamentary division of
+  the county.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;truism,</b> a term first employed by the French
+  philosopher Comte, to signify devotion to others or to humanity: the
+  opposite of <i>selfishness</i> or <i>egoism</i>. It was adopted by the
+  English positivists and applied to sociological problems of the physical
+  theory of organic evolution. Herbert Spencer gives considerable space to
+  the discussion of altruism and egoism in his <i>Data of Ethics</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altstätten</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>lt&prime;stet-n), a town of Switzerland,
+  canton St. Gall, in the valley of the Rhine, 10 miles south of the Lake
+  of Constance, with manufactures of cotton and woollen goods. Pop.
+  8743.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Altwasser</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>lt&prime;va<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-&#x117;r), a town of Prussia, in
+  Silesia, 35 miles south-west of Breslau; here are made porcelain,
+  machinery, iron, yarn, mirrors, &amp;c. Pop. 17,321.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;um,</b> a well-known crystalline, astringent substance
+  with a sweetish taste, a double sulphate of potassium and aluminium with
+  water of crystallization; formula,
+  K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>.Al<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>.24
+  H<sub>2</sub>O. It crystallizes in colourless regular octahedra. Its
+  solution reddens vegetable blues. When heated, its water of
+  crystallization is driven off, and it becomes light and spongy with
+  slightly corrosive properties, and is used as a caustic under the name of
+  <i>burnt alum</i>. Alum is prepared in Great Britain at Whitby from
+  alum-slate&mdash;where it forms the cliffs for miles&mdash;and was once
+  manufactured near Glasgow from bituminous alum-shale and slate-clay,
+  obtained from old coal-pits. It is also prepared near Rome from
+  alum-stone. Common alum is strictly <i>potash</i> alum; other two
+  varieties are <i>soda</i> alum and <i>ammonia</i> alum, both similar in
+  properties. <i>Iron alum</i> (pale mauve) and <i>chrome alum</i> (deep
+  purple) are compounds containing iron and chromium in place of aluminium.
+  Alum is employed to harden tallow, to remove grease from printers'
+  cushions and blocks in calico manufactories, and in dyeing as a mordant.
+  It is also largely used in the composition of crayons, in tannery, and in
+  medicine (as an astringent and styptic). Wood and paper are dipped in a
+  solution of alum to render them less combustible.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alumbagh</b> (<i>a</i>-l<i>a</i>m-bäg&prime;), a palace and
+  connected buildings in Hindustan, about 4 miles south of Lucknow. On the
+  outbreak of the Indian Mutiny it was occupied by the revolted sepoys, and
+  converted into a fort. On the 23rd Sept., 1857, it was captured by the
+  British, and during the following winter a British garrison, under Sir
+  James Outram, held out there, though repeatedly attacked by overwhelming
+  numbers of the rebels, till in March, 1858, it was finally relieved. Sir
+  Henry Havelock was buried within the grounds.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alu&prime;mina</b> (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), the single oxide
+  of the metal aluminium. As found native it is called corundum, when
+  crystallized ruby or sapphire, when amorphous emery. It is next to the
+  diamond in hardness. In combination with silica it is one of the most
+  widely distributed of substances, as it enters in large quantity into the
+  composition of granite, traps, slates, schists, clays, loams, and other
+  rocks. The porcelain clays and kaolins contain about half their weight of
+  this earth, to which they owe their most valuable properties. It forms
+  compounds with certain colouring matters, which causes it to be employed
+  in the preparation of the colours called <i>lakes</i> in dyeing and
+  calico-printing. It combines with the acids and forms numerous salts, the
+  most important of which are the sulphate (see <i>Alum</i>) and acetate,
+  the latter of extensive use as a mordant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alumin&prime;ium</b> (symbol Al, atomic weight 27.1), a metal
+  discovered in 1827, but nowhere found native, although its oxide, alumina
+  (which see), is abundantly distributed. The minerals <i>bauxite</i> and
+  <i>cryolite</i> are sources of aluminium, but the chief source is the
+  pure oxide, from which the metal is obtained by means of a strong
+  electric current. It is a shining white metal, of a colour between that
+  of silver and platinum, very light (specific gravity, 2.56 cast, 2.67
+  hammered), not liable to tarnish nor undergo oxidation in the air, very
+  ductile and malleable, and remarkably sonorous. It forms several useful
+  alloys with iron and copper; one of the latter (<i>aluminium gold</i>)
+  much resembles gold, and is made into cheap trinkets. Another, known as
+  <i>aluminium bronze</i>, possesses great hardness and tenacity. Spoons,
+  tea and coffee pots, dish-covers, musical and mathematical instruments,
+  trinkets, &amp;c., are made of aluminium.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alum-root,</b> the name given in America to two plants from the
+  remarkable astringency of their roots, which are used for medical
+  purposes: <i>Ger&#x101;nium macul&#x101;tum</i> and <i>Heuch&#x115;ra
+  americ&#x101;na</i> (nat. ord. Saxifragaceæ).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alum-slate,</b> or <b>Alum-schist,</b> a slaty rock from which much
+  alum is prepared; colour greyish, bluish, or iron-black; often possessed
+  of a glossy or shining lustre; chiefly composed of clay (silicate of
+  alumina), with variable proportions of sulphide of iron (iron-pyrites),
+  lime, bitumen, and magnesia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alum-stone.</b> See <i>Alunite</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alunite,</b> a mineral sulphate of aluminium and potassium, greyish
+  or yellowish white, from which alum is prepared in Sicily by roasting and
+  lixiviation. It is regarded as a possible source <!-- Page 132 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>[132]</span>of potassium for
+  agriculture and also of aluminium. A considerable vein occurs in
+  Utah.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alun&prime;no,</b> Niccolo (real name <b>Niccolo de
+  Liberatore</b>), an Italian painter of the fifteenth century, the founder
+  of the Umbrian School, born in Foligno about 1430, died 1502. Vasari,
+  interpreting wrongly the passage "Nicholaus alumnus Fulginiæ", gave him
+  the name of Alunno.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;va,</b> a town of Scotland, in Clackmannanshire, 2½ miles
+  north of Alloa, near the River Devon, at the foot of the Ochils. It
+  manufactures woollen shawls, tweeds, yarn, &amp;c. Pop. (1921), 4107.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Al&prime;va,</b> or <b>Al&prime;ba,</b> Ferdinand Alvarez, Duke of,
+  Spanish statesman and general under Charles V and Philip II, was born in
+  1508; early embraced a military career, and fought in the wars of Charles
+  V in France, Italy, Africa, Hungary, and Germany. He is more especially
+  remembered for his bloody and tyrannical government of the Netherlands
+  (1567-73), which had revolted, and which he was commissioned by Philip II
+  to reduce to entire subjection to Spain. Among his first proceedings was
+  to establish the 'Council of Blood', a tribunal which condemned, without
+  discrimination, all whose opinions were suspected, and whose riches were
+  coveted. The present and absent, the living and the dead, were subjected
+  to trial and their property confiscated. Many merchants and mechanics
+  emigrated to England; people by hundreds of thousands abandoned their
+  country. The Counts of Egmont and Horn, and other men of rank, were
+  executed, and William and Louis of Orange had to save themselves in
+  Germany. The most oppressive taxes were imposed, and trade was brought
+  completely to a standstill. As a reward for his services to the faith the
+  Pope presented him with a consecrated hat and sword, a distinction
+  previously conferred only on princes. Resistance was only quelled for a
+  time, and soon the provinces of Holland and Zealand revolted against his
+  tyranny. A fleet which was fitted out at his command was annihilated, and
+  he was everywhere met with insuperable courage. Hopeless of finally
+  subduing the country he asked to be recalled, and accordingly, in Dec.,
+  1573, Alva left the country, in which, as he himself boasted, he had
+  executed 18,000 men. He was received with distinction in Madrid, but did
+  not long enjoy his former credit. He had the honour, however, before his
+  death (which took place in 1582) of reducing all Portugal to subjection
+  to his sovereign. It is said of him that during sixty years of warfare he
+  never lost a battle and was never taken by surprise.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alvarado</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-va<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-rä&prime;d&#x14D;), Pedro de, one of the
+  Spanish 'conquistadores', was born towards the end of the fifteenth
+  century, and died in 1541. Having crossed the Atlantic, he was associated
+  (1519) with Cortez in his expedition to conquer Mexico; and was entrusted
+  with important operations. In July, 1520, during the disastrous retreat
+  from the capital after the death of Montezuma, the perilous command of
+  the rear-guard was assigned to Alvarado. On his return to Spain he was
+  received with honour by Charles V, who made him governor of Guatemala,
+  which he had himself conquered. To this was subsequently added Honduras.
+  He continued to add to the Spanish dominions in America till his
+  death.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alvarez</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-va<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-reth&prime;), Don José, a Spanish
+  sculptor, born 1768, died 1827. His works are characterized by truth to
+  nature, dignity, and feeling, one of the chief representing a scene in
+  the defence of Saragossa. The Museo del Prado, in Madrid, contains some
+  of his finest work.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alve&prime;olus,</b> one of the sockets in which the teeth of
+  mammals are fixed. Hence <i>alveolar arches</i>, the parts of the jaws
+  containing these sockets.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alverstoke.</b> See <i>Gosport</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alverstone,</b> Richard Everard Webster, first Viscount, eminent
+  English lawyer, born in 1842, died in 1915. Educated at King's College
+  School, the Charterhouse, and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called
+  to the bar in 1868, and made Q.C. in 1878. He was Member of Parliament
+  for Launceston for a short time in 1885, and from that year to 1900
+  represented the Isle of Wight. He was Attorney-General from 1885-6,
+  1886-92, and 1895-1900, being then made Lord Chief Justice and elevated
+  to the peerage: he had been created a baronet in 1899. He represented
+  Britain in the arbitration with the United States regarding the Behring
+  Sea (1893), in the affair of the Venezuelan and Guiana boundary (1898-9),
+  and was one of three British commissioners who, with three from the
+  United States, settled the Canada and Alaska boundary in 1903. Upon
+  retiring in 1913 he was created viscount. His book <i>Recollections of
+  Bar and Bench</i> was published in 1914.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alwar</b> (<i>a</i>l-w<i>a</i>r&prime;), a State of north-western
+  Hindustan, in Rajputana; area, 3141 sq. miles; surface generally elevated
+  and rugged, and much of it of an arid description, though water is
+  generally found on the plains by digging a little beneath the surface,
+  and the means of irrigation being thus provided, the soil, though sandy,
+  is highly productive. This semi-independent State has as its ruler a
+  rajah with a revenue of £232,000; military force, about 5000 infantry and
+  2000 cavalry. Pop. 791,688.&mdash;<i>Alwar</i>, the capital, is situated
+  at the base of a rocky hill crowned by a fort, 80 miles <span
+  class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of Delhi. It is surrounded by a moat and
+  rampart, and is poorly built, but has fine surroundings; it contains the
+  rajah's palace and a few other good buildings. Pop. 41,305. <!-- Page 133
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page133"></a>[133]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Alys&prime;sum</b> (<i>A. saxatile</i>, L.), a native of Crete, a
+  genus of cruciferous plants, several species of which are cultivated on
+  account of their white or yellow coloured flowers; madwort.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Alyth</b> (&#x101;&prime;lith), a town of Scotland, Perthshire,
+  near the eastern boundary, with linen and jute manufactures. Pop. (1921),
+  1710.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amad&prime;avat</b> (<i>Estrilda amand&#x101;va</i>), a small
+  Indian singing bird allied to the finches and buntings; the female is
+  olive-brown, and the male, in summer, largely crimson.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amade&prime;us,</b> the name of several counts of Savoy. The first
+  was the son of Humbert I, and succeeded him in 1048, dying about 1078;
+  others who have occupied an important place in history are the
+  following:&mdash;<b>Amadeus V,</b> 'the Great', succeeded in 1285; gained
+  great honour in defending Rhodes against the Turks; increased his
+  possessions by marriage and war; was made a prince of the empire; died in
+  1323.&mdash;<b>Amadeus VIII</b> succeeded his father, Amadeus VII, in
+  1391, and had his title raised to that of duke by the Emperor Sigismund.
+  He was chosen regent of Piedmont; but after this elevation retired from
+  his throne and family into a religious house. He now aspired to the
+  papacy, and was chosen by the Council of Basel (1439), becoming Pope, or
+  rather anti-Pope, under the name of Felix V, though he had never taken
+  holy orders. He was recognized as Pope by only a few princes, and
+  resigned in 1449, being the last of the anti-Popes. He died in 1451.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amade&prime;us,</b> Duke of Aosta, for a short time King of Spain,
+  second son of Victor Emanuel of Italy, and brother of Humbert I, King of
+  Italy. He was born in 1845, and, thanks to the influence of Marshals Prim
+  and Serrano, was chosen by the Cortes King of Spain in 1870, Queen
+  Isabella having had to leave the country in 1868. He made his entrance
+  into Madrid as king on 2nd Jan., 1871, and took the oath to the
+  constitution. His position was far from comfortable, however, and, having
+  little hope of becoming acceptable to all parties, he abdicated in 1873
+  (11th Feb.). He died in 1890.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amade&prime;us,</b> Lake, a large salt lake or salt swamp in South
+  Australia, and nearly in the centre of Australia. It was discovered by
+  Giles in 1872, and is seldom visited, being in a dreary, arid region.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;adis,</b> a name belonging to a number of heroes in the
+  romances of chivalry, Amadis de Gaul being the greatest among them, and
+  represented as the progenitor of the whole. The Spanish series of Amadis
+  romances is the oldest. It is comprised in fourteen books, of which the
+  first four narrate the adventures of Amadis de Gaul, this portion of the
+  series having originated about the end of the thirteenth or beginning of
+  the fourteenth century, and the subsequent books being added by various
+  hands. An abridged English translation of <i>Amadis of Gaul</i> was
+  published by Southey in 1803.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amadou</b> (am&prime;a-dö), a name of several fungi, genus
+  Polyp&#x14F;rus, of a leathery appearance, growing on trees. See
+  <i>German Tinder</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amager</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>m&prime;a-ger), a small Danish island in
+  the Sound, opposite Copenhagen, part of which is situated on it. Rural
+  pop. 25,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amako&prime;sa,</b> one of the Kaffir tribes of S. Africa.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amalasun&prime;tha,</b> daughter of Theodoric, king of the
+  Ostrogoths, and after his death regent of Italy for her son Athalarich.
+  Athalarich died in 534, after which Amalasuntha married her cousin
+  Theodahad, but retained the power in her own hands. Mainly on this
+  account she was imprisoned and strangled in her bath by order of her
+  second husband, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 535.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amal&prime;ekites,</b> an ancient tribe occupying the peninsula
+  between Egypt and Palestine, named after a grandson of Esau. They were
+  denounced by Moses for their hostility to the Israelites during their
+  journey through the wilderness, and they seem to have been all but
+  exterminated by Saul and David. The Kenites seem to have been a branch of
+  the Amalekites.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amal&prime;fi,</b> a seaport in Southern Italy, on the Gulf of
+  Salerno, 23 miles from Naples, the seat of an archbishop. In the early
+  part of the Middle Ages it was a place of great commercial importance,
+  and it long enjoyed a republican constitution of its own. Quarrels with
+  its neighbours, encroachments of the sea, and other causes led to its
+  downfall, but it is still much visited by tourists. The road from Salerno
+  to Amalfi is a magnificent carriage-way, partly hewn in the cliffs, and
+  affords charming views. Amalfi is surrounded by rocky heights, and its
+  harbour was choked up by a landslip in 1900. Here arose the <i>Amalfian
+  Code</i> of maritime law, composed in 1010 and containing 66 articles,
+  which once had great influence in the maritime affairs of the
+  Mediterranean trading peoples. The MS. was discovered by the Prince of
+  Andorra, in 1844, in the imperial library at Vienna. Pop. 7472.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amal&prime;gam,</b> a name applied to the alloys of mercury with
+  the other metals. One of them is the amalgam of mercury with tin, which
+  is used to silver looking-glasses. Mercury unites very readily with gold
+  and silver at ordinary temperatures, and advantage is taken of this to
+  separate them from their ores, the process being called
+  <i>amalgamation</i>. The mercury dissolves and combines with the precious
+  metal and separates it from the waste matters, and is itself easily
+  driven off by heat. An amalgam made of cadmium and copper is frequently
+  used in dentistry, and an amalgam of zinc and tin is used for the rubbers
+  of frictional electric machines. <!-- Page 134 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>[134]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/image043.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image043.jpg"
+      alt="Amanita" title="Amanita" /></a>
+    Amanita.&mdash;Two forms of fly-agaric
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Amani&prime;ta,</b> a genus of fungi, one species of which, <i>A.
+  musc&#x101;ria</i>, or fly-agaric, is extremely poisonous.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ama&prime;nus,</b> a branch of the Taurus Mountains in Asia
+  Minor.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amapala</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-pä&prime;la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a seaport of Central America, State of
+  Honduras, on a small island.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amarantha&prime;ceæ,</b> the amaranths, a nat. ord. of apetalous
+  plants, chiefly found in tropical countries, where they are often
+  troublesome weeds. They are remarkable for the white or sometimes reddish
+  scales of which their flowers are composed. Amaranthus, the typical
+  genus, comprises <i>A. caud&#x101;tus</i>, or love-lies-bleeding, a
+  common plant in gardens, with pendulous racemes of crimson flowers; and
+  <i>A. hypochondri&#x103;cus</i>, or prince's feather. The blossoms keep
+  their bloom after being plucked and dried (hence the name: Gr. <i>a</i>,
+  not, and <i>marain&#x14D;</i>, to wither).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amarapura</b> (<i>a</i>-m<i>a</i>-r<i>a</i>-pö&prime;r<i>a</i>), a
+  deserted city, once the capital of the Burmese Empire, on the left bank
+  of the Irawadi, quite close to Mandalay. In 1810, when the city had about
+  175,000 inhabitants, it was completely destroyed by fire; in 1839 it was
+  visited by a destructive earthquake. In 1857 the seat of government was
+  removed to Mandalay. Pop. 6500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amaryllida&prime;ceæ,</b> an order of monocotyledonous plants,
+  generally bulbous, occasionally with a tall, cylindrical, woody stem (as
+  in Agave); with a highly-coloured flower, six stamens, and an inferior
+  three-celled ovary; natives of Europe and most of the warmer parts of the
+  world. The order includes the snowdrop, the snow-flake, the daffodil, the
+  belladonna-lily (belonging to the typical genus Amaryllis), the so-called
+  Guernsey-lily (probably a native of Japan), the Brunsvigias, the
+  blood-flowers (Hæmanthus) of the Cape of Good Hope, different species of
+  Narcissus, Agave (American aloe), &amp;c. Many are highly prized in
+  gardens and hot-houses; the bulbs of some are extremely poisonous.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amasia</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-s&#x113;&prime;a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town in the north of Asia Minor, on
+  the Irmak, 60 miles from the Black Sea, surmounted by a rocky height in
+  which is a ruined fortress; has numerous mosques, richly-endowed
+  Mahommedan schools, and a trade in wine, silk, &amp;c. Amasia was a
+  residence of the ancient kings of Pontus. A few miles from Amasia, on the
+  road leading to Zilleh, is the famous battle-field where Cæsar defeated
+  Pharnaces, King of Pontus, and whence he sent his famous message to Rome:
+  <i>Veni, vidi, vici</i>. Pop. 30,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ama&prime;sis,</b> King of Egypt from 569 to 526 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, obtained the throne by rebelling against his
+  predecessor and benefactor Apries, and is chiefly known from his
+  friendship for the Greeks, and his wise government of the kingdom, which,
+  under him, was in the most prosperous condition. He was succeeded by his
+  son Psammetik.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amati</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-mä&prime;t&#x113;), a family, almost a
+  dynasty, of Cremona who manufactured violins in the sixteenth and
+  seventeenth centuries. Andrea (about 1540-1600) was the founder of the
+  business, which was carried on by his sons Geronimo and Antonio, and by
+  Niccolo the son of Geronimo. The first instrument signed Amati bears the
+  date 1546. Most of the violins made by them are of comparatively small
+  size and flat model, and the tone produced by the fourth or G string is
+  somewhat thin and sharp. Many of Niccolo Amati's violins are, however, of
+  a larger size and have all the fulness and intensity of tone
+  characteristic of those manufactured by Stradivario and Guarnerio.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amatit&prime;lan,</b> a town in Central America, State of
+  Guatemala, about 15 miles south of the city of Guatemala, a busy modern
+  town, the inhabitants of which are actively engaged in the cochineal
+  trade. There is a small lake of the same name close to the town. Pop.
+  12,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amauro&prime;sis</b> (Gr. <i>amauros</i>, dark), a species of
+  blindness, formerly called <i>gutta serena</i> (the 'drop serene', as
+  Milton, whose blindness was of this sort, called it), caused by disease
+  of the nerves of vision. The most frequent causes are a long-continued
+  direction of the eye on minute objects, long exposure to a bright light,
+  to the fire of a forge, to snow, or irritating gases, overfulness of
+  blood, disease of the brain, &amp;c. If taken in time it may be cured or
+  mitigated; but, unless caused by loss of blood, by lead-poisoning, or
+  debility, it is usually incurable.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amaxichi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>ks&prime;&#x113;-h&#x113;), the chief
+  town and seaport of Santa Maura (Leukadia), one of the Ionian Isles, the
+  seat of a Greek bishop; manufactures cotton and leather. Pop. 5500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;azon,</b> or <b>Am&prime;azons,</b> a river of South <!--
+  Page 135 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page135"></a>[135]</span>America, the largest in the world, formed
+  by a great number of sources which rise in the Andes, the two head
+  branches being the Tunguragua or Marañon and the Ucayali, both rising in
+  Peru, the former from Lake Lauricocha, in lat. 10° 29&prime; <span
+  class="scac">S.</span>, the latter formed by the Apurimac and Urubamba,
+  the headwaters of which are between lat. 14° and 16° <span
+  class="scac">S.</span>; general course north of east; length, including
+  windings, between 3000 and 4000 miles; area of drainage basin, 2,500,000
+  sq. miles. It enters the Atlantic under the equator by a mouth 200 miles
+  wide, divided into two principal and several smaller arms by the large
+  island Marajo and a number of smaller islands. In its upper course
+  navigation is interrupted by rapids, but from its mouth upwards for a
+  distance of 3300 miles (mostly in Brazil) there is no obstruction. It
+  receives the waters of about 200 tributaries, 100 of which are navigable
+  and seventeen of these 1000 to 2300 miles in length; northern
+  tributaries: Santiago, Morona, Pastaça, Tigre, Napo, Putumayo, Japura,
+  Rio Negro (the Cassiquiare connects this stream with the Orinoco),
+  &amp;c.; southern: Huallaga, Ucayali, Javari, Jutay, Jurua, Coary, Purus,
+  Madeira, Tapajos, Xingu, &amp;c. At Tabatinga, where it enters Brazilian
+  territory, the breadth is 1½ miles; below the mouth of the Madeira it is
+  3 miles wide, and where there are islands often as much as 7; from the
+  sea to the Rio Negro, 750 miles in a straight line, the depth is nowhere
+  less than 30 fathoms; up to the junction of the Ucayale there is depth
+  sufficient for the largest vessels. The Amazonian water system affords
+  some 50,000 miles of river suitable for navigation. The rapidity of the
+  river is considerable, especially during the rainy season (Jan. to June),
+  when it is subject to floods; but there is no great fall in its course.
+  The tides reach up as far as 400 miles from its mouth. The singular
+  phenomenon of the <i>bore</i>, or as it is called on the Amazon the
+  <i>pororoca</i>, occurs at the mouth of the river at spring-tides on a
+  grand scale. The river swarms with alligators, turtles, and a great
+  variety of fish. The country through which it flows is extremely fertile,
+  and is mostly covered with immense forests; it must at some future time
+  support a numerous population, and be the theatre of a busy commerce.
+  Steamers and other craft ply on the river, the chief centre of trade
+  being Para, at its mouth. The Amazon was discovered by Vicente Yañez
+  Pinzon in 1500, but the stream was not navigated by any European till
+  1541, when Francis Orellana descended it. Orellana stated that he found
+  on its banks a nation of armed women, and this circumstance gave the name
+  to the river.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amaz&prime;onas,</b> the largest state of Brazil, traversed by the
+  Amazon and its tributaries; area, 731,000 sq. miles. Pop. 459,309.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;azons,</b> according to an ancient Greek tradition, the
+  name of a community of women, who permitted no men to reside among them,
+  fought under the conduct of a queen, and long constituted a formidable
+  State. They were said to burn off the right breast that it might not
+  impede them in the use of the bow&mdash;a legend that arose from the
+  Greeks supposing the name was from <i>a</i>, not, <i>mazos</i>, breast.
+  It is probably from <i>a</i>, together, and <i>mazos</i>, breast, the
+  name meaning therefore sisters. Several nations of Amazons are mentioned,
+  the most famous being those who dwelt in Pontus, who built Ephesus and
+  other cities. Their queen, Hippolyta, was vanquished by Hercules, who
+  took from her the girdle of Mars. They attacked Attica in the time of
+  Theseus. They came to the assistance of Troy under their queen,
+  Penthesil&#x113;a, who was slain by Achilles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amazu&prime;lu,</b> a branch of the Zulu Kaffir race. See
+  <i>Zulus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amba&prime;la,</b> or <b>Umball&prime;a,</b> a town of India, in
+  the Punjab, in an open plain 3 miles from the Ghaggar, consisting of an
+  old and a new portion, with a flourishing trade in grain and other
+  commodities. The military cantonment is several miles distant. Total pop.
+  80,131.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambale&prime;ma,</b> a town of S. America, Colombia, on the
+  Magdalena; the centre of an important tobacco district. Pop. 6285.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;baree,</b> a fibre similar to jute largely used in India,
+  obtained from <i>Hibiscus cannab&#x12B;nus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambarvalia,</b> an ancient Roman festival held annually in May, and
+  celebrated by the Arval Brothers (Fratres Arvales). Its object was to
+  preserve the growing crops from harm of any kind.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambas&prime;sador,</b> a minister of the highest rank, employed by
+  one prince or State at the Court of another to manage the public
+  concerns, or support the interests of his own prince or State, and
+  representing the power and dignity of his sovereign or State. Ambassadors
+  are <i>ordinary</i> when they reside permanently at a foreign Court, or
+  <i>extraordinary</i> when they are sent on a special occasion. When
+  <i>ambassadors extraordinary</i> have full powers, as of concluding
+  peace, making treaties, and the like, they are called
+  <i>plenipotentiaries</i>. Ambassadors are often called simply
+  <i>ministers</i>. <i>Envoys</i> are ministers employed on special
+  occasions, and are of less dignity than ambassadors. The term
+  <i>ambassador</i>, however, is also used in a more general sense for any
+  diplomatic agent or minister. An ambassador and his suite are not
+  amenable to the laws of the country in which they are residing. See
+  <i>Diplomacy</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;batch</b> (<i>Hermini&#x113;ra elaphrox&#x45E;lon</i>), a
+  thorny leguminous shrub with yellow flowers growing in the shallows of
+  the Upper Nile and other rivers of tropical Africa, 15 to 20 feet high.
+  Its wood is extremely light and spongy, and hence is made <!-- Page 136
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>[136]</span>into floats or
+  rafts. A raft capable of bearing eight persons can easily be carried by
+  one.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amba&prime;to,</b> a town of Ecuador, on the side of Chimborazo, 70
+  miles south of Quito. Pop. 12,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;ber,</b> a semi-mineral substance of resinous composition,
+  a sort of fossil resin, the produce of extinct Coniferæ, used for the
+  manufacture of ornamental objects. It is usually of yellow or
+  reddish-brown colour; brittle; yields easily to the knife; is
+  translucent, and possessed of a resinous lustre. Specific gravity, 1.065.
+  It burns with a yellow flame, emitting a pungent aromatic smoke, and
+  leaving a light carbonaceous residue, which is employed as the basis of
+  the finest black varnishes. By friction it becomes strongly electric. It
+  is found in masses from the size of coarse sand to that of a man's head,
+  and occurs in beds of bituminous wood situated upon the shores of the
+  Baltic and Adriatic Seas; also in Poland, France, Italy, and Denmark. It
+  is often washed up on the Prussian shores of the Baltic, and is also
+  obtained by fishing for it with nets. Sometimes it is found on the east
+  coast of Britain, in gravel pits round London, also in the United
+  States.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;berg,</b> a town of South Germany, in Bavaria, on the
+  Vils, well built, with a Gothic church of the fifteenth century, royal
+  palace, town house, &amp;c.; it manufactures iron-wares, stone-ware,
+  tobacco, beer, vinegar, and arms. Pop. 25,242.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;bergris,</b> a substance derived from the intestines of
+  the sperm-whale, and found floating or on the shore; yellowish or
+  blackish white; very light; melts at 140°, and is entirely dissipated on
+  red-hot coals; is soluble in ether, volatile oils, and partially in
+  alcohol, and is chiefly composed of a peculiar fatty, substance. Its
+  odour is very agreeable, and hence it is used as a perfume.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amble,</b> a town (urban district) of England, Northumberland, near
+  the mouth of the River Coquet, with a harbour at which coal is exported,
+  fishing also being carried on. Pop. 4851.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambleside,</b> an old market-town of England, Westmorland, near the
+  head of Windermere, a great tourist centre. Pop. (1921), 2878.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambleteuse</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-bl-t<i>eu</i>z), a small seaport of
+  France, 6 miles from Boulogne. After the capture of Boulogne in 1544 the
+  English began to construct a military harbour here under the name of New
+  Haven, but had to abandon the enterprise in 1554. Here James II landed on
+  Christmas Day, 1688, after his flight from England; and from its harbour
+  Napoleon I prepared to dispatch a flotilla of flat-bottomed boats for the
+  invasion of Britain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amblyop&prime;sis,</b> a genus of blind fishes, containing only one
+  species, <i>A. spelæus</i>, found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;blyopy,</b> dullness or obscurity of eyesight without any
+  apparent defect in the organs; the first stage of amaurosis.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;bo,</b> or <b>Am&prime;bon,</b> in early Christian
+  churches a kind of raised desk or pulpit, sometimes richly ornamented,
+  from which certain parts of the service were read, or discourses
+  delivered, there being sometimes two in one church. Some of the most
+  ancient of these pulpits (fourth century) are at Salonica and at Ravenna
+  (fifth and sixth centuries). The ambo constructed by Justinian in the
+  Church of St. Sophia was destroyed by an earthquake.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amboina.</b> See <i>Amboyna</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amboise</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-bwäz), a town of France, department
+  Indre-et-Loire, 12 miles east of Tours, on the Loire, with an antique
+  castle, the residence of several French kings, and manufactures of files
+  and rasps. Near the Château d'Amboise is that of Cloux, which was given
+  by Francis I to Leonardo da Vinci, and where the artist died in 1519.
+  Pop. 4660.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amboy&prime;na,</b> <b>Amboina,</b> or <b>Apon,</b> one of the
+  Molucca Islands in the Indian Archipelago, close to the large island of
+  Ceram; area, about 360 sq. miles. Here is the seat of government of the
+  Dutch residency or province of Amboyna, which includes also Ceram, Buru,
+  &amp;c. Its surface is generally hilly or mountainous, its general aspect
+  beautiful, and its climate on the whole salubrious, but frequently
+  visited by earthquakes. It affords a variety of useful trees, including
+  the coco-nut and sago palms. Cloves and nutmegs are the staple
+  productions. The soil in the valleys and along the shores is very
+  fertile, but a large portion remains uncultivated. The natives are mostly
+  of Malayan race. The capital, also called <i>Amboyna</i>, is situated on
+  the Bay of Amboyna, and is well built and defended by a citadel. The
+  streets are planted on each side with rows of fruit-trees. It is a free
+  port. Pop. 10,000. In 1607 Amboyna and the other Moluccas were taken by
+  the Dutch from the Portuguese, and it was for some years the seat of
+  government of the Dutch East Indies. Trade with the Moluccas was secured
+  to the British by treaty in 1619, but the British establishment was
+  destroyed and several persons massacred in 1623, an outrage for which no
+  satisfaction was obtained till Cromwell obtained it in 1654. Amboyna was
+  taken by the British in 1796 and 1810, but each time restored to the
+  Dutch. Pop. about 40,000. The Dutch residency of Amboyna, including the
+  Banda group, Ceram, Buru, and other islands, has an area of 19,870 sq.
+  miles and a population of about 300,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amboyna Wood,</b> a beautiful curled orange or brownish coloured
+  wood brought from the Moluccas, yielded by <i>Pterospermum
+  indicum</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambra&prime;cia.</b> See <i>Arta</i>. <!-- Page 137 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>[137]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambrine,</b> a preparation of paraffin, resin, and wax, used as a
+  remedy in the treatment of burns and scalds and in rheumatic disorders.
+  It was discovered by Barthe de Sandford, a French doctor, in 1904.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;brose,</b> Saint, a celebrated father of the Church; born
+  in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 333 or 334, probably at Trèves, where
+  his father was prefect; died in 397. He was educated at Rome, studied
+  law, practised as a pleader at Milan, and in 369 was appointed governor
+  of Liguria and Æmilia (North Italy). His kindness and wisdom gained him
+  the esteem and love of the people, and in 374 he was unanimously called
+  to the bishopric of Milan, though not yet baptized. For a time he refused
+  to accept this dignity, but he had to give way, and at once ranged
+  himself against the Arians. In his struggles against the Arian heresy he
+  was opposed by Justina, mother of Valentinian II, and for a time by the
+  young emperor himself, together with the courtiers and the Gothic troops.
+  Backed by the people of Milan, however, he felt strong enough to deny the
+  Arians the use of a single church in the city, although Justina, in her
+  son's name, demanded that two should be given up. He had also to carry on
+  a war with paganism, Symmachus, the prefect of the city, an eloquent
+  orator, having endeavoured to restore the worship of heathen deities. In
+  390, on account of the ruthless massacres at Thessalonica ordered by the
+  emperor Theodosius, he refused him entrance into the church of Milan for
+  eight months. The later years of his life were devoted to the more
+  immediate care of his see. His writings, which are numerous, show that
+  his theological knowledge extended little beyond an acquaintance with the
+  works of the Greek fathers. He wrote Latin hymns, but the <i>Te Deum
+  Laudamus</i>, which has been ascribed to him, was written a century
+  later. He introduced the <i>Ambrosian Chant</i>, a mode of singing more
+  monotonous than the Gregorian, which superseded it. He also compiled a
+  form of ritual known by his name. The best edition of his works is that
+  published in Paris, 1686-90, in 2 vols. fol., and reissued at Lyons in
+  1853.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambro&prime;sia,</b> in Greek mythology the food of the gods, as
+  nectar was their drink.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambrosian Chant.</b> See <i>Ambrose</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambrosian Library,</b> a public library in Milan founded by the
+  cardinal archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a relation of St. Charles
+  Borromeo, who sent scholars, among them Antonio Olgiati, all over Europe
+  to acquire books. The library was opened in 1609, now containing 230,000
+  printed books and many MSS., among the latter being the famous collection
+  of Pinelli. It was named in honour of St. Ambrose, the patron saint of
+  Milan.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;bry,</b> a niche or recess in the wall of ancient churches
+  near the altar, fitted with a door and used for keeping the sacred
+  utensils, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ambula&prime;cral System,</b> the locomotive apparatus of the
+  Echinodermata (sea-urchins, star-fishes, &amp;c.), the most important
+  feature of which is the protrusible tube-feet that the animal can at will
+  dilate with water and thus move forward.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;bulance (Field),</b> a military medical unit attached to
+  an army in the field for the purpose of providing medical and surgical
+  first-aid to sick and wounded immediately behind the fighting-line. The
+  term field-ambulance was adopted in the British service in 1905-6. The
+  chief and most important duty of a field-ambulance is to relieve fighting
+  troops of their sick and wounded and transfer them to the rear to the
+  collecting-hospitals, known as Casualty Clearing Stations, situated at
+  the head of the line of communications to the army's base. Three
+  field-ambulances are attached to each division in the field, one to each
+  brigade, and their officers and men are divided into bearer and nursing
+  sections and equipped with horse or mule and motor transport for wounded
+  and sick. In the East sick and wounded are often carried in litters on
+  camel-back, two of the cacolets being balanced against each other. A
+  medical ambulance is theoretically able to undertake any hospital work,
+  but in practice it confines itself when in action with its division to
+  clearing the front line, and when at rest to treating the minor maladies
+  such as lice, scabies, and slight illnesses which do not require much
+  time or equipment. The medical and surgical outfit of an ambulance is
+  carried in panniers and is usually in excess of its requirements. The
+  word ambulance is often used to designate the motors or other vehicles
+  employed by military or civil authorities in carrying the sick and
+  wounded.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: M.&nbsp;M. Bird, <i>The
+  Errand of Mercy: a History of Ambulance Work upon the Battle-field</i>;
+  G.&nbsp;H. Painton, <i>The Field Ambulance Guide</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amelan&prime;chier</b> (-k&#x113;-&#x117;r), a genus of small trees
+  natives of Europe and N. America, allied to the medlar. <i>A.
+  vulg&#x101;ris</i>, long cultivated in English gardens, has showy white
+  flowers; <i>A. Botry&#x101;pium</i> (grape-pear) and <i>A.
+  ov&#x101;lis</i>, American species, yield pleasant fruits.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ameland</b> (ä&prime;me-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>nt), an island off the north coast of
+  Holland, 13 miles long and 3 broad; flat; inhabitants (about 2000 in
+  number) chiefly engaged in fishing and agriculture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amélie-les-Bains</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-m&#x101;-l&#x113;-l&#x101;-ban<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a village of France,
+  department Pyrénées-Orientales, frequented as a winter residence for
+  invalids, and for its warm sulphureous springs. The place was known to
+  the Romans, as it has been proved by the discovery of Roman medals
+  there.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amen</b> (&#x101;-men&prime;), a Hebrew word, signifying 'verily',
+  'truly', transferred from the religious <!-- Page 138 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>[138]</span>language of the Jews to
+  that of the Christians, and used at the end of prayers as equivalent to
+  'so be it', 'may this be granted'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amend&prime;ment,</b> a proposal brought forward in a meeting of
+  some public or other body, either in order to get an alteration
+  introduced into some proposal already before the meeting, or entirely to
+  overturn such proposal. In Parliament an amendment denotes an alteration
+  made in the original draft of a Bill whilst it is passing through the
+  houses. Amendments may be made so as totally to alter the nature of the
+  proposition; and this is a way of getting rid of a proposition, by making
+  it bear a sense different from what was intended by the movers, who are
+  thus compelled to abandon it.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ameno&prime;phis</b> (or <b>Amenhotep</b>) <b>III,</b> a king of
+  ancient Egypt about 1500 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>; warred
+  successfully against Syrians and Ethiopians; built magnificent temples
+  and palaces at Thebes, where the so-called Memnon statue is a statue of
+  this king. He was the only Egyptian king deified during his lifetime.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amenorrh&oelig;&prime;a,</b> absence or suspension of menstruation.
+  The former may arise from general debility or from defective development,
+  the latter from exposure to cold, from attacks of fever or other ailment,
+  violent excitement, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amenta&prime;ceæ,</b> an order of plants having their flowers
+  arranged in amenta or catkins; now broken up into several orders, the
+  chief of which are Betulaceæ (the birch), Salicaceæ (the willow), Fagaceæ
+  (the beech), Juglandaceæ (the walnut), and Myricaceæ (bog-myrtle).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amen&prime;tia,</b> imbecility from birth, especially when extreme;
+  idiocy.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:33%;">
+      <a href="images/image044.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image044.jpg"
+      alt="Amentum" title="Amentum" /></a>
+    Amentum<br />
+    Hazel (<i>Corylus Avellana</i>) showing Catkins and Nuts.
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Amen&prime;tum,</b> in botany, that kind of inflorescence which is
+  commonly known as a catkin (as in the birch or willow), consisting of
+  unisexual apetalous flowers in the axil of scales or bracts.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amer&prime;ica,</b> or the <b>New World,</b> the largest of the
+  great divisions of the globe except Asia, is washed on the west by the
+  Pacific, on the east by the Atlantic, on the north by the Arctic Ocean,
+  while on the south it tapers to a point. On the north-west it approaches
+  within about 50 miles of Asia, while on the north-east the island of
+  Greenland approaches within 370 miles of the European island Iceland; but
+  in the south the distance between the American mainland and Europe or
+  Africa is very great. Extreme points of the continent&mdash;north,
+  Boothia Felix, at the Strait of Bellot, lat. 72° <span
+  class="scac">N.</span>; south, Cape Horn, lat. 56° <span
+  class="scac">S.</span>; west, Cape Prince of Wales, long. 168° <span
+  class="scac">W.</span>; east, Point de Guia, long. 35° <span
+  class="scac">W.</span> America as a whole forms the two triangular
+  continents of North and South America, united by the narrow Isthmus of
+  Panama, and having an entire length of about 10,000 miles; a maximum
+  breadth (in North America) of 3500 miles; a coast-line of 44,000 miles;
+  and a total area, including the islands, of over 16,000,000, of which N.
+  America contains about 8,300,000 sq. miles. South America is more compact
+  in form than N. America, in this respect resembling Africa, while N.
+  America more resembles Europe. Between the two on the east side is the
+  great basin which comprises the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and
+  the West India Islands. Like Europe also N. America possesses numerous
+  islands, while those of S. America are less important and confined almost
+  to the southern extremity.</p>
+
+  <p>Three-fourths of the area of America is comparatively flat, and this
+  portion of the surface is bounded on the west by lofty mountain systems
+  which stretch continuously from north to south between the extremities of
+  the continent, generally at no great distance from the west shore. In
+  North America the Rocky Mountains, a broad series of masses partly
+  consisting of plateaux, form the most important portion of the elevated
+  surface, being continued southward in the mountains and tableland of
+  Mexico and the ranges of Central America. Separated by depressions from
+  the Rocky Mountains proper, and running close to and parallel with the
+  western coast, are several lofty ranges (Sierra Nevada, Cascade
+  Mountains, &amp;c.). Near the eastern coast, and forming an isolated
+  mass, are the Appalachians, a system of much inferior magnitude. The
+  loftiest mountains in N. America are M&lsquo;Kinley (20,470 feet), in
+  Alaska; <!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page139"></a>[139]</span>Logan (19,514 feet), in N.&nbsp;W. Canada; and
+  Popocatepetl (18,000 feet). The depression of the Isthmus of Panama
+  (about 260 feet) forms a natural separation between the systems of the
+  north and the south. In S. America the Andes form a system of greater
+  elevation but less breadth than the Rocky Mountains, and consist of a
+  series of ranges (<i>cordilleras</i>) closely following the line of the
+  west coast from the Isthmus of Panama to Cape Horn. The highest summits
+  are Aconcagua (23,080 feet), Sorata or Illampu (21,484), and Sahama
+  (21,054). Volcanoes are numerous. Isolated mountain groups of minor
+  importance are the highlands of Venezuela and of Brazil, the latter near
+  the eastern coast, reaching a height of 10,000 feet.</p>
+
+  <p>The fertile lowlands which lie to the east of the Rocky Mountains and
+  the Andes form a depression extending through both continents from the
+  northern to the southern oceans. They have somewhat different features
+  and different names in different portions; in N. America are
+  <i>prairies</i> and <i>savannahs</i>, in S. America <i>llanos</i>,
+  <i>selvas</i>, and <i>pampas</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>Through these low grounds flow the numerous great rivers which form so
+  characteristic a feature of America. The principal are the Mackenzie,
+  Coppermine, and Great Fish Rivers, entering the Northern Ocean; the
+  Churchill, Nelson, Severn, and Albany, entering Hudson's Bay; the St.
+  Lawrence, entering the Atlantic; Mississippi and Rio del Norte, entering
+  the Gulf of Mexico (all these being in N. America); the Magdalena,
+  Orinoco, Amazon, Paranahiba, Rio de la Plata, Colorado, and Rio Negro,
+  entering the Atlantic (all in S. America); and the Yukon, Fraser,
+  Colombia, San Joaquin, Sacramento, and Colorado, entering the Pacific.
+  The rivers which flow into the Pacific, however, owing to the fact that
+  the great backbone of the continent, the Rocky Mountains and the Andes,
+  lies so near the west coast, are of comparatively little importance, in
+  S. America being all quite small. Sometimes rivers traversing the same
+  plains, and nearly on the same levels, open communications with each
+  other, a remarkable instance being the Cassiquiari in S. America, which,
+  branching off from the Rio Negro and joining the Orinoco, forms a kind of
+  natural canal, uniting the basins of the Orinoco and the Amazon. The
+  Amazon or Marañon in S. America, the largest river in the world, has a
+  course of about 3500 miles, and a basin of 2,300,000 sq. miles; the
+  Mississippi-Missouri, the largest river of North America, runs a longer
+  course than the Amazon, but the area of its basin is not nearly so great.
+  North America has the most extensive group of lakes in the
+  world&mdash;Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, which
+  through the St. Lawrence send their drainage to the Atlantic. Thus by
+  means of lakes and rivers the interior of both N. and S. America is
+  opened up and made accessible.</p>
+
+  <p>In regard to climate N. America naturally differs very much from S.
+  America, and has more resemblance to the continents of Europe and Asia
+  (regarded as a whole). In N. America, as in the older continent, the
+  eastern parts are colder than the western, and hence the towns on the
+  Atlantic coast have a winter temperature about 10° lower than those in
+  corresponding latitudes of Europe. The winter temperature of the greater
+  part of N. America is indeed severe, though the intense cold is less felt
+  on account of the dryness of the air. There is no regular season of
+  rainfall unless in the south. Although two-thirds of S. America lies
+  within the tropics the heat is not so great as might be expected, owing
+  to the prevailing winds, the influences of the Andes, and other causes.
+  The highest temperature experienced is probably not more than 100° in the
+  shade; at Rio de Janeiro the mean is about 74°, at Lima 72°. Over a great
+  part of S. America there is a wet and a dry season, varying in different
+  regions; on the upper Amazon the rains last for ten months, being caused
+  by the prevailing easterly winds bringing moisture from the Atlantic,
+  which is condensed on the eastern slopes of the Andes. In each of the
+  Americas there is a region in which little or no rain falls; in N.
+  America it extends over a part of the United States and Northern Mexico,
+  in S. America over a part of the coast region of Peru and Chile.</p>
+
+  <p>America is rich in valuable minerals. It has supplied the world with
+  immense quantities of gold and silver, which it still yields in no small
+  amount, especially in the United States. It possesses inexhaustible
+  stores of coal (United States), with iron, copper, lead, tin, mercury,
+  &amp;c. Petroleum may be called one of its specialities, its petroleum
+  wells having caused whole towns to spring into existence. Diamonds and
+  other precious stones are found.</p>
+
+  <p>As regards vegetation America may be called a region of forests and
+  verdure, vast tracts being covered by the grassy prairies, llanos, and
+  pampas where the forests fail. In N. America the forests have been
+  largely made use of by man; in S. America vast areas are covered with
+  forests, which as yet are traversed only by the uncivilized Indian. In
+  the north is the region of pines and firs; farther south come the
+  deciduous trees, as the oak, beech, maple, elm, chestnut, &amp;c. Then
+  follow the evergreen forests of the tropical regions. The useful timber
+  trees are very numerous; among the most characteristic of America are
+  mahogany and other ornamental woods, and various dyewoods. In the
+  tropical parts are numerous palms, cacti in great variety, and various
+  species of the agave or American aloe. In the virgin forests of S.
+  America the trees are <!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page140"></a>[140]</span>often bound together into an impenetrable
+  mass of vegetation by various kinds of climbing and twining plants. Among
+  useful plants belonging to the American continent are maize, the potato,
+  cacao, tobacco, cinchona, vanilla, Paraguay tea, &amp;c. The most
+  important plants introduced are wheat, rice, and other grains,
+  sugar-cane, coffee, and cotton, with various fruits and vegetables. The
+  vine is native to the continent, and both the American and introduced
+  varieties are now largely cultivated.</p>
+
+  <p>The animals of America include, among carnivora, the jaguar or
+  American tiger, found only in S. America; the puma or American lion,
+  found mostly in S. America; the grizzly bear of N. America, fully as
+  powerful an animal as either; the black bear, the skunk, the racoon, the
+  American or prairie wolf, several species of foxes, &amp;c. The rodents
+  are represented by the beaver, the porcupine, and squirrels of several
+  species; the marsupials by the opossum. Among ruminants are the bison,
+  or, as it is commonly called, the buffalo, the moose or elk, the
+  Virginian stag, the musk-ox; and in S. America the llama (which takes the
+  place of the camel of the Old World), the alpaca, and the vicuña. Other
+  animals most distinctive of S. America are sloths, fitted to live only in
+  its dense and boundless forests; ant-eaters and armadillos; monkeys with
+  prehensile tails, in this and other respects differing from those of the
+  Old World; the condor among the heights of the Andes, the nandu, rhea or
+  three-toed ostrich, beautiful parrots and humming-birds. Among American
+  reptiles are the boa-constrictor, the rattlesnake, the alligator or
+  cayman, the iguana and other large lizards, large frogs and toads. The
+  domestic animals of America, horses, cattle, and sheep, are of foreign
+  origin. The electrical eel exists in the tropical waters.</p>
+
+  <p>The population of America consists partly of an aboriginal race or
+  races, partly of immigrants or their descendants. The aboriginal
+  inhabitants are the American Indians or red men, being generally of a
+  brownish-red colour, and now forming a very small portion of the total
+  population, especially in N. America, where the white population has
+  almost exterminated them. These people are divided into branches, some of
+  which have displayed a considerable aptitude for civilization. When the
+  Europeans became acquainted with the New World, Mexico, Central America,
+  and part of S. America were inhabited by populations which had made great
+  advances in many things that pertain to civilized life, dwelling in large
+  and well-built cities under a settled form of government, and practising
+  agriculture and the mechanical arts. Ever since the discovery of America
+  at the close of the fifteenth century Europeans of all nations have
+  crowded into it; and the comparatively feeble native races have rapidly
+  diminished, or lost their distinctive features by intermixtures with
+  whites, and also with negroes brought from Africa to work as slaves.
+  These mixed races are distinguished by a variety of names, as Mestizos,
+  Mulattoes, Zambos, &amp;c. In North America the white population is
+  mainly of British origin, though to a considerable extent it also
+  consists of Germans, Scandinavians, &amp;c., and the descendants of such.
+  In Central and South America the prevailing white nationality is the
+  Spanish and Portuguese. In the extreme north are the Eskimos&mdash;a
+  scattered and stunted race closely allied to some of the peoples of
+  Northern Asia. That the aboriginal inhabitants of America passed over
+  from Asia is tolerably certain, but when and from what part we do not
+  know. The total population of the New World is estimated at 180,000,000,
+  of which perhaps 124,000,000 are whites, 28,000,000 mixed races,
+  15,000,000 negroes, and 13,000,000 Indians. As regards religion, the bulk
+  of the population of N. America is Protestant; of Central and S. America
+  the religion is almost exclusively Roman Catholic. Several millions of
+  the Indians are heathens.&mdash;The independent States of America are all
+  republican in form of government, Brazil having become a republic in
+  1889. See <i>North America</i>, <i>Central America</i>, <i>South
+  America</i>, <i>West Indies</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>The merit of first opening up the American continent to modern Europe
+  belongs to the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus, who discovered, in
+  Oct., 1492, one of the Bahamas, and named it San Salvador. Europeans,
+  however, had on different former occasions discovered the American
+  coasts, and the coasts of Massachusetts and Rhode Island were visited by
+  Northmen and named Vinland in the year 1000. Still these discoveries had
+  no influence on the enterprise of Columbus, and cannot detract in the
+  least from his merit; they were forgotten, and had never been made known
+  to the inhabitants of the rest of Europe. Though Columbus was the first
+  of his time who set foot in the New World, it has taken its name not from
+  him, but from Amerigo Vespucci. The mainland was first seen in 1497 by
+  Sebastian Cabot, who sailed under the patronage of Henry VII of England.
+  For further particulars of discovery see <i>North America</i> and
+  <i>South America</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>The known history of America hardly goes beyond the period of its
+  discovery by Columbus; but it possesses many monuments of antiquity that
+  might take us many centuries backward, could we learn anything of their
+  origin or of those by whom they were produced. Among such antiquities are
+  great earthworks in the form of mounds, or of raised enclosures, crowning
+  the tops of hills, river peninsulas, &amp;c., and no doubt serving for
+  defence. They enclose considerable <!-- Page 141 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>[141]</span>areas, are surrounded
+  by an exterior ditch, and by ramparts which are composed of mingled earth
+  and stones, and are often of great extent in proportion to the area
+  enclosed. They are always supplied either naturally or artificially with
+  water, and give other indications of having been provided for a siege.
+  Barrows and tumuli containing human bones, and bearing indications of
+  having been used both as places of sepulture and as temples, are also
+  numerous. They are in geometrical forms&mdash;circles, squares,
+  parallelograms, &amp;c. A mound on the plain of Cahokia in Illinois,
+  opposite the city of St. Louis, is 700 feet long, 500 feet broad, and 90
+  feet high. Earth mounds of another class represent gigantic animal forms
+  in bas-relief on the ground. One is a man with two heads, the body 50
+  feet long and 25 feet broad across the breast; another represents a
+  serpent 1000 feet in length, with graceful curves. The monuments of
+  Mexico, Central America, and Peru are of a more advanced state of
+  civilization, approach nearer to the historical period, and make the loss
+  of authentic information more keenly felt. Here there are numerous ruined
+  towns with most elaborate sculptures, lofty pyramidal structures serving
+  as temples or forts, statues, picture writing, hieroglyphics, roads,
+  aqueducts, bridges, &amp;c. Some remarkable prehistoric remains
+  discovered in recent years are what are known as the abodes of the
+  'cliff-dwellers'. These consist of habitations constructed on terraces
+  and in caves high up and steep sides of cañons in Colorado and other
+  parts of the western states of N. America. Some of these buildings are
+  several stories high. See also <i>Mexico</i>, <i>Peru</i>,
+  &amp;c.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L. Farrand, <i>The
+  American Nation</i>; Prescott, <i>The Conquest of Mexico</i> and <i>The
+  Conquest of Peru</i>; Winsor, <i>Narrative and Critical History of
+  America</i>; F.&nbsp;W. Halsey, <i>Great Epochs in American History</i> (11
+  vols.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>American Indians.</b> See <i>Indians</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Americanism,</b> a term, phrase, or idiom peculiar to the English
+  language as spoken in America, and not forming part of the language as
+  spoken in England. The following is a list of a few of the more
+  noteworthy Americanisms, some of them being rather slangy or vulgar.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="b1n">
+
+  <p><i>Approbate</i>, to approve.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Around</i> or <i>round</i>, about or near. To <i>hang around</i> is
+  to loiter about a place.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Backwoods</i>, the partially-cleared forest regions in the western
+  States.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Bee</i>, an assemblage of persons to unite their labours for the
+  benefit of an individual or family, or to carry out a joint scheme.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Boss</i>, an employer or superintendent of labourers, a leader.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Bug</i>, a coleopterous insect, or what in England is called a
+  <i>beetle</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Buggy</i>, a four-wheeled vehicle.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Bulldose</i>, to; to intimidate voters.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Bunkum</i> or <i>buncombe</i>, a speech made solely to please a
+  constituency; talk for talking's sake, and in an inflated style.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Bureau</i>, a chest of drawers, a dressing-table surmounted by a
+  mirror.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Calculate</i>, to suppose, to believe, to think.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Camp-meeting</i>, a meeting held in the fields or woods for
+  religious purposes, and where the assemblage encamps and remains several
+  days.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Cane-brake</i>, a thicket of canes.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Car</i>, a carriage or wagon of a railway train. The Englishman
+  'travels by rail' or 'takes the train'; the American takes or goes by the
+  <i>cars</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Carpet-bagger</i>, a needy political adventurer who carries all his
+  worldly goods in a carpet-bag.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Caucus</i>, a private meeting of the leading politicians of a party
+  to agree upon the plans to be pursued in an approaching election.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Chalk</i>: a <i>long chalk</i> means a great distance, a good
+  deal.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Clever</i>, good-natured, obliging.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Cocktail</i>, a stimulating drink made of brandy or gin mixed with
+  bitters, sugar, and water.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Corn</i>, maize (in England it means wheat, or grain in
+  general).</p>
+
+  <p><i>Corn-husking</i>, or <i>corn-shucking</i>, an occasion on which a
+  farmer invites his neighbours to assist him in stripping the husks from
+  his Indian corn.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Cow-hide</i>, a whip made of twisted strips of raw hide.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Creek</i>, a small river or brook; not, as in England, a small arm
+  of the sea.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Cunning</i>, small and pretty, nice, e.g. 'It was such a
+  <i>cunning</i> baby'.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Dander</i>; to get one's <i>dander raised</i>, to have one's
+  <i>dander up</i>, is to have been worked into a passion.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Dead-heads</i>, people who have free admission to entertainments,
+  or who have the use of public conveyances, or the like, free of
+  charge.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Depot</i>, a railway station.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Down east</i>, in or into the New England States. A
+  <i>down-easter</i> is a New Englander.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Drummer</i>, a bagman or commercial traveller.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Dry goods</i>, a general term for such articles as are sold by
+  linen-drapers, haberdashers, hosiers, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Dutch</i>, the German language.&mdash;<i>Dutchman</i>, a
+  German.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Fix</i>, to; to put in order, to prepare, to adjust. To fix the
+  hair, the table, the fire, is to dress the hair, lay the table, make up
+  the fire.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Fixings</i>, arrangements, dress, embellishments, luggage,
+  furniture, garnishings of any kind.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Gerrymander</i>, to arrange political divisions so that in an
+  election one party may obtain an advantage over its opponent, even though
+  the latter may possess a majority of votes in the State; from the deviser
+  of such a scheme, named <i>Gerry</i>, governor of Massachusetts.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Given name</i>, a Christian name.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Guess</i>, to; to believe, to suppose, to think, to fancy; also
+  used emphatically, as 'Joe, will you liquor up?' 'I guess I will.'</p>
+
+  <p><i>Gulch</i>, a deep abrupt ravine, caused by the action of water.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Happen in</i>, to; to happen to come in or call.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Help</i>, a servant.</p>
+
+  <p><i>High-falutin</i>, inflated speech, bombast.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Hoe-cake</i>, a cake of Indian meal baked on a hoe or before the
+  fire.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Indian summer</i>, the short season of pleasant weather usually
+  occurring about the middle of November.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Johnny Cake</i>, a cake made of Indian corn meal mixed with milk or
+  water and sometimes a little stewed pumpkin; the term is also applied to
+  a New Englander.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Julep</i>, a drink composed of brandy or whisky with sugar, pounded
+  ice, and some sprigs of mint.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Log-rolling</i>, the assembly of several parties of wood-cutters to
+  help one of them in rolling their logs to the river after they are felled
+  and trimmed; also employed in politics to signify a like system of mutual
+  co-operation.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Lot</i>, a piece or division of land, an allotment.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Lumber</i>, timber sawed and split for use; as beams, joists,
+  planks, staves, hoops, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Lynch law</i>, an irregular species of justice executed by the
+  populace or a mob, without legal authority or trial.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Mail letters</i>, to; to post letters.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Make tracks</i>, to; to run away.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Mitten</i>; to <i>get the mitten</i> is to meet with a refusal.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Mizzle</i>, to; to abscond, or run away.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Mush</i>, a kind of hasty-pudding.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Muss</i>, a state of confusion.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Notions</i>, a term applied to every variety of small-wares.</p>
+
+  <p><i>One-horse</i>: a one-horse thing is a thing of no value or
+  importance, a mean and trifling thing.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Picaninny</i>, a negro child.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Pile</i>, a quantity of money.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Planks</i>, in a political sense, are the several principles which
+  appertain to a party; <i>platform</i> is the collection of such
+  principles.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Reckon</i>, to; to suppose, to think.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Rock</i>, a stone of any size; a pebble; as to throw <i>rocks</i>
+  at a dog. <!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page142"></a>[142]</span></p>
+
+  <p><i>Scalawag</i>, a scamp, a scapegrace.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Shanty</i>, a mean structure such as squatters erect; a temporary
+  hut.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Skedaddle</i>, to; to run away; a word introduced during the civil
+  war.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Smart</i>, often used in the sense of considerable, a good deal, as
+  a <i>smart chance</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Soft sawder</i>, flattering, coaxing talk.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Span</i> of horses, two horses as nearly as possible alike,
+  harnessed side by side.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Spread-eagle style</i>, a compound of exaggeration, bombast, mixed
+  metaphor, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Store</i>, a shop, as a book <i>store</i>, a grocery
+  <i>store</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Strike oil</i>, to; to come upon petroleum: hence to make a lucky
+  hit, especially financially.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Stump speech</i>, a bombastic speech calculated to please the
+  popular ear, such speeches in newly-settled districts being often
+  delivered from stumps of trees.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Sun-up</i>, sunrise.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Tall</i>, great, fine (used by Shakespeare much in the same sense);
+  <i>tall talk</i> is extravagant talk.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Ticket</i>: to vote the <i>straight ticket</i> is to vote for all
+  the men or measures your party wishes.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Truck</i>, the small produce of gardens; <i>truck patch</i>, a plot
+  in which the smaller fruits and vegetables are raised.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Ugly</i>, ill-tempered, vicious.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Vamose</i>, to; to run off (from the Sp. <i>vamos</i>, let us
+  go).</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: T. Pickering, <i>Vocabulary of
+  Words and Phrases Supposed to be Peculiar to America</i>; J.&nbsp;R. Bartlett,
+  <i>Dictionary of Americanisms</i>; Schele de Vere,
+  <i>Americanisms</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>American Jute.</b> See <i>Abutilon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>American Organ.</b> See <i>Organ</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amer&prime;icus,</b> a town of the United States, Georgia, in a
+  good cotton and corn district. Pop. 11,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amerigo Vespucci</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-mer-&#x113;&prime;go vespu<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>t&prime;ch&#x113;), a
+  maritime discoverer, after whom America has been named, born, 1451, at
+  Florence; died, 1512, at Seville. In 1499 he coasted along the continent
+  of America for several hundred leagues, and the publication of his
+  narrative, while the prior discovery of Columbus was yet comparatively a
+  secret, led to the giving of his name to the new continent.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amerongen,</b> a village in Holland. Here, at the château belonging
+  to Count Goddard Bentinck, the ex-Kaiser Wilhelm II took up his residence
+  after signing his letters of abdication at Spa on 9th Nov., 1918.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amersfoort</b> (ä&prime;merz-f&#x14D;rt), a town in Holland,
+  province of Utrecht, communicating by the Eem with the Zuider-Zee;
+  manufactures woollen goods, tobacco, glass, and silk yarn. Pop.
+  28,777.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ames,</b> Fisher, American statesman, born 1758, died 1808; studied
+  law, and became prominent in his profession&mdash;distinguished as a
+  political orator and essayist.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ames,</b> Joseph, English antiquary, born at Yarmouth, 1689, died
+  1759. He became a ship-chandler at Wapping, devoted himself to
+  antiquarian pursuits, and was for many years secretary to the Society of
+  Antiquaries. His chief publication is, <i>Typographical Antiquities:
+  being an historical account of Printing in England</i> (1749).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ametab&prime;ola</b> (Gr. <i>ametabolos</i>, unchangeable), a
+  division of insects, including only the apterous or wingless insects, as
+  lice, spring-tails, &amp;c., which do not undergo any metamorphosis, but
+  which escape from the egg nearly under the same form which they preserve
+  through life.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&prime;ethyst,</b> a violet-blue or purple variety of quartz,
+  generally occurring crystallized in hexahedral prisms or pyramids, also
+  in rolled fragments, composed of imperfect prismatic crystals. It is
+  wrought into various articles of jewellery. The <i>oriental amethyst</i>
+  is a rare violet-coloured gem, a variety of alumina or corundum, of much
+  brilliance and beauty. The name is generally said to be of Greek origin,
+  and expresses some supposed quality in the stone of preventing or curing
+  intoxication. The gem was one of the twelve stones in the breastplate of
+  the Jewish high-priest.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amhara</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>m-hä&prime;ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a district of Abyssinia, lying between
+  the Tacazzé and the Blue Nile, but of which the limits are not well
+  defined. The Amharic language, developed from the ancient Gheez, and
+  written since the sixteenth century, has gradually gained ground in
+  Southern and Central Abyssinia, and has also become the Court
+  language.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amherst</b> (am&prime;&#x117;rst), a seaport of Canada, in Nova
+  Scotia, on an arm of Chignecto Bay, with flourishing industries, and
+  trade by railway and sea. Pop. 10,320. Also a port of Burmah, 31 miles
+  south of Moulmein, a health resort of Europeans. Pop. 3750.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amherst,</b> Jeffrey, Lord, born 1717, died 1797; distinguished
+  British general, who fought at Dettingen and Fontenoy, and commanded in
+  America, where he took Louisburg, Ticonderoga, and Quebec, and restored
+  the British prestige in Canada. He was raised to the peerage, became
+  commander-in-chief, and ultimately field-marshal.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amherst,</b> William Pitt, first earl, nephew of the above;
+  Governor-General of India, 1823; prosecuted the first Burmese war, and
+  suppressed the Barrackpore mutiny. Born 1773, died 1857.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amian&prime;thus,</b> a kind of flexible asbestos. See
+  <i>Asbestos</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amice</b> (am&prime;is), an oblong piece of linen with an
+  embroidered apparel sewed upon it, worn under the alb by priests of the
+  Roman Catholic Church when engaged in the sacrifice of the mass.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amide,</b> or <b>Amine</b> (am&prime;id, am&prime;in), names used
+  in chemistry. The amines are compounds formed by the introduction of
+  alcohol radicles into ammonia, e.g.
+  C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>, which is known as ethylamine.
+  They closely resemble ammonia in properties. The amides are formed by
+  replacing one of the hydrogen atoms of ammonia by an acid radicle, e.g.
+  C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>ONH<sub>2</sub>, which is called acetamide.
+  They are not strongly basic, and are usually crystalline, and have high
+  boiling-points.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1
+Part 1, by Various
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,13008 @@
+Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 1
+       A to Amide
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34073]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
+[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
+[n.] "n with dot below"; [:a] "a with diaeresis"; and so forth.
+
+THE
+NEW GRESHAM
+ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME I
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                  _EDITORS_
+
+  ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B.es L.
+
+  R. F. PATTERSON, M.A.(Cantab.), D.Litt.(Glasgow).
+
+  JOHN DOUGALL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.; Gold Medallist
+  of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ALGAE
+
+[Illustration: 1, The very broad Ulva. 2, Cornucopia. 3, Caulerpa
+Cactoides. 4, Acetabularia Mediterranea. 5, Bladder-locks. 6, Long-stalked
+Laminaria. 7, Sugared Laminaria. 8, Bladder Wrack. 9, Serrated Wrack. 10,
+Gulf-weed. 11, Thalassiophyllum Clathrus. 12, Forked Dictyota. 13,
+Medicinal Coralline. 14, Corallina Rubens. 15, Delesseria Lyalii. 16,
+Nitophyllum Crosieri. 17, Membrane-leaved Phyllophira. 18, Peacock's-tail
+Padina. 19, Banded Taonia.]
+
+THE
+
+NEW . GRESHAM
+
+ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME . I
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
+COMPANY . _Limited_
+
+66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
+LONDON W.C.2.
+1922
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+VOLUME I
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PLATES
+
+                                                                  Page
+  ALGAE (_Coloured_)                              _Frontispiece_
+
+  AEROPLANE                                                        44
+
+  AIR-SHIPS                                                        72
+
+  ANATOMY (Human Skeleton and Muscles)                            152
+
+  ARCHAEOLOGY (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages)   220
+
+  ARCHITECTURE                                                    224
+
+  BACTERIA                                                        348
+
+MAPS IN COLOUR
+
+  AFRICA                                                           52
+
+  ASIA                                                            274
+
+  AUSTRALIA                                                       316
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I
+
+ADOLPHE ABRAHAMS, O.B.E., B.A., M.D., late Major, R.A.M.C.
+
+GEORGE E. ALLAN, D.Sc., Lecturer in Electricity, University of Glasgow.
+
+R. E. ANDERSON, Maker of Artificial Limbs.
+
+F. L. ATTENBOROUGH, B.A., Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
+
+F. F. P. BISACRE, O.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E.
+
+R. M. BROWN, B.Sc.
+
+GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Royal College of
+Science, Ireland.
+
+ARTHUR O. COOKE, Author of _A Book of Dovecotes_.
+
+J. R. AINSWORTH DAVIS, M.A., F.C.P., former Principal of The Royal
+Agricultural College, Cirencester.
+
+MONTAGU DRUMMOND, M.A., Lecturer in Botany, University of Glasgow.
+
+CHARLES J. FFOULKES, B.Litt., Major, R.M.; Curator of the Armouries, Tower
+of London.
+
+F. MORLEY FLETCHER, Director, College of Art, Edinburgh.
+
+Rev. WILLIAM FULTON, D.D., B.Sc., Professor of Systematic Theology,
+University of Aberdeen.
+
+L. HADEN GUEST, M.C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
+
+R. N. HAYGARTH, B.A., B.Sc., Queens' College, Cambridge.
+
+W. A. HISLOP, M.B., late Captain, R.A.M.C.
+
+DONALD A. MACKENZIE, Folklorist; Author of _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, &c.
+
+MAGNUS MACLEAN, M.A., D.Sc., M.Inst.E.E., M.Inst.C.E., Editor of _Modern
+Electrical Engineering_, &c.
+
+W. LOCKWOOD MARSH, O.B.E., M.A., A.F.R.Ae.S., Lieutenant-Colonel; late
+R.A.F.; Secretary of the Royal Aeronautical Society.
+
+D. J. MACKELLOR, B.Sc., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Royal Technical
+College, Glasgow.
+
+R. F. PATTERSON, M.A., D.Litt., formerly Charles Oldham Shakespeare
+Scholar, Cambridge University.
+
+ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B. es L.
+
+JAMES RITCHIE, M.A., M.D., Professor of Bacteriology, University of
+Edinburgh.
+
+W. D. ROBIESON, M.A.
+
+JOHN J. ROSS, M.A., F.R.A.S.
+
+GEORGE SMITH, Procurator Fiscal.
+
+G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, University of
+London.
+
+C. S. STOOKS, D.S.O., Major, Indian Army; Instructor in Military
+Organization, Royal Military College, Sandhurst.
+
+M. M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C.
+
+THOMAS G. WRIGHT, LL.B., Professor of Mercantile Law, University of
+Glasgow.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
+the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
+transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--
+
+VOWELS
+
+[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.
+
+[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names.
+
+[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.
+
+a, as in f_a_t.
+
+[a:], as in f_a_ll.
+
+_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
+in Indian names.
+
+[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.
+
+e, as in m_e_t.
+
+[.e], as in h_e_r.
+
+[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.
+
+i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
+French and Italian words.
+
+_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne,
+G_oe_the (Goethe).
+
+eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short.
+
+[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.
+
+o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.
+
+[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.
+
+[=u] as in t_u_be.
+
+u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.
+
+[u:], as in b_u_ll.
+
+[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in
+gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne.
+
+[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
+M_ue_ller.
+
+oi, as in _oi_l.
+
+ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.
+
+CONSONANTS
+
+Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
+have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
+The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
+being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
+explanation are the following:--
+
+ch is always as in ri_ch_.
+
+_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.
+
+g is always hard, as in _g_o.
+
+_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
+similar gutturals.
+
+[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.
+
+r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
+much more strongly trilled.
+
+s, always as in _s_o.
+
+th, as _th_ in _th_in.
+
+_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.
+
+w always consonantal, as in _w_e.
+
+x = ks, which are used instead.
+
+y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
+l[=e]ny).
+
+zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE NEW
+GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME I
+
+A, the first letter in many alphabets. The sound most commonly belonging to
+it, as in French, Italian, German, &c., is that which is heard in _father_,
+pronounced short or long. In English the letter is made to represent at
+least seven sounds, as in _father_, _mat_, _mate_, _mare_, _many_, _ball_,
+_what_, besides being used in such digraphs as _ea_ in _heat_, _oa_ in
+_boat_.--A, in music, is the sixth note in the diatonic scale of C, and
+stands when in perfect tune to the latter note in the ratio of 3/5 to 1.
+The second string of the violin is tuned to this note.
+
+A 1, a symbol attached to vessels of the highest class in Lloyd's register
+of shipping, A referring to the hull of the vessel, 1 to the rigging and
+whole equipment. When A 1 has a number prefixed, as 100 A 1, 90 A 1, the
+number denotes that the vessel is built according to certain
+specifications. See _Shipbuilding_.
+
+AA ([:a]) (Old Ger. _aha_, water; allied to Lat. _aqua_, water), the name
+of a great many streams of Central and Northern Europe.
+
+AACHEN ([:a]'_h_[.e]n). See _Aix-la-Chapelle_.
+
+AALAND ISLANDS. See _Aland Islands_.
+
+AALBORG ([=o]l'bor_h_: 'eel-town'), a seaport of Denmark, in Jutland, on
+the Liimfiord, see of a bishop, with iron-founding, distilling, fishing,
+&c. Pop. 33,449.
+
+AALEN ([:a]'l[.e]n), a town of Germany in Wuerttemberg, which manufactures
+woollen and linen goods. It has important iron-works and tanneries. Pop.
+11,347.
+
+AALESUND ([=o]'le-s[u:]nd), seaport and fishing centre on the west coast of
+Norway, on a small island. Pop. 13,858.
+
+AALI PASHA. See _Ali Pasha_.
+
+AALST ([:a]lst). See _Alost_.
+
+AAR, or AARE ([:a]r), the name of several European rivers, of which the
+chief (180 miles long) is a tributary of the Rhine, next to it and the
+Rhone the longest river in Switzerland. It has its origin from the Upper
+and Lower Glaciers of the Aar, in the Bernese Alps, traverses Lakes Brienz
+and Thun, and receives the Saane, Reuss, Limmat, &c. On it are Interlaken,
+Thun, Bern, Solothurn, and Aarau, to which, as to the canton of Aargau, it
+gives its name.
+
+AARAU ([:a]'rou), a well-built and finely-situated town in Switzerland,
+capital of canton Aargau, on the River Aar. Pop. 9536.
+
+AARD-VARK ([:a]rd'v[.a]rk: earth-pig), Dutch name for a burrowing
+insect-eating animal of South Africa, _Orycter[)o]pus capensis_, order
+Edentata, resembling the ant-eater and armadillo. It is called also
+_ground-hog_ and _Cape pig_.
+
+[Illustration: Aardwolf (_Prot[)e]les crist[=a]tus_)]
+
+AARDWOLF ([:a]rd'w[u:]lf: earth-wolf) (_Prot[)e]les crist[=a]tus_), a
+burrowing carnivore of S. and E. Africa, allied to the hyenas and civets.
+It feeds on carrion, small mammals, insects, &c.
+
+AARE. See _Aar_.
+
+AARGAU ([:a]r'gou), or ARGOVIE ([.a]r-go-v[=e]), a northern canton of
+Switzerland; area, 543 sq. miles; hilly, well wooded, abundantly watered by
+the Aar and its tributaries, and well cultivated. Pop. 236,860. German is
+almost universally spoken. Capital, Aarau.
+
+AARHUUS ([=o]r'h[:o]s), a seaport and ancient town of Denmark, on the east
+coast of Jutland. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a good harbour, and
+manufactures woollens, gloves, hats, tobacco, &c. Pop. 65,858.
+
+AARON ([=a]'ron), of the tribe of Levi, brother of Moses. At Sinai, when
+the people became impatient at the long-continued absence of Moses, he
+complied with their request by making a golden calf, and thus became
+involved with them in the guilt of gross idolatry. The office of
+high-priest, which he first filled, was made hereditary in his family. He
+died at Mount Hor at the age of 123, and was succeeded by his son Eleazer.
+
+AARON'S BEARD. See _Saint John's Wort_ and _Toad-flax_.
+
+AARON'S ROD. See _Golden-rod_ and _Mullein_.
+
+AASEN ([=o]'zen), Ivar Andreas, Norwegian poet and philologist, was born in
+1813 and died in 1896. He wrote miscellaneous poems and a drama, but he is
+chiefly known as the originator of the patriotic movement known as the
+_Maulstroev_. He endeavoured to give Norway a literary language distinct
+from the Danish, which has long served as the literary and official
+language of the country. This he attempted to do mainly by the help of the
+native dialects, which he studied thoroughly, setting forth their grammar
+in special works and embodying their vocabulary in his _Norsk Ordbog med
+Dansk Forklaring_ (Norse Dictionary, with Explanations in Danish, 1873),
+supplemented by the _Norsk Ordbog_ of Hans Ross (1890-2). Numbers of poems,
+tales, &c., have been written in the language, of which Aasen was in a
+sense the inventor.
+
+AASVAER ([=o]s'v[=a]r), a group of small islands off the Norwegian coast,
+under the Arctic Circle, where there is an important herring-fishery.
+
+AB, the eleventh month of the Jewish civil, the fifth of the
+ecclesiastical, year--part of July and part of August.
+
+ABABDA, or ABABDEH (abab'de) (GEBADEI of Pliny), a nomadic African race
+inhabiting Upper Egypt and part of Nubia, between the Nile and the Red Sea,
+dark-brown in colour. Their language is Arabic and they are Mahommedans in
+religion. They number about 40,000.
+
+AB'ACA, or MANILLA HEMP, a strong fibre yielded by the leaf-stalks of a
+kind of plantain (_Musa text[)i]lis_) which grows in the Indian
+Archipelago, and is cultivated in the Philippines. The outer fibres of the
+leaf-stalks are made into strong and durable ropes, the inner into various
+fine fabrics.
+
+AB'ACO, GREAT and LITTLE, two islands of the Bahamas group, (q.v.). Pop.
+about 4000.
+
+[Illustration: Abacus for Calculations]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Capital--_a_, the Abacus]
+
+AB'ACUS, a Latin term applied to an apparatus used in elementary schools
+for facilitating arithmetical operations, consisting of a number of
+parallel cords or wires, upon which balls or beads are strung, the
+uppermost wire being appropriated to units, the next to tens, &c.--The
+uppermost member or division of the capital of a column, immediately under
+the architrave.
+
+ABAD'DON (Heb. destruction), the name given in _Rev._ ix. 11 as that of the
+angel of the bottomless pit, otherwise called _Apollyon_. In _Job_, xxvi,
+6, it designates the underworld, or Hades.
+
+ABAKANSK', a fortified place in Siberia, near the Upper Yenisei, founded by
+Peter the Great in 1707.
+
+ABALONE (ab-a-l[=o]'ne), a name in California for a species of ear-shell
+(Haliotis) that furnishes mother-of-pearl.
+
+AB'ANA, or AMANAH, one of the two rivers of Damascus mentioned in the Bible
+(2 _Kings_, v, 12). See _Barada_.
+
+ABAN'DONMENT, a term of marine insurance, employed to designate the case
+where the party insured gives up his whole interest in the property to the
+insurer, and claims as for a total loss.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. G. Phillimore,
+_Marine Insurance_, in _Encyclopedia of the Laws of England_, vol. viii;
+C. R. Tyser, _Law relating to Losses under a Policy of Marine Insurance_.
+
+AB'ANO, a village of North Italy, 5 miles from Padua, famous for its
+mud-baths and warm springs. It is supposed to be the birthplace of Livy.
+
+ABA'RIM, a mountain range of Eastern Palestine, including Nebo, on which
+Moses died.
+
+ABATEMENT, in law, has various significations. _Abatement of nuisances_ is
+the remedy allowed to a person injured by a public or private nuisance, of
+destroying or removing it himself. A _plea in abatement_ is brought forward
+by a defendant when he wishes to defeat or quash a particular action on
+some formal or technical ground. Abatement, in mercantile law, is an
+allowance, deduction, or discount made for prompt payment or other reason.
+
+AB'ATTIS, or ABATIS, in field engineering, a mass of trees cut down and
+laid with their branches turned towards the enemy in such a way as to form
+a defence for troops stationed behind them.
+
+ABATTOIR (ab-at-w[:a]r'). See _Slaughter-house_.
+
+ABAUZIT, Firmin ([.a]-b[=o]-z[=e]), a French Protestant scholar, was born
+in 1679 and died in 1767. He lived chiefly at Geneva, but visited England
+and was highly esteemed by Newton, who considered him not unfit to be judge
+between himself and Leibnitz in the quarrel as to the invention of the
+integral and differential calculus. Collections of his works were published
+at Geneva (1770) and at London (1773).
+
+ABBA, a Syrian word equivalent to 'father', which, being applied in the
+Eastern Church to monks, superiors of monks, and other ecclesiastics, gave
+rise to the word _abbot_. In the Syriac and Coptic Churches it is given to
+bishops.
+
+ABBADIE ([.a]b-[.a]-d[=e]), Antoine Thomson and Arnaud Michel d', French
+travellers, born in Dublin in 1810 and 1815 respectively. They lived for
+years in Abyssinia, and published valuable works on that country: Arnaud,
+_Douze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie_; Antoine, _Geodesie de la
+Haute-Ethiopie_, &c. Arnaud died in 1893, Antoine in 1897.
+
+ABBAS I, the _Great_, Shah or King of Persia, born in 1557, ascended the
+throne in 1586, at a time when the Turks and hordes of Usbek Tartars had
+made great encroachments on the country. Having defeated the Usbeks,
+recovered the provinces overrun by them, and reduced a great part of
+Afghanistan, he made war against the Turks, and in 1605 defeated them near
+Bussorah, thus getting back all the lost provinces. He extended his rule
+beyond Persia proper, and at his death in 1628 his dominions stretched from
+the Tigris to the Indus. He is looked upon by the Persians as their
+greatest sovereign.
+
+ABBAS II, HILMI, ex-Khedive of Egypt, was born in 1874. He is the eldest
+son of Tewfik Pasha, and succeeded his father in 1892. During his reign he
+adopted an unfriendly attitude towards England, but he failed in his
+attempt to form an anti-British Cabinet in 1893. On 19th Dec., 1914, the
+British Government issued a proclamation deposing Abbas Hilmi and
+conferring the title of Sultan of Egypt upon Hussein Kamil, eldest living
+prince of the family of Mohammed Ali-Hussein Kamil, who died in 1917. See
+_Egypt_.
+
+ABBAS MIRZA, a Persian prince and soldier, was the son of the shah Feth
+Ali; born 1783, died 1833; he greatly distinguished himself in the wars
+against Russia.
+
+ABBASIDS, or ABBASSIDES (ab'as-sidz), the name of the second Arabian
+dynasty which supplanted the Ommiades. It traced its descent from Abbas
+(born 566, died 652), uncle of Mahomet, and gave thirty-seven caliphs to
+Bagdad between 749 and 1258. Harun al Rashid was a member of this dynasty.
+See _Caliphs_.
+
+ABBATE ([.a]b-b[:a]'t[=a]), the Italian term corresponding to _Abbe_.
+
+ABBE ([.a]b-[=a]), a French word for abbot, or for anyone regularly wearing
+the clerical dress. Before the Revolution, all who had studied theology,
+either with the view of becoming ordained clergymen or merely of obtaining
+some ecclesiastical appointment or benefice, were generally so designated.
+Marked out by their special dress, a short, violet-coloured robe, they were
+seen everywhere--at court, the ball, the theatre, and in private families,
+where they acted sometimes as tutors and sometimes as confidential
+advisers. Others, again, adopted the literary profession or became teachers
+in the higher educational establishments.
+
+ABBE, Cleveland, American meteorologist and astronomer, born at New York in
+1838, and educated at Harvard. He held various positions in connection with
+observatories and other institutions in America, and was for some time
+chief meteorologist in the United States Weather Bureau. He wrote much on
+meteorology and kindred subjects. He died in 1916. His works include: _The
+Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere_; _Relations between Climates and
+Crops_, &c.
+
+ABBEOKU'TA, a town of West Africa, in the Lagos Province of S. Nigeria, on
+the Ogun River, and on the railway from Lagos to N. Nigeria, 45 miles north
+of Lagos, consists chiefly of mud houses, surrounded by a mud wall. Pop.
+50,000 to 100,000.
+
+AB'BESS. See _Abbey_ and _Abbot_.
+
+ABBEVILLE (ancient ABBATIS VILLA), a town of France, department of the
+Somme, on the River Somme (which is here tidal), 108 miles N.N.W. of Paris.
+The town is first mentioned in the ninth century, when it belonged to the
+Abbey of St. Riquier. It has a Gothic church (St. Vulfran) (begun in the
+fifteenth century and completed in the seventeenth), which has a
+magnificent west front in the Flamboyant style. It manufactures woollens,
+sail-cloth, chemicals, &c. Pop. 20,373.
+
+AB'BEY, a monastery or religious community of the highest class, governed
+by an _abbot_, assisted generally by a prior, sub-prior, and other
+subordinate functionaries; or, in the case of a female community,
+superintended by an _abbess_. An abbey invariably included a church. A
+priory differed from an abbey only in being scarcely so extensive an
+establishment, and was governed by a _prior_. In the English conventual
+cathedral establishments, as Canterbury, Norwich, Ely, &c., the archbishops
+or bishops held the abbot's place, the immediate governor of the monastery
+being called a prior. Some priories sprang originally from the more
+important abbeys, and remained under the jurisdiction of the abbots; but
+subsequently any real distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. The
+greater abbeys formed most complete and extensive establishments, including
+not only the church and other buildings devoted to the monastic life and
+its daily requirements, such as the refectory or eating-room, the
+dormitories or sleeping-rooms, the room for social intercourse, the school
+for novices, the scribes' cells, library, &c., but also workshops,
+storehouses, mills, cattle and poultry sheds, dwellings for artisans,
+labourers, and other servants, infirmary, guest-house, &c. Among the most
+famous abbeys on the continent of Europe were those of Cluny, Clairvaux,
+and Citeaux in France; St. Galle in Switzerland, and Fulda in Germany; the
+most noteworthy English abbeys were those of Westminster, St. Mary's of
+York, Fountains, Kirkstall, Tintern, Rievaulx, Netley; and of Scotland,
+Melrose, Paisley, and Arbroath.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Fountains Abbey]
+
+ABBIATEGRASSO ([.a]b-b[=e]-[:a]'t[=a]-gr[.a]s-s[=o]), a town in the north
+of Italy, 15 miles W.S.W. of Milan. Pop. 13,148.
+
+AB'BOT (from the Syriac _abba_, father), the head of an abbey (see
+_Abbey_), the lady of similar rank being called _abbess_ (_abbatissa_). An
+abbess, however, was not, like the abbot, allowed to exercise the spiritual
+functions of the priesthood, such as preaching, confessing, &c.; nor did
+abbesses ever succeed in freeing themselves from the control of their
+diocesan bishop. In the early age of monastic institutions (_circ._ A.D.
+300-600) the monks were not priests, but simply laymen who retired from the
+world to live in common, and the abbot was also a layman. In the course of
+time the abbots were usually ordained, and when an abbey was directly
+attached to a cathedral the bishop was also the abbot, but the functions
+devolving on the head of a monastery were, in this case, performed by a
+prior. At first the abbeys were more remarkable for their numbers than for
+their magnitude, but afterwards many of them were large and richly endowed,
+and the heads of such establishments became personages of no small
+influence and power, more especially after the abbots succeeded (by the
+eleventh century) in freeing themselves from the jurisdiction of the bishop
+of their diocese. Hence families of the highest rank might be seen eagerly
+striving to obtain the titles of abbot and abbess for their members. The
+great object was to obtain control over the revenues of the abbeys, and for
+this purpose recourse was had to the device of holding them under a kind of
+trust, or, as it was called, _in commendam_. According to the original
+idea, the abbot _in commendam_, or 'commendator', was merely a temporary
+trustee, who drew the whole or part of the revenues during a vacancy, and
+was bound to apply them to specific purposes; but ultimately the
+commendator or lay abbot in many instances held the appointment for life,
+and was allowed to apply the whole or a large portion of the revenues to
+his own private use. Many of the abbots vied with the bishops and nobility
+in rank and dignity. In England abbots long sat in the House of Lords,
+ranking next after barons. Seventeen of them were present on 28th June,
+1539, the last occasion when the abbots as a body sat in Parliament. The
+Reformation introduced vast changes, not only in Protestant countries,
+where abbeys and all other monastic establishments were generally
+suppressed, but even in countries which still continued Roman Catholic;
+many sovereigns, whilst displaying their zeal for the Roman Catholic Church
+by persecuting its opponents, did not scruple to imitate them in the
+confiscation of Church property.
+
+ABBOT (or Lord) OF MISRULE, the personage who took the chief part in the
+Christmas revelries of the English populace before the Reformation. In
+Scotland he was called Abbot of Unreason.
+
+ABBOT, George, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in 1562 and died in 1633.
+He studied at Oxford, assisted in the translation of the Bible, was made
+Bishop of Lichfield in 1609, next year Bishop of London, and in 1611
+Archbishop of Canterbury. He retained the favour of James I to the last,
+but after the accession of Charles I his influence at Court was superseded
+by that of Laud. He published several works, chiefly theological, and _A
+Brief Description of the Whole World_ (1599).
+
+AB'BOTSFORD, the country-seat of Sir Walter Scott, on the south bank of the
+Tweed, in Roxburghshire, 3 miles from Melrose, in the midst of picturesque
+scenery, forming an extensive and irregular pile in the Scottish baronial
+style of architecture.--_Abbotsford Club_, a club established at Edinburgh
+for printing works throwing light on matters of history or literature
+connected with the writings of Sir Walter Scott; issued 34 vols. 1835-64.
+
+AB'BOTT, Rev. Edwin, D.D., prolific writer on theological, educational, and
+other subjects, born in London, 1838, was educated at the City of London
+School and St. John's College, Cambridge, where he highly distinguished
+himself; he was head master of the City of London School from 1865 to 1889,
+when he retired. His _Shakespearian Grammar_ (1870) is one of his best
+contributions to English philology. Among his theological and kindred
+writings are: _Through Nature to Christ_; _Bible Lessons_; _Cambridge
+Sermons_; _Oxford Sermons_; the elaborate article _Gospels_ in the
+_Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (9th edition); _From Letter to Spirit_. Other
+works are: _Philochristus_ and _Onesimus_, both romances on the history of
+the Early Christian Church; _Francis Bacon, an Account of his Life and
+Works_; _St. Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles_; _The Anglican
+Career of Cardinal Newman_ (a very depreciatory estimate); _Flatland, a
+Romance of Many Dimensions_. He also wrote: _Johannine Grammar_ (1906),
+_The Message of the Son of Man_ (1909), _The Fourfold Gospel_ (1913-7).
+
+AB'BOTT, Jacob, a popular American writer, especially of entertaining and
+instructive books for the young. He was born in 1803 and died in 1879. For
+a time he was a teacher and later a clergyman.
+
+AB'BOTT, Thomas Kingsmill, D.D., biblical scholar and writer on philosophic
+and other subjects, born at Dublin, 1829, died 18th Dec., 1913. He studied
+with distinction at Trinity College, and was successively professor in
+Dublin University of moral philosophy, 1867-72; of biblical Greek, 1875-88;
+and of Hebrew, 1879-1900; he was at one time librarian of the College. He
+has written _Sight and Touch_, directed against the Berkeleian theory of
+vision; _Elements of Logic_; _Essays, chiefly on the Original Texts of the
+Old and New Testaments_; _Notes on some Epistles of St. Paul_; _Elementary
+Theory of the Tides_; _Translation of Kant's Theory of Ethics_; _Kant's
+Introduction to Logic_; _Commentary on Ephesians and Colossians_; &c.
+
+ABBREVIA'TIONS, devices used in writing and printing to save time and
+space, consisting usually of curtailments effected in words and syllables
+by the removal of some letters, often of the whole of the letters except
+the first. The following is a list of the more important:--
+
+    A.B., _artium baccalaureus_, bachelor of arts (more commonly B.A.);
+    also, able-bodied seaman. Abp., archbishop. A.C., _ante Christum_,
+    before Christ. Ac., acre. Acc., A/c, or Acct., account. A.D., _anno
+    Domini_, in the year of our Lord: used also as if equivalent to 'after
+    Christ', or 'of the Christian era'. A.D.C., aide-de-camp. Ad lib., _ad
+    libitum_, at pleasure. A.D.O.S., assistant director of ordnance stores.
+    A.D.V.S., assistant director of veterinary services. Aet. or Aetat.
+    _aetatis_ (_anno_), in the year of his age. A.G., attorney-general,
+    adjutant-general. A.H., _anno Hegirae_, in the year of the Hegira.
+    A.I.A., associate of the Institute of Actuaries. A.Inst.C.E., associate
+    of the Institution of Civil Engineers. A.I.Mech.E., associate of the
+    Institute of Mechanical Engineers. A.M., _ante meridiem_, forenoon;
+    _anno mundi_, in the year of the world; _artium magister_, master of
+    arts. A.M.I.E.E., associate member of the Institute of Electrical
+    Engineers. A.M.I.Mech.E., associate member of the Institute of
+    Mechanical Engineers. A.M.Inst.C.E., associate member of the
+    Institution of Civil Engineers. Anon., anonymous. A.P.D., army pay
+    department. A.R.A., associate of Royal Academy (London). A.R.A.M.,
+    associate of the Royal Academy of Music. A.R.C.O., associate of the
+    Royal College of Organists. A.R.I.B.A., associate of the Royal
+    Institute of British Architects. A.R.S.A., associate of the Royal
+    Scottish Academy. A.U.C., _ab urbe condita_, from the building of Rome
+    (753 B.C.). A.V., authorized version; artillery volunteers.
+
+    B.A., bachelor of arts. Bart, or Bt., baronet. B.C., before Christ.
+    B.C.L., bachelor of civil law. B.D., bachelor of divinity. B.L.,
+    bachelor of law. B.M., bachelor of medicine. Bp., bishop. B.S.,
+    bachelor of surgery. B.Sc., bachelor of science. B.V.M., blessed Virgin
+    Mary.
+
+    C., cap., or chap., chapter. C.A., chartered accountant. Cantab.,
+    _Cantabrigiensis_, of Cambridge. Cantuar., _Cantuariensis_, of
+    Canterbury. C.B., companion of the Bath. C.B.E., commander of the
+    British Empire. C.C., Catholic curate; county councillor. C.D.V.,
+    _carte de visite_. C.E., civil engineer. Cf., _confer_, compare. Ch.B.,
+    _chirurgiae baccalaureus_, bachelor of surgery. C.I., order of the
+    Crown of India. C.I.E., companion of the order of the Indian Empire.
+    C.J., chief justice. C.M., _chirurgiae magister_, master in surgery;
+    common metre. C.M.G., companion of the order of St. Michael and St.
+    George. C.M.S., Church Missionary Society. Co., company or county.
+    C.O.D., cash on delivery. Col., colonel, colony. Coll., college. Cr.,
+    creditor. C.S., civil service; clerk to the signet. C.S.I., companion
+    of the Star of India. C.T.C., Cyclists' Touring Club. Curt., current,
+    the present month. C.V.O., commander of the Royal Victorian Order.
+    Cwt., hundredweight.
+
+    d., _denarius_, penny or pence. D.C.L., doctor of civil law. D.C.M.,
+    Distinguished Conduct Medal. D.D., doctor of divinity. Del.,
+    _delineavit_, drew it. D.F., defender of the faith. D.G., _Dei gratia_,
+    by the grace of God. D.L., deputy lieutenant. D.Lit., D.Litt., _doctor
+    litterarum_, doctor of letters or literature. Do., _ditto_, the same.
+    D.O.M., _Deo Optimo Maximo_, to God, the best and greatest. D.P.H.,
+    diploma in public health. D.Phil., doctor of philosophy. Dr., doctor,
+    also debtor. D.Sc., doctor of science. D.S.O., Distinguished Service
+    Order. D.V., _Deo volente_, God willing. Dwt., pennyweight.
+
+    E., east. Ebor., _Eboracensis_, of York. E.C., Established Church.
+    E.C.U., English Church Union. E.E., errors excepted. e.g., _exempli
+    gratia_, for example. Etc. or &c., _et cetera_, and the rest.
+
+    F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit's thermometer. F.A., Football Association.
+    F.A.S., fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F.B.A., fellow of the
+    British Academy. F.C., Free Church. F.C.P., fellow of the College of
+    Preceptors. F.C.S., fellow of the Chemical Society. F.D., _fidei
+    defensor_, defender of the faith. Fec., _fecit_, he made or did it.
+    F.F.A., fellow of the Faculty of Actuaries. F.F.P.S., fellow of the
+    Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow). F.G.S., fellow of the
+    Geological Society. F.H.S., fellow of the Horticultural Society.
+    F.I.A., fellow of the Institute of Actuaries. Fl., flourished. F.L.S.,
+    fellow of the Linnaean Society. F.M., field-marshal. F.O.B., free on
+    board (goods delivered). F.R.A.S., fellow of the Royal Astronomical
+    Society. F.R.C.O., fellow of the Royal College of Organists. F.R.C.P.,
+    fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. F.R.C.S., fellow of the
+    Royal College of Surgeons. F.R.G.S., fellow of the Royal Geographical
+    Society. F.R.I.B.A., fellow of the Royal Institute of British
+    Architects. F.R.S., fellow of the Royal Society. F.R.S.E., fellow of
+    the Royal Society of Edinburgh. F.S.A., fellow of the Society of Arts
+    or Antiquaries. F.S.S., fellow of the Statistical Society. Ft., foot or
+    feet. F.Z.S., fellow of the Zoological Society.
+
+    Gal., gallon. G.B.E., (knight) grand cross of the British Empire.
+    G.C.B., (knight) grand cross of the Bath. G.C.I.E., (knight) grand
+    commander of the Indian Empire. G.C.M.G., (knight) grand cross of St.
+    Michael and St. George. G.C.S.I., (knight) grand commander of the Star
+    of India. G.C.V.O., (knight) grand cross of the Royal Victorian Order.
+    G.R., Georgius Rex, King George. G.R.I., Georgius Rex Imperator;
+    George, King and Emperor. G.P.O., general post office.
+
+    H.B.M., his or her Britannic majesty. H.E.I.C.S., honourable East India
+    Company's service. Hhd., hogshead. H.I.H., his or her imperial
+    highness. H.M.I.S., his majesty's inspector of schools. H.M.S., his or
+    her majesty's ship. Hon., honourable. H.Q., Head-quarters. H.R.H., his
+    (her) royal highness. H.S.H., his (her) serene highness.
+
+    Ib. or Ibid., _ib[=i]dem_, in the same place. Id., _idem_, the same.
+    i.e., _id est_, that is. +I.H.S., _Jesus hominum salvator_, Jesus the
+    Saviour of men: originally it was [Greek: IES], the first three letters
+    of [Greek: IESOUS] (_I[=e]sous_), Greek for _Jesus_. Incog.,
+    _incognito_, unknown. Inf., _infra_, below. I.N.R.I., _Iesus Nazarenus
+    Rex Iudaeorum_, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Inst., instant, or
+    of this month; institute. Inv., _invenit_, designed, invented.
+    I.O.G.T., Independent Order of Good Templars. I.O.U., I owe you.
+    I.S.O., Imperial Service Order.
+
+    J.P., justice of the peace. Jr., junior. J.U.D., _juris utriusque
+    doctor_, doctor both of the civil and the canon law.
+
+    K.B.E., knight commander of the British Empire. K.C., king's counsel.
+    K.C.B., knight commander of the Bath. K.C.M.G., knight commander of St.
+    Michael and St. George. K.C.I.E., knight commander of the Indian
+    Empire. K.C.S.I., knight commander of the Star of India. K.C.V.O.,
+    knight commander of the Royal Victorian Order. K.G., knight of the
+    Garter. K.P., knight of St. Patrick. K.T., knight of the Thistle. Kt.
+    or Knt., knight.
+
+    L., l, or L, pounds sterling. L.A., literate in arts. L.A.S.,
+    licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society. Lat., latitude; Latin. Lb. or
+    lb., _libra_, a pound (weight). L.C., _loco citato_, in the place
+    cited. L.C.J., lord chief-justice. L.C.P., licentiate of the College of
+    Preceptors. Ldp., lordship. L.D.S., licentiate in dental surgery.
+    Litt.D., _litterarum doctor_, doctor of literature. L.L., Low Latin.
+    L.L.A., lady literate in arts. LL.B., _legum baccalaureus_, bachelor of
+    laws. LL.D., _legum doctor_, doctor of laws (that is, the civil and the
+    canon law). LL.M., _legum magister_, master of laws. Lon. or long.,
+    longitude. Loq., _loquitur_, speaks. L.R.C.P., licentiate Royal College
+    of Physicians (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.S., licentiate Royal
+    College of Surgeons (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.V.S., licentiate of
+    the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. L.S., _locus sigilli_, the
+    place of the seal (on documents). L.S.A., licentiate of the Society of
+    Apothecaries. L.S.D., _librae, solidi, denarii_, pounds, shillings,
+    pence.
+
+    M.A., master of arts. M.B., _medicinae baccalaureus_, bachelor of
+    medicine. M.B.E., member of the British Empire. M.D., _medicinae
+    doctor_, doctor of medicine. M.E., mining engineer. Messrs., messieurs,
+    gentlemen. M.F.H., master of fox-hounds. M.Inst.C.E., member of the
+    Institution of Civil Engineers. M.I.E.E., member of the Institute of
+    Electrical Engineers. M.I.M.E., member of the Institute of Mining and
+    Mechanical Engineers. M.I.Mech.E., member of the Institution of
+    Mechanical Engineers. Mlle., mademoiselle. Mme., madame. M.P., member
+    of Parliament. M.R.C.S., member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
+    M.R.C.V.S., member of the Royal College of Veterinary surgeons.
+    M.R.I.A., member of the Royal Irish Academy. MS., manuscript; MSS.,
+    manuscripts. Mus.D., _musicae doctor_, doctor of music. M.V.O., member
+    of the Royal Victorian Order.
+
+    N., north. N.B., _nota bene_, take notice; also North Britain, New
+    Brunswick. N.D., no date. Nem. con., _nemine contradicente_, no one
+    contradicting, unanimously. No., _numero_, number. N.P., notary public.
+    N.S., new style, Nova Scotia. N.S.W., New South Wales. N.T., New
+    Testament. N.Y., New York. N.Z., New Zealand.
+
+    Ob., _obiit_, died. O.B.E., officer of the British Empire. Obs.,
+    obsolete. Obt., obedient. O.C., officer commanding. O.H.M.S., on his
+    majesty's service. O.M., Order of Merit. O.P., out of print. Op. cit.,
+    _opere citato_, in the work quoted. O.S., old style. O.T., Old
+    Testament. Oxon., _Oxoniensis_, of Oxford. Oz., ounce or ounces.
+
+    P., page; pp., pages. Par., paragraph. P.C., privy-councillor. P.E.,
+    Protestant Episcopal. Per cent., _per centum_, by the hundred. Ph.D.,
+    _philosophiae doctor_, doctor of philosophy. Pinx., _pinxit_, painted
+    (it). P.M., _post meridiem_, afternoon. P.O., post office. P.O.O., post
+    office order. P.P., parish priest. P.P.C., _pour prendre conge_, to
+    take leave. Prox., _proximo (mense)_, next month. P.R.A., president of
+    the Royal Academy. P.R.S.A., president of the Royal Scottish Academy.
+    P.S., postscript. P.T.O., please turn over (the leaf).
+
+    Q., question, queen. Q.E.D., _quod erat demonstrandum_, which was to be
+    demonstrated. Q.E.F., _quod erat faciendum_, which was to be done.
+    Q.M., quarter-master. Q.M.G., quarter-master-general. Qu., query.
+    Quant. suff., _quantum sufficit_, as much as is needful. Q.V., _quod
+    vide_, which see.
+
+    R., _rex, regina_, king, queen. R.A., royal academician; Royal
+    Artillery. R.A.M., Royal Academy of Music. R.A.M.C., Royal Army Medical
+    Corps. R.A.O.D., Royal Army Ordnance Department. R.A.S.C., Royal Army
+    Service Corps. R.C., Roman Catholic. R.C.P., Royal College of
+    Physicians. R.C.S., Royal College of Surgeons. R.E., Royal Engineers.
+    Rev., reverend. R.I.P., _requiescat in pace_, may he rest in peace.
+    R.M., Royal Marines. R.N., Royal Navy. R.S.A., royal Scottish
+    academician. R.S.E., Royal Society of Edinburgh. R.S.L., Royal Society
+    of Literature. R.S.V.P., _repondez s'il vous plait_, reply, if you
+    please. Rt. Hon., right honourable. Rt. Wpful., right worshipful. R.V.,
+    revised version.
+
+    S., south. S. or St., saint. Sc., _scilicet_, namely, viz. S.J.,
+    Society of Jesus (Jesuits). S.P.C.A., Society for the Prevention of
+    Cruelty to Animals. S.P.C.C., Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
+    Children. S.P.C.K., Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. S.P.G.,
+    Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. S.P.Q.R., _senatus
+    populusque Romanus_, the senate and people of Rome. S.S.C., solicitor
+    before the supreme courts. S.S.M., Society of the Sacred Mission. St.,
+    saint, street. S.T.D., _sacrae theologiae doctor_, doctor of divinity.
+    S.T.P., _sacrae theologiae professor_, an old-fashioned equivalent of
+    D.D.
+
+    T.C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. T.O., telegraph office.
+
+    U.F.C., United Free Church. U.K., United Kingdom. Ult., _ultimo_, last
+    (month). U.P., United Presbyterian. U.S., United States. U.S.A., United
+    States of America. U.S.N., United States Navy.
+
+    V., _vide_, see; also _versus_, against. V.C., Victoria Cross. Viz.,
+    _videlicet_, to wit, or namely. V.P., vice-president. V.S., veterinary
+    surgeon. W., west. W.I., West Indies. W.L.F., Women's Liberal
+    Federation. W.O., War Office. W.S.P.U., Women's Social and Political
+    Union. W.S. writer to the signet (Scotland).
+
+    Xmas, Christmas.
+
+    Y.M.C.A., Young Men's Christian Association. Y.W.C.A., Young Women's
+    Christian Association.
+
+    In LL.D., LL.B., &c., the letter is doubled, according to the Roman
+    system, to show that the abbreviation represents a plural noun.
+
+ABD-EL-KA'DER, an Arab chief, born in Algeria, 1807; died at Damascus,
+1883. He was the chief opponent of the French in their conquest of Algeria,
+but at last surrendered to them in 1847, and was imprisoned till set at
+liberty by Napoleon III in 1852. He afterwards resided chiefly at Damascus,
+but made various journeys, and visited the Paris exhibition of 1867. He
+wrote a religious philosophical work in Arabic which has been translated
+into French.
+
+ABDE'RA, an ancient Greek city on the Thracian coast, the birthplace of
+Democritus (the laughing philosopher), Anaxarchus, and Protagoras. Its
+inhabitants were proverbial for stupidity.
+
+ABDICA'TION, properly the voluntary, but sometimes also the involuntary,
+resignation of an office or dignity, and more especially that of sovereign
+power. Abdication does not necessarily require the execution of a formal
+deed, but may be presumed from facts and circumstances, as in the case of
+the English Revolution in 1688, when, after long debate, it was resolved by
+both Houses of Parliament that King James II, having endeavoured to subvert
+the constitution of the kingdom, had "_abdicated_ the government, and that
+the throne is thereby vacant". Yet the sovereign of Great Britain cannot
+constitutionally abdicate without the consent of both Houses of Parliament.
+The principal abdications in recent years were: Tsar Nicholas II of Russia,
+14th March, 1917; King Constantine of Greece, 11th June, 1917; King
+Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 6th Oct., 1918; Wilhelm II of Germany, 9th Nov.,
+1918; Karl I of Austria, 13th Nov., 1918; and Marie Adelaide, Grand-Duchess
+of Luxembourg, 15th Jan., 1919.
+
+[Illustration: Abdominal Regions.]
+
+ABDO'MEN, in man, the belly, or lower cavity of the trunk, separated from
+the upper cavity or thorax by the diaphragm or midriff, and bounded below
+by the bones of the pelvis. It contains the viscera belonging to the
+digestive and urinary systems. What are called the _abdominal regions_ will
+be understood from the accompanying cut, in which 1 is the _epigastric_
+region, 2 the _umbilical_, 3 the _pubic_, 4 4 the right and left
+_hypochondriac_, 5 5 the right and left _lumbar_, 6 6 right and left
+_iliac_. The name is given to the corresponding portion of the body in
+other animals. In insects it comprises the whole body behind the thorax,
+usually consisting of a series of rings. See _Alimentary Canal_.
+
+ABDOM'INAL FISHES (Abdomin[=a]les), a group of the soft-finned (or
+malacopterous) fishes, having fins upon the abdomen, and comprising the
+herring, pike, salmon, carp, &c.
+
+ABDUC'TION, a legal term, generally applied to denote the offence of
+carrying off a female either forcibly or by fraudulent representations.
+Such a delinquency in regard to a man is styled _kidnapping_. There are
+various descriptions of abduction recognized in criminal jurisprudence,
+such as that of a child, of an heiress, or of a wife.
+
+AB'DUL-AZ'IZ, Sultan of Turkey, was born in Feb., 1830, and succeeded his
+brother Abdul-Mejid, in June, 1861. He concluded treaties of commerce with
+France and England, both of which countries he visited in 1867. Deposed in
+May, 1876, he committed suicide, or more probably was assassinated, in June
+of the same year. He was succeeded by his son Murad V. See next article.
+
+AB'DUL-HAM'ID, Sultan of Turkey, younger son of Abdul-Mejid, born 22nd
+Sept., 1842, succeeded his brother Murad V, who was deposed on proof of his
+insanity in 1876. At that time Turkey, which was at war with Serbia, was
+compelled to agree to an armistice at the demand of Russia. The persecution
+and oppression of the Christian population of Bulgaria had roused
+remonstrances from other European countries, and a congress met at
+Constantinople to consider a constitution which the Porte had proclaimed.
+The conference was a failure, and in April, 1877, war was declared by
+Russia. During the sanguinary struggle which ensued the Turks fought with
+great bravery, but they had ultimately to sue for peace. A treaty was
+signed at San Stefano in Feb., 1878, but its provisions were modified by a
+congress of the Great Powers which met at Berlin. The island of Cyprus was
+ceded to Britain. Serbia, Rumania, and Montenegro were freed from Turkish
+suzerainty altogether; Bulgaria was left in nominal dependence; whilst
+Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian administration. In 1881
+Thessaly was transferred to Greece; in 1885 E. Roumelia became united to
+Bulgaria. Ever since the treaty of Berlin, Abdul Hamid saw in Germany the
+future friend of Turkey. He therefore entrusted Germans with the
+reorganization of his army and finances. Subsequently there were massacres
+of Christians, a war with Greece (1897), and troubles in Crete and
+Macedonia. In April, 1909, the Sultan was deposed, and his brother, Rashid
+Effendi, proclaimed sultan as Mohammed V. Abdul Hamid died in captivity
+10th Feb., 1918.
+
+ABD-UL-LAT'IF, an Arab writer and physician, was born at Bagdad in 1161 and
+died there in 1231. He was patronized by the celebrated Saladin, and
+published an excellent description of Egypt, which is still extant. It was
+translated into English by White, Oxford, 1800.
+
+AB'DUL-MEJ'ID KHAN, Sultan of Turkey, born in 1823, succeeded his father,
+Mahmud II, 1st July, 1839. At the time of his accession Mehemet, Pasha of
+Egypt, had risen a second time against the Turkish yoke; his son Ibrahim
+had inflicted a severe defeat on the Turks at Nizib (24th June, 1839), and
+was advancing on Constantinople. But the intervention of the leading
+European Powers checked the designs of Mehemet Ali, and saved the Turkish
+empire. Abdul-Mejid was desirous of carrying out reforms, but most of them
+were not enforced, or caused bloody insurrections where attempts were made
+to carry them out. Owing to disputes between the Latin and Greek Churches
+regarding the rights of precedence and possession of the 'holy places' in
+Palestine, and to demands made by the Tsar virtually implying the right of
+protectorate over the Christian subjects of the Sultan, war broke out
+between Turkey and Russia in 1853. In the following year the Porte effected
+an alliance with France and England (hence the Crimean War), and later on
+with Sardinia. (See _Crimean War_.) Abdul-Mejid died 25th June, 1861, and
+was succeeded by his brother, Abdul-Aziz.
+
+ABECEDA'RIAN, a term formed from the first four letters of the alphabet,
+and applied to the followers of Storch, a German Anabaptist (1522), because
+they rejected all worldly knowledge, even the learning of the alphabet.
+
+A BECKET, Thomas. See _Becket_.
+
+A BECK'ETT, Gilbert Abbott, English writer, born near London in 1811. He
+studied for the bar, and became one of the original staff of _Punch_, was
+long a leader-writer to the _Times_ and the _Morning Herald_, and
+contributed articles to the _Illustrated London News_. He wrote _Comic
+History of England_, _Comic History of Rome_, and _Comic Blackstone_, and
+between fifty and sixty plays. In 1849 he was appointed a metropolitan
+police magistrate, which office he retained till his death in 1856.
+
+ABEL, properly _Hebel_ (Heb. breath, vapour, vanity), the second son of
+Adam. He was a shepherd, and was slain by his brother Cain from jealousy
+because his sacrifice was accepted while Cain's was rejected. Several of
+the fathers, among others St. Chrysostom and Augustine, regard him as a
+type of the new, regenerate man.
+
+ABEL, Sir Frederick Augustus, chemist, was born in London, 1827; died 1902.
+Having adopted chemistry as a profession, he studied under Hofmann at the
+Royal College of Chemistry, became professor of chemistry at the Royal
+Military Academy in 1851, and was chemist to the War Department and
+chemical adviser to the Government from 1854 to 1888. He did useful work in
+connection with the chemistry of explosives (especially gun-cotton), the
+flash-point of petroleum, &c.; was joint-inventor of cordite along with
+Dewar; and was also an authority on the manufacture of steel. He was
+honoured with a baronetcy, and was also a K.C.B. and a K.C.V.O. He wrote
+works on gunpowder, gun-cotton, and explosives generally, and on
+electricity as applied to explosive purposes. His works include: _The
+Modern History of Gunpowder_; _Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes_,
+&c.
+
+ABELARD (ab'e-l[:a]rd), or ABAILARD, Peter, a celebrated scholastic
+teacher, born near Nantes, in Brittany, in 1079. He made extraordinary
+progress with his studies, and, ultimately eclipsing his teachers, he
+opened a school of scholastic philosophy near Paris, which attracted crowds
+of students from the neighbouring city. His success in the fiery debates
+which were then the fashion in the schools made him many enemies, among
+whom was Guillaume de Champeaux, his former teacher, chief of the cathedral
+school of Notre-Dame, and the most advanced of the Realists. Abelard
+succeeded his adversary in this school (in 1113), and under him were
+trained many men who afterwards rose to eminence, among them being the
+future Pope Celestin II, Peter Lombard, and Arnold of Brescia. While he was
+at the height of his popularity, and in his fortieth year, he fell
+violently in love with Heloise--then eighteen years of age--niece of
+Fulbert, a canon of Paris. They obtained a home in Fulbert's house under
+the pretext of teaching Heloise philosophy, and their intercourse at length
+became apparent. Abelard, who had retired to Brittany, was followed by
+Heloise, who there gave birth to a son, named Astrolabius. A private
+marriage took place, and Heloise returned to her uncle's house, but,
+refusing to make public her marriage (as likely to spoil Abelard's career),
+she was subjected to severe treatment at the hands of her uncle. To save
+her from this Abelard carried her off and placed her in a convent at
+Argenteuil, a proceeding which so incensed Fulbert that he hired ruffians
+who broke into Abelard's chamber and subjected him to a shameful
+mutilation. Abelard, filled with grief and shame, became a monk in the
+abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise took the veil. When time had somewhat
+moderated his grief, he resumed his lectures; but trouble after trouble
+overtook him. His theological writings were condemned by the Council of
+Soissons, and he retired to an oratory called the Paraclete, subsequently
+becoming head of the abbey of St. Gildas-de-Rhuys in Brittany. For a short
+time he again lectured at Paris (1136), but his doctrines once more brought
+persecution on him, and St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the most powerful man in
+the Church in those days, had him condemned by the Council of Sens and
+afterwards by the Pope. Abelard did not long survive this, dying at St.
+Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saone, 21st April, 1142. Heloise, who had become
+abbess of the Paraclete, had him buried there, where she herself was
+afterwards laid by his side. Their ashes were removed to Paris in 1800, and
+in 1817 they were finally deposited beneath a mausoleum in the cemetery of
+Pere la Chaise. According to John of Salisbury, Abelard is credited with
+the invention of a new philosophical system, midway between Realism and
+Nominalism. In Ethics, Abelard seems to have attached importance to the
+psychological element in the action, rather than to the action itself. "The
+intention of sinning", he maintained, "is worse than the actual physical
+sin." A complete edition of his works was published by Cousin (2 vols.,
+Paris, 1849-59), and the letters of Abelard and Heloise have been often
+published in the original and in translations. Pope's _Eloisa to Abelard_
+is founded on them. Abelard's autobiography, entitled _Story of my
+Calamities_, is still extant.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Charles de Remusat, _Abelard_
+(2 vols.); J. McCabe, _Life of Abelard_.
+
+ABELE (a-b[=e]l'), a name of the white poplar.
+
+A'BELITE, or Abe'lian, a member of a religious sect in Africa which arose
+in the fourth century after Christ. They married, but lived in continence,
+after the manner, as they maintained, of Abel, and attempted to keep up the
+sect by adopting the children of others.
+
+ABELMOSCHUS (-mos'kus), a genus of tropical plants of the mallow family.
+_A. esculentus_, cultivated in India, Algeria, &c., yields edible pods and
+also a valuable fibre. The fruit, called _okro_ or _ochro_, is used in
+soups.
+
+ABENCERRAGES (ab-en-ser'a-jez), a powerful and distinguished Moorish family
+of Granada, the chief members of which, thirty-six in number, are said to
+have been massacred in the Alhambra by the king Abu-Hassan (latter half of
+the fifteenth century) on account of the attachment of his sister to one of
+them. There is a room in the Alhambra which is still called 'the hall of
+the Abencerrages'. The legend has furnished the subject of many poems both
+Arabic and Spanish (_Las Guerras Civiles de Granada_, by Gines Perez de
+Hita), and formed the basis for Chateaubriand's _Aventures du dernier des
+Abencerages_.
+
+AB'EN EZRA (Ibn Ezra), a celebrated Jewish rabbi, born at Toledo about
+1093, travelled in pursuit of knowledge in England, France, Italy, and
+Greece, and is supposed to have died in Rhodes about 1167. He is best known
+as a commentator on Scripture.
+
+ABENSBERG ([:a]'b[.e]ns-ber_h_), a village of Bavaria, in the Danube
+valley, below Ingolstadt, celebrated for Napoleon's victory over the
+Austrians, 20th April, 1809.
+
+ABEOKU'TA. See _Abbeokuta_.
+
+AB'ER, a prefix in Celtic geographical proper names signifying the mouth or
+entrance of a river into the sea, or into another stream. It is used
+chiefly in Wales and Scotland, having the same meaning as _inver_.
+
+ABERA'VON, a municipal borough of Wales in Glamorganshire, near the mouth
+of the Avon in Swansea Bay, embracing Aberavon proper and its harbour Port
+Talbot. There are collieries, ironworks, copper-works, &c. Since 1918
+Aberavon gives its name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop.
+(municipal borough) (1921), 15,370.
+
+ABERBROTH'OCK. See _Arbroath_.
+
+ABERCARN', an urban district or town of England, Monmouthshire, 10-1/2
+miles north-west of Newport, with collieries, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921),
+20,123.
+
+AB'ERCROMBIE, John, M.D., a Scottish writer on medical and moral science,
+and an eminent physician, born in Aberdeen, 1781, died at Edinburgh in
+1844. He graduated at the university of Edinburgh in 1803, and subsequently
+pursued his studies in London, returning to Edinburgh in 1804, where he
+acquired an extensive practice as a physician. Apart from medical
+treatises, he is known from his _Inquiries concerning the Intellectual
+Powers_ and his _Philosophy of the Moral Feelings_.
+
+AB'ERCROMBIE, Patrick, a Scottish historical writer and antiquary, born at
+Forfar, 1656; date of death uncertain. Educated at St. Andrews and abroad,
+he took the degree of M.D., and practised as a physician in Edinburgh. In
+1685 he was appointed physician to James II. His chief work is _Martial
+Atchievements of the Scots Nation_, 2 vols. folio, 1711-6.
+
+AB'ERCROMBY, Sir Ralph, a British general, born in 1734 in
+Clackmannanshire, Scotland. He entered the army in 1756 as cornet in the
+3rd Dragoon Guards; and he gradually passed through all the ranks of the
+service until he became a major-general in 1787. He served as
+lieutenant-general in Flanders, 1793-5, and was then appointed
+commander-in-chief of the forces in the West Indies, where he captured the
+islands of Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad, with the
+settlements of Demerara and Essequibo. On his return in 1798 he was
+appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland; and he afterwards held a
+corresponding command in Scotland. His next and concluding service was in
+the expedition to Egypt, of which he was commander-in-chief. He landed,
+after a severe fight, at Aboukir, 8th March, 1801; and on the 21st of the
+same month the battle of Alexandria was fought, in which Sir Ralph was
+mortally wounded.
+
+ABERDARE (-d[=a]r'), a town of South Wales, in Glamorganshire, pleasantly
+situated at the junction of the Cynon and Dare, 4 miles south-west of
+Merthyr-Tydfil, with extensive coal and iron mines in the vicinity. It
+belongs to the parliamentary borough of Merthyr-Tydfil. Pop. (1921),
+55,010.
+
+ABERDEEN', a university city and royal, municipal, and parliamentary burgh
+of Scotland, capital of the county of same name, mainly on the north bank
+of the Dee at its entrance into the North Sea, and between this river and
+the Don, with a part also on the south bank of the Dee, while the municipal
+limits include the adjacent Woodside. The site is in places somewhat hilly.
+Aberdeen is one of the oldest towns in Scotland, and was constituted a
+royal burgh by William the Lion in 1179. The streets are generally spacious
+and regular, the houses built of fine grayish-white granite. There are many
+handsome public buildings, as the County and Municipal Buildings, Marischal
+College, Grammar School, Infirmary, Arts School, Art Gallery, Music Hall
+Buildings, public library, &c. The finest street, Union Street, made in
+1800, is carried over a valley by a granite bridge having an arch of 132
+feet span. The small portion of the city called Old Aberdeen, long a
+separate town, consists mainly of a single street, stretching northwards to
+the River Don. Its chief buildings are King's College and St. Machar's
+Cathedral. Noteworthy features of the college buildings are the crown-tower
+and the chapel, the latter containing some very fine old carved woodwork.
+The cathedral, now used as a parish church, was commenced about 1357. There
+are several bridges over the Dee and Don. Over the latter is a fine old
+bridge (Brig o' Balgownie) of one arch, erected according to some accounts
+by Robert Bruce. There are docks 34 acres in area, an extensive tidal
+harbour and basin, and a graving-dock. The shipping trade is extensive. The
+industries embrace wool, jute, linen, combs, soap, preserved provisions,
+chemicals, paper, shipbuilding, engineering, and especially the cutting and
+polishing of granite. The fishing industry is of great importance. The city
+of Aberdeen returns two members to Parliament. Pop. 158,969.--_The County
+of Aberdeen_ forms the north-eastern portion of Scotland, and is bounded on
+the east and north by the North Sea. Area, 1,261,521 acres. It is divided
+into six districts (Mar, Formartine, Buchan, Alford, Garioch, and
+Strathbogie), and is generally hilly, there being in the south-west some of
+the highest mountains in Scotland, as Ben Macdhui (4295 feet), Cairntoul
+(4245), Cairngorm (4090), Lochnagar, &c. Its most valuable mineral is
+granite, large quantities of which are exported. The principal rivers are
+the Dee and the Don, both of which enter the sea at the town of Aberdeen.
+Cereals (except wheat) and other crops succeed well, and the number of
+acres under cultivation is nearly double that of any other Scottish county.
+Great numbers of cattle are fattened and sent to London and the south. On
+the banks of the upper Dee is situated Balmoral, a favourite residence of
+Queen Victoria. Aberdeenshire and Kincardine unite in sending three members
+to Parliament. Pop. 300,980.--_Aberdeen University_, as now constituted,
+derives its origin from two different foundations; one, the University and
+King's College (Old Aberdeen), founded in 1494 by Bishop Elphinstone (who
+was bishop of Aberdeen from 1483-1514) under the authority of a papal bull
+obtained at the instance of James IV; the other, Marischal College and
+University (New Aberdeen), founded in 1593 by Geo. Keith, Earl Marischal,
+by a charter ratified by act of Parliament. The two foundations existed as
+separate universities, both having the right of conferring degrees, till
+1860, when they were united and incorporated into one university, the
+University of Aberdeen. Holding the funds of both colleges and dating as
+from the foundation of King's College in 1494, the university has about 300
+bursaries or exhibitions, mostly open to public competition, and a number
+of money prizes and scholarships. The classes for arts and divinity are
+held in King's College, and those for law and medicine in Marischal
+College. There is a full teaching staff in the faculties of arts, medicine,
+science, and divinity, and two professors in that of law. There are in all
+25 professors and some 900 matriculated students. The constitution of the
+university is similar to that of Edinburgh and the other Scottish
+universities. The library contains over 80,000 volumes. The university
+unites with those of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews in sending three
+members to Parliament.
+
+ABERDEEN', George Hamilton Gordon, Earl of, British statesman, born 28th
+Jan., 1784, died 14th Dec., 1860. He began his diplomatic life in 1801 as
+attache to Lord Cornwallis's embassy to France, which resulted in the
+signing of the treaty of Amiens. In 1806 he entered Parliament as a
+Scottish representative peer, and in 1813 was entrusted with a successful
+mission to Austria for the purpose of inducing the emperor to join the
+coalition of sovereigns against Bonaparte. In 1814 he was created a British
+peer, and in 1828 he became foreign secretary in the Duke of Wellington's
+administration. During the short premiership of Sir Robert Peel in 1834-5
+he acted as colonial secretary, and when Sir Robert again became premier in
+1841 he took office as Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He was a warm
+supporter of Catholic Emancipation, and endeavoured, though without result,
+to bring in a compromise bill in 1846, during the struggle which divided
+the Established Church of Scotland. Quitting office with his chief in 1846,
+he came, on the death of Peel in 1850, to be regarded as the leader of the
+Conservative free-trade party. On the Derby ministry failing to maintain
+its place, Lord Aberdeen returned to office in the end of 1852 as head of a
+coalition ministry. The principal event which marked his administration was
+the Crimean war; but the bad management of this irritated the country, and
+the ministry resigned in 1855. This event marks the close of Lord
+Aberdeen's public career. From his travels and his acquaintance with Greece
+and its antiquities he was called by Byron "the travelled thane, Athenian
+Aberdeen".
+
+AB'ERDEVINE. See _Siskin_.
+
+ABERGAVEN'NY (sometimes pron. ab-[.e]r-ge'ni, the Roman GOBANNIUM), a
+municipal borough and market town of England, in Monmouthshire, situated
+amid delightful scenery in the beautiful valley of the Usk. It manufactures
+woollens and shoes, and has considerable trade. Pop. (1921), 9252.
+
+ABERNETHY (ab-[.e]r-neth'i), John, an eminent English surgeon, of somewhat
+eccentric habits, born in 1764 in London, a pupil of the celebrated John
+Hunter. In 1787 he became assistant surgeon at St. Bartholomew's Hospital,
+and shortly after lecturer on anatomy and surgery. In 1815 he was elected
+principal surgeon, and under his auspices the hospital attained a celebrity
+which it had never before enjoyed. He published _Surgical Observations_;
+_The Constitutional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases_; and
+_Lectures_, explanatory of Hunter's opinions of the vital processes;
+besides smaller essays. He died in 1831.
+
+ABERRA'TION, in astronomy, the difference between the true and the observed
+position of a heavenly body, the result of the combined effect of the
+motion of light and the motion of the eye of the observer caused by the
+annual or diurnal motion of the earth; or of the motion of light and that
+of the body from which the light proceeds. When the auxiliary cause is the
+annual revolution of the earth round the sun it is called _annual
+aberration_, in consequence of which a fixed star may appear as much as
+20.4" from its true position; when the auxiliary cause is the diurnal
+rotation of the earth on its axis it is called _diurnal aberration_, which
+amounts at the greatest to 0.3"; and when the auxiliary cause is the motion
+of the body from which the light proceeds it is called _planetary
+aberration_.
+
+ABERSYCHAN (ab-[.e]r-sik'an), a town of Monmouthshire, England, about 10
+miles north of Newport, in a rich coal-mining district. Pop. (1921),
+27,089.
+
+ABERTIL'LERY, an urban district or town of England, Monmouthshire, 16 miles
+north-west of Newport, with tinplate works, coal-mines, &c. Since 1918 it
+gives its name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop. (1921),
+38,805.
+
+ABERYSTWITH (ab-[.e]r-ist'with), a seaport and fashionable watering-place
+of Wales, county of Cardigan, on Cardigan Bay. The town is well built, and
+the surrounding country is picturesque. There is here a University College
+of the University of Wales, occupying a handsome Gothic building. Pop.
+(1921), 12,289.
+
+ABEYANCE, in law, a legal term meaning that the title to dignity, office,
+or real or personal property is not vested in anyone, but is suspended
+until the right thereto is determined by the appearance of the true owner.
+Under English law, when a nobleman dies leaving no male issue, the title,
+if descendible to his heirs general, as in the case of baronies by writ, is
+said to be in abeyance, until the king, by his prerogative, terminates the
+abeyance in favour of one of the co-heiresses. See _Property_.
+
+ABGAR, title of the Syrian rulers at Edessa. The fourteenth prince of the
+dynasty, a contemporary of the Roman emperor Tiberius (A.D. 14-37), is said
+to have written a letter to our Saviour.
+
+ABHOR'RERS, in English history a name given to the Court party in 1679-80,
+who, on petitions being presented to Charles II praying him to summon
+Parliament, signed counter-petitions expressing _abhorrence_ for those who
+were thus attempting to encroach on the royal prerogative.
+
+A'BIB, the first month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, and the seventh
+of the civil year, corresponding to the latter part of March and the first
+of April. Also called _Nisan_.
+
+ABIES (ab'i-es), a genus of trees. See _Fir_ and _Spruce_.
+
+AB'INGDON, a town of England, in Berkshire, 50 miles north-west of London,
+on the right bank of the Thames. It was an important place in Anglo-Saxon
+times, and Offa, King of Mercia, had a palace in it. Formerly a
+parliamentary borough, it now gives name to a parliamentary division of
+Berks. Pop. (1921), 7167.
+
+ABIOGENESIS (a-b[=i]-o-jen'e-sis), the doctrine or hypothesis that living
+matter may be produced from non-living; spontaneous generation. See
+_Generation (Spontaneous)_.
+
+ABJURA'TION, Oath of, an oath which by an English Act passed in 1701 had to
+be taken by all holders of public offices, clergymen, teachers, members of
+the universities, and lawyers, abjuring and renouncing the exiled Stuarts:
+superseded in 1858 by a more comprehensive oath, declaring allegiance to
+the present royal family.--_Abjuration of the realm_ was an oath that a
+person guilty of felony, who had taken sanctuary, might take. This oath
+permitted him to go into exile, and not return on pain of death, unless by
+the king's permission. In ecclesiastical language the term is applied to
+renunciation of heresy.
+
+ABKHA'SIA, a Russian district, at the western extremity and south of the
+Caucasus, between the mountains and the Black Sea. The Abkhasians form a
+race distinguished from their neighbours in various respects. At one time
+they were Christians, but afterwards adopted Mahommedanism. Many of them
+migrated into Turkish territory in 1864 and 1878.
+
+ABLAINCOURT. See _Somme_.
+
+AB'LATIVE, a term applied to a case of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in
+Latin, Sanskrit, and some other languages; originally given to the case in
+Latin because separation from (_ab_, from _latus_, taken) was considered to
+be one of the chief ideas expressed by the case.
+
+ABNAKI, a Confederacy of Algonquin tribes, formerly occupying what is now
+Maine and Southern New Brunswick. Their territory, to which they removed
+after 1724, is in Canada on the St. John River and at St. Francis.
+
+ABO ([=o]'b[=o]), a town and port in Finland, the see of an archbishop, and
+the capital of Finland till 1819, when it was supplanted by Helsingfors.
+Pop. (1919), 56,168.
+
+ABOLITIONISTS. See _Slavery_.
+
+ABOMA'SUM, or ABOMA'SUS, the fourth stomach of ruminating animals, next the
+_omasum_ or third stomach.
+
+ABO'MEY, or AGBO'MEY, the capital of the French territory and former
+kingdom of Dahomey, in West Africa, in a fertile plain, near the coast of
+Guinea. Pop. 11,000.
+
+ABORIGINES (ab-o-rij'i-n[=e]z), the name given in general to the earliest
+known inhabitants of a country, those who are supposed to have inhabited
+the land from the beginning (Lat. _ab origine_). (The singular of the word
+is _Aboriginal_, or sometimes _Aborigine_.)
+
+ABORTION, in medicine, the expulsion of the foetus before it is capable of
+independent existence. This may take place at any period of pregnancy
+before the completion of the twenty-eighth week. A child born after that
+time is said to be _premature_. Abortion may be the result of the general
+debility or ill-health of the mother, of a plethoric constitution, of
+special affections of the uterus, of severe exertions, sudden shocks, &c.
+Various medicinal substances, generally violent emmenagogues or drastic
+medicines, are believed to have the effect of provoking abortion, and are
+sometimes resorted to for this purpose. Attempts to procure abortion are
+punishable by law in all civilized states. When the death of the woman
+ensues as a result of the attempt, the crime is murder.--The term is
+applied in botany to denote the suppression by non-development of one or
+more of the parts of a flower, which consists normally of four
+whorls--namely, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir
+W. O. Russell, _Crimes and Misdemeanours_ (3 vols.); A. S. Taylor,
+_Principles and Practice of Medical Jurisprudence_.
+
+ABOUKIR ([.a]-b[:o]-k[=e]r'; ancient ZEPHYRION, near ruins of Can[=o]pus),
+a small village on the Egyptian coast, 10 miles east of Alexandria. In
+Aboukir Bay took place the naval battle in which Nelson annihilated a
+French fleet on the night of 1st and 2nd Aug., 1798, thus totally
+destroying the naval power of France in the Mediterranean. Near this place,
+on 25th July, 1799, Napoleon defeated the Turks under Mustapha; and on 8th
+March, 1801, Sir Ralph Abercromby effected the landing of a British army
+against the French.
+
+ABOU-SIMBEL. See _Ipsambul_.
+
+ABOUT ([.a]-b[:o]), Edmond Francois Valentin, a French novelist and
+miscellaneous writer, born 14th Feb., 1828, died 17th Jan., 1885. He was
+educated at the Lycee Charlemagne and the Ecole Normale, Paris; and was
+sent at Government expense to the French school at Athens; on his return to
+Paris, he devoted himself to literature. Principal novels: _Tolla_, _Le Roi
+des Montagnes_, _Germaine_, _Madelon_, _Le Fellah_, _La Vieille Roche_,
+_L'Infame_, _Les Mariages de Province_, _Le Roman d'un Brave Homme_
+(against Zola and the naturalist school), &c.; miscellaneous works: _La
+Grece Contemporaine_, _La Question Romaine_, _La Prusse en 1860_, _Rome
+Contemporaine_, &c. In 1884 he was elected a member of the Academy. About
+wrote in a bright, humorous, and interesting style, and his novels have
+been very popular.
+
+ABRACADAB'RA, a word of Eastern origin used in incantations. When written
+on paper so as to form a triangle, the first line containing the word in
+full, the one below it omitting the last letter, and so on each time until
+only one letter remained, and worn as an amulet, it was supposed to be an
+antidote against certain diseases.
+
+   A B R A C A D A B R A
+    A B R A C A D A B R
+     A B R A C A D A B
+      A B R A C A D A
+       A B R A C A D
+        A B R A C A
+         A B R A C
+          A B R A
+           A B R
+            A B
+             A
+
+A'BRAHAM, originally ABRAM (Assyrian _Aburamu_, lofty father), the greatest
+of the Hebrew patriarchs, was born at Ur in Chaldea in 2153 B.C. according
+to Hales, in 1996 B.C. according to Ussher, while Bunsen says he lived 2850
+B.C. He migrated, accompanied by his wife Sarah and his nephew Lot, to
+Canaan, where he led a nomadic life, which extended over 175 years. His two
+sons, Isaac and Ishmael, were the progenitors of the Jews and Arabs
+respectively.
+
+ABRAHAM, Heights or Plains of. See _Quebec_.
+
+ABRAHAM A SANTA CLARA, a German pulpit orator, whose real name was Ulrich
+Megerle, born in 1644. As a preacher he acquired so great a reputation
+that, in 1669, he was appointed court-preacher in Vienna, where he died in
+1709. His sermons are full of homely, grotesque humour, often of coarse
+wit, and impartial severity towards all classes of society. His principal
+work and masterpiece is _Judas, the Archknave_ (4 vols.), 1686-95.
+
+ABRAHAMITES, 1, A sect of Syrian Deists of the ninth century, whose
+doctrines were allied to those of the Paulicians.--2, A sect of Bohemian
+Deists of the late eighteenth century, who professed to be followers of
+John Huss and claimed that they followed the religion of Abraham before his
+circumcision. Believing in one God, they rejected the Trinity, and accepted
+nothing of the Bible except the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer.
+Refusing to join either the Jewish or Christian folds, they were excluded
+from the edict of toleration promulgated by the Emperor Joseph II, and
+expelled to Transylvania in 1783. Some were martyred, others became Roman
+Catholics.
+
+ABRAHAM-MEN, originally a set of vagabonds who had been discharged from
+Bethlehem Hospital, London; but as many assumed, without right, the badge
+worn by them, the term came to signify an impostor who travelled about the
+country seeking alms, under the pretence of lunacy.
+
+ABRAM, a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 3-1/2 miles from
+Wigan; a colliery centre. Pop. (1921), 6858.
+
+AB'RAMIS, a genus of fishes. See _Bream_.
+
+ABRAN'TES, a fortified town of Portugal, on the right bank of the Tagus
+(here navigable), 73 miles north-east of Lisbon, with which it carries on
+an active trade. Pop. 8000.
+
+ABRANTES, Duke of. See _Junot_.
+
+ABRAX'AS (or ABRASAX) STONES, the name given to stones or gems found in
+Syria, Egypt, and elsewhere, cut into almost every variety of shape, but
+generally having a human trunk and arms, with a cock's head, two serpents'
+tails for the legs, &c., and the mystico-theosophical word Abraxas or
+Abrasax in Greek characters engraved upon them. Eventually they came to be
+used as charms and amulets. Basilides (A.D. 130) and other gnostics gave
+the name of Abraxas to Almighty God, the Supreme Deity, since the numerical
+value of its letters in Greek gave the sum of 365, and they believed that
+365 orders of spirits emanated from God. Not all abraxas stones, however,
+are of gnostic origin, just as the name of abraxas cannot be applied to all
+gnostic stones. Cf. King: _The Gnostics and their Remains_, London, 1887.
+
+ABRIN, or ABRINE, a poisonous substance, being the active principle in the
+seeds of _Abrus precatorius_ (see _Abrus_). A minute quantity introduced
+into the blood is fatal to many animals, but it is employed in ailments of
+the eyes, and as a remedy for lupus and certain skin diseases.
+
+ABROGA'TION, the repealing of a law by a competent authority.
+
+ABROLHOS (a-brole'-yoce) a group of rocky islands 50 miles off the east
+coast of Brazil, the largest of which is Santa Barbara. Another group
+called Abrolhos lies off the west coast of Australia.
+
+ABRO'MA, a genus of small trees, natives of India, Java, &c., one species
+of which, _A. augusta_, has a bark yielding a strong white fibre, from
+which good cordage is made.
+
+ABRUPT', in botany, terminating suddenly, as if a part were cut short off.
+
+AB'RUS, a genus of papilionaceous plants, order Leguminosae, one species of
+which, _Abrus precatorius_, a delicate twining shrub, a native of the East
+Indies, and found also in tropical parts of Africa and America, has round
+brilliant scarlet seeds, used to make necklaces and rosaries. Its root is
+sweetish and mucilaginous, and is used as a substitute for liquorice
+_(Indian liquorice_). The seeds yield a strong poison.
+
+ABRUZZI ([.a]-br[u:]t's[=e]), a division of Italy on the Adriatic, between
+Umbria and the Marches on the north, and Apulia on the south. It is united
+with Molise to form a _compartimento_, comprising the four provinces of
+Aquila degli Abruzzi, Campobasso, Chicti, and Teramo. The sea-coast of
+about 80 miles does not possess a single harbour. The interior is rugged
+and mountainous, being traversed throughout by the Apennines. The lower
+parts consist of fertile plains and valleys, yielding corn, wine, oil,
+almonds, saffron, &c.; area, 6387 sq. miles. Pop. 1,480,748.
+
+AB'SALON, or AXEL, a Danish prelate, statesman, and warrior, born in 1128,
+died 1201. He became the intimate friend and counsellor of his sovereign
+Waldemar I, who appointed him Archbishop of Lund. He cleared the sea of the
+Slavonic pirates who had long infested it, secured the independence of the
+kingdom by defeating a powerful fleet of the Emperor Barbarossa, and built
+the castle of Axelborg, the nucleus of Copenhagen. He ultimately became
+Primate of Denmark and Sweden. Turning his thoughts to literature he caused
+the _History of Denmark_ to be drawn up by Saxo Grammaticus and Svend
+Aagesen.
+
+AB'SCESS, any collection of purulent matter or pus formed in some tissue or
+organ of the body, and confined within some circumscribed area, of varying
+size, but always painful and often dangerous.
+
+ABSENTEEISM, a term applied to landlords who absent themselves from their
+estates and live and spend their money elsewhere; in its more extended
+meaning it refers to all those whose fixed residence is outside their own
+country but who derive their income from sources within it. The social,
+economic, political, and moral evils resulting from such a system are
+considerable and hurtful to the interests of a region, the absentee being
+apt to lose his interest in things and persons and the public welfare
+generally. Some economists, however, have adduced arguments in favour of
+it, as it may sometimes be for the good of the community that a rich and
+luxurious landlord should be absent from his estate.
+
+The absenteeism of the Irish nobility, which became worse after the Union
+with Great Britain and the transfer of Parliament from Dublin to London,
+has been a constant source of mischief, whilst France before the
+Revolution, Russia under the Tsars Alexander I and Nicholas I, and Hungary
+in the eighteenth century suffered greatly from the practice. The first
+statute concerning absentees was passed in the English Parliament in 1379,
+and in 1729 a tax was levied on all moneys paid out of Ireland.
+
+AB'SINTH, French _Absinthe_ ([.a]b-sa[n.]t), a liqueur consisting of an
+alcoholic solution strongly flavoured with an extract of several sorts of
+wormwood, oil of anise, &c. When taken habitually, or in excess, its
+effects are very pernicious. A favourite drink of the Parisians, it was
+suppressed entirely throughout France by a law passed on 12th Feb., 1915.
+
+AB'SOLUTE, in a general sense, loosed or freed from all limitations or
+conditions. In politics, an _absolute_ monarchy is that form of government
+in which the ruler is unlimited or uncontrolled by constitutional checks.
+In modern metaphysics _the Absolute_ represents the unconditioned,
+infinite, and self-existent.
+
+ABSOLU'TION, remission of a penitent's sins in the name of God. It is
+commonly maintained that down to the twelfth century the priests used only
+what is called the _precatory_ formula, "May God or Christ absolve thee",
+which is still the form in the Greek Church; whereas the Roman Catholic
+uses the expression "I absolve thee", thus regarding the forgiveness of
+sins as in the power of the priest (the _indicative_ form). This theory of
+absolution was confirmed by the Council of Trent. The passages of Scripture
+on which the Roman Catholic Church relies in laying down its doctrine of
+absolution are such as _Mat._ xvi. 19, xviii. 18; _John_, xx. 23. Among
+Protestants absolution properly means a sentence by which a person who
+stands excommunicated is released from that punishment.
+
+ABSOLUTISM, a system of government in which the supreme power is vested in
+a ruler not controlled or limited by any constitution or laws. It has
+prevailed in Oriental countries, including Japan, until the latter part of
+the nineteenth century. There are now no absolute monarchies in Europe.
+
+ABSOR'BENTS, the system of minute vessels by which the nutritive elements
+of food and other matters are carried into the circulation of vertebrate
+animals. The vessels consist of two different sets, called respectively
+_lacteals_ and _lymphatics_. The former arise from the digestive tract, the
+latter from the tissues generally, both joining a common trunk which
+ultimately enters the blood-vessel system. Absorbents in medicine are
+substances such as chalk, charcoal, &c., that absorb or suck up excessive
+secretion of fluid or gas.
+
+ABSORP'TION, in physiology, one of the vital functions by which the
+materials of nutrition and growth are absorbed and conveyed to the organs
+of plants and animals. In vertebrate animals this is done by the lymphatics
+and lacteals, in plants chiefly by the roots. See _Absorbents_.
+
+In physics, _absorption of colour_ is the phenomenon observed when certain
+colours are retained or prevented from passing through transparent bodies;
+thus pieces of coloured glass are almost opaque to some parts of the
+spectrum, while allowing other colours to pass through freely. In chemistry
+absorption is the taking up of a gas by a liquid, or by a porous solid.
+
+AB'STINENCE. See _Fasting, Temperance_.
+
+ABSTRAC'TION, the operation of the mind by which it disregards part of what
+is presented to its observation in order to concentrate its attention on
+the remainder. It is the foundation of the operation of generalization, by
+which we arrive at general conceptions. In order, for example, to form the
+conception of a horse, we disregard the colour and other peculiarities of
+the particular horses observed by us, and attend only to those qualities
+which all horses have in common. In rising to the conception of an animal
+we disregard still more qualities, and attend only to those which all
+animals have in common with one another.
+
+ABU (a-b[:o]'), a granitic mountain of India in Sirohi State, Rajputana,
+rising precipitously from the surrounding plains, its top forming a
+picturesque and varied tract 14 miles long and 2 to 4 broad; highest point
+5653 ft. It is a hot-weather resort of Europeans, and is the site of two
+most beautiful Jain temples, built in 1031 and 1200.
+
+ABU-BEKR, or FATHER OF THE VIRGIN, born 570 died 634, the father-in-law and
+first successor of Mahomet. His right to the succession was unsuccessfully
+contested by Ali, Mahomet's son-in-law, and a schism took place, which
+divided the Mahommedans into the two great sects of Sunnites and Shiites,
+the former maintaining the validity of Abu-Bekr's and the latter that of
+Ali's claim.
+
+ABUKIR'. See _Aboukir_.
+
+ABU KLEA, a group of wells, surrounded by steep, black mountains, about 120
+miles from Khartoum, in the Sudan, where, on the 17th Jan., 1885, Sir
+Herbert Stewart, with 1500 men, defeated the Mahdi's troops numbering
+10,000.
+
+ABULFARA'GIUS, Gregory, a distinguished scholar, a Jew by birth (hence the
+name of _Barhebraeus_, often given him), author of numerous works in Arabic
+and Syriac, was born in Armenia in 1226, died in 1286. About 1264 he was
+consecrated Bishop of Gubas; he was afterwards translated to Aleppo and was
+appointed primate of the Jacobite Christians. His principal work is a
+_History of the World_ from the Creation to his own day, written in Syriac,
+with an abridged version in Arabic, entitled _The Abridged History of the
+Dynasties_.
+
+ABUL'FEDA, Arab writer, Prince of Hamah, in Syria, of the same family as
+Saladin, famous as an historian and geographer, was born at Damascus 1273,
+died 1331. Amid the cares of government he devoted himself with zeal to
+study, drew the learned around him, and rendered his power and wealth
+subservient to the cause of science. His most important works are his
+_History of the Human Race_ (the portion from the birth of Mahomet to his
+own time being valuable), and his geography called _The True Situation of
+Countries_.
+
+ABUNDA, a Bantu race of Angola, living on the coastlands and on the
+terraces rising towards the interior, and divided into 'highlanders' and
+'lowlanders'. They speak Portuguese and Umbunda, a trade language.
+
+ABUSHEHR ([:a]-b[:o]-sh[=a]r'). See _Bushire_.
+
+ABU-SIMBEL. See _Ibsambul_.
+
+ABU'TILON, a genus of plants, order Malvaceae, sometimes called Indian
+mallows, found in the East Indies, Australia, Brazil, Siberia, &c. Several
+of them yield a valuable hemp-like fibre, as _A. indicum_ and _A.
+Avicennae_. The latter, now a troublesome weed in the Middle United States,
+has been recommended for cultivation, and is sometimes called American
+jute.
+
+ABUT'MENT, the part of a bridge which receives and resists the lateral
+outward thrust of an arch; the masonry, rock, or other solid materials from
+which an arch springs.
+
+ABY'DOS, 1, an ancient city of Asia Minor, on the Hellespont, at the
+narrowest part of the strait, opposite Sestos. Leander, say ancient
+writers, swam nightly from Abydos to Sestos to see his loved Hero--a feat
+in swimming accomplished also by Lord Byron.--2, an ancient city of Upper
+Egypt (Egyptian Abotu), about 6 miles west of the Nile, now represented
+only by ruins of temples, tombs, &c. It was celebrated as the burial-place
+of the god Osiris, and its oldest temple was dedicated to him. Here, in
+1818, was discovered the famous _Abydos Tablet_, now in the British Museum,
+and containing a list of the predecessors of Rameses the Great, which was
+supplemented by the discovery of a similar historical tablet in 1864. The
+tomb of Osiris was discovered in 1898 by Amelinau. Cf. Flinders Petrie,
+_The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties_ (2 vols.), London, 1900-9.
+
+ABYSSIN'IA (Ar. _Habesha_), a country of Eastern Africa, which, with
+dependencies, may be said to extend from lat. 5deg to 15deg N. and long.
+35deg to 42deg E., having the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the W., British E.
+Africa on the S., and on the S.E. and E. Somali-land and Eritrea (Italian
+Red Sea coast); area, 350,000 sq. miles. Pop. over 8,000,000. The country
+is now divided into 9 provinces, the principal being Harrar, Tigre, Amhara
+or Gondar. Each province is governed by a ras, or prince, but Ras Michael,
+the governor of Wollo and father of the deposed negus, Lij Yasu, was
+crowned king on 1st June, 1914. Abyssinia proper is an elevated region,
+with a general slope to the north-west. The more marked physical features
+are a vast series of tablelands, of various and often of great elevations,
+and numerous masses or ranges of high and rugged mountains, dispersed over
+the surface in apparently the wildest confusion. Along the deep and
+tremendous ravines that divide the plateaux rush innumerable streams, which
+impart extraordinary fertility to the plains and valleys below. The
+mountains in various parts of the country rise to 12,000 and 13,000 feet,
+while some of the peaks are over 15,000 feet (Ras Dashan being 15,160), and
+are always covered with snow. The principal rivers belong to the Nile
+basin, the chief being the impetuous Tacazze ('the Terrible') in the north,
+and the Abai in the south, the latter being really the upper portion of the
+Blue Nile. The principal lake is Lake Tzana or Dembea (from which issues
+the Abai), upwards of 6000 feet above the sea, having a length of about 45
+and a breadth of 35 miles. Round this lake lies a fertile plain, deservedly
+called the granary of the country.--According to elevation there are
+several zones of vegetation. Within the lowest belt, which reaches an
+elevation of 4800 feet, cotton, wild indigo, acacias, ebony, baobabs,
+sugar-canes, coffee trees, date palms, &c., flourish, while the larger
+animals are lions, panthers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses,
+jackals, hyenas, bears, numerous antelopes, monkeys, and crocodiles. The
+middle zone, rising to 9000 feet, produces the grains, grasses, and fruits
+of southern Europe, the orange, vine, peach, apricot, the bamboo, sycamore
+tree, &c. The principal grains are millet, barley, wheat, maize, and teff,
+the latter a small seed, a favourite bread-stuff of the Abyssinians. Two,
+and in some places three, crops are obtained in one year. All the domestic
+animals of Europe, except swine, are known. There is a variety of ox with
+immense horns. The highest zone, reaching to 14,000 feet, has but little
+wood, and generally scanty vegetation, the hardier corn-plants only being
+grown; but oxen, goats, and long-woolled sheep find abundant pasture.--The
+climate is as various as the surface, but as a whole is temperate and
+agreeable; in some of the valleys the heat is often excessive, while on the
+mountains the weather is cold. In certain of the lower districts malaria
+prevails.--The chief mineral products are sulphur, copper, coal, and salt,
+the last-named serving to some extent as money. Iron is very abundant and
+is manufactured into knives, hatchets, and spears. There has been a great
+intermixture of races in Abyssinia. Those who may be considered the
+Abyssinians proper seem to have a blood-relationship with the Bedouin
+Arabs. Their complexion varies from very dark through different shades of
+brown and copper to olive, and they are usually well built. Other races are
+the black Gallas from the south; the Falashas, who claim descent from
+Abraham and retain many Jewish characteristics; the Agows, Gongas, &c. The
+great majority of the people profess Christianity, belonging, like the
+Copts, to the sect of the Monophysites. The head of the church is called
+the Abuna ('our father'), and is consecrated by the Coptic patriarch of
+Alexandria. Geez or Ethiopian is the language of their sacred books: it has
+long ago ceased to be spoken. The chief spoken language is the Amharic; in
+it some books have been published. Mohammedanism appears to be gaining
+ground in Abyssinia. A corrupt form of Judaism is professed by the
+Falashas.--The bulk of the people are devoted to agriculture and
+cattle-breeding. The trade and manufactures are of small importance. A good
+deal of common cotton cloth and some finer woven fabrics are produced.
+Leather is prepared to some extent, silver filagree-work is produced, and
+there are manufactures of common articles of iron and brass, pottery, &c.
+Trade is carried on through Zeila and Djibouti (French Ethiopian Railway
+was completed in 1915) on the Gulf of Aden, and Massowa on the Red Sea
+(Italian), exports being hides, coffee, wax, gum, ivory, &c., imports
+textile fabrics, &c. The Abyssinians were converted to Christianity in the
+fourth century, by some missionaries from Alexandria. In the sixth century
+the power of the sovereigns of their kingdom, which was generally known as
+Ethiopia, had attained its height; but before another had expired the Arabs
+had invaded the country, and obtained a footing. For several centuries
+subsequently the kingdom continued in a distracted state, being now torn by
+internal commotions and now invaded by external enemies (Mahommedans and
+Gallas). To protect himself from the latter the Emperor of Abyssinia
+applied, about the middle of the sixteenth century, to the King of Portugal
+for assistance, promising, at the same time, implicit submission to the
+Pope. The solicited aid was sent, and the empire saved. The Roman Catholic
+priests endeavoured to induce the emperor and his family to renounce the
+tenets and rites of the Coptic Church, and to adopt those of Rome. This
+attempt, however, was resisted by the ecclesiastics and the people, and
+ended, after a long struggle, in the expulsion of the Catholic priests
+about 1630. The kingdom gradually fell into a state of anarchy, and was
+broken up into several independent States. An attempt to revive the power
+of the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia was made by King Theodore about the
+middle of the last century. He introduced European artisans, and went to
+work wisely in many ways, but his cruelty and tyranny counteracted his
+politic measures. In consequence of a slight, real or fancied, which he had
+received at the hands of the British Government, he threw Consul Cameron
+and a number of other British subjects into prison, in 1863, and refused to
+give them up. To effect their release an army of nearly 12,000 men, under
+Sir Robert (afterwards Lord) Napier, was dispatched from Bombay in 1867.
+The force landed at Zoulla on the Red Sea, and marching up the country came
+within sight of the hill-fortress of Magdala in April, 1868. After being
+defeated in a battle, Theodore delivered up the captives and shut himself
+up in Magdala, which was taken by storm on the 13th April, Theodore being
+found among the slain. After the withdrawal of the British, fighting
+immediately began among the chiefs of the different provinces, but at last
+the country was divided between Kasa, who secured the northern and larger
+portion (Tigre and Amhara) and assumed the name of King Johannes, and
+Menelek, who gained possession of Shoa. Latterly Johannes made himself
+supreme and in 1881 assumed the title of emperor (_negus negusti_--king of
+kings), having under him the Kings of Shoa and Gojam. Debra Tabor, about 30
+miles east of Lake Dembea, was his chief residence. During the troubles in
+Abyssinia the Egyptians annexed Massowa and the region adjacent, Abyssinia
+being thus shut out from the sea. Afterwards the Italians gained and still
+hold Massowa and the Red Sea littoral (Eritrea). Johannes fell at Metemmeh
+in 1889, whilst fighting against the Mahdists, and was succeeded by Menelek
+II. In 1916 Lij Yasu, who succeeded Menelek II in 1913, was deposed and
+Waizeru Zauditu (born 1876) became empress.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. P. Skinner,
+_Abyssinia of Today_. A. B. Wylde, _Modern Abyssinia_.
+
+[Illustration: Acacia arabica, showing leaves, flowers, and fruit]
+
+ACA'CIA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Leguminosae, sub-order Mimoseae,
+consisting of trees or shrubs with compound pinnate leaves and small
+leaflets, growing in Africa, Arabia, the East Indies, Australia, &c. The
+flowers, usually small, are arranged in spikes or globular heads at the
+axils of the leaves near the extremity of the branches. The corolla is
+bell- or funnel-shaped; stamens are numerous; the fruit is a dry unjointed
+pod. Several of the species yield gum-arabic and other gums; some having
+astringent barks and pods, used in tanning. _A. Catechu_, an Indian
+species, yields the valuable astringent called catechu; _A. dealb[=a]ta_,
+the wattle tree of Australia, from 15 to 30 feet in height, is the most
+beautiful and useful of the species found there. Its bark contains a large
+percentage of tannin, and is exported in large quantities. Some species
+yield valuable timber; some are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.
+
+ACAD'EMY, an association for the promotion of literature, science, or art;
+established sometimes by Government, sometimes by the voluntary union of
+private individuals. The name Academy was first applied to the
+philosophical school of Plato, from the place where he used to teach, a
+grove or garden at Athens which was said to have belonged originally to the
+hero Acad[=e]mus. The home of Academies as associations of learned men (not
+institutes for instruction), was Hellenized Egypt and afterwards Italy of
+the Renaissance. The flourishing Academies at Florence, Naples, and Rome
+became the models of academies in other countries. Academies devote
+themselves either to the cultivation of science generally or to the
+promotion of a particular branch of study, as antiquities, language, and
+the fine arts. The most celebrated institutions bearing the name of
+academies, and designed for the encouragement of science, antiquities, and
+language respectively, are the French Academie des Sciences (founded by
+Colbert in 1666), Academie des Inscriptions (founded by Colbert in 1663),
+and Academie Francaise (founded by Richelieu in 1635), all of which are now
+merged in the National Institute. The most celebrated of the academies
+instituted for the improvement of language is the Italian Accademia della
+Crusca, or Furfuratorum (now the Florentine Academy), formed in 1582, and
+chiefly celebrated for the compilation of an excellent dictionary of the
+Italian language (_Vocabulario della Crusca_, Venice, 1612), and for the
+publication of several carefully-prepared editions of ancient Italian
+poets. The (Imperial) Academy of Science of St. Petersburg was projected by
+Peter the Great and established by Catherine I in 1725. The Academy of
+Science in Berlin was founded by Frederick I in 1700. It was opened in 1711
+and had Leibnitz as its first president. In Britain the name of academy, in
+the more dignified sense of the term, is confined almost exclusively to
+certain institutions for the promotion of the fine arts, such as the Royal
+Academy of Arts and the Royal Scottish Academy. The Royal Academy of Arts
+(usually called simply the Royal Academy) was founded in London in 1768,
+"for the purpose of cultivating and improving the arts of painting,
+sculpture, and architecture". The number of academicians is now limited to
+forty-two, among whom are two engravers. There are also thirty associates,
+from whom the academicians are elected. Of the associates five are
+engravers. Any person who is possessed of sufficient proficiency may be
+admitted as a student and receive instruction gratis, and prizes are
+annually bestowed on meritorious students. The annual exhibition of the
+Academy is open to all artists whose works show sufficient merit. The Royal
+Scottish Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture was founded in
+1826 and incorporated in 1838. It consists of thirty academicians and
+twenty associates. The Royal Hibernian Academy at Dublin was incorporated
+in 1823 and reorganized in 1861. It consists of thirty members and ten
+associates. A British Academy for the Promotion of Historical,
+Philosophical, and Philological Studies was incorporated in 1902. (See
+_British Academy_.) In the United States, the American Academy of Arts and
+Sciences at Boston was founded in 1780, and since then various other
+societies of similar character and name have been instituted, as the New
+York Academy of Sciences, the Chicago Academy of Science, &c.
+
+ACA'DIA (Fr. _Acadie_), the name formerly given to Nova Scotia. It received
+its first colonists from France in 1604, being then a possession of that
+country, but it passed to Britain, by the Peace of Utrecht, in 1713. In
+1756, 18,000 of the French inhabitants were forcibly removed from their
+homes on account of their hostility to the British, an incident on which is
+based Longfellow's _Evangeline_. Many Acadians afterwards wandered back to
+their old homes, and their descendants are at present supposed to number
+270,000, 100,000 of them living in French Canada.
+
+ACALE'PHA (Gr. _akal[=e]ph[=e]_, a nettle, from their stinging properties),
+a term formerly used to denote the Medusae, or jelly-fishes, and allied
+species.
+
+ACANTHA'CEAE, or ACANTHADS, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous herbaceous plants
+or shrubs, with opposite leaves and monopetalous corolla, mostly tropical;
+species about 1400. See _Acanthus_.
+
+[Illustration: _a_, _b_, _c_, Spines of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins
+of Acanthopterygii]
+
+ACANTHOP'TERI, ACANTHOPTERYGII (Gr. _akantha_, a spine, _pterygion_, a
+fin), a group of fishes, distinguished by the fact that at least the first
+rays in each fin exist in the form of stiff spines; it includes the perch,
+mullet, mackerel, gurnard, wrasse, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Acanthus. Examples of Greek and Roman decorative treatment]
+
+ACANTH'US, a genus of herbaceous plants or shrubs, order Acanthaceae,
+mostly tropical, two species of which, _A. mollis_ and _A. spin[=o]sus_
+(the bear's-breech or brankursine), are characterized by large white
+flowers and deeply-indented shining leaves. They are favourite ornamental
+plants in British gardens.--In architecture the name is given to a kind of
+foliage decoration said to have been suggested by this plant, and much
+employed in Greek, Roman, and later styles.
+
+ACAPUL'CO, a seaport of Mexico, on the Pacific, with a capacious,
+well-sheltered harbour; a coaling station for steamers, but with no great
+trade. Pop. 5950.
+
+ACAR'IDA, a division of the Arachnida, including the mites, ticks, and
+water-mites. See _Mite_.
+
+ACARNA'NIA, the most westerly portion of Northern Greece, together with
+Aetolia now forming a nomarchy with a pop. of 188,597. The Acarnanians of
+ancient times were behind the other Greeks in civilization, living by
+robbery and piracy.
+
+AC'ARUS, the genus to which the mite belongs.
+
+ACCA'DIANS (Akkad), the primitive inhabitants of Northern Babylonia
+(Akkad), who had descended from the mountainous region of Elam on the east,
+and to whom the Assyrians ascribed the origin of Chaldean civilization and
+writing. This race is believed to have belonged to the Turanian family, or
+to have been at any rate non-Semitic. What is known of them has been
+learned from the cuneiform inscriptions. See _Babylonia_ and _Summerians_.
+
+ACCELERA'TION is the rate of change of the velocity of a body under the
+action of a force. A body falling from a height is one of the most common
+instances of acceleration.--_Acceleration of the Moon_, the increase of the
+moon's mean angular velocity about the earth, the moon now moving rather
+faster than in ancient times. This phenomenon has not been fully explained,
+but it is known to be partly owing to the slow process of diminution which
+the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is undergoing, and from which there
+results a slight diminution of the sun's influence on the moon's
+motions.--_Diurnal acceleration of the fixed stars_, the apparent greater
+diurnal motion of the stars than of the sun, arising from the fact that the
+sun's apparent yearly motion takes place in a direction contrary to that of
+his apparent daily motion. The stars thus seem each day to anticipate the
+sun by nearly 3 minutes 56 seconds of mean time.
+
+AC'CENT, a term used in several senses. In English it commonly denotes
+superior stress or force of voice upon certain syllables of words, which
+distinguishes them from the other syllables. Many English words, as
+_as'pi-ra"tion_, have two accents, a secondary and primary, the latter
+being the fuller or stronger. Some words, as _in-com'pre-hen'si-bil"i-ty_,
+have two secondary or subordinate accents. When the full accent falls on a
+vowel, that vowel has its long sound, as in _vo'cal_; but when it falls on
+a consonant, the preceding vowel is short, as in _hab'it_. This kind of
+accent alone regulates English verse, as contrasted with Latin or Greek
+verse, in which the metre depended on _quantity_ or length of syllables. In
+books on elocution three marks or accents are generally made use of, the
+first or _acute_ (') showing when the voice is to be raised, the second or
+_grave_ (`), when it is to be depressed, and the third or _circumflex_ (^)
+when the vowel is to be uttered with an undulating sound. In some languages
+there is no such distinct accent as in English (or German), and this seems
+to be now the case with French.--In music, accent is the stress or emphasis
+laid upon certain notes of a bar. The first note of a bar has the strongest
+accent, but weaker accents are given to the first notes of subordinate
+parts of the bars, as to the third, fifth, and seventh in a bar of eight
+quavers.
+
+ACCEN'TOR (_Accentor modul[=a]ris_), or HEDGE ACCENTOR, a British bird of
+the warbler family. See _Hedge Warbler_.
+
+ACCEP'TANCE, in law, the act by which a person binds himself to pay a bill
+of exchange drawn upon him. (See _Bill_.) No acceptance is valid unless
+made in writing on the bill, but an acceptance may be either absolute or
+conditional, that is, stipulating some alteration in the amount or date of
+payment, or some condition to be fulfilled previous to payment.
+
+AC'CESSARY, or AC'CESSORY, in law, a person guilty of an offence by
+connivance or participation, either before or after the act committed, as
+by command, advice, concealment, &c. An accessary _before the fact_ is one
+who procures or counsels another to commit a crime, and is not present at
+its commission; an accessary _after the fact_ is one who, knowing a felony
+to have been committed, gives assistance of any kind to the felon so as to
+hinder him from being apprehended, tried, or suffering punishment. An
+accessary before the fact may be tried and punished in all respects as if
+he were the principal. In high treason, all who participate are regarded as
+principals.
+
+ACCIDEN'TALS, notes introduced in the course of a piece of music in a
+different key from that in which the passage where they occur is
+principally written. They are represented by the sign of a sharp, flat, or
+natural immediately before the note which is to be raised or lowered.
+
+ACCIPITRES (ak-sip'i-tr[=e]z), the name given by Linnaeus and Cuvier to the
+rapacious birds now usually called Raptores (q.v.).
+
+ACCLIMATIZA'TION, the process of accustoming plants or animals to live and
+propagate in a climate different from that to which they are indigenous, or
+the change which the constitution of an animal or plant undergoes under new
+climatic conditions, in the direction of adaptation to those conditions.
+The systematic study of acclimatization has only been entered upon in very
+recent times, and the little progress that has been made in it has been
+more in the direction of formulating anticipative, if not arbitrary
+hypotheses, than of actual discovery and acquisition of facts. The
+best-known society founded, for the purpose of naturalizing animals and
+plants, is the Societe d'Acclimatation in Paris. It opened the Jardin
+d'Acclimatation in 1860. See _Tropical Hygiene_. The term is sometimes
+applied to the case of animals or plants taking readily to a new country
+with a climate and other circumstances similar to what they have left, such
+as European animals and plants in America and New Zealand: but this is more
+properly _naturalization_ than acclimatization.--In agriculture the word is
+used with reference to stock, principally sheep, 'acclimatized' to a
+particular area, a special allowance being made by the landlord on
+transference of the farm and stock in respect of the acclimatization of the
+sheep. The value assigned to the advantages resulting from acclimatization
+of stocks varies considerably. In Argyllshire, for instance,
+Dumbartonshire, and the western portion of Perthshire the rates are high,
+while in the south of Scotland and the north of England they are much
+lower.
+
+ACCOLADE (ak-o-l[=a]d'; Fr., from Lat. _ad_, to, _collum_, the neck), the
+ceremony used in conferring knighthood, anciently consisting either in the
+embrace given by the person who conferred the honour of knighthood or in a
+light blow on the neck or the cheek, latterly consisting in the ceremony of
+striking the candidate with a naked sword.
+
+ACCOL'TI, Benedetto, an Italian lawyer, born at Arezzo in Tuscany in 1415,
+died at Florence in 1466. He was secretary to the Florentine republic,
+1459, and author of a work on the Crusades which is said to have furnished
+Tasso with matter for his _Jerusalem Delivered_.
+
+ACCOMMODA'TION BILL, a bill of exchange drawn and accepted to raise money
+on, and not given, like a genuine bill of exchange, in payment of a debt,
+but merely intended to accommodate the drawer: colloquially called a _wind
+bill_ and a _kite_.
+
+ACCOMMODA'TION LADDER, a light ladder hung over the side of a ship at the
+gangway to facilitate ascending from, or descending to, boats.
+
+ACCOM'PANIMENT, in music, is that part of music which serves for the
+support of the principal melody.
+
+ACCOR'DION, a keyed musical wind-instrument similar to the concertina,
+being in the form of a small box, containing a number of metallic reeds
+fixed at one of their extremities, the sides of the box forming a folding
+apparatus which acts as a bellows to supply the wind, and thus set the
+reeds in vibration, and produce the notes both of melody and harmony. The
+accordion was invented by Damian of Vienna in 1829.
+
+ACCOUNTANT, a person whose chief business is with accounts and the drawing
+up of financial statements and balance-sheets. An accountant is an
+important official in banks, railways, and certain other institutions, and
+many persons carry on the business of accountant as a distinct profession,
+auditing the books of merchants, joint-stock companies, &c. There are
+several bodies of accountants in the United Kingdom incorporated by royal
+charter, and hence specially distinguished as 'chartered accountants'
+(C.A.). Since 1919 women are admitted as members of the Society of
+Incorporated Accountants.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. R. Dicksee, _Advanced
+Accounting_; G. Lisle, _Encyclopaedia of Accounting_ (8 vols.).
+
+AC'CRA, a British settlement in Africa, in a swampy situation, capital of
+Gold Coast, about 75 miles east of Cape Coast Castle. Exports gold-dust,
+ivory, gums, palm-oil; imports cottons, cutlery, &c. Pop. 20,000.
+
+AC'CRINGTON, a municipal borough of England, Lancashire, 5 miles east of
+Blackburn, with large cotton factories, print-works and bleaching-greens,
+and coal-mines. Pop. 43,610. Accrington was created a parliamentary borough
+in 1918.
+
+ACCU'MULATOR, a name applied to a kind of electric battery by means of
+which electric energy can be stored and rendered portable. In the usual
+form each battery forms a cylindrical leaden vessel, containing alternate
+sheets of metallic lead and minium wrapped in felt and rolled into a spiral
+wetted with acidulated water. On being charged with electricity the energy
+may be preserved till required for use.
+
+ACCU'SATIVE CASE, in Latin and some other languages, the term applied to
+the case which designates the object to which the action of any verb is
+immediately directed, corresponding, generally speaking, to the _objective_
+in English.
+
+ACE, in aviation the name 'ace' is given to a flying-man who has
+distinguished himself by bringing down a large number (sometimes given as
+ten) of enemy machines. The word is used colloquially, and was borrowed
+from the French Air Force during the European War.
+
+ACEPH'ALA, in zoology, the headless Mollusca or those which want a distinct
+head, corresponding to those that have bivalve shells and are also called
+_Lamellibranchiata_.
+
+A'CER, the genus of plants (nat. ord. Aceraceae) to which belongs the
+maple.
+
+ACERRA ([.a]-cher'[.a]), a town in South Italy, 9 miles north-east of
+Naples, the see of a bishop, in a fertile but unhealthy region. Pop.
+17,878.
+
+ACETAB'ULUM, an anatomical term applied to any cup-like cavity, as that of
+a bone to receive the protuberant end of another bone, the cavity, for
+instance, that receives the end of the thigh-bone.
+
+ACETATES (as'e-t[=a]ts), salts of acetic acid. The acetates of most
+commercial or manufacturing importance are those of aluminium and iron,
+which are used in calico-printing; of copper, which as verdigris is used as
+a colour; and of lead, best known as sugar of lead. The acetates of
+potassium, sodium, and ammonium, of iron, zinc, and lead, and the acetate
+of morphia, are employed in medicine.
+
+ACET'IC ACID, an acid produced by the oxidation of common alcohol, and of
+many other organic substances. Pure acetic acid has a very sour taste and
+pungent smell, burns the skin, and is poisonous. From freezing at ordinary
+temperatures (58deg or 59deg) it is known as _glacial acetic acid_. Vinegar
+is simply dilute acetic acid. Acetic acid is largely used in the arts, in
+medicine, and for domestic purposes. See _Vinegar_.
+
+ACET'IC ETHERS, or ACETIC ESTERS, acetates of alcohol radicals. The common
+ester--ethyl acetate--is a volatile colourless liquid, manufactured by
+distilling a mixture of alcohol, oil of vitriol, and acetic acid, and used
+for flavouring purposes.
+
+ACETONE (as'), a constituent of ordinary wood spirit, a colourless volatile
+liquid used as a solvent, the simplest of the _ketones_.
+
+ACET'YLENE, C_2H_2, is a substance composed of two elements, carbon and
+hydrogen, and belonging to a class of compounds known as hydrocarbons. It
+is formed in the incomplete combustion of many hydrocarbons and also of
+coal-gas, and may be produced in a variety of ways, but is now made almost
+entirely from calcium carbide. Acetylene has been known for a long time,
+but only since 1870 has it been produced in any quantity. After the
+development of the electric furnace it was found that calcium oxide,
+quicklime, heated with carbon to the high temperature possible in such a
+furnace, is transformed into calcium carbide, and this compound reacts with
+water, generating acetylene. A great deal of heat is developed on adding
+water to calcium carbide, so that care has to be taken in generating
+acetylene. Various devices are in use for bringing the two substances in
+contact slowly, and for keeping the temperature low. When carbon and
+hydrogen combine to form acetylene a large amount of heat is used up, so
+that much heat is evolved when acetylene decomposes again, and once
+decomposition starts sufficient heat is developed to decompose the whole
+volume of gas.
+
+Acetylene is a colourless gas slightly soluble in water and very sparingly
+soluble in brine. When pure it has little or no odour, but as ordinarily
+prepared it has a strong unpleasant odour due to traces of impurities such
+as sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphine, &c. The gas can be liquefied easily,
+and in the liquid state is highly explosive. It burns with an exceedingly
+sooty flame, but if it is allowed to pass through a very small orifice the
+carbon liberated becomes incandescent and acetylene burns with an intense
+white flame. It is largely used as an illuminant and for the production of
+great heat. As an illuminant the gas is produced in specially-constructed
+generators. It is led through iron pipes and burned from an acetylene
+burner, or it may be used with special types of incandescent mantles.
+Acetylene readily combines with copper and with silver to form metallic
+acetylides which are very explosive, hence pipes through which acetylene is
+passing must not be made of brass or copper. Acetylene mixed with air and
+brought in contact with an ignited body explodes even more violently than a
+mixture of air and coal-gas.
+
+Large quantities of acetylene are generated and stored for oxy-acetylene
+welding. Acetylene, burning in oxygen, gives an intensely hot flame (about
+2000deg-3000deg C.), sufficiently hot to melt iron. Although liquid
+acetylene is unstable, and even the gas, under slight pressure, is also
+unstable, it may be transported safely if dissolved in acetone. Acetone
+dissolves a large volume of acetylene, and this solution is quite stable
+and may be stored in iron cylinders and used for various purposes. If it is
+to be stored it must be carefully purified from phosphine, which is apt to
+cause sudden decomposition. Recently, numerous patents have been taken out
+for the preparation of compounds such as acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetic
+anhydride, &c., using acetylene as starting-point, so that many substances
+may be prepared from acetylene just as many substances may be prepared from
+benzene.
+
+ACHAEANS (a-k[=e]'anz), one of the four races into which the ancient Greeks
+were divided. In early times they inhabited a part of Northern Greece and
+of the Peloponnesus. They are represented by Homer as a brave and warlike
+people, and so distinguished were they that he usually calls the Greeks in
+general Achaeans. Afterwards they settled in the district of the
+Peloponnesus, called after them Achaia, and forming a narrow belt of coast
+on the south side of the Gulf of Corinth. From very early times a
+confederacy or league existed among the twelve towns of this region. After
+the death of Alexander the Great it was broken up, but was revived again,
+280 B.C., and from this time grew in power till it spread over the whole
+Peloponnesus. It was finally dissolved by the Romans, 147 B.C., and after
+this the whole of Greece, except Thessaly, was called Achaia or Achaea.
+Achaia with Elis now forms a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. Pop.
+254,728. Cf. Freeman, _History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy_,
+London, 1893.
+
+ACHAEMENIDAE (ak-[=e]-men'i-d[=e]) a dynasty of ancient Persian kings,
+being that to which the great Cyrus belonged.
+
+ACHAIA (a-k[=a]'ya). See _Achaeans_.
+
+ACHALZIK. See _Akhalzik_.
+
+ACHARD ([.a]_h_'[.a]rt), Franz Karl, a German chemist, born 1753, died
+1821, principally known by his invention (1789-1800) of a process for
+manufacturing sugar from beetroot. In 1801 the first beet-sugar factory
+ever established was started by him in Silesia.
+
+ACHARD ([.a]-sh[:a]r), Louis Amedee Eugene, born 1814, died 1875, French
+journalist, novelist, and playwright. He was best known as a novelist;
+wrote the novels _Belle Rose_, _La Chasse royale_, _Chateaux en Espagne_,
+_Robe de Nessus_, _Chaines de fer_, &c. His _Lettres Parisiennes_ were
+published in 1838 under the pseudonym of Grimm.
+
+ACHATES (a-k[=a]'t[=e]z), a companion of Aeneas in his wanderings
+subsequent to his flight from Troy. He is always distinguished in Virgil's
+_Aeneid_ by the epithet _fidus_, 'faithful', and has become typical of a
+faithful friend and companion.
+
+ACHEEN, or ATCHIN ([.a]-ch[=e]n') (Du. _Atjeh_), a native State of Sumatra,
+with a capital of the same name, in the north-western extremity of the
+island, now nominally under Dutch administration. Though largely
+mountainous, it has also undulating tracts and low fertile plains. By
+treaty with Britain the Dutch were prevented from extending their territory
+in Sumatra by conquest; but this obstacle being removed, in 1871 they
+proceeded to occupy Acheen. It was not till 1879, however, after a great
+waste of blood and treasure, that they obtained a general recognition of
+their authority. But they have not been able to establish it firmly, and
+have had to put down many determined risings, sometimes costing them losses
+both in men and guns. In the seventeenth century Acheen was a powerful
+State, and carried on hostilities successfully against the Portuguese, but
+its influence decreased with the increase of the Dutch power. The principal
+exports are rice and pepper. Area, 20,471 sq. miles; pop. 789,664.
+
+ACHELOUS (ak-e-l[=o]'us) (now ASPROPOT[)A]MO), the largest river of Greece,
+rising on Mount Pindus, separating Aetolia and Acarnania, and flowing into
+the Ionian Sea. In Greek legend, Achel[=o]us, the son of Oceanus and
+Tethys, was the river-god.
+
+ACHENBACH ([.a]'_h_en-b[.a]ch), Andreas, was a distinguished German
+landscape and marine painter, born in 1815, died in 1910.
+
+ACHENBACH, Oswald, born 1827, died 1905, brother of above, was also a
+distinguished landscape painter. Both are of the Duesseldorf school, and
+pupils of the famous painter Schadow.
+
+[Illustration: Achene of Buttercup (magnified)
+
+E, Embryo. En, Endosperm. T, Testa and pericarp.]
+
+ACHENE, or ACHENIUM (a-k[=e]n', a-k[=e]'ni-um), in botany, a small, dry
+carpel containing a single seed, the pericarp of which is closely applied
+but separable, and which does not open when ripe. It is either solitary, or
+several achenia may be placed on a common receptacle as in the buttercup.
+
+ACHENSEE, a lake in Tyrol, 20 miles north-east of Innsbruck and 3018 feet
+above sea-level. On its shores are beautiful villas and hotels frequented
+as summer resorts.
+
+ACHERON (ak'e-ron) (modern FANARIOTICOS), the ancient name of several
+rivers in Greece and Italy, all of which were connected by legend with the
+lower world. The principal was a river of Thesprotia in Epirus, which
+passes through Lake Acherusia and flows into the Ionian Sea. Homer speaks
+of Acheron as a river of the lower world, and late Greek writers use the
+name to designate the lower world.
+
+ACHEULIAN, a term applied by archaeologists to the late stage of Chellean
+civilization in the Pleistocene Age. It is named after St. Acheul in the
+Somme valley, where relics of it were found. The geological horizon,
+according to Professor James Geikie, is late Second Interglacial and Third
+Glacial periods.
+
+ACH'IAR, or AT'CHAR, an Indian condiment made of the young shoots of the
+bamboo pickled.
+
+ACHIEVEMENT (a-ch[=e]v'ment), in heraldry, a term applied to the shield of
+armorial bearings generally, or to a hatchment (q.v.).
+
+ACHILL (ak'il), the largest island on the Irish coast, separated from the
+mainland of Mayo by a narrow sound, now bridged over. The chief occupation
+is fishing. The island is mountainous, has fine scenery, and is visited by
+many tourists, there being now a railway terminus here, and many recent
+improvements. Pop. nearly 7000.
+
+ACHILLAE'A, the milfoil genus of plants.
+
+ACHILLEION, famous castle at Corfu, which used to belong to the Empress
+Elizabeth of Austria. It was acquired by the ex-Kaiser William II, who
+bought it from the Archduchess Gisela, wife of Prince Leopold of Bavaria.
+
+ACHILLES (a-kil'[=e]z), a Greek legendary hero, the chief character in
+Homer's _Iliad_. His father was Peleus, ruler of Phthia in Thessaly, his
+mother the sea-goddess Thetis. When only six years of age he was able to
+overcome lions and bears. His guardian, Cheiron the Centaur, having
+declared that Troy could not be taken without his aid, his mother, fearing
+for his safety, disguised him as a girl, and introduced him among the
+daughters of Lycomedes of Scyros. Her desire for his safety made her also
+try to make him invulnerable when a child by anointing him with ambrosia,
+and again by dipping him in the River Styx, from which he came out proof
+against wounds, all but the heel, by which she held him. His place of
+concealment was discovered by Odysseus (Ulysses), and he promised his
+assistance to the Greeks against Troy. Accompanied by his close friend,
+Patroclus, he joined the expedition with a body of followers (Myrmidons) in
+fifty ships, and occupied nine years in raids upon the towns neighbouring
+to Troy, after which the siege proper commenced. On being deprived of his
+prize, the maiden Briseis, by Agamemnon, he refused to take any further
+part in the war, and disaster attended the Greeks. Patroclus now persuaded
+Achilles to allow him to lead the Myrmidons to battle dressed in his
+armour, and he having been slain by Hector, Achilles vowed revenge on the
+Trojans, and forgot his anger against the Greeks. He attacked the Trojans
+and drove them back to their walls, slaying them in great numbers, chased
+Hector, who fled before him three times round the walls of Troy, slew him,
+and dragged his body at his chariot-wheels, but afterwards gave it up to
+Priam, who came in person to beg for it. He then performed the funeral
+rites of Patroclus, with which the _Iliad_ closes. He was killed in a
+battle at the Scaean Gate of Troy by an arrow from the bow of Paris which
+struck his vulnerable heel. In discussions on the origin of the Homeric
+poems the term _Achilleid_ is often applied to those books (i, viii, and
+xi-xxii) of the _Iliad_ in which Achilles is prominent, and which some
+suppose to have formed the original nucleus of the poem. See _Iphigenia_.
+
+ACHILLES' TENDON, or TENDON OF ACHILLES, the strong tendon which connects
+the muscles of the calf with the heel, and which may be easily felt with
+the hand. The origin of the name will be understood from the above article.
+
+ACHILLES TATIUS (a-kil'[=e]z t[=a]'shi-us), a Greek romance writer of the
+fifth century A.D., belonging to Alexandria; wrote a love story in 8 books
+called _Leucipp[=e] and Cleitophon_.
+
+ACHIMENES (a-kim'e-n[=e]z), a genus of tropical American plants, with scaly
+underground tubers, nat. ord. Gesneraceae, now cultivated in European
+greenhouses on account of their white, blue, and red flowers.
+
+ACHLAMYDEOUS (ak-la-mid'i-us), in botany, wanting the floral envelopes,
+that is, having neither calyx nor corolla, as the willow.
+
+ACHOR ([=a]'kor), a disease of infants, in which the head, the face, and
+often the neck and breast become incrusted with thin, yellowish or greenish
+scabs, arising from minute, whitish pustules, which discharge a viscid
+fluid.
+
+ACHROMAT'IC (Gr. _a_, priv., and _chr[=o]ma, chr[=o]matos_, colour), in
+optics, transmitting colourless light, that is, not decomposed into the
+primary colours, though having passed through a refracting medium. A single
+convex lens does not give an image free from the prismatic colours, because
+the rays of different colour making up white light are not equally
+refrangible, and thus do not all come to a focus together, the violet, for
+instance, being nearest the lens, the red farthest off. If such a lens of
+crown-glass, however, is combined with a concave lens of flint-glass--the
+curvatures of both being properly adjusted--as the two materials have
+somewhat different optical properties, the latter will neutralize the
+chromatic aberration of the former, and a satisfactory image will be
+produced. Telescopes, microscopes, &c., in which the glasses are thus
+composed are called _achromatic_.
+
+ACID (Lat. _acidus_, sour), a name applied to a number of compounds, having
+more or less the qualities of vinegar (itself a diluted form of acetic
+acid). Their general properties are sour taste, the power of changing
+vegetable blues into reds, of evolving hydrogen in presence of magnesium,
+of decomposing chalk with effervescence, and of being in various degrees
+neutralized by alkalies. An acid has been defined as a compound of
+hydrogen, the whole or a part of which is replaceable by a metal when this
+is presented in the form of a hydroxide; being _monobasic_, _dibasic_, or
+_tribasic_, according to the number of replaceable hydrogen atoms in a
+molecule. See _Chemistry_.
+
+ACIERAGE ([=a]'s[=e]-[.e]r-[=a]j), (Fr. _acier_, steel), a process by which
+an engraved copper-plate or an electrotype from an engraved plate of steel
+or copper has a film of iron deposited over its surface by electricity in
+order to protect the engraving from wear in printing. By this means an
+electrotype of a fine engraving, which, if printed directly from the
+copper, would not yield 500 good impressions, can be made to yield 3000 or
+more; and when the film of iron becomes so worn as to reveal any part of
+the copper, it may be removed and a fresh coating deposited so that 20,000
+good impressions may be got.
+
+ACIPENSER (as-i-pen's[.e]r), the genus of cartilaginous ganoid fishes to
+which the sturgeon belongs.
+
+ACI REALE ([:a]'ch[=e] r[=a]-[:a]'l[=a]), a seaport of Sicily, north-east
+of Catania, a well-built town, with a trade in corn, wine, fruit, &c. Pop.
+35,587.
+
+A'CIS, according to Ovid, a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, loved by Galatea,
+and crushed to death by his rival the Cyclops Polyphemus. His blood,
+flowing from beneath the rock which crushed him, was changed into a river
+bearing his name, and renowned for the coldness of its water. It has been
+identified as the Fiume di Jaci.
+
+ACLIN'IC LINE (Gr. priv. _a, klin[=o]_, to incline), the magnetic equator,
+an irregular curve in the neighbourhood of the terrestrial equator, where
+the magnetic needle balances itself horizontally, having no dip. See
+_Magnetism_.
+
+ACNE (ak'n[=e]), a skin disease, consisting of small hard pimples, usually
+on the face, caused by congestion of the follicles of the skin.
+
+[Illustration: Acolyte]
+
+ACOLYTES (ak'o-l[=i]ts), in the ancient Latin and Greek Churches, persons
+of ecclesiastical rank next in order below the subdeacons, whose office it
+was to attend the officiating priest. The name is still retained in the
+Roman Church. Cf. Duchesne, _Christian Worship, its Origin and Evolution_.
+
+ACONCAGUA ([.a]-kon-k[:a]'gw[.a]), a province, a river, and a mountain of
+Chile. The peak of Aconcagua, whose summit is just within the Argentine
+Republic, rises to the height of 23,080 feet, and is probably the highest
+mountain of the western hemisphere. Area of province, 5406 sq. miles. Pop.
+(1919), 132,165.
+
+AC'ONITE (_Acon[=i]tum_), a genus of hardy herbaceous plants, nat. ord.
+Ranunculaceae, represented by the well-known wolf's-bane or monk's-hood,
+and remarkable for their poisonous properties and medicinal qualities,
+being used internally as well as externally in rheumatism, gout, neuralgia,
+&c.
+
+ACON'ITINE, an alkaloid extracted from monk's-hood and some other species
+of aconite; used medicinally, though a virulent poison.
+
+ACONQUIJA ([.a]-kon-k[=e]'_h_[.a]), a range of mountains in the Argentine
+Republic; the name also of a single peak, 17,000 feet high.
+
+A'CORN, the fruit of the different kinds of oak. The acorn-cups of one
+species are brought from the Levant under the name of _valonia_, and used
+in tanning.
+
+ACORN-SHELL. See _Balanus_.
+
+AC'ORUS, a genus of plants, including the sweet-flag. See _Sweet-flag_ and
+_Calamus_.
+
+ACOS'TA, Gabriel, afterwards Uriel, a Portuguese of Jewish descent, born at
+Oporto in 1590, died by his own hand 1640. Brought up a Christian, he
+afterwards embraced Judaism. Having gone to Amsterdam, where he attacked
+the practices of the Jews, and denied the divine mission of Moses, he
+suffered much persecution at the hands of the Jews. He left an
+autobiography, published in 1687, under the title _Exemplar Humanae Vitae_.
+He is the hero of a novel, _Die Sadducaeer von Amsterdam_, and of a
+tragedy, _Uriel Acosta_, both by Gutzkow.
+
+ACOTYLE'DONS, plants not furnished with cotyledons or seed-lobes. They
+include ferns, mosses, seaweeds, &c., and are also called flowerless plants
+or cryptogams.
+
+ACOUSIMETER, or ACOUMETER (Gr. _akouein_, to hear, and _metron_, measure),
+an instrument used to determine the acuteness of hearing. It consists of a
+small bar which gives a uniform sound when struck by a hammer.
+
+ACOUSTICS (a-kou'stiks), the science of sound. It deals with the production
+of sound, its propagation and velocity in various media; the reflection,
+refraction, and interference of sound waves; the properties of musical
+notes; and the general phenomena of such vibrations of elastic bodies as
+affect the organ of hearing.
+
+In order that a sound may be heard, it is necessary that an uninterrupted
+series of particles of elastic matter should extend from the sounding body
+to our ear. Sound is propagated by a longitudinal wave-motion in the medium
+(gaseous, liquid, or solid), that is, the particles oscillate along the
+line in which the wave is travelling, giving rise to regular series of
+condensations and rarefactions.
+
+The velocity of sound varies directly as the square root of the elasticity,
+and inversely as the square root of the density, of the medium in which it
+is propagated. The velocity of sound in air at 0deg C. is 330.6 metres per
+second, or 1085 feet per second; in water 1.49 kilometres per second, or
+0.926 mile per second; in copper 5.01 kilometres per second, or 3.12 miles
+per second.
+
+The intensity of sound varies inversely as the square of the distance from
+the sounding body. Recently sound-ranging instruments have been produced by
+means of which the position of a gun can be determined.
+
+A note produced by a musical instrument consists of a _fundamental_ of a
+certain frequency, together with a number of _overtones_ of various higher
+frequencies and much smaller amplitude. The _timbre_ of a note depends on
+the overtones present, the _loudness_ depends on the amplitude of the
+vibrations, and the _pitch_ depends on the frequency. The musical scale
+consists of eight notes, C D E F G A B C, whose frequencies are in the
+proportion of the numbers 24, 27, 30, 32, 36, 40, 45 and 48. The interval
+between two notes is the ratio of the frequency of the higher note to the
+frequency of the lower note. In order that the intervals may be the same in
+all keys, a tempered scale is used in music. (See Table, p. 25.)
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lord Rayleigh, _Theory of Sound_; H. Smith, _The Making of
+Sound in the Organ and Orchestra_; J. W. Capstick, _Sound_ (Cambridge
+Natural Science Manuals); E. H. Barton, _Text-book of Sound_.
+
+ACQUI ([.a]k'w[=e]), a town of Northern Italy, 18 miles S.S.W. of
+Alessandria, a bishop's see. It has warm sulphurous baths, which were known
+to the Romans, and which still attract a great many visitors. Pop. 16,500.
+
+ACRE, a standard British measure of land, also used in the colonies and the
+United States. The imperial statute acre consists of 4840 sq. yards,
+divided into 4 roods. The old Scotch acre contains 6146.8 sq. yards, the
+old Irish acre 7840 sq. yards.
+
+ACRE ([=a]'k[.e]r) (ancient ACCHO and PTOLEMAIS), a seaport of Syria, in
+Northern Palestine, on the Bay of Acre, early a place of great strength and
+importance. Taken from the Saracens under Saladin in 1191 by Richard I of
+England and Philip of France; bravely defended by the Turks, assisted by
+Sir Sidney Smith, in 1799 against Napoleon; in 1832, taken by Ibrahim
+Pasha; in 1840, bombarded by a British, Austrian, and Turkish fleet, and
+restored to the Sultan of Turkey. The town was occupied by British troops
+under General Allenby in September, 1918. Pop. 10,000.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+MUSICAL INTERVALS.--See _Acoustics_
+
+  Intervals in                                       Intervals in
+  Perfect Diatonic                Diatonic Scale.    Tempered Scale--
+  Scale.              Perfect      on System of      Mean tone.
+                   Diatonic Scale     Equal          (2^{1/6} = 1.123).
+                                   Temperament.      Semitone.
+                                                     (2^{1/12}= 1.059).
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+                   C   1                       1.000
+   9/8  major tone                                       tone.
+                   D  9/8 = 1.125     2-2/12 = 1.123
+  10/9  minor tone                                       tone.
+                   E  5/4 = 1.250     2-4/12 = 1.260
+  16/15 limma                                            semitone.
+                   F  4/3 = 1.333     2-5/12 = 1.335
+   9/8  major tone                                       tone.
+                   G  3/2 = 1.500     2-7/12 = 1.498
+  10/9  minor tone                                       tone.
+                   A  5/3 = 1.667     2-9/12 = 1.682
+   9/8  minor tone                                       tone.
+                   B 15/8 = 1.875    2-11/12 = 1.888
+  16/15 limma                                            semitone.
+                   C'  2                       2.000
+
+  Major tone ratio = 9/8      = 1.125  Limma tone ratio = 16/15    = 1.067
+  Minor   "    "   = 10/9     = 1.111  Semitone     "   = 2^{1/12} = 1.059
+  Mean    "    "   = 2^{2/12} = 1.123
+
+NOTES OF PERFECT DIATONIC SCALE (WITH THEIR FREQUENCIES)
+
+  C,,  64. Ut_1    C, 128. Ut_2    C  256. Ut_3    C'   512. Ut_4
+  D,,  72          D, 144          D  288          D'   576
+  E,,  80          E, 160          E  320          E'   640
+  F,,  85.3        F, 170.7        F  341.3        F'   682.7
+  G,,  96          G, 192          G  384          G'   768
+  A,, 106.6        A, 213.3        A  426.7        A'   853.2
+  B,, 120          B, 240          B  480          B'   960
+                                                   C'' 1024. Ut_5
+
+PERFECT DIATONIC SCALES (TRANSITION TO KEY OF DOMINANT)
+
+_Example_--Key of C to Key of G
+
+  C     D     E     F     G     A    B     C'   D'   E'   F'    G'
+  1    9/8   5/4   4/3   3/2   5/3  15/8   2   9/4  5/2  8/3    3
+
+       G    A`     B     C'    D'    E'   F'#   G'
+       1    9/8   5/4   4/3   3/2   5/3  15/8   2
+
+  A =  10/9 G.     F'  = 16/9 G.
+  A`=   9/8 G.     F'# = 15/8 G.
+  A`= 81/80 A.         = 15/8 X 9/16 F'.
+                       = (1 + 1/18{2/7}) F'.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ACRI ([=a]'kr[=e]), a town of S. Italy, province of Cosenza. Pop. 4000.
+
+AC'RITA (Gr. _akritos_, undistinguishable, doubtful), a name sometimes
+given to the animals otherwise called Protozoa.
+
+ACROCEPH'ALI, tribes of men distinguished by pyramidal or high skulls.
+
+ACROCERAU'NIA (thunder-smitten peaks) (now CAPE GLOSSA or LINGUETTA), a
+promontory of Western Greece, in Epirus, running into the Adriatic.
+
+ACROCORIN'THUS, a steep rock in Greece, nearly 1900 feet high, overhanging
+ancient Corinth, and on which stood the acropolis or citadel, the sacred
+fountain of Pir[=e]n[=e] being also here. This natural fortress has proved
+itself of importance in the modern history of Greece.
+
+AC'ROGENS (-jenz), lit. summit-growers, a term applied to the ferns,
+mosses, and lichens (cryptogams), as growing by extension upwards, in
+contradistinction to endogens and exogens.
+
+AC'ROLITH, an early form of Greek statuary in which the head, hands, and
+feet only were of stone, the trunk of the figure being of wood draped or
+gilded.
+
+ACROP'OLIS (Gr. _akros_, high, and _polis_, a city), the citadel or chief
+place of a Grecian city, usually on an eminence commanding the town. That
+of Athens contained some of the finest buildings in the world, such as the
+Parthenon, Erechth[=e]um, &c.
+
+ACROS'TIC, a poem of which the first or last, or certain other, letters of
+the line, taken in order, form some name, motto, or sentence. A poem of
+which both first and last letters are thus arranged is called a double
+acrostic. In Hebrew poetry, the term is given to a poem of which the
+initial letters of the lines or stanzas were made to run over the letters
+of the alphabet in their order, as in _Psalm_ cxix.--Acrostics have been
+much used in complimentary verses, the initial letters giving the name of
+the person eulogized. They were very popular among French poets of the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In modern times Edgar Allen Poe has
+written quite remarkable acrostic verses.
+
+ACT, in special senses: (1) In dramatic poetry, one of the principal
+divisions of a drama, in which a definite and coherent portion of the plot
+is represented; generally subdivided into smaller portions called _scenes_.
+The Greek dramas were not divided into acts. The dictum that a drama should
+consist of five acts was first formally laid down by Horace, and is
+generally adhered to by modern dramatists in tragedy. In comedy, especially
+since the time of Moliere, more freedom is allowed, and a division into two
+or three acts is common.--(2) Something formally done by a legislative or
+judicial body; a statute or law passed.--(3) In universities, a thesis
+maintained in public by a candidate for a degree. See _Act of God_, _of
+Parliament_, _of Settlement_.
+
+ACTA DIUR'NA (Lat., proceedings of the day), a daily Roman newspaper which
+appeared under both the republic and the empire.
+
+ACTAE'A. See _Baneberry_.
+
+ACTAE'ON, in Greek mythology, a great hunter, turned into a stag by
+Art[)e]mis (Diana) for looking on her when she was bathing, and torn to
+pieces by his own dogs.
+
+ACTA ERUDITO'RUM (Lat., acts of the learned), the first literary journal
+that appeared in Germany (1682-1782). It was started by Otto Mencke, after
+the model of the _Journal des Savants_. Among the contributors, the most
+distinguished was Leibnitz.
+
+ACTA SANCTORUM (Lat., acts of the saints), a name applied to all
+collections of accounts of ancient martyrs and saints, both of the Greek
+and Roman Churches, more particularly to the valuable collection begun by
+John Bolland, a Jesuit of Antwerp, in 1643, and which, being continued by
+other divines of the same order (_Bollandists_), now extends to sixty
+volumes, the lives following each other in the order of the calendar.
+
+ACTIN'IA, the genus of animals to which the typical sea-anemones belong.
+See _Sea-anemone_.
+
+AC'TINISM, the property of those rays of light which produce chemical
+changes, as in photography, in contradistinction to the light rays and heat
+rays. The actinic property or force begins among the green rays, is
+strongest in the violet rays, and extends a long way beyond the visible
+spectrum.
+
+ACTINIUM, an element or elementary substance obtained in minute quantities
+in connection with the study of radioactivity. It was discovered by
+Debierne in 1899. In 1902 Giesel discovered another substance which he
+called _emanium_, and which was considered to be identical with _actinium_.
+Marckwald, however, came to the conclusion that these two substances are
+not identical but closely related to each other. See _Radium_, _Chemistry_.
+
+ACTIN'OLITE, a mineral nearly allied to hornblende.
+
+ACTINOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the intensity of the sun's
+actinic rays. See _Actinism_.
+
+ACTINOZO'A (lit. ray-animals), a class of animals belonging to the
+sub-kingdom Coelenterata, and including sea-anemones, corals, &c., all
+having rayed tentacles round the mouth.
+
+ACTION, the mode of seeking redress at law for any wrong, injury, or
+deprivation. Actions are divided into civil and criminal, the former again
+being divided into real, personal, and mixed.
+
+AC'TIUM (now LA PUNTA), a promontory on the western coast of Northern
+Greece, not far from the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf (Gulf of Arta),
+memorable on account of the naval victory gained here by Octavianus
+(afterwards the Emperor Augustus) over Antony and Cleopatra, 2nd Sept., 31
+B.C., in sight of their armies encamped on the opposite shores of the
+Ambracian Gulf. Soon after the beginning of the battle Cleopatra escaped
+with sixty Egyptian ships, and Antony basely followed her, and fled with
+her to Egypt. The deserted fleet was not overcome without making a brave
+resistance. Antony's land forces soon went over to the enemy, and the Roman
+world fell to Octavianus. In 1538 a victory was gained at Actium by the
+Turks over the Spanish and Venetian fleets.
+
+ACT OF GOD, a legal term defined as "a direct, violent, sudden, and
+irresistible act of nature, which could not, by any reasonable cause, have
+been foreseen or resisted". No one can be legally called upon to make good
+loss so arising.
+
+ACT OF PARLIAMENT, a law or statute proceeding from the Parliament of the
+United Kingdom passed in both houses, and having received the royal assent.
+Before it is passed it is a _Bill_ and not an Act. Acts are either public
+or private, the former affecting the whole community, the latter only
+special persons and private concerns. The whole body of public Acts
+constitutes the _statute law_. An Act of Parliament can only be altered or
+repealed by the authority of Parliament. Acts are usually cited in this
+way, "13 and 14 Vict. c. (or chap.) 21", which means the 21st Act in
+succession passed in year 13th-14th of the queen's reign (that is, 1850).
+Short titles, such as "the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854", are also used. Up
+to the time of Edward I Acts of Parliament were in Latin; then French was
+introduced, and for some time was exclusively employed. It was not till
+Henry VII's reign that all Acts were in English.
+
+ACT OF SETTLEMENT, an Act passed by the English Parliament in 1700, by
+which the succession to the throne of the three kingdoms, in the event of
+King William and Princess (afterwards Queen) Anne dying without issue, was
+settled on the Princess Sophia, electress of Hanover, and the heirs of her
+body, being Protestants. The Princess Sophia was the youngest daughter of
+Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, daughter of James I. By this act George I, son
+of the Princess Sophia, succeeded to the crown on the death of Queen
+Anne.--Another Act of Settlement was that by which, under Cromwell's
+government, a new allotment was made of almost all landed property in
+Ireland, in 1652.
+
+ACT OF TOLERATION, an Act of Parliament Passed in 1689, by which Protestant
+dissenters from the Church of England, on condition of their taking the
+oaths of supremacy and allegiance, and repudiating the doctrine of
+transubstantiation, were relieved from the restrictions under which they
+had formerly lain with regard to the exercise of their religion according
+to their own forms.
+
+ACT OF UNIFORMITY, an English Act passed in 1662, enjoining upon all
+ministers to use the _Book of Common Prayer_ on pain of forfeiture of their
+livings. See _Nonconformity_.
+
+[Illustration: Quilted Acton of the fifteenth century]
+
+ACTON, a kind of padded or quilted vest or tunic formerly worn under a coat
+of mail to save the body from bruises, or used by itself as a defensive
+garment. Jackets of leather or other material plated with mail were also so
+called. _Gambeson_ was an equivalent term.
+
+ACTON, a name of various places in England, one of them a western suburb of
+London, pop. (1921), 61,314. Since 1918 Acton gives its name to a
+parliamentary division of Middlesex, returning one member to Parliament.
+
+ACTON, John Emerich Edward Dalberg, first Baron Acton, born 1834, died
+1902, was son of Richard Acton (seventh baronet) and the daughter of the
+Duc de Dalberg, afterwards wife of Earl Granville, Mr. Gladstone's
+colleague. As a Roman Catholic he was educated at Oscott, and afterwards on
+the Continent, partly under Doellinger, and acquired a special taste for
+and profound knowledge of history. He conducted the _Home and Foreign
+Review_ from 1862 to 1864, and, in doing so, showed himself a strong
+opponent of ultramontane pretensions. He next edited the _North British
+Review_, which under him was rather overweighted with learning, and soon
+came to an end. In 1869 he was raised to the peerage. He strongly opposed
+the papal-infallibility movement, and took the side of Mr. Gladstone in his
+attacks on Vaticanism. In 1895 he accepted the professorship of modern
+history at Cambridge, delivered lectures, and planned and undertook the
+editorship of the great work on modern history, _The Cambridge Modern
+History_, comprising a series of contributions by various scholars, and
+issued by the university press. Except essays, letters, or articles for
+periodicals, he himself wrote little. Since his death have been published:
+_Lectures in Modern History_ (1906); _The History of Freedom and other
+Essays_ (1907); _Lectures on the French Revolution_ (1910). His library of
+60,000 volumes he left to Mr. (now Lord) Morley, who handed it over to the
+University of Cambridge.
+
+ACTOR, one who represents some part or character on the stage. Actresses
+were unknown to the Greeks and Romans in the earliest times, men or boys
+always performing the female parts. They appeared under the Roman empire,
+however. Charles II first encouraged the public appearance of actresses in
+England; in Shakespeare's time there were none. See _Drama_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+C. F. Armstrong, _Century of Great Actors_; H. Simpson, _Century of Great
+Actresses_.
+
+ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, fifth of the books of the New Testament, written in
+Greek and assigned to the author of the gospel of St. Luke. Its date is
+probably A.D. 63 or 64. It embraces a period of about thirty years,
+beginning immediately after the resurrection, and extending to the second
+year of the imprisonment of St. Paul in Rome. Very little information is
+given regarding any of the apostles, excepting St. Peter and St. Paul, and
+the accounts of them are far from being complete. It describes the
+gathering of the infant Church; the fulfilment of the promise of Christ to
+his apostles in the descent of the Holy Ghost; the choice of Matthias in
+the place of Judas, the betrayer; the testimony of the apostles to the
+resurrection of Jesus in their discourses; their preaching in Jerusalem and
+in Judea, and afterwards to the Gentiles; the conversion of Paul, his
+preaching in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, his miracles and
+labours.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. T. Knowling, _The Expositor's Greek Testament_;
+J. Moffatt, _The Historical New Testament_; J. M. Wilson, _Origin and Aim
+of the Acts of the Apostles_.
+
+AC'TUARY, an accountant whose business is to make the necessary
+computations in regard to a basis for life assurance, annuities,
+reversions, &c.
+
+ACU'LEUS, in botany, a prickle, or sharp-pointed process of the epidermis,
+as distinguished from a thorn or spine, which is of a woody nature.
+
+ACUPRESS'URE, a means of arresting bleeding from a cut artery introduced by
+Sir James Simpson in 1859, and consisting in compressing the artery above
+the orifice, that is, on the side nearest the heart, with the middle of a
+needle (Lat. _acus_, a needle) introduced through the tissues.
+
+ACUPUNC'TURE, a surgical operation, consisting in the insertion of needles
+into certain parts of the body for alleviating pain, or for the cure of
+different species of rheumatism, neuralgia, eye diseases, &c. It is easily
+performed, gives little pain, causes neither bleeding nor inflammation, and
+seems at times of surprising efficacy.
+
+ADAGIO (It. [.a]-d[:a]'j[=o]), a musical term, expressing a slow time,
+slower than _andante_ and less so than _largo_, _lento_, and _grave_.
+
+ADAL', a country in Africa, east of Abyssinia and north-westward of
+Tajurrah Bay, inhabited by a dark-brown race of the same name, a tribe of
+the Danakils, Mahommedans in religion; towns Aussa and Tajurrah. Part of
+the coast here is held by the French.
+
+AD'ALBERT OF PRAGUE, called the apostle of the Prussians, son of a Bohemian
+nobleman named Slavnik, born about 939. His real name was Voitech, but he
+assumed the name of the Archbishop Adalbert, under whom he studied at
+Magdeburg. He was appointed Bishop of Prague in 983, laboured in vain among
+the heathenish Bohemians, resolved to convert the pagans of Prussia, but
+was murdered in the attempt (997). _Boga-Rodzica_, a Polish war-song, is
+said to have been composed by him.
+
+ADA'LIA, a seaport on the south coast of Asia Minor. Pop. 28,000. The
+district of Adalia has a population of over 200,000.
+
+ADAM ([.a]-d[.a][n.]), Adolphe Charles, a French composer, more especially
+of comic operas; born 1803, died 1856. Wrote _Le postillon de Longjumeau_,
+_Le Brasseur de Preston_ (Brewer of Preston), _La Rose de Peronne_, _Le roi
+d'Yvetot_, &c.
+
+ADAM, Albrecht, a German painter of battles and animals, born 1786, died
+1862. Three sons of his have also distinguished themselves as painters,
+especially Franz, born 1815, died 1886, among whose best pictures are
+several representing scenes of the Franco-Prussian war.
+
+ADAM, Alexander, a Scottish classical scholar, born in 1741; became in 1768
+rector of the High School of Edinburgh, and died there in 1809. Wrote
+_Principles of Latin and English Grammar_; _Roman Antiquities_, a useful
+school-book; _Summary of Geography and History_; _Classical Biography_, &c.
+
+ADAM, Robert, an eminent Scottish architect, born in 1728, a son of William
+Adam, architect. He resided several years in Italy, visited Spalatro, in
+Dalmatia, and published a work on the ruined palace of Diocletian there. In
+conjunction with his brother James he was much employed by the English
+nobility and gentry in constructing modern and embellishing ancient
+mansions. Among their works are the Register House and the University
+Buildings, Edinburgh, and the Adelphi Buildings, London. Robert Adam died
+in 1792, and was buried in Westminster Abbey; his brother James died in
+1794.
+
+ADAM AND EVE, the names given in Scripture to our first parents, an account
+of whom and their immediate descendants is given in the early chapters of
+_Genesis_. Cain, Abel, and Seth are all their sons that are mentioned by
+name; but we are told that they had other sons as well as daughters. There
+are numerous Rabbinical additions to the Scripture narrative of an
+extravagant character, such as the myth of Adam having a wife before Eve,
+named _Lilith_, who became the mother of giants and evil spirits. Other
+legends or inventions are contained in the Koran.
+
+ADAM DE LA HALE, an early French writer and musician, born 1235, died 1287.
+His _Jeu de Robin et de Marion_ (first produced at Naples), may be regarded
+as the first comic opera ever written. Cf. H. Guy, _Bibliographie Critique
+du Trouvere_, Paris, 1900.
+
+AD'AMANT, an old name for the diamond; also used in a vague way to imply a
+substance of impenetrable hardness.
+
+ADAMAN'TINE SPAR, a name of the mineral corundum or of a brownish variety
+of it.
+
+ADAMA'WA (also called FUMBINA), a region of West Africa, between lat. 6deg
+and 10deg N., and lon. 11deg and 17deg E. Much of the surface is hilly or
+mountainous, Mount Atlantika being 9000 or 10,000 feet. The principal river
+is the Benue. A great part of the country is covered with thick forests.
+The oil palm and bananas are staple products. Chief town Yola (Nigeria).
+
+ADAMELLO. See _European War_.
+
+AD'AMITES, a religious sect dating from the second century, probably of
+Gnostic origin. It was so called because both men and women were said to
+appear naked in their assemblies, either to imitate Adam in the state of
+innocence or to prove the control which they possessed over their passions.
+Practices similar to those of the Adamites arose several times in later
+ages. See _Beghards_.
+
+ADAM'NAN, St., born in Ireland about 624, was elected abbot of Iona in 679,
+and died there about 703 or 704. He is best known from his _Life of St.
+Columba_, valuable as throwing light on the early ecclesiastical history of
+Scotland. (There are editions by Reeves, 1857; reissued with English
+translation 1874; and by Fowler, 1895.) His feast is celebrated on 23rd
+Sept.
+
+ADAMS, Charles Francis, American litterateur and statesman, was a son of
+John Quincy Adams, and was born in 1807. His boyhood was spent in Europe,
+partly in England; but he finished his education at Harvard, and afterwards
+studied law. After serving some years in the Massachusetts legislature he
+was sent to Congress in 1859. In 1861 Lincoln sent him to England as
+American minister, and here he remained for seven years, performing the
+arduous duties of his office with the utmost tact and ability. Between 1874
+and 1877 he edited a complete edition of his grandfather's works in 12
+vols. He was one of the arbitrators on the _Alabama_ claims. Died in 1886.
+
+ADAMS, John, second president of the United States, was born at Braintree
+(now Quincy), Massachusetts, 19th Oct., 1735. He was educated at Harvard
+University, and adopted the law as a profession. His attention was directed
+to politics by the question as to the right of the English Parliament to
+tax the colonies, and in 1765 he published some essays strongly opposed to
+the claims of the mother country. As a member of the new American congress
+in 1774, 1775, and 1776 he was strenuous in his opposition to the home
+Government, and in organizing the various departments of the colonial
+Government. On 13th May, 1776, he seconded the motion for a declaration of
+independence proposed by Lee of Virginia, and was appointed a member of
+committee to draw it up. The declaration was actually drawn up by
+Jefferson, but it was Adams who fought it through Congress. In 1778 he went
+to France on a special mission, but soon came back and again returned, and
+for nine years resided abroad as representative of his country in France,
+Holland, and England. After taking part in the peace negotiations he was
+appointed, in 1785, the first ambassador of the United States to the Court
+of St. James. He was recalled in 1788, and the following year elected
+vice-president of the republic under Washington. In 1792 he was re-elected
+vice-president, and at the following election in 1797 he became president
+in succession to Washington. The commonwealth was then divided into two
+parties, the Federalists, who favoured aristocratic and were suspected of
+monarchic views, and the Republicans. Adams adhered to the former party,
+with which his views of government had always been in accordance, but the
+real leader of the party was Hamilton, with whom Adams did not agree, and
+who tried to prevent his election. His term of office proved a stormy one,
+which broke up and dissolved the Federalist party. His re-election in 1801
+was again opposed by the efforts of Hamilton, which ended in effecting the
+return of the Republican candidate Jefferson. Thus it happened that when
+Adams retired from office his influence and popularity with both parties
+were at an end, and he sunk at once into the obscurity of private life. He
+had the consolation, however, of living to see his son president. He died
+4th July, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of
+independence, and on the same day as Jefferson. His works have been ably
+edited by his grandson Charles Francis Adams.
+
+ADAMS, John Couch, English astronomer, born 1819, died 1892, studied at
+Cambridge, and was senior wrangler in 1843. His investigations into the
+irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus led him to the conclusion
+that they must be caused by another more distant planet, and the results of
+his labours were communicated in September and October, 1845, to Professor
+Challis and Airy the Astronomer Royal. The French astronomer Leverrier had
+by this time been engaged in the same line of research, and had come to
+substantially the same results, which, being published in 1846, led to the
+actual discovery of the planet Neptune by Galle of Berlin. In 1858 Adams
+was professor of mathematics at Aberdeen University, and in 1859 was
+appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy and geometry at Cambridge.
+
+ADAMS, John Quincy, sixth president of the United States, son of John
+Adams, second president, was born 11th July, 1767. Accompanying his father
+to Europe he received part of his education there, but graduated at Harvard
+in 1788. Having adopted the legal profession, in 1791 he was admitted to
+the bar. He now began to take an active interest in politics, and some
+letters that he wrote having attracted general attention, in 1794
+Washington appointed him minister to the Hague. He afterwards was sent to
+Berlin, and also on a mission to Sweden. In 1798 he received a commission
+to negotiate a treaty of commerce with Sweden. On the accession of
+Jefferson to the presidency in 1801 he was recalled. The Federalist party
+(that of his father), which was now declining, had sufficient influence in
+Massachusetts to elect him to the senate in 1803. On an important question
+of foreign policy, that of embargo, he abandoned his party, and having lost
+his re-election on this account, he retired to the professorship of
+rhetoric at Cambridge, which he held from 1806 to 1809. In 1809 he went as
+ambassador to Russia. He assisted in negotiating the peace of 1814 with
+England, and was afterwards appointed resident minister at London. Under
+Monroe as president he was secretary of state, and at the expiration of
+Monroe's double term of office he succeeded him in the presidency (1825).
+He was not very successful as president, and at the end of his term (1829)
+he was not re-elected. In 1831 he was returned to Congress by
+Massachusetts, and continued to represent this State till his death, his
+efforts being now chiefly on behalf of the Abolitionist party. He died 21st
+Feb., 1848.
+
+ADAMS, Samuel, an American statesman, second cousin of President John
+Adams, was born in Boston, 27th Sept., 1722, and was educated at Harvard
+College. He early devoted himself to politics, and in connection with the
+dispute between America and the mother country he showed himself one of the
+most unwearied, efficient, and disinterested assertors of American freedom
+and independence. He was one of the signers of the declaration of 1776,
+which he laboured most indefatigably to bring forward. He sat in congress
+eight years; from 1789-94 was lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts; from
+1794-7 governor, when he retired from public life. He died 2nd Oct., 1803.
+
+ADAM'S APPLE, the popular name of the prominence seen in the front of the
+throat in man, and which is formed by the portion of the larynx known as
+the _thyroid cartilage_. It is much smaller and less visible in females
+than in males, and is so named from the supposition that it was caused by a
+piece of the forbidden fruit having stuck in Adam's throat. In botany it is
+the name given to the plantain tree and the _Citrus pomum_. It is the Heb.
+_Ethrog_, which, according to Hebrew legend, was the fruit Adam and Eve ate
+in the garden of Eden.
+
+ADAM'S BRIDGE, a chain of reefs, sandbanks, and islands stretching between
+India and Ceylon; so called because the Mohammedans believe that when Adam
+was driven from paradise he had to pass by this way to Ceylon (where is
+also Adam's Peak). The Brahmans call it the bridge of Rama, the hero of the
+Indian Epic, the _Ramayana_.
+
+ADAM'S NEEDLE, a popular name of the Yucca plant.
+
+ADAM'S PEAK, one of the highest mountains in Ceylon, 45 miles
+east-south-east of Colombo, conical, isolated, and 7420 feet high. On the
+top, a rocky area of 64 feet by 45, is a hollow in the rock 5 feet long
+bearing a rude resemblance to a human foot, which the Brahmans believe to
+be the footprint of Siva; the Buddhists, who call it Sri-pada (sacred
+footmark), that of Buddha; the Mahommedans that of Adam. The last-named
+believe that Adam stood here on one foot for a thousand years, lamenting
+his exclusion from Eden. Devotees of all creeds meet here and present their
+offerings (chiefly rhododendron flowers) to the sacred footprint. The
+ascent is very steep, and towards the summit is assisted by steps cut and
+iron chains riveted in the rock.
+
+ADAMSON, Patrick, a Scottish divine and Latin poet, born 15th March, 1536,
+died 19th Feb., 1592. He was educated at St. Andrews, lived some years in
+France, was minister of Paisley, and afterwards Archbishop of St. Andrews,
+in which position he made himself very obnoxious to the Presbyterian party.
+Deprived of the revenues of the see, he died in indigence. He turned
+portions of the Bible into Latin verse.
+
+AD'ANA, town and capital of Adana vilayet, Asia Minor, on the Seihun-Irmak;
+served by the Bagdad Railway. The district is claimed by Armenia. Cotton,
+rice, wine, and fruit are exported. Pop. (town), 70,000; (vilayet),
+1,000,000.
+
+ADANSON ([.a]-d[.a]n-s[=o][n.]), Michel, French naturalist and traveller
+(of Scottish extraction), born 1727; died 1806. He lived five years in
+Senegal, and wrote a natural history of this region as well as works on
+botany. The baobab genus is named _Adansonia_ after him. Adanson's statue
+was erected in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, in 1856.
+
+ADANSO'NIA. See preceding article and _Baobab_.
+
+ADAPTATION (from the Lat. _ad_, to, and _apt[=a]re_, to fit), the process
+of modification or alteration of a thing so as to change its original
+purpose and adapt it to other uses. Adaptation in biology is the power and
+process by which an organism or species of animals or plants changes and
+becomes modified, so as to suit the conditions of its life. In other words
+it is the adjustment, or favourable reaction, of the living world to its
+environment, the advantageous variation of animals and plants under changed
+conditions. The term now includes both that which is hereditary and that
+which is acquired. The powers of lower forms of life to adapt themselves to
+changes of environment are limited, and frequently, when the conditions
+vary suddenly, they are either arrested in their development or die
+altogether.--In literature it is the process by which an author modifies
+the work of another not in its essence but in its form and details, either
+in the original or in a foreign language.
+
+A'DAR, the twelfth month of the Hebrew sacred and sixth of the civil year,
+answering to part of February and part of March.
+
+ADDA (ancient ADDUA), a river of North Italy, which, descending from the
+Rhaetian Alps, falls into Lake Como, and leaving this joins the Po, after a
+course of about 170 miles. On the banks of the Adda Napoleon won the battle
+of Lodi in 1796.
+
+ADDA, a species of lizard, more commonly called Skink.
+
+AD'DAX, a species of antelope (_Hippotr[)a]gus nasomacul[=a]tus_) of the
+size of a large ass, with much of its make. The horns of the male are about
+4 feet long, beautifully twisted into a wide-sweeping spiral of two turns
+and a half, with the points directed outwards. It has tufts of hair on the
+forehead and throat, and large broad hoofs. It inhabits the sandy regions
+of Nubia and Kordofan, and is also found in Caffraria.
+
+[Illustration: Adder (_Vipera communis_)]
+
+ADDER, a name often applied to the common viper as well as to other kinds
+of venomous serpents. See _Viper_.
+
+ADDER-PIKE (_Trach[=i]nus vip[)e]ra_), a small species of the weever fish,
+called also the Lesser Weever or Sting-fish. See _Weever_.
+
+ADDER-STONE, the name given in different parts of Britain to certain
+rounded perforated stones or glass beads found occasionally, and supposed
+to have a kind of supernatural efficacy in curing the bites of adders. They
+are believed to have been anciently used as spindle-whorls, that is, a kind
+of small fly-wheels to keep up the rotatory motion of the spindle.
+
+ADDER'S-TONGUE, a species of British fern (_Ophioglossum vulg[=a]tum_),
+whose spores are produced on a spike, supposed to resemble a serpent's
+tongue.
+
+ADDER'S-WORT, a name of snakeweed or bistort (_Polyg[)o]num Bistorta_),
+from its supposed virtue in curing the bite of serpents.
+
+AD'DINGTON, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, born 1757, died 1844. Entered
+Parliament, 1783, as a warm supporter of Pitt. Was elected speaker of the
+House of Commons, 1789, and in 1801 invited by the king to form an
+administration, chiefly signalized by the conclusion of the Peace of
+Amiens. Quarrelled with Pitt, whom he bitterly attacked. Was home secretary
+from 1812 till 1822, his repressive policy making him remarkably unpopular
+with the nation at large. Retired from official life in 1824.
+
+ADDIS ABE'BA, or ADIS ABBA'BA, a town in the south of Abyssinia, in Shoa,
+ranking as capital of the country, being chief residence of the negus or
+sovereign. It stands among mountains, at the height of 10,000 feet, and is
+a primitive place, but now has telegraphic connection with Jibouti and
+Massawa, and since 1917 is the terminus of the railway running inland from
+Jibouti by way of Harar. Pop. 50,000.
+
+AD'DISON, Rt. Hon. Christopher, P.C., M.D., Cabinet Minister. Dr. Addison
+was born 19th June, 1869, and educated at Trinity College, Harrogate, and
+St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, where he was a lecturer for a time. He
+was elected Member of Parliament for the Hoxton Division, Shoreditch, in
+1910, and was parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education from 1914
+to 1915. From 1916 to 1917 he was Minister of Munitions; he was President
+of the Local Government Board from January to June, 1919, when he became
+Minister of Health. He has written and edited several works on medical
+subjects.
+
+AD'DISON, Joseph, an eminent English essayist, son of the Rev. Lancelot
+Addison, afterwards Dean of Lichfield, born at Milston, Wiltshire, 1st May,
+1672, died 17th June, 1719. He was educated at the Charterhouse, where he
+became acquainted with Steele, and afterwards at Oxford. He held a
+fellowship from 1697 till 1711, and gained much praise for his Latin verse.
+He secured as his earliest patron the poet Dryden, who inserted some of his
+verses in his _Miscellanies_ in 1693. A translation of the fourth
+_Georgic_, with the exception of the story of _Aristaeus_, by Addison,
+appeared in the same collection in 1694, and he subsequently translated for
+it two and a half books of Ovid. Dryden also prefixed his prose essay on
+Virgil's _Georgics_ to his own translation of that poem, which appeared in
+1697. An early patron of his was Charles Montague, afterwards Earl of
+Halifax; another was Lord Somers, who procured him a pension of L300 a year
+to enable him to qualify for diplomatic employments by foreign travels. He
+spent from the autumn of 1699 to that of 1703 on the Continent, where he
+became acquainted with Malebranche, Boileau, &c. During his residence
+abroad his tragedy of _Cato_ is supposed to have been written. During his
+journey across Mont Cenis he wrote his _Letter from Italy_, esteemed the
+best of his poems, and in Germany his _Dialogues on Medals_, which was not
+published till after his death. His _Remarks on Several Parts of Italy in
+the Years 1701-3_ was published in 1705. His political friends lost power
+on the death of William III, but _The Campaign_, a poem on the battle of
+Blenheim, procured him an appointment as a commissioner of appeal on
+excise. In 1706 he received an under-secretaryship, in 1707 accompanied
+Halifax on a mission to Hanover, in 1709 became secretary to the Viceroy of
+Ireland, and keeper of the records. In 1708 he was elected Member of
+Parliament for Lostwithiel, a seat he exchanged in 1710 for Malmesbury,
+which place he continued to represent till his death. From Oct., 1709, to
+Jan., 1711, he contributed 75 papers to the _Tatler_, either wholly by
+himself or in conjunction with Steele, thus founding the new literary
+school of the Essayists. For the _Spectator_ (2nd Jan., 1711, to 6th Dec.,
+1712) he wrote 274 papers, all signed by one of the four letters C., L.,
+I., O. His tragedy of _Cato_, produced April, 1713, ran for twenty nights,
+and was translated into French, Italian, German, and Latin. His other
+contributions to periodicals included 51 papers to the _Guardian_ (May to
+Sept., 1713), 24 papers to a revived _Spectator_ conducted by Budgell, and
+2 papers to Steele's _Lover_. On the death of Queen Anne he successively
+became secretary to the lords justices, secretary to the Irish viceroy, and
+one of the lords commissioners of trade. He published the _Freeholder_
+(23rd Dec., 1715, to 9th June, 1716), a political _Spectator_. In August,
+1716, he married the Countess of Warwick, a marriage which did not increase
+his happiness. He retired from public life, March, 1718, with a pension of
+L1500 a year. He formed a close friendship with Swift, and was chief of a
+distinguished literary circle. He had literary quarrels with Pope and Gay,
+the former of whom in revenge wrote the satire contained in his lines on
+Atticus in the _Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot_. He also had a paltry quarrel
+over politics with his old friend Steele. His death took place at Holland
+House, its cause being dropsy and asthma. He was buried in Westminster
+Abbey. Of his style as a writer so much has been said that nothing remains
+to say but to quote the dictum of Johnson: "Whoever wishes to attain an
+English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious,
+must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison". He had great
+conversational powers, and his intimates speak in the strongest terms of
+the enjoyment derived from his society, but he was extremely reserved
+before strangers. His _Dialogues on Medals_ and _Evidences of the Christian
+Religion_ were published posthumously in Tickell's collected edition of his
+works.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. J. Courthope, _Addison_ (English Men of Letters
+Series); _Essays from the Spectator_, edited by Henry Morley.
+
+ADDISON'S DISEASE (from Dr. Addison, Guy's Hospital, London, who traced the
+disease to its source), a fatal disease, the seat of which is the two
+glandular bodies placed one at the front of the upper part of each kidney,
+and called _suprarenal capsules_. It is characterized by anaemia or
+bloodlessness, extreme prostration, and the brownish or olive-green colour
+of the skin. Death usually results from weakness, and commonly takes place
+within a year.
+
+ADDLED PARLIAMENT, a Parliament called 5th April, 1614, in order to
+legalize the customs duties imposed by James I, but which, proceeding to
+the redress of grievances instead of granting supply, was dissolved, 7th
+June, without passing a single Bill.
+
+ADDRESS, a document containing an expression of thanks, congratulation,
+satisfaction, or dissatisfaction, &c. It is the custom of the British
+Parliament to return an address to the speech delivered by the Sovereign at
+the commencement of every session.
+
+ADDRESS, Forms of. The following are the principal modes of formally
+addressing titled personages or persons holding official rank in Great
+Britain:--
+
+    _The King or Queen._--Address in writing: To the King's (Queen's) most
+    excellent Majesty. Say: Sire or Madam, Your Majesty.
+
+    _The Royal Family._--His Royal Highness (H.R.H.) the Prince of Wales,
+    His Royal Highness the Duke of C----, His Royal Highness Prince A----.
+    A royal duke should be addressed as Sir, not My Lord Duke; and referred
+    to as Your Royal Highness. A princess is addressed Her Royal Highness
+    the Duchess of ----, Her Royal Highness Princess A----; and personally
+    as Madam, Your Royal Highness.
+
+    _Duke and Ducal Family._--His Grace the Duke of ----; My Lord Duke,
+    Your Grace. Her Grace the Duchess of ----; Madam, Your Grace. The
+    duke's eldest son is in law only an esquire, but in courtesy takes a
+    secondary title of his father, and is addressed as if he held it by
+    right. A younger son is addressed Lord J---- B----; My Lord, Your
+    Lordship; a daughter, Lady M---- B---- (Christian and surname); Madam,
+    Your Ladyship. A duke's, marquis's, or earl's daughter marrying a
+    commoner simply changes her surname for his.
+
+    _The Lord-lieutenant of Ireland_ is styled His Excellency, or, if a
+    duke, His Grace, and addressed according to his titular rank.
+
+    _Marquess._--The Most Honourable the Marquess of ----; My Lord
+    Marquess, My Lord. The eldest son has a secondary title of his father,
+    as in the case of a duke's eldest son; the younger sons and the
+    daughters are all addressed as the younger sons and daughters of a
+    duke.
+
+    _Earl._--The Right Honourable the Earl of ----; My Lord, Your Lordship.
+    The Right Honourable the Countess of----; Madam, Your Ladyship. The
+    eldest son is addressed by a secondary title of his father; younger
+    son, The Honourable G---- T----; Sir; the daughter, as duke's and
+    marquess's daughter.
+
+    _Viscount._--The Right Honourable the Viscount ----; My Lord, Your
+    Lordship. The Right Honourable the Viscountess ----; Madam, Your
+    Ladyship. Son: The Honourable A---- B---- (Christian and surname); Sir.
+    Daughter: The Honourable J---- C---- (Christian and surname); Madame;
+    if married, The Honourable Mrs. ---- (married name).
+
+    _Baron._--The Right Honourable Lord ----; My Lord, Your Lordship. The
+    Right Honourable the Lady ----; Madam, your Ladyship. Son: The
+    Honourable J---- C----; Sir. Daughter: The Honourable M---- H----; if
+    married, The Honourable Mrs. ----, same as viscount's daughter.
+
+    _Baronet._--Sir A---- B----, Baronet; Sir; more familiarly Dear Sir
+    A----.
+
+    _Knight._--Sir C---- D----, Kt., or K.C.S.I., K.C.B., G.C.B., &c.,
+    according to rank. The wives of baronets and knights are styled Lady,
+    Lady ----.
+
+    _Archbishop._--His Grace the Lord Archbishop of ----; My Lord
+    Archbishop; Your Grace. An archbishop is also styled Most Reverend.
+
+    _Bishop._--The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of ----; My Lord. The wives
+    of prelates have no special title. Bishops not connected with the
+    English established church may be addressed--The Right Reverend Bishop
+    ----; Right Reverend Sir.
+
+    _Dean._--The Very Reverend; Sir; Mr. Dean.
+
+    Members of the Privy Council, members and ex-members of cabinet, the
+    Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief
+    Justice and the Lords Justices, the Lord Advocate, the lords of the
+    treasury and admiralty, are called Right Honourable; the justices (not
+    being _lords_ justices) are styled Honourable. Ambassadors, governors
+    of colonies, &c., are styled Excellency.
+
+    The Lord Mayors of London, York, Dublin, &c., and the Lord Provost of
+    Edinburgh, are styled Right Honourable; the Lord Provost of Glasgow,
+    Honourable. A Mayor is addressed as Right Worshipful. Lords of Session
+    (Scotland) have the courtesy title of Lord, are addressed as My Lord,
+    Your Lordship, and also called Honourable. Sheriffs and their
+    substitutes are addressed in their courts in Scotland as My Lord.
+
+    In the United States persons holding official rank are similarly
+    addressed; thus the President is styled His Excellency, as are also
+    governors of states and foreign ministers; the vice-president,
+    lieutenant-governors, senators, representatives, judges, and mayors are
+    styled Honourable.
+
+ADDUC'TOR, a muscle which draws one part of the body towards another:
+applied in zoology to one of the muscles which bring together the valves of
+the shell of the bivalve molluscs.
+
+ADEL'. See _Adal._
+
+ADELA, born 1062, died 1137, fourth daughter of William the Conqueror, wife
+of Stephen, Count of Blois and Chartres, and mother of Stephen, King of
+England. She proved herself an able ruler and a generous patroness of
+learning while her husband was abroad with the First Crusade; and after his
+death she acted as regent for his sons.
+
+ADELAIDE (ad'e-l[=a]d), the capital of South Australia, 6 miles east from
+Port Adelaide (on St. Vincent Gulf), its port, with which it is united by
+railway, founded in 1837, and named after the queen of William IV. Situated
+on a large plain, it is built nearly in the form of a square, with the
+streets at right angles, and is divided into North and South Adelaide,
+separated by the river Torrens, which is crossed by several bridges, and by
+means of a dam is converted into a fine sheet of water. The public
+buildings comprise the Government House, the town hall, the post and
+telegraph offices, the Government offices, court-houses, the houses of
+legislature, the University, South Australian Institute, &c. There is a
+good service of tramway cars. Adelaide is connected by railway with
+Melbourne, and is the terminus of the overland telegraph to Port Darwin. It
+has a large trade. Pop. (including suburbs), (1919), 256,660.
+
+ADELAIDE, daughter of George, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Meiningen, and wife of
+the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV, King of England; born 1792,
+died 1849; married 11th July, 1818, had two daughters, who died in infancy.
+She became queen-consort on William attaining the throne in 1830, and was
+for a time unpopular from being supposed to be averse to reform. On the
+death of William she passed into private life, with an allowance of
+L100,000 a year.
+
+ADELARD OF BATH, an English philosophical writer of the twelfth century. He
+travelled through Spain, the north of Africa, Greece, and Asia Minor, and
+acquired from the Arabs much knowledge, which he put in systematic shape.
+Chief works, _Perdifficiles Quaestiones Naturales_ and _De Eodem et
+Diverso._
+
+ADELSBERG ([:a]'d[.e]lz-ber_h_), a small town of North Italy, in Carniola,
+midway between Trieste and Laibach, remarkable for the wonderful stalactite
+cave in its vicinity. The most extended of the ramifications which compose
+it reaches to over 2 miles from the entrance, at which the River Poik
+disappears, and is heard rushing below. The stalactites and stalagmites are
+of the most varied and often beautiful forms, and have received fanciful
+appellations, as they resemble columns, statues, &c.
+
+ADELUNG ([.a]d'e-l[u:]ng), Friedrich von, nephew of J. C. Adelung, was a
+distinguished philologist. He was tutor to the Grand-duke Nicholas,
+afterwards Emperor of Russia, and became president of the Academy of
+Sciences at St. Petersburg (now Petrograd). Born 1768, died 1843.
+
+ADELUNG, Johann Christoph, a German philologist, born 1732, died 1806. In
+1759 he was appointed professor in the Protestant academy at Erfurt, and
+two years after removed to Leipzig, where he applied himself to the works
+by which he made so great a name, particularly his German dictionary,
+_Grammatisch-kritisches Woerterbuch der hochdeutschen Mundart_ (Leipzig,
+1774-86), and his _Mithridates_, a work on general philology. In 1787 he
+was appointed librarian of the public library in Dresden--an office which
+he held till his death.
+
+A'DEN, a seaport town and territory belonging to Britain, on the south-west
+coast of Arabia, in a dry and barren district, the town being almost
+entirely closed in by an amphitheatre of rocks, and possessing an admirable
+harbour. Occupying an important military position, Aden is strongly
+fortified and permanently garrisoned. It is of importance also as a coaling
+station for steamers, and carries on a great amount of commerce, forming an
+entrepot and place of transhipment for goods valued at L6,000,000 a year.
+Its greatest drawback is the scarcity of fresh water, which is obtained
+partly from wells, partly from rock-cisterns that receive the rain, and
+partly by condensation from salt water--the only unfailing means of supply.
+The peninsula on which it stands somewhat resembles the rock of Gibraltar,
+and could be rendered as formidable. Aden was a Roman colony, and in the
+Middle Ages it was a great entrepot of the Eastern trade. It was acquired
+by Britain in 1839, after which it was attacked repeatedly by the Arabs.
+With the additional territory latterly acquired, the total British area is
+75 sq. miles (or with the island of Perim, 80); while a large tract is
+under British influence. Aden is attached to the Bombay Presidency. Pop.
+46,165.
+
+ADENANTHE'RA, a genus of trees and shrubs, natives of the East Indies, nat.
+ord. Leguminosae. _A. pavon[=i]na_ is one of the largest and handsomest
+trees of India, and yields hard solid timber called red sandal-wood. The
+bright scarlet seeds, from their equality in weight (each=4 grains), are
+used by goldsmiths in the East as weights.
+
+ADENI'TIS (Gr. _ad[=e]n_, a gland), in medicine, inflammation of one or
+more of the lymphatic glands.
+
+AD'ENOIDS, small growths often occurring in the back wall of the throat in
+children, blocking the nostrils and commonly causing deafness. They can be
+removed by a simple operation.
+
+ADERER'. See _Adrar_.
+
+ADERNO', a town of Sicily, 18 miles N.W. of Catania and about 10 miles
+W.S.W. of Mount Etna. Pop. 25,000.
+
+ADESSENA'RIAN, one of a sect of Christians which holds that there is a real
+presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but denying that it is effected by
+transubstantiation.
+
+ADHESION, the tendency of two bodies to stick together when put in close
+contact, or the mutual attraction of their surfaces; distinguished from
+_cohesion_, which denotes the mutual attraction between the particles of a
+homogeneous body. Adhesion may exist between two solids, between a solid
+and a fluid, or between two fluids. A plate of glass or of polished metal
+laid on the surface of water and attached to one arm of a balance will
+support much more than its own weight in the opposite scale from the force
+of adhesion between the water and the plate. From the same force arises the
+tendency of most liquids, when gently poured from a jar, to run down the
+exterior of a vessel or along any other surface they meet.
+
+ADIAN'TUM, a genus of ferns; the maiden-hair fern.
+
+ADIAPH'ORIST (Gr. _adiaphoros_, indifferent), a name given in the sixteenth
+century to Melanchthon's party, who held some opinions and ceremonies to be
+indifferent which Luther condemned as sinful or heretical.
+
+ADIGE ([:a]'d[=e]-j[=a]), Ger. _Etsch_ (ancient ATH[)E]SIS), a river of
+Northern Italy, which rises in the Rhaetian Alps, and after a south and
+east course of about 180 miles, during which it passes Verona and Legnago,
+falls into the Adriatic, forming a delta connected with that of the Po.
+
+AD'IPOCERE (-s[=e]r) (Lat. _adeps_, fat, and _cera_, wax), a substance of a
+light-brown colour formed by animal matter when protected from atmospheric
+air, and under certain circumstances of temperature and humidity. It was
+first observed by Fourcroy, and a quantity discovered at the Cimetiere des
+Innocents, Paris. A similar substance is found in peat-bogs in Wales and
+Ireland.
+
+AD'IPOSE TISSUE, the cellular tissue containing the oily or fatty matter of
+the body. It underlies the skin, surrounds the large vessels and nerves,
+invests the kidneys, &c., and sometimes accumulates in large masses.
+
+ADIRON'DACK MOUNTAINS, in the United States, a group belonging to the
+Appalachian chain, extending from the N.E. corner of the State of New York
+to near its centre. The scenery is wild and grand, diversified by numerous
+beautiful lakes, and the whole region is a favourite resort of sportsmen
+and tourists.
+
+AD'IT, a more or less horizontal opening, giving access to the shaft of a
+mine. It is made to slope gradually from the farthest point in the interior
+to the mouth, and by means of it the principal drainage is usually carried
+on. See _Mine_.
+
+AD'JECTIVE, in grammar, a word used to denote some quality in the noun or
+substantive to which it is accessory. The adjective is indeclinable in
+English (but has _degrees_ of comparison), and generally precedes the noun,
+while in most other European languages it follows the inflections of the
+substantive, and is more commonly placed after it, though in German it
+precedes it, as in English.
+
+ADJUDICA'TION, in English law, is the decree of the court in bankruptcy
+declaring a person bankrupt.
+
+ADJUST'MENT, in marine insurance, is the settling of the amount of the loss
+which the insurer is entitled under a particular policy to recover, and if
+the policy is subscribed by more than one underwriter, of the amounts which
+the underwriters respectively are liable to pay.
+
+AD'JUTANT, an officer appointed to each regiment or battalion, whose duty
+is to assist the commander. He is charged with instruction in drill, and
+all the interior discipline, duties, and efficiency of the corps. He has
+the charge of all documents and correspondence, and is the channel of
+communication for all orders.
+
+[Illustration: Adjutant-bird (_Leptopt[)i]lus arg[)a]la_)]
+
+ADJUTANT-BIRD (_Leptopt[)i]lus arg[)a]la_), a large grallatorial or wading
+bird of the stork family, native of the warmer parts of India, where it is
+known as Hurg[)i]la or Arg[)a]la. It stands about five feet high, has an
+enormous bill, nearly bare head and neck, and a pouch hanging from the
+under part of the neck. It is one of the most voracious carnivorous birds
+known, and in India, from its devouring all sorts of carrion and noxious
+animals, is protected by law. From underneath the wings are obtained those
+light downy feathers known as _marabou_ feathers, from the name of an
+allied species of bird (_L. marabou_) inhabiting Western Africa, and also
+producing them.
+
+ADJUTANT-GENERAL, in Great Britain the second military member of the Army
+Council, and styled Adjutant-general to the Forces. He is a general
+officer, and at the head of his department at the War Office, which is
+charged with all duties relative to personnel.--Among the Jesuits this name
+was given to a select number of fathers, who resided with the general of
+the order, and had each a province or country assigned to him.
+
+AD'JUTATORS, in English history, representatives elected by the
+parliamentary forces in 1647 to act with the officers in compelling
+Parliament to satisfy the demands of the army.
+
+ADLER, Victor, Austrian socialist leader, born in 1852. Educated as a
+physician, he gave up his profession for socialist propaganda. He visited
+England, and wrote a book on factory inspection in this country. He was the
+founder and editor of the _Arbeiter-Zeitung_; was a member of the Lower
+Austrian Diet and of the Imperial Council in 1907. His son, Dr. Friedrich
+Adler, assassinated Count Stuergkh, the Austrian premier, on 20th Oct.,
+1916. He died in 1918.
+
+AD'LINGTON, a straggling place in Lancashire to the south-east of Chorley,
+engaged in the cotton manufacture. Pop. (1921), 4393.
+
+ADME'TUS, in Greek mythology, King of Pherae, in Thessaly, and husband of
+Alcestis, who gave signal proof of her attachment by consenting to die in
+order to prolong her husband's life. See _Alcestis_.
+
+ADMINISTRA'TION, in politics, the executive power or body, the ministry or
+cabinet.
+
+ADMIN'ISTRATOR, in law, the person to whom the goods of a man dying
+intestate are committed by the proper authority, and who is bound to
+account for them when required.
+
+AD'MIRAL, the commander-in-chief of a squadron or fleet of ships of war, or
+of the entire naval force of a country, or simply a naval officer of the
+highest rank. In the British navy admirals are of four ranks--admiral of
+the fleet, admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral. They were also divided
+formerly into three classes, named after the colours of their respective
+flags, admirals of the _red_, of the _white_, and of the _blue_. In 1864,
+however, this distinction was given up, and now there is one flag common to
+all ships of war, namely, the white ensign divided into four quarters by
+the cross of St. George, and having the union in the upper corner next the
+staff.--The title _admiral of the fleet_ is conferred on a few admirals,
+and carries an increase of pay along with it.--A _vice-admiral_ is next in
+rank and command to the admiral: he carries his flag at the
+foretop-gallant-mast head, while an admiral carries his at the main. A
+_rear-admiral_, next in rank to the vice-admiral, carries his flag at the
+mizzentop-gallant-mast head.--_Lord high admiral_, in Great Britain, an
+officer who (when this rare dignity is conferred) is at the head of the
+naval administration of Great Britain. There have been few high admirals
+since 1632, when the office was first put in commission. James Duke of York
+(afterwards James II) held it for several years during Charles II's reign.
+In the reign of William and Mary it was vested in lords commissioners of
+the admiralty, and since that time it has been held for short periods only
+by Prince George of Denmark (1702-8) in the time of Queen Anne, and by
+William IV, then Duke of Clarence, in 1827-8.
+
+AD'MIRALTY, that department of the Government of a country that is at the
+head of its naval service. In Britain the board of Admiralty now consists
+of the First Lord of the Admiralty and seven other commissioners, four of
+them being Sea Lords, and one a Civil Lord. The First Lord is always a
+member of the cabinet, and it is he who principally exercises the powers of
+the department. Under the 1912 Admiralty Organization Scheme, the various
+members of the board are responsible for special business. Several changes
+in Admiralty organization were made during the European War, but after the
+cessation of hostilities the system reverted to that of peace time.
+
+ADMIRALTY CHARTS are charts issued by the hydrographic department of the
+Admiralty of Britain; they are prepared by specially appointed surveyors
+and draughtsmen, and besides being supplied to every ship in the fleet, are
+sold to the general public at prices much less than their cost. In
+connection with these charts there are published books of sailing
+directions, lists of lights, &c. The navigating charts are generally on the
+scale of half an inch to a mile, and show all the dangers of the coasts
+with sufficient distinctness to enable the seamen to avoid them; the charts
+of larger size exhibit all the intricacies of the coast.
+
+ADMIRALTY COURT, a court which takes cognizance of civil and criminal
+causes of a maritime nature, including captures made in war, and offences
+committed on the high seas, and has to do with many matters connected with
+maritime affairs. In England the Admiralty Court was once held before the
+Lord High Admiral, and at a later period was presided over by his deputy or
+the deputy of the Lords Commissioners. It now forms a branch of the
+Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division of the High Court of Justice.
+There is a separate Irish Admiralty Court. In Scotland Admiralty cases are
+now prosecuted in the Court of Session, or in the Sheriff Court. In the
+United States, Admiralty cases are taken up in the first instance by the
+district courts.
+
+ADMIRALTY ISLAND, an island belonging to the United States off the
+north-west coast of North America, 80 or 90 miles long and about 20 broad,
+covered with fine timber and inhabited by Sitka Indians.
+
+ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a cluster of 40 islands, north of New Guinea, in what
+was once called the Bismarck Archipelago. Discovered by the Dutch explorer
+Shouten in 1616, they were in German possession from 1884 to 12th Sept.,
+1914, when they were occupied by an Australian force. They have since been
+in British occupation. The largest is about 60 miles in length; the rest
+are much smaller. They are covered with a luxuriant vegetation, and possess
+dense groves of coco-nut trees. There are valuable pearl and other shell
+fisheries. Capital, Lorengau. Pop. (native), 4000; (European), 50.
+
+[Illustration: Stipule adnated to Leaf-stalk of Rose]
+
+AD'NATE, in botany, applied to a part growing attached to another and
+principal part by its whole length, as stipules adnated to the leaf-stalk.
+
+ADOBE ([.a]-d[=o]'b[=a]), the Spanish name for a brick made of loamy earth,
+containing about two-thirds fine sand and one-third clayey dust, sun-dried;
+in common use for building in Mexico, Texas, and Central America. Building
+material in ancient Egypt and Assyria was adobe.
+
+ADOL'PHUS, John, 1768-1845, an able English criminal lawyer, and author of
+the _History of England from the Accession of George III_ and _Biographical
+Memoirs of the French Revolution_.
+
+ADOLPHUS OF NASSAU, elected Emperor of Germany, 1292. In 1298 the college
+of electors transferred the crown to Albert of Austria, but, Adolphus
+refusing to abdicate, a war ensued in which he fell, after a heroic
+resistance, 2nd July, 1298.
+
+ADONAI (ad'o-n[=i]), a name bestowed upon God in the Old Testament. See
+_Jehovah_.
+
+ADO'NI, a town and district in Madras; pop. of former 30,416, of latter
+179,418. It is well known for excellent silk and cotton fabrics.
+
+ADO'NIS, son of Myrrha, a mythological personage, originally a deity of the
+Phoenicians, but borrowed into Greek mythology. He was represented as being
+a great favourite of Aphrodit[=e] (Venus), who accompanied him when engaged
+in hunting, of which he was very fond. He received a mortal wound from the
+tusk of a wild boar, and when the goddess hurried to his assistance she
+found him lifeless, whereupon she caused his blood to give rise to the
+anemone. The worship of Adonis, which arose in Phoenicia, was afterwards
+widely spread round the Mediterranean. He is the reproductive principle,
+nature's decay in winter and its revival in spring. The name Adonis is akin
+to the Heb. _Adonai_, Lord. See _Tammuz_.
+
+ADO'NIS, a small river rising in Lebanon and flowing to the Mediterranean.
+When in flood it is tinged with a red colour, and so is connected with the
+legend of Adonis.
+
+ADO'NIS, a genus of ranunculaceous plants. In the corn-adonis or pheasant's
+eye (_A. autumn[=a]lis_) the petals are bright scarlet like the blood of
+Adonis, from which the plant is fabled to have sprung.
+
+ADOPTIANISM, the theory according to which Christ as a man is the adopted
+Son of God. Elipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, Bishop of Urgella,
+asserted this double sonship in Christ, maintaining that He was indeed the
+Son of God in His divine nature, but as man He was the Son of God only by
+grace and adoption. 'The Man Christ' is therefore only the adopted and not
+the natural Son of God. The doctrine was vigorously opposed by Alcuin, and
+condemned by the councils of Ratisbon (792) and Frankfort (794). The
+theory, however, found advocates during the Middle Ages, and has given rise
+to theological disputes in modern times. Adoptianism was attributed both to
+Abelard and Duns Scotus.
+
+ADOP'TION, the admission of a stranger by birth to the privileges of a
+child. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and also some modern nations,
+adoption is placed under legal regulation. In Rome the effect of adoption
+was to create the legal relation of father and son, just as if the person
+adopted was born of the blood of the adopter in lawful marriage. The
+adopted son took the name of his adopter, and was bound to perform his new
+father's religious duties. Adoption is not recognized by the law of England
+and Scotland; there are legal means to enable a person to assume the name
+and arms, and to inherit the property of another. In some of the United
+States adoption is regulated by laws not very dissimilar to those which
+prevailed among the Romans.
+
+ADOUR ([.a]-d[:o]r), a river of France, rising in the Hautes Pyrenees, and
+falling into the sea a little below Bayonne; length about 200 miles; partly
+navigable.
+
+ADO'WA, a town of Abyssinia, in Tigre, at an elevation of 6270 feet; the
+chief commercial depot on the caravan route from Massawa to Gondar. Pop.
+about 4000. Here the Italians suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of
+the Abyssinians, 1st March, 1896.
+
+ADRA ([:a]'_d_r[.a]), a seaport of Southern Spain, in Andalusia, near the
+mouth of the Adra, on the Mediterranean; with marble quarries and lead
+works. Pop. 9000.
+
+ADRAMIT'TI (ancient ADRAMYTTIUM; Turk. _Edremid_), a town of Turkey in
+Asia, near the head of the gulf of the same name, 80 miles north of Smyrna.
+Pop. about 5000.
+
+ADRAR', a district in the Western Sahara, peopled by Berbers possessing
+camels, sheep, and oxen, and cultivating dates, wheat, barley, and melons.
+Chief towns, Wadan and Shingit, which has inexhaustible beds of rock-salt.
+
+ADREN'ALIN, or SUPRARENIN, a crystalline substance obtained from the
+adrenals or suprarenal capsules of cattle and sheep, which possesses the
+property of checking bleeding by its styptic or contractive powers, and is
+used in medical practice, more especially in the case of bleeding at the
+nose and nervous catarrh.
+
+ADRIA ([:a]'dri-[.a]), a cathedral city of Northern Italy, province of
+Rovigo, between the Po and the Adige, on the site of the ancient town of
+same name, whence the Adriatic derives its appellation. Owing to alluvial
+deposits the sea is now 17 miles distant. Pop. 11,878.
+
+A'DRIAN, the name of six Popes. The first, a Roman, ruled from 772-795; a
+contemporary and friend of Charlemagne. He expended vast sums in rebuilding
+the walls and restoring the aqueducts of Rome.--ADRIAN II, a Roman, was
+elected Pope in 867, at the age of seventy-five years. He died in 872, in
+the midst of conflicts with the Greek Church.--ADRIAN III, a Roman, elected
+884, was Pope for one year and four months only. He was the first Pope who
+changed his name on the occasion of his exaltation.--ADRIAN IV, originally
+named NICOLAS BREAKSPEAR, the only Englishman who ever occupied the papal
+chair, was born about 1100, and died 1159. He is said to have been a native
+of Hertfordshire, studied in France, and became abbot of St. Rufus in
+Provence, cardinal and legate to Norway. Chosen Pope in 1154, his reign is
+chiefly remarkable for his almost constant struggle for supremacy with
+Frederick Barbarossa, who on one occasion had been forced to hold his
+stirrup, and had been crowned by him at Rome (1155). He issued the famous
+bull (1158) granting the sovereignty of Ireland, on condition of the
+payment of Peter's pence, to Henry II.--ADRIAN V, previously called
+OTTOBUONO FIESCHI, of Genoa, settled, as legate of the Pope, the dispute
+between King Henry III of England and his nobles, in favour of the former;
+but died a month after his election to the papal chair (1276).--ADRIAN VI
+(the last pontifice barbaro), born at Utrecht in 1459, was elected to the
+papal chair, 9th Jan., 1522. He tried to reform abuses in the Church, but
+opposed the zeal of Luther with reproaches and threats, and even attempted
+to excite Erasmus and Zuinglius against him. Died 1523, after a reign of
+one year and a half.
+
+A'DRIAN, a town of the United States, in Michigan, 70 miles W.S.W. of
+Detroit. Its extensive water-power is employed in works of various kinds.
+Pop. 9654.
+
+A'DRIAN, Publius Aelius Hadrianus. See _Hadrian_.
+
+ADRIANO'PLE (Turk. _Edreneh_), an important city in the Balkans, about 135
+miles W.N.W. from Constantinople, on the Maritza (ancient _Hebrus_), at its
+junction with the Tundja and the Arda. It has a great mosque, among the
+most magnificent in the world; a palace, now in a state of decay; a grand
+aqueduct, and a splendid bazaar; manufactures of silk, woollen, and cotton
+stuffs, otto of roses, leather, &c., and an important trade. Adrianople
+received its present name from the Roman emperor Adrian (Hadrian). In 1361
+it was taken by Amurath I, and was the residence of the Turkish sovereigns
+till the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. In 1829 it was taken by the
+Russians, and here was then concluded the peace of Adrianople, by which
+Russia received important accessions of territory in the Caucasus and on
+the coast of the Black Sea. The Russians occupied it also in 1878.
+Adrianople was bombarded by the Balkan allied forces in Feb., 1913, and
+fell 28th March; it was recaptured by the Turks, under Enver Bey, 20th
+July. Pop. 83,000.
+
+ADRIAN'S (or HADRIAN'S) WALL. See _Roman Walls_.
+
+ADRIAT'IC SEA, or GULF OF VENICE, an arm of the Mediterranean, stretching
+in a north-westerly direction from the Straits of Otranto, between Italy
+and the Balkan Peninsula (Yugo-Slavia). Length, about 480 miles; average
+breadth, about 100; area, about 60,000 sq. miles. The rivers which it
+receives, particularly the Po, its principal feeder, have produced, and are
+still producing, great geological changes in its basin by their alluvial
+deposits. Hence Adria, between the Po and the Adige, which gives the sea
+its name, though once a flourishing seaport, is now 17 miles inland. An
+oceanographic investigation of the Adriatic Sea took place in Feb. and
+March, 1911. The principal trading ports on the Italian side are Brindisi,
+Bari, Ancona, Sinigaglia, and Venice; on the east side Ragusa, Fiume,
+Pirano, Pola, and Trieste (Italian).
+
+ADSCRIPTI GLEBAE (Lat., persons attached to the soil), a term applied to a
+class of Roman slaves attached in perpetuity to and transferred with the
+land they cultivated. Colliers and salt workers in Scotland were in a
+similar position till 1775.
+
+ADULA'RIA, a very pure, limpid, translucent variety of the common felspar,
+called by lapidaries _moonstone_, on account of the play of light exhibited
+by the arrangement of its crystalline structure. It is found on the Alps,
+but the best specimens are brought from Ceylon. It is so called from
+_Adula_, one of the peaks of St. Gothard, where fine specimens are got.
+
+ADUL'LAM, CAVE OF, a cave to which David fled when persecuted by Saul, and
+whither he was followed by "every one who was in distress, in debt, or
+discontented" (1 _Sam._ xxii, 1, 2).--The name _Adullamites_ was given to
+an English political party, consisting of R. Lowe, Lord Elcho, and other
+Liberals, who opposed the majority of their party on the Franchise Bill of
+1866. The term originated from a speech of John Bright on 13th March, 1866.
+
+ADULTERA'TION, a term applied to the fraudulent mixture of articles of
+commerce, foods, drugs, beverages, seeds, &c., with inferior ingredients,
+and also to any accidental impurity found in a substance. The chief objects
+of adulteration are to render a substance more pleasing in appearance, to
+increase the weight, to make an inferior article appear as good as the
+article of superior quality. Any substance added to an article to increase
+its bulk, weight, colour, &c., is spoken of as an adulterant. Milk is often
+adulterated with water and with colouring-matter. Butter may be adulterated
+by mixing with it other fats or by the addition of colouring-matter. Nearly
+every article of food can be adulterated in some way to make it appear of
+finer quality. _Preservatives_ added to foods and drugs generally may be
+classed as adulterants. Thus cream is preserved by adding small quantities
+of boric acid. Beer sometimes contains salicylic acid added as a
+preservative. Chloroform contains a small quantity of alcohol to prevent
+decomposition. Methylated spirits is alcohol adulterated in several ways to
+render it unfit for human consumption. Tobacco contains benzoic acid as
+preservative, and sometimes saltpetre to aid burning. Many of these
+adulterants are harmful, so that such added to foods and beverages must be
+present only in very small quantities. Food and Drug Acts lay down the
+limits of the quantities of foreign matter permitted either as preservative
+or impurity. Practically every article of commerce is adulterated in some
+way, and pure substances are seldom used. Cf. Walker, _The Food Inspector's
+Encyclopaedia_.
+
+ADUL'TERY, the voluntary sexual intercourse of a married person with any
+other than the offender's husband or wife; when committed between two
+married persons, the offence is called double, and when between a married
+and single person, single adultery. The Mosaic, Greek, and early Roman law
+only recognized the offence when a married woman was the offender. By the
+Jewish law it was punished with death. In Greece the laws against it were
+severe. By the laws of Draco and Solon adulterers, when caught in the act,
+were at the mercy of the injured party. In early Rome the punishment was
+left to the discretion of the husband and parents of the adulteress. The
+punishment assigned by the Lex Julia, under Augustus, was banishment or a
+heavy fine. Under Constantius and Constans, adulterers were burned or sewed
+in sacks and thrown into the sea; under Justinian the wife was to be
+scourged, lose her dower, and be shut up in a monastery; at the expiration
+of two years the husband might take her again; if he refused she was shaven
+and made a nun for life. By the ancient laws of France this crime was
+punishable with death. In Spain personal mutilation was frequently the
+punishment adopted. In several European countries adultery is regarded as a
+criminal offence, but in none does the punishment exceed imprisonment for a
+short period, accompanied by a fine. In England formerly it was punishable
+with fine and imprisonment, and in Scotland it was frequently made a
+capital offence. In Great Britain at the present day, however, it is
+punishable only by ecclesiastical censure. The aggrieved husband, however,
+can obtain damages against his wife's seducer. In England a man can obtain
+a dissolution of his marriage on the ground of his wife's adultery, and a
+wife can obtain a judicial separation on the ground of her husband's
+adultery, or a dissolution of the marriage if the offence is coupled with
+cruelty, desertion, or bigamy. In Scotland it is not necessary to prove
+cruelty. In the United States the punishment of adultery has varied
+materially at different times. It is, however, very seldom punished
+criminally in the States. A person divorced for adultery is by the laws of
+France and Scotland prohibited from intermarrying with the co-respondent.
+
+AD VALO'REM (Lat., according to the value), a term applied to customs or
+duties levied according to the worth of the goods, as sworn to by the
+owner, and not according to number, weight, measure, &c.
+
+ADVANCE-NOTE, a draft on the owner of a vessel, generally for one month's
+wages, given by the master to the sailors on their signing the articles of
+agreement. The granting of such notes to British sailors was made illegal
+by an Act passed in 1880.
+
+AD'VENT (Lat. _adventus_, an arrival, 'the coming of our Saviour'), the
+name applied to the holy season which occupies the four or, according to
+the Greek Church, six weeks preceding Christmas, and which forms the first
+portion of the ecclesiastical year, as observed by the Anglican, the Roman
+Catholic, and the Greek Church.
+
+AD'VENTISTS, a group of six American religious sects who believe in the
+speedy coming of Christ, and generally practise adult immersion. The first
+sect of Adventists was founded by William Miller in 1831.--There is also a
+sect called _Seventh-day Adventists_, who hold that the coming of Christ is
+at hand, and maintain that the Sabbath is still the seventh day of the
+week.
+
+AD'VERB, one of the parts of speech used to limit or qualify the
+signification of an adjective, verb, or other adverb; as, _very cold_,
+_naturally brave_, _much more clearly_, _readily agreed_. Adverbs may be
+classified as follows: (1) Adverbs of time, as, _now_, _then_, _never_,
+&c.; (2) of place, as, _here_, _there_, _where_, &c.; (3) of degree, as,
+_very_, _much_, _nearly_, _almost_, &c.; (4) of affirmation, negation, or
+doubt, as, _yes_, _no_, _certainly_, _perhaps_, &c.; (5) of manner, as,
+_well_, _badly_, _clearly_, &c.
+
+ADVERTIS'ING. Advertising on a small scale is a practice as old as
+commerce; but modern advertising on a large scale cannot be dated further
+back than 1785, when the _Times_ was founded. The last thirty years have
+witnessed a great increase in the importance of advertisements as part of
+the policy of a progressive business. Much more intelligence and vastly
+more money is now spent on advertising than ever was before. America led
+the way, but the British are not now far behind in the number and ingenuity
+of their advertisements.
+
+There are roughly speaking five distinct types of advertisement:--
+
+(1) Press advertising, under which heading is included daily and weekly
+newspapers, monthly magazines and year books, directories, &c.
+
+(2) Mail-order advertising, which comprises form-letters, catalogues.
+
+(3) Poster and showcard advertising. This includes large and small posters,
+on hoardings, in railway stations or tubes, &c.
+
+(4) Illuminated signs either outside buildings on a large scale or in
+frames of various sizes inside business premises, theatres, &c.
+
+(5) Cinema advertising--a recent development which has proved extremely
+effective.
+
+Advertising to be successful must be carefully organized. A firm wishing to
+advertise must first of all settle how much money it is willing to spend on
+this object. A common practice is to devote a fixed proportion of the
+profits--at least five per cent--to advertising. The firm must then
+carefully consider the period of time over which the expenditure agreed
+upon is to be spread. Occasional or spasmodic advertising does not produce
+satisfactory results; advertising must be constant and must move with the
+times in order to be effective. A firm not uncommonly reviews the results
+of its advertising every six months, when it also arranges its plans for
+future advertisements. Mistakes in policy can thus be corrected and
+successful schemes can be readopted or improved upon. Advertising on any
+large scale must be handled by experts. Many thousands of pounds are wasted
+yearly by firms which hand over this work to a director who has no
+knowledge of how to advertise. The proper way for a firm to act, if it
+wishes to enter upon a campaign of publicity, is to engage an efficient
+advertising staff or to employ a reliable advertising agent. These agents
+in many cases obtain their profits from the commission given to them by
+newspapers--this often being about ten per cent of the cost of the space
+booked. In return for this they give their advice and copy--everything,
+indeed, except blocks and sketches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry Sampson, _A
+History of Advertising_; _Edinburgh Review_, Feb., 1843, _On the
+Advertising System_. A good account of the more recent developments of
+advertising is to be found in H. G. Wells's novel _Tono-Bungay_; T.
+Russell, _Commercial Advertising_.
+
+AD VITAM AUT CULPAM (Lat., for life or till a fault), a formula often used
+in regard to appointments to posts or offices, intimating that they are
+held for life or till the person forfeits his position by some fault or
+misdeed.
+
+AD'VOCATE (Lat., _advocatus_--_ad_, to, _voco_, to call), a lawyer
+authorized to plead the cause of his clients before a court of law. It is
+only in Scotland that this word seems to denote a distinct class belonging
+to the legal profession, the advocates of Scotland being the pleaders
+before the supreme courts, and corresponding to the _barristers_ of England
+and Ireland. These advocates all belong to the _Faculty of Advocates_,
+Edinburgh, to whom the oral pleadings in the Court of Session are for the
+most part limited, while they are also competent to plead in all the
+inferior Scottish courts and in the House of Lords in cases of appeal from
+the Court of Session. The supreme judges in Scotland, as well as the
+sheriffs of the various counties, are always selected from among them.
+Candidates for admission must undergo two separate examinations, one in
+general scholarship and the other in law.--The _Lord-Advocate_, called also
+the _King's_ or _Queen's Advocate_, is the principal law officer of the
+crown in Scotland. He is the public prosecutor of crimes in the Supreme
+Court, and senior counsel for the crown in civil causes. Being appointed by
+the crown, he goes out of office with the administration to which he
+belongs. As public prosecutor he is assisted by the solicitor-general and
+by four junior counsel called advocates-depute. The lord-advocate and the
+solicitor-general, in addition to their official duties, accept of ordinary
+bar practice.
+
+ADVOCATES' LIBRARY, the chief library in Scotland, located in Edinburgh,
+and founded about 1682 by the Faculty of Advocates. It was increased by
+donations and by sums granted by the Faculty from time to time. As the
+donations were not confined to advocates the library was considered a kind
+of public library, and it has continued to retain this character. In 1709
+it obtained, along with eight other libraries, the right to demand a copy
+of every new book published in Britain, which right it still possesses. The
+number of volumes is over 600,000 and MSS. over 3200.
+
+ADVOCA'TUS DIAB'OLI (Devil's advocate), in the Roman Catholic Church, a
+functionary who, when a deceased person is proposed for canonization,
+brings forward and insists upon all the weak points of the character and
+life of the deceased, endeavouring to show that he is not worthy of
+sainthood. The first formal mention of such an officer occurs under Pope
+Leo X (1513-21). The opposite side is taken by the _Advocatus Dei_ (God's
+advocate).
+
+ADVOW'SON, in English law, a right of presentation to a vacant benefice,
+or, in other words, a right of nominating a person to officiate in a vacant
+church. Those who have this right are styled _patrons_. Advowsons are of
+three kinds--_presentative_, _collative_, and _donative_: _presentative_,
+when the patron presents his clerk to the bishop of the diocese to be
+instituted; _collative_, when the bishop is the patron, and institutes or
+_collates_ his clerk by a single act; _donative_, when a church is founded
+by the king, or any person licensed by him, without being subject to the
+ordinary, so that the patron confers the benefice on his clerk without
+presentation, institution, or induction. An advowson cannot be held by
+either a Roman Catholic or an alien.
+
+AD'YTUM, a secret place of retirement in the ancient temples, esteemed the
+most sacred spot; the innermost sanctuary or shrine. From this place the
+oracles were given, and none but the priests were permitted to enter it.
+The Holy of Holies or Sanctum Sanctorum of the Temple at Jerusalem was of a
+similar character.
+
+ADZE, a cutting instrument used for chipping the surface of timber,
+somewhat of a mattock shape, and having a blade of steel forming a portion
+of a cylindrical surface, with a cutting edge at right angles to the length
+of the handle.
+
+AEDILES ([=e]'d[=i]lz), Roman magistrates who had the supervision of the
+national games and spectacles; of the public edifices, such as temples (the
+name comes from _aedes_, a temple); of private buildings, of the markets,
+cleansing and draining the city, &c.
+
+AE'DUI, one of the most powerful nations of Gaul, between the Liger (Loire)
+and the Arar (Saone). On the arrival of Julius Caesar in Gaul (58 B.C.)
+they were subject to Ariovistus, but their independence was restored by
+Caesar. Their chief town was Bibracte (Mont Beuvray, near Autun).
+
+AEGADE'AN ISLANDS, a group of small islands lying off the western extremity
+of Sicily, and consisting of Maritimo, Favignana, Levanso, and Le Formiche.
+
+[Illustration: Grecian Ibex (_Capra aegagrus_)]
+
+AEGAG'RUS, a wild species of ibex (_Capra aegagrus_), found in herds on the
+Caucasus, and many Asiatic mountains, believed to be the original source of
+at least one variety of the domestic goat.
+
+AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, a term applied to the pre-Hellenic civilization of
+south-eastern Europe, including Crete, Greece and the Cyclades, and the
+Danubian or Mid-European area. See _Crete_ and _Danubian Civilization_.
+
+AEGEAN SEA ([=e]-j[=e]'an), that part of the Mediterranean which washes the
+eastern shores of Greece, and the western coast of Asia Minor. See
+_Archipelago_.
+
+AE'GILOPS, a genus of grasses, very closely allied to wheat, and somewhat
+remarkable from the alleged fact that by cultivation one of the species
+becomes a kind of wheat.
+
+AEGINA ([=e]-j[=i]'na), a Greek island in the Gulf of Aegina, south of
+Athens, triangular in form; area about 32 sq. miles; pop. 8500. It forms
+part of the nomarchy of Attica and Boeotia. Except in the west, where the
+surface is more level, the island is mountainous and unproductive. The
+inhabitants are chiefly engaged in trade, seafaring, and agriculture, the
+chief crops being almonds, olives, and grain. The greater number of them
+reside in the seaport town of Aegina. Aegina was anciently colonized by
+Dorians from the opposite coast of Peloponnesus. In the latter half of the
+sixth century B.C. it had a flourishing commerce, a large navy, and was the
+seat of a distinct school of art. At the battle of Salamis (480 B.C.) the
+Aeginetans behaved with great valour. In 456 the island fell under the
+power of the Athenians, and in 431 the Aeginetans were expelled to make
+room for Athenian settlers, but were afterwards restored. On a hill are the
+remains of a splendid temple of Athena (Minerva), many of the columns of
+which are still standing. Here was found in 1811 a considerable amount of
+sculpture from the pediments (the _Aeginetan marbles_), which is now at the
+Glyptothek at Munich, and is prized as throwing light on the early history
+of Greek art. Though in these figures there is a wonderfully exact
+imitation of nature, yet there is a certain stiffness about them and an
+unnatural sameness of expression in all. They should probably be assigned
+to the period 500-480 B.C.
+
+AEGIS ([=e]'jis), the shield of Zeus, according to Homer, but according to
+later writers and artists a metal cuirass or breastplate, in which was set
+the head of the Gorgon Medusa, and with which Athena (Minerva) is often
+represented as being protected. In a figurative sense the word is used to
+denote some shielding or protecting power.
+
+AEGLE ([=e]'gl[=e]), a genus of plants. See _Bel._
+
+AEGOSPOT'AMI ('goat-rivers'), a place on the Hellespont, of some note in
+Greek history, the Athenian fleet being here completely defeated in 405
+B.C. by the Spartan Lysander, thus ending the Peloponnesian war.
+
+AELFRIC (al'frik), Abbot, called _Grammaticus_ (the grammarian), was a
+celebrated English author of the eleventh century. He became a monk of
+Abingdon, was afterwards connected with Winchester, and died Abbot of
+Eynsham. His principal works are two books of homilies, a _Treatise on the
+Old and New Testaments_, a translation and abridgment of the first seven
+books of the Bible, a _Latin Grammar and Glossary_, &c. He has been
+frequently confounded both with Aelfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, and
+Aelfric, Archbishop of York, surnamed Putta, who lived about the same time.
+There was also an Aelfric of Malmesbury.
+
+AELIA'NUS, Claudius, often called simply AELIAN, a Roman author who lived
+about A.D. 221, and wrote in Greek a collection of stories and anecdotes
+and a natural history of animals.
+
+AELIA'NUS TACTICUS, so called to distinguish him from Claudius Aelianus,
+lived at Rome, and wrote a work _On the Military Tactics of the Greeks_,
+which he dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian, who was emperor from A.D. 117 to
+138. This book was closely studied by soldiers of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries.
+
+AELST ([:a]lst), Belgian town, same as ALOST.
+
+AENE'AS, the hero of Virgil's _Aen[=e]id_, a Trojan, who, according to
+Homer, was, next to Hector, the bravest of the warriors of Troy. When that
+town was taken and set on fire, Aeneas, according to the narrative of
+Virgil, with his father, son, and wife Creusa, fled, but the latter was
+lost in the confusion of the flight. Having collected a fleet he sailed for
+Italy, but after numerous adventures he was driven by a tempest to the
+coast of Africa, where Queen Dido of Carthage received him kindly, and
+would have married him. Jupiter, however, sent Mercury to Aeneas, and
+commanded him to sail to Italy. Whilst the deserted Dido ended her life on
+the funeral pile, Aeneas set sail with his companions, and after further
+adventures by land and sea reached the country of King Latinus, in Italy.
+The king's daughter Lavinia was destined by an oracle to wed a stranger,
+this stranger being Aeneas, but was promised by her mother to Turnus, King
+of the R[)u]t[)u]li. This occasioned a war, which was ended by Aeneas
+slaying Turnus and marrying Lavinia. His son by Lavinia, Aeneas Sylvius,
+was the ancestor of the kings of Alba Longa, and of Romulus and Remus, the
+founders of the city of Rome.
+
+AEOLIAN HARP, or AEOLUS' HARP, a musical instrument, generally consisting
+of a box of thin fibrous wood (often of deal), to which are attached from
+eight to fifteen fine catgut strings or wires, stretched on low bridges at
+either end, and tuned in unison. Its length is made to correspond with the
+size of the window or other aperture in which it is intended to be placed.
+When the wind blows athwart the strings it produces very beautiful sounds,
+sweetly mingling all the harmonic tones, and swelling or diminishing
+according to the strength or weakness of the blast.
+
+AEOLIANS (Gr. _Aioleis_), one of the four races into which the ancient
+Greeks were divided, originally inhabiting the district of AE[)o]lis, in
+Thessaly, from which they spread over other parts of Greece. In early times
+they were the most numerous and powerful of the Hellenic races, chiefly
+inhabiting Northern Greece and the western side of Peloponnesus, though
+latterly a portion of them went to Lesbos and Tenedos and the north-west
+shores of Asia Minor, where they possessed a number of cities. Their
+language, the Aeolian dialect, was one of the three principal dialects of
+the Greek. It was cultivated for literary purposes chiefly at Lesbos, and
+was the dialect in which Alcaeus and Sappho wrote.
+
+AEOL'IPILE (Lat. _AE[)o]li pila_, the ball of AE[)o]lus), a spherical
+vessel of metal, with a pipe of small aperture, through which the vapour of
+heated water in the ball passes out with considerable noise; or having two
+nozzles so placed that the steam rushing out causes it to revolve on the
+principle of the Barker's mill. It was known to the ancient Greeks.
+
+AE'OLUS, in Greek mythology, the god of the winds, which he kept confined
+in a cave in the Aeolian Islands, releasing them when he wished or was
+commanded by the superior gods.
+
+AE'ON, a Greek word signifying life, an age, and sometimes eternity, but
+used by the Gnostics to express spirits or powers that had emanated from
+the Supreme Mind before the beginning of time. They held both Christ and
+the Holy Spirit to be aeons; but as they denied the divine origin of the
+books of Moses, they said that the spirit which had inspired him and the
+prophets was not that exalted aeon whom God sent forth after the ascension
+of Christ, but an aeon very much inferior, and removed at a great distance
+from the Supreme Being.
+
+AEPYOR'NIS, a genus of gigantic birds whose remains have been found in
+Madagascar, where they are supposed to have lived perhaps not longer than
+200 years ago. It had three toes, and is classed with the cursorial birds
+(ostrich, &c.). Its eggs measured 14 inches in length, being about six
+times the bulk of those of the ostrich. The bird which laid them may well
+have been the roc of Eastern tradition.
+
+AE'QUI, an ancient people of Italy, conspicuous in the early wars of Rome,
+and inhabiting the mountain district between the upper valley of the Anio
+(Teverone) and Lake Fuc[)i]nus. They were probably akin to the Volscians,
+with whom they were in constant alliance. They were defeated by Cincinnatus
+in 458 B.C., and again by the dictator Postumius Tubertus in 428 B.C., and
+were finally subdued about 304-302 B.C. Soon after they were admitted to
+Roman citizenship.
+
+A'ERATED BREAD, bread which receives its sponginess or porosity from
+carbonic acid supplied artificially, and not produced by the fermentation
+caused by leaven or yeast.
+
+A'ERATED WATERS, waters impregnated with carbonic acid gas, and forming
+effervescing beverages. Some mineral waters are naturally aerated, as
+Vichy, Apollinaris, Rosbach, &c.; others, especially such as are used for
+medicinal purposes, are frequently aerated to render them more palatable
+and exhilarating. Water simply aerated, as soda-water, or aerated and
+flavoured with lemon or fruit syrups, is largely used, especially in
+summer, as a refreshing beverage. There are numerous varieties of apparatus
+for manufacturing aerated waters. The essential parts of an aerated-water
+machine are a generator in which the gas is produced, a vessel containing
+the water to be impregnated, and an apparatus for forcing the gas into the
+water. This last may be effected by force-pumps or by the high pressure of
+the impregnating gas itself. The quantity of gas with which the water is
+charged is usually equal to a pressure of 5 atmospheres. See also _Mineral
+Waters_.--Cf. W. Kirkby, _Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters_.
+
+AERIAL ROPEWAYS or CABLEWAYS, a means of transport or carriage in which a
+great rope or cable, elevated above the ground on fixed supports, is made
+use of in conveying from place to place materials or articles of various
+kinds. Such a cable may be said to serve the purpose of a rail, from which
+are suspended the carriages, buckets, or carriers of whatever sort are
+employed to convey the materials dealt with, the cable being actuated by
+means of a steam-engine and winding-gear of suitable construction. Such
+cables are now much used in carrying materials over a comparatively short
+space, as in quarries, excavations for canals, docks, &c.; in the
+construction of bridges, in shipbuilding, &c. Besides being employed in
+such works--not to mention the coaling of a battleship at sea from a coal
+transport standing by--elevated ropeways miles in length have also been
+constructed between places where no roads exist, or where road carriage is
+much more expensive. The greatest aerial line yet in existence is in the
+Argentine Republic, being built to connect a mining locality in the Andes,
+about 15,000 feet above sea-level, with a station on the Northern Railway
+11,500 feet lower down and about 22 miles off, the line running across deep
+chasms and hollows, and being in places supported on iron towers 130 feet
+high. The wire rope is said to have a length of 87 miles.
+
+AE'RIANS, the followers of Aerius of Pontus, who in the fourth century
+originated a small heretical sect, objecting to the established feast-days,
+fasts or abstinences, the distinction between bishops and presbyters,
+prayers for the dead, &c.
+
+AERODYNAM'ICS, a branch of physical science which treats of the properties
+and motions of elastic fluids (air, gases), and of the appliances by which
+these are exemplified. This subject is often explained in connection with
+hydrodynamics. See also _Meteorology_.
+
+AEROE, or ARROE ([:a]r'eu-e), an island of Denmark, in the Little Belt, 15
+miles long by 5 broad, with 12,000 inhabitants. Though hilly, it is very
+fertile.
+
+A'EROLITE, a meteoric stone, meteorite, or shooting-star. See _Meteoric
+Stones_.
+
+[Illustration: "Montgolfiere", or Hot-air Balloon, above Furnace]
+
+AERONAU'TICS, the art or science of navigating the air, including Aviation
+(see _Aeroplane_ and _Sea-planes_) and Aerostation (see _Balloons_ and
+_Air-ships_). From the days of the mythical exploit of Daedalus and Icarus,
+students of 'experimental philosophy', or scientists, of all ages, turned
+their thoughts and inventive genius to the evolution of a machine by means
+of which man could fly. Most of the early schemes of which any details have
+survived were based upon the observation of birds and embodied the flapping
+of wings affixed to the arms or legs. Among the very early experimenters
+may be mentioned the monk Oliver of Malmesbury (A.D. 1050), de Perouse
+(1420), who is said to have succeeded in flying over Lake Trasimene, and
+the great Leonardo da Vinci. All these produced designs for what are known
+as Ornithopters, or flapping-wing machines. There was, however, another
+school which believed in the future of machines which would be themselves
+lighter than air. The idea in the minds of the experimenters of this school
+was in the early days the replacing of the air in brass globes by a vacuum.
+If the brass were thin enough it was believed that the globe would then be
+sufficiently light to rise. It was, however, not realized that under such
+circumstances the globe would inevitably collapse under the pressure of the
+atmosphere with no corresponding internal pressure to withstand it. Among
+this 'lighter-than-air' school of experimenters were the famous Roger Bacon
+(twelfth century), Robert Hooke of the Royal Society (1644), and Francesco
+de Lana, a Jesuit priest (1660). It was this school which ultimately
+achieved success by providing the first machine of any sort to leave the
+ground and rise into the air. On 5th June, 1783, the first balloon ascended
+from the village of Annonay in France. It owed its inception to the genius
+of two brothers, paper-makers by trade, named Etienne and Joseph
+Montgolfier. Struck by the sight of smoke ascending from a chimney, after
+many failures with flapping-wing models, they conceived the idea of filling
+a receptacle with smoke and seeing if it would rise. They built a balloon
+or 'globe' of paper and canvas, and lit a fire of wood and straw below the
+aperture in it. The balloon gradually filled and rose into the air to a
+height reported to be 6000 feet, though this is probably an exaggeration.
+It remained in the air for ten minutes and landed 1-1/2 miles away. This
+was the forerunner of the 'Montgolfieres', or hot-air balloons, which are a
+feature of fetes and Guy Fawkes' Day celebrations. It was followed by the
+sending up of a 'Montgolfiere' from Versailles on 18th Sept. of the same
+year, carrying a basket containing a sheep, a cock, and a duck. The first
+human beings to make an ascent were Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis
+d'Arlande, who went away from Paris on 21st Nov., 1783. They passed right
+over Paris, and were in the air for twenty-five minutes, during which time
+they replenished the fire suspended in a brazier below the neck of the
+balloon.
+
+The real genesis of the balloon, or air-ship as we know it to-day, was due
+to the discovery of hydrogen as the lightest gas, which discovery was made
+in 1766 by an English chemist, Henry Cavendish. Various people claim the
+credit of having been the first to call attention to the possibilities of
+this gas for aerial navigation. In 1781 Dr. Joseph Black of Edinburgh
+suggested to his pupils that a thin bladder filled with 'the inflammable
+gas' (hydrogen) would rise into the air, but it appears doubtful whether he
+ever actually made the experiment. Tiberius Cavallo the same year, before
+the Royal Society, demonstrated that soap-bubbles filled with hydrogen
+would rise and float in the air. The honour of building the first hydrogen
+balloon belongs, however, to three Frenchmen--the brothers Robert, and
+Charles, a physicist. They sent up a hydrogen-filled balloon of varnished
+silk from the Champ de Mars, Paris, on 7th Aug., 1783. One of the Roberts
+and Charles themselves made the second human ascent in their balloon--the
+first in a hydrogen balloon as opposed to a Montgolfiere (as above)--on 1st
+Dec. the same year. In 1784 the same Frenchmen constructed the first
+'air-ship' or navigable balloon to the order of the Duc de Chartres
+(Philippe Egalite). The gas container of this was elongated in form, and it
+could be propelled to some small extent by means of oars, and steered by a
+rudder. In the same year a French military officer, named Meusnier,
+produced a completely detailed design for an air-ship. This embodied the
+first suggestion of screw-propellers, to be worked by man-power, and also
+provided for a 'ballonet' into which air could be driven to replace
+hydrogen lost owing to expansion during the ascent. Meusnier's design was
+the genesis of the modern non-rigid air-ship, all the essential features
+remaining. This air-ship was, however, never built.
+
+[Illustration: Giffard's Steam-driven Air-ship]
+
+The first ascent in the British Isles was made in a Montgolfiere by James
+Tytler at Edinburgh, on 27th Aug., 1784, though he travelled only a few
+hundred yards. He was followed by Vincent Lunardi, an Italian, who ascended
+from the artillery ground in London three weeks later (Sept., 1784),
+landing near Ware in Hertfordshire. The first Channel crossing by air was
+made in a hydrogen balloon from Dover to Calais on 7th Jan., 1785, by
+Blanchard and Dr. Jeffries.
+
+Subsequent developments in air-ships are due to the pioneer work of Giffard
+(1852) (the first steam-driven air-ship), Dupuy de Lome (1872), the
+brothers Tissandier (electric propulsion) (1883), Renard and Krebbs (1884),
+Woelfert (1897), Santos Dumont (1898-1905), Zeppelin (1900), Lebaudy
+(1903), Barton (English) (1905), Willows (English) (1910).
+
+In the meantime experimental work was being carried on by the exponents of
+the heavier-than-air school, who soon abandoned the flapping-wing principle
+and eventually evolved the modern aeroplane. The modern aeroplane was
+evolved from the brain of an Englishman, Sir George Cayley, who in 1809
+contributed an article to _Nicholson's Journal_ in which he outlined the
+outstretched wings, vertical and horizontal steering surfaces,
+screw-propeller, 'explosion' motor, and 'stream-line' form of the modern
+aeroplane. In 1842 Henson and Stringfellow, both Englishmen, constructed a
+steam-driven model on this principle, which is now in the South Kensington
+Museum. Wenham in 1866 contributed a valuable paper to the Royal
+Aeronautical Society on the subject. In 1896 Lillienthal in Germany carried
+out a number of glides with rigid wings, provided with a movable tail,
+fixed to his body. He was followed by Chanute, who in America emphasized
+the biplane principle in his glider. In 1896 Ader, a Frenchman, built an
+'avion' which is claimed to have risen from the ground at Satory, but this
+is doubtful. In 1895 a huge steam-propelled aeroplane built by Sir Hiram
+Maxim burst the rails holding it down and lifted for a few feet.
+
+[Illustration: A Handley Page Biplane, showing the principal parts]
+
+[Illustration: Wright's Biplane Glider]
+
+The real credit for the evolution of a man-carrying aeroplane is, however,
+due to the American brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio.
+Encouraged by the advice of Chanute, they commenced experimenting with
+biplane gliders on the sand-hills at Kittyhawk. Meeting with considerable
+success, they fitted a petrol motor of their own design in 1903 and made
+several straight flights during the same year. In 1904 they succeeded in
+making the first turn in the air. These experiments were carried out in
+great secrecy, and it was not until 1908 that their first public flights
+were made in France, the first taking place in October of that year. The
+first aviator to fly in Europe was Santos Dumont, who, on 12th Nov., 1906,
+covered 220 metres, having previously in the same year flown for shorter
+distances. At this time and during the two or three ensuing years many
+experiments were carried out, and flights made, by Farman, Voisin,
+Esnault-Pelterie, and Bleriot in France; Wright and Curtiss in America; and
+Roe, Ogilvie, and Moore-Brabazon in England. A prize of L2000 offered by
+MM. Deutsch de la Meurthe and Ernest Archdeacon for the first circular
+flight over a distance of 1 kilometre, returning to the point of starting,
+was won in Jan., 1908, by Henry Farman.
+
+The second crossing of the Channel, and the first by a 'heavier-than-air'
+machine, was effected by Louis Bleriot in a machine of his own construction
+with an Anzani engine from Calais to Dover on 25th July, 1909. From that
+date the science of aviation (flight by heavier-than-air machines) may be
+said to have begun, and progress was merely a record of improvements. By
+the end of 1919 the Atlantic had been crossed four times; once by
+sea-plane, once by a non-stop aeroplane flight, and twice (outward and
+return) by non-stop air-ship flights. Aeroplanes had achieved a speed of
+190 miles an hour, had attained to a height of over 34,000 feet, and had
+covered upwards of 1900 miles in one non-stop flight.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: De St.
+Fond, _Description de la Machine Aerostatique_; Cavallo, _History and
+Practice of Aerostation_; Lunardi, _The First Aerial Voyage in England_;
+Moedebeck, _Pocket Book of Aeronautics_; Santos Dumont, _My Air-ships_;
+_The Aeronautical Classics_ (Aeronautical Society); G. Tissandier,
+_Histoire des Ballons_; A. Berget, _The Conquest of the Air_.
+
+[Illustration: Early Types of Aeroplanes
+(a) Wright Biplane (1908). (b) Bleriot Monoplane (1909).
+(c) Santos Dumont Biplane (1906).]
+
+AEROPLANE, a flying-machine deriving its power of sustentation from the
+reaction of the air driven downwards by the rapid transit of fixed wings or
+'planes' through the air. The term 'plane' for the wing of an aeroplane is
+strictly a misnomer, as the word implies a flat plate, whereas a wing is
+'cambered' or curved in section from front to back. This is due to the
+discovery of Lillienthal (see _Aeronautics_) that a cambered 'aerofoil'
+when set at an angle to a wind current gives more 'lift' than a flat plane.
+The wing of an aeroplane is normally set at an angle horizontally (or
+rather at an angle to the relative wind) varying from 0deg to 4deg. This
+angle is known as the 'angle of incidence'. As the wing is driven through
+the air under the influence of the propeller, the air meets the 'leading'
+or 'entering' edge and is divided into two streams along the top and bottom
+surfaces. It does not, however, follow the surface closely, but in the case
+of the lower stratum is deflected downwards at an angle to the surface,
+which results in an upward reaction. The upper of the two streams of air is
+correspondingly deflected upwards at an angle to the surface for a short
+distance. This causes an 'area of discontinuity of flow', or eddy, which
+results in 'negative pressure', causing an upward suction. This fact was
+first discovered by Sir Hiram Maxim, though it was G. Eiffel who measured
+the effects of the positive pressure on the lower surface and the negative
+pressure on the upper surface, and found, contrary to all expectation, that
+the latter is responsible for three-quarters of the total lifting effect of
+the wing. In addition to the lift, the wings offer resistance to progress
+through the air, which effect is known as 'drag'. The ratio of lift to drag
+is a measure of the efficiency of a wing-section. A well-designed wing will
+have a L/D ratio at an angle of incidence of 4deg of about 16, i.e. the
+lift effect in pounds will be 16 times that of the drag. The fundamental
+equation of an aeroplane is R = KSV^2, where R = the resistance, K = a
+constant (usually 0.003), S = area of surface, and V = the velocity in feet
+per second. From this it will be seen that the resistance for the same area
+increases as the square of the speed, which shows the importance of
+reducing the resistance to the lowest possible degree if high speeds are to
+be obtained. For this purpose it is necessary that the flow of air round
+the component parts of the aeroplane caused by its passage should be as
+little disturbed and broken up into eddies as possible. It is found that
+the best theoretical shape for this purpose is a body of circular
+cross-section tapering from front to rear, with the maximum cross-section
+toward the _front_. The 'fineness ratio' (ratio of length to maximum
+diameter) should be about 6 to 1, and the maximum cross-section situated
+about one-third of the distance from the nose. Such a form will offer only
+about 1/20 the resistance of a flat plate of similar cross-section, and is
+known as a 'stream-line form'. The width of a wing from side to side at
+right angles to the wind is known as the 'span', and the breadth from front
+to back as the 'chord'. The ratio of span to chord is the 'aspect ratio'.
+Owing to the increase in drag resulting from low aspect ratio (large chord
+relative to span) the higher the aspect ratio the more efficient the wing.
+This is in practice about 6, owing to structural difficulties in
+constructing a wing of larger relative span. The essential parts of an
+aeroplane are the wings, fuselage (body), tail (comprising fixed vertical
+and horizontal surfaces behind which are hinged movable rudders and
+elevators), and chassis, or landing-carriage. The majority of modern
+machines are biplanes, i.e. with one set of wings superposed on the other
+and connected by upright wooden members called 'struts'. Aeroplanes with
+one set of wings only are called 'monoplanes'; those with three,
+'triplanes'; with four, 'quadruplanes'; and with more than four,
+'multiplanes'. Aeroplanes are also divided into 'tractor' and 'pusher',
+according to whether the propeller is situated in front or rear of the
+wings.
+
+When the engine is started, the revolution of the propeller causes the
+aeroplane to move along the ground until such a speed is reached (usually
+about 35-50 miles per hour) that it is able to support its own weight in
+the air when it leaves the ground. When in the air it is made to ascend or
+descend by moving the elevators, which are operated by a vertical stick in
+front of the pilot through control cables or levers. Steering to right or
+left is effected by the rudder, which is operated by a foot-bar through
+cables or levers. Lateral balance is obtained by means of 'ailerons' or
+flaps on the outer extremities of the wings. If one wing tends to dip, the
+aileron on that side is depressed. This increases the resistance of that
+wing and so causes it to rise. By a combination of movements of the
+elevators, rudder, and ailerons almost any evolution can be performed with
+a modern aeroplane. A well-designed machine will, on cutting off the
+engine-power, turn its nose slightly down and automatically assume its own
+'gliding-angle' to the ground. The gliding-angle is the ratio of descent to
+forward travel and is usually 1 in 12 to 1 in 14.
+
+Speeds of 190 miles per hour have been attained and a height of 34,600 feet
+reached. The greatest distance covered in one flight is the crossing of the
+Atlantic--slightly more than 1900 miles--while an aeroplane has remained in
+the air for 24 hours. Aeroplanes range in size from small single-seater
+'scouts' with a duration of only some three hours, to large
+multiple-engined machines with a weight, fully loaded, of from 15 to 20
+tons. The essential feature of the aeroplane is, as already stated, that it
+is heavier than air and therefore subject to the laws of gravity in the
+event of engine failure. Its choice of a landing-ground is then dependent
+upon its height at the moment and gliding-angle.
+
+Aeroplanes are normally constructed throughout of wood, though steel is
+occasionally used. The wings are built of wooden 'spars', of which there
+are usually two along the length of each wing, connected together by wooden
+'ribs'. The wings of a biplane are braced by the struts (see above) and by
+wires. 'Landing-wires' support the weight of the wing on the ground, while
+'flying-wires' prevent them folding upwards under the influence of the lift
+in flight. 'Drift-wires' are to prevent the wings folding backwards under
+the pressure of the air in flight. See also _Aeronautics_,
+_Sea-planes_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Barber, _The Aeroplane Speaks_; H. Barber,
+_Aerobatics_; Hamel and Turner, _Flying_; Borlase Mathews, _Aviation Pocket
+Book_; Pippard and Pritchard, _Aeroplane Structures_; Judge, _Design of
+Aeroplanes_; Judge, _Properties of Aerofoils_; Loening, _Military
+Aeroplanes_.
+
+AEROSTATIC PRESS, a contrivance for extracting the colouring matter from
+dye-woods and for similar purposes. A liquid intended to carry with it the
+extract is brought into contact with the substance containing it, and a
+vacuum being made by an air-pump suitably applied, the pressure of the
+atmosphere forces the liquid through the intervening mass, carrying the
+colour or other soluble matter with it.
+
+AEROSTAT'ICS, that branch of physics which treats of the weight, pressure,
+and equilibrium of air and gases. See _Air_; _Air-pump_; _Barometer_;
+_Gases, Properties of_; _Hydrostatics_; _Meteorology_; &c.
+
+AEROTHERAPEUTICS is the treatment of disease by atmospheres artificially
+prepared and differing from the normal in compression or pressure or
+temperature. It is divided into:
+
+1. _Medical atmospheres_ artificially produced by changing the proportions
+of the normal gases of the atmosphere, or by adding gases to the
+atmosphere. These are applied by inhalation in various ways:
+
+(a) By the inhalation of gases--_ether_; _chloroform_; _nitrous oxide_ (see
+_Anaesthetics_). _Oxygen_ under pressure in a cylinder, with outlet applied
+close to the patient's mouth and nose, is used in severe cases of
+pneumonia, cardiac disease, or wherever breathing is difficult. _Amyl
+nitrate_ is inhaled on the breaking of the glass capsules in which it is
+contained close to the patient's mouth; this treatment is used in cardiac
+disease and other conditions to recover blood pressure. _Chlorine_ and
+_iodine_ are used in cases of throat and bronchial affections by inhaling
+the vapour itself for a short time, or by inhaling air strongly impregnated
+with the substance.
+
+(b) By inhalation of substances requiring heat for volatilization, e.g.
+_mercury_ and _sulphur_. The patient, enveloped in a sheet, sits on a
+chair, while the substance, placed in a vessel on the floor inside the
+enveloping sheet near the patient, is heated by a spirit lamp or similar
+method. _Mercury_ is used for chronic and syphilitic laryngitis and
+pharyngitis; _sulphur_ for scabies and other skin diseases.
+
+(c) By inhalation of steam or warm-water vapour with a drug added.
+Apparatus of various kinds is used, the simplest of which is a wide-mouthed
+jug filled with boiling water to which the drug has been added. The patient
+takes a deep breath, drawing the vapour into his mouth up a napkin arranged
+in the form of a tube. More complicated forms of apparatus are steam-sprays
+and nebulizers for laryngeal and bronchial troubles.
+
+(d) Cold medicated sprays and inhalations. Throat- and nose-sprays are much
+used, also sprays for the administration of local anaesthetics (ethyl
+chloride). Respirators are made of wire gauze with cotton wool or a sponge;
+the substance is poured on and inhaled by the patient.
+
+For (c) and (d) the following drugs are used: carbolic acid, creosote,
+terebine, thymol, eucalyptol, zinc sulphate, in phthisis and bronchial
+affections; and eusol, izal, lysol, &c., for disinfection and fumigation.
+
+2. _Changes produced by variation in barometric pressure considered in
+treatment of disease_:
+
+Normal barometric pressure at sea-level, 29-30 inches; at Davos (5200
+feet), 25 inches; at summit of Pike's Peak, Colorado (14,000 feet), 17 1/2
+inches; in balloon ascent (Glaisher and Coxwell) of 29,000 feet, 9 3/4
+inches.
+
+The effects of high pressure are seen in divers, caisson workers, miners.
+The effects of low pressure are seen in balloonists, airmen. The effect of
+sudden return to normal from high pressure is seen in cases of caisson
+disease (q.v.). The effects of low pressure were first applied to the human
+body in 1835 by V.T. Junot. He contrived a hollow copper ball, 4 yards in
+diameter, capable of containing a man, and by pumping out air gradually,
+produced the effects of low pressure. This principle was then applied by
+him locally by cupping-glasses similar in shape to the upper part of a
+wineglass. There are two types of cupping:
+
+(a) In _wet cupping_ an incision is made in the skin of the part to be
+treated. The air inside the glass is exhausted by introducing a lighted
+match, then the open end of the glass is immediately applied to the surface
+of the skin.
+
+(b) In _dry cupping_ the treatment is similarly carried out, but no
+incision is made.
+
+The low pressure (partial vacuum) draws blood to the part. Cupping is used
+in congestion of internal organs, e.g. lungs, kidneys.
+
+The artificial application of air to lungs at varying pressure is carried
+out by inspiring rarefied air or compressed air and expiring into rarefied
+air or into compressed air. Only inspiring compressed air, or expiring into
+rarefied air, can be practically applied. There are many kinds of apparatus
+for this. The best is the compressed-air bath (seen at Brompton Hospital,
+London), consisting of three parts--the engine, receiver, and air-chamber.
+
+The patient is placed in this air-chamber, where he remains for two hours,
+during which time the pressure is usually raised from half again to double
+normal. For the first half-hour the pressure is gradually raised, and is
+maintained at the same abnormal height for one hour; for the last half-hour
+it is reduced again gradually to normal. The patient first experiences an
+unpleasant sensation in the throat. This is relieved by swallowing or by
+drinking water; then pain in the ear-drums; the voice becomes shriller.
+These are early signs of the effects of high pressure, and are seen to a
+more marked degree in cases where a man has descended suddenly into a mine,
+caisson, &c. Compressed air-baths are used in cases of asthma, bronchitis,
+emphysema, anaemia.
+
+Respiratory gymnastics are of value for defective breathing due to badly
+formed chests or injury and disease of the lungs. There are various forms
+of artificial breathing exercises and many ways of using artificial aids,
+e.g. breathing into bottles connected together by tubes and partly filled
+with water. The water is forced from one bottle to another by the
+respiratory effort of the patient.
+
+AERSCHOT, town in Belgium, province of Brabant, on the Demer, a tributary
+of the Dyle. It was occupied by the Germans in Aug., 1914. Pop. 7800.
+
+AESCHINES (es'ki-n[=e]z), a celebrated Athenian orator, the rival and
+opponent of Demosthenes, was born in 389 B.C. and died in 314. He headed
+the Macedonian party in Greece, or those in favour of an alliance with
+Philip, while Demosthenes took the opposite side. Having failed in 330 B.C.
+in a prosecution against Ctesiphon for proposing to bestow a crown of gold
+upon Demosthenes for his services to the State (whence the oration of
+Demosthenes 'On the Crown') he left Athens, and subsequently established a
+school of eloquence at Rhodes. Three of his orations are extant. Aeschines
+should not be confounded with his namesake, the Athenian philosopher and
+intimate friend of Socrates.
+
+AESCHYLUS (es'ki-lus), the first in time of the three great tragic poets of
+Greece, born at Eleusis, in Attica, 525 B.C., died in Sicily 456. Before he
+gained distinction as a dramatist he had fought at the battle of Marathon
+(490), as he afterwards did at Artemisium, Salamis, and Plataea. He first
+gained the prize for tragedy in 484 B.C. _The Persians_, the earliest of
+his extant pieces, formed part of a trilogy which gained the prize in 472
+B.C. In 468 B.C. he was defeated by Sophocles, and then is said to have
+gone to the Court of Hiero, King of Syracuse. Altogether he is reputed to
+have composed ninety plays and gained thirteen triumphs. Only seven of his
+tragedies are extant: _The Persians_, _Seven against Thebes_, _Suppliants_,
+_Prometheus_, _Agamemnon_, _Choephori_, and _Eumenides_, the last three
+forming a trilogy on the story of Orestes, represented in 458 B.C.
+Aeschylus may be called the creator of Greek tragedy, both from the
+splendour of his dramatic writings and from the scenic improvements and
+accessories he introduced. Till his time only one actor had appeared on the
+stage at a time, and by bringing on a second he was really the founder of
+dramatic dialogue. His style was grand, daring, and full of energy, and his
+choruses, though difficult, are among the noblest pieces of poetry in the
+world. His plays have little or no plot, and his characters are drawn by a
+few powerful strokes. There are English poetical translations of his plays
+by Blackie, Plumptre, Swanwick, Campbell, Robert Browning, and Elizabeth
+Barrett Browning.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bishop Copleston, _Aeschylus_, in English
+Classics for Modern Readers Series (Blackwood & Son); Miss J. Case,
+Translation of _Prometheus Vinctus_ (Dent).
+
+AESCULA'PIUS (Gr. _Askl[=e]pios_), the god of medicine among the Greeks and
+afterwards adopted by the Romans, usually said to have been a son of Apollo
+and the nymph Coronis. He was worshipped in particular at Epidaurus, in the
+Peloponnesus, where a temple with a grove was dedicated to him. The sick
+who visited his temple had to spend one or more nights in the sanctuary,
+after which the remedies to be used were revealed in a dream. Those who
+were cured offered a sacrifice to Aesculapius, commonly a cock. He is often
+represented with a large beard, holding a knotty staff, round which is
+entwined a serpent, the serpent being specially his symbol. The staff and
+serpent have been adopted as a badge by the Royal Army Medical Corps.
+Sometimes Aesculapius is represented under the image of a serpent
+only.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Dyer, _The Gods of Greece_; W. H. D. Rouse, _Greek
+Votive Offerings_.
+
+AES'CULUS, the genus of plants to which belongs the horse-chestnut.
+
+AESIR, in Scandinavian mythology, the eleven chief gods, besides Odin. They
+are: Thor, Balder, Ty or Tyr, Bragi, Heimdal, Hod, Vidar, Vali, Ull,
+Forseti, and Loki or Lopt. See _Scandinavian Mythology_.
+
+AE'SOP, the Greek fabulist, is said to have been a contemporary of Croesus
+and Solon, and thus probably lived about the middle of the sixth century
+(620-550) B.C. But so little is known of his life that his existence has
+been called in question. He is said to have been originally a slave, and to
+have received his freedom from a Samian master, Iadmon. He then visited the
+court of Croesus, and is also said to have visited Pisistratus at Athens.
+Finally he was sent by Croesus to Delphi to distribute a sum of money to
+each of the citizens. For some reason he refused to distribute the money,
+whereupon the Delphians, enraged, threw him from a precipice and killed
+him. No works of Aesop are extant, and it is doubtful whether he wrote any.
+Bentley inclined to the supposition that his fables were delivered orally
+and perpetuated by repetition. Such fables are spoken of both by
+Aristophanes and Plato. Phaedrus turned into Latin verse the Aesopian
+fables current in his day, with additions of his own. In modern times
+several collections claiming to be Aesop's fables have been published. Cf.
+J. Jacobs, _The Fables of Aesop_.
+
+AESTHET'ICS (Gr. _aisth[=e]tikos_, pertaining to perception), the
+philosophy of the beautiful; the name given to the branch of philosophy or
+of science which is concerned with that class of emotions, or with those
+attributes, real or apparent, of objects generally comprehended under the
+term _beauty_, and other related expressions. The term aesthetics first
+received this application from Baumgarten (1714-62), a German philosopher,
+who was the first modern writer to deal systematically with the subject,
+though the beautiful had received attention at the hands of philosophers
+from early times. Socrates, according to Xenophon, regarded the beautiful
+as coincident with the good, and both as resolvable into the useful. Plato,
+in accordance with his idealistic theory, held the existence of an absolute
+beauty, which is the ground of beauty in all things. He also asserted the
+intimate union of the good, the beautiful, and the true. Aristotle treated
+of the subject in much more detail than Plato, but chiefly from the
+scientific or critical point of view. In his treatises on _Poetics_ and
+_Rhetoric_ he lays down a theory of art, and establishes principles of
+beauty. His philosophical views were in many respects opposed to those of
+Plato. He does not admit an absolute conception of the beautiful; but he
+distinguishes beauty from the good, the useful, the fit, and the necessary.
+He resolves beauty into certain elements, as order, symmetry, definiteness.
+A distinction of beauty, according to him, is the absence of lust or desire
+in the pleasure it excites. Beauty has no utilitarian or ethical object;
+the aim of art is merely to give immediate pleasure; its essence is
+imitation. Plotinus agrees with Plato, and disagrees with Aristotle, in
+holding that beauty may subsist in single and simple objects, and
+consequently in restoring the absolute conception of beauty. He differs
+from Plato and Aristotle in raising art above nature. Baumgarten's
+treatment of aesthetics is essentially Platonic. He made the division of
+philosophy into logic, ethics, and aesthetics; the first dealing with
+knowledge, the second with action (will and desire), the third with beauty.
+He limits aesthetics to the conceptions derived from the senses, and makes
+them consist in confused or obscured conceptions, in contradistinction to
+logical knowledge, which consists in clear conceptions. Kant, in his
+_Critique of the Power of Judgment_, defines beauty in reference to his
+four categories, quantity, quality, relation, and modality. In accordance
+with the subjective character of his system he denies an absolute
+conception of beauty, but his detailed treatment of the subject is
+inconsistent with the denial. Thus he attributes a beauty to single colours
+and tones, not on any plea of complexity, but on the ground of purity. He
+holds also that the highest meaning of beauty is to symbolize moral good,
+and arbitrarily attaches moral characters to the seven primary colours. The
+value of art is mediate, and the beauty of art is inferior to that of
+nature. The treatment of beauty in the systems of Schelling and Hegel could
+with difficulty be made comprehensible without a detailed reference to the
+principles of these remarkable speculations. English writers on beauty are
+numerous, but they rarely ascend to the heights of German speculation.
+Shaftesbury adopted the notion that beauty is perceived by a special
+internal sense; in which he was followed by Hutcheson, who held that beauty
+existed only in the perceiving mind, and not in the object. Numerous
+English writers, among whom the principal are Alison and Jeffrey, have
+supported the theory that the source of beauty is to be found in
+association--a theory analogous to that which places morality in sympathy.
+The ability of its supporters gave this view a temporary popularity, but
+its baselessness has been effectively exposed by successive critics. Dugald
+Stewart attempted to show that there is no common quality in the beautiful
+beyond that of producing a certain refined pleasure; and Bain agrees with
+this criticism, but endeavours to restrict the beautiful within a group of
+emotions chiefly excited by association or combination of simpler
+elementary feelings. Herbert Spencer has a theory of beauty which is
+subservient to the theory of evolution. He makes beauty consist in the play
+of the higher powers of perception and emotion, defined as an activity not
+directly subservient to any processes conducive to life, but being
+gratifications sought for themselves alone. He classifies aesthetic
+pleasures according to the complexity of the emotions excited, or the
+number of powers duly exercised; and he attributes the depth and apparent
+vagueness of musical emotions to associations with vocal tones built up
+during vast ages. Among numerous writers who have made valuable
+contributions to the scientific discussion of aesthetics may be mentioned
+Winckelmann, Lessing, Richter, the Schlegels, Gervinus, Helmholtz, Ruskin,
+Home, Hogarth, Burke, Taine, and others.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Herbert Spencer,
+_Principles of Psychology_; Grant Allen, _Physiological Aesthetics_; A.
+Bain, _Emotions and Will_; B. Bosanquet, _History of Aesthetics_; W.
+Knight, _Philosophy of the Beautiful_.
+
+AESTIVA'TION, a botanical term applied to the arrangement of the parts of a
+flower in the flower-bud previous to the opening of the bud.--The term is
+also applied to the summer sleep of animals. See _Dormant State_.
+
+AETH'ELING. See _Atheling_.
+
+AE'THER. See _Ether_.
+
+AETHIO'PIA. See _Ethiopia_.
+
+AE'THRIOSCOPE (Gr. _aithrios_, clear, cloudless), an instrument (devised by
+Sir John Leslie) for measuring radiation towards a clear sky, consisting of
+a metallic cup with a highly-polished interior of paraboloid shape, in the
+focus of which is placed one bulb of a differential thermometer, the other
+being outside. The inside bulb at once begins to radiate heat when exposed
+to a clear sky, and the extent to which this takes place is shown by the
+scale of the thermometer. The aethrioscope also indicates the presence of
+invisible aqueous vapour in the atmosphere, radiation being less than when
+the air is dry.
+
+AETHU'SA, a genus of umbelliferous plants. See _Fool's Parsley_.
+
+AETIOLOGY (Gr. _aitia_, cause, and _logos_, discourse), the theory of the
+physical causes of any class of phenomena, or the science of causation. It
+is, however, mainly used in medicine, and deals with the causes and origin
+of disease.
+
+AE'TIUS, a general of the western Roman Empire, born A.D. 396; murdered
+454. As commander in the reign of Valentinian III he defended the empire
+against the Huns, Visigoths, Franks, Burgundians, &c., completely defeating
+the Huns under Attila in a great battle at Chalons in 451. For twenty years
+he was at the head of public affairs, and in the end was murdered by
+Valentinian, who was jealous of his power.
+
+AET'NA. See _Etna_.
+
+AETO'LIA, a western division of northern Greece, separated on the west by
+the Achelous from Acarnania and washed by the Corinthian Gulf on the south.
+The inhabitants are little heard of in Greek history till the Peloponnesian
+war, at which time they were notorious among the Greeks for the rudeness of
+their manners. Aetolia, in conjunction with Acarnania, now forms a nomarchy
+of the kingdom of Greece.
+
+AFANASIEV, Alexander Nicolaievitsh, Russian folklorist, born in 1826.
+Besides numerous articles and essays he wrote several monumental works:
+_The Ancient Slav's Poetic View of Nature_ (3 vols., 1866-9), _Russian
+Tales and Fables for Children_ (3 vols., 1870), &c. He died in 1871.
+
+AFFIDA'VIT, a written statement of facts upon oath or affirmation.
+Affidavits are generally made use of when evidence is to be laid before a
+judge or a court, while evidence brought before a jury is delivered orally.
+The person making the affidavit signs his name at the bottom of it, and
+swears that the statements contained in it are true. The affidavit may be
+sworn to in open court, or before a magistrate or other duly qualified
+person; it may be made abroad before a qualified British state official.
+
+AFFIN'ITY, in chemistry, the force by which unlike kinds of matter combine
+so intimately that the properties of the constituents are lost, and a
+compound with new properties is produced. Of the force itself we know
+little or nothing. It is not the same under all conditions, being very much
+modified by circumstances, especially temperature. The usual effect of
+increase of temperature is to diminish affinity and ultimately to cause the
+separation of a compound into its constituents; and there is probably for
+every compound a temperature above which it could not exist, but would be
+broken up. Where two elements combine to form a compound, heat is almost
+always evolved, and the amount evolved serves as a measure of the affinity.
+In order that chemical affinity may come into play it is necessary that the
+substances should be in contact, and usually one of them at least is a
+fluid or a gas. The results produced by chemical combination are endlessly
+varied. Colour, taste, and smell are changed, destroyed, or created;
+harmless constituents produce strong poisons, strong poisons produce
+harmless compounds.
+
+AFFINITY, in law, is that degree of connection which subsists between one
+of two married persons and the blood relations of the other. It is no real
+kindred (consanguinity). A person cannot, by legal succession, receive an
+inheritance from a relation by affinity; neither does it extend to the
+nearest relations of husband and wife so as to create a mutual relation
+between them. The degrees of affinity are computed in the same way as those
+of consanguinity or blood. All legal impediments arising from affinity
+cease upon the death of the husband or wife, excepting those which relate
+to the marriage of the survivor.
+
+AFFIRMA'TION, a solemn declaration by Quakers, Moravians, Dunkers, and
+others, who object to taking an oath, in confirmation of their testimony in
+courts of law, or of their statements on other occasions on which the
+sanction of an oath is required of other persons. In England the form for
+Quakers is, 'I do solemnly, sincerely, and truly declare and affirm'.
+Affirmation is generally allowed to be substituted for an oath in all cases
+where a person refuses to take an oath from conscientious motives, if the
+judge is satisfied that the motives are conscientious. False affirmation is
+subjected to the same penalties as perjury.
+
+AFFREIGHTMENT means the contract of carriage of goods by sea, by which the
+shipowner undertakes to carry goods in his ship for hire or _freight_.
+Unless otherwise stipulated, the merchant or freighter is only bound to pay
+the freight upon delivery of the goods at the agreed destination. If the
+voyage is abandoned, the merchant may claim his goods without any payment.
+The merchant must load and discharge his cargo within the _lay-days_ or
+stipulated time, if any; otherwise within a reasonable time. Failure
+entails liability in damages--known as _demurrage_--for undue detention of
+the ship. The merchant will also be liable in damages--known as
+_dead-freight_--if he fails to furnish the full cargo promised. The
+shipowner has a lien on the goods for their own freight and charges, but
+not for a general balance. Nor has he any lien for dead-freight or
+demurrage. All such liens may be validly stipulated for in the contract.
+They are purely possessory as contrasted with the so-called maritime liens
+for seamen's and shipmasters' wages, which are valid without possession.
+There is no lien for _advance freight_, which in Scotland is repayable if
+the cargo is lost at sea or delivery otherwise prevented, but not so in
+England. In Scotland, accordingly, the burden of insuring advance freight
+falls upon the shipowner, in England upon the merchant.
+
+The main obligations upon the shipowner are to provide a seaworthy vessel,
+carry without undue delay, and deliver the goods in the same condition as
+they were shipped. Unless otherwise agreed, he is liable for damage or loss
+through negligence, and if he be a common carrier, as he frequently is,
+even the absence of negligence may not save him. There is nothing in
+British law, however, to prevent him from contracting out of all
+responsibility for the safety of goods committed to his care, and he
+generally does so, either by inserting what is known as an 'exception
+clause' in the document evidencing the contract, viz. the Bill of Lading,
+or by giving public notice that he only accepts goods upon that footing. In
+this respect the position of shipowners is more favourable than that of
+railway companies and other land carriers, whose freedom of contract is
+curtailed by statute.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. G. Carver, _Carriage by Sea_; Sir
+T. E. Scrutton, _Contract of Affreightment_.
+
+AFFRIQUE ([.a]f-r[=e]k), St., a town of southern France, department of
+Aveyron.
+
+AFGHANISTAN ([.a]f-g[:a]n'i-st[:a]n), that is, the land of the Afghans, a
+country in Asia, bounded on the east by the N. W. Frontier Province, &c.,
+on the south by Baluchistan, on the west by the Persian province of
+Khorasan, and on the north by Bukhara and Russian Turkestan. The eastern
+and southern boundaries were settled in 1893, whilst the boundary towards
+Persia was demarcated between March, 1903, and May, 1905. The area may be
+set down at about 250,000 sq. miles. The population is estimated at
+6,000,000. Afghanistan consists chiefly of lofty, bare, uninhabited
+tablelands, sandy barren plains, ranges of snow-covered mountains, offsets
+of the Hindu Kush or the Himalaya, and deep ravines and valleys. Many of
+the last are well watered and very fertile, but about four-fifths of the
+whole surface is rocky, mountainous, and unproductive. The surface on the
+north-east is covered with lofty ranges belonging to the Hindu Kush, whose
+heights are often 18,000 and sometimes reach perhaps 25,000 feet. The whole
+north-eastern portion of the country has a general elevation of over 6000
+feet; but towards the south-west, in which direction the principal mountain
+chains of the interior run, the general elevation declines to not more than
+1600 feet. In the interior the mountains sometimes reach the height of
+15,000 feet. Great part of the frontier towards India consists of the
+Suleiman range, 12,000 feet high. There are numerous practicable avenues of
+communication between Afghanistan and India, among the most extensively
+used being the famous Khyber Pass, by which the River Kabul enters the
+Punjab; the Gomul Pass, also leading to the Punjab; and the Bolan Pass on
+the south, through which the route passes to Sind. Of the rivers the
+largest is the Helmund, which flows in a south-westerly direction more than
+400 miles, till it enters the Hamoon or Seistan swamp. It receives the
+Arghandab, a considerable stream. Next in importance are the Kabul in the
+north-east, which drains to the Indus, and the Hari Rud in the north-west,
+which, like other Afghan streams, loses itself in the sand. The climate is
+extremely cold in the higher, and intensely hot in the lower regions, yet
+on the whole it is salubrious. The most common trees are the pine, oak,
+birch, and walnut. In the valleys fruits, in the greatest variety and
+abundance, grow wild. The principal crops are wheat (forming the staple
+food of the people), barley, rice, and maize. Other crops are tobacco,
+sugar-cane, and cotton. The chief domestic animals are the dromedary, the
+horse, ass, and mule, the ox, sheep with large fine fleeces and enormous
+fat tails, and goats; of wild animals there are the tiger, bears, leopards,
+wolves, jackal, hyena, foxes, &c. The chief towns are Kabul (the capital),
+Kandahar, Ghuzni, and Herat. The inhabitants belong to different races, but
+the Afghans proper form the great mass of the people. They are allied in
+blood to the Persians, and are divided into a number of tribes, among which
+the Duranis and Ghiljis are the most important. The Afghans, claiming
+descent from King Saul, are called by their own ancient chroniclers
+Beni-Israel. They are bold, hardy, and warlike, fond of freedom and
+resolute in maintaining it, but of a restless, turbulent temper, and much
+given to plunder. Tribal dissensions are constantly in existence, and
+seldom or never do all the Afghans pay allegiance to the nominal ruler of
+their country. Their language (Pushtu) is distinct from the Persian, though
+it contains a great number of Persian words, and is written, like the
+Persian, with the Arabic characters. In religion they are Mahommedans of
+the Sunnite sect.
+
+After having been subjugated by Alexander the Great, the country of the
+Afghans fell successively under the sway, actual or nominal, of Parthians,
+Seleucidae, Persians, and Arabs. Djinghiz Khan conquered Afghanistan in the
+twelfth century and Timur in the fourteenth. In 1504 Sultan Baber took
+Cabul and founded the Mogul dynasty in India; Afghanistan thus formed part
+of the great empire of Delhi. In 1738 the country was conquered by the
+Persians under Nadir Shah. On his death in 1747 Ahmed Shah, one of his
+generals, obtained the sovereignty of Afghanistan, and became the founder
+of a dynasty which lasted about eighty years. At the end of that time Dost
+Mohammed, the ruler of Cabul, had acquired a preponderating influence in
+the country. On account of his dealings with the Russians the British
+resolved to dethrone him and restore Shah Shuja, a former ruler. In April,
+1839, a British army under Sir John Keane entered Afghanistan, occupied
+Cabul, and placed Shah Shuja on the throne, a force of 8000 being left to
+support the new sovereign. Sir W. Macnaghten remained as envoy at Cabul,
+with Sir Alexander Burnes as assistant envoy. The Afghans soon organized a
+widespread insurrection, which came to a head on 2nd Nov., 1841, when
+Burnes and a number of British officers, besides women and children, were
+murdered, Macnaghten being murdered not long after. The other British
+leaders now made a treaty with the Afghans, at whose head was Akbar, son of
+Dost Mohammed, agreeing to withdraw the forces from the country, while the
+Afghans were to furnish them with provisions and escort them on their way.
+On 6th Jan., 1842, the British left Cabul and began their most disastrous
+retreat. The cold was intense, they had almost no food--for the treacherous
+Afghans did not fulfil their promises--and day after day they were assailed
+by bodies of the enemy. By the 13th 26,000 persons, including
+camp-followers, women and children, were destroyed. Some were kept as
+prisoners, but only one man, Dr. Brydon, reached Jelalabad, which, as well
+as Kandahar, was still held by British troops. In a few months General
+Pollock, with a fresh army from India, retook Cabul and soon finished the
+war. Shah Shuja having been assassinated, Dost Mohammed again obtained the
+throne of Cabul, and acquired extensive power in Afghanistan. He joined
+with the Sikhs against the British, but afterwards made an offensive and
+defensive alliance with the latter. He died in 1863, having nominated his
+son Shere Ali his successor. Shere Ali entered into friendly relations with
+the British, but in 1878, having repulsed a British envoy and refused to
+receive a British mission (a Russian mission being meantime at his Court),
+war was declared against him, and the British troops entered Afghanistan.
+They met with comparatively little resistance; the Ameer fled to Turkestan,
+where he soon after died; and his son Yakoob Khan having succeeded him
+concluded a treaty with the British (at Gandamak, May, 1879), in which a
+certain extension of the British frontier, the control by Britain of the
+foreign policy of Afghanistan, and the residence of a British envoy in
+Cabul, were the chief stipulations. Not long after this settlement, the
+British resident at Cabul, Sir Louis P. Cavagnari, and the other members of
+the mission were treacherously attacked and slain by the Afghans, and
+troops had again to be sent into the country. Cabul was again occupied, and
+Kandahar and Ghazni were also relieved; while Yakoob Khan was sent to
+imprisonment in India. In 1880 Abdur-Rahman, a grandson of Dost Mohammed,
+was recognized by Britain as ameer of the country. He was on friendly terms
+with the British during his reign, which ended with his death in 1901, his
+son Habibullah being his successor. He had adopted the title of
+Sirajul-Millat wa ud-din, 'Lamp of the Nation and Religion'. In a treaty
+signed on 21st March, 1905, the Ameer recognized the engagements which his
+father had entered into with the British Government. Encroachments by the
+Russians on territory claimed by Afghanistan almost brought about a rupture
+between Britain and Russia in 1885, and led to the delimitation of the
+frontier of Afghanistan on the side next Russia. On 31st Aug., 1907, an
+Anglo-Russian Convention relating to Afghanistan was signed. The Russian
+Government recognized Afghanistan as outside the Russian sphere of
+influence, whilst Great Britain undertook neither to annex nor occupy any
+portion of Afghanistan. In spite of German intrigues, the Ameer refused, in
+1915, the inducements held out to him to abandon his British ally. He was
+assassinated on 20th Feb., 1919, and was succeeded by his third son
+Amanullah. The new Ameer sought to gain popularity with his subjects by
+embarking on an unprovoked war of aggression upon India. Hostilities broke
+out in May, 1919, and ended with a peace treaty signed at Rawalpindi on 8th
+Aug., 1919. In 1922 the first Afghan minister was appointed to London
+(instead of to Delhi).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: MacGregor, _Gazetteer of
+Afghanistan_; Malleson, _History of Afghanistan_; Forbes, _The Afghan
+Wars_; Field-Marshal Earl Roberts, _Forty-one Years in India_; J. G. Lyons,
+_Afghanistan: the Buffer State_.
+
+AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR ('opium-black-castle'), a city of Asia Minor, 170 miles
+E.S.E. of Constantinople, with manufactures of woollen goods, and a trade
+in opium (_afium_), &c. Pop. about 20,000.
+
+AFRAG'OLA, a town of Italy, about 6 miles N.N.E. of Naples. Pop. 23,155.
+
+AFRA'NIUS, Lucius, a Roman comic dramatist who flourished about the
+beginning of the first century B.C., and of whose writings only fragments
+remain.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+AF'RICA, one of the three great divisions of the Old World, and the second
+in extent of the five principal continents of the globe, forming a vast
+peninsula joined to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. It is of a compact form,
+with few important projections or indentations, and having therefore a very
+small extent of coast-line (about 16,000 miles, or much less than that of
+Europe) in proportion to its area. This continent extends from 37deg 21' N.
+lat. to 34deg 51' S. lat., and the extreme points, Cape Blanco and Cape
+Agulhas, are nearly 5000 miles apart. From west to east, between Cape
+Verde, lon. 17deg 34' W., and Cape Guardafui, lon. 51deg 16' E., the
+distance is about 4600 miles. The area is estimated at 11,500,000 sq.
+miles, or more than three times that of Europe. The islands belonging to
+Africa are not numerous, and, except Madagascar, none of them are large.
+They include Madeira, the Canaries, Cape Verde Islands, Fernando Po,
+Principe, Sao Thome, Ascension, St. Helena, Mauritius, Reunion, the
+Comoros, Socotra, &c.
+
+The interior of Africa is as yet imperfectly known, but we know enough of
+the continent as a whole to be able to point to some general features that
+characterize it. One of these is that almost all round it at no great
+distance from the sea, and, roughly speaking, parallel with the coast-line,
+we find ranges of mountains or elevated lands forming the outer edges of
+interior plateaux. The most striking feature of Northern Africa is the
+immense tract known as the Sahara or Great Desert, which is enclosed on the
+north by the Atlas Mountains (greatest height, 12,000 to 15,000 feet), the
+plateau of Barbary and that of Barqa, on the east by the mountains along
+the west coast of the Red Sea, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and on
+the south by the Sudan. The Sahara is by no means the sea of sand it has
+sometimes been represented: it contains elevated plateaux and even
+mountains radiating in all directions, with habitable valleys between. A
+considerable nomadic population is scattered over the habitable parts, and
+in the more favoured regions there are settled communities. The Sudan,
+which lies to the south of the Sahara, and separates it from the more
+elevated plateau of Southern Africa, forms a belt of pastoral country
+across Africa, and includes the countries on the Niger, around Lake Tchad
+(or Chad), and eastwards to the elevated region of Abyssinia. Southern
+Africa as a whole is much more fertile and well watered than Northern
+Africa, though it also has a desert tract of considerable extent (the
+Kalahari Desert). This division of the continent consists of a tableland,
+or series of tablelands, of considerable elevation and great diversity of
+surface, exhibiting hollows filled with great lakes, and terraces over
+which the rivers break in falls and rapids, as they find their way to the
+low-lying coast tracts. The mountains which enclose Southern Africa are
+mostly much higher on the east than on the west, the most northerly of the
+former being those of Abyssinia, with heights of 10,000 to 14,000 or 16,000
+feet, while the eastern edge of the Abyssinian plateau presents a steep
+unbroken line of 7000 feet in height for many hundred miles. Farther south,
+and between the great lakes and the Indian Ocean, we find Mounts Kenya and
+Kilimanjaro (19,500 feet), the loftiest in Africa, covered with perpetual
+snow. Of the continuation of this mountain boundary we shall only mention
+the Drakenberg Mountains, which stretch to the southern extremity of the
+continent, reaching, in Cathkin Peak, Natal, the height of over 10,000
+feet. Of the mountains that form the western border the highest are the
+Cameroon Mountains, which rise to a height of 13,000 feet at the inner
+angle of the Gulf of Guinea. The average elevation of the southern plateau
+is from 3000 to 4000 feet.
+
+The Nile is the only great river of Africa which flows into the
+Mediterranean. It receives its waters primarily from the great lake
+Victoria Nyanza, which lies under the equator, and in its upper course is
+fed by tributary streams of great size, but for the last 1200 miles of its
+course it has not a single affluent. It drains an area of more than
+1,000,000 sq. miles. The Indian Ocean receives numerous rivers; but the
+only great river of South Africa which enters that ocean is the Zambezi,
+the fourth in size of the continent, and having in its course the Victoria
+Falls, one of the greatest waterfalls in the world. In Southern Africa
+also, but flowing westward and entering the Atlantic, is the Congo, which
+takes its origin from a series of lakes and marshes in the interior, is fed
+by great tributaries, and is the first in volume of all the African rivers,
+carrying to the ocean more water than the Mississippi. Unlike most of the
+African rivers, the mouth of the Congo forms an estuary. Of the other
+Atlantic rivers, the Senegal, the Gambia, and the Niger are the largest,
+the last being third among African streams.
+
+With the exception of Lake Tchad there are no great lakes in the northern
+division of Africa, whereas in the number and magnificence of its lakes the
+southern division almost rivals North America. Here are the Victoria and
+Albert Nyanza, Lakes Tanganyika, Nyasa, Shirwa, Bangweulu, Moero, and other
+lakes. Of these the Victoria and Albert belong to the basin of the Nile;
+Tanganyika, Bangweulu, and Moero to that of the Congo; Nyasa, by its
+affluent the Shire, to the Zambezi. Lake Tchad on the borders of the
+northern desert region is now known to be much smaller than was formerly
+believed, but varies in area according to the season. Lake Ngami in the far
+south is now a mere swamp.
+
+The climate of Africa is mainly influenced by the fact that it lies almost
+entirely within the tropics. In the equatorial belt, both north and south,
+rain is abundant and vegetation very luxuriant, dense tropical forests
+prevailing for about 10deg on either side of the line. To the north and
+south of the equatorial belt the rainfall diminishes, and the forest region
+is succeeded by an open pastoral and agricultural country. This is followed
+by the rainless regions of the Sahara on the north and the Kalahari Desert
+on the south, extending beyond the tropics, and bordering on the
+agricultural and pastoral countries of the north and south coasts, which
+lie entirely in the temperate zone. The low coast regions of Africa are
+almost everywhere unhealthy, the Atlantic coast within the tropics being
+the most fatal region to Europeans.
+
+Among mineral productions may be mentioned gold, which is found in the
+rivers of West Africa (hence the name Gold Coast), and in Southern Africa,
+most abundantly in the Transvaal; diamonds have been found in large numbers
+in recent years in the south; iron, copper, lead, tin, and coal are also
+found.--Among plants are the baobab, the date-palm (important as a food
+plant in the north), the doum-palm, the oil-palm, the wax-palm, the
+shea-butter tree, trees yielding caoutchouc, the papyrus, the castor-oil
+plant, indigo, the coffee-plant, heaths with beautiful flowers, aloes, &c.
+Among cultivated plants are wheat, maize, millet, and other grains, cotton,
+coffee, cassava, ground-nut, yam, banana, tobacco, various fruits, &c. As
+regards both plants and animals, Northern Africa, adjoining the
+Mediterranean, is distinguished from the rest of Africa in its great
+agreement with Southern Europe.--Among the most characteristic African
+animals are the lion, hyena, jackal, gorilla, chimpanzee, baboon, African
+elephant (never domesticated, yielding much ivory to trade), hippopotamus,
+rhinoceros, giraffe, zebra, quagga, antelopes in great variety and immense
+numbers.--Among birds are the ostrich, the secretary-bird or serpent-eater,
+the honey-guide cuckoo, sacred ibis, guinea fowl.--The reptiles include the
+crocodile, chameleon, and serpents of various kinds, some of them very
+venomous. Among insects are locusts, scorpions, the tsetse-fly whose bite
+is so fatal to cattle, and white-ants.
+
+The great races of which the population of Africa mainly consists are the
+Eastern Hamites (who are not a distinct race but a blend), the Semites, the
+Negroes, and the Bantus. To the Semitic stock belong the Arabs, who form a
+considerable portion of the population in Egypt and along the north coast,
+while a portion of the inhabitants of Abyssinia is of the same race. The
+Hamites are represented, according to Sergi, by the Copts of Egypt, the
+Berbers, Kabyles, &c., of Northern Africa, and the Somali, Danakil, &c., of
+East Africa. The Negro races occupy a vast territory in the Sudan and
+Central Africa, while the Bantus occupy the greater part of Southern Africa
+from a short distance north of the equator, and include the Kaffirs,
+Bechuanas, Swahili, and allied races. In the extreme south-west are the
+Hottentots and Bushmen (the latter a dwarfish race), distinct from the
+other races as well as, probably, from each other. In Madagascar there is a
+large Malay element. To these may be added the Fulahs on the Niger and the
+Nubians on the Nile and elsewhere, who are of a brownish colour, and are
+often regarded as distinct from the other races, though sometimes classed
+with the Negroes. In religion a great proportion of the inhabitants are
+heathens of the lowest type; Mohammedanism numbers a large number of
+adherents in North Africa, and is rapidly spreading in the Sudan;
+Christianity prevails only among the Copts, the Abyssinians, and the
+natives of Madagascar, the last-named having been converted in recent
+times. Elsewhere the missionaries seem to have made but little progress.
+Over a great part of the continent civilization is at a low ebb, yet in
+some parts the natives have shown considerable skill in agriculture and
+various mechanical arts, as in weaving and metal working. Of African trade
+two features are the caravans that traverse great distances, and the trade
+in slaves that still widely prevails, though it has been greatly restricted
+in recent years. Among articles exported from Africa are palm-oil,
+diamonds, ivory, ostrich feathers, wool, cotton, gold, esparto, caoutchouc,
+&c. The population is estimated at 180,000,000. Of these a small number are
+of European origin--French in Algeria and Morocco, British and Dutch at the
+southern extremity.
+
+Great areas in Africa have been apportioned among European Powers as
+protectorates or spheres of influence. Among native States still more or
+less independent are Egypt, Abyssinia, Waday, Bagirmi, Liberia. To Britain
+belong the Cape Province, Natal, the Orange Free State and Transvaal, with
+Rhodesia, &c., farther north, a region in Eastern Africa extending from the
+sea to Lake Victoria and the headwaters of the Nile, Nigeria, Gold Coast,
+and other tracts on the west, with Mauritius, &c.; to France belong Algeria
+and Tunis, Senegambia, Zone of Morocco, territory north of the Lower Congo,
+Madagascar, &c.; the Portuguese possess Angola on the west coast and
+Mozambique on the east; Italy has a territory on the Red Sea, and part of
+Somaliland; Spain has a part of the coast of the Sahara; the Congo State is
+a colony of Belgium; Zanzibar is merged in Kenya Colony. Germany was
+deprived of her possessions in Africa during the European War, and the
+Peace Conference of 1919 appointed Great Britain, France, and Belgium to
+act as mandatories of the League of Nations.
+
+The name Africa was given by the Romans at first only to a small district
+in the immediate neighbourhood of Carthage. The Greeks called Africa Libya,
+and the Romans often used the same name. The first African exploring
+expedition on record was sent by Pharaoh Necho about the end of the seventh
+century B.C. to circumnavigate the continent. The navigators, who were
+Phoenicians, were absent three years, and according to report they
+accomplished their object. Fifty or a hundred years later, Hanno, a
+Carthaginian, made a voyage down the west coast and seems to have got as
+far as the Bight of Benin. The east coast was probably known to the
+ancients as far as Mozambique and the island of Madagascar. Of modern
+nations the Portuguese were the first to take in hand the exploration of
+Africa. In 1433 they doubled Cape Bojador, in 1441 reached Cape Blanco, in
+1442 Cape Verde, in 1462 they discovered Sierra Leone. In 1484 the
+Portuguese Diego Cam discovered the mouth of the Congo. In 1486 Bartholomew
+Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached Algoa Bay. A few years later
+a Portuguese traveller visited Abyssinia. In 1497 Vasco da Gama, who was
+commissioned to find a route by sea to India, sailed round the southern
+extremity as far as Zanzibar, discovering Natal on his way. The first
+European settlements were those of the Portuguese in Angola and Mozambique,
+soon after 1500. In 1650 the Dutch made a settlement at the Cape. In 1770
+James Bruce reached the source of the Blue Nile in Abyssinia. For the
+exploration of the interior of Africa, however, little was done before the
+close of the eighteenth century.
+
+Modern African exploration may be said to begin with Mungo Park, who
+reached the upper course of the Niger (1795-1805). Dr. Lacerda, a
+Portuguese, about the same time reached the capital of the Cazembe, in the
+centre of South Africa, where he died. During 1802-6 two Portuguese traders
+crossed the continent from Angola, through the Cazembe's dominions, to the
+Portuguese possessions on the Zambezi. During 1822-4 extensive explorations
+were made in Northern and Western Africa by Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney,
+who proceeded from Tripoli by Murzuq to Lake Tchad, and explored the
+adjacent regions; Laing, in 1826, crossed the desert from Tripoli to
+Timbuktu; Caillie, leaving Senegal, made in 1827-8 a journey to Timbuktu,
+and thence through the desert to Morocco. In 1830 Lander traced a large
+part of the course of the Niger downward to its mouth, discovering its
+tributary the Benue. In the south Livingstone, who was stationed as a
+missionary at Kolobeng, setting out from that place in 1849 discovered Lake
+Ngami. In 1851 he went north again, and came upon numerous rivers flowing
+north, affluents of the Zambezi. In 1848 and 1849 Krapf and Rebmann,
+missionaries in East Africa, discovered the mountains Kilimanjaro and
+Kenya. An expedition sent out by the British Government started from
+Tripoli in 1850 to visit the Sahara and the regions around Lake Tchad, the
+chiefs being Richardson, Overweg, and Barth. The last alone returned in
+1855, having carried his explorations over 2,000,000 sq. miles of this part
+of Africa, hitherto almost unknown. During 1853-6 Livingstone made an
+important series of explorations. He first went north-westwards, tracing
+part of the Upper Zambezi, and reached St. Paul de Loanda on the west coast
+in 1854. On his return journey he followed pretty nearly the same route
+till he reached the Zambezi, and proceeding down the river, and visiting
+its falls, called by him the Victoria Falls, he arrived at Quelimane at its
+mouth on 20th May, 1856, thus crossing the continent from sea to sea. In
+1858 he resumed his exploration of the Zambezi regions, and in various
+journeys visited Lakes Shirwa and Nyasa, sailed up the Shire to the latter
+lake, and established the general features of the geography of this part of
+Africa, returning to England in 1864. By this time the great lakes of
+equatorial Africa were becoming known, Tanganyika and Victoria having been
+discovered by Burton and Speke in 1858, and the latter having been visited
+by Speke and Grant in 1862 and found to give rise to the Nile, while the
+Albert Nyanza was discovered by Baker in 1864. In 1866 Livingstone entered
+on his last great series of explorations, the main object of which was to
+settle the position of the watersheds in the interior of the continent, and
+which he carried on till his death in 1873. His most important explorations
+on this occasion were west and south-west of Tanganyika, including the
+discovery of Lakes Bangweulu and Moero, and part of the upper course of the
+River Congo (here called Lualaba). For over two years he was lost to the
+knowledge of Europe till met with by H. M. Stanley at Tanganyika in 1871.
+Gerhard Rohlfs, in a succession of journeys from 1861 to 1874, traversed
+the Sahara in different directions, and also crossed the continent entirely
+from Tripoli to Lagos by way of Murzuq, Bornu, &c. During 1873-5 Lieutenant
+Cameron, who had been sent in search of Livingstone, surveyed Lake
+Tanganyika, explored the country to the west of it, and then travelling to
+the south-west, finally reached Benguella on the Atlantic coast. During
+1874-7 Stanley surveyed Lakes Victoria Nyanza and Tanganyika and explored
+the intervening country; then going westward to where Livingstone had
+struck the Congo he followed the river down to its mouth, thus finally
+settling its course and completing a remarkable and valuable series of
+explorations. In 1879 Serpa Pinto completed a journey across the continent
+from Benguella to Natal, and in 1881-2 Wissman and Pogge crossed it again
+from St. Paul de Loanda to Zanzibar. In recent years our knowledge of all
+parts of Africa has been greatly increased, thanks to the efforts of
+travellers, missionaries, and commercial agents. Steamers now ply on the
+Congo, and on Lakes Tanganyika, Nyasa, and Victoria, and numerous railways
+('Cape to Cairo', &c.) extend far into the continent.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mungo
+Park, _Travels_; D. Livingstone, _Missionary Travels_; Sir H. M. Stanley,
+_In Darkest Africa_; Sir H. H. Johnston, _Africa_.
+
+AFRIDIS ([.a]-fr[=e]'diz), a tribe or clan on the north-west frontier of
+India, about the Khyber Pass, who have at various times given trouble to
+the British, and are included in a new (1922) scheme of Khassadars
+(irregulars). In 1897-8 a campaign ('the Tirah campaign') had to be
+undertaken against them, costly both in men and money, before British
+authority was asserted. In 1905 the Afridis of the force called the Khyber
+Rifles formed an escort for the Prince and Princess of Wales on their visit
+to the famous pass, which was long in their charge.--Cf. Holdich, _The
+Indian Borderland_.
+
+AFRIKANDER BUND, an association dating from 1880 and founded for the
+purpose of consolidating Afrikander influence in South Africa. For a time
+it supported the policy of Cecil Rhodes, but after 1895 separated itself
+from him. After the war in 1902 the Bund was reorganized, and identified
+with the South African party whose policy is to further the federation of
+the South African colonies under the British crown.
+
+A'GA, formerly title of Turkish officers of a lower military rank, now of
+men of great wealth and influence except learned men and ecclesiastics, to
+whom the corresponding title of _effendi_, meaning 'elder brother' and
+subsequently 'master', is given.
+
+AG'ADES, a town of Africa, near the middle of the Sahara, capital of the
+Saharan oasis of Air or Asben; at one time a seat of great traffic,
+probably containing 60,000 inhabitants, now with a pop. of about 7000.
+
+AGADIR, a little town on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, the Santa Cruz May
+of the Spaniards. It was seized by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century,
+and captured by Mulai Ahmed in 1536. It was once one of the most important
+seaports of Morocco, but is now closed to commerce and only used as a
+customs station, its place being taken by Mogador. In July, 1910, the
+appearance of a French cruiser in the port of Agadir gave rise to a
+Franco-German dispute, and in 1911 Germany sent the gunboat _Panther_, and
+a few days later the _Berlin_, to Agadir for the protection of German
+subjects. See _France_, _Germany_.
+
+AGALLOCHUM (a-gal'o-kum), a fragrant wood obtained from _Aloex[)y]lon
+Agall[)o]chum_, a leguminous tree of Cochin-China, and _Aquil[=a]ria
+Agall[)o]cha_, a large tree found in north-east Bengal, abounding in resin
+and an essential oil which yields a perfume used as incense.
+
+AGAL'MATOLITE (Gr. _agalma_, image), a kind of stone, a clay-slate altered
+by heat and by the addition of alkalies, which is carved into images, &c.,
+by the Chinese.
+
+AG'AMA, a name of several lizards allied to the iguana, natives of both
+hemispheres.
+
+AGAMEM'NON, in Greek mythology, son of Atreus, King of Mycenae and Argos,
+brother of Menelaus, and commander of the allied Greeks at the siege of
+Troy. Returning home after the fall of Troy, he was treacherously
+assassinated by his wife, Clytemnestra, and her paramour, Aegisthus,
+Agamemnon's cousin. He was the father of Orestes, Iphigen[=i]a, and
+Electra.
+
+AG'AMI. See _Trumpeter_.
+
+AGAMOGENESIS (-jen'e-sis; Gr. _a_, priv., _gamos_, marriage, _genesis_,
+reproduction), the production of young without the congress of the sexes,
+one of the phenomena of alternate generation. See _Generation_ and
+_Parthenogenesis_.
+
+AGANIPPE (-nip'[=e]), daughter of the river-god Parmessos, or Termessos,
+nymph of a fountain on Mount Helicon, in Greece, sacred to the Muses, which
+had the property of inspiring with poetic fire whoever drank of it. The
+name is often given to the wife of Acrisius and mother of Danae.
+
+AGAPE (ag'a-p[=e]; Gr. _agap[=e]_, love), in ecclesiastical history, the
+love-feast or feast of charity, in use among the primitive Christians, when
+a liberal contribution was made by the rich to feed the poor. For a time
+the agape coincided with the _eucharist_, which, at its origin, was clearly
+funerary in its intention. "For as often as ye eat this bread and drink
+this cup, ye do show the Lord's death till he come." During the first three
+centuries love-feasts were held in the churches without scandal, but in
+after-times they acquired a bad reputation, not undeservedly, and they were
+condemned at the Council of Carthage in 397. Some modern sects, as the
+Wesleyans, Sandemanians, Moravians, &c., have attempted to revive this
+feast.
+
+AGAPEMONE (ag-a-pem'o-n[=e]; lit. 'the abode of love'), the name of a
+singular conventual establishment which has existed at Spaxton, near
+Bridgewater, Somersetshire, since 1859, the originator of it being a
+certain Henry James Prince, at one time a clergyman of the Church of
+England, who called himself the Witness of the First Resurrection. The life
+spent by the inmates appears to be a sort of religious epicureanism. Some
+of the proceedings of the inmates of the 'Abode of Love' have resulted in
+applications to the courts of law, where parties formerly members of the
+society have returned to the world and sought to regain their rights from
+Prince and his followers, and such cases have caused some scandal. In 1902
+Prince was succeeded by T. H. Smyth-Pigott.
+
+A'GAR-A'GAR, a dried seaweed of the Asiatic Archipelago, the _Gracilaria
+lichenoides_, much used in the East for soups and jellies, and also by
+paper and silk manufacturers.
+
+[Illustration: _Agaricus campestris_, the Common Mushroom]
+
+AGAR'IC (_Agar[)i]cus_), a large and important genus of fungi,
+characterized by having a fleshy cap or pileus, and a number of radiating
+plates or gills on which are produced the naked spores. The majority of the
+species are furnished with stems, but some are attached to the objects on
+which they grow by their pileus. Over a thousand species are known, and are
+arranged in five sections according to whether the colour of their spores
+is white, pink, brown, purple, or black. The chief British representatives
+are the common wild mushroom (_A. campestris_, L.), the Horse mushroom (_A.
+arvensis_, Schaeff.), _A. elvensis_, B. and Br., _A. silvaticus_, Schaeff.,
+&c. Many of the species are edible, like the common mushroom, and supply a
+delicious article of food, while others are deleterious and even poisonous.
+
+AGARIC MINERAL, or MOUNTAIN-MEAL, one of the purest of the native
+carbonates of lime, found chiefly in the clefts of rocks and at the bottom
+of some lakes in a loose or semi-indurated form resembling a fungus. The
+name is also applied to a stone of loose consistence found in Tuscany, of
+which bricks may be made so light as to float in water, and of which the
+ancients are supposed to have made their floating bricks. It is a hydrated
+silicate of magnesium, mixed with lime, alumina, and a small quantity of
+iron.
+
+AGA'SIAS, a Greek sculptor of Ephesus, about 400 B.C., whose celebrated
+statue, known as the Borghese Gladiator, representing a soldier contending
+with a horseman, is now in the Louvre, Paris.
+
+AGASSIZ (ag'as-[=e]), Louis John Rudolph, an eminent naturalist, born 1807,
+died 1873, son of a Swiss Protestant clergyman at Motiers, near the eastern
+extremity of the Lake of Neufchatel. He completed his education at
+Lausanne, and early developed a love of the natural sciences. He studied
+medicine at Zuerich, Heidelberg, and Munich. His attention was first
+specially directed to ichthyology by being called on to describe the
+Brazilian fishes brought to Europe from Brazil by Martius and Spix. This
+work was published in 1829, and was followed in 1830 by _Histoire Naturelle
+des Poissons d'eaux douces de l'Europe Centrale_ (Fresh-water Fishes of
+Central Europe). Directing his attention to fossil ichthyology, five
+volumes of his _Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles_ appeared between 1834
+and 1844. His researches led him to propose a new classification of fishes,
+which he divided into four classes, distinguished by the characters of the
+skin, as ganoids, placoids, cycloids, and ctenoids. His system has not been
+generally adopted, but the names of his classes have been taken as useful
+terms. In 1836 he began the study of glaciers, and in 1840 he published his
+_Etudes sur les Glaciers_, in 1847 his _Systeme Glaciaire_. From 1838 he
+had been professor of natural history at Neufchatel, when in 1846 pressing
+solicitations and attractive offers induced him to settle in America, where
+he was connected as a teacher first with Harvard University, Cambridge, and
+afterwards with Cornell University as well as Harvard. After his arrival in
+America he engaged in various investigations and explorations, and
+published numerous works, including: _Principles of Zoology_, in connection
+with Dr. A. Gould (1848); _Contributions to the Natural History of the
+United States_ (4 vols., 1857-62); _Zoologie Generale_ (1854); _Methods of
+Study in Natural History_ (1863). In 1865-6 he made zoological excursions
+and investigations in Brazil, which were productive of most valuable
+results. Agassiz held views on many important points in science different
+from those which prevailed among the scientific men of the day, and in
+particular he strongly opposed the evolution theory. Cf. _Letters and
+Recollections_, edited by G. R. Agassiz.
+
+AGASSIZ (ag'a-s[=e]), Mount, an extinct volcano in Arizona, United States,
+10,000 feet in height; a place of summer resort, near the Great Canon of
+the Colorado.
+
+AG'ATE, a semi-translucent compound mineral mass formed in the cavities of
+rocks by the successive deposition of various types of silica, or by the
+staining of a siliceous mass thus deposited along concentric zones. Bands
+or layers of various colours blended together, the base generally being
+chalcedony, and this mixed with variable proportions of jasper, amethyst,
+quartz, opal, heliotrope, and carnelian. The varying manner in which these
+materials are arranged causes the agate when polished to assume some
+characteristic appearances, and thus certain varieties are distinguished,
+as the ribbon agate, the fortification agate, the zone agate, the star
+agate, the moss agate, the clouded agate, &c. In Scotland they are cut and
+polished under the name of Scottish pebbles.
+
+AGATHAR'CHUS, a Greek painter, native of Samos, the first to paint a scene
+for the acting of tragedies. The view, however, that he applied the rules
+of perspective to theatrical scene-painting is doubtful. He flourished
+about 480 B.C.
+
+AGATH'IAS, a Greek poet and historian, born at Myrina, Asia Minor, about
+A.D. 530; author of an anthology, a collection of love poems, and a history
+of his own times, which is our chief authority for the period 552-8, during
+which time the Byzantine army was struggling against the Goths, Vandals,
+and Franks.
+
+AGATHOCLES (a-gath'o-kl[=e]z), a Sicilian Greek, one of the boldest
+adventurers of antiquity, born 361 B.C. By his ability and energy, and
+being entirely unscrupulous, he raised himself from being a potter to being
+tyrant of Syracuse and master of Sicily. Wars with the Carthaginians were
+the chief events of his life. He died at the age of seventy-two.
+
+AG'ATHON, a Greek tragic poet, a friend of Euripides, and contemporary with
+Socrates and Alcibiades, born about 445 B.C., died about 402 B.C. The
+banquet which he gave to celebrate his first dramatic victory was made the
+groundwork of Plato's _Symposium_.
+
+[Illustration: Agave (_Agave americana_)]
+
+AGAVE (a-g[=a]'v[=e]), a genus of plants, nat. ord. Amaryllidaceae (which
+includes the daffodil and narcissus), popularly known as American aloes.
+They are generally large, and have a massive tuft of fleshy leaves with a
+spiny apex. They live for many years--ten to seventy according to
+treatment--before flowering. When this takes place, the tall flowering stem
+springs from the centre of the tuft of leaves, and grows very rapidly until
+it reaches a height of 15, 20, or even 40 feet, bearing towards the end a
+large number of flowers. The best-known species is _A. americ[=a]na_, known
+as the Maguey or 'tree of wonders', introduced into Spain in 1561, and now
+extensively grown in the warmer parts of this continent as well as in Asia
+(India in particular). This and other species yield various important
+products, the chief being the fibre obtained by maceration from the leaves
+and roots, and known commercially as American aloe, pita flax, or vegetable
+silk. The sap when fermented yields a beverage resembling cider, the
+_pulque_ beer of the Spaniards, or is distilled into an intoxicating spirit
+(Mezcal or Aguardiente). The leaves are used for feeding cattle; the fibres
+of the leaves are formed into thread, cord, and ropes, and are also good
+material for paper-making; an extract from the leaves is used as a
+substitute for soap; slices of the withered flower-stem are used as
+razor-strops.
+
+AGDE ([.a]gd), a seaport of southern France, department of Herault, with a
+cathedral, an ancient and remarkable structure. The trade, chiefly
+coasting, is extensive. Pop. 9265.
+
+AGE, a period of time representing the whole or a part of the duration of
+any individual thing or being, but used more specifically in a variety of
+senses. In law _age_ is applied to the periods of life when men and women
+are enabled to do that which before, for want of years and consequently of
+judgment, they could not legally do. A male at twelve years old may take
+the oath of allegiance; at fourteen is at years of discretion, and
+therefore may choose his guardian or be an executor, although he cannot act
+until of age; and at twenty-one is at his own disposal, and may alienate
+and devise his lands, goods, and chattels. In English law a male at
+fourteen and a female at twelve may consent or disagree to marriage, but it
+cannot be celebrated without the consent of the parents or guardians until
+the parties are of age. A female at fourteen is at years of legal
+discretion, and may choose a guardian; at seventeen may be an executrix;
+and at twenty-one may dispose of herself and her lands. So that full age in
+male or female is twenty-one years, which age is completed on the day
+preceding the anniversary of a person's birth, who till that time is an
+infant, and so styled in law. In France majority is attained at twenty-one,
+whilst the marriageable age is eighteen for males and fifteen for females,
+subject to consent of parents or guardians. In England no one can take a
+seat in Parliament under twenty-one, be ordained a priest under
+twenty-four, nor made a bishop under thirty. In France a seat in the
+Chamber of Deputies may be taken only at twenty-five and in the Senate at
+forty. The law of Scotland divides life into three periods--pupilarity,
+minority, and majority. The first extends up to the time of legal puberty,
+that is, twelve years for a female and fourteen for a male, when they may
+marry; the second extends from this point up to twenty-one years, which is
+the time when majority is attained.
+
+The term is also applied to designate the successive epochs or stages of
+civilization in history or mythology. Hesiod speaks of five distinct
+ages:--1. The _golden_ or _Saturnian age_, a patriarchal and peaceful age.
+2. The _silver age_, licentious and wicked. 3. The _brazen age_, violent,
+savage, and warlike. 4. The _heroic age_, which seemed an approximation to
+a better state of things. 5. The _iron age_, when justice and honour had
+left the earth. The term is also used in such expressions as the _dark
+ages_, the _middle ages_, the _Elizabethan age_, &c.
+
+The _Archaeological Ages_ or _Periods_ are three--the Stone Age, the Bronze
+Age, and the Iron Age, these names being given in accordance with the
+materials chiefly employed for weapons, implements, &c., during the
+particular period. The Stone Age of Europe has been subdivided into
+two--the Palaeolithic or earlier, and Neolithic or later. The word _age_ in
+this sense has no reference to the lapse of time--or not necessarily
+so--but simply refers to the stage at which a people has arrived in its
+progress towards civilization; thus there are races still in their stone
+age. The Palaeolithic or earlier stone age in Europe was doubtless
+immensely earlier than the Neolithic, the latter being marked by implements
+of much greater finish than the former. See _Stone Age_.
+
+AGEN ([.a]-zha[n.]), one of the oldest towns in France, capital of
+department Lot-et-Garonne on the Garonne, 74 miles south-east of Bordeaux;
+see of a bishop; manufactures sailcloth and other articles, and has an
+extensive trade. The river is here crossed by a stone bridge, a suspension
+bridge, and a canal aqueduct. Pop. 23,294.
+
+AGENOR (a-j[=e]'nor), a mythical Greek hero, King of Phoenicia, and father
+of Europa and Cadmus. Also one of the bravest among the Trojans, slain by
+Neoptolemus.
+
+A'GENT, a person appointed by another to act for or perform any kind of
+business for him, the latter being called in relation to the former the
+_principal_. Ambassadors were originally styled diplomatic agents.--In
+India, it is the name for an officer to whom political power is given to
+deal with native states.--_Army Agent_ is a kind of military banker,
+authorized by the Government to manage the monetary affairs of a regiment.
+There are only a few of these agents, and consequently each has in charge
+the affairs of a number of different regiments.--_Crown Agents_ are
+officials appointed by the secretary of state for the colonies to act as
+commercial and financial agents in this country for the different British
+colonies that are not self-governing; those that are self-governing appoint
+their own agents, who are designated _agents-general_.--_Agent_ in
+mechanics is the general force producing a movement.
+
+AGERATUM (a-jer'a-tum), a genus of composite plants of the warmer parts of
+America, one species of which, _A. mexic[=a]num_, is a well-known
+flower-border annual with dense lavender-blue heads. From it have been
+derived several varieties with flowers of different colours used chiefly as
+bedding plants.
+
+AGER PUBLICUS. See _Agrarian Law_.
+
+AGESILAUS (a-jes-i-l[=a]'us), a king of Sparta, born in 444 B.C., and
+elevated to the throne after the death of his brother Agis II. He acquired
+renown by his exploits against the Persians, Thebans, and Athenians. Though
+a vigorous ruler, and almost adored by his soldiers, he was of small
+stature and lame from his birth. He died in Egypt in the winter of 361-360
+B.C. His life has been written by Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos.
+
+AGGLOM'ERATE, in geology, a collective name for masses consisting of
+angular fragments ejected from volcanoes. When a rock mass consists largely
+of fragments worn and rounded by water it is called a _conglomerate_, and
+such masses were originally, no doubt, gravels and shingles on sea beaches
+and river channels.
+
+AGGLU'TINATE LANGUAGES, languages in which the modifying suffixes are, as
+it were, glued on to the root, both it and the suffixes retaining a kind of
+distinctive independence and individuality, as in the Japanese, Turkish,
+and other Turanian languages, and the Basque language.
+
+AGG'REGATE, a term applied in geology to rocks composed of several
+different mineral constituents capable of being separated by mechanical
+means, as granite, where the quartz, felspar, and mica can be separated
+mechanically.--In botany it is applied to flowers composed of many small
+florets having a common undivided receptacle, the anthers being distinct
+and separate, the florets commonly standing on stalks, and each having a
+partial calyx.
+
+AGGRY BEADS, glass beads of various forms and colours, prized by the
+natives of West Africa as ornaments, and as having magical and medicinal
+virtues. Their origin and history are not well known. Such beads have been
+found in various parts of the world, including North and South America, and
+often in graves. Some authorities believe that the oldest of them are the
+work of the ancient Egyptians, or the Phoenicians, while the later are
+probably of Venetian origin.
+
+AGHA, see _Aga_.
+
+AGHRIM, see _Aughrim_.
+
+AGINCOURT ([.a]-zha[n.]-k[:o]r), a village of Northern France, department
+Pas de Calais, famous for the battle of 25th Oct., 1415, between the French
+and English. Henry V, King of England, eager to conquer France, landed at
+Harfleur, took the place by storm, and wished to march through Picardy to
+Calais, but was met by a French army under the Constable d'Albret. The
+English numbered about 15,000 men, while the French numbers are variously
+given as from 50,000 to 150,000. The confined nature and softness of the
+ground were to the disadvantage of the French, who were drawn up in three
+columns unnecessarily deep. The English archers attacked the first division
+in front and in flank, and soon threw them into disorder. The second
+division fled on the fall of the Duc d'Alencon, who was struck down by
+Henry himself; and the third division fled without striking a blow. Of the
+French 10,000 were killed, including the Constable d'Albret, with six dukes
+and princes. The English lost 1600 men killed, among them the Duke of York,
+Henry's uncle. After the battle the English continued their march to
+Calais.
+
+AGIO ([=a]'ji-[=o]), the difference between the real and the nominal value
+of money, as between paper money and actual coin. It is used to denote both
+the difference between two currencies in the same country and the
+variations in the currencies of different countries. The term is derived
+from the It. _aggiungere_, to add, augment, hence _agiotage_. See _Disagio_
+and _Balance of Trade_.
+
+AGIRA ([.a]-j[=e]'r[.a]), (ancient AGYRIUM), a town of Sicily south-west of
+Etna. Pop. 22,485.
+
+AGIS ([=a]'jis), the name of four Spartan kings, the most important of whom
+was Agis IV, who succeeded to the throne in 244 B.C., and reigned four
+years. He attempted a reform of the abuses which had crept into the
+State--his plan comprehending a redistribution of the land, a division of
+wealth, and the cancelling of all debts. Opposed by his colleague Leonidas,
+advantage was taken of his absence, in an expedition against the Aetolians,
+to depose him. Agis at first took sanctuary in a temple, but he was
+treacherously seized and strangled, after going through the form of a
+trial.
+
+AGISTMENT (from the Lat. _ad_, to, and Fr. _giste_, lodging), a term
+designating the pasturing of horses, cattle, or sheep of another. See
+_Bailment_.
+
+AGITATORS, an alternative form of _Adjutators_, a name given to the
+representatives elected in 1647 by the different regiments of the English
+parliamentary army.
+
+AGLAIA (a-gl[=a]'ya), wife of Hephaistos, in Greek mythology, one of the
+three Graces, the other two being Euphrosyne and Thalia.
+
+AGLOSSA, a sub-order of anurous amphibia, the frogs, without a tongue.
+
+AGNANO ([.a]-ny[:a]'n[=o]), until 1870 a lake of Italy, west of Naples,
+occupying probably the crater of an extinct volcano, but now drained.
+
+AG'NATES, in the civil law, relations on the male side, in opposition to
+_cognates_, relations on the female side.
+
+AGNELLO PASS, see _European War_.
+
+AGNES, St., a virgin martyr who, according to the story, suffered martyrdom
+because she steadfastly refused to marry Sempronius, the prefect of Rome,
+and adhered to her religion in spite of repeated temptations and threats,
+A.D. 303. She was first led to the stake, but as the flames did not injure
+her she was beheaded. Her festival is celebrated on 21st Jan. For
+superstitions connected with St. Agnes' Eve see Keats's poem _The Eve of
+St. Agnes_. Tintoret's most remarkable picture is _The Martyrdom of St.
+Agnes_.
+
+AGNES, St., the most southerly of the Scilly Islands. A lighthouse was
+erected here as early as 1680; another on the Wolf Rock near the island was
+completed in 1858.
+
+AGNESI ([.a]-ny[=a]'s[=e]), Maria Gaetana, a learned Italian lady, born at
+Milan in 1718. In her ninth year she was able to speak Latin, in her
+eleventh Greek; she then studied the oriental languages, and at the age of
+thirteen mastered Hebrew, besides French, Spanish, and German. She was
+called the 'Walking Polyglot'. She next studied geometry, philosophy, and
+mathematics. She was appointed, in 1750, professor of mathematics in the
+University of Bologna, ultimately took the veil, and died in 1799. Her
+sister, Maria Theresa, composed several cantatas and three operas.
+
+[Illustration: Agni--Moore's _Hindoo Pantheon_]
+
+AG'NI, the Hindu god of fire, second only to Indra, and one of the eight
+guardians of the world, and especially the lord of the south-east quarter.
+He is celebrated in many of the hymns of the Rig Veda. He is often
+represented as of a red or flame colour, and rides on a ram or a goat. He
+is still worshipped as the personification of fire, and the friction of two
+sticks for procuring the temple fire is still regarded as the symbol of
+Agni's miraculous rebirth.
+
+AGNOETAE, a monophysitic sect of the sixth century.
+
+AGNOLO, Baccio d' (b[.a]ch'[=o] d[.a]n'yo-l[=o]), a Florentine wood-carver,
+sculptor, and architect; designed some of the finest palaces, &c., in
+Florence, such as the Villa Borghese, the Palais Bartolini, &c.; born 1460,
+died 1543.
+
+AGNO'MEN (Lat.), an additional name given by the Romans to an individual in
+allusion to some quality, circumstance, or achievement by which he was
+distinguished, as _Africanus_ added to P. Cornelius Scipio.
+
+AGNONE ([.a]-ny[=o]'n[=a]), a town of S. Italy, province of Molise, famous
+for the excellence of its copper wares. Pop. 6000.
+
+AGNOSTICS (ag-nos'tiks; Gr. _a_, not, _gign[=o]skein_, to know), a modern
+term invented by Huxley in 1869 and applied to those who disclaim any
+knowledge of God, the origin of the universe, immortality, &c. The
+agnostics, or adherents of this doctrine, hold that the mind of man is
+limited to a knowledge of phenomena and of what is relative, and that,
+therefore, the infinite, the absolute, and the unconditioned, being beyond
+all experience, are consequently beyond its range. Agnosticism is therefore
+the attitude of 'solemnly suspended judgment', and cannot be identified
+with atheism. The agnostics do not deny the existence of a Divine Being,
+but merely maintain that we have no scientific ground for either belief or
+denial.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir Leslie Stephen, _An Agnostic's Apology_; R.
+Flint, _Agnosticism_; J. Ward, _Naturalism and Agnosticism_.
+
+AGNUS CASTUS, a shrub, _Vitex Agnuscastus_, nat. ord. Verbenaceae, a native
+of the Mediterranean countries, with white flowers and acrid, aromatic
+fruits. It had anciently the imagined virtue of preserving chastity--hence
+the term _castus_ (Lat., chaste).
+
+AGNUS DEI (d[=e]'[=i]; Lat., 'the Lamb of God'), a term applied to Christ
+in _John_, i, 29, and in the Roman Catholic liturgy a prayer beginning with
+the words 'Agnus Dei', generally sung before the communion. The term is
+also commonly given to a medal, or more frequently a disk of wax, round,
+oblong, or oval, consecrated by the pope, stamped with the figure of a lamb
+supporting the banner of the cross; supposed to possess great virtues, such
+as preserving those who carry it in faith from accidents, &c. Jean Chatel,
+the assassin of Henri IV, was found covered with such medals.
+
+AGON'IC LINE (Gr. _a_, not, and _g[=o]nia_, an angle), in terrestrial
+magnetism a name applied to the line which joins all the places on the
+earth's surface at which the needle of the compass points due north and
+south, without any declination. See _Magnetism_.
+
+AG'ONY COLUMN, a column in the advertising sheet of some of the daily
+journals, in which disappearances, losses, mysterious appeals and
+correspondence, and generally any advertising eccentricity appear.
+
+AG'ORA, the market-place of a Greek town, corresponding to the Roman
+_forum_. The Agora of Athens is situated in a valley partially enclosed by
+the Acropolis, Areopagus, Pnyx, and Museum.
+
+AGOS'TA. See _Augusta_.
+
+AGOUARA ([.a]-g[u:]-[:a]'r[.a]), a name given to the crab-eating racoon
+(_Proc[)y]on cancriv[)o]rus_) of S. America.
+
+AGOULT ([.a]-g[:o]), Marie de Flavigny, Comtesse d', a French writer of
+fiction, history, politics, philosophy, and art; daughter of Vicomte de
+Flavigny; born at Frankfort in 1805, died at Paris 1876. She contributed
+many articles to the _Revue des Deux-Mondes_, &c., under the pseudonym of
+_Daniel Stern_, and wrote _Lettres Republicaines_ (1848); _Histoire de la
+Revolution de 1848_; _Esquisses Morales et Politiques_; _Trois Journees de
+la Vie de Marie Stuart_; _Florence et Turin_ (a series of artistic and
+political studies); _Dante et Goethe_; dialogues, and numerous romances,
+&c.
+
+AGOUTA (a-g[:o]'ta), _Solen[)o]don paradoxus_, an insectivorous mammal
+peculiar to Hayti, of the tanrec family, somewhat larger than a rat. It has
+its tail devoid of hair and covered with scales, its eyes small, and an
+elongated nose like the shrews. Another species (_S. cub[=a]nus_) belongs
+to Cuba.
+
+AGOUTI (a-g[:o]'ti), the name of several rodent mammals, forming a family
+by themselves, genus Dasyprocta. There are eight or nine species, all
+belonging to S. America and the W. Indies. The common agouti, or
+yellow-rumped cavy (_D. agouti_), is of the size of a rabbit. It burrows in
+the ground or in hollow trees, lives on vegetables, doing much injury to
+the sugar-cane, is as voracious as a pig, and makes a similar grunting
+noise. Its flesh is white and good to eat.
+
+AGRA ([:a]'gra), a city of India, in the United Provinces, on the right
+bank of the Jumna, 841 miles by rail from Calcutta. It is a well-built and
+handsome town and has various interesting structures, among which are the
+imperial palace, a mass of buildings erected by several emperors; the Moti
+Masjid or Pearl Mosque (both within the old and extensive fort); the mosque
+called the Jama Masjid (a cenotaph of white marble); and, above all, the
+Taj Mahal, 'a dream in marble', a mausoleum of the seventeenth century,
+built by the Emperor Shah Jehan (1628-58) for his favourite queen, Mumtaz
+Mahal. It is made of white marble, and is adorned throughout with exquisite
+mosaics. Its cost is estimated at L800,000, and 20,000 workmen, under the
+direction of Austin of Bordeaux, were engaged on it for twenty-two years.
+There are several Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, a government
+college, and three other colleges or high schools, besides a medical
+college. Agra has a trade in grain, sugar, &c., and some manufactures,
+including beautiful inlaid mosaics. It was founded in 1566 by the Emperor
+Akbar, and was a residence of the emperors for over a century. Pop.
+185,449. The Agra division has an area of 10,078 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+5,007,900.
+
+AGRAFFE', a sort of ornamental buckle, clasp, or similar fastening for
+holding together articles of dress, &c., often adorned with precious
+stones.
+
+AGRAM, or ZAGREB, a city in Yugo-Slavia, capital of the former Hungarian
+province of Croatia and Slavonia, near the River Save; contains the
+residence of the ban or governor of Croatia and Slavonia, Government
+buildings, cathedral (being the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop),
+university, theatre, &c.; carries on an active trade, and manufactures
+tobacco, leather, and linens. Pop. 79,038.
+
+AGRA'PHIA. See _Aphasia_.
+
+AGRARIAN LAWS, laws enacted in ancient Rome for the division of the public
+lands, that is, the lands belonging to the State (_ager publicus_). As the
+territory of Rome increased, the public land increased, the land of
+conquered peoples being always regarded as the property of the conqueror.
+The right to the use of this public land belonged originally only to the
+patricians or ruling class, but afterwards the claims of the plebeians on
+it were also admitted, though they were often unfairly treated in the
+sharing of it. Hence arose much discontent among the plebeians, and various
+remedial laws were passed with more or less success. Indeed an equitable
+adjustment of the land question between the aristocracy and the common
+people was never attained.
+
+AGRAVAINE, Sir, one of the knights of the Round Table.
+
+AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE. See _Levellers_.
+
+AGRIC'OLA, Gnaeus Julius, lived from A.D. 37 to 93, a Roman consul under
+the Emperor Vespasian, and governor in Britain, the greater part of which
+he reduced to the dominion of Rome; distinguished as a statesman and
+general. His life, written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, gives
+the best extant account of Britain in the early part of the period of the
+Roman rule. He was the twelfth Roman general who had been in Britain, but
+was the only one who effectually subdued the southern portion of it and
+reconciled the Britons to the Roman yoke. This he did by teaching them the
+arts of civilization and to settle in towns. He constructed the chain of
+forts between the Forth and the Clyde, defeated Galgacus at the battle of
+Mons Graupius, and sailed round the island, discovering the Orkneys.
+
+AGRIC'OLA, Georg (originally Bauer, that is, peasant = Lat. _agricola_),
+born in Saxony 1490, died at Chemnitz 1555, German physician and
+mineralogist. Though tinged with the superstitions of his age, he made the
+first successful attempt to reduce mineralogy to a science, and introduced
+many improvements in the art of mining. A complete edition of his works was
+published at Basel in 1550 and 1558.
+
+AGRICOLA, Johann, the son of a tailor at Eisleben, was born in 1492, and
+called, from his native city, _master of Eisleben_ (_magister Islebius_);
+one of the most active among the theologians who propagated the doctrines
+of Luther. In 1537, when professor in Wittenberg, he stirred up the
+Antinomian controversy with Luther and Melanchthon. He afterwards lived at
+Berlin, where he died in 1566, after a life of controversy. Besides his
+theological works he composed a work explaining the common German proverbs.
+
+AGRICOLA, Johann Friedrich, German musician and composer, born near
+Altenburg 1720, died at Berlin 1774; pupil of Sebastian Bach; wrote several
+operas, including _Iphigenia in Tauris_. He wrote under the pseudonym of
+'Olibrio'.
+
+AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, German scholar, born at Groningen 1443, died at
+Heidelberg 1485. After travelling in France and Italy he was appointed
+professor of philosophy at Heidelberg, and did good service in
+transplanting the revived classical learning into Germany.
+
+AG'RICULTURE is the art of cultivating the ground, more especially with the
+plough and in large areas or fields, in order to raise grain and other
+crops for man and beast; including the art of preparing the soil, sowing
+and planting seeds, removing the crops, and also the raising and feeding of
+cattle or other live stock. This art is the basis of all other arts, and in
+all countries coeval with the first dawn of civilization. At how remote a
+period it must have been successfully practised in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and
+China we have no means of knowing, but there is sufficient evidence of
+agriculture having attained considerable development many centuries before
+the Christian era. Egypt was renowned as a corn country in the time of the
+Jewish patriarchs, and had probably been so for centuries before. The
+hieroglyphics on ancient monuments furnish records of the early development
+of agriculture in Egypt and of the use of the plough and other agricultural
+implements. The advanced methods of the Egyptians and Syrians were
+introduced into Europe by the Saracens. Land culture also attained a more
+or less considerable development in ancient China and Hindustan. Among the
+ancient Greeks the implements of agriculture were very few and simple.
+Hesiod, who wrote a poem on agriculture as early as the eighth century
+B.C., mentions a plough consisting of three parts, the share-beam, the
+draught-pole, and the plough-tail, but antiquarians are not agreed as to
+its exact form. The ground received three ploughings, one in autumn,
+another in spring, and a third immediately before sowing the seed. Manures
+were applied, and the advantage of mixing soils, as sand with clay or clay
+with sand, was understood. Seed was sown by hand, and covered with a rake.
+Grain was reaped with a sickle, bound in sheaves, thrashed, then winnowed
+by wind, laid in chests, bins, or granaries, and taken out as wanted by the
+family, to be ground. Agriculture was highly esteemed among the ancient
+Romans, and very full accounts are contained in the works of Pliny, Virgil,
+Cato, Varro, and Palladius. The Romans used a great many different
+implements of agriculture. The plough is represented by Cato as of two
+kinds, one for strong, the other for light soils. Varro mentions one with
+two mould-boards, with which, he says, "when they plough, after sowing the
+seed, they are said to ridge". Pliny mentions a plough with one
+mould-board, and others with a coulter, of which he says there were many
+kinds. Fallowing was a practice rarely deviated from by the Romans. In most
+cases a fallow and a year's crop succeeded each other. Manure was collected
+from various sources, and irrigation was practised on a large scale.
+
+The Romans introduced their agricultural knowledge among the Britons, and
+during the most flourishing period of the Roman occupation large quantities
+of corn were exported from Britain to the Continent. During the time that
+the Angles and Saxons were extending their conquests over the country
+agriculture must have been greatly neglected; but afterwards it was
+practised with some success among the Anglo-Saxon population, especially,
+as was generally the case during the Middle Ages, on lands belonging to the
+Church. Swine formed at this time a most important portion of the live
+stock, finding plenty of oak and beech mast to eat. The feudal system
+introduced by the Normans, though beneficial in some respects as tending to
+ensure the personal security of individuals, operated powerfully against
+progress in agricultural improvements. War and the chase, the two ancient
+and deadliest foes of husbandry, formed the most prominent occupations of
+the Norman princes and nobles. Thriving villages and smiling fields were
+converted into deer forests, vexatious imposts were laid on the farmers,
+and the serfs had no interest in the cultivation of the soil. But the monks
+of every monastery retained such of their lands as they could most
+conveniently take charge of, and these they cultivated with great care,
+under their own inspection, and frequently with their own hands. The
+various operations of husbandry, such as manuring, ploughing, sowing,
+harrowing;, reaping, thrashing, winnowing, &c., are incidentally mentioned
+by the writers of those days; but it is impossible to collect from them a
+definite account of the manner in which those operations were performed.
+
+While there is much in the writings of the old English chroniclers
+concerning the tenure of land, upon which subject the _Domesday Book_ gives
+much enlightenment, there is a great lack of information as to the manner
+in which the land was cultivated. Information began to be recorded in the
+middle of the thirteenth century, but only one treatise is known to have
+been written, namely, _La Dite de Husbanderye_, an essay in Norman French
+by Walter de Henley. This work was superseded by another treatise, the best
+of the early works on the subject, and published in the reign of Henry VIII
+(in 1523) by Sir A. Fitzherbert, judge of the Common Pleas. It is entitled
+the _Book of Husbandry_, and contains directions for draining, clearing,
+and enclosing a farm, for enriching the soil, and rendering it fit for
+tillage. Lime, marl, and fallowing are strongly recommended. The subject of
+agriculture attained some prominence during the reign of Elizabeth. The
+principal writers of that period were Tusser, Googe, and Sir Hugh Platt.
+Tusser's _Five Hundreth Pointes of Good Husbandry_ (first complete edition
+published in 1580) conveys much useful instruction in metre, but few works
+of this time contain much that is original or valuable. The first half of
+the seventeenth century produced no systematic work on agriculture, though
+several on different branches of the subject. About 1645 the field
+cultivation of red clover was introduced into England, the merit of this
+improvement being due to Sir Richard Weston, author of a _Discourse on the
+Husbandry of Brabant and Flanders_, to whom also belongs the credit of
+first growing turnips in England. The Dutch had devoted much attention to
+the improvement of winter roots, and also to the cultivation of clover and
+other artificial grasses, and the farmers and proprietors of England soon
+saw the advantages to be derived from their introduction. Potatoes had been
+introduced during the latter part of the sixteenth century, but were not
+for long in general cultivation. A number of writers on agriculture
+appeared in England during the Commonwealth, the most important works on
+the subject being Blythe's _Improver Improved_ and Hartlib's _Legacy_. The
+former writer speaks of a rotation, or rather alternation of crops, and
+well knew the use of lime, as also of other manures. In the eighteenth
+century the first name of importance in British agriculture is that of
+Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, who began to drill wheat and other
+crops about the year 1701, and whose _Horse-hoeing Husbandry_ was published
+in 1731. Tull was a great advocate of the system of sowing crops in rows or
+drills with an interval between every two or three rows wide enough to
+allow of ploughing or hoeing to be carried on. This enabled the ground to
+be cleared with crops still growing, thus obviating the necessity for 'bare
+fallow' and leading to the _four-course_ or Norfolk Rotation of Charles,
+second Viscount Townshend, the first agriculturist to cultivate turnips on
+a large scale. After the time of Tull and Townshend no great alteration in
+British agriculture took place till Robert Bakewell and others effected
+some important improvements in the breeds of cattle, sheep, and swine in
+the latter half of the eighteenth century. The raising and maintenance of
+live stock, especially of sheep, was a characteristic of English farming
+from a very early time, and for several centuries the country had almost a
+monopoly in the supply of wool. To Bakewell we owe the well-known breed of
+Leicester sheep. By the end of the century it was a common practice to
+alternate green crops with grain crops, instead of exhausting the land with
+a number of successive crops of corn. A well-known writer on agriculture at
+this period, and one who did a great deal of good in diffusing a knowledge
+of the subject, was Arthur Young. Scotland was for a long time behind
+England in agricultural progress. Great progress was made during the
+eighteenth century, however, especially in the latter half of it, turnips
+being introduced as a field-crop, and new implements such as the
+swing-plough and the thrashing-machine coming into general use. The
+construction of good roads through the country also gave agriculture a
+great impulse. During the wars caused by the French revolution (1795-1815)
+the high price of agricultural produce led to an extraordinary improvement
+in agriculture all over Britain. The establishment of the institution
+called the National Board of Agriculture was also of very great service to
+British husbandry at this period. Though a private association, it was
+assisted by an annual parliamentary grant, and prizes were given by it for
+the encouragement of experiments and improvements in agriculture. It
+existed from 1793 to 1816.
+
+Among other societies which have greatly furthered the progress of
+agriculture in Britain, the chief in existence at the present day are the
+Smithfield Club, inaugurated in 1798; the Royal Agricultural Society of
+England, established in 1838; the Highland and Agricultural Society of
+Scotland, founded in 1783; and the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland,
+instituted in 1841. The objects of these and similar societies are such as
+the following: To encourage the introduction of improvements in
+agriculture; to encourage the improvement of agricultural implements and
+farm buildings; the application of chemistry to agriculture; the
+destruction of insects injurious to vegetation; to promote the discovery
+and adoption of new varieties of grain, or other useful vegetables; to
+collect information regarding the management of woods, plantations, and
+fences; to improve the education of those supported by the cultivation of
+the soil; to improve the veterinary art; to improve the breeds of live
+stock, &c. Shows are held, at which prizes are distributed for live stock,
+implements, and farm produce.
+
+Through the efforts of the above-mentioned and other societies, the
+investigations of scientific men, the general diffusion of knowledge among
+all classes, and the necessity of competing with producers in foreign
+countries, agriculture made vast strides in Britain during the nineteenth
+century and the beginning of the twentieth. Among the chief improvements we
+may mention deep ploughing and thorough draining. By the introduction of
+new or improved implements the labour necessary to the carrying out of
+agricultural operations has been greatly diminished, and advancement in
+this direction has been promoted by the necessities of the Great War.
+Labour-saving machinery is likely to be used in future on an increasingly
+large scale. Science, too, has been called in to act as the handmaid of
+art, and in its application we owe very much to the researches conducted at
+the Rothamsted Experimental Station, founded in 1834 by Lawes, who endowed
+the Lawes Trust in 1889. Gilbert and he worked together from 1843 to the
+end of last century. It is primarily by the investigations of the chemist
+and physicist that agriculture has been put on a really scientific basis.
+The physiology of plants and animals, and the complex properties of soils,
+have all been investigated, and most important results obtained. Artificial
+manures, in great variety to supply the elements wanted for plant growth,
+have come into common use, and the free nitrogen of the air is now worked
+up into various substances by which the nitrate of soda imported from South
+America can be replaced. An improvement in all kinds of stock is becoming
+more and more general, feeding is conducted on more scientific principles,
+and improved varieties of crop-plants are created by applying the
+principles of Mendel and other scientists. Much attention is also devoted
+to seed-testing, and the applications of electricity to agriculture are
+being developed.
+
+As a result of the new conditions, to be a thoroughly-trained and competent
+agriculturist requires a special education, partly theoretical, partly
+practical. In many countries there are now agricultural schools or colleges
+supported by the State, and many such institutions exist in Britain. In
+Scotland, the Edinburgh chair of Rural Economy was founded in 1790; in
+Ireland, the Glasnevin Institution was inaugurated in 1838; and the
+establishment of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, dates from
+1845. In the United States nearly all the States have now colleges, or
+departments of colleges, devoted to the teaching of agriculture, and large
+allotments of public land have been made for their support. There are also
+numerous experimental stations. In Britain there has been a Board of
+Agriculture since 1889, under a cabinet minister, which was constituted a
+ministry in 1919; previously there was only a department under a committee
+of the Privy Council.
+
+It is probable that on the whole the agriculture of Britain is farther
+advanced than that of any other region of similar size. Wheat, barley, and
+oats are the chief cereals in Britain; the chief roots are turnips and
+potatoes; other crops (besides grass and clover) are beans, peas, mangold,
+hops, and flax. In Europe at large the principal cereals are wheat, oats,
+barley, and rye, wheat being mostly grown in the middle and southern
+regions, such as France, Spain, part of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy,
+and southern Russia, the others in the more northern portion, while maize
+is grown in the warmest parts. Turnips are comparatively little grown out
+of Britain, beet-root in some sense taking their place; potatoes, however,
+are largely cultivated, except in the south. In the United States maize is
+the chief corn crop, next to which comes wheat, then oats; potatoes are an
+important crop, but turnips are only grown to a very small extent. In
+Canada large quantities of wheat are grown (more especially in Manitoba and
+the North-West), much is also now produced in the Australian colonies, in
+India, Argentina, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Fream, _Elements of Agriculture_;
+C. W. Burkett, _Agriculture for Beginners_; _Encyclopaedia of Agriculture_
+(Gresham Publishing Company).
+
+AGRIGENTUM (-jen'tum) (modern GIRGENTI), an ancient Greek city of Sicily,
+founded about 580 B.C., and long one of the most important places on the
+island. The town is also famous as the birthplace of the philosopher
+Empedocles. Extensive ruins of splendid temples and public buildings yet
+attest its ancient magnificence. See _Girgenti_.
+
+AG'RIMONY (Agrimonia), a genus of plants, nat. ord. Rosaceae, consisting of
+slender perennial herbs found in temperate regions. _A. Eupatoria_, or
+common agrimony, was formerly of much repute as a medicine in England. Its
+leaves and rootstock are astringent, and the latter yields a yellow dye.
+The plant is a common weed on the borders of cornfields and on roadsides.
+
+AGRIPPA, Herod. See _Herod Agrippa_.
+
+AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, a Roman statesman and general, the son-in-law of
+Augustus; born 63 B.C., died 12 B.C. He was praetor in 41 B.C.; consul in
+37, 28, and 27; aedile in 33; and tribune from 18 till his death. He
+commanded the fleet of Augustus in the battle of Actium. To him Rome is
+indebted for three of her principal aqueducts, the Pantheon, and several
+other works of public use and ornament.
+
+AGRIP'PA, von Nettesheim, Cornelius Henry, born in 1486 at Cologne,
+soldier, doctor, and, by common reputation, a magician. In his youth he was
+secretary to the Emperor Maximilian I; he subsequently served seven years
+in Italy, and was knighted. On quitting the army he devoted himself to
+science, became famous as a magician and alchemist, and was involved in
+disputes with the churchmen. After an active, varied, and eventful life he
+died at Grenoble in 1534 or 1535. His works were published at Lyons in
+1550.
+
+AGRIPPI'NA, the name of several Roman women, among whom we may mention: 1.
+The youngest daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and wife of C.
+Germanicus; a heroic woman, adorned with great virtues. Tiberius, who hated
+her for her virtues and popularity, banished her to the Island of
+Pandataria, where she starved herself to death in A.D. 33. 2. A daughter of
+the last mentioned, and the mother of Nero, by Domitius Ahenobarbus. Her
+third husband was her uncle, the Emperor Claudius, whom she subsequently
+poisoned to secure the government of the Empire through her son Nero. After
+ruling a few years in her son's name he became tired of her ascendency, and
+caused her to be assassinated (A.D. 60).
+
+AGROPYRON, a genus of grasses most of which are perennials. The root-stalks
+of _Agropyron repens_ (_Radix Graminis_) have aperient and diuretic
+properties.
+
+AGROSTEM'MA. See _Corncockle_.
+
+AGROS'TIS, a genus of grasses, consisting of many species, and valuable as
+pasture-grasses. The bent-grasses belong to the genus.
+
+AG'TELEK, a village in Hungary, near the road from Pesth to Kassa, with
+about 600 inhabitants, celebrated for one of the largest and most
+remarkable stalactitic caverns in Europe.
+
+AGUA ([.a]g'w[.a]), an active volcano of Central America, in Guatemala,
+rising to the height of 15,000 feet. It has twice destroyed the old city of
+Guatemala, in its immediate vicinity.
+
+AGUARA ([.a]-gw[:a]'r[.a]). See _Agouara_.
+
+AGUARDIENTE ([.a]-gw[:a]r-d[=e]-en'te), a popular spirituous beverage of
+Spain and Portugal, a kind of coarse brandy, made from red wine, from the
+refuse of the grapes left in the wine-press, &c., generally flavoured with
+anise; also a Mexican alcoholic drink distilled from the fermented juice of
+the agave.
+
+AGUAS CALIENTES ([.a]g'w[.a]s k[.a]-l[=e]-en't[=a]s; lit. 'warm waters'), a
+town 270 miles N.W. of Mexico, capital of the State of its own name, named
+from the thermal springs near it; has manufactures of cottons and a
+considerable trade. Pop. 45,198.--Aguas Calientes State has an area of
+2,968 sq. miles, and a pop. of 124,500.
+
+AGUE ([=a]'g[=u]), a kind of fever, which may be followed by serious
+consequences, but generally is more troublesome than dangerous. According
+to the length of the interval between one febrile paroxysm and another,
+agues are denominated _quotidian_ when they occur once in twenty-four
+hours, _tertian_ when they come on every forty-eight hours, _quartan_ when
+they visit the patient once in seventy-two hours. Ague arises from marsh
+miasmata, a temperature above 60deg being, however, apparently required to
+produce it. To cure the disease and prevent the recurrence, quinine and
+various other bitter and astringent drugs are given with complete success
+in the majority of cases.
+
+AGUE-CAKE, a tumour caused by enlargement and hardening of the spleen,
+often the consequence of ague or intermittent fever.
+
+AGUESSEAU ([.a]-ges-[=o]), Henri Francois d', a distinguished French jurist
+and statesman, born at Limoges in 1668; was in 1690 advocate-general at
+Paris, and at the age of thirty-two procureur-general of the Parliament. He
+risked disgrace with Louis XIV by successfully opposing the famous papal
+bull _Unigenitus_. He was made chancellor in 1717, was deprived of his
+office in 1718 on account of his opposition to Law's system of finance, but
+had to be recalled in 1720. In 1722 he had to retire a second time; but was
+recalled in 1727 by Cardinal Fleury, and in 1737 again got the
+chancellorship, which he held till 1750. He died in 1751.
+
+AGUILAR ([.a]-g[=e]-l[:a]r'), a town of Spain, province of Cordova, in
+Andalusia, in a good wine-producing district, and with a trade in corn and
+wine. Pop. 12,635.
+
+AGUILAR (a-gi-l[:a]r'), Grace, an English writer, born at Hackney 1816,
+died at Frankfort 1847. Of Jewish parentage, she at first devoted herself
+to Jewish subjects, such as _The Women of Israel_, _The Jewish Faith_, &c.;
+but her fame rests on her novels, _Home Influence_, _A Mother's
+Recompense_, _Home Scenes and Heart Studies_, &c., most of which were
+published posthumously by her mother.
+
+AGUILAS ([.a]-g[=e]'l[.a]s), a flourishing seaport of Southern Spain,
+province of Murcia, with copper and lead smelting works. Pop. 15,967.
+
+AGULHAS ([.a]-g[u:]l'y[.a]s), Cape, a promontory, forming the most southern
+extremity of Africa, about 90 miles south-east of the Cape of Good Hope,
+rising to 455 feet above the sea, with a lighthouse.
+
+AGU'TI. See _Agouti_.
+
+A'HAB, the seventh King of Israel, succeeded his father Omri, 918-897 or
+875-853 B.C. At the instigation of his wife Jezebel he erected a temple to
+Baal, and became a cruel persecutor of the true prophets. He was killed by
+an arrow at the siege of Ramoth-Gilead. He was succeeded by his son
+Ahaziah.
+
+AHAG'GAR, a mountainous region of the Sahara, south of Algeria, with some
+fertile valleys, inhabited by the Tuaregs.
+
+AHANTA. See _Gold Coast_, _West Africa_.
+
+AHASUE'RUS, in Scripture history, a king of Persia, probably the same as
+Xerxes, the husband of Esther, to whom the Scriptures ascribe a singular
+deliverance of the Jews from extirpation.--_Ahasuerus_ is also a Scripture
+name for Cambyses, the son of Cyrus (_Ezra_, iv, 6), and for Astyages, King
+of the Medes (_Dan._ ix, 1). Ahasuerus is also the traditional name of the
+wandering Jew.
+
+A'HAZ, the twelfth King of Judah, succeeded his father Jotham, 742-727 or
+734-715 B.C. Forsaking the true religion, he gave himself up completely to
+idolatry, and plundered the temple to obtain presents for Tiglath-Pileser,
+King of Assyria.
+
+AHAZI'AH.--1. Son of Ahab and Jezebel, and eighth King of Israel, died from
+a fall through a lattice in his palace at Samaria after reigning two years
+(896, 895 B.C.).--2. Fifth or sixth King of Judah, and nephew of the above.
+He reigned but one year, and was slain (884 B.C.) by Jehu.
+
+AHITH'OPHEL, privy-councillor to David, and confederate and adviser of
+Absalom in his rebellion against his father. When Hushai's advice
+prevailed, Ahithophel, despairing of success, hanged himself.
+
+AHMEDABAD, or AHMADABAD ([:a]-m_a_d-[:a]-b[:a]d), a town of India,
+presidency of Bombay, in district of its own name, on the left bank of the
+Sabarmati, 310 miles north of Bombay. It was founded in 1412 by Ahmed Shah,
+and was converted by him into a great capital, adorned with splendid
+edifices. It came finally into the hands of the British in 1818. It is
+still a handsome and populous place, enclosed by a wall, with many
+noteworthy buildings; manufactures of fine silk and cotton fabrics, cloths
+of gold and silver, pottery, paper, enamel, mother-of-pearl, &c. There were
+disturbances here in 1919. (See _Rowlatt Act_.) Pop. 216,777.--Area of
+district, 3949 sq. miles; pop. 795,094.
+
+AHMED MIRZA, Shah of Persia, born in 1898. He succeeded his father,
+Mohammed Ali, when the latter was deposed on 16th July, 1909.
+
+AHMEDNAG'AR, a town of India, presidency of Bombay, in district of its own
+name, surrounded by an earthen wall; with manufactures of cotton and silk
+cloths. Near the city is the fort, built of stone and 1-1/2 miles round.
+Pop. (including military) 42,032.--Area of district, 6645 sq. miles; pop.
+945,305.
+
+AHMED SHAH, born 1724, died 1773, founder of the Durani dynasty in
+Afghanistan. On the assassination of Nadir he proclaimed himself shah, and
+set about subduing the provinces surrounding his realm. Among his first
+acts was the securing of the famed Koh-i-noor diamond, which had fallen
+into the hands of his predecessor. He crossed the Indus in 1748, and his
+conquests in Northern India culminated in the defeat of the Mahrattas at
+Panipat (6th Jan., 1761). Affairs in his own country necessitated his
+withdrawal from India, but he extended his empire vastly in other
+directions far beyond the limits of modern Afghanistan. He was succeeded by
+his son Timur.
+
+AHRIMAN ([:a]'ri-man; in the Zend _Angromainyus_, 'spirit of evil or
+annihilation'), according to the dualistic doctrine of Zoroaster, the
+origin or the personification of evil, sovereign of the Devas or evil
+spirits, lord of darkness and of death, being thus opposed to Ormuzd
+(_Ahuramazda_), the spirit of good and of light.
+
+AH'WAZ, a small Persian town on the River Karun, province of Khuzistan, at
+the head of river navigation, a place of some commercial note. In the
+neighbourhood are the vast ruins of a city supposed to date from the time
+of the Parthian Empire.
+
+AI ([:a]'[=e]). See _Sloth_.
+
+AID, a subsidy paid in ancient feudal times by vassals to their lords on
+certain occasions, the chief of which were: when their lord was taken
+prisoner and required to be ransomed, when his eldest son was to be made a
+knight, and when his eldest daughter was to be married and required a
+dowry. From the Norman Conquest to the fourteenth century the collecting of
+aids by the Crown was one of the forms of taxation, being afterwards
+regulated by Parliament.
+
+AI'DAN, Saint, Bishop of Lindisfarne, was originally a monk of Iona, in
+which monastery Oswald I, who became king of Northumberland in 635, had
+been educated. At the request of Oswald, Aidan was sent to preach
+Christianity to his subjects, and established himself in Lindisfarne as the
+first Bishop of Durham. He died in 651.
+
+AIDE-DE-CAMP ([=a]d-d[.e]-k[.a][n.]), a military officer who conveys the
+orders of a general to the various divisions of the army on the field of
+battle, and at other times acts as his secretary and general confidential
+agent.
+
+AIDIN ([.a]-i-d[=e]n'), or GUZEL HISSAR, a town in Asia Minor, about 60
+miles south-east of Smyrna, with which it is connected by rail; has fine
+mosques and bazaars, is the residence of a pasha, and has an extensive
+trade in cotton, leather, figs, grapes, &c. Pop. 35,000.
+
+AIGRETTE' (French), a term used to denote the feathery crown attached to
+the seeds of various plants, such as the thistle, dandelion, &c. (called in
+botany _pappus_).--It is also applied to any head-dress in the form of a
+plume, whether composed of feathers, flowers, or precious stones.
+
+AIGUES MORTES ([=a]g mort; Lat. _Aquae Mortuae_, 'dead waters'), a small
+town of Southern France, near the mouths of the Rhone, department of Gard;
+with ancient walls and castle; near it are lagoons, from which great
+quantities of salt are extracted. Pop. 4000.
+
+AIGUILLE ([=a]'gwil; Fr., lit. a needle), a name given in the Alps to the
+needle-like points or tops of granite, gneiss, quartz, and other
+crystalline rocks and mountain masses; also applied to sharp-pointed masses
+of ice on glaciers and elsewhere.--It is also the name given to a
+peculiarly-shaped French mountain in Isere, 6500 feet high.
+
+AIGUN ([=i]-g[u:]n'), a town of China, in Manchuria, on the Amur, with a
+good trade. Pop. 15,000.
+
+AI'KIN, John, M.D., an English miscellaneous writer, born 1747, died 1822.
+He practised as physician at Chester, Warrington (where he taught
+physiology and chemistry at the Dissenters' Academy), and London; turned
+his attention to literature and published various works of a miscellaneous
+description, some in conjunction with his sister Mrs. Barbauld, including
+the popular _Evenings at Home_ (1792-5), written with the view of
+popularizing scientific subjects. His _General Biographical Dictionary_ (in
+10 vols.) was begun in 1799 and finished in 1815. He was editor of the
+_Monthly Magazine_ from 1796 till 1807.
+
+AI'KIN, Lucy, daughter of the preceding, was born in 1781, and died 1864.
+In 1810 she published _Poetical Epistles on Women_, which was followed by a
+number of books for the young and a novel _Lorimer_ (1814). In 1818
+appeared her _Memoirs of the Court of Queen Elizabeth_, a very popular
+work. She afterwards produced similar works on the reigns of James I (1822)
+and Charles I (1833), and a _Life of Addison_ (1843). In 1824 she had
+published the literary remains and biography of her father. She carried on
+an interesting correspondence with Dr. Channing from 1826-42, which was
+published in 1874.
+
+AIKMAN, William, an eminent Scottish portrait-painter, born in Forfarshire
+in 1682, died in 1731. He studied at Edinburgh and in Italy, visited
+Turkey, and spent the later portion of his life in London, where he enjoyed
+the friendship of most of the distinguished men of Queen Anne's time. The
+portrait of President Duncan Forbes (1685-1747) in the National Gallery is
+attributed to him.
+
+AILAN'TO, or AILANTHUS (meaning tree of the gods), a tree, genus Ailantus,
+nat. ord. Simarubaceae. The _A. glandul[=o]sa_, a large and handsome tree,
+with pinnate leaves 1 or 2 feet long, is a native of China, but has been
+introduced into Europe and North America. A species of silk-worm, the
+ailanthus silk-worm (_Saturnia cynthia_), feeds on its leaves, and the
+material produced, though wanting the fineness and gloss of mulberry silk,
+is produced at less cost, and is more durable. The wood is hard, heavy,
+yellowish-white, and will take a fine polish. The tree has been in
+cultivation in England since 1751.
+
+AILERON. See _Aeronautics_, _Aeroplane_.
+
+AIL'RED (contracted form of ETHELRED), a religious and historical writer,
+supposed to have been born in 1097, but whether in Scotland or in England
+is not known, died 1166; abbot of Rievaulx, in the North Riding of
+Yorkshire. Wrote lives of Edward the Confessor and St. Margaret, Queen of
+Scotland, _Genealogy of the Kings of England_, _The Battle of the
+Standard_, &c.
+
+AILSA CRAIG, a rocky islet in the Firth of Clyde, 10 miles from the coast
+of Ayr, of a conical form, 1097 feet high, and about 2 miles in
+circumference, precipitous on all sides except the north-east, where alone
+it is accessible, frequented by innumerable sea-fowl, including
+solan-geese, and covered with grass. On it is a lighthouse.
+
+AILU'RUS. See _Panda_.
+
+AIMARD ([=a]-m[:a]r), Gustave, French novelist, born 1818, died 1883. He
+lived for ten years among the Indians of North America, and wrote a number
+of stories dealing with Indian life, such as _Les Trappeurs de l'Arkansas_
+(1858), _La Loi de Lynch_ (1859), _Les Nuits Mexicaines_ (1863), _Les
+Bohemes de la Mer_ (1865), which have been popular in English translations.
+His work is not unlike that of Fenimore Cooper.
+
+AIN (a[n.]), a south-eastern frontier department of France, mountainous in
+the east (ridges of the Jura), flat or undulating in the west, divided into
+two nearly equal parts by the River Ain, a tributary of the Rhone; area,
+2248 sq. miles; pop. (1921), 315,757. Capital, Bourg.
+
+AINGER ([=a]n'j[.e]r), Rev. Alfred, born in 1837, died in 1904, was
+educated at King's College, London, and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, took
+orders after gaining his degree, and in 1866 was appointed reader of the
+Temple Church, London. He was made Master of the Temple in 1893, while
+holding also a canonry in Bristol Cathedral, to which he had been appointed
+in 1887. He was highly successful as a preacher, but is chiefly known by
+his literary labours, especially those connected with Lamb and Hood, whose
+works he edited. The volumes on Lamb and on Crabbe in the 'English Men of
+Letters' series are by him, and he wrote a memoir of Hood for his edition
+of the works. A volume of his sermons under the title of _The Gospel of
+Human Life_ was published after his death in 1904. Cf. Edith Sichel, _Life
+and Letters of Canon Ainger_.
+
+AINMILLER ([=i]n'mil-er), Max Emanuel, a German artist who may be regarded
+as the restorer of the art of glass-painting, born 1807, died 1870. As
+inspector of the State institute of glass-painting at Munich he raised this
+art to a high degree of perfection by the new or improved processes
+introduced by him. Under his supervision this establishment (which
+afterwards became his own) produced a vast number of painted windows for
+ecclesiastical and other buildings, among the principal being a series of
+forty windows, containing a hundred historical and scriptural pictures, in
+Glasgow Cathedral. Some of his work is in St. Paul's Cathedral, and his
+finest productions are the windows in the Cathedrals of Cologne and
+Regensburg.
+
+AINOS ([=i]'n[=o]z; that is, men), the native name of an uncivilized race
+of people inhabiting the Japanese island of Yesso, as also Sakhalien, and
+the Kurile Islands, and believed to be the aboriginal inhabitants of Japan.
+They do not average over 5 feet in height, but are strong and active. They
+are very hairy, wear matted beards, and have black hair which they allow to
+grow till it falls over their shoulders. Their complexion is dark brown,
+approaching to black. They support themselves by hunting and fishing. There
+are numerous legends relating to the Ainos. According to one of these, of
+Japanese origin, they descended from the constellation of the Bear, whilst
+another mentions as their ancestor a certain Okikurumi who came down from
+heaven. The Ainos call themselves Ainu Utara, and the Chinese refer to them
+as the Tungi (barbarians of the East). They are very superstitious, and
+worship a number of gods, such as the universal god (Opitta-Kamui), the sun
+(Tsup-Kamui), the bear (Isho-Kamui), &c. Cf. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and
+their Folklore_.
+
+AINSWORTH, Henry, a Puritan divine and scholar, born 1571, died 1622. He
+passed great part of his life in Amsterdam, being from 1610 pastor of a
+'Brownist' church there (the Brownists being forerunners of the
+Independents). He was a voluminous writer, a controversialist and
+commentator, and a thorough Hebrew scholar.
+
+AINSWORTH, Robert, born in Lancashire, 1660, earned his living by keeping a
+private school in or near London, and died there in 1743. Among other
+learned works he compiled the well-known _Latin and English Dictionary_,
+first published in 1736, which passed through many editions, but is now
+entirely superseded.
+
+AINSWORTH, William Francis, an English physician, geologist, and traveller,
+born 1807. He was surgeon and geologist to the Euphrates expedition under
+Colonel Chesney, and published _Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and
+Chaldaea_ (1838); _Travels in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Armenia_ (1842);
+_Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks_ (1844), &c. Died 1896.
+
+AINSWORTH, William Harrison, an English novelist, born 1805, died 1882. He
+was the son of a Manchester solicitor and intended for the profession of
+law, but devoted himself to literature. He wrote _Rookwood_ (1834), _Jack
+Sheppard_, illustrated by Cruickshank (1839), and about forty other novels,
+including _Guy Fawkes_, _Tower of London_, _Windsor Castle_, _Lancashire
+Witches_, _Flitch of Bacon_, &c. His literary models were at first Sir
+Walter Scott and afterwards Victor Hugo's _Notre Dame de Paris_.
+
+AIN-TAB ([.a]-in-t[:a]b'), a town of Northern Syria, 60 miles north of
+Aleppo; with manufactures of cottons, woollens, leather, &c., and an
+extensive trade. There is here an American Protestant mission. Pop. 45,000.
+
+AINU. See _Ainos_.
+
+AIR, the gaseous substance of which our atmosphere consists, being a
+mixture mainly of about 78 per cent by volume of nitrogen and 21 per cent
+of oxygen. The latter is absolutely essential to animal life, while the
+purpose chiefly served by the nitrogen appears to be to dilute the oxygen.
+Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen, and hence the air dissolved
+in water contains about 10 per cent more oxygen than atmospheric air. The
+oxygen therefore available for those animals which breathe by gills is
+somewhat less diluted with nitrogen, but it is very much diluted with
+water. For the various properties and phenomena connected with air see such
+articles as _Atmosphere_, _Aeronautics_, _Air-pump_, _Barometer_,
+_Combustion_, _Respiration_, &c.
+
+AIR, in music (in It. _aria_), a continuous melody, in which some lyric
+subject or passion is expressed. The lyric melody of a single voice,
+accompanied by instruments, is its proper form of composition. Thus we find
+it in the higher order of musical works; as in cantatas, oratorios, operas,
+and also independently in concertos.--_Air_ is also the name often given to
+the upper or most prominent part in a concerted piece, and is thus
+equivalent to _treble_, _soprano_, &c.
+
+AIR, or ASBEN. See _Asben_.
+
+AIRA. See _Hair-grass_.
+
+AIR BEDS AND CUSHIONS, often used by the sick and invalids, are composed of
+india-rubber or of cloth made air-tight by a solution of india-rubber, and
+when required for use filled with air, which thus supplies the place of the
+usual stuffing materials. They tend to prevent bed-sores from continuous
+lying in one position. They are also cheap and easily transported, as the
+bed or cushion, when not in use, can be packed in small compass, to be
+again inflated with air when wanted.
+
+AIR-BLADDER. See _Swimming-bladder_.
+
+AIR-BRAKE, a brake operated by air pressure, usually applied to brake,
+simultaneously, all the wheels of a moving train. In the Westinghouse type,
+by means of an ingenious 'triple valve' carried one on each carriage, the
+train pipe is made to serve the dual purpose of supply and control. An
+air-pump on the engine compresses air into the main receiver, from which it
+flows through a reducing valve into the train pipe. The pressure, acting on
+the under side of the triple valve, moves the valve to its extreme
+position, thereby opening a passage to an auxiliary receiver on the
+carriage and also putting the brake cylinder into communication with the
+atmosphere. A spring in the brake cylinder keeps the brakes in the 'off'
+position.
+
+To apply the brakes, the pressure is lowered in the train pipe. The air
+pressure in the auxiliary receiver reverses the triple valve, thus
+admitting air to the brake cylinder and closing the outlet to atmosphere.
+
+To remove the brakes, air from the main receiver is passed into the train
+pipe, and the triple valve is restored to the 'off' position. See
+_Traction_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. W. Wood, _Westinghouse Air-brake_; R. H.
+Blackhall, _Air-brake Catechism_.
+
+AIR-CELLS, cavities in the cellular tissue of the stems and leaves of
+plants which contain air only, the juices of the plants being contained in
+separate vessels. They are largest and most numerous in aquatic plants, as
+in the _Vallisneria spir[=a]lis_ and the _Victoria regia_, the gigantic
+leaves of which latter are buoyed up on the surface of the water by their
+means.--The minute cells in the lungs of animals are also called air-cells.
+There are also air-cells in the bodies of birds. They are connected with
+the respiratory system, and are situated in the cavity of the thorax and
+abdomen, and sometimes extend into the bones. They are most fully developed
+in birds of powerful and rapid flight, such as the albatross.
+
+AIRD, Thomas, a Scottish poet and miscellaneous writer, friend of Professor
+Wilson, De Quincey, and Carlyle, long editor of a newspaper in Dumfries;
+born 1802, died 1876. He wrote _The Devil's Dream on Mount Aksbeck_; _The
+Old Bachelor_, &c.
+
+AIRDRIE, a municipal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, in Lanarkshire,
+near the Monkland Canal, 11 miles east of Glasgow, in the centre of a rich
+mining district, with a large cotton-mill, foundries and machine shops,
+breweries, &c., and collieries and ironworks in its vicinity. Pop. 24,160.
+
+AIR-ENGINE, an engine in which air heated, and so expanded, or compressed
+air is used as the motive power. A great many engines of the former kind
+have been invented, some of which have been found to work pretty well where
+no great power is required. They may be said to be essentially similar in
+construction to the steam-engine, though of course the expansibility of air
+by heat is small compared with the expansion that takes place when water is
+converted into steam. Engines working by compressed air have been found
+very useful in mining, tunnelling, &c., and the compressed air may be
+conveyed to its destination by means of pipes. In such cases the waste air
+serves for ventilation and for reducing the oppressive heat.
+
+AIRE ([=a]r), a river of England, W. Riding of Yorkshire, rising to the
+south-east of Penyghent and flowing in a south-easterly direction to join
+the Ouse above Goole, having passed through Leeds on its way; length, 70
+miles. It is navigable up to Leeds, and forms an important portion of the
+Aire and Calder Navigation system, which connects Goole, Hull, &c., with
+Liverpool. The Calder enters the Aire at Castleford. The district specially
+known as _Airedale_ is the valley of the Aire above Leeds.--A large breed
+of terrier, of which there are several varieties, is known as the _Airedale
+terrier_, a strongly-built animal, rather long in the legs, with a hard,
+close coat.
+
+AIRE, a river of France, in the Argonne region, a tributary of the Aisne.
+
+AIRE-SUR-L'ADOUR ([=a]r-s[.u]r-l[.a]-d[:o]r), a small but ancient town of
+France, department of Landes, the see of a bishop. Pop. 3000.
+
+AIRE-SUR-LA-LYS ([=a]r-s[.u]r-l[.a]-l[=e]), an old fortified town of
+France, department of Pas de Calais, 10 miles south-east of St. Omer. Pop.
+5000.
+
+AIR-GUN, a gun from which the bullet is propelled by means of compressed
+air. Until about the middle of the nineteenth century air-guns were made
+with a metal reservoir in the butt; this reservoir was charged with air by
+means of a pump, and although one pumping put in enough air for six or
+seven shots, the process of loading was awkward and laborious. The
+well-known 'Gem' air-gun was worked by means of a spring, which compressed
+the air; the great defect of this gun was that the barrel was used as a
+cocking-lever, and so was apt to become bent and inaccurate. The 'Gem' was
+a smooth-bore gun, and early attempts at rifled air-guns failed, as the
+pellet was apt to stick in the barrel, owing to the low velocity not
+allowing it to take the grooves. The 'Quackenbush' air-gun made an attempt
+to get over this difficulty; its slugs were felted, and the felt took the
+rifling and greatly increased the accuracy of the weapon, but, of course,
+the ammunition was much more expensive than ordinary air-gun pellets. The
+B.S.A. air-rifle is an excellent weapon which has overcome all the early
+difficulties of construction. It has a fixed barrel, a separate
+cocking-lever, and a rotating breech-plug, and the muzzle velocity of its
+16-grain pellet is 600 feet per second, which compares not unfavourably
+with the 1000 feet per second of the 40-grain bullet of a .22 long-rifle
+cartridge. An air-gun is a splendid weapon for practising markmanship, as
+it is almost noiseless, and as its ammunition costs little. It does not
+need to be elaborately cleaned, as a miniature rifle does; an occasional
+oiling is all that it requires to keep it in order, and with care it should
+fire an indefinite number of shots without losing its accuracy.
+
+AIROLO ([.a]-i-r[=o]'l[=o]), a small town of Switzerland, canton Ticino, at
+the southern end of the St. Gothard Tunnel, and the first place on this
+route at which Italian is spoken. Pop. 2000.
+
+AIR-PLANTS, or EPIPHYTES, are plants that grow upon other plants or trees,
+apparently without receiving any nutriment otherwise than from the air. The
+name is restricted to flowering plants (mosses or lichens being excluded)
+and is suitably applied to many species of orchids. The conditions
+necessary to the growth of such plants are excessive heat and moisture, and
+hence their chief localities are the damp and shady tropical forests of
+Africa, Asia, and America. They are particularly abundant in Java and
+tropical America.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Air-pump (sectional view)]
+
+AIR-PUMP, an apparatus by means of which air or other gas may be removed
+from or compressed into an enclosed space. It was invented by Otto von
+Guericke of Magdeburg about the year 1654, and described in 1657 by Gaspar
+Schott. An ordinary suction-pump for water is on the same principle as the
+air-pump; indeed, before water reaches the top of the pipe the air has been
+pumped out by the same machinery which pumps the water. An ordinary
+air-pump (see fig. 1) consists essentially of a cylinder or barrel with a
+piston and valves. The barrel is connected to the vessel from which the air
+is to be pumped. A is the vessel to be exhausted, C the air-pump cylinder,
+P the piston, VV valves in the piston, and O the connection to the vessel
+A. When the piston moves downwards from the position shown, it cuts off the
+connection with A by passing over O. The length L is made long enough so
+that O is kept covered up during the downstroke. The air filling the space
+D is compressed, and so lifts the valves VV and passes out through them.
+This goes on till the end of the downward stroke, when the volume is very
+small indeed. When the upward motion begins, the valves VV close, and the
+piston rises and creates a vacuum in D. When the piston rises sufficiently
+to uncover O (as in figure), air rushes from A into the highly-exhausted
+space D and fills it. The process is repeated indefinitely, and A is
+gradually exhausted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Toepler Pump Fig. 3.--Sprengel Pump]
+
+Air-pumps for compressing air are constructed on the same principle, but
+the valves act the reverse way. The bicycle pump is a well-known example of
+this form of pump. In the Fleuss or Geryk pump greater efficiency is
+attained by having layers of oil in the barrel and above the piston. In
+nearly all pumps for producing the high vacua necessary, e.g. for the
+electric glow-lamp and the X-ray tube, mercury is employed. In one form,
+the Toepler pump, a reservoir containing mercury is connected by a flexible
+tube to the receiver. (See fig 2. T tube connecting pump to vessel to be
+exhausted; R, reservoir, raised above A to drive air in B and C through D
+and out into open air; R is then lowered, and B and C fill with air from
+receiver. Process then repeated.) By alternately lowering and raising the
+reservoir, gas is first withdrawn from the receiver and then expelled
+through D, which also acts as a barometer. The process is repeated until
+the desired degree of exhaustion is reached. In a second type, the Sprengel
+pump, a stream of mercury from a reservoir situated above the vessel to be
+exhausted falls in drops through a narrow vertical tube which communicates
+with the vessel. (See fig. 3. A, reservoir; B, tube leading to vessel to be
+exhausted; C, bubbles of air carried down by mercury.) The air is entrapped
+between the falling drops of mercury, and is carried down and expelled with
+it. In the filter-pump, water is used instead of mercury, the pump being
+connected to an ordinary water-tap.
+
+A more recent form, the Gaede pump, is of the rotary type. (See fig. 4. C,
+iron case; G, glass front; P two-chamber porcelain drum rotated
+counter-clockwise about axle A. As mercury leaves chamber R, air enters
+from receiver by tube T and opening B. When B is immersed, mercury enters
+and air is driven into case C and removed through tube S.) A porcelain
+drum, divided into two cells, rotates within an air-tight case more than
+half filled with mercury. Each cell has an opening which, when above the
+mercury surface, places the cell in communication with the receiver. When
+the opening is immersed, the entrapped air passes by another channel into
+the outer case, from which it is removed by another less efficient pump.
+The pump will reduce the pressure within a 6-litre bulb from 10 millimetres
+to .00001 millimetre of mercury in fifteen minutes. Langmuir's pump employs
+the principle of the aspirator. A current of mercury vapour passes from a
+mercury boiler past a tube communicating with the apparatus to be
+exhausted, and sucks the air from it; the mercury is condensed in the upper
+part of the pump, returns by side tubes to the boiler and leaves the
+extracted air in this condenser. A less efficient pump is employed to
+remove the air from the mercury condenser as it accumulates. This pump is
+said to be simple and rapid in action, and capable of exhausting an
+11-litre bulb from atmospheric pressure to .00001 millimetre in eighty
+seconds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Gaede Pump]
+
+Air-pumps are largely used in steam engineering, both on land and at sea,
+to extract the air which enters the condenser with the steam (see
+_Condenser_). Several varieties of air-pumps are in use. 1. The ordinary
+piston-pump (fig. 1) in which the piston extracts air by first sucking it
+into the cylinder and then expelling it to the atmosphere. The opening
+leading to the condenser is closed during the stroke in which the air is
+expelled. Two or three cylinders are usually provided on each air-pump set,
+the former type being known as a 2-throw pump and the latter a 3-throw
+pump. One of the best-known makes is the _Edwards_ air-pump. Piston
+air-pumps are driven either by the main engine through a suitable
+mechanism, or by a separate electric motor. The amount of power required to
+drive them varies with the size of the set, and with large engines of over
+10,000 h.p. it is about 1/2 per cent or less. Vacua as high as 29 inches
+(Bar. 30 inches) can be readily maintained on large plants by this type of
+pump, provided the condenser is suitably designed. In well-maintained
+plants bad vacua are commonly due to deficient air extraction, which may
+arise from the low-pressure air-piping not being air-tight, or from the
+air-pump being too small. 2. The water-ejector type uses the momentum of a
+jet of water to extract the air entrained with it. Well-known types of this
+plant are the ordinary barometric jet-condenser and the _Leblanc_ air-pump.
+In the latter type, a rotating wheel, which carries vanes, forcibly throws
+sheets of water into a pipe communicating with the condenser. The sheets of
+water lie across the pipe, and the space between them is filled up with air
+sucked from the condenser. This water, with the entrained air, is thrown
+out, against the atmospheric pressure, by the momentum imparted to the
+water sheets by the rotating wheel. Very high vacua can be obtained with
+the Leblanc pump, but the power required to drive it is more than is
+required with a 3-throw piston-pump. (Cp. Sprengel pump above). 3. A
+steam-ejector is also used, a jet of steam taking the place of the sheets
+of water in the Leblanc type. Parsons' _augmentor condenser_ works on this
+principle. A small jet of steam sucks the air from the main condenser and
+compresses it into a small so-called augmentor condenser. The pressure in
+this condenser is a little higher than the pressure in the main condenser,
+but it is sufficient to enable an ordinary 3-throw pump to be used
+efficiently. The steam used to extract the air is condensed in the
+augmentor condenser by cold water, and the interior of the augmentor
+condenser is connected to the inlet of an ordinary 3-throw pump. The
+3-throw pump is called upon to deal with the air at a slightly higher
+pressure than the condenser pressure, and the vacuum in the main condenser
+is improved by the drop of pressure which exists between the augmentor
+condenser and the main condenser. In a well-designed plant, for instance, a
+3-throw pump might be used to maintain a vacuum of 29 inches in the
+augmentor condenser, while the steam jet would provide another 1/2 inch of
+vacuum, giving 29-1/2 inches vacuum in the main condenser. The _pressure_
+in the main condenser is thereby reduced from 1 inch Hg. to 1/2 inch Hg.; a
+reduction of _one-half_. (Cp. Langmuir's pump above--using a mercury-vapour
+jet instead of a steam jet.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. P. Thompson, _The
+Development of the Mercurial Air-Pump_; E. Hausbrand, _Evaporating,
+Condensing, and Cooling Apparatus_.
+
+AIR-RAIDS. Apart from various sporadic bomb-dropping attacks by the
+Italians in Tripoli in 1913, the first air-raid proper was made by a
+Zeppelin on Antwerp during the investiture of that city by the Germans in
+1914. Later on this new method of warfare was developed to a considerable
+extent by both sides during the Great European War, both air-ships and
+aeroplanes being used. Air-craft for this purpose have been likened to
+long-range guns, with the advantage of greater precision, because the
+target is in view, and very much longer effective range--the Germans, for
+example, used to raid London, and on one occasion Edinburgh, from bases
+situated in North Germany and on the Schleswig coast. Air-raids are of
+great value in affecting the _moral_ of the enemy country by bringing home
+the effects of war in its most terrifying aspect to the civilian population
+at home, and thus causing the dislocation of traffic and diminishing the
+output of munitions. Their practical value is in attacking and destroying
+munition-factories, army head-quarters, naval bases, &c., in addition to
+such important work as the demolition of ammunition-dumps, and cutting
+lines of communication behind the front.
+
+Various protective devices against raiding aircraft have been invented.
+Among these are high-angle guns, capable of throwing shells to a height of
+some 30,000 feet, though possibly the most effective defence is small
+high-speed aeroplanes armed with machine-guns and capable of reaching great
+heights in a short space of time. For use at night, kite-balloons (see
+_Balloons_) are sent up in clumps connected together by cables. From the
+cables is suspended a network of steel wires, which is invisible to the
+hostile air-craft, and in which they may become entangled and so brought
+down. These have been raised to a height of as much as 12,000 feet. For
+raiding purposes two types of aeroplane--in addition to air-ships--have
+been developed. 'Day bombers' carry out raids in daylight at heights of
+12,000 to 20,000 feet on points from 50 to 100 miles behind the lines.
+'Night-bombers' are slower machines which raid well into the enemy's
+territory--up to 200 or more miles--at heights varying from 8000 to 12,000
+feet. It is usual for night-raids to be carried out by squadrons of
+machines flying in formation, each machine carrying about a ton of bombs
+(in 1918). Air-ships can carry 5-10 tons of bombs to places up to 1000
+miles distant from their bases.
+
+During the last months of the war, our Independent Air Force dropped 500
+tons of bombs on German objectives, and this raiding over a wide area of
+industrial Germany played no small part in causing that loss of spirit
+among the enemy which led eventually to their request for an armistice, and
+their virtual capitulation.
+
+AIR-SHIPS
+
+[Illustration]
+
+AIR-SHIPS, lighter-than-air craft provided with means of propulsion and
+steering. The air-ship, unlike the aeroplane, is not dependent upon its
+engines for its power to remain in flight, but derives its sustentation
+from the hydrogen gas with which it is filled. Hydrogen, first weighed by
+Henry Cavendish in 1766, is the lightest gas known, being 14.47 times
+lighter than air. In the pure state it has a lifting force of 71.155 lb.
+per 1000 cu. feet, but for calculation purposes is usually assumed to
+contain 5 per cent of impurities, giving a 'lift' of approximately 68 lb.
+per 1000 cu. feet. Hydrogen is, when mixed with air, highly inflammable,
+and helium has therefore been suggested as a substitute. This has a lift,
+when pure, of about 65 lb. per 1000 cu. feet, but is only found in a few
+places in America and is therefore at present too expensive to be used in
+quantities. The lift of any given quantity of hydrogen depends upon the
+difference between its weight and that of an equal volume of air. As the
+amount, and therefore weight, of air contained in a given space varies with
+the barometric pressure and temperature, the lift of hydrogen given above
+varies also. These figures are based upon a temperature of 60deg F. and a
+barometric pressure of 30 inches. As an air-ship rises from the ground, the
+density, and therefore pressure, of the air decreases, which causes the
+hydrogen in the envelope to expand proportionately. Rise in temperature has
+the same effect. When an air-ship ascends, the gas therefore expands, and
+at a certain point would burst the envelope were valves not provided to
+allow some of the gas to escape. It is important to realize that as the
+expansion occurs at a rate corresponding to the decrease in density no
+alteration in lift occurs so long as gas is not lost through the valves.
+This would continue indefinitely if the gas-chamber were capable of
+stretching indefinitely, but with the cotton-fabric used in practice a
+height is reached when gas commences to escape from the automatic valves.
+From this moment the lift of the air-ship begins to decrease. At a certain
+point this decrease will have reached such a point that the air-ship is 'in
+equilibrium', i.e. she weighs precisely the same as the volume of air she
+displaces. This is known as the 'maximum height'. Up to 10,000 feet it is
+roughly true that 1/30 of the lift is lost per 1000 foot rise.
+
+The simplest form of air-ship is the _non-rigid_, which consists of a
+rubberized cotton-fabric gas-container (the 'envelope'), from which the
+'car', containing engines, crew, &c., is hung by flexible steel-wire ropes.
+To resist the bending moment introduced by the weight of the car, the
+envelope is inflated with hydrogen under pressure--usually about 25 mm. of
+water. So long as this pressure is greater than any local compression due
+to bending or loading in the fabric, the envelope will retain its shape. On
+coming down from a height, owing to the loss of gas, as already explained,
+the pressure will be reduced, and something must be done to restore it or
+the envelope will buckle. Fabric bags, known as 'ballonets', are therefore
+fitted inside the envelope, and as the air-ship descends air is forced into
+these bags, which supplies the lost pressure and maintains the shape of the
+envelope. The height to which a non-rigid air-ship can go, on returning
+from which the ballonets will be just full of air and the pressure the same
+as at starting, is known as the 'maximum ballonet height'. Ballonets are
+usually equivalent in volume to rather less than a quarter of the total
+volume of the air-ship--giving a maximum ballonet height of 6000 to 7000
+feet. Usually from two to three ballonets are provided, according to the
+size of the air-ship. During the Great European War British non-rigid
+air-ships were constructed varying in size from a capacity of 70,000 cu.
+feet to 360,000 cu. feet. The former had one 75-h.p. engine, and the latter
+two of 375 h.p. each. Owing to difficulties in maintaining the shape and
+distributing the weight of the car over a long envelope, it is generally
+considered that 500,000 cu. feet probably represents the maximum size in
+which the non-rigid form of construction can be used. Above this size the
+_semi-rigid_ type is used. In this case the envelope remains as in the
+non-rigid, but a girder or 'keel' is introduced between the envelope and
+the car, the weight of which is therefore taken by the keel and thence
+distributed to the envelope instead of being taken direct from the envelope
+as in non-rigids. There has been little development of non-rigids in Great
+Britain. The most prominent types are the Italian 'Forlanini', 'Verduzzio',
+and military air-ships. The keel, in all these examples, is not a rigid
+girder in the vertical sense, as it consists of a number of sections
+connected together by links. It is designed to resist compression only so
+long as it is held straight by the pressure of the envelope, and is not
+capable of taking a bending moment. When a size of about
+1,000,000-cu.-foot-hydrogen capacity is reached it becomes economical to
+use the _rigid_ method of construction. This is totally distinct from the
+other two types, as the non-rigid envelope is replaced by a rigid hull of
+sufficient strength to retain its shape without the assistance of any
+internal gas-pressure. The hull consists of a number of longitudinal
+members--usually built-up girders of 'duralumin', an aluminium
+alloy--connected together at distances of 25-30 feet by a number of
+'transverse frames', or rings, forming bulkheads. The transverse frames are
+also of duralumin girders, and are braced by 'radical wires' running from
+the joints of these girders to a ring in the centre. Between each pair of
+these transverse frames is a gas-bag containing hydrogen. The gas-bags are
+made of rubberized cotton on to which is stuck 'gold-beater's skin', made
+from the lining of the intestines of an ox. This is done to prevent
+hydrogen leakage. This is necessary, as the fabric of the gas-bags of a
+rigid air-ship is lighter and contains less rubber than the envelope of a
+non-rigid.
+
+A '[Delta]'-shaped keel runs along the interior of the ship, its weight
+being taken on the two bottom longitudinal girders. The chief function of
+the keel is to distribute the load of the various weights to the transverse
+frames of the air-ship. In it are slung the petrol-tanks, water-ballast
+tanks, bombs, &c., and living accommodation for the crew is also provided
+there. Along the bottom runs a walking-way from which access is gained to
+the cars and various parts of the air-ship. The cars containing the
+engines, wireless-cabin, and pilot's cabin are suspended from the
+transverse frames. Some of the cars, instead of being slung below the
+centre-line, are slung in pairs some little way up the side of the
+air-ship.
+
+All air-ships are steered by means of rudders and, in the vertical sense,
+elevators, in precisely the same way as aeroplanes. Up to the end of 1919
+speeds of 84 miles per hour had been reached and air-ships had climbed to
+24,000 feet. The greatest distance covered in one flight was 4500 miles,
+while the longest time in the air was effected by R34 on her voyage to
+America, which occupied 108 hours--4 days 8 hours. Rigid air-ships of
+2,750,000-cu.-foot capacity had been built with a length of nearly 300 feet
+and a gross lift of 60 tons. See also _Aeronautics_,
+_Balloons_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Sazerac de Forges, _La Conquete de l'Air_;
+Santos Dumont, _My Airships_; Hildebrandt, _Airships: Past and Present_;
+Major G. Whale, _British Airships: Past, Present, and Future_.
+
+AIRY, Sir George Biddell, a distinguished English astronomer, was born at
+Alnwick, 27th July, 1801, and educated at Hereford, Colchester, and Trinity
+College, Cambridge, where he was senior wrangler in 1823. At Cambridge he
+was Lucasian professor of mathematics, and subsequently Plumian professor
+of astronomy and experimental philosophy, in the latter capacity having
+charge of the observatory. In 1835 he was appointed Astronomer Royal, and
+as such his superintendence of the observatory at Greenwich was able and
+successful. He resigned this post with a pension in 1881. His important
+achievement is the discovery of a new inequality in the motions of Venus
+and the earth. He wrote much and made numerous valuable investigations on
+subjects connected with astronomy, physics, and mathematics. Among separate
+works published by him may be mentioned _Popular Astronomy_, _On Sound and
+Atmospheric Vibrations_, _A Treatise on Magnetism_, _On the Undulatory
+Theory of Optics_, _On Gravitation_. He died 2nd Jan., 1892. He left an
+autobiography, published in 1896.
+
+AISLE ([=i]l; from Lat. _ala_, a wing), in architecture, one of the lateral
+divisions of a church in the direction of its length, separated from the
+central portion or nave by piers or pillars. There may be one aisle or more
+on each side of the nave. The cathedrals at Chichester, Milan, and Amiens
+have five aisles, Antwerp and Paris seven, and that of Cordova nineteen
+aisles in all. The nave is sometimes called the central aisle. See
+_Cathedral_.
+
+AISNE ([=a]n), a north-eastern frontier department of France; area, 2838
+sq. miles. It is an undulating, well-cultivated, and well-wooded region,
+chiefly watered by the Oise in the north, its tributary the Aisne in the
+centre, and the Marne in the south. It contains the important towns of St.
+Quentin, Laon (the capital), Soissons, and Chateau Thierry. In the European
+War (1914-18) severe fighting took place on the Aisne, and a great battle
+was fought on 12th Sep., 1914. General Nivelle's offensive on the Aisne
+began in April, 1917. Pop. (1921), 421,575.
+
+AIVA'LIK, or KIDONIA, a seaport of Asia Minor, on the Gulf of Adramyti, 66
+miles north by west of Smyrna, carrying on an extensive commerce in
+olive-oil, soap, cotton, &c. Pop. 21,000.
+
+AIX ([=a]ks), a town of Southern France, department Bouches-du-Rhone, on
+the River Arc, the seat of an archbishop. It is well built, has an old
+cathedral and other interesting buildings, including a university, a
+library (over 100,000 vols.), museum, &c.; manufactures cotton and woollen
+goods, oil, soap, hats, flour, &c.; warm springs, now less visited than
+formerly. Aix was founded in 123 B.C. by the Roman consul Gaius Sextius
+Calvinus, and from its mineral springs was called _Aquae Sextiae_ (Sextian
+Waters). Between this town and Arles, Marius gained his great victory over
+the Teutons, 102 B.C. In the Middle Ages the counts of Provence held their
+court here, to which the troubadours used to resort. Pop. 29,836.
+
+AIX, or AIX-LES-BAINS ([=a]ks-l[=a]-ba[n.]), a finely-situated village of
+France, department of Savoie, 8 miles north of Chambery, on the side of a
+fertile valley, with much-frequented hot springs known to the Romans by the
+name of _Aquae Gratianae_, and with ruins of a Roman triumphal arch, and of
+a temple of Diana. Pop. 8900.
+
+AIX-LA-CHAPELLE ([=a]ks-l[.a]-sh[.a]-pel; Ger. _Aachen_), a city of Rhenish
+Prussia, 38 miles west by south of Cologne, pleasantly situated in a fine
+vale watered by the Wurm, formerly surrounded by ramparts, now converted
+into pleasant promenades. It is well built, and though an ancient town has
+now quite a modern appearance. The most important building is the
+cathedral, the oldest portion of which, often called the nave, was erected
+in the time of Charles the Great (Charlemagne) as the palace chapel about
+796. It is in the Byzantine style, and consists of an octagon, surrounded
+by a sixteen-sided gallery and surmounted by a cupola, in the middle being
+the tomb of Charlemagne. The adjoining Gothic choir, begun in 1353 and
+finished in 1413, forms the other chief division of the cathedral; it is
+lofty and of great elegance, and has fine painted windows. Another
+noteworthy building is the Rathaus (town hall), erected in the fourteenth
+century. Aix-la-Chapelle, with the adjoining Burtscheid, which may be
+considered a suburb, is a place of great commerce and manufacturing
+industry, the chief productions being woollen yarns and cloths, needles,
+machinery, cards (for the woollen manufacture), railway and other
+carriages, cigars, chemicals, silk goods, hosiery, glass, soap, &c. A
+considerable portion of its importance and prosperity arises from the
+influx of visitors to its sulphur and chalybeate springs and
+baths.--Aix-la-Chapelle was known to the Romans as _Aquisgranum_. It was
+the favourite residence of Charles the Great, who made it the capital of
+all his dominions north of the Alps, and who died here in 814. During the
+Middle Ages it was a free imperial city and very flourishing. Thirty-seven
+German emperors and eleven empresses have been crowned in it, and the
+imperial insignia were preserved here till 1795, when they were carried to
+Vienna. The town was in possession of France from 1794 to 1814. Pop.
+156,143.--_Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle_, a congress held in 1818, by which
+the army of the allies in France was withdrawn after France had paid the
+contribution imposed at the peace of 1815, and by which independence was
+restored to France.--A _treaty_ of peace concluded at this city, 2nd May,
+1668, as a result of the Triple Alliance, put an end to the war carried on
+against Spain by Louis XIV in 1667, after the death of his father-in-law,
+Philip IV, in support of his claims to a great part of the Spanish
+Netherlands, which he urged in the name of his queen, the infanta Maria
+Theresa. By this France obtained Lille, Charleroi, Douai, Tournai,
+Oudenarde, &c. The _second peace_ of Aix-la-Chapelle, 18th Oct., 1748,
+terminated the Austrian war of succession.
+
+AJACCIO ([.a]-y[.a]ch'[=o]), the capital of Corsica, on the south-west
+coast of the island, on a tongue of land projecting into the Gulf of
+Ajaccio, the birthplace of Napoleon and the seat of a bishop, with coral
+and sardine fisheries, and a considerable trade. There are here a
+cathedral, a college with library and museum, marble statue of Napoleon,
+monument of the Bonaparte family, &c. Ajaccio is connected by railway with
+Bastia and other places, and is becoming a winter resort for people with
+weak lungs. Pop. 20,946.
+
+AJAN'TA, a village and ravine of India, in the north-west of the Nizam's
+dominions, about 50 miles north-north-east of Aurangabad. The ravine, 4
+miles N.W. of the village, is celebrated for its cave temples and
+monasteries, twenty-nine in number, excavated out of a wall of almost
+perpendicular rock about 250 feet high. They are all richly ornamented with
+sculpture, and covered with highly-finished paintings, representing
+subjects of almost all kinds. The oldest are assigned to about 200 B.C.,
+the most modern to about A.D. 600, and they may be said to furnish a
+continuous record of Buddhist art during 800 years, the faith at the latter
+date being practically expelled from India.
+
+A'JAX (Gr. _Aias_), the name of two Grecian chiefs who fought against Troy,
+the one being son of O[)i]leus, King of Locris, surnamed the Little, the
+other son of Telamon, the Great or Telamonian Ajax. The latter was from
+Salamis, and sailed with twelve ships to Troy, where he is represented by
+Homer as the boldest and handsomest of the Greeks, after Achilles. He had
+more than one combat with Hector, against whom he was well matched. On the
+death of Achilles, when his arms, which Ajax claimed, were awarded to
+Ulysses, he became insane and killed himself. This is the subject of
+Sophocles' tragedy _Ajax_. The other Ajax was hardly of less importance as
+a champion on the Greek side in the Trojan war. At the fall of Troy he
+entered the temple of Pallas Athena and seized Cassandra. He lost his life
+during his homeward voyage, either by shipwreck or by a flash of lightning
+sent by Athena, who was offended at the violation of her temple.
+
+AJMERE, AJMIR, or AJMER, a British commissionership or province in India,
+Rajputana, divided into the two districts of Ajmere and Mairwara (or
+Merwara); area, 2711 sq. miles. The surface of the province, which is
+entirely surrounded by native States, is hilly in the north and west, where
+there is a branch of the Aravali range, but level in the south and east.
+The soil is partly fertile, but there are large barren sandy plains, and
+there are no rivers of any importance. There are a large number of tanks
+which collect the water of small streams, and are useful for irrigation.
+The province suffered severely from famine in 1899-1900, the population
+being reduced by 12 or 13 per cent. Pop. 501,395.--_Ajmere_, the capital,
+an ancient city, a favourite residence of the Mogul emperors, is 279 miles
+S.W. of Delhi, at the foot of Taragarh Hill (2853 feet), on which is a
+fort. It is surrounded by a wall, has well-built streets, and possesses a
+Government college, as also Mayo College for Rajput nobles, a Scottish
+mission, a mosque that forms one of the finest specimens of early
+Mahommedan architecture extant, and an old palace of Akbar, now the
+treasury. There is a trade in cotton, sugar, salt, &c., and the town is an
+important station on the Rajputana railway. Pop. 86,200.
+
+AJOWAN' (_Ptych[=o]tis Ajowan_), an umbelliferous plant cultivated in
+India, Persia, and Egypt, the seeds of which are used in cookery and in
+medicine, having carminative properties. The seeds much resemble caraway
+seeds, have a strong smell of thyme, and are exported in some quantity to
+Europe as a source of _thymol_, now so well known.
+
+AJU'GA, a genus of plants belonging to the labiate family. See _Bugle_.
+
+AJ'UTAGE, a short tube of a tapering shape fitting into the side of a
+reservoir or vessel to regulate the discharge of water from it. Also, the
+nozzle of a tube for regulating the discharge of water to form a _jet
+d'eau_.
+
+AKABAH', Gulf of, an arm of the Red Sea, on the east side of the Peninsula
+of Sinai, which separates it from the Gulf of Suez; nearly 100 miles long.
+The village of Akabah, at the northern extremity of the gulf, is supposed
+to be near the site of the _Ezion-geber_ of the Old Testament; and here
+also was Elath, long a place of note. Akabah still carries on a small
+trade. It was captured by the Arabs in 1917.
+
+AKAGAMASEKI. Same as _Simonoseki_.
+
+AKAROID RESIN, a resin obtained from some of the grass-trees of Australia,
+used in varnishes.
+
+AKASSA, a seaport of Southern Nigeria, on a small island nearly opposite
+the chief mouth of the Niger. There are here engineering and other works,
+at which ships may be repaired, belonging to the Government.
+
+AK'BAR (that is 'very great'), a Mogul emperor, the greatest Asiatic prince
+of modern times. He was born at Amerkote, in Sind, in 1542, succeeded his
+father, Humayun, a grandson of Sultan Baber, at the age of thirteen, and
+governed first under the guardianship of his minister, Beyram, but took the
+chief power into his own hands in 1560. He fought with distinguished valour
+against his foreign foes and rebellious subjects, conquering all his
+enemies, and extending the limits of the empire farther than they had ever
+been before, although on his accession they embraced only a small part of
+the former Mogul Empire. Although a Mohammedan by birth, he abandoned Islam
+and founded a new religion which he called 'Divine Faith' (_Diu-i-Olahi_).
+His contemporaries bestowed upon him the title of 'Guardian of Mankind'. He
+was also a generous patron of literature, and commissioned the Jesuit
+missionary, Jerome Xavier, to translate the four gospels into Persian. His
+government was remarkable for its mildness and tolerance towards all sects;
+he was indefatigable in his attention to the internal administration of his
+empire, and instituted inquiries into the population, character, and
+productions of each province. The result of his statistical labours, as
+well as a history of his reign, were collected by his minister, Abul Fazl,
+in a work called _Akbar-Nameh_ (Book of Akbar), the third part of which,
+entitled _Ayini-Akbari_ (Institutes of Akbar), was published in an English
+translation at Calcutta (1783-6, 3 vols.), and reprinted in London. He died
+in 1605. His mausoleum at Secundra, near Agra, is a fine example of
+Mohammedan architecture. Cf. V. A. Smith, _Akbar, The Great Mogul_.
+
+AKEE' (_Blighia sap[)i]da_), a tree of the nat. ord. Sapindaceae, much
+esteemed for its fruit. The leaves are somewhat similar to those of the
+ash; the flowers are small and white, and produced in branched spikes. The
+fruit is lobed and ribbed, of a dull orange colour, and contains several
+large black seeds, embedded in a succulent and slightly bitter arillus of a
+pale straw colour, which is eaten when cooked. The akee is a native of
+Guinea, from whence it was carried to the West Indies by Captain Bligh in
+1793.
+
+A KEMPIS, Thomas. See _Thomas a Kempis_.
+
+AKEN ([:a]'ken), a Prussian town, province of Saxony, on the left bank of
+the Elbe, with manufactures of tobacco, cloth, beetroot sugar, leather, &c.
+Pop. 7358.
+
+A'KENSIDE, Mark, a poet and physician, born in 1721, at
+Newcastle-upon-Tyne, died in London in 1770. He was the son of a butcher,
+and was sent to the University of Edinburgh to qualify for the ministry,
+but chose the study of medicine instead. After three years' residence at
+Edinburgh he went to Leyden, and in 1744 became Doctor of Physic. In the
+same year he published the _Pleasures of Imagination_, which he is said to
+have written in Edinburgh, and which was translated into French by Baron
+d'Holbach (1769). In 1746 he wrote his much-praised _Hymn to the Naiads_.
+Having settled in London, he became a fellow of the Royal Society, and was
+admitted into the College of Physicians. In 1759 he was appointed first
+assistant and afterwards head physician to St. Thomas's Hospital. In his
+later days he wrote little poetry, but published several medical essays and
+observations. The place of Akenside as a poet is not very high, though Dr.
+Johnson praised the blank verse of his poems, and his somewhat cumbrous
+_Pleasures of Imagination_ was once considered one of the most pleasing
+didactic poems in our language.
+
+AKERMANN', a fortified town and seaport in Bessarabia, near the mouth of
+the Dniester, with a good port. The vicinity produces quantities of salt,
+and also fine grapes from which excellent wine is made. A treaty was signed
+here, 6th Oct., 1826, between Russia and the Porte, by which Moldavia,
+Walachia, and Serbia were released from all but nominal dependence on
+Turkey. Pop. 40,000.
+
+AKHALZIK, or ACHALZIK ([.a]-_h_[.a]l'tsik), a town of Russia in Asia, in
+the Trans-Caucasian government of Tiflis, 97 miles west of Tiflis, with a
+citadel. It was taken by the Russians in 1828. Pop. 15,977.
+
+AK-HISSAR ('white castle'), a town in Asia Minor, 46 miles N.E. of Smyrna,
+occupying the site of the ancient Thyatira, relics of which city are here
+abundant. Here the Emperor Valens defeated the usurper Procopius in 366,
+and Murad defeated the Prince of Aidin in 1425. Pop. 20,000.
+
+AKHTYRKA ([.a]_h_-tir'k[.a]), a cathedral town of the Ukraine, government
+of Kharkov, with a good trade and some manufactures. Pop. 31,918.
+
+AKJERMANN ([.a]k-yer-m[.a]n'). Same as _Akermann_.
+
+AKKAD, the northern portion of ancient Babylonia occupied by the earliest
+Semitic invaders when the southern portion was Sumer (or Sumeria) and
+occupied by non-Semites. There was also a city of the same name, the
+Biblical Accad (_Gen._ x), which was prominent before 2000 B.C. Its ruins
+were unearthed between 1917 and 1919. See _Babylonia_.
+
+AKKAS, a dwarfish race of Central Africa, dwelling in scattered settlements
+to the north-west of Lake Albert Nyanza, about lat. 3deg N., lon. 29deg E.
+Their height averages about 4-1/2 feet; they are of a brownish or coffee
+colour; head large, jaws projecting (or prognathous), ears large, hands
+small. They are timid and suspicious, and live almost entirely by the
+chase, being exceedingly skilful with the bow and arrow. They were first
+seen by the traveller G. A. Schweinfurth in 1870.
+
+AKMOLINSK', a Russian province in Central Asia, largely consisting of
+steppes and wastes; the chief rivers are the Ishim and Sari-Su; and it
+contains the larger part of Lake Balkash. Capital, Omsk. Area, about
+225,070 sq. miles. Pop. 1,523,700.--_Akmolinsk_ is a place of some
+importance for its caravan trade. Pop. 11,000.
+
+AKO'LA, a town of India, in Berar, the residence of the commissioner of
+Berar, on the River Morna, 150 miles W. by S. of Nagpur; with walls and a
+fort, and some trade in cotton. Pop. 29,289.
+
+AK'RON, a town of the United States, in Ohio, 100 miles N.E. of Columbus,
+on an elevated site. Being furnished with ample water-power by the Little
+Cuyahoga, it possesses large flour-mills, woollen factories, manufactures
+of iron goods, &c. In the vicinity extensive beds of mineral paint are
+worked. Pop. (1920), 208,435.
+
+AKSU' ('white water'), a town of Eastern or Chinese Turkestan, 300 miles
+from Kashgar, in the valley of the Aksu. It is an important centre of trade
+between Russia, China, and Tartary, and has manufactures of cotton cloth,
+leather, and metal goods. Formerly the residence of the kings of Kashgar
+and Yarkand. Pop. 30,000.
+
+AKYAB', a seaport of Lower Burmah, capital of the province of Arracan, at
+the mouth of the River Kuladan or Akyab, of recent upgrowth, well built,
+possessing a good harbour, and carrying on an important trade, its chief
+exports being rice and petroleum. Pop. 35,680.
+
+AL, the article in the Arabic language. It appears in English words derived
+from the Arabic, such as Algebra, Alchemy, Alcove.
+
+ALABAMA (al-a-b[.a]'ma), one of the United States, bounded by Tennessee,
+Georgia, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and Mississippi; area, 51,998 sq.
+miles. The southern part, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico and Florida, is
+low and level, and wooded largely with pine, hence known as the 'pine-woods
+region'; the middle is hilly, with some tracts of level sand or prairies;
+the north is broken and mountainous. The State is intersected by the Rivers
+Alabama, Tombigbee, Mobile, Coosa, Tallapoosa, Tennessee, &c., some of them
+navigable for several hundred miles. The soil is various, being in some
+places, particularly in the south, sandy and barren, but in most parts is
+fertile, especially in the river valleys and in the centre, where there is
+a very fertile tract known as the 'cotton belt'. The climate in general is
+warm, and in the lowlying lands skirting the rivers is rather unhealthy. In
+the more elevated parts it is healthy and agreeable, the winters being mild
+and the summers tempered by breezes from the Gulf of Mexico. The staple
+production is cotton, especially in the middle and south, where rice and
+sugar are also grown; in the north the cereals (above all maize) are the
+principal crops. Alabama possesses extensive beds of iron ore and coal,
+with marble, granite, and other minerals; and coal and iron mining, and the
+smelting and working of iron, are now important industries. The manufacture
+of cotton goods is extensively carried on. The foreign trade is
+concentrated in Mobile, whence cotton is the principal export. The State
+sends eight representatives to Congress. Its principal towns are
+Montgomery, the seat of government, and Mobile, the chief port. There is a
+State university at Tuscaloosa, a university connected with the Methodist
+Episcopal body, several State normal colleges, besides professional
+schools, &c., in the principal towns. Alabama became a State in 1819. It
+was one of the slave States. Pop. (1920), 2,348,174.
+
+ALABAMA, a river of the United States, in the State of Alabama, formed by
+the junction of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa. After a course of 300 miles
+it joins the Tombigbee and assumes the name of the Mobile.
+
+ALABAMA, The, a ship built at Birkenhead to act as a privateer in the
+service of the Confederate States of North America during the civil war
+begun in 1861. She was a wooden screw steamer with two engines of 350 h.p.
+each, 1040 tons burden, and carried eight 32-pounders. Before she was
+launched her destination was made known to the British Government, but
+owing to some legal formalities the orders given for her detention did not
+reach Liverpool till the day after she had left that port (29th July,
+1862). She received her armament and stores at the Azores, and entered on
+her destructive career, capturing and burning merchant vessels, till she
+was sunk in a fight with the Federal war steamer _Kearsarge_, off
+Cherbourg, 19th June, 1864. As early as the winter of 1862 the United
+States Government declared that they held themselves entitled at a suitable
+period to demand full compensation from Britain for the damages inflicted
+on American property by the _Alabama_ and several other cruisers that had
+been built, supplied, or recruited in British ports or waters. After a long
+series of negotiations it was agreed to submit the final settlement of the
+question to a court of arbitration, consisting of representatives of
+Britain and the United States, and of three other members, appointed by the
+King of Italy, the President of Switzerland, and the Emperor of Brazil.
+This court met at Geneva, 17th Dec., 1871, and a claim for indirect damages
+to American commerce having been abandoned by the United States Government,
+the decree was given in Sept., 1872, that Britain was liable to the United
+States in damages to the amount of 15,500,000 dollars (about L3,229,200).
+After all awards were made to private claimants about 8,000,000 dollars
+still remain unclaimed.
+
+ALABANDITE, or MANGANBLENDE, a black submetallic mineral.
+
+ALABAS'TER, a name applied to a granular variety of gypsum or hydrated
+sulphate of lime. It was much used by the ancients for the manufacture of
+ointment and perfume boxes, vases, and the like. It has a fine granular
+texture, is usually of a pure white colour, and is so soft that it can be
+scratched with the nail. It is found in many parts of Europe; in great
+abundance and of peculiarly excellent quality in Tuscany. From the finer
+and more compact kinds, vases, clock-stands, statuettes, and other
+ornamental articles are made, and from inferior kinds the cement known as
+plaster of Paris. A variety of carbonate of lime, closely resembling
+alabaster in appearance, is used for similar purposes under the name of
+_Oriental alabaster_. It is usually stalagmitic or stalactitic in origin
+and is often of a yellowish colour. It may be distinguished from true
+alabaster by being too hard to be scratched with the nail.
+
+ALAC'TAGA (_Alact[)a]ga jac[)u]lus_), a rodent mammal, closely allied to
+the jerboa, but somewhat larger in size, with a still longer tail. Its
+range extends from the Crimea and the steppes of the Don across Central
+Asia to the Chinese frontier.
+
+ALADDIN, son of Mustafa, a poor tailor of China. A magician, who pretended
+to be his uncle, gave him a magic ring and sent him to fetch 'the wonderful
+lamp' from a cave. Aladdin secured the lamp, but refused to give it to the
+magician, who shut him in the cave. Aladdin was rescued by the Genie of the
+Ring, and by means of the Genie of the Lamp acquired great wealth, built a
+magnificent palace, and married the Sultan's daughter. Afterwards the
+magician got possession of the lamp, and caused the palace to be
+transported into Africa. Aladdin was arrested, but was again saved by the
+Genie of the Ring. He poisoned the magician, recovered the lamp, and by its
+means restored his palace to its original site.
+
+ALAGO'AS, a maritime State of Brazil; area, 22,577 sq. miles; pop.
+946,617.--_Alagoas_, the former capital of the province, is situated on the
+south side of an arm of the sea, about 20 miles distant from Maceio, to
+which the seat of government was transferred in 1839. Pop. about 4000.
+
+ALAIS ([.a]-l[=a]), a town of Southern France, department of Gard, 87 miles
+N.W. of Marseilles, with coal, iron, and lead mines, which are actively
+worked, and chalybeate springs, which have many visitors during the autumn
+months. The treaty of Alais, signed on 28th June, 1629, ended the Huguenot
+wars in France. Pop. 29,800.
+
+ALAJUELA ([.a]-l[.a]-_h_u-[=a]'l[.a]), a town of Central America, in the
+State of Costa Rica. Pop. 12,000.
+
+ALA-KUL, a lake in Russian Central Asia, near the borders of Mongolia, in
+lat. 46deg N. lon. 81deg 40' E.; area, 660 sq. miles.
+
+ALAMANNI. See _Alemanni_.
+
+ALAMAN'NI, Luigi, an Italian poet, of noble family, born at Florence in
+1495. Suspected of conspiring against the life of Cardinal Giulio de'
+Medici, who then governed Florence in the name of Pope Leo X, he fled to
+Venice, and when the cardinal ascended the papal chair under the name of
+Clement VII he took refuge in France, where he henceforth lived, being
+employed by Francis I and Henry II in several important negotiations. He
+died in 1556. His principal works are a didactic poem, _La Coltivazione_, a
+splendid imitation of Virgil's _Georgics_ (1546); a comedy entitled
+_Flora_; two epics, _Girone il Cortese_ (1548) and _L'Avarchide_, an
+imitation of the _Iliad_ (1570); and a collection of eclogues, satires,
+psalms, &c., partly in blank verse, the invention of which is contested
+with him by Trissino, a contemporary.
+
+AL'AMO, a fort in Bexar county, Texas, United States, celebrated for the
+resistance its occupants (140 Texans) made to a Mexican force of 4000 from
+23rd Feb. to 6th March, 1836. At the latter date only six Texans remained
+alive, and on their surrendering they were slaughtered by the Mexicans.
+
+AL'AMOS, a town of Mexico, State of Sonora, the capital of a mining
+district. Pop. 12,000.
+
+ALAND (o'land) ISLANDS, a numerous group of islands and islets, about
+eighty of which are inhabited, formerly in Russia, situated in the Baltic
+Sea, near the mouth of the Gulf of Finland; area, 468 sq. miles. The
+principal island, Aland, distant about 30 miles from the Swedish coast, is
+18 miles long and about 14 broad. The fortress of Bomarsund, here situated,
+was destroyed by an Anglo-French force in Aug., 1854. The inhabitants, who
+are of Swedish extraction, employ themselves mostly in fishing. The islands
+were ceded by Sweden to Russia in 1809, and proclaimed a province of
+Finland in 1918. A referendum of the inhabitants, taken in Dec., 1918,
+decided in favour of union with Sweden, but on 22nd Oct., 1921, an
+agreement for the neutralization of the islands was signed at Genoa. Pop.
+18,000.
+
+ALA'NI, or ALANS, one of the warlike tribes which migrated from Asia
+westward at the time of the decline of the Roman Empire. They are first met
+with in the region of the Caucasus, where Pompey fought with them. From
+this centre they spread over the south of modern Russia to the confines of
+the Roman Empire. About the middle of the fifth century they joined the
+Vandals, among whom they became lost to history.
+
+ALARCON' Y MENDO'ZA, Don Juan Ruiz de, one of the most distinguished
+dramatic poets of Spain, born in Mexico about the end of the sixteenth or
+the beginning of the seventeenth century. He came to Europe about 1622, and
+in 1628 he published a volume containing eight comedies, and in 1634
+another containing twelve. One of them, called _La Verdad Sospechosa_ (The
+Truth Suspected), published in 1630 in a collection bearing the name of
+Lope de Vega, furnished Corneille with the groundwork and greater part of
+the substance of his _Menteur_. Hence Corneille's declaration in the
+preface to that play that he had borrowed the subject from Lope de Vega.
+His _Tejedor de Segovia_ (Weaver of Segovia) and _Las Paredes Oyen_ (Walls
+have Ears) are still performed on the Spanish stage. He died in 1639.
+
+AL'ARIC I, King of the Visigoths, was born about the middle of the fourth
+century, probably in 370, and is first mentioned in history in A.D. 394,
+when Theodosius the Great gave him the command of his Gothic auxiliaries.
+The dissensions between Arcadius and Honorius, the sons of Theodosius,
+inspired Alaric with the intention of attacking the Roman Empire. In 396 he
+ravaged Greece, from which he was driven by the Roman general Stilicho, but
+made a masterly retreat to Illyria, of which Arcadius, frightened at his
+successes, appointed him governor. In 400 he invaded Italy, but was
+defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia (403), and induced to transfer his
+services from Arcadius to Honorius on condition of receiving 4000 lb. of
+gold. Honorius having failed to fulfil this condition, Alaric made a second
+invasion of Italy, during which he besieged Rome three times. The first
+time (408) the city was saved by paying a heavy ransom; the second (409) it
+capitulated, and Honorius was deposed, but shortly afterwards restored. His
+sanction of a treacherous attack on the forces of Alaric brought about the
+third siege, and the city was taken 24th Aug., 410, and sacked for six
+days, Alaric, however, doing everything in his power to restrain the
+violence of his followers. He quitted Rome with the intention of reducing
+Sicily and Africa, but died at Cosenza in 410. Legend has it that he was
+buried beneath the river-bed of the Busenzo, the course of which was
+temporarily turned aside for the purpose.
+
+AL'ARIC II, King of the Visigoths from A.D. 484 to 507. At the beginning of
+his reign the dominions of the Visigoths were at their greatest extent,
+embracing three-fourths of the modern Spain and all Western Gaul to the
+south of the Loire. His unwarlike character induced Clovis, King of the
+Franks, to invade the kingdom of the Visigoths. In a battle near Poitiers
+(507) Alaric was slain and his army completely defeated. The _Breviarium
+Alaricianum_, a code of laws derived exclusively from Roman sources, was
+compiled by a body of Roman jurists at the command of this King Alaric.
+
+ALARM, in military language, a signal, given by beat of drum, bugle-call,
+or firing of a gun, to warn a camp or garrison of a surprise intended or
+actually made by the enemy. A place, called the _alarm-post_, is generally
+appointed at which the troops are to assemble when an alarm is
+given.--_Alarm_ is also the name given to several contrivances in which
+electricity is made use of, as a _fire-alarm_, by which intelligence is at
+once conveyed to the proper quarter when a fire breaks out; a
+_burglar-alarm_, an arrangement of wires and a battery in a house intended
+to set a bell or bells ringing should a burglar attempt to gain entrance.
+
+ALARM-CLOCK, one which can be set so as to ring loudly at a certain hour to
+wake from sleep or excite attention.
+
+ALA-SHEHR ([.a]-l[.a]-sh[=a]r') (ancient PHILADELPHIA), a town in Asia
+Minor, 100 miles east of Smyrna, famous as the seat of one of the first
+Christian churches, and still having a vast number of interesting remains
+of antiquity, consisting of fragments of beautiful columns, sarcophagi,
+fountains, &c. It is a place of some importance, carrying on a thriving
+trade, chiefly with Smyrna, to which runs a railway. Pop. 15,000.
+
+ALAS'KA, a territory belonging to the United States, comprising all that
+portion of the north-west of North America which lies west of the 141st
+meridian of west longitude, together with an irregular strip of coast-land
+(and the adjacent islands), extending south to lat. 54deg 40' N., and lying
+between Canada and the Pacific (the boundary being adjusted in 1903); total
+area, about 590,884 sq. miles. The chief river is the Yukon, a great
+stream, now navigated in summer for most of its course. The principal
+mountains (among which are several volcanoes) are Mounts McKinley (20,470
+feet) and Wrangell (17,400 feet). The climate of the interior is very
+severe in winter, but in summer the heat is intense; on the Pacific coast
+it is mild but moist. Alaska produces excellent timber. Numbers of
+fur-bearing animals abound, such as the fur-seal, sea-otter, beaver, fox,
+mink, marten, &c.; and the fur trade has long been valuable. The coasts and
+rivers swarm with fish, and salmon and cod are caught and exported. Gold is
+now mined in several localities, especially Cape Nome, where a town has
+sprung up. The aboriginal inhabitants consist of Esquimaux and Indians.
+Alaska, called Russian America until 1867, was sold to the United States
+for 7,200,000 dollars, the acquisition being ratified by Congress on 20th
+June, 1867. It has a legislative assembly consisting of eight senators and
+sixteen representatives, and the legislature meets biennially since 1913.
+The capital was formerly Sitka, on Baranoff Island, but is now Juneau, on
+Gastineau Channel. Pop. 64,356, latest estimate being
+75,000.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. W. Greely, _Handbook of Alaska_; J. Muir,
+_Travels in Alaska_.
+
+ALASKITE, an igneous rock consisting of quartz and felspar. See _Granite_.
+
+ALAS'SIO, a seaport of North Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa, a winter resort
+of people from England. Pop. 5000.
+
+ALASTOR, in Greek mythology, is a surname of Zeus (cf. Lat. Jupiter
+_Vindex_) describing him as the avenger of evil deeds. The name or epithet
+is also used to designate any deity or demon who avenges wrongs committed
+by men. _Alastor_ is the title of a poem by Shelley.
+
+ALATAU ([.a]-l[.a]-tou'), the name of three considerable mountain ranges of
+Central Asia, on the Russian and Chinese frontiers.
+
+ALATYR ([.a]-l[.a]-tir'), a town in Russia, government Simbirsk, at the
+confluence of the Alatyr with the Sura, with a considerable trade. Pop.
+11,000.
+
+ALAU'DA, a genus of insessorial birds, which includes the larks. See
+_Lark_.
+
+A'LAVA, a hilly province in the north of Spain, one of the three Basque
+provinces; area, 1175 sq. miles; covered by branches of the Pyrenees, the
+mountains being clothed with oak, chestnut, and other timber, and the
+valleys yielding grain, vegetables, and abundance of fruits. There are iron
+and copper mines, and inexhaustible salt springs. Capital, Vittoria. Pop.
+97,692.
+
+[Illustration: A, Alb with its Apparels _a_, _b_, and Girdle _c_; B, Amice;
+C, Stole]
+
+ALB (from Lat. _albus_, white), a clerical vestment of the Catholic Church
+worn by priests while officiating in the more solemn functions of divine
+service. It is a long robe of white linen reaching to the feet, bound round
+the waist by a cincture, and fitting more closely to the body than the
+surplice. It is now little used except during Mass. After the Reformation
+the _alb_ was not used in the Church of England, but since the ritualistic
+revival in the nineteenth century it has again been introduced into a
+number of churches.
+
+ALBA, the name of several towns in ancient Italy, the most celebrated of
+which was Alba Longa, a city of Latium, according to tradition built by
+Ascanius, the son of Aeneas, 300 years before the foundation of Rome, at
+one time the most powerful city of Latium. It ultimately fell under the
+dominion of Rome, when the town was destroyed, it is said. In later times
+its site became covered with villas of wealthy Romans.
+
+ALBA (anciently ALBA POMPEIA), a town of Northern Italy, about 30 miles
+S.E. of Turin, is the see of a bishop, has a cathedral, bishop's palace,
+church with fresco paintings by Perugino, &c. Pop. 6872.
+
+ALBA, Duke of. See _Alva_.
+
+ALBACETE ([.a]l-b[.a]-th[=a]'t[=a]), a town in Southern Spain, capital of
+the province of the same name, 106 miles N.N.W. of Cartagena, with a
+considerable trade, both direct and transit, and manufactures of knives,
+daggers, &c. Pop. 24,805.--The province has an area of 5737 sq. miles, and
+a pop. of 273,380.
+
+ALBA LONGA. See _Alba_.
+
+ALBAN, St., the earliest British martyr, flourished in the third century,
+and was, it is said, converted from Paganism by a confessor whom he had
+saved from his persecutors. He refused to sacrifice to the gods, and was
+executed outside the city of Verulamium (St. Albans) in 285 or 305.
+
+ALBANI ([.a]l-b[:a]'n[=e]), Francesco, a famous Italian painter, born at
+Bologna in 1578, died in 1660. He studied with Guido Reni under the Flemish
+painter Calvaert and the Caracci. It is said that his second wife, Doralice
+Fioraventi, bore him twelve children of such beauty that they served him as
+models for his paintings. Among the best known of his compositions are _The
+Sleeping Venus_, _Diana in the Bath_, _Danae Reclining_, _Galatea on the
+Sea_, _Europa on the Bull_.
+
+ALBA'NI, Madame, maiden name Marie Louise Emma Cecile Lajeunesse, famous
+singer, was born near Montreal in 1852, was trained at home by her father,
+and studied also in Paris and Milan. She made her first public appearance
+in Europe at Messina, in Bellini's _La Sonnambula_, and in 1872 sang in the
+Royal Italian Opera in London. Since then she has attained the position of
+one of the world's foremost singers, both in opera and oratorio. In 1878
+she was married to Mr. Ernest Gye, the operatic manager. She adopted the
+professional name of Albani from Albany, in the United States, where as a
+girl she sang in the Roman Catholic cathedral. In 1911 she published her
+memoirs under the title of _Forty Years of Song_.
+
+ALBA'NIA, an extensive region stretching along the coast of the Adriatic
+for about 290 miles, and having a breadth varying from about 90 to about 50
+miles. The boundary on the east is formed by a range of mountains, and the
+country is composed of at least nine ridges of hills, of which six are in
+Lower or Southern Albania (ancient Epirus) and the remainder in Central and
+Upper or Northern Albania. There are no large rivers, and in summer many of
+the streams are completely dry. The Drin or Drino is the largest. The most
+beautiful lake is that of Ochrida, 20 miles long, 8 broad at the widest
+part. The Lake of Scutari, in Upper Albania, is the largest. Among trees
+Albania has many species of oak, the poplar, hazel, plane, chestnut,
+cypress, and laurel. The vine flourishes, together with the orange, almond,
+fig, mulberry, and citron; maize, wheat, and barley are cultivated. Its
+fauna comprises bears, wolves, and chamois; sheep, goats, horses, asses,
+and mules are plentiful. The chief exports are live stock, wool, hides,
+timber, oil, salt-fish, cheese, and tobacco. The chief ports are Prevesa,
+Valona, and Durazzo. The population, about 850,000, consists chiefly of
+Albanians or Arnauts, or, as they call themselves, Skupetars, i.e.
+inhabitants of the mountains (by the Turks they are called Arnauts, by the
+Greeks Arbanites, and by the Serbs Arbanasi). They are spread along the
+coasts of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. History and legend afford little or
+no record of the arrival of the Albanian race in the Balkan Peninsula. It
+may, however, be safely asserted that the Albanians are the direct
+descendants of the earliest Aryan immigrants, who were represented in
+historical times by the kindred Illyrians, Macedonians, and Epirots. The
+majority live in Albania, the rest in Montenegro, Greece, Southern Italy,
+Sicily, Bessarabia, and Asia Minor. As regards religion they are either
+Christians or Mohammedans. They are divided into several tribes, among whom
+the Suliotes are partly of Greek origin. The Albanian language is a branch
+of the Indo-European languages, and related to the long-ago extinct
+language of the Messapians. The language consists of numerous dialects,
+which may be divided into those of the Tosks in the south and the Gheggas
+in the north. Though their country became a province of the Turkish
+dominions in 1431, they maintained for centuries a certain degree of
+independence, which the Porte never found it possible to overcome. On 28th
+Nov., 1912, the complete independence of Albania was proclaimed at Valona,
+a provisional government was founded under Ismail Kemal Bey, and Albanian
+autonomy was agreed to at the Ambassadorial Conference in London on 20th
+Dec. On 21st Feb., 1914, the crown was offered to Prince William of Wied,
+who arrived at Durazzo on 7th March. The prince was supported and advised
+by an International Commission of Control, but he left the country at the
+outbreak of hostilities in 1914. Attempts made by Essad Pasha to establish
+a military government failed, and the country was overrun by the Austrians,
+who captured Durazzo on 28th Feb., 1916. On 3rd June, 1917, the general in
+charge of the Italian forces proclaimed Albania an independent country, and
+a provisional government was set up at Durazzo. Albanian independence was
+recognized by the Powers and Albania admitted to the League of Nations in
+Dec., 1920.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. F. Tozer, _Researches in the Highlands of
+Turkey_; W. Peacock, _Albania, The Foundling State_.
+
+ALBA'NO, a city and lake in Italy, the former about 15 miles south-east of
+Rome, and on the west border of the lake, amid beautiful scenery. An
+ancient tomb in the Etruscan style was for a long time looked upon as the
+sepulchre of the Horatii and Curiatii. Here are also the ruins of the
+villas of Pompey and Domitian. Pop. 8000.--The lake, situated immediately
+beneath the Alban Hill, is of an oval form, 6 miles in circumference,
+surrounded by steep banks of volcanic tufa 300 or 400 feet high, and
+discharges its superfluous waters by an artificial tunnel at least 2000
+years old.
+
+ALBANS, St. See _St. Albans_.
+
+AL'BANY, the original Celtic name probably at first applied to the whole of
+Britain, but afterwards restricted to the Highlands of Scotland. It gave
+the title of duke formerly to a prince of the blood-royal of Scotland. The
+first duke was Robert Stuart (1345-1420), son of Robert II by his mistress
+Elizabeth Mure, and brother of Robert III. He was virtual ruler of the
+kingdom during the latter years of his brother's reign, and acted as regent
+for his nephew James I (kept a prisoner in England) till his own death.
+Another nephew, David, Duke of Rothesay, is said to have been starved to
+death in Falkland Castle at his instigation. His son Murdoch, second duke,
+succeeded him as regent, and was put to death by James for
+maladministration. The third duke was Alexander, second son of James II and
+brother of James III. A large part of his life was passed in France. His
+son John was the fourth who bore the title. He was regent of Scotland
+during the minority of James V (1515-23).
+
+AL'BANY, a city of the United States, capital of the State of New York on
+the west bank of the Hudson, 132 miles north of New York city, from and to
+which steamboats run daily. The Erie Canal and the numerous railway lines
+centring here from all directions greatly contribute to the growth and
+prosperity of the city, which carries on an extensive trade. It is a great
+mart for timber, and has foundries, breweries, tanneries, &c. Albany was
+settled by the Dutch between 1610 and 1614, and the older houses are in the
+Dutch style, with the gable-ends to the streets. There is a university, an
+observatory, and a State library with 90,000 volumes. The principal public
+buildings are the capitol or State-house, which cost about L5,000,000, and
+the State-hall for the public offices, a State arsenal, and numerous
+churches. Pop. (1920), 113,344.
+
+AL'BANY, Louisa Maria Caroline, Countess of, a princess of the
+Stolberg-Gedern family, was born in 1753, and married, in 1772, the
+pretender, Charles Edward Stuart, after which event she bore the above
+title. To escape from the ill-treatment of her husband she retired, in
+1780, to the house of her brother-in-law at Rome, where she met the poet
+Alfieri, whose mistress she became. After the death of Alfieri in 1793 she
+opened her famous political and literary salon frequented by the Duchess of
+Devonshire, the Duchess of Hamilton, Cardinal Consalvi, Samuel Rogers,
+Thomas Moore, Lamartine, and Chateaubriand. She died at Florence in 1824,
+where she was buried at the Church of Sta Croce, by the side of Alfieri,
+whom she is supposed to have married secretly.
+
+ALBA'TA, a name sometimes given to German silver.
+
+[Illustration: Wandering Albatross (_Diom[=e]dea ex[)u]lans_)]
+
+AL'BATROSS, a large marine swimming bird of several species, of which the
+wandering albatross (_Diomed[=e]a ex[)u]lans_) is the best known. The bill
+is straight and strong, the upper mandible hooked at the point and the
+lower one truncated; there are three webbed toes on each foot. The upper
+part of the body is of a greyish brown, and the belly white. It is the
+largest sea-bird known, some measuring 17-1/2 feet from tip to tip of their
+expanded wings. They abound at the Cape of Good Hope and in other parts of
+the southern seas, and in Behring's Straits, and have been known to
+accompany ships for whole days without ever resting on the waves. From this
+habit the bird is regarded with feelings of attachment and superstitious
+awe by sailors, it being reckoned unlucky to kill one. Coleridge has
+availed himself of this feeling in his _Ancient Mariner_. The albatross is
+met with at great distances from the land, settling down on the waves at
+night to sleep. It is exceedingly voracious, whenever food is abundant,
+gorging to such a degree as to be unable to fly or swim. It feeds on fish,
+carrion, fish-spawn, oceanic mollusca, and other small marine animals. Its
+cry is harsh and disagreeable. Its nest is a heap of earth; its eggs are
+larger than those of a goose.
+
+ALBATROSS, a name applied to a certain type of German aeroplanes, much used
+for scouting purposes during the European War.
+
+ALBAY ([.a]l-b[=i]'), a province, town, bay, and volcano in the south-east
+part of the Island of Luzon, one of the Philippines. The province is
+mountainous but fertile; the town regularly built, with a pop. of 34,000;
+the bay capacious, secure, and almost landlocked; and the volcano, which is
+always in activity, forms a conspicuous landmark.
+
+ALBEMARLE, Duke of. See _Monk, George_.
+
+AL'BENDORF, a village in Prussia, province of Silesia, 50 miles S.W. of
+Breslau, remarkable for the pilgrimages made to its church, chapels,
+statues, &c. Pop. 1800.
+
+ALBERONI, Cardinal Giulio (j[=u]'li-o [.a]l-b[=a]-r[=o]'n[=e]), born in
+1664 in North Italy, and educated for the Church. In his youth he laboured
+as a gardener, but thanks to the protection of the Duc de Vendome, whose
+secretary he became, and afterwards of the Duc de Parma, he rose to high
+position. The latter sent him as his minister to Madrid, where he gained
+the affection of Philip V. He rose by cunning and intrigue to the position
+of Prime Minister, became a cardinal, was all-powerful in Spain after the
+year 1715, and endeavoured to restore it to its ancient splendour. In
+pursuance of this object he invaded Sardinia and Sicily, and indeed
+entertained the idea of stirring up a general war in Europe. The alliance
+of France and England, however, rendered his schemes abortive, and led to
+his dismissal and exile in 1720. He wandered about a long time under false
+names, but on the accession of Pope Innocent XIII he was restored to all
+the rights and honours of a cardinal. He died in 1752, and was buried at
+Piacenza.
+
+ALBERT, Prince, Albert Francis Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince of
+Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Prince Consort of England, second son of Ernest I,
+Duke of Saxe-Coburg, was born at the Rosenau, a castle near Coburg, on 26th
+Aug., 1819. In 1837 he entered the University of Bonn, where he devoted
+himself to the studies of political and natural science, history,
+philosophy, &c., as well as to those of music and painting. On leaving the
+university he made a tour through the chief cities of Italy with Baron
+Stockmar. On 10th Feb., 1840, he married his cousin, Queen Victoria of
+England. Leopold I, King of the Belgians and uncle of Queen Victoria, was
+greatly instrumental in bringing about the marriage. An allowance of
+L30,000 a year was settled upon the prince, who was naturalized by Act of
+Parliament, received the title of Royal Highness by patent, was made a
+field-marshal, a Knight of the Garter, of the Bath, &c. Other honours were
+subsequently bestowed upon him, the chief of which was the title of Prince
+Consort (1857). His foreign birth at first caused him to be regarded with
+some suspicion, but his unfailing tact and genuine ability were not long in
+gaining their due recognition. He always carefully abstained from party
+politics, but his knowledge of the politics of his adopted country, both
+domestic and foreign, was profound and accurate, and must often have been
+of service to the queen and her advisers. He always took a deep and active
+interest in the welfare of the people in general. His services to the cause
+of science and art were very important; he presided over the commission
+appointed in 1841 to consider the best means of rebuilding the Houses of
+Parliament, and the great exhibition of 1851 owed much of its success to
+his activity, knowledge, and judgment. The amendment of the Articles of War
+in 1844 which ultimately put an end to duelling was due to his suggestion.
+Cambridge University conferred upon him the degree of LL.D., and in 1847 he
+was elected Chancellor. He presided and delivered the inaugural address at
+the meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen in 1859. He died of
+typhoid fever on 14th Dec., 1861, after a short illness. A collection of
+his speeches and addresses was published in 1862. A biography of the prince
+by Sir Theodore Martin was published in 5 volumes, London, 1875-80.
+
+ALBERT, first Duke of Prussia, and last grand-master of the Teutonic Order,
+was born in 1490; died in 1568. In 1511 he was chosen by the Teutonic
+knights grand-master of their order. Being nephew of Sigismund, King of
+Poland, the knights hoped by his means to be freed from the feudal
+superiority of Poland, and placed under the protection of the empire. This
+superiority, however, Sigismund refused to surrender, and war broke out
+between uncle and nephew. He subsequently became reconciled to his uncle,
+and obtained his investiture as hereditary Duke of Prussia under the Polish
+Crown, the territorial rights of the Teutonic Order being thus set aside.
+The latter years of his reign were spent in organizing the government and
+promoting the prosperity of his duchy; he founded schools and churches,
+established a ducal library, and opened the University of Koenigsberg in
+1543.
+
+AL'BERT I, Duke of Austria, and afterwards Emperor of Germany, son of
+Rudolph of Hapsburg, was born in 1248. On the death of his father in 1292
+he claimed the Empire, but his arrogant conduct drove the electors to
+choose Adolphus of Nassau emperor. Adolphus, after a reign of six years,
+having lost the regard of all the princes of the Empire, Albert was elected
+to succeed him. A battle ensued near Goellheim, in which Adolphus was slain
+by his adversary, who was elected and crowned. Pope Boniface VIII, however,
+refused to acknowledge him as emperor, and ordered the electoral princes to
+renounce their allegiance to him. On the other hand, Albert formed an
+alliance with Philip le Bel of France, and offered so determined and
+successful a resistance to the papal authority that Boniface was induced to
+withdraw his opposition, on condition that Albert would break with his
+French ally. During the subsequent years of his reign the Emperor was
+engaged in unsuccessful wars with Holland, Hungary, Bohemia, and other
+States. His measures still further to strengthen his authority over the
+Swiss Forest Cantons of Unterwalden, Schwyz, and Uri drove the inhabitants
+into open revolt in Jan. 1308. While on his way to crush the Swiss he was
+assassinated, at Windisch in May, 1308, by his nephew John, Duke of Suabia,
+called afterwards the Parricide, whose inheritance he had seized upon.
+
+ALBERT I, King of the Belgians, born on 8th April, 1875, at Brussels. He is
+the son of Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders (died 17th Nov., 1905), and
+of Princess Marie of Hohenzollern (born 17th Nov., 1845). After the death
+of his cousin, the Duke of Brabant, and of his father in 1905, Prince
+Albert became heir apparent. In 1906 he became member of the Belgian Senate
+and in 1907 was appointed by his uncle, Leopold II, Lieutenant-General. On
+2nd Oct., 1900, he married Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Duke Charles
+Theodor of Bavaria; there are three children. He ascended the Belgian
+throne in Nov., 1909, after the death of his uncle Leopold II.
+
+ALBERT EDWARD, or simply EDWARD, one of the equatorial lakes of Africa,
+otherwise known as _Muta Nzige_ (q.v.).
+
+ALBERT HALL, an amphitheatre in the Italian Renaissance style in
+Kensington, London, built during 1867-71 for concerts and assemblies. It
+can seat 9000 people, and its organ, which has nearly 9000 pipes, is one of
+the largest in the world.
+
+ALBERT MEMORIAL, the monument erected in Kensington Gardens, London, in
+memory of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. It is the work of Sir
+Gilbert Scott, and its style is Victorian Gothic.
+
+ALBERT NYAN'ZA, a lake of Africa, one of the headwaters of the Nile, lying
+(approximately) between lat. 2deg 30' and 1deg 10' N., and with its
+north-east extremity in about lon. 28deg E.; general direction from
+north-east to south-west, surface about 2500 feet above sea-level. It is
+surrounded by precipitous cliffs, and bounded on the west and south-west by
+great ranges of mountains. It abounds with fish, and its shores are
+infested with crocodiles and hippopotami. It receives the Victoria Nile
+from the Victoria Nyanza, and the White Nile issues from its northern
+extremity.
+
+ALBERT-BAPAUME. Along the great trunk road from Albert to Bapaume and on
+either side of it, fierce fighting took place during the Somme offensive of
+1916, marked by the stages La Boiselle, Pozieres and Le Sars. When, in
+Feb., 1917, the Germans began the great retreat, the fortified village of
+Pys on the left of the road was seized at a rush. On the 26th the village
+of Warlencourt fell, and two days later Thilley village 1-1/2 miles from
+Bapaume, was taken. The British troops, avoiding direct assaults, gradually
+encircled the town, forcing the Germans to withdraw. It was entered on 17th
+March.
+
+ALBERTA, a province of Canada, established on 1st Sept., 1905, and
+comprising the former territory of Alberta and the part of the former
+territory of Athabasca lying west of the meridian 110deg, and having the
+new province of Saskatchewan on the east, British Columbia on the west, the
+United States on the south, and Mackenzie territory on the north; area,
+255,285 sq. miles. A large part of the area on the west is occupied by the
+Rocky Mountains, which are shared in common with Alberta and British
+Columbia, and consist mostly of a series of more or less parallel ridges.
+One or two of the loftier summits are in the province, others on the
+boundary. There is much valuable timber in this district. The general slope
+of the surface is from west to east and north-east. The province is
+intersected by numerous rivers and streams that have their sources in the
+Rockies, some of them, such as the Peace River and the Athabasca, sending
+their waters to the Arctic Ocean, while the others, such as the North and
+South Saskatchewan and their tributaries, belong to the Hudson Bay basin.
+In the extreme south are one or two small tributaries of the Missouri.
+There are a number of lakes, the largest being the Lesser Slave Lake and
+Lake Athabasca (partly in this province). Notwithstanding the number of the
+streams, there are districts, especially in the south, where agriculture
+cannot be successfully carried on without irrigation. Farther to the north
+there are areas highly suitable for agriculture, and timber is also
+abundant. Cattle ranching is successfully carried on in the south, but
+tillage, with and even without irrigation, is also carried on, fine crops
+of wheat being grown. The most valuable mineral is coal, which is found at
+various places, but is chiefly mined in the south at Lethbridge, and
+farther north in the Banff district. Here there are hot springs and grand
+scenery, and a large tract of land has been set apart as a national park.
+Near Edmonton, the capital, coal is found on the bank of the North
+Saskatchewan, and is readily worked. Iron, petroleum, and other minerals
+are found. The climate is very warm in summer, and in winter less severe
+and prolonged than might be supposed. The warm _chinook_ winds from the
+Pacific often blow in winter, and speedily melt the snow. The province is
+crossed in the south by the Canadian Pacific Railway, running by way of
+Calgary and Banff, and crossing the Rockies. From Calgary one branch runs
+north to Edmonton, another runs south to McLeod, where other lines make a
+connection with the States railroads and British Columbia. Edmonton, being
+also on the Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific, is bound to
+become a great centre of trade and provincial development. It and Calgary
+are the chief towns. The population in 1911 was returned at 374,663, the
+latest estimate being nearly 500,000.
+
+ALBERTITE, an asphaltic hydrocarbon compound, a soft black material,
+obtained in Canada.
+
+ALBER'TUS MAGNUS, or ALBERT THE GREAT, Count of Bollstaedt, a distinguished
+German scholar of the thirteenth century, born in 1193, or 1205, studied at
+Padua, became a monk of the Dominican order, teaching in the schools of
+Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where Thomas Aquinas became his pupil.
+In 1245 he went to Paris and publicly expounded the doctrines of Aristotle,
+notwithstanding the prohibition of the Church. He is called Doctor
+Universalis, for he was one of the most proficient scholars of his day,
+second only to Roger Bacon in his knowledge of nature. He became rector of
+the school of Cologne in 1249; in 1254 he was made provincial of his order
+in Germany; and in 1260 he received from Pope Alexander IV the appointment
+of Bishop of Ratisbon. In 1263 he retired to his convent at Cologne, where
+he composed many works, especially commentaries on Aristotle. He died in
+1280. Owing to his profound knowledge he did not escape the imputation of
+using magical arts and trafficking with the Evil One.
+
+AL'BI. See _Alby_.
+
+ALBIGENSES (al-bi-jen's[=e]z), a neo-Manichaean sect which spread widely in
+the south of France and elsewhere about the twelfth century, and which
+differed in doctrine and practice from the Roman Catholic Church, by which
+they were subjected to severe persecution. They are said to have been so
+named from Albi, on the banks of the Tarn, a tributary of the Garonne,
+where, and about Toulouse, Narbonne, &c., they were numerous. They were
+also known as Catharists (q.v.) and their doctrines were similar to those
+of several other religious sects such as the Gnostics, Manichaeans, and
+Bogomils. Among the principal doctrines of the Albigenses was the belief in
+the existence of two principles, good and evil, the creators of the
+spiritual and material worlds. Since all matter is under the control of the
+evil principle, maintained the Albigenses, all flesh is evil. The
+extinction of bodily life, therefore, the deliverance of the soul from the
+prison-house of the body, should be the aim of man. Suicide by means of
+starvation was consequently highly meritorious. It is admitted even by
+Catholic writers (see _Catholic Encyclopaedia_, vol. i, p. 268) that the
+Albigenses were principally antisacerdotal and opposed to the Roman Church
+on account of the scandalous life led by the Catholic clergy. A crusade was
+begun against them, and Count Raymond VI of Toulouse for tolerating them,
+in 1209, the army of the cross being called together by Pope Innocent III.
+The war was carried on with a cruelty which reflected deep disgrace upon
+the Catholic Church. Beziers, the capital of Raymond's nephew Roger, was
+taken by storm, and 20,000 of the inhabitants, without distinction of
+creed, were put to the sword. Simon de Montfort, the military leader of the
+crusade, was equally severe towards other places in the territory of
+Raymond and his allies. After the death of Raymond VI, in 1222, his son,
+Raymond VII, was obliged, notwithstanding his readiness to do penance, to
+defend his inheritance against the papal legates and Louis VIII of France.
+When hundreds of thousands had fallen on both sides, a peace was made in
+1229, by which Raymond was obliged to cede Narbonne with other territories
+to Louis IX, and make his son-in-law, a brother of Louis, his heir. The
+heretics were now delivered up to the proselytizing zeal of the Dominicans,
+and to the courts of the Inquisition, by which means it was brought about
+that the Albigenses disappeared after the middle of the thirteenth century.
+Cf. C. Schmidt, _Histoire et doctrine de la Secte des Cathares ou
+Albigeois_ (2 vols.)
+
+ALBINOS (al-b[=i]'n[=o]z), the name given to those persons from whose skin,
+hair, and eyes, in consequence of some defect in their organization, the
+dark colouring matter is absent. The skin of albinos, therefore, whether
+they belong to the white, Indian, or negro races, is of a uniform pale
+milky colour, their hair is white, while the iris of their eyes is pale
+rose colour, and the pupil intensely red, the absence of the dark pigment
+allowing the multitude of blood-vessels in these parts of the eye to be
+seen. For the same reason their eyes are not well suited to endure the
+bright light of day, and they see best in shade or by moonlight. The
+peculiarity of _albinism_ or _leucopathy_ is hereditary and not confined to
+the human race, having been observed also in horses, rabbits, rats, mice,
+&c., birds (white crows or blackbirds are not particularly uncommon), and
+fishes. Albinos are not of necessity lacking in mental vigour or capacity.
+Cf. Karl Pearson, _A Monograph on Albinism in Man_.
+
+AL'BION (Celtic _Albainn_), the earliest name by which the island of Great
+Britain was known, employed already by writers of the sixth century B.C.,
+who speak not of Britannia but of the land of the Albiones, and in poetry
+still used for Great Britain. It is connected with Lat. _albus_, white, on
+account, perhaps, of the chalk cliffs of Dover. The same word as _Albany_,
+_Albyn_.
+
+AL'BITE, or SODA-FELSPAR, a mineral, a kind of felspar, usually of a white
+colour, to which property it owes its name (Lat. _albus_, white), but
+occasionally bluish, greyish, greenish, or reddish white.
+
+ALBIZZIA (al-bit'si-a), a genus of leguminous trees and shrubs, allied to
+the genus Acacia, with doubly-pinnate leaves and white, yellow, or red
+flowers often in globular heads, and broad, straight, flat pods. They
+number over fifty species, and inhabit tropical and subtropical Asia,
+Africa, and Australia. _A. lophanta_, a native of south-western Australia,
+has a bark that contains tannin. _A. Lebbek_, a native of Asia and Africa,
+yields valuable timber, and in Egypt is much cultivated as a shade tree.
+_A. Julibrissin_, a tree with rose-red flowers, is found in Asia and
+Africa, and has been introduced into Southern Europe.
+
+AL'BOIN, King of the Lombards, succeeded his father Audoin in 561, and
+reigned in Noricum and Pannonia. Narses, the general of Justinian, sought
+his alliance, and received his aid, in the war against Totila, King of the
+Ostrogoths. Alboin afterwards (in 568) undertook the conquest of Italy,
+where Narses, who had subjected this country to Justinian, offended by an
+ungrateful Court, sought an avenger in Alboin, and offered him his
+co-operation. After a victorious career in Italy he was slain at Verona, in
+573 or 574, by an assassin, instigated by his wife Rosamond, whose hatred
+he had incurred by sending her, in one of his fits of intoxication, a cup
+wrought from the skull of her father, and forcing her to drink from it.
+
+ALBORAK, in Mohammedan mythology, the animal said to have been brought by
+the angel Gabriel to carry Mohammed to the seventh heaven. It had the face
+of a man, the body of a horse, the wings of an eagle, and spoke with a
+human voice.
+
+ALBRECHT ([.a]l'bre_h_t), the German form of _Albert_ (q.v.).
+
+ALBRECHTSBERGER ([.a]l'bre_h_ts-ber-g[.e]r), Johann Georg, a German
+composer and writer on music; a teacher of Beethoven, Moscheles, &c. Born
+1736, died 1809.
+
+ALBRET, Jeanne d' (zh[.a]n d[.a]l-br[=a]), Queen of Navarre, wife of
+Antoine de Bourbon and mother of Henri IV of France, a zealous supporter of
+the reformed religion, which she established in her kingdom; born 1528,
+died (probably poisoned) 1572, shortly before the massacre of St.
+Bartholomew.
+
+ALBUERA ([.a]l-b[u:]-[=a]'r[.a]), a village of Spain, in Estremadura, 12
+miles S.S.E. of Badajoz. A battle was fought here, 16th May, 1811, between
+the army of Marshal Beresford (30,000) and that of Marshal Soult (25,000),
+when the latter was obliged to retreat to Seville, leaving Badajoz to fall
+into the hands of the allies.
+
+ALBU'GO, an affection of the eye, consisting of a white opacity in the
+cornea; called also _leucoma_.
+
+AL'BUM, in ancient Rome a board painted white, on which edicts and public
+notices were inscribed in black. It is now a name generally given to a
+blank book for the reception of pieces of poetry, autographs, engravings,
+photographs, &c. In law it is applied to rent paid in silver (white money).
+
+ALBU'MEN, or ALBUMIN (Lat., from _albus_, white), a substance, or rather
+group of substances, so named from the Latin for the white of an egg, which
+is one of its most abundant known forms. It may be taken as the type of the
+protein compounds or the nitrogenous class of food-stuffs. One variety
+enters largely into the composition of the animal fluids and solids, is
+coagulable by heat at and above 160deg, and is composed of carbon,
+hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with a little sulphur. It abounds in the
+serum of the blood, the vitreous and crystalline humours of the eye, the
+fluid of dropsy, the substance called coagulable lymph, in nutritive
+matters, the juice of flesh, &c. The blood contains about 7 per cent of
+albumen. Another variety, called vegetable albumen, exists in most
+vegetable juices and many seeds, and has nearly the same composition and
+properties as egg albumen. When albumen coagulates in any fluid it readily
+encloses any substances that may be suspended in the fluid. Hence it is
+used to clarify syrupy liquors. In cookery, white of eggs is employed for
+clarifying, but in large operations, like sugar-refining, the serum of
+blood is used. From its being coagulable by various salts, and especially
+by corrosive sublimate, with which it forms an insoluble compound, white of
+egg is a convenient antidote in cases of poisoning by that substance. With
+lime it forms a cement to mend broken ware.
+
+In botany the name albumen is given to the farinaceous matter which
+surrounds the embryo, the term in this case having no reference to chemical
+composition. It constitutes the meat of the coco-nut, the flour or meal of
+cereals, the roasted part of coffee, &c.
+
+ALBUMINU'RIA, a condition in which the urine contains albumen, evidencing a
+diseased state of the kidneys.
+
+ALBUNOL ([.a]l-b[u:]-nyol'), a seaport of Southern Spain, province Granada,
+on the Mediterranean. Pop. 7451.
+
+ALBUQUERQUE ([.a]l-b[u:]-kerk'[=a]), Affonso de, surnamed 'the Great', an
+eminent Portuguese admiral, born 1453, died in 1515. Portugal having
+subjected to its power a large part of the western coast of Africa, and
+begun to extend its sway in the East Indies, Albuquerque was appointed
+viceroy of the Portuguese acquisitions in this quarter, and arrived in 1503
+with a fleet on the coast of Malabar. His career here was extremely
+successful, he having extended the Portuguese power over Malabar, Ceylon,
+the Sunda Islands, and the Peninsula of Malacca, and made the Portuguese
+name respected by all the nations and princes of India. Notwithstanding his
+services and his virtues, he was unjustly superseded in his commands by his
+personal enemy Lopez Soarez, and so severely did he feel the ingratitude of
+his sovereign, King Emanuel, that he died a few days after receiving the
+intelligence. His famous letter to the king was discovered and published in
+1542 by J. M. de Fonseca. The first volume of his letters was published in
+1884 by the Royal Academy of Lisbon.
+
+[Illustration: Alburnum
+_a a_, Alburnum or sapwood. _b b_, Heart-wood. _c_, Pith. _d_, Bark]
+
+ALBUR'NUM, the soft white substance which, in trees, is found between the
+liber or inner bark and the wood, and, in progress of time acquiring
+solidity, becomes itself the wood. A new layer of wood, or rather of
+alburnum, is added annually to the tree in every part just under the bark.
+
+ALBURY (al'ber-i), a rising town of New South Wales on the borders of
+Victoria, on the right bank of the Murray, 190 miles north-east of
+Melbourne, in a good agricultural and wine-producing district. Pop. 6750.
+
+ALBY, or ALBI ([.a]l'b[=e]), an old town of southern France, department of
+Tarn, 42 miles north-east of Toulouse, on the Tarn, in an extensive plain.
+It has a cathedral, a Gothic structure, begun in 1282. It manufactures
+linens, cottons, leather, &c. Alby is said to have given the Albigenses
+their name. Pop. 18,262.
+
+ALCAE'US, one of the greatest Grecian lyric poets, was born at Mitylene, in
+Lesbos, and flourished there at the close of the seventh and beginning of
+the sixth centuries B.C.; but of his life little is known. A strong manly
+enthusiasm for freedom and justice pervades his lyrics, of which only a few
+fragments are left. He wrote in the Aeolic dialect, and was the inventor of
+a metre that bears his name (Alcaics), which Horace has employed in many of
+his odes.
+
+ALCALA' DE GUADAIRA (gw[.a]-d[=i]'r[.a]; 'the castle of Guadaira'), a town
+of southern Spain, on the Guadaira, 7 miles east of Seville, chiefly
+celebrated for its manufacture of bread, with which it supplies a large
+part of the population of Seville. Pop. 8930.
+
+ALCALA' DE HENARES (en-[:a]'res), a beautiful city of Spain, 16 miles
+E.N.E. of Madrid, 1 mile from the Henares. It has an imposing appearance
+when seen from some distance, but on nearer inspection is found to be in a
+state of decay. There was formerly a university here, at one time attended
+by 10,000 students; but in 1836 it was removed with its library to Madrid.
+Cervantes was born here. Pop. 11,728.
+
+ALCALA' LA REAL (r[=a]-[.a]l'), a town of Spain, 18 miles south-east of
+Jaen, with a fine abbey and some trade. It was captured in 1340 by Alphonso
+XI of Leon, from whence it derives the epithet Real ('Royal'). Pop. 15,901.
+
+ALCALDE (Sp.; [.a]l-k[.a]l-d[=a]), or ALCAIDE (Port.; al-k[=i]'d[=a]; Ar.
+_alqadi_ (Cadi), the judge, not to be confused with _alcaide_, the governor
+of a fortress), the name of a magistrate in the Spanish and Portuguese
+towns, to whom the administration of justice and the regulation of the
+police is committed. His office nearly corresponds to that of justice of
+the peace. The name and the office are of Moorish origin.
+
+AL'CAMO, a city in the west of Sicily, 2-1/2 miles south of the Gulf of
+Castellamare, near the site of the ancient Segesta, the ruins of which,
+including a well-preserved Doric temple and a theatre, as well as the
+remains of Moorish occupation, are still to be found here. The district is
+celebrated for its wine. Pop. 32,200.
+
+ALCANIZ ([.a]l-k[.a]n-y[=e]th'), a town of north-eastern Spain (Aragon).
+Pop. 8750.
+
+ALCAN'TARA (Ar., 'the bridge'), an ancient town and frontier fortress of
+Spain, on the Tagus, on a rocky acclivity, and enclosed by ancient walls.
+Pop. 3224.--_Order of Alcantara_, an ancient Spanish order of knighthood
+instituted for defence against the Moors in 1156, and made a military
+religious order in 1197.
+
+ALCARRAZA ([.a]l-k[.a]r-r[:a]'th[.a]), a vessel made of a kind of porous,
+unglazed pottery, used in Spain to hold drinking-water, which, oozing
+slightly through the vessel, is kept cool by the evaporation that takes
+place at the surface. Similar vessels have been long used in Egypt and
+elsewhere.
+
+ALCAZAR DE SAN JUAN ([.a]l-k[:a]'th[.a]r d[=a] s[.a]n-_h_w[:a]n), a town of
+Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), with manufactures of soap,
+saltpetre, gunpowder, chocolate, &c. Pop. 13,645.
+
+ALCE'DO. See _Kingfisher_.
+
+ALCES'TIS, in Greek mythology, wife of Admetus, King of Thessaly. Her
+husband was ill, and, according to an oracle, would die unless someone made
+a vow to meet death in his stead. This was secretly done by Alcestis, and
+Admetus recovered. After her decease Hercules brought her back from the
+infernal regions.
+
+AL'CHEMY, or ALCHYMY, the art which in former times occupied the place of
+and paved the way for the modern science of chemistry (as astrology did for
+astronomy), but whose aims were not scientific, being confined solely to
+the discovery of the means of indefinitely prolonging human life, and of
+transmuting the baser metals into gold and silver. Among the alchemists it
+was generally thought necessary to find a substance which, containing the
+original principle of all matter, should possess the power of dissolving
+all substances into their elements. This general solvent, or _menstruum
+universale_, which at the same time was to possess the power of removing
+all the seeds of disease out of the human body and renewing life, was
+called the _philosophers' stone_, _lapis philosophorum_, and its pretended
+possessors were known as _adepts_. Alchemy flourished chiefly in the Middle
+Ages, though how old such notions might be as those by which the alchemists
+were inspired it is difficult to say. There are many stories about the
+mystic origin of alchemy. The art is said to have been taught by the fallen
+angels, by Isis, or by Miriam, sister of Moses, or by John the Baptist.
+According to Suidas, Egypt was the home of alchemy, and the mythical Hermes
+Trismegistus of pre-Christian times was said to have left behind him many
+books of magical and alchemical learning, and after him alchemy received
+the name of the _hermetic art_. At a later period chemistry and alchemy
+were cultivated among the Arabians, and by them the pursuit was introduced
+into Europe. Many of the monks devoted themselves to alchemy, although they
+were afterwards prohibited from studying it by the popes. Thus Albertus
+Magnus is said to have been the author of a work _De Alchimia_, and several
+treatises on the subject are attributed to Thomas Aquinas. But even Pope
+John XXII is said to have worked at the science at Avignon. Raymond Lully,
+or Lullius, a famous alchemist of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
+is said to have changed for King Edward I a mass of 50,000 lb. of
+quicksilver into gold, of which the first rose-nobles were coined. Among
+other alchemists may be mentioned John Cremer, Abbot of Westminster
+(1327-77), Nicholas Flamel (1330-80), Basilius Valentinus, Isaac of
+Holland, and Paracelsus (1493-1541). With the growth of chemistry, the
+recognition of the chemical elements as forming a large number of distinct
+substances, and the conception of the fixed unalterable nature of the
+atoms, attempts to transform the base metals into gold were largely
+abandoned as being unscientific. But the most modern view of matter,
+namely, that the atoms of all elements are composed of numerous electrons,
+favours the idea of the transmutability of elements, and the production of
+helium from radium (see these articles) by Ramsay shows the possibility of
+this transmutation.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pattison-Muir, _Alchemy, or the
+Beginnings of Chemistry_ (Hodder & Stoughton: Useful Knowledge Series);
+H. S. Redgrove, _Alchemy, Ancient and Modern_.
+
+ALCIBI'ADES (-d[=e]z), a famous Athenian statesman and general of high
+family and of great abilities, but of no principle, was born at Athens in
+the 82nd Olympiad, 450 B.C., being the son of Cleinias, and a relative of
+Pericles, who also was his guardian. In youth he was remarkable for the
+beauty of his person, no less than for the dissoluteness of his manners. He
+came under the influence of Socrates, but little permanent effect was
+produced on his character by the precepts of the sage. He acquired great
+popularity by his liberality in providing for the amusements of the people,
+and after the death of Cleon attained a political ascendancy which left him
+no rival but Nicias. Thus he played an important part in the long-continued
+Peloponnesian war. In 415 he advocated the expedition against Sicily, and
+was chosen one of the leaders, but before the expedition sailed he was
+charged with profaning and divulging the Eleusinian mysteries, and
+mutilating the busts of Hermes, which were set up in public all through
+Athens. Rather than stand his trial he went over to Sparta, divulged the
+plans of the Athenians, and assisted the Spartans to defeat them. Sentence
+of death and confiscation was pronounced against him at Athens, and he was
+cursed by the ministers of religion. He soon left Sparta and took refuge
+with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, ingratiating himself by his
+affectation of Persian manners, as he had previously done at Sparta by a
+similar affectation of Spartan simplicity. He now began to intrigue for his
+return to Athens, offering to bring Tissaphernes over to the Athenian
+alliance, and after a while he was recalled and his banishment cancelled.
+He, however, remained abroad for some years in command of the Athenian
+forces, gained several victories, and took Chalcedon and Byzantium. In 407
+B.C. he returned to Athens, but in 406, the fleet which he commanded having
+suffered a severe defeat, he was deprived of his command. He once more went
+over to the Persians, taking refuge with the satrap Pharnabazus of Phrygia,
+and here he was assassinated in 404 B.C. The authorities for his life are
+Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos.
+
+ALCINOUS (al-sin'o-us), King of the Phaeacians. See _Ulysses_.
+
+ALCIRA ([.a]l-th[=e]'r[.a]), a town of Spain, province of Valencia, on the
+Jucar, founded by the Carthaginians. Fruits, rice, &c., are grown. Pop.
+22,050.
+
+ALC'MAN, the chief lyric poet of Sparta, a Lydian by birth, flourished
+between 671 B.C. and 631, and wrote (in the Doric dialect) love songs,
+hymns, paeans, &c., of which only fragments remain.
+
+ALCME'NA. See _Amphitryon_.
+
+ALCO, a small variety of dog, with a small head and large pendulous ears,
+found wild in Mexico and Peru, and also domesticated.
+
+ALCOBACA ([.a]l-k[=o]-b[:a]'s[.a]), a small town of Portugal, 50 miles
+north of Lisbon, celebrated for a magnificent Cistercian monastery founded
+in 1148 by Don Alphonso I, and completed in 1222. It contains the tombs of
+Alphonso II, Alphonso III, Pedro I and his wife Ines de Castro.
+
+AL'COHOL, or ETHYL ALCOHOL, C_2H_6O, is a substance obtained by allowing
+the juice of the grape to undergo a change known as fermentation. It is
+only in modern times that alcohol has been isolated and its properties
+examined. Alcohol is now prepared in enormous quantities, both for
+industrial purposes and for the preparation of alcoholic beverages, from
+substances rich in sugar or in starch. Potatoes and maize form the main
+source of alcohol. These are treated with steam under pressure in
+specially-constructed tanks to extract starchy materials. The starch so
+liberated is then fermented by means of a substance diastase. This
+treatment transforms sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The solution
+is then filtered to remove all insoluble matter, proteids, &c., and from
+this solid residue, cattle-feeding cakes are made. This treatment yields a
+solution containing 9-10 per cent alcohol. The solution is fractionally
+distilled, using a special form of distilling column. The most volatile
+part of the distillate, first runnings, contains acetaldehyde, the second
+fraction contains the bulk of the alcohol and some water, and the least
+volatile portion, last runnings, fusel oil and higher alcohols. By this
+means a liquid containing 80-95 per cent alcohol, rectified spirits, is
+obtained. For preparation of beverages, fusel oil must be carefully
+separated from alcohol, as fusel oil has an injurious effect
+physiologically. The removal of the last traces of water from alcohol is
+very troublesome. It is repeatedly distilled over quicklime or
+freshly-ignited potassium carbonate, giving an alcohol containing 98-99 per
+cent alcohol. The small quantity of water still contained is removed by
+leaving it in contact with metallic calcium. An alcohol containing more
+than 96 per cent alcohol is known as _absolute_. Pure alcohol is a
+colourless poisonous liquid boiling at 78deg C., possessing a strong odour
+and a burning taste. It is inflammable and mixes with water in all
+proportions and has a specific gravity 0.80625 at 0deg C. Very low
+temperatures convert it into a glassy solid, melting at -117deg C., hence
+it may be used in thermometers for low-temperature measurements. Alcohol
+burns with a non-luminous flame and gives out great heat; it is used,
+therefore, in various types of lamps for heating purposes. It is also used
+as a fuel for motors and is a very valuable solvent for many substances
+such as resin, oils, colouring-matter, varnishes, and ethereal essences.
+The so-called 'solid alcohol' can be obtained by dissolving 30 to 40 parts
+of collodion in 100 parts of alcohol, a solid which separates and burns
+like alcohol, leaving no residue. Alcohol is the important constituent of
+all alcoholic beverages and it is due to its presence that wine, whisky,
+&c., have a stimulating and intoxicating effect on the nervous system.
+Beverages such as beer, wine, cider, &c., are prepared by direct
+fermentation of sugars obtained in fruit juices in the case of wine and
+cider and from barley in the case of beer. These contain varying amounts of
+alcohol, thus wine may contain from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol, whilst
+beer contains 3 to 5 per cent. Whisky, brandy, &c., contain more alcohol,
+50-70 per cent, and for the preparation of these the alcohol used must be
+distilled and purified after fermentation. The alcohol content of an
+aqueous solution may be deduced from a determination of the specific
+gravity of the solution or directly by the Alcoholometer. This gives
+percentage by volume. The amount of alcohol present in any alcoholic
+beverage cannot be obtained directly, but if 1/3 of the liquid be distilled
+and the distillate made up to the original volume, then the alcohol may be
+determined by the Alcoholometer. The name alcohol is applied generally in
+chemistry to a large group of substances, containing carbon, hydrogen, and
+oxygen, which have chemical properties analogous to those of ethyl alcohol.
+
+AL'COHOLISM, a morbid condition of the body (especially of the nervous
+system) brought on by the immoderate use of alcoholic liquors.
+
+ALCOHOLOM'ETER, an instrument constructed on the principle of the
+hydrometer, to determine from the specific gravity of spirituous liquors
+the percentage of alcohol they contain, the scale marking directly the
+required proportion. If the liquor contain anything besides water and
+alcohol, previous distillation is necessary.
+
+ALCO'RAN. See _Koran_.
+
+AL'COTT, LOUISA MAY, a distinguished American authoress, born in 1833. She
+wrote a number of books chiefly intended for the young: _Little Women_
+(1867), _An Old-fashioned Girl_ (1869), _Little Men_ (1871), _Jack and
+Jill_ (1880), &c. Died in 1888.
+
+[Illustration: Alcove. French; late sixteenth century]
+
+AL'COVE, a recess in a room, usually separated from the rest of the room by
+columns, a balustrade, or by curtains, and often containing a bed or seats.
+
+ALCOY', a town of Spain, in Valencia, 24 miles north by west of Alicante,
+in a richly-cultivated district. There is a Roman bridge over the river,
+and the town has a very picturesque appearance; its chief manufactures are
+paper and woollen goods. On the 22nd of April an annual feast is celebrated
+by the inhabitants of the town commemorating a victory over the Moors in
+1257. Pop. 33,896.
+
+ALCUDIA, Duke of. See _Godoy_.
+
+ALCUIN (alk'win; in his native tongue _Ealhwine_), a learned Englishman,
+the confidant, instructor, and adviser of Charles the Great (Charlemagne).
+He was born at York in 735, and was educated at York School, of which he
+subsequently was head master. Alcuin having gone to Rome, Charlemagne
+became acquainted with him at Parma, invited him in 782 to his Court, and
+made use of his services in his endeavours to civilize his subjects. To
+secure the benefit of his instructions, Charlemagne established at his
+Court a school, called _Schola Palatina_, or the Palace School. In the
+royal academy Alcuin was called _Flaccus Albinus_. Most of the schools in
+France were either founded or improved by him; thus he founded the school
+in the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, in 796, after the plan of the school
+in York. Alcuin left the Court in 801, and retired to the abbey of St.
+Martin of Tours, but kept up a constant correspondence with Charles to his
+death in 804. He left works on theology, philosophy, rhetoric, also poems
+and letters, all of which have been published. His letters, 232 of which
+were addressed to Charlemagne, form the most important part of his work. As
+a philosopher, Alcuin, though lacking in originality, exercised a
+considerable influence over his contemporaries. The expression of
+'scholasticism' is attributed to him.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. J. B. Gaskoin,
+_Alcuin, His Life and his Work_, J. B. Mullinger, _The Schools of Charles
+the Great_.
+
+ALCYONA'RIA, coelenterate animals forming a great division of the class
+Actinozoa (see _Sea-anemone_). These animals are nearly all composite, and
+the individual polyps have mostly eight tentacles. They include the
+organ-pipe corals, sea-pens, fan-corals, &c., as also the red coral of
+commerce. The polyps resemble those of the genus Alcyonium in structure,
+and in the number and arrangement of the tentacles. See _Alcyonium_.
+
+ALCYO'NIUM, a genus of coelenterate animals, one familiar species of which,
+dredged around the British coasts--_A. digit[=a]tum_--is named 'Dead-Men's
+Fingers', or 'Cow's Paps', from its lobed or digitate appearance. It grows
+attached to stones, shells, and other objects. It consists of a mass of
+little polyps, each polyp possessing eight little fringed tentacles
+disposed around a central mouth. The Alcyonium forms the type of the
+_Alcyonaria_.
+
+AL'DAN, a river of Eastern Siberia, a tributary of the Lena, 1200 miles in
+length. The Aldan Mountains run along parallel to it on the left for 400
+miles.
+
+ALDEB'ARAN, a star of the first magnitude, forming the eye of the
+constellation Taurus or the Bull, the brightest of the five stars known to
+the Greeks as the Hyades. Spectrum analysis has shown it to contain
+antimony, bismuth, iron, mercury, hydrogen, sodium, calcium, &c.
+
+ALDEBURGH ([a:]ld'bu-ru), a municipal borough of England, on the coast of
+Suffolk, more important formerly than it is now, having suffered from
+encroachments of the sea. The poet Crabbe was born there in 1754. Pop.
+2892.
+
+AL'DEHYDE, in chemistry, the generic name given to the compounds of alcohol
+intermediate between the alcohols and the acids. Common aldehyde (C_2H_4O)
+is derived from spirit of wine by oxidation, and is a colourless, limpid,
+volatile, and inflammable liquid, with a peculiar ethereal odour, which is
+suffocating when strong; specific gravity, 0.79. Atmospheric oxygen
+converts it into acetic acid. It decomposes oxide of silver, depositing a
+brilliant film of metallic silver; hence it is used in silvering curved
+glass surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: Common Alder (_Alnus glutinosa_)]
+
+ALDER ([a:]l'd[.e]r; Alnus), a genus of plants of the sub-ord. Betulaceae
+(Birch), (nat. ord. Amentaceae). Fourteen species are known as small trees
+or shrubs indigenous to temperate and colder regions of the globe; eight of
+these are found in Central and Western Europe. The only species indigenous
+to Britain is the common alder (_Alnus glutin[=o]sa_), a tree growing in
+wet situations in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Its wood, light and
+soft and of a reddish colour, is used for a variety of purposes, and is
+well adapted for work which is to be kept constantly in water. Alder is
+still largely used in gunpowder manufacture, and the roots and knots
+furnish a beautifully-veined wood well suited for cabinet work; it is used
+for cigar-boxes in East Prussia and West Russia. The bark is used in
+tanning and leather-dressing, and by fishermen for staining their nets.
+This and the young twigs are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield
+different shades of yellow and red. With the addition of copperas it yields
+a black dye.
+
+ALDERLEY EDGE, a town of England, Cheshire, about 8 miles south-west of
+Stockport. Pop. (1921), 3072.
+
+AL'DERMAN ([a:]l'd[.e]r-; Anglo-Saxon _ealdorman_, from _ealdor_, older,
+and _man_), among the Anglo-Saxons a person of a rank equivalent to that of
+an earl or count, the governor of a shire or county, and member of the
+_witena-gemot_ or great council of the nation. Aldermen played an important
+role already before the Constitution of Egbert, but reached their highest
+power during the reign of Alfred the Great, who had married the daughter of
+an alderman. Aldermen, at present, are officers associated with the mayor
+of a city for the administration of the municipal government in England and
+the United States.
+
+AL'DERNEY (Fr. _Aurigny_), an island belonging to Britain, off the coast of
+Normandy, 10 miles due west of Cape La Hogue, and 60 from the nearest point
+of England, the most northerly of the Channel Islands, between 3 and 4
+miles long, and about 1-1/4 broad. The coast is bold and rocky; the
+interior is fertile. About a third of the island is occupied by grass
+lands; and the Alderney cows, a small-sized but handsome breed, are famous
+for the richness of their milk. The climate is mild and healthy. A judge,
+with six 'jurats', chosen by the people for life, and twelve 'douzainiers',
+representatives of the people, form a kind of local legislature. The French
+language still prevails among the inhabitants, but all understand and many
+speak English. The _Race of Alderney_ is the strait between the coast of
+France and this island. Pop. 2561.
+
+ALDERSHOT ([:a]l'd[.e]r-), a town and military station in England, the
+latter having given rise to the former. The 'camp' was originated in 1854
+by the purchase by Government of a tract of moorland known as Aldershot
+Heath, on the confines of Surrey, Hampshire, and Berkshire. The object was
+to accustom both officers and soldiers to act more readily when drawn up in
+brigades and divisions, their practice having been limited for the most
+part, since the termination of the French war, to the movements of
+battalions and companies. It was also deemed advisable to accustom the army
+to camp life, and to exercise the men in all the evolutions and movements
+which they might be required to perform when brought into actual contact
+with the enemy. The accommodation provided for the army, officers as well
+as men, consisted at first of wooden huts; but these have been superseded
+by brick barracks, and altogether the money expended on the camp has
+amounted to over L3,000,000. The men are exercised in marching,
+skirmishing, and similar field operations, which are carried on during the
+summer months with great activity; they are also instructed in the camp in
+cooking and other duties. The troops at Aldershot in summer include a
+number of Territorials, Senior and Junior O.T.C., &c. The town is in the
+neighbourhood of the barracks, immediately beyond the Government ground,
+and in Hampshire. It contains several churches, and has schools,
+newspapers, literary institutes, music-halls &c. Aldershot gives its name
+to a parliamentary division of Hants. Pop. (1921), 28,756.
+
+ALD'HELM, an Anglo-Saxon scholar and prelate, Abbot of Malmesbury and
+Bishop of Sherborne, born 640 (?), died 709. He was a great fosterer of
+learning and builder of churches, and has left Latin writings on
+theological subjects.
+
+AL'DINE EDITIONS, the name given to the works which proceeded from the
+press of Aldus Manutius and his family at Venice (1494-1592), Rome
+(1562-70), and Bologna. (See _Manutius_.) Recommended by their value, as
+well as by a splendid exterior, they have gained the respect of scholars
+and the attention of book-collectors. Many of them are the first printed
+editions (_editiones principes_) of Greek and Latin classics. Others are
+texts of the modern Italian authors. These editions are of importance in
+the history of printing. The editions printed by Aldus Manutius the Elder
+are, however, much more valuable than those issued by his descendants.
+Among the former are the first edition of the works of Aristotle in 5
+vols., and the works of Virgil, Horace, and Petrarch. Aldus had nine kinds
+of Greek type, and no one before him printed so much and so beautifully in
+this language. Of the Latin character he procured fourteen kinds of type.
+
+ALDOBRANDI'NI, the name of a Florentine family, subsequently of princely
+rank (now extinct), which produced one Pope (Clement VIII) and several
+cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and men of learning.--_Aldobrandini
+Marriage_, one of the most beautiful ancient fresco paintings, belonging
+probably to the time of Augustus, discovered in 1606 on Mount Aquilinus at
+the very spot where once were the gardens of Maecenas, and acquired by
+Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement VIII, now in the Vatican. It
+represents a marriage scene in which ten persons are portrayed. There is a
+beautiful copy of this fresco by Poussin in the Galleria Doria at Rome.
+
+AL'DRED, or EALDRED, Anglo-Saxon prelate, Bishop of Worcester and
+Archbishop of York, born 1000(?), died 1069. He improved the discipline of
+the Church and built several monastic churches. On the death of Edward the
+Confessor he is said to have crowned Harold. Having submitted to the
+Conqueror, whose esteem he enjoyed and whose power he made subservient to
+the views of the Church, he also crowned him as well as Matilda.
+
+ALD'RICH, Henry, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; born in 1647, died in 1710;
+distinguished as a philosopher, an architect, and as a musician. His
+_Compendium of Logic_ was a textbook till long past the middle of last
+century. He adapted many of the works of the older musicians, such as
+Palestrina and Carissimi, to the liturgy of the Church of England, and
+composed many services and anthems, some of which are still heard in
+English cathedrals.
+
+ALDRICH, Thomas Bailey, the most conspicuous American poet of his
+generation. Born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on 11th Nov., 1836; died at
+Boston in March, 1907. He edited _Every Saturday_ in Boston from 1865 to
+1874, and the _Atlantic Monthly_ from 1881 to 1890. He was a poet of some
+skill, the chief characteristic of his lyrics being refinement and finish.
+Some of his short stories have been rarely surpassed by other American
+writers. Among his volumes of verse are: _The Ballad of Babie Bell_ (1856);
+_Cloth of Gold_ (1874); _Lyrics and Sonnets_ (1880); _Friar Jerome's
+Beautiful Book_ (1881); _Unguarded Gates and other Poems_ (1895), &c. His
+prose works include: _Story of a Bad Boy_ (1870); _Marjorie Daw and other
+People_ (1873); _The Stillwater Tragedy_ (1880); _Two Bites of a Cherry_
+(1893).
+
+ALDROVAN'DI, Ulysses, a distinguished Italian naturalist; born 1522, died
+1607. He was professor at Bologna, and established botanical gardens and a
+museum of natural history there; wrote a work on natural history in 14
+vols. His _Antidotarii Bononiensis epitome_ (1574) has served as a model
+for all Pharmacopoeias published in later years.
+
+ALE and BEER, well-known and extensively-used fermented liquors, the
+principle of which is extracted from several sorts of grain but most
+commonly from barley, after it has undergone the process termed malting.
+Beer is a more general term than ale, being often used for any kind of
+fermented malt liquor, including porter, though it is also used in a more
+special signification. See _Brewing_.
+
+ALEARDI ([.a]-l[=a]-[.a]r'd[=e]), ALEARDO, a distinguished Italian lyrical
+and political poet and patriot, born 1812, died 1878; he was a member of
+the Italian board of higher education and a senator. His best work is his
+poem _Il Monte Circello_ (1844).
+
+ALE-CONNER, formerly an officer in England appointed to assay ale and beer,
+and to take care that they were good and wholesome, and sold at a proper
+price. The duty of the ale-conners of London was to inspect the measures
+used in public-houses, to prevent frauds in selling liquors. Four of these
+were chosen annually by the liverymen, in common hall, on Mid-summer's Day.
+
+ALE-COST. See _Costmary_.
+
+ALEC'TO, in Greek mythology, one of the Furies (q.v.).
+
+ALEMAN ([.a]-le-m[.a]n'), Mateo, a Spanish novelist, born about the middle
+of the sixteenth century, died in 1610. His fame rests on his _Life and
+Adventures of the Rogue Guzman de Alfarache_ (translated into French in
+1600 and into English in 1623), one of the best of the _picaresque_ or
+rogue novels, which give such a lively picture of the shady classes of
+society in Spain during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The hero
+becomes in succession stable-boy, beggar, porter, thief, man of fashion,
+soldier, valet, merchant, student, robber, galley-slave, and lastly his own
+biographer.
+
+ALEMAN'NI, or ALAMANNI, a confederacy of several German tribes which, at
+the commencement of the third century after Christ, lived near the Roman
+territory, and came then and subsequently into conflict with the imperial
+troops. Caracalla first fought with them in 213, but did not conquer them;
+Severus was likewise unsuccessful. About 250 they began to cross the Rhine
+westwards, and in 255 they overran Gaul along with the Franks. In 259 a
+body of them was defeated in Italy at Milan, and in the following year they
+were driven out of Gaul by Postumus. But the Alemanni did not desist from
+their incursions, notwithstanding the numerous defeats they suffered at the
+hands of the Roman troops. In the fourth century they crossed the Rhine and
+ravaged Gaul, but were severely defeated by the Emperor Julian and driven
+back. Subsequently they occupied a considerable territory on both sides of
+the Rhine; but at last Clovis broke their power in 496 and deprived them of
+a large portion of their possessions. Part of their territory was formed
+into a duchy called Alemannia or Swabia, this name being derived from Suevi
+or Swabians, the name which they gave themselves. It is from the Alemanni
+that the French have derived their names for Germans and Germany in
+general, namely, _Allemands_ and _Allemagne_, though strictly speaking only
+the modern Swabians and northern Swiss are the proper descendants of that
+ancient race.
+
+ALEMBERT ([.a]-l[.a][n.]-b[=a]r), Jean le Rond d', a French mathematician
+and philosopher, born in Paris, 16th Nov., 1717, and died there 29th Oct.,
+1783. He was the illegitimate son of Madame de Tencin and Chevalier
+Destouches, and was exposed at the Church of St. Jean le Rond (hence his
+name) soon after birth. He was brought up by the wife of a poor glazier,
+and with her he lived for more than forty years. His parents never publicly
+acknowledged him, but his father settled upon him an income of 1200 livres.
+He showed much quickness in learning, entered the College Mazarin at the
+age of twelve, and studied mathematics with enthusiasm and success, but
+received little encouragement from his teachers. Having left college he
+studied law and became an advocate, but did not practise, and long
+continued to occupy himself with mathematics, in which he made immense
+advances by his own efforts, often arriving at results that other
+mathematicians had previously arrived at unknown to him. A pamphlet on the
+motion of solid bodies in a fluid, and another on the integral calculus,
+which he laid before the Academy of Sciences in 1739 and 1740, showed him
+in so favourable a light that the Academy received him in 1741 into the
+number of its members. He soon after published his famous work on dynamics,
+_Traite de Dynamique_ (1743) and another work dealing with fluids, _Traite
+des Fluides_. His _Reflexion sur la cause generale des vents_ was also a
+work that added to D'Alembert's reputation. He also took a part in the
+investigations which completed the discoveries of Newton respecting the
+motion of the heavenly bodies, and published at intervals various important
+astronomical dissertations--on the perturbations of the planets, for
+instance, and on the precession of the equinoxes--as well as on other
+subjects. He also took part, with Diderot and others, in the celebrated
+_Encyclopedie_ in 33 vols., for which he wrote the _Discours Preliminaire_,
+as well as many philosophical and almost all the mathematical articles.
+Literature, history, and philosophy also received attention from him, and
+his _Elements de Philosophie_ (1759), in which he agrees with the theories
+of Condillac and Locke, was a work of much value. His great philosophical
+aim seems to have been the idea of secularizing morality upon a rational
+basis. Among his miscellaneous works are _Melanges de Philosophie,
+d'Histoire, et de Litterature_; _Traduction de quelques Morceaux choisis de
+Tacite_; _Sur la Destruction des Jesuites_; _Histoire des Membres de
+l'Academie Francaise_; _Elements de Musique theorique et pratique_. He
+received an invitation from the Russian empress Catherine II to go to St.
+Petersburg (now Petrograd) as tutor to her son, a very large sum being
+offered; and Frederick the Great invited him to settle in Berlin, but in
+vain. From Frederick, however, he accepted a pension, and he also paid a
+visit to Berlin. There was an intimate friendship between him and Voltaire.
+He never married, but he was on terms of the closest friendship with Madame
+L'Espinasse, and they occupied the same house for a number of years. He was
+held in high esteem by David Hume, who left him a legacy of L200.
+
+ALEM'BIC, a simple apparatus sometimes used by chemists for distillation,
+and consisting of three main parts, body, head, and receiver. The
+_cucurbit_, or body, contains the substance to be distilled, and is usually
+somewhat like a bottle, bulging below and narrowing towards the top; the
+_head_, of a globular form, with a flat under-ring, fits on to the neck of
+the cucurbit, condenses the vapour from the heated liquid, and receives the
+distilled liquid on the ring enclosing the neck of the lower vessel, and
+thus causes it to find egress by a discharging-pipe into the third section,
+called the _receiver_. See _Distillation_.
+
+ALEMTEJO ([.a]-l[=a][n.]-t[=a]'zh[=o]; 'beyond the Tagus'), the largest
+province of Portugal, and the most southern except Algarve; area, 9219 sq.
+miles; pop. 478,584. The capital is Evora. It has about 30 miles of coast,
+but no good harbour and no navigable river. Large areas are devoted to
+pasturage, and the cultivated portions are comparatively limited, though in
+the east there are fertile valleys where grain, fruits, &c., are
+cultivated. There are valuable cork forests in this portion also. Excellent
+horses are reared. Copper and iron mines are worked; but on the whole this
+province is in a backward condition, and is the most thinly inhabited in
+the country.
+
+ALENCON ([.a]-l[.a][n.]-s[=o][n.]), a town of France, capital of department
+Orne, and formerly of the Duchy of Alencon, on the right bank of the
+Sarthe, 105 miles west by south of Paris; well built; has a fine Gothic
+church (fifteenth century) and interesting remains of the old castle of the
+ducs d'Alencon. Alencon was long famed for its point-lace, called 'point
+d'Alencon', an industry established at the instigation of Colbert in 1673
+but now much fallen off; it has cotton and flax spinning and weaving, &c.
+Fine rock-crystal, yielding the so-called 'diamants d'Alencon', is found in
+the neighbouring granite quarries. Alencon is mentioned as a city for the
+first time in 717. Pop. 16,590.--_Alencon_, originally a county, later a
+dukedom, became united with the crown in 1221, and was given by Louis XI as
+an appanage to his fifth son, with whom the branch of the Alencon-Valois
+commenced. The first duke of the name lost his life at the battle of
+Agincourt in 1415; another, called Charles IV, married the celebrated
+Margaret of Valois, sister of Francis I. He commanded the left wing of the
+French army at the battle of Pavia, where, instead of supporting the king
+at a critical moment, he fled at the head of his troops, the consequence of
+which was the loss of the battle and the capture of the king.
+
+ALEP'PO, a city in North Syria, on the River Koik, in a fine plain 60 miles
+south-east of Alexandretta, which is its port, and 129 miles N.N.E. of
+Damascus. It has a circumference of about 7 miles, and consists of the old
+town and numerous suburbs. Its appearance at a distance is striking, and
+the houses are well built of stone. On a hill stands the citadel, and at
+its foot the governor's palace. Previous to 1822 Aleppo contained about 100
+mosques, but in that year an earthquake laid the greater part of them in
+ruins, and destroyed nearly the whole city. The aqueduct built by the
+Romans is the oldest monument of the town. Among the chief attractions of
+Aleppo are its gardens, in which the pistachio-nut is extensively
+cultivated. The branch railway to Hamah from the Beyrout-Damascus line has
+been continued to Aleppo. Formerly the city was a great centre of trade and
+manufactures, but the earthquake and other causes have combined greatly to
+lessen its prosperity. It has still a trade, however, in the products of
+the country, such as wool, cotton, silk, wax, skins, soap, tobacco, &c.,
+and imports a certain quantity of European manufactures.--Aleppo was a
+place of considerable importance in very remote times. By the Greeks and
+Romans it was called _Beroea_. It was conquered by the Arabs in 638, and
+its original name _Chalybon_ was then turned into _Haleb_, whence the
+Italian form _Aleppo_. The town was occupied by British troops on 27th
+Oct., 1918. Its population, 200,000 at the beginning of last century, is
+now estimated at over 250,000. The language generally spoken is Arabic. The
+vilayet of Aleppo has a pop. of 1,500,000.
+
+ALESH'KI, a town of Southern Russia, government Taurida. Pop. 8915.
+
+ALE'SIA, a town and fortress of ancient Gaul, at which in 52 B.C. Julius
+Caesar inflicted a crushing defeat on the Gauls under Vercingetorix. It is
+now represented by the village of Alise, department Cote d'Or, near which
+Napoleon III erected a colossal statue of Vercingetorix in 1865.
+
+ALESSAN'DRIA, a town and fortress in North Italy, capital of the province
+of the same name, in a marshy country, near the junction of the Bormida and
+the Tanaro. It was built in 1168 by the Cremonese and Milanese, and was
+named in honour of Pope Alexander III, who made it a bishop's see. It has a
+cathedral, important manufactures of linen, woollen, and silk goods, and an
+active trade. It ranks as one of the first fortresses of Europe, the
+fortifications including a surrounding wall and bastions, and a strong
+citadel on the opposite side of the Tanaro, connected by a bridge with the
+town. Pop. (with suburbs) 78,159.
+
+ALES'SI, Galeazzo, a distinguished Italian architect, born at Perugia,
+1512, died there in 1572. Many palaces, villas, and churches were erected
+after his designs, and at the request of Philip II of Spain he drew a plan
+for the Escurial.
+
+ALETSCH'-GLACIER, the greatest glacier in Switzerland, canton Valais, a
+prolongation of the immense mass of glaciers connected with the Jungfrau,
+the Aletschhorn (14,000 feet), and other peaks; about 15 miles long.
+
+ALEURITES, a tree belonging to the nat. ord. Euphorbiaceae, is found in
+tropical and subtropical parts of the world. _Aleurites triloba_, the
+'candleberry tree', is cultivated in the Moluccan Islands for its fruit.
+The oil extracted from its seeds is valuable both for food and light.
+
+ALEUROM'ETER, an instrument for indicating the bread-making qualities of
+wheaten flour. The indications depend upon the expansion of the gluten
+contained in a given quantity of flour when freed of its starch by
+pulverization and repeated washings with water.
+
+ALEU'TIAN ISLANDS, a chain of about eighty small islands belonging to the
+United States, separating the Sea of Kamchatka from the northern part of
+the Pacific Ocean, and extending nearly 1000 miles from east to west
+between lon. 172deg E. and 163deg W.; total area, 6391 sq. miles; pop.
+1220. They are of volcanic formation, and in a number of them there are
+volcanoes still in activity. Their general appearance is dismal and barren,
+yet grassy valleys capable of supporting cattle throughout the year are met
+with, and potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables are successfully
+cultivated. They afford also an abundance of valuable fur and of fish. The
+natives belong to the same stock with those of Kamchatka.
+
+ALE'WIFE (corruption of the Indian name), the _Al[=o]sa tyrannus_, a fish
+of the same genus as the shad, growing to the length of 12 inches, and
+caught in great quantities in the mouths of the rivers of New England, New
+Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, being salted and exported.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Alexander the Great]
+
+ALEXANDER, surnamed THE GREAT, was the son of Philip of Macedon and his
+queen Olympias, and was born at Pella, 356 B.C. In youth he had Aristotle
+as instructor, and he early displayed uncommon abilities. The victory of
+Chaeronea in 338, which brought Greece entirely under Macedonia, was mainly
+decided by his efforts. Philip having been assassinated, 336 B.C.,
+Alexander, not yet twenty years of age, ascended the throne. His father had
+been preparing an expedition against the Persians, and Alexander determined
+to carry it out; but before doing so he had to chastise the barbarian
+tribes on the frontiers of Macedon as well as quell a rising in Greece, in
+which he took and destroyed Thebes, put 6000 of the inhabitants to the
+sword, and carried 30,000 into captivity. Leaving Antipater to govern in
+his stead in Europe, and being confirmed as commander-in-chief of the Greek
+forces in the general assembly of the Greeks, he crossed over the
+Hellespont into Asia, in the spring of 334, with 30,000 foot and 5000
+horse. His first encounter with the Persian forces (assisted by Greek
+mercenaries) was at the small river Gran[=i]cus, where he gained a complete
+victory. Most of the cities of Asia Minor now opened their gates to the
+victor, and Alexander restored democracy in all the Greek cities. In
+passing through Gordium he cut the Gordian knot, on which it was believed
+the fate of Asia depended, and then conquered Lycia, Ionia, Caria,
+Pamphylia, and Cappadocia. A sickness, caused by bathing in the Cydnus (333
+B.C.), checked his progress; but scarcely was he restored to health when he
+continued his advance, and this same year defeated the Persian emperor
+Darius and his army of 500,000 or 600,000 men (including 50,000 Greek
+mercenaries) near Issus (inner angle of the Gulf of Alexandretta). Darius
+fled towards the interior of his dominions, leaving his family and
+treasures to fall into the hands of the conqueror. Alexander did not pursue
+Darius, but proceeded southwards, and secured all the towns along the
+Mediterranean Sea, though he only got possession of Tyre (taken 332 B.C.)
+after besieging it for seven months. Palestine and Egypt now fell before
+him, and in the latter he founded Alexandria, which became one of the first
+cities of ancient times. Hence he went through the desert of Libya, to
+consult the oracle of Zeus Ammon, and it was said that the god recognized
+him as his son. On his return Alexander marched against Darius, who had
+collected an immense army in Assyria, and rejected the proposals of his
+rival for peace. A battle was fought at Gaugamela, about 50 miles from
+Arbela, 331 B.C., and notwithstanding the immense numerical superiority of
+his enemy, Alexander (who had but 40,000 men and 7000 horse) gained a
+complete victory. Babylon and Susa opened their gates to the conqueror, who
+marched towards Persepolis, the capital of Persia, and entered it in
+triumph. He now seems for a time to have lost his self-command. He gave
+himself up to arrogance and dissipation, and is said in a fit of
+intoxication to have set fire to the palace of Persepolis, one of the
+wonders of the world. Rousing himself up, however, he set out in pursuit of
+Darius, who, having lost his throne, was kept prisoner by Bessus, satrap of
+Bactriana. Bessus, on seeing himself closely pursued, caused Darius to be
+assassinated (330 B.C.). Continuing his progress he subdued Bessus, and
+advanced to the Jaxartes, the extreme eastern limit of the empire, but did
+not fully subdue the whole of this region till 328, some fortresses holding
+out with great tenacity. In one of these he took prisoner the beautiful
+Roxana, daughter of Oxyartes, a nobleman of Sogdiana, and having fallen in
+love with her he married her. Meantime disaffection had once or twice
+manifested itself among his Macedonian followers and had been cruelly
+punished; and he had also, to his lasting remorse, killed his faithful
+friend Cleitus in a fit of drunken rage. Alexander now formed the idea of
+conquering India, then scarcely known even by name. He passed the Indus
+(326 B.C.), marched towards the Hydaspes (Jhelum), at the passage of which
+he conquered a king named Porus in a fierce battle, and advanced
+victoriously through the north-west of India, and intended to proceed as
+far as the Ganges, when the murmurs of his army compelled him to return. On
+the Hydaspes he built a fleet, in which he sent a part of his army down the
+river, while the rest proceeded along the banks. By the Hydaspes he reached
+the Acesines (Chenab), and thus the Indus, down which he sailed to the sea.
+Nearchus, his admiral, sailed hence to the Persian Gulf, while Alexander
+directed his march by land to Babylon, losing a great part of his troops in
+the desert through which he had to pass. In Susa he married Statira, the
+eldest daughter of Darius, and rewarded those of his Macedonians who had
+married Persian women, because it was his intention to unite the two
+nations as closely as possible. At Opis, on the Tigris, a mutiny arose
+among his Macedonians (in 324), who thought he showed too much favour to
+the Asiatics; by firmness and policy he succeeded in quelling this rising,
+and sent home 10,000 veterans with rich rewards. Soon after, his favourite,
+Hephaestion, died at Ecbatana, and Alexander's grief was unbounded. The
+favourite was royally buried at Babylon, and here Alexander was engaged in
+extensive plans for the future, when he became suddenly sick, after a
+banquet, and died in a few days (323 B.C.), in his thirty-third year, after
+a reign of twelve years and eight months. His body was after a time
+conveyed to Egypt with great splendour by his general Ptolemy. He left
+behind him an immense empire, which was divided among his chief generals,
+and became the scene of continual wars. The reign of Alexander constitutes
+an important period in the history of humanity. His career was not merely a
+series of empty conquests, but was attended with the most important
+results. The language, and much of the civilization of Greece, followed in
+his track; large additions were made to the sciences of geography, natural
+history, &c.; a road was opened to India; and the products of the farthest
+east were introduced into Europe. Greek kingdoms, under his generals and
+their successors, continued to exist in Asia for centuries.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+B. I. Wheeler, _Alexander the Great_ (Heroes of the Nations Series:
+Putnam); Grote, _History of Greece_; Holm, _History of Greece_; Dodge,
+_Alexander_ (Great Captains Series).
+
+ALEXANDER, the name of eight popes, the earliest of whom, ALEXANDER I, is
+said to have reigned from 108 to 119. ALEXANDER III, elected 1159, died
+1181, exercised his authority with great vigour against Henry II when the
+latter was accused of the assassination of Thomas Becket. The most famous
+(or infamous) is ALEXANDER VI (Borgia), who was born at Valencia, in Spain,
+in 1431, and died in 1503. When he was only twenty-five years of age his
+uncle, Pope Calixtus III, made him a cardinal, and shortly afterwards
+appointed him to the dignified and lucrative office of vice-chancellor. By
+bribery he prepared his way to the papal throne, which he attained in 1492,
+after the death of Innocent VIII. Both the authority and revenues of the
+popes being at this time much impaired, he set himself to reduce the power
+of the Italian princes, and seize upon their possessions for the benefit of
+his own family. To effect this end he is said not to have scrupled to use
+the vilest means, including poison and assassination. His policy, foreign
+as well as domestic, was faithless and base, and his private life was
+stained by immorality. He understood how to extract immense sums of money
+from all Christian countries under various pretexts. He sold indulgences,
+and set aside, in favour of himself, the wills of several cardinals. His
+excesses roused against him the powerful eloquence of Savonarola, who, by
+pen and pulpit, urged his deposition, but had to meet his death at the
+stake in 1498. Not long after his election Alexander had the honour of
+deciding the dispute between the kings of Portugal and Castile concerning
+their respective claims to the foreign countries recently discovered. It
+must, however, be admitted that Pope Alexander, whilst striking the wealthy
+and powerful, interested himself in the welfare of the people, and that he
+was a patron of arts and letters. His son, Cesare Borgia, and his daughter,
+Lucrezia, are equally notorious with himself.
+
+ALEXANDER, the name of three Scottish kings. ALEXANDER I, a son of Malcolm
+III, Canmore, and Margaret of England, succeeded his brother Edgar in 1107,
+and governed with great ability till his death in 1124. He was a great
+benefactor of the Church, and a firm vindicator of the national
+independence.--ALEXANDER II was born in 1198, and succeeded his father,
+William the Lion, in 1214. He was a wise and energetic prince, and Scotland
+prospered greatly under him, though disturbed by the Norsemen, by the
+restlessness of some of the Celtic chiefs, and by the attempts of Henry III
+of England to make Alexander do homage to him. He helped Robert FitzWilliam
+to capture London and compel King John to sign Magna Charta. Alexander
+married Henry's sister, Joan, in 1221, who lived till 1238. In 1244 war
+with England almost broke out, but was fortunately averted. Alexander died
+in 1248 at Kerrera, an island opposite Oban, when on an expedition in which
+he hoped to wrest the Hebrides from Norway. He was succeeded by his son,
+ALEXANDER III, a boy of eight, who in 1251 married Margaret, eldest
+daughter of Henry III of England. Like his father, he was eager to bring
+the Hebrides under his sway, and this he was enabled to accomplish in a few
+years after the defeat of the Norse King Haco at Largs, in 1263. The
+mainland and islands of Scotland were now under one sovereign, though
+Orkney and Shetland still belonged to Norway. Alexander was strenuous in
+asserting the independence both of the Scottish kingdom and the Scottish
+Church against England. He died in 1285 by the falling of his horse while
+he was riding in the dark between Burntisland and Kinghorn. He left as his
+heiress Margaret, the Maid of Norway, daughter of Eric of Norway, and of
+Alexander's daughter, Margaret. Under him Scotland enjoyed greater
+prosperity than for generations afterwards.
+
+ALEXANDER I, Emperor of Russia, son of Paul I and Maria, daughter of Prince
+Eugene of Wuertemberg, was born in 1777, and died in 1825. On the
+assassination of his father, in 1801, Alexander ascended the throne, and
+one of his first acts was to conclude peace with Britain, against which his
+predecessor had declared war. In 1803 he offered his services as mediator
+between England and France, and two years later a convention was entered
+into between Russia, England, Austria, and Sweden for the purpose of
+resisting the encroachments of France on the territories of independent
+States. He was present at the battle of Austerlitz (1805), when the
+combined armies of Russia and Austria were defeated by Napoleon. In the
+succeeding campaign the Russians were again beaten at Eylau (8th Feb.,
+1807) and Friedland (14th June), the result of which was an interview
+between Alexander and Napoleon, and the treaty at Tilsit. The Russian
+emperor now for a time identified himself with the Napoleonic schemes, and
+soon obtained possession of Finland and an extended territory on the
+Danube. The French alliance, however, he found to be too oppressive, and
+his having separated himself from Napoleon led to the disastrous French
+invasion of 1812. In 1813 he published a manifesto which served as the
+basis of the coalition of the other European powers against France, which
+was followed by the capture of Paris (in 1814), the abdication of Napoleon
+and the restoration of the Bourbons, and the utter overthrow of Napoleon
+the following year. After Waterloo, Alexander, accompanied by the Emperor
+of Austria and the King of Prussia, made his second entrance into Paris,
+where they concluded the treaty known as the Holy Alliance. The remaining
+part of his reign was chiefly taken up with measures of internal reform,
+including the gradual abolition of serfdom, and the promotion of education,
+agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, as well as literature and the fine
+arts.
+
+ALEXANDER II, Emperor of Russia, was born 29th April, 1818, and succeeded
+his father Nicholas in 1855, before the end of the Crimean war. After peace
+was concluded, the new emperor set about effecting reforms in the empire,
+the greatest of all being the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, a measure
+which gave freedom, on certain conditions, to 50,000,000 of human beings
+who were previously in a state little removed from that of slavery. Under
+him, too, representative assemblies in the provinces were introduced, and
+he also did much to improve education, and to reorganize the judicial
+system. During his reign the Russian dominions in Central Asia were
+extended, a piece of territory south of the Caucasus, formerly belonging to
+Turkey, was acquired, and a part of Bessarabia restored to Russia. The
+latter additions resulted from the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8. He was
+killed by an explosive missile flung at him by a Nihilist in a street in
+St. Petersburg (now Petrograd), 13th March, 1881. He was succeeded by his
+son, Alexander III. His only daughter was married to the Duke of Edinburgh.
+
+ALEXANDER III, Emperor of Russia, son of Alexander II, born in 1845, became
+heir to the throne on the death of his eldest brother, Nicholas (1865). In
+1863 he married Princess Dagmar of Denmark; he succeeded to the throne in
+1881, on the assassination of his father, being crowned in Moscow in 1883.
+He gave up the reforms begun by his father, and ruled in the old autocratic
+fashion, restricting the liberties of Finland and the Baltic Provinces, and
+encouraging persecution of the Jews. He spent much time in the
+closely-guarded castle of Gatchina, to be safe from Nihilistic attempts,
+several of which he narrowly escaped. He endeavoured to put down corruption
+and underhand dealing among the bureaucracy, and in his own habits gave an
+example of simplicity and economy. While showing himself suspicious of
+Germany and Austria-Hungary, he entered on friendly relations with France.
+He began to suffer from disease of the kidneys in 1893, and died at Livadia
+on 1st Nov., 1894. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicholas II.
+
+ALEXANDER I, King of Serbia, born in 1876. He was the son of King Milan,
+and on the abdication of his father in 1889 was proclaimed king under a
+regency. He married Madame Draga Mashin, a widow, who was much older than
+himself. Both were assassinated on 11th June, 1903.
+
+ALEXANDER OF HALES. See _Hales, Alexander de._
+
+ALEXANDER, Boyd, British explorer and naturalist, born in 1873. He led many
+expeditions for research and exploration to the Cape Verde Islands, the
+Zambesi River, and various parts of the world. He also discovered many new
+birds when he ascended the Mount St. Isabel. In 1908 he received the gold
+medal of the Royal Geographical Society. He was murdered by natives in May,
+1910, while exploring the French Congo. He wrote _From the Niger to the
+Nile_ (1907), &c. _Boyd Alexander's Last Journey_ was published in 1912.
+
+ALEXANDER NEVSKOI, a Russian hero and saint, son of the Grand-Duke
+Jaroslav, born in 1219, died in 1263. He fought valiantly against assaults
+of the Mongols, the Danes, Swedes, and Knights of the Teutonic Order. He
+gained the name of _Nevskoi_ in 1240, for a splendid victory, on the Neva,
+over the Swedes. The gratitude of his countrymen commemorated the hero in
+popular songs, and raised him to the dignity of a saint. Peter the Great
+built a splendid monastery at St. Petersburg (Petrograd) in his honour, and
+in memory of him established the Order of Alexander Nevskoi.
+
+ALEXANDER SEVE'RUS, a Roman emperor, born in 208, died A.D. 235. He was
+raised to the imperial dignity in A.D. 222 by the praetorian guards, after
+they had put his cousin the Emperor Heliogabalus to death. He governed ably
+both in peace and war; and also occupied himself in poetry, philosophy, and
+literature. He was very tolerant in religious matters, and although not
+professing Christianity intended to erect a temple to Christ, but was
+prevented by the pagan priests from carrying out this plan. In 232 he
+defeated the Persians under Artaxerxes, who wished to drive the Romans from
+Asia. When on an expedition into Gaul, to repress an incursion of the
+Germans, he was murdered with his mother in an insurrection of his troops,
+headed by the brutal Maximin, who succeeded him as emperor.
+
+ALEXANDERS (_Smyrnium Olus[=a]trum_), an umbelliferous biennial plant, a
+native of the Mediterranean region, but found in Great Britain and Ireland.
+It was formerly cultivated for its leaf-stalks, which, having a pleasant
+aromatic flavour, were blanched and used instead of celery--a vegetable
+that has taken its place.
+
+ALEXANDRA, the queen mother, widow of Edward VII, daughter of Christian IX,
+King of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen on 1st Dec., 1844, and was married
+on 10th March, 1863, being Princess of Wales up to the death of Queen
+Victoria and the accession of King Edward in Jan., 1901. She was highly
+popular from the first in the country of her husband, as she constantly
+showed an interest in all benevolent causes. She has been the mother of six
+children, one of whom died in infancy, while the eldest, Edward, Duke of
+Clarence and Avondale, died in 1892 at the age of twenty-eight. Cf. S. A.
+Tooley, _Queen Alexandra_.
+
+ALEXANDRET'TA, or ISKANDEROON (ancient ALEXANDRIA AD ISSUM), a small
+seaport in Asia Minor, on the Gulf of Iskanderoon, the port of Aleppo and
+Northern Syria. Named after Alexander the Great, and founded in memory of
+the battle of Issus. In 1832 Mehemet Ali won a victory over the Turks near
+Alexandretta. There is a large export and import trade. It was occupied by
+British and French troops in Nov., 1918. Pop. 10,000.
+
+ALEXAN'DRIA, an ancient city and seaport in Egypt, at the north-west angle
+of the Nile delta, on a ridge of land between the sea and Lake Mareotis.
+Ancient Alexandria was founded by, and named in honour of, Alexander the
+Great, in 332 B.C., and was long a great and splendid city, the centre of
+commerce between the east and west, as well as of Greek learning and
+civilization, with a population at one time of perhaps 1,000,000. It was
+especially celebrated for its great library, and also for its famous
+lighthouse, one of the wonders of the world, standing upon the little
+island of Pharos, which was connected with the city by a mole. Under Roman
+rule it was the second city of the empire, and when Constantinople became
+the capital of the East it still remained the chief centre of trade; but it
+received a blow from which it never recovered when captured by Amru,
+general of Caliph Omar, in 641, after a siege of fourteen months. Its ruin
+was finally completed by the building of Cairo (969) and the discovery of
+the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope (1498) which opened up a new
+route for the Asiatic trade. See _Alexandrian Library_, _Alexandrian
+School_.--Modern Alexandria stands partly on what was formerly the island
+of Pharos, partly on the peninsula which now connects it with the mainland
+and which was formed by the accumulation of soil, and partly on the
+mainland. The streets in the Turkish quarter are narrow, dirty, and
+irregular; in the foreign quarter they are regular and wide, and it is here
+that the finest houses are situated. Here also are the principal shops and
+hotels, banks, offices of companies, &c.; this part of the city being
+supplied with gas, and with water brought by the Mahmudieh Canal from the
+western branch of the Nile. Alexandria is connected by railway with Cairo,
+Rosetta, and Suez. A little to the south of the city are the catacombs,
+which now serve as a quarry. Another relic of antiquity is Pompey's Pillar,
+98 feet 9 inches high. Alexandria has two ports, on the east and west
+respectively of the isthmus of the Pharos peninsula, the latter having a
+breakwater over 3000 yards in length, with fine quays and suitable railway
+and other accommodation. The trade of Alexandria is large and varied, the
+exports being cotton, beans, pease, rice, wheat, &c.; the imports chiefly
+manufactured goods, machinery, timber, and coal. The origin of its more
+recent career of prosperity it owes to Mohammed Ali. In 1882 the
+insurrection of Arabi Pasha and the massacre of Europeans led to the
+intervention of the British, and the bombardment of the forts by the
+British fleet in July. The administrative district has an area of 19 sq.
+miles; pop. 444,617 (or 23,401 per square mile).
+
+ALEXANDRIA, a town and port of the United States, in Virginia, on the right
+bank of the Potomac (which is of sufficient depth for large vessels), 7
+miles south of Washington, carries on a considerable trade, chiefly in
+flour. Pop. (1920), 18,060.
+
+ALEXANDRIA, a town of Scotland, in Dumbartonshire, on the Leven, 4 miles
+north of Dumbarton, with extensive cotton-printing and bleaching works.
+Pop. 9850.
+
+ALEXANDRIA, a town of the Ukraine, in the former Russian government of
+Kherson, on a tributary of the Dnieper. Pop. 10,521.
+
+ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, the largest and most famous of all the ancient
+collections of books, founded by Ptolemy Soter (died 283 B.C.), King of
+Egypt, and greatly enlarged by succeeding Ptolemies. The first librarian
+was Zenodotus (234 B.C.). At its most flourishing period it is said to have
+numbered 700,000 volumes, accommodated in two different buildings, one of
+them being the Serapeion, or temple of Jupiter Serapis. The other
+collection was burned during Julius Caesar's siege of the city, but the
+Serapeion library existed to the time of the Emperor Theodosius the Great,
+when, at the general destruction of the heathen temples, the splendid
+temple of Jupiter Serapis was gutted (A.D. 391) by a fanatical crowd of
+Christians, and its literary treasures destroyed or scattered. A library
+was again accumulated, but was burned by the Arabs when they captured the
+city under the caliph Omar in 641. Amru, the captain of the caliph's army,
+would have been willing to spare the library, but Omar is said to have
+disposed of the matter in the famous words: "If these writings of the
+Greeks agree with the Koran they are useless, and need not be preserved; if
+they disagree they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed". This story,
+however, which rests solely on the authority of Abulfaragius, a writer who
+lived six centuries later, is now generally discredited.
+
+ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL or AGE, the school or period of Greek literature and
+learning that existed at Alexandria in Egypt during the three hundred years
+that the rule of the Ptolemies lasted (323-30 B.C.), and continued under
+the Roman supremacy. Ptolemy Soter founded the famous library of Alexandria
+(see above) and his son, Philadelphus, established a kind of academy of
+sciences and arts. Many scholars and men of genius were thus attracted to
+Alexandria, and a period of literary activity set in, which made Alexandria
+for long the focus and centre of Greek culture and intellectual effort. It
+must be admitted, however, that originality was not a characteristic of the
+Alexandrian age, which was stronger in criticism, grammar, and science than
+in pure literature. Among the grammarians and critics were Zenodotus,
+Eratosthenes, Aristophanes, Aristarchus, and Zoilus, proverbial as a
+captious critic. Their merit is to have collected, edited, and preserved
+the existing monuments of Greek literature. To the poets belong Apollonius,
+Lycophron, Aratus, Nicander, Euphorion, Callimachus, Theocritus, Philetas,
+&c. Among those who pursued mathematics, physics, and astronomy was Euclid,
+the father of scientific geometry; Archimedes, great in physics and
+mechanics; Apollonius of Perga, whose work on conic sections still exists;
+Nicomachus, the first scientific arithmetician; and (under the Romans) the
+astronomer and geographer Ptolemy. Alexandria also was distinguished in
+philosophical speculation, and it was here that the New Platonic school was
+established by Ammonius of Alexandria (about A.D. 193), whose disciples
+were Plotinus and Origen. Being for the most part Orientals, formed by the
+study of Greek learning, the writings of the New Platonists are strikingly
+characterized--for example, those of Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus, Iamblicus,
+Porphyrius--by a mixture of Asiatic and European elements. The connection
+of Neo-Platonism with Alexandria is, however, less than is commonly
+supposed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mahaffy, _Greek Life and Thought from the Age of
+Alexander to the Roman Empire_; Kingsley, _Alexandria and her Schools_;
+Vacherot, _Histoire critique de l'ecole d'Alexandrie_ (3 vols.).
+
+ALEXANDRIAN VERSION. See _Codex Alexandrinus_.
+
+ALEXANDRINE, in prosody, the name given, from an old French poem on
+Alexander the Great, to a species of verse, which consists of six iambic
+feet, or twelve syllables, the pause being, in correct Alexandrines, always
+on the sixth syllable; for example, the second of the following verses:--
+
+  A needless Alexandrine ends the song,
+  That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.
+
+In English Drayton's _Polyolbion_ is written in this measure, and the
+concluding line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In France the
+verse fell into disuse during the early part of the sixteenth century, but
+was again revived by Jean Antoine de Baif, one of the poets of the Pleiade.
+Jodelle introduced the verse into the drama, and Ronsard made it very
+popular. French epics and dramas being confined to this verse, it is
+therefore called the _heroic_.
+
+ALEXANDRO'POL, formerly a Russian town and fortress in the Transcaucasian
+government of Erivan, near the highway from Erivan to Kars; now belonging
+to Armenia; it has silk manufactories. Pop. 48,938.
+
+ALEXAN'DROV, a town of Russia, government of Vladimir, with a famous
+convent, in the church of which are interred two sisters of Peter the
+Great; manufactures of steel and cotton goods. Pop. 7179.
+
+ALEX'ISBAD, a bathing-place of Germany, Anhalt, in the Harz Mountains, with
+two mineral springs strongly impregnated with iron.
+
+ALEX'IS MIKHAI'LOVITSH (son of Michael), second Russian Tsar of the line of
+Romanov, born in 1629, succeeded his father Mikhail Feodorovitsh in 1645,
+and died in 1676. He did much for the internal administration and for the
+enlargement of the empire; reconquered Little Russia from Poland, and
+carried his authority to the extreme east of Siberia. He was father of
+sixteen children, the most famous of them being Peter the Great and his
+sister Sophia.
+
+ALEXIS PETRO'VITSH, eldest son of Peter the Great and Eudoxia Lopukhina,
+repudiated in 1698, was born in Moscow, 1690, and died in 1718. He opposed
+the innovations introduced by his father, who on this account disinherited
+him by a ukase in 1718, and when he discovered that Alexis was paving the
+way to succeed to the crown he had his son tried and condemned to death. A
+few days afterwards Alexis died, after having received twenty-five strokes
+with the knout, leaving a son, afterwards the Emperor Peter II.
+
+ALEX'IUS COMNE'NUS, Byzantine Emperor, was born in 1048, and died in 1118.
+He was a nephew of Isaac the first emperor of the Comneni, and attained the
+throne in 1081, at a time when the Empire was menaced from various sides,
+especially by the Turks and the Normans. From these dangers he managed to
+extricate himself by policy or warlike measures, and maintained his
+position till the age of seventy, during a reign of thirty-seven years. His
+daughter Anna wrote a life of him (_The Alexiad_), which is one continuous
+eulogy, but all the Latin historians are very severe on him.
+
+AL'FA. See _Esparto_.
+
+ALFAL'FA, generally known in Britain as lucerne, a prolific forage plant
+largely grown in California, &c.
+
+ALFARA'BI, an eminent Arabian scholar of the tenth century; died at
+Damascus in 950; wrote on Aristotelian philosophy, and compiled a kind of
+encyclopedia.
+
+AL'FENID, an alloy of nickel plated with silver, used for spoons, forks,
+candlesticks, tea services, &c.
+
+ALFIERI ([.a]l-f[=e]-[=a]'r[=e]), Vittorio, Count, Italian poet, was born
+at Asti in 1749, and died in 1803. After extensive European travels he
+began to write, and his first play, _Cleopatra_ (1775), being received with
+general applause he determined to devote all his efforts to attaining a
+position among writers of dramatic poetry. At Florence he became intimate
+with the Countess of Albany, wife of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, and on
+the death of the prince she lived with him as his mistress. This connection
+he believed to have served to stimulate and elevate his poetic powers. He
+died at Florence and was buried in the church of Santa Croce, between
+Macchiavelli and Michael Angelo, where a beautiful monument by Canova
+covers his remains. He wrote twenty-one tragedies and six comedies. His
+theatrical work has been rightly styled a creation of his pride as much as
+of his genius; he endeavoured to turn the theatre into a platform and was
+constantly preaching from the stage. Anxious to use his characters as
+exponents of his theories, and to make them _talk_, he often forgot to make
+them _act_. Alfieri himself admitted that he was writing with a view to
+"teaching men how to become free, strong, generous, and passionate for real
+virtue", but such an attitude is opposed to true art. His tragedies are
+full of lofty and patriotic sentiments, but the language is stiff and
+without poetic grace, and the plots poor. Nevertheless he is considered the
+first tragic writer of Italy, and has served as a model for his successors.
+Alfieri composed also an epic, lyrics, satires, and poetical translations
+from the ancient classics. He left an interesting autobiography. The best
+edition of his works is that published at Pisa (1805-13) in 22 vols.
+
+ALFON'SO. See _Alphonso_.
+
+AL'FORD, Henry, D.D., Dean of Canterbury, an English poet, scholar, and
+miscellaneous writer, was born in London in 1810. After attending various
+schools he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827, graduated B.A. in
+1832, was elected fellow in 1834, and next year became vicar of Wymeswold,
+Leicestershire. In 1842 he was appointed examiner in logic and moral
+philosophy to the University of London, and held the appointment till 1857.
+He early began the great work of his life, his edition of the Greek
+Testament with commentary, which occupied him for twenty years, the first
+volumes being published in 1849, the fourth and last in 1861. In 1853 he
+was transferred to Quebec Chapel, London, and in 1857 was appointed Dean of
+Canterbury. He was the first editor of the _Contemporary Review_ (1866-70).
+He died in 1871. Among other works he wrote _Chapters on the Poets of
+Ancient Greece_, _Sermons_, _Psalms and Hymns_, _Homilies on the Acts of
+the Apostles_, _Letters from Abroad_, _Poetical Works_, _Plea for the
+Queen's English_.
+
+AL'FRED (or AEL'FRED) THE GREAT, King of England, was born at Wantage, in
+Berkshire, A.D. 849, his father being Ethelwulf, son of Egbert, King of the
+West Saxons. He succeeded his brother Ethelred in 872, at a time when the
+Danes, or Northmen, had extended their conquests widely over the country,
+and they had completely overrun the kingdom of the West Saxons by 878.
+Alfred was obliged to flee in disguise. At length he gathered a small
+force, and having fortified himself on the Isle of Athelney, formed by the
+confluence of the Rivers Parret and Tone, amid the marshes of Somerset, he
+was able to make frequent sallies against the enemy. It was during his
+abode here that he went, according to legend, disguised as a harper into
+the camp of King Guthrum (or Guthorm), and, having ascertained that the
+Danes felt themselves secure, hastened back to his troops, led them against
+the enemy, and gained such a decided victory that fourteen days afterwards
+the Danes begged for peace. This battle took place in May, 878, near
+Edington, in Wiltshire. Alfred allowed the Danes who were already in the
+country to remain, on condition that they gave hostages, took a solemn oath
+to quit Wessex, and embraced Christianity. Their king, Guthrum, was
+baptized, with thirty of his followers, and ever afterward remained
+faithful to Alfred. They received that portion of the east of England now
+occupied by the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge, as a place of
+residence. The few years of tranquillity (886-93) which followed were
+employed by Alfred in rebuilding the towns that had suffered most during
+the war, particularly London; in training his people in arms and no less in
+agriculture; in improving the navy; in systematizing the laws and internal
+administration; and in literary labours and the advancement of learning. He
+caused many manuscripts to be translated from Latin, and himself translated
+several works into Anglo-Saxon, such as the _Psalms_, _Aesop's Fables_,
+_Boethius on the Consolation of Philosophy_, the _History of Orosius_,
+_Bede's Ecclesiastical History_, &c. He also drew up several original works
+in Anglo-Saxon. These peaceful labours were interrupted, about 894, by an
+invasion of the Northmen, who, after a struggle of three years, were
+finally driven out. Alfred died in 901. He had married, in 868, Alswith or
+Ealhswith, the daughter of a Mercian nobleman, and left two sons: Edward,
+who succeeded him, and Ethelwerd, who died in 922.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Plummer,
+_Life and Times of Alfred the Great_; A. Bowker, _Alfred the Great,
+Chapters on his Life and Times_; B. A. Lees, _Alfred the Great_.
+
+ALGAE (al'j[=e]), a nat. ord. of cryptogamic or thallogenous plants, found
+for the most part in the sea and fresh water, or on the surface of damp
+walls, rocks, the bark of trees, and in similar moist situations. They are
+either some shade of bluish-green, green, brown, or red colour. The higher
+forms have stems bearing leaf-like expansions, and they are often attached
+to the rocks by roots, which, however, do not derive nutriment from the
+rocks. A stem, however, is most frequently absent. The plants are nourished
+through their whole surface by the medium in which they live. They vary in
+size from the microscopic diatoms to forms whose stems resemble those of
+forest trees, and whose fronds rival the leaves of the palm. They are
+entirely composed of cellular tissue, and many are edible and nutritious,
+as carrageen or Irish-moss, dulse, &c. Kelp, iodine, and bromine are
+products of various species. The Algae are also valuable as manure. They
+are often divided into five orders: Diatomaceae, Confervaceae, Fucaceae,
+Ceramiaceae, and Characeae.
+
+ALGAR'DI, Alessandro, one of the chief Italian sculptors of the seventeenth
+century; born 1602, died 1654. He lived and worked chiefly at Rome;
+executed the tomb of Leo XI in St. Peter's, a bronze statue of Innocent X,
+and a marble relief with life-size figures over the altar of St. Leo there.
+
+ALGARO'BA-BEAN. See _Carob Tree_.
+
+AL'GAROT, a violently purgative and emetic white powder, precipitated from
+chloride of antimony in water; it was used in medicine by the physician
+Victor Algarotus in the sixteenth century.
+
+ALGAROT'TI, Francesco, Count, born in 1712, died in 1764, an Italian writer
+on science, the fine arts, &c. He lived for some years in France and for a
+long time in Germany, Frederick the Great of Prussia having made him
+chamberlain and count. He wrote _Neutonianismo per le donne_; _Saggi sopra
+le belle arti_, his principal work on art; poems, letters, &c. Algarotti's
+works published at Venice in 17 vols. (1791-4) and illustrated by Tesi and
+Novelli are a _chef-d'oeuvre_ of typography. Frederick the Great erected at
+Pisa a monument to his memory.
+
+ALGARVE (al-g[.a]r'v[=a], meaning the land situated in the west), a
+maritime province of Portugal occupying the southern portion of the
+country, mountainous but with some fertile tracts. The title King of
+Algarve was held by the Kings of Portugal. Area, 1937 sq. miles; pop.
+274,122.
+
+ALGAU ([.a]l'gou), a name for the south-western portion of Bavaria and the
+adjacent parts of Wuertemberg and Tyrol, intersected by the Algau Alps. The
+Algau breed of cattle is one of the best in Germany.
+
+ALGAZZALI ([.a]l-g[.a]z-[:a]'l[=e]), Abu Hamed Mohammed, an Arabian
+philosopher, Persian by birth; born 1058, died 1111. He was a most prolific
+author; an opponent of the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy of the day,
+and wrote against it the _Destruction of the Philosophers_, answered by
+Averroes in his _Destruction of the Destruction_.
+
+AL'GEBRA (from the Arabic _al_, definite article, and _jabbara_, to make
+equal), a kind of generalized arithmetic, in which numbers or quantities
+and operations, often also the results of operations, are represented by
+symbols. Thus the expression xy + cz + dy^2 denotes that a number
+represented by x is to be multiplied by a number represented by y, a number
+c multiplied by a number z, a number d by a number y multiplied by itself
+(or squared), and the sum taken of these three products. So the _equation_
+(as it is called) x^2 - 7x + 12 = 0 expresses the fact that if a certain
+number x is multiplied by itself, and this result made less by seven times
+the number and greater by twelve, the result is 0. In this case x must
+either be 3 or 4 to produce the given result; but such an equation (or
+formula) as (a + b)(a - b) = a^2 - b^2 is always true whatever values may
+be assigned to a and b. Algebra is an invaluable instrument in intricate
+calculations of all kinds, and enables operations to be performed and
+results obtained that by arithmetic would be impossible, and its scope is
+still being extended.
+
+The beginnings of algebraic method are to be found in Diophantus, a Greek
+of the fourth century of our era, but it was the Arabians that introduced
+algebra to Europe, and from them it received its name. The first Arabian
+treatise on algebra was published in the reign of the great Caliph Al Mamun
+(813-33) by Mohammed Ben Musa. Italian merchants were the first algebraists
+in Europe, and in 1202 Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa, who had travelled and
+studied in the East, published a work treating of algebra as then
+understood in the Arabian school. From this time to the discovery of
+printing considerable attention was given to algebra, and the work of Ben
+Musa and another Arabian treatise, called the _Rule of Algebra_, were
+translated into Italian. The first printed work treating on algebra (also
+on arithmetic, &c.) appeared at Venice in 1494, the author being a monk
+called Luca Pacioli da Bergo, a Minorite friar. Rapid progress now began to
+be made, and among the names of those to whom advances are to be attributed
+are Tartaglia and Geronimo Cardano. About the middle of the sixteenth
+century the German Stifel introduced the signs +, -, [sqrt], and Robert
+Recorde the sign =. The last-named wrote the first English work on algebra
+in 1557. Francois Vieta, a French mathematician (1540-1603), first adopted
+the method which has led to so great an extension of modern algebra, by
+being the first who used general symbols for known quantities as well as
+for unknown. It was he also who first made the application of algebra to
+geometry. Albert Girard, a Flemish mathematician in the seventeenth
+century, extended the theory of equations by the introduction of imaginary
+quantities. The Englishman Harriot, early in the seventeenth century,
+discovered negative roots, and established the equality between the number
+of roots and the units in the degree of the equation. He also invented the
+signs < >, and Oughtred that of x. Descartes, though not the first to apply
+algebra to geometry, has, by the extent and importance of his applications,
+commonly acquired the credit of being so. The same discoveries have also
+been attributed to him as to Harriot, and their respective claims have
+caused much controversy. He obtained by means of algebra the definition and
+description of curves. Since his time algebra has been applied so widely in
+geometry and higher mathematics that we need only mention the names of
+Fermat, Wallis, Newton, Leibnitz, De Moivre, MacLaurin, Taylor, Euler,
+D'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Fourier, Poisson, Gauss, Horner, De Morgan,
+Sylvester, Cayley. Boole, Jevons, and others have applied the algebraic
+method not only to formal logic but to political economy.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Chrystal, _Algebra_ (2 vols.); Hobson, _Trigonometry_; Hardy, _Pure
+Mathematics_; Whittaker and Watson, _Modern Analysis_.
+
+ALGECIRAS ([.a]l-_h_e-th[=e]'r[.a]s) (perhaps Portus Albus of the Romans),
+a seaport of Spain, on the west side of the Bay of Gibraltar, a well-built
+town carrying on a brisk coasting trade. It was the first conquest of the
+Arabs in Spain (711), and was held by them till 1344, when it was taken by
+Alphonso XI of Castile after a long siege. Near it, in 1801, Admiral Sir
+James Saumarez defeated a Franco-Spanish fleet. Differences between France
+and Germany regarding Morocco led to a conference of European Powers here
+from 16th Jan.-7th April, 1906. Pop. 15,800.
+
+ALGE'RIA, a French dependency in N. Africa, having on the north the
+Mediterranean, on the east Tunis, on the west Morocco, and on the south the
+Desert of Sahara; area, 122,878 sq. miles, or including the Algerian Sahara
+343,500. The country is divided into three departments--Algiers, Oran, and
+Constantine. The coastline is about 550 miles in length, steep and rocky,
+and though the indentations are numerous, the harbours are much exposed to
+the north wind. The country is traversed by the Atlas Mountains, two chains
+of which--the Great Atlas, bordering on the Sahara, and the Little, or
+Maritime Atlas, between it and the sea--run parallel to the coast, the
+former attaining a height of 7000 feet. The intervals are filled with lower
+ranges, and numerous transverse ranges connect the principal ones and run
+from them to the coast, forming elevated tablelands and enclosed valleys.
+The rivers are numerous, but many of them are mere torrents rising in the
+mountains near the coast. The Shelif is much the largest. Some of the
+rivers are largely used for irrigation, and artesian wells have been sunk
+in some places for the same purpose. There are, both on the coast and in
+the interior, extensive salt lakes or marshes (_Shotts_), which dry up to a
+great extent in summer. The country bordering on the coast, called the
+_Tell_, is generally hilly, with fertile valleys; in some places a flat and
+fertile plain extends between the hills and the sea. In the east there are
+_Shotts_ that sink below the sea-level, and into these it has been proposed
+to introduce the waters of the Mediterranean. The climate varies
+considerably according to elevation and local peculiarities. There are
+three seasons: winter from November to February, spring from March to June,
+and summer from July to October. The summer is very hot and dry. In many
+parts of the coast the temperature is moderate and the climate so healthy
+that Algeria is now a winter resort for invalids.
+
+The chief products of cultivation are wheat, barley, and oats, tobacco,
+cotton, wine, silk, and dates. Early vegetables, especially potatoes and
+pease, are exported to France and England. A fibre called _alfa_, a variety
+of esparto, which grows wild on the high plateaux, is exported in large
+quantities. Cork is also exported. There are valuable forests, in which
+grow various sorts of pines and oaks, ash, cedar, myrtle, pistachio-nut,
+mastic, carob, &c. The Australian _Eucalyptus glob[)u]lus_ (a gum tree) has
+been successfully introduced. Agriculture often suffers much from the
+ravages of locusts. Among wild animals are the lion, panther, hyena, and
+jackal; the domestic quadrupeds include the horse, the mule, cattle, sheep,
+and pigs (introduced by the French). Algeria possesses valuable minerals,
+including iron, copper, lead, sulphur, zinc, antimony, marble (white and
+red), phosphate, and lithographic stone.
+
+The trade of Algeria has greatly increased under French rule, France,
+Spain, and England being the countries with which it is principally carried
+on, and three-fourths of the whole being with France. The exports (besides
+those mentioned above) are olive-oil, raw hides, wood, wool, tobacco,
+oranges, &c.; the imports, manufactured goods, wines, spirits, coffee, &c.
+The manufacturing industries are unimportant, and include morocco leather,
+carpets, muslins, and silks. French money, weights, and measures are
+generally used. The chief towns are Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Bona, and
+Tlemsen. There are about 2800 miles of railways opened; there is also a
+considerable network of telegraph lines.
+
+The two principal native races inhabiting Algeria are Arabs and Berbers.
+The former are mostly nomads, dwelling in tents and wandering from place to
+place, though a large number of them are settled in the Tell, where they
+carry on agriculture and have formed numerous villages. The Berbers, here
+called Kabyles, are the original inhabitants of the territory and still
+form a considerable part of the population. They speak the Berber language,
+but use Arabic characters in writing. The Jews form a small but influential
+part of the population. Various other races also exist. Except the Jews,
+all the native races are Mahommedans. There are now a considerable number
+of French and other colonists, provision being made for granting them
+concessions of land on certain conditions. There are over 260,000 colonists
+of French origin in Algeria, and over 200,000 colonists natives of other
+European countries (chiefly Spaniards and Italians). Algeria is governed by
+a governor-general, who is assisted by a council appointed by the French
+Government. The settled portion of the country, in the three departments of
+Algiers, Constantine, and Oran, is treated much as if it were a part of
+France, and each department sends two deputies and one senator to the
+French chambers. The rest of the territory is under military rule. The
+colony costs France a considerable sum every year. Pop. of Algeria proper
+in 1911, 5,523,449; of the Algerian Sahara, 40,379.
+
+The country now called Algeria was known to the Romans as Numidia. It
+flourished greatly under their rule, and early received the Christian
+religion. It was conquered by the Vandals in A.D. 430-1, and recovered by
+Belisarius for the Byzantine Empire in 533-4. About the middle of the
+seventh century it was overrun by the Saracens. The town of Algiers was
+founded about 935 by Yussef Ibn Zeiri, and the country was subsequently
+ruled by his successors and the dynasties of the Almoravides and Almohades.
+After the overthrow of the latter, about 1269, it broke up into a number of
+small independent territories. The Moors and Jews, who were driven out of
+Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella at the end of the fifteenth century,
+settled in large numbers in Algeria, and revenged themselves on their
+persecutors by the practice of piracy. On this account various expeditions
+were made by Spain against Algeria, and by 1510 the greater part of the
+country was made tributary. A few years later the Algerians invited to
+their assistance the Turkish pirate Horush (or Haruj) Barbarossa, who made
+himself Sultan of Algiers in 1516, but was not long in being taken by the
+Spaniards and beheaded. His brother and successor put Algiers under the
+protection of Turkey (about 1520), and organized the system of piracy which
+was long the terror of European commerce, and was never wholly suppressed
+till the French occupation. Henceforth the country belonged to the Turkish
+Empire, though from 1710 the connection was little more than nominal. The
+depredations of the Algerian pirates were a continual source of irritation
+to the Christian Powers, who sent a long series of expeditions against
+them. For instance, in 1815 a United States fleet defeated an Algerian one
+and forced the Dey to agree to a peace in which he recognized the American
+flag as inviolable. In 1816 Lord Exmouth with an English fleet bombarded
+Algiers, and exacted a treaty by which all the Christian slaves were at
+once released, and the Dey undertook for the future to treat all his
+prisoners of war as the European law of nations demanded. But the piratical
+practices of the Algerians were soon renewed.
+
+At last the French determined on more vigorous measures, and in 1830 sent a
+force of over 40,000 men against the country. Algiers was speedily
+occupied, the Dey retired, and the country was without a government, but
+resistance was organized by Abd-el-Kader, an Arab chief whom the emergency
+had raised up. He began his warlike career of fifteen years by an attack on
+Oran in 1832, and after an obstinate struggle the French, in Feb., 1834,
+consented to a peace, acknowledging him as ruling over all the Arab tribes
+west of the Shelif by the title of Emir of Maskara. War was soon again
+renewed with varying fortune, and in 1837, in order to have their hands
+free in attacking Constantine, the French made peace with Abd-el-Kader,
+leaving to him the whole of Western Algeria except some coast towns.
+Constantine was now taken, and the subjugation of the province of
+Constantine followed. Meanwhile Abd-el-Kader was preparing for another
+conflict, and in Nov., 1838, he suddenly broke into French territory with a
+strong force, and for a time the supremacy of the French was endangered.
+Matters took a more favourable turn for them when General Bugeaud was
+appointed governor-general in Feb., 1841. In the autumn of 1841 Saida, the
+last fortress of Abd-el-Kader, fell into his hands, after which the only
+region that held out against the French was that bordering on Morocco.
+Early in the following year this also was conquered, and Abd-el-Kader found
+himself compelled to seek refuge in the adjoining empire. From Morocco
+Abd-el-Kader twice made a descent upon Algeria, on the second occasion
+defeating the French in two battles; and in 1844 he even succeeded in
+raising an army in Morocco to withstand the French. Bugeaud, however,
+crossed the frontier, and inflicted a severe defeat on this army, while a
+French fleet bombarded the towns on the coast. The Emperor of Morocco was
+at length compelled to agree to a treaty, in which he not only promised to
+refuse Abd-el-Kader his assistance, but even engaged to lend his assistance
+against him. Reduced to extremities Abd-el-Kader surrendered on 27th Dec.,
+1847, and was at first taken to France a prisoner, but was afterwards
+released on his promise not to return to Algeria. The country was yet far
+from subdued. The Kabyles, and the Arabs in the south, made protracted
+resistance, and rose again and again against the yoke which it was
+attempted to impose upon them. The numerous risings that successively took
+place thus rendered Algeria a school for French generals, such as
+Pelissier, Canrobert, St. Arnaud, and MacMahon. In 1864 MacMahon succeeded
+Pelissier as governor-general, and had as his first work to put down an
+insurrection. About this time the Emperor Napoleon III, who had visited the
+colony, introduced considerable modifications into the government,
+recognizing that the native races had grievances to complain of, and that
+the French rulers were in various ways astray in the methods of government
+adopted. Fresh disturbances broke out in the south nearly every year till
+1871, when, owing to the Franco-Prussian war, a great effort was made to
+throw off the French yoke, the colony being nearly denuded of French
+soldiers. It was, however, completely suppressed, and in order to remove
+what was believed to be one principal cause of the frequent insurrections,
+a civil government was established instead of the military government in
+the northern parts of the colony. The southern parts, inhabited by nomadic
+tribes, are still subject to military rule. When the French took in hand
+the occupation of Tunis, a rising took place (in 1881) in the west of
+Algeria, under a chieftain who was able to inflict some loss and damage on
+the French forces and colonists, but with no permanent result. Since then
+quietness has generally prevailed in the colony, where the French, however,
+continue to maintain a considerable military force. Owing to this and other
+expenditure Algeria has always formed a burden on the resources of France.
+The great aid rendered by Algeria to France during the European War led the
+French Government to introduce new laws. The law of 4th Feb., 1919, gives
+French citizenship to all Algerian natives under certain
+conditions.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. D. Stott, _The Real Algeria_; Sir R. Lambert
+Playfair, _Handbook for Travellers in Algeria_ (Murray's Handbooks).
+
+ALGESI'RAS. See _Algeciras_.
+
+ALGHERO, or ALGHERI ([.a]l-g[=a]'r[=o], [.a]l-g[=a]'r[=e]), a fortified
+town and seaport on the north-west coast of the island of Sardinia, 15
+miles south-west of Sassari; the seat of a bishop, with a handsome
+cathedral. One of the remarkable edifices of Alghero is the Casa Arbia,
+where Charles V was lodged. The necropolis of Anghelu Ruju, situated in the
+vicinity, was excavated in 1904.
+
+ALGIERS (al'j[=e]rz; Fr., _Alger_), a city and seaport on the
+Mediterranean, capital of the French colony of Algeria, is situated on the
+west side of the Bay of Algiers, partly on the slope of a hill facing the
+sea. The old town, which is the higher, is oriental in appearance, with
+narrow, crooked streets, and houses that are strong, prison-like edifices.
+Its crowning point is the Kasbah, or ancient fortress of the Deys, about
+500 feet above the sea, now serving as barracks. The modern French town,
+which occupies the lower slope and spreads along the shore, is handsomely
+built, with broad streets and elegant squares. It contains the Government
+buildings, the central military and civil establishments, the residence of
+the governor-general and the officials of the general and provincial
+Government, the superior courts of justice, the archbishop's palace and the
+cathedral, various other churches, including an English church and library,
+the great commercial establishments, &c. A fine boulevard built on a series
+of arches, and bordered on one side by handsome buildings, runs along the
+sea-front of the town overlooking the bay, harbour, and shipping. Forty
+feet below are the quay and railway-station, reached by inclined roads
+leading from the centre of the boulevard. The harbour is good and
+capacious, enclosed by piers or jetties, and otherwise improved at great
+expense, and it and the city are defended by a strong series of
+fortifications. Algiers is well provided with educational institutions,
+including high schools or colleges for law, medicine, literature,
+mathematics, and natural science; besides normal schools, an observatory,
+public library, &c. Algiers is in every way far the most important place in
+Algeria. There is a large shipping trade carried on, especially with
+Marseilles, Cette, and some of the Spanish ports. Trade routes from the
+interior and also railways centre in Algiers, and the exports include
+grain, wine, cattle, wool, ore, tobacco, fruit, olive-oil, &c. Algiers is
+now an important coaling station The city possesses widely-extended
+suburbs. The climate, though variable, makes it a very desirable winter
+residence for invalids and others from colder regions. Though warm, it is
+bracing. There is a considerable rainfall (average 29 inches), but the dry
+air and absorbent soil prevent it from being disagreeable. The winter
+months resemble a bright, sunny English autumn, while the heat of summer is
+not so intense as that of Egypt. The sirocco or desert wind is troublesome,
+however, during summer, but in the winter it is merely a pleasant, warm,
+dry breeze. Hailstorms are not infrequent, but frost and snow in Algiers
+are so rare as to be almost unknown. Pop. 172,397.
+
+ALGIN, a viscous, gummy substance obtained from certain seaweeds, more
+especially those of the genus Laminaria. It can be utilized for all
+purposes where starch or gum is now required; may be used in cookery for
+soups and jellies; and in an insoluble form it can be cut, turned, and
+polished, like horn or vulcanite.
+
+ALGO'A BAY, a bay on the south coast of the Cape Province, 425 miles east
+of the Cape of Good Hope, the only place of shelter on this coast for
+vessels during the prevailing north-west gales. It was the first
+landing-place of British immigrants in 1820. The usual anchorage is off
+Port Elizabeth, on its west coast, a place of large and increasing trade,
+but open on the east and south-east.
+
+ALGOL', Arabic name of a star in the constellation Perseus (head of
+Medusa), remarkable as a variable star, changing in brightness from the
+second to the fifth magnitude.
+
+ALGO'MA, a district of Canada, on the north of Lake Superior, forming part
+of the north-west portion of Ontario, rich in silver, copper, iron, &c.
+
+ALGON'KINS, or ALGONQUINS, a family of North American Indians, formerly
+spread over a great extent of territory, and still forming a large
+proportion of the Indians of Canada. They consisted of four groups,
+namely--(1) the eastern group, comprising the Massachusetts, Narragansets,
+Mohicans, Delawares, and other tribes; (2) the north-eastern group,
+consisting of the Abenakis, &c.; (3) the western group, made up of the
+Shawnees, Miamis, Illinois, &c.; and (4) the north-western group, including
+the Chippewas or Ojibbewas, the largest of all the tribes.
+
+ALGORISM, or ALGORITHMUS, in arithmetic, a word derived from the name of
+Algoritmi or Al-Khowarizmi, from whose works European scholars received
+much of their early information concerning Hindu numerals. The word is now
+used to designate any particular arrangement of numerical work.
+
+ALGRAPHY. See _Lithography_.
+
+ALGUACIL, or ALGUAZIL ([.a]l-gw[.a]-th[=e]l'), in Spain, an officer whose
+business it is to execute the decrees of a judge; a sort of constable. In
+ancient times the Alguacil was the great provost of the palace.
+
+ALGUM. See _Almug_.
+
+ALHA'GI. See _Camel's-thorn_.
+
+ALHAMA ([.a]-l[:a]'m[.a]; that is, 'the bath'), a town of Southern Spain,
+province of Granada, on the Marchan, 25 miles south-west of Granada,
+celebrated for its warm medicinal (sulphur) baths and drinking waters. It
+formed a Moorish fortress, the recovery of which in 1482 by the Spaniards
+led to the entire conquest of Granada. It was occupied by the French from
+Feb., 1810-Aug., 1812, and thrown into ruins by an earthquake in Dec.,
+1884. Pop. 8000.--There is also an _Alhama_ in the province of Murcia, with
+a warm mineral spring. Pop. 6000.
+
+[Illustration: Alhambra--The Court of the Lions]
+
+ALHAM'BRA (Ar. _al_ and _hamrah_, 'the' and 'red'), a famous group of
+buildings in Spain, forming the citadel of Granada when that city was one
+of the principal seats of the empire of the Moors in Spain, situated on a
+height, surrounded by a wall flanked by many towers, and having a circuit
+of 2-1/4 miles. Within the circuit of the walls are two churches, a number
+of mean houses, and some straggling gardens, besides the palace of Charles
+V and the celebrated Moorish palace which is often distinctively spoken of
+as the Alhambra. This building, to which the celebrity of the site is
+entirely due, was the royal palace of the Kings of Granada. The greater
+part of the present building belongs to the first half of the fourteenth
+century. In the course of centuries, both through neglect and acts of
+vandalism, the beauty of the Alhambra has suffered considerably. The work
+of restoration was, however, undertaken in 1824 by the architect Jose
+Contreras, and continued by his son Rafael from 1847-90. It consists mainly
+of buildings surrounding two oblong courts, the one, called the Court of
+the Fishpond (or of the Myrtles), 138 by 74 feet, lying north and south;
+the other, called the Court of the Lions, from a fountain ornamented with
+twelve lions in marble, 115 by 66 feet, lying east and west, described as
+being, with the apartments that surround it, "the gem of Arabian art in
+Spain, its most beautiful and most perfect example". Its design is
+elaborate, exhibiting a profusion of exquisite detail gorgeous in
+colouring, but the smallness of its size deprives it of the element of
+majesty. The peristyle or portico on each side is supported by 128 pillars
+of white marble, 11 feet high, sometimes placed singly and sometimes in
+groups. Two pavilions project into the court at each end, the domed roof of
+one having been restored. Some of the finest chambers of the Alhambra open
+into this court, and near the entrance a museum of Moorish remains has been
+formed. On the opposite side of the Court of the Lions is the Hall of the
+Abencerrages. The prevalence of stucco or plaster ornamentation is one of
+the features of the Alhambra, which becomes especially remarkable in the
+beautiful honeycomb 'stalactite vaulting'. Arabesques and geometrical
+designs with interwoven inscriptions are present in the richest profusion.
+Cf. Owen Jones's work, _The Alhambra_ (2 vols., London, 1842-5.
+
+ALHAURIN ([.a]l-ou-r[=e]n'), a town of Southern Spain, province of Malaga,
+with sulphureous baths. Pop. 7000.
+
+ALI ([.a]'l[=e]), cousin and son-in-law of Mahomet, the first of his
+converts, and the bravest and most faithful of his adherents, born A.D.
+602. He married Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, but after the death of
+Mahomet (632) his claims to the caliphate were set aside in favour
+successively of Abu-Bekr, Omar, and Othman. On the assassination of Othman,
+in A.D. 656, he became caliph, and after a series of struggles with his
+opponents, including Ayesha, widow of Mahomet, finally lost his life by
+assassination at Kufa in 661. A Mahommedan schism arose after his death,
+and has produced two sects. One sect, called the Shiites, put Ali on a
+level with Mahomet, and do not acknowledge the three caliphs who preceded
+Ali. They are regarded as heretics by the other sect, called Sunnites. The
+Turks hold his memory in abhorrence, whilst the Persians call him the Lion
+of God, and venerate him as second only to the prophet. The _Maxims_ and
+_Hymns_ of Ali are yet extant. See _Caliph_.
+
+ALI, Pasha of Yan[)i]na, generally called _Ali Pasha_, a bold and able, but
+ferocious and unscrupulous Albanian, born in 1741, son of an Albanian
+chief, who was deprived of his territories by rapacious neighbours. Ali by
+his enterprise and success, and by his entire want of scruple, got
+possession of more than his father had lost, and made himself master of a
+large part of Albania, including Yan[)i]na, which the Porte sanctioned his
+holding, with the title of pasha. Among the travellers who visited his
+Court at Yan[)i]na was Byron, who has left a record of his impressions in
+_Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_. Ali Pasha was an apostle of European culture
+in the East, and the first to feel the necessity for energetic reforms in
+the old Moslem institutions. He displayed excellent qualities, putting an
+end to brigandage and anarchy, making roads, and encouraging commerce. He
+still farther extended his sway by subduing the brave Suliotes of Epirus,
+whom he conquered in 1803, after a three years' war. Aiming at independent
+sovereignty, he intrigued alternately with England, France, and Russia, and
+became almost independent of the Porte, which at length determined, in
+1820, to pronounce his deposition. Ali resisted several pashas who were
+sent to carry out this decision, only surrendering at last in 1822, on
+receiving assurances that his life and property would be granted him. Faith
+was not kept with him, however; he was killed, and his head was cut off and
+conveyed to Constantinople, while his treasures were seized by the Porte.
+
+AL'IAS (Lat., 'at another time'), a word often used in judicial proceedings
+in connection with the different names that persons have assumed, most
+likely for prudential reasons, at different times, and in order to conceal
+identity, as Joseph Smith _alias_ Thomas Jones.
+
+ALIBERT ([.a]-l[=e]-b[=a]r), Jean Louis, Baron, a distinguished French
+physician, born 1766, died 1837. He was a professor in Paris, and chief
+physician at the Hospital St. Louis. He wrote many valuable works on
+medical subjects, such as _Description des maladies de la peau_.
+
+ALI BEY, a ruler of Egypt, born in the Caucasus in 1728, was taken to Cairo
+and sold as a slave, but having entered the force of the Mamelukes, and
+attained the first dignity among them, he succeeded in making himself
+virtual governor of Egypt. He then refused the customary tribute to the
+Porte, and coined money in his own name. In 1769 he took advantage of a
+war, in which the Porte was then engaged with Russia, to endeavour to add
+Syria and Palestine to his Egyptian dominion, and in this he had almost
+succeeded, when the defection of his own adopted son Mohammed Bey drove him
+from Egypt. Joining his ally Sheikh Daher in Syria, he still pursued his
+plans of conquest with remarkable success, till in 1773 he was induced to
+make the attempt to recover Egypt with insufficient means. In a battle near
+Cairo his army was completely defeated and he himself taken prisoner, dying
+a few days afterwards either of his wounds or by poison.
+
+AL'IBI (Lat., 'elsewhere'), a defence in criminal procedure, by which the
+accused endeavours to prove that when the alleged crime was committed he
+was present in a different place.
+
+ALICANTE ([.a]-l[=e]-k[.a]n't[=a]), a fortified town and Mediterranean
+seaport in Spain, capital of the province of the same name, picturesquely
+situated partly on the slope of a hill, partly on the plain at the foot,
+about 80 miles south by west of Valencia. The lower town has wide and
+well-built streets; the upper town is old and irregularly built. The
+principal manufactures are cotton, linen, and cigars; the chief export is
+wine, which largely goes to England. Alicante is an ancient town. In 718 it
+was taken by the Moors, from whom it was wrested about 1240. In modern
+times it has been several times besieged and bombarded, as by the French in
+1709, and in 1812, and by the federalists of Cartagena in 1873. Pop.
+58,088.--The province is very fruitful and well cultivated, producing wine,
+silk, fruits, &c. The wine is of a dark colour (hence called _vino tinto_,
+deep-coloured wine), and is heavy and sweet. Area, 2185 sq. miles. Pop.
+502,607.
+
+ALICATA, or LICATA ([.a]-l[=e]-k[:a]'t[.a], l[=e]-k[:a]'t[.a]), the most
+important commercial town on the S. coast of Sicily, at the mouth of the
+Salso, 24 miles E.S.E. of Girgenti, with a considerable trade in sulphur,
+grain, wine, oil, nuts, almonds, and soda. It occupies the site of the town
+which the Tyrant Phintias of Acragas erected and named after himself, when
+Gela was destroyed in 280. Pop. 22,931.
+
+ALICE MAUD MARY, Princess, second daughter of Queen Victoria, Duchess of
+Saxony, and Grand-duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, born 1843, died 1878. In 1862
+she married Frederick William Louis of Hesse, nephew of the grand-duke,
+whom he succeeded in 1877. She showed exemplary devotion to her father
+Prince Albert during his fatal illness and to the Prince of Wales during
+his attack of fever in 1871. During the Franco-Prussian war she organized
+hospitals for the relief of the sick and wounded. She died from diphtheria
+caught while nursing her husband and children. A selection of her letters
+to her mother was published in 1883 by Dr. Carl Sell.
+
+A'LIEN, in relation to any country, a person born out of the jurisdiction
+of the country, and not having acquired the full rights of a citizen of it.
+The position of aliens depends upon the laws of the respective countries,
+but generally speaking aliens owe a local allegiance, and are bound equally
+with natives to obey all general rules for the preservation of order which
+do not relate specially to citizens. Aliens have been often treated with
+great harshness by the laws of some States. Thus in France there long
+existed what was known as the _droit d'aubaine_, a law which claimed for
+the benefit of the State the effects of deceased foreigners leaving no
+heirs who were natives. Aliens have been repeatedly the objects of
+legislation in Britain, and the tendency at the present day is to
+communicate some of the rights of citizenship to aliens, and to widen the
+definition of subjects. According to the Act of 1870 that now regulates the
+matter, real and personal property of every description may be acquired,
+held, and disposed of by an alien, in the same manner in all respects as by
+a natural-born British subject. No other right or privilege (such as the
+right to hold any office or any municipal, parliamentary, or other
+franchise) is by this Act conferred on an alien except such as are
+expressly given in respect of property. Previously aliens could hold only
+personal property; they were incompetent to hold landed property, except
+under certain conditions of residence or business occupancy for a term of
+years not exceeding twenty-one. The children of aliens born in Britain are
+natural-born subjects. Formerly the only mode of naturalization was by Act
+of Parliament; but now an alien who has resided in the United Kingdom for
+not less than one year immediately preceding his application, and has
+previously resided in any part of His Majesty's dominions for four years
+during the last eight years before the application, or who has been in the
+service of the Crown for not less than five years, and intends to reside in
+the kingdom, or to serve the British Crown, may apply to the Secretary of
+State for a certificate of naturalization, and on giving evidence of
+particulars may obtain it, being thereby entitled to almost all the
+political and other rights of a natural-born British subject. At present
+the law is laid down in the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act,
+1914 and 1918. It used to be a principle in English law, that a
+natural-born subject could not divest himself of his allegiance by becoming
+naturalized in a foreign State (_nemo potest exuere patriam_); but it is
+now laid down that a British subject who has voluntarily become naturalized
+in a foreign State thereby ceases to be a British subject. Any British
+subject who has become an alien may apply for a certificate of readmission
+to British nationality on the same terms as those provided for aliens in
+general. In the United States the position of aliens as regards acquisition
+and holding of real property differs somewhat in the different States,
+though in recent times the disabilities of aliens have been removed in most
+of them. Personal property they can take, hold, and dispose of like native
+citizens. Individual States have no jurisdiction on the subject of
+naturalization, though they may pass laws admitting aliens to any privilege
+short of citizenship. A naturalized citizen is not eligible for election as
+president or vice-president of the United States, and cannot serve as
+senator until after nine years' citizenship, nor as a member of the House
+of Representatives until after seven years' citizenship. Five years'
+residence in the United States and one year's permanent residence in the
+particular State are necessary for the attainment of citizenship.
+
+ALIEN IMMIGRATION. In various countries certain classes of aliens have long
+been prohibited from gaining admission. In the United States, for instance,
+admission is refused to such persons as idiots, epileptics, persons
+suffering from loathsome or dangerous contagious diseases, paupers,
+criminals (except political criminals), illiterate persons, &c. Chinese
+labourers as a whole are excluded, and even any persons coming to America
+under a definite agreement to engage in any kind of labour or service.
+Similar laws are in force in Australia, where there is a test that a person
+proposing to settle in the country must be able to write fifty words of a
+European language. Towards the end of last century the great influx of
+foreigners into Britain, and into London in particular, drew public
+attention to the matter. A select committee appointed in 1888 reported in
+favour of the exclusion of destitute aliens, in 1894 a bill was introduced
+into the House of Lords, while in 1898 a bill to regulate the immigration
+of aliens was passed in the Lords, but made no further progress. In 1902 a
+royal commission was appointed, and drew up a report, published in 1903,
+containing valuable information and various recommendations. Among these
+were the establishment of an immigration department, and the granting of
+powers to deport criminals, prostitutes, and other undesirable aliens, and
+to prevent the landing of persons mentally unfit or suffering from
+infectious or loathsome diseases. In 1904 an Aliens Immigration Bill was
+introduced and read a second time in the House of Commons. It was based on
+the recommendations of the commission, and in its favour it was argued that
+a large amount of British labour had been displaced by aliens, in London
+especially, that the prevalence of crime among aliens was out of proportion
+to their numbers, that many of them were paupers, criminals convicted in
+their own country, or other undesirables. In 1905 another bill on the
+subject was introduced by the Government, which succeeded in passing it, so
+that the matter can now be dealt with, and undesirable aliens kept out.
+Since the European War (1914-8) and the new passport regulations it is easy
+to ascertain the number of aliens that enter the country and settle. At the
+census of 1901 the whole alien population was set down at 286,925, as
+against 219,523 in 1891, but there has been a very large influx from 1901
+to 1914, by far the largest number consisting of Russian and Polish Jews.
+The restrictions imposed upon aliens during the European War are still in
+force, so far as they prohibit landing by any alien, except at specified
+ports by leave of an immigration officer, and, in case of former enemy
+aliens, by special permission of the Home Secretary. Cf. J. M. Landa, _The
+Alien Problem_.
+
+ALIGANJ (_a_-l[=e]-g_a_nj'), a town of Bengal, 54 miles from Dinapur, noted
+for its pottery. It has a trade in grain, indigo-seed, and cotton, and
+contains two mosques, and a large mud fort. Pop. 7436.
+
+ALIGARH (_a_-l[=e]-g_a_r'), a fort and town in India, in the United
+Provinces, on the East Indian railway, 84 miles south-east of Delhi. The
+town, properly called Koel or Coel, is distant about 2 miles from the fort,
+and is connected with it by a beautiful avenue. It is handsome and well
+situated, and has a trade in cotton, &c. The fort, which had been skilfully
+strengthened by French engineers in the service of the Mahrattas, was taken
+by storm after a desperate resistance in 1803 by the British forces under
+Lord Lake, when the whole district was added to the British possessions.
+Pop. 64,825. The district has an area of 1946 sq. miles. Pop. 1,165,680.
+
+ALIGN'MENT (a-l[=i]n'ment), a military term, signifying the act of
+adjusting to a straight line or in regular straight lines, or the state of
+being so adjusted.
+
+AL'IMENT, food, a term which includes everything, solid or liquid, serving
+as nutriment for the bodily system. Aliments are of the most diverse
+character, but all of them must contain nutritious matter of some kind,
+which, being extracted by the act of digestion, enters the blood, and
+effects by assimilation the repair of the body. Alimentary matter,
+therefore, must be similar to animal substance, or transmutable into such.
+All alimentary substances must, therefore, be composed in a greater or less
+degree of soluble parts, which easily lose their peculiar qualities in the
+process of digestion, and correspond to the elements of the body. The food
+of animals consists for the most part of substances containing little
+oxygen and exhibiting a high degree of chemical combination, in which
+respects they differ from most substances that serve as sustenance for
+plants, which are generally highly oxidized and exhibit little chemical
+combination. According to the nature of their constituents most of the
+aliments of animals are divided into nitrogenous (consisting of carbon,
+hydrogen, and oxygen along with nitrogen, and also of sulphur and
+phosphorus) and non-nitrogenous (consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
+without nitrogen). Water and salts are usually considered as forming a
+third group, and, in the widest sense of the word aliment, oxygen alone,
+which enters the blood in the lungs, forms the fourth. The articles used as
+food by man do not consist entirely of nutritious substances, but with few
+exceptions are compounds of various nutritious with indigestible and
+accordingly innutritious substances. The only nitrogenous aliments are
+albuminous substances, and these are contained largely in animal food
+(flesh, eggs, milk, cheese). The principal non-nitrogenous substance
+obtained as food from animals is fat. Sugar is so obtained in smaller
+quantities (in milk). While some vegetable substances also contain much
+albumen, very many of them are rich in starch. Among vegetable substances
+the richest in albumen are the legumes (peas, beans, and lentils), and
+following them come the cereals (wheat, oats, &c.). Sugar, water, and salts
+may pass without any change into the circulatory system; but albuminous
+substances cannot do so without being first rendered soluble and capable of
+absorption (in the stomach and intestines); starch must be converted into
+sugar and fat emulsified (chiefly by the action of the pancreatic juice).
+One of the objects of cooking is to make our food more susceptible of the
+operation of the digestive fluids.
+
+The relative importance of the various nutritious substances that are taken
+into the system and enter the blood depends upon their chemical
+constitution. The albuminous substances are the most indispensable,
+inasmuch as they form the material by which the constant waste of the body
+is repaired, whence they are called by Liebig the substance-formers. But a
+part of the operation of albuminous nutriments may be performed equally
+well, and at less cost, by non-nitrogenous substances, that part being the
+maintenance of the temperature of the body. As is well known, the
+temperature of warm-blooded animals is considerably higher than the
+ordinary temperature of the surrounding air, in man about 98deg F., and the
+uniformity of this temperature is maintained by the heat which is set free
+by the chemical processes (of oxidation) which go on within the body. Now
+these processes take place as well with non-nitrogenous as with nitrogenous
+substances. The former are even preferable to the latter for the keeping up
+of these processes; by oxidation they yield larger quantities of heat with
+less labour to the body, and they are hence called the heat-givers. The
+best heat-giver is fat. Albuminous matters are not only the tissue-formers
+of the body; they also supply the vehicle for the oxygen, inasmuch as it is
+of such matters that the blood corpuscles are formed. The more red blood
+corpuscles an animal possesses, the more oxygen can it take into its
+system, and the more easily and rapidly can it carry on the process of
+oxidation and develop heat. Now only a part of the heat so developed passes
+away into the environment of the animal; another part is transformed within
+the body (in the muscles) into mechanical work. Hence it follows that the
+non-nitrogenous articles of food produce not merely heat but also work, but
+only with the assistance of albuminous matters, which, on the one hand,
+compose the working machine, and, on the other hand, convey the oxygen
+necessary for oxidation.
+
+The wholesome or unwholesome character of any aliment depends, in a great
+measure, on the state of the digestive organs in any given case, as also on
+the method in which it is cooked. Very often a simple aliment is made
+indigestible by artificial cookery. In any given case the digestive power
+of the individual is to be considered in order to determine whether a
+particular aliment is wholesome or not. In general, therefore, we can only
+say that that aliment is healthy which is easily soluble, and is suited to
+the power of digestion of the individual. Man is fitted to derive
+nourishment both from animal and vegetable aliment, but can live
+exclusively on either. The nations of the North incline generally more to
+animal aliments; those of the South, and the Orientals, more to vegetable.
+The inhabitants of the most northerly regions live almost entirely upon
+animal food, and very largely on fat on account of its heat-giving
+property. See _Dietetics_, _Digestion_, _Adulteration_, &c.
+
+ALIMENTARY CANAL, a common name given to the oesophagus, stomach, and
+intestines of animals. See _Oesophagus_, _Intestine_, _Stomach_.
+
+ALI-MIRZA, Shah of Persia, son of Muzaffar-ed-Din, born in 1872. He
+succeeded his father on 8th Jan., 1907. Although his European education had
+given him sympathies for Western civilization, he showed himself despotic,
+and became very unpopular. He was deposed by the National Assembly or
+Mejliss in July, 1909, and his son proclaimed Shah in his place.
+
+AL'IMONY (Lat. _alere_, to nourish), in law, the allowance to which a woman
+is entitled while a matrimonial suit is pending between her and her
+husband, or after a legal separation from her husband, not occasioned by
+adultery or elopement on her part. It is either temporary or permanent, the
+former being the provision made by the husband pending the suit, the latter
+after the decree.
+
+AL'IQUOT PART is such part of a number as will divide and measure it
+exactly without any remainder. For instance, 2 is an aliquot part of 4, 3
+of 12, and 4 of 20.
+
+ALISMA'CEAE, the water-plantain family, a natural order of endogenous
+plants, the members of which are herbaceous, annual or perennial; with
+petiolate leaves sheathing at the base, hermaphrodite (rarely unisexual)
+flowers, disposed in spikes, panicles, or racemes. They are floating or
+marsh plants, and many have edible fleshy rhizomes. They are found in all
+countries, but especially in Europe and North America, where their rather
+brilliant flowers adorn the pools and streams. The principal genera are
+_Alisma_ (water-plantain) _Sagittaria_ (arrow-head), _Damasonium_
+(star-fruit), and _Butomus_ (flowering-rush).
+
+AL'ISON, Rev. Archibald, a theologian and writer on aesthetics, born at
+Edinburgh in 1757; died there in 1839. He studied at Glasgow and at Balliol
+College, Oxford, entered the English Church, and finally (1800) settled as
+the minister of an Episcopal chapel at Edinburgh. He published 2 volumes of
+sermons, and a work entitled _Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste_
+(1790), in which he maintains that all the beauty of material objects
+depends upon the associations connected with them.
+
+AL'ISON, Sir Archibald, lawyer and writer of history, son of the above, was
+born in Shropshire in 1792, and died in 1867, near Glasgow. He was educated
+at the University of Edinburgh, and in 1814 was admitted to the Scottish
+bar. He spent the next eight years in Continental travel. On his return he
+was appointed advocate depute, which post he held till 1830. In 1832 he
+published _Principles of the Criminal Law of Scotland_, and in 1833 _The
+Practice of the Criminal Law_. He was appointed sheriff of Lanarkshire in
+1834, and retained this post till his death. He was made a baronet in 1852.
+His chief work--_The History of Europe, from 1789 to 1815_--was first
+issued in 10 vols., 1833-42, the narrative being subsequently brought down
+to 1852, the beginning of the second French Empire. This work displays
+industry and research, and is generally accurate, but not very readable. It
+has been translated into French, German, Arabic, Hindustani, &c. Among Sir
+Archibald's other productions are _Principles of Population_; _Free-trade
+and Protection_; _England in 1815 and 1845_; _Life of the Duke of
+Marlborough_, &c.
+
+AL'ISON, General Sir Archibald, G.C.B., son of the above, was born 1826,
+entered the army in 1846, and served in the Crimea, in India during the
+mutiny, and in the Ashantee expedition of 1873-4. In Egypt, in 1882, he led
+the Highland Brigade at the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, and in 1882-3 remained
+in command of the army of occupation (of 12,000 men). He retired from the
+army in 1893, and died in 1907.
+
+ALIWAL', a village of Hindustan in the Punjab, on the left bank of the
+Sutlej, celebrated from the battle fought in its vicinity, 28th Jan., 1846,
+between the Sikhs and a British army commanded by Sir Harry Smith,
+resulting in the total defeat of the Sikhs.
+
+ALIWAL NORTH, a town in the eastern part of Cape Province, on the Orange
+River, which here forms the boundary with the Orange Free State, and is
+crossed by a fine bridge--the Frere Bridge. It stands at the height of 4350
+feet, in a locality said to be highly suitable for consumptives, and the
+warm sulphur springs in the neighbourhood also attract many invalids. It is
+a well-built place, with churches, hotels, golf links, race-course, &c.;
+and has railway connection with East London, Port Elizabeth, &c. Pop.
+5557.--_Aliwal South_ was a name formerly given to Mossel Bay, the small
+seaport midway between Cape Town and Port Elizabeth.
+
+ALIZ'ARINE, a substance contained in the madder root (_Rubia tinctorum_),
+and largely used in dyeing reds of various shades, as Turkey red, &c. Until
+1868 it was obtained entirely from madder root, but the use of the root has
+been almost superseded by the employment of alizarine itself, prepared
+artificially from one of the constituents of coal-tar. It forms
+yellowish-red prismatic crystals, nearly insoluble in cold, but dissolved
+to a small extent by boiling water, and readily soluble in alcohol and
+ether. It possesses exceedingly strong tinctorial powers.
+
+AL'KAHEST, the so-called universal solvent or menstruum of the alchemists.
+The word is believed to have been invented by Paracelsus.
+
+AL'KALI (from Ar. _al-qali_, the ashes of the plant from which soda was
+first obtained, or the plant itself), a term first used to designate the
+soluble parts of the ashes of plants, especially of seaweed, and designated
+_fixed alkali_, as marking a distinction from ammonia, which was termed
+_volatile alkali_. Now the term is applied to various classes of bodies
+having the following properties in common: (1) solubility in water; (2) the
+power of neutralizing acids, and forming salts with them; (3) the property
+of corroding animal and vegetable substances; (4) the property of altering
+the tint of many colouring matters--thus, they turn litmus, reddened by an
+acid, into blue; turmeric, brown; and syrup of violets and infusion of red
+cabbages, green. The alkalies may be regarded as water in which part of the
+hydrogen is replaced by a metallic radicle. The caustic alkalies are strong
+alkalies which have a powerful corrosive action on the skin, and the common
+ones are potassic hydroxide or caustic potash, sodic hydroxide or caustic
+soda, and lithic hydroxide. _Volatile Alkali_, or ammonic hydroxide, is a
+much feebler alkali than the others, and when the solution is heated all
+the ammonia is driven off. Other alkalies are calcic hydroxide or slaked
+lime, a solution of which in water is known as _lime-water_; baric
+hydroxide and strontic hydroxide, derived from the metals barium and
+strontium. Quicklime is the only alkali extensively used in agriculture.
+
+ALKALIM'ETER, an instrument for ascertaining the quantity of free alkali in
+any impure specimen, as in the potashes of commerce. These, besides the
+carbonate of potash, of which they principally consist, usually contain a
+portion of foreign salts, as sulphate and chloride of potassium, and as the
+true worth of the substance, or price for which it ought to sell, depends
+entirely on the quantity of carbonate, it is of importance to be able to
+measure it accurately by some easy process. This process depends on the
+neutralization of the alkali by an acid of known strength, the point of
+neutralization being determined by the fact that neutral liquids are
+without action on either red or blue litmus solution. The alkalimeter is
+merely a graduated tube--a burette--with a stopcock at the lower extremity,
+from which the standard acid is dropped into water in which a known weight
+of the substance is dissolved. The quantity required to produce
+neutralization being noted, the strength of the liquid tested is easily
+arrived at. A process of neutralization, exactly the same in principle, may
+be employed to test the strength of acids by alkalies, the one process
+being called _alkalimetry_ the other _acidimetry_.
+
+AL'KALOID, a term applied to a class of nitrogenous compounds having basic
+properties, found in living plants, usually in combination with organic
+acids. They are usually given names ending in _-ine_, as _morphine_,
+_quinine_, _aconitine_, _nicotine_, _caffeine_, &c. Most alkaloids occur in
+plants, but some are formed by decomposition. Most natural alkaloids
+contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, but a few contain no
+oxygen. The nitrogen they contain imparts to them basic properties--they
+are organic bases--and hence they all form salts with acids. They all
+possess a pronounced bitter taste, and the poisonous nature of many plants,
+e.g. hemlock, yew, deadly nightshade, &c., are due to the alkaloids they
+contain. Although formed originally within the plant, it has been found
+possible to prepare several of these alkaloids by artificial means.
+
+AL'KANET, a dyeing drug, the bark of the root of the _Anch[=u]sa_ or
+_Alkanna tinctoria_, a plant of the order Boraginaceae, with downy and
+spear-shaped leaves, and clusters of small purple or reddish flowers. The
+plant is sometimes cultivated in Britain, chiefly on the east coast of
+England, but most of the alkanet of commerce is imported from the Levant or
+from southern France. It imparts a fine deep-red colour to all unctuous
+substances and is used for colouring oils, plasters, lip-salve,
+confections, &c.; also in compositions for rubbing and giving colour to
+mahogany furniture, and to colour spurious port-wine.
+
+ALKAN'NA, a name of henna. See also _Alkanet_.
+
+ALKAR'SIN, an extremely poisonous liquid containing kakodyle, together with
+oxidation products of this substance, and formerly known as _Cadet's fuming
+liquor_, characterized by its insupportable smell and high degree of
+spontaneous combustibility when exposed to air.
+
+AL-KATIF, a town of Arabia, on the Persian Gulf, carrying on a considerable
+trade. Pop. 6000.
+
+ALKMAAR ([.a]lk'm[:a]r), a town of the Netherlands, province of North
+Holland, on the North Holland Canal, and 20 miles N.N.W. of Amsterdam;
+regularly built, with a fine church (St. Lawrence) and a richly decorated
+Gothic town-house; manufactures of salt, sail-cloth, vinegar, leather, &c.,
+and an extensive trade in cattle, corn, butter, and cheese. Pop. 22,685.
+
+AL-KO'RAN, or QU`RAN. See _Koran_.
+
+ALLA BREVE (br[=a]'v[=a]), a musical direction expressing that a breve is
+to be played as fast as a semibreve, a semibreve as fast as a minim, and so
+on. It is also called a capella, as it is employed in church music.
+
+AL'LAH, in Arabic, the name of God, a word of kindred origin with the
+Hebrew word _Elohim_. _Alla Akbar_ (God is great) is a Mahommedan war-cry.
+
+ALLAHAB[=A]D' ('city of Allah'), an ancient city of India, capital of the
+United Provinces, on the wedge of land formed by the Jumna and the Ganges,
+largely built of mud houses, though the English quarter has more of a
+European aspect. Among the remarkable buildings are the fort, occupying the
+angle between the rivers, and containing the remains of an ancient palace,
+and now also the barracks, &c.; the mausoleum and garden of Khosru, the
+tomb being a handsome domed building; the Government offices and courts;
+Government house; the Roman Catholic cathedral; the Central College for the
+United Provinces; the Mayo Memorial and town hall. Allahabad is one of the
+chief resorts of Hindu pilgrims, who have their sins washed away by bathing
+in the waters of the sacred rivers Ganges and Jumna at their junction; and
+is also the scene of a great fair in December and January. There are no
+manufactures of importance, but a large general and transit trade is
+carried on. The town is as old as the third century B.C. In the mutiny of
+1857 it was the scene of a serious outbreak and massacre. Pop.
+171,697.--The division of _Allahabad_ contains the districts of Cawnpur,
+Futtehpur, Hamirpur, Banda, Jaunpur, and Allahabad; area, 17,265 sq. miles.
+Pop. 5,535,803.--The district contains an area of 2852 sq. miles, about
+five-sixths being under cultivation. Pop. 1,487,904.
+
+ALLAMAN'DA, a genus of American tropical plants, ord. Apocynaceae, with
+large yellow or violet flowers; some of them are grown in European
+greenhouses. _A. cathartica_ has strong emetic and purgative properties.
+
+ALLAN, David, a Scottish painter, born 1744, died 1796. He studied in
+Foulis's academy of painting and engraving in Glasgow, and for sixteen
+years in Italy; finally establishing himself at Edinburgh, where he
+succeeded Runciman as master of the Trustees' Academy. His illustrations of
+the _Gentle Shepherd_, _The Cotter's Saturday Night_, and other sketches of
+rustic life and manners in Scotland are his best-known works.
+
+ALLAN, Sir William, a distinguished Scottish artist, born in 1782, died in
+1850. He was a fellow student with Wilkie in Edinburgh, afterwards a
+student of the Royal Academy, London. After residing in Russia for ten
+years, he returned to Scotland, and publicly exhibited his pictures, one of
+which (_Circassian Captives_) made his reputation. He now turned his
+attention to historical painting, and produced _Knox admonishing Mary Queen
+of Scots_, _Murder of Rizzio_, _Exiles on their way to Siberia_, _The Slave
+Market at Constantinople_, &c.; and afterwards also battle scenes, as the
+_Battle of Prestonpans_, _Nelson boarding the San Nicolas_, and two
+pictures of _The Battle of Waterloo_, the one from the British, the other
+from the French position, and delineating the actual scene and the
+incidents therein taking place at the moment chosen for the representation.
+One of these Waterloo pictures was purchased by the Duke of Wellington. He
+travelled extensively, visiting Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, Spain, and
+Barbary. In 1835 he became a Royal Academician, in 1838 president of the
+Scottish Academy, and in 1842 he was knighted.
+
+ALLAN'TOIS, a structure appearing during the early development of
+vertebrate animals--Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia. It is largely made up of
+blood-vessels, and, especially in Birds, attains a large size. It forms the
+inner lining to the shell, and may thus be viewed as the surface by means
+of which the respiration of the embryo is carried on. In Mammalia the
+allantois is not so largely developed as in Birds, and it enters largely
+into the formation of the placenta.
+
+ALLEGHANY (al-le-g[=a]'ni), a river of Pennsylvania and New York, which
+unites with the Monongahela at Pittsburg to form the Ohio; navigable nearly
+200 miles above Pittsburg.
+
+ALLEGHANY MOUNTAINS, or the ALLEGHANIES, a name sometimes used as
+synonymous with Appalachians, but also often restricted to the portion of
+those mountains that traverses the states of Virginia, Maryland, and
+Pennsylvania from south-west to north-east, and consists of a series of
+parallel ridges for the most part wooded to the summit, and with some
+fertile valleys between. Their mean elevation is about 2500 feet; but in
+Virginia they rise to 4473.
+
+ALLEGHENY (al-le-gen'i), a city of the United States, in Pennsylvania, on
+the River Allegheny, opposite Pittsburg, of which it may be considered
+virtually to be a suburb, and with which it is connected by six bridges.
+The principal industries are connected with iron and machinery. Pop.
+132,283. Also called Allegheny City.
+
+ALLE'GIANCE (from mid-Eng. _ligeaunce_, formed from _liege_), according to
+Blackstone, is "the tie or _ligamen_ which binds the subject to the
+sovereign in return for that protection which the sovereign affords the
+subject", or, generally, the obedience which every subject or citizen owes
+to the Government of his country. It used to be the doctrine of the English
+law that natural-born subjects owe an allegiance which is intrinsic and
+perpetual, and which cannot be divested by any act of their own (_Nemo
+potest exuere patriam_); but this is no longer the case since the
+Naturalization Act passed in 1870, A British subject, however, or a child
+who has acquired a British domicile by the naturalization of an alien
+parent, cannot in time of war divest himself of British nationality for the
+purpose of becoming an enemy alien. Aliens owe a temporary or local
+allegiance to the Government under which they for the time reside. Usurpers
+in undisturbed possession of the Crown are entitled to allegiance; and thus
+treasons against Henry VI were punished in the reign of Edward IV, though
+the former had, by Act of Parliament, been declared a usurper.
+
+AL'LEGORY, a figurative representation in which the signs (words or forms)
+signify something besides their literal or direct meaning. In rhetoric,
+allegory is often but a continued simile. Parables and fables are a species
+of allegory. Sometimes long works are throughout allegorical, as Spenser's
+_Faerie Queene_ and Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_. When an allegory is thus
+continued it is indispensable to its success that not only the allegorical
+meaning should be appropriate, but that the story should have an interest
+of its own in the direct meaning apart from the allegorical significance.
+Allegories are frequent in the Old Testament, whilst in the New they take
+the form of parables. One of the best-known allegories in classical
+literature is the story of the stomach and the members of the body in the
+speech attributed to Menenius Agrippa by Plutarch and Livy. (Cf.
+Shakespeare, _Coriolanus_, i, 1.) Allegory is often made use of in painting
+and sculpture as well as in literature.
+
+ALLEGRI ([.a]l-l[=a]'gr[=e]), Gregorio, an Italian composer, born at Rome
+in 1560 or 1585, died there about 1650; celebrated for his _Miserere_, a
+setting of the fifty-first psalm (the fiftieth in the _Vulgate_), which in
+the Latin version begins with that word. Allegri's _Miserere_ is annually
+performed in the Sistine Chapel at Rome.
+
+ALLEGRO (It., [.a]l-l[=a]'gr[=o]), a musical term expressing a more or less
+quick rate of movement, or a piece of music or movement in lively time.
+_Allegro moderato_, moderately quick; _allegro maestoso_, quick but with
+dignity; _allegro assai_ and _allegro molto_, very quick; _allegro con
+brio_ or _con fuoco_, with fire and energy; _allegrissimo_, with the utmost
+rapidity.
+
+ALLEIN (al'en), Joseph, English Nonconformist divine; born 1633, died 1668;
+the author of a popular religious book entitled, _An Alarm to Unconverted
+Sinners, or The Sure Guide to Heaven_ (1672).
+
+ALLEIN (al'en), Richard, English Nonconformist divine; born in 1611, died
+1681; rector for twenty years of Batcombe (Somerset); deprived of his
+living at the Restoration, and imprisoned for preaching. He wrote, among
+other things, _Vindiciae Pietatis_ ('A Vindication of Godliness'),
+published in 1660, which was condemned to be burned in the royal kitchen.
+
+ALLELUIA. See _Halleluia_.
+
+ALLEMANDE ([.a]l-m[.a][n.]d), a kind of slow, graceful dance, invented in
+France in the time of Louis XIV, and again in vogue in the time of the
+First Empire. The name is also given to pieces of music based on the dance
+movement. Bach and Handel have composed a great number of Allemandes, and
+Beethoven has written twelve for orchestra.
+
+ALLEN, Bog of, the name applied to a series of bogs in Ireland (not to one
+continuous morass), dispersed, often widely apart, with extensive tracts of
+dry cultivated soil between, over a broad belt of land stretching across
+the centre of the country, the bogs being, however, all on the east side of
+the Shannon.
+
+ALLEN, Ethan, an American revolutionary partisan and general; born 1737,
+died 1789. He surprised and captured Ticonderoga Fort (1775); attacked
+Montreal, and was captured and sent to England, being exchanged in 1778;
+wrote against Christianity, _Reason, the only Oracle of Man_ (1784).--His
+younger brother, Ira (1751-1814), was also prominent in the revolutionary
+era.
+
+ALLEN, Grant, writer on scientific subjects and novelist, was born at
+Kingston, Canada, 1848, died in 1899. His earlier education he received in
+America, but he also studied in France and graduated at Oxford with honours
+in 1870. From 1873 to 1879 he was connected with Queen's College, Jamaica,
+but afterwards resided chiefly in England, and became well known as an
+exponent of evolutionary science, and as a novelist. His first important
+work, _Physiological Aesthetics_, appeared in 1877; his other scientific or
+semi-scientific works include _The Colour Sense_; _The Evolutionist at
+Large_; _Colin Clouts Calendar (the record of a summer)_; _Vignettes from
+Nature_; _The Colours of Flowers_; _Flowers and their Pedigrees_; and
+_Force and Energy, a Theory of Dynamics_. Other works by him are:
+_Anglo-Saxon Britain_; _Charles Darwin_; and _The Evolution of the Idea of
+God_. His novels, about thirty in number, include: _The Devil's Die_; _The
+Woman Who Did_, &c.
+
+ALLEN, John, a Scottish political and historical writer; born in 1771, died
+in 1843. He studied medicine, and became M.D. of Edinburgh University. In
+1801 he went abroad with Lord Holland and family, and henceforth he
+maintained this connection, being long an inmate of Holland House (London)
+and a member of the brilliant society that assembled there. He contributed
+many articles to the _Edinburgh Review_; and wrote _An Inquiry into the
+Rise and Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England_; _Vindication of the
+Ancient Independence of Scotland_; &c.
+
+ALLEN, Ralph, celebrated as a philanthropist, and as the friend of Pope,
+Fielding, and the elder Pitt, was born in 1694, died in 1764. He lived
+mostly at Bath, where he made a large income as farmer of a system of posts
+and as owner of quarries. He is the prototype of Squire Allworthy in
+Fielding's _Tom Jones_; and after the novelist's death he took charge of
+his family. Pope, who received many kindnesses at his hands, referred to
+him in the lines:
+
+  Let humble Allen, with an awkward shame,
+  Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame.
+
+With Pitt he was on intimate terms, and left him L1000 in his will. Hurd,
+Sherlock, and Warburton were also his friends.
+
+ALLEN, Thomas, an English mathematician, philosopher, antiquarian, and
+astrologer, born in 1542, died in 1632. He studied at Oxford, and lived the
+greater part of his life in learned retirement, corresponding with many of
+the famous men of his time. In his own day he was generally reputed a
+dealer in the black art.
+
+ALLEN, William, cardinal, an English Roman Catholic of the time of Queen
+Elizabeth. Influenced by the Jesuit Robert Parsons, he became a strenuous
+opponent of Protestantism and supporter of the claims of Philip II to the
+English throne; born 1532, died 1594. It was by his efforts that the
+English college for Catholics at Douai was established. He was made
+cardinal in 1587. His numerous writings include: _The Declaration of the
+Sentence of Sixtus V_, and _An Admonition to the Nobility and People of
+England_.
+
+ALLEN, William, D.D., American clergyman and author; born 1784, died 1868.
+He was president of Bowdoin College, 1820-39; author of _American
+Biographical and Historical Dictionary_; _Junius Unmasked_; &c.
+
+ALLENBY, VISCOUNT, Edmund Henry Hynman, British soldier, born on 23rd
+April, 1861, and educated at Haileybury. He joined the Inniskilling
+Dragoons, and in 1884 served with that regiment in the Bechuanaland
+Expedition. He was with the British forces in Zululand in 1888, took part
+in the South African war, and commanded the 4th Cavalry Brigade, 1905-10.
+In the European War he at first commanded the British Third Army,
+contributing largely to the victories of the Somme and the Aisne. After a
+reverse, south of Gaza, suffered on 26th March, 1917, by the British troops
+under the command of Sir Archibald Murray, the latter was relieved, and
+General Allenby was placed in command of the operations. He made thorough
+preparations for the next offensive, and his progress was very rapid.
+Beersheba and Gaza were captured, and on 9th Dec., 1917 Jerusalem, the Holy
+City, was surrendered to the general by the mayor. His formal entry took
+place on the 11th. He was awarded the G.C.M.G. on 16th Dec., 1917, and is a
+Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. In Aug., 1919, he was voted a sum of
+L50,000 and created a viscount, adopting the title of Viscount Allenby of
+Megiddo and of Felixstowe in Suffolk. In Oct., 1919, he was appointed High
+Commissioner for Egypt.
+
+ALLENSTEIN ([.a]l'len-st[=i]n), a town in East Prussia, 65 miles south of
+Koenigsberg, on the Alle, with breweries and manufactures of iron and
+lucifer matches. Pop. 24,295.
+
+ALLENTOWN, a town in the United States, Pennsylvania, on Lehigh River, 18
+miles above its junction with the Delaware. It has an important trade in
+coal and iron ore, with large blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, &c. Pop.
+(1920), 73,502.
+
+ALLEP'PI. See _Aulapolay_.
+
+ALLEYN (al'len), Edward, an actor and theatre proprietor in the reigns of
+Elizabeth and James I, friend of Ben Jonson and Shakespeare; born 1566,
+died 1626. Nashe called him "the famous Ned". Having become wealthy, he
+built Dulwich College, under the name of "The College of God's Gift",
+between 1613-17, at a cost of L10,000. See _Dulwich_.
+
+ALL-FOURS, a game at cards, which derives its name from the four chances of
+which it consists, for each of which a point is scored. These chances are
+_high_, or the ace of trumps, or next best trump out; _low_, or the deuce
+of trumps, or next lowest trump out; _jack_, or the knave of trumps;
+_game_, the majority of pips collected from the tricks taken by the
+respective players. The player who has all these is said to have
+_all-fours_. It is played by two or four persons with the full pack. The
+ace counts four, the king three, queen two, knave one, ten ten. The game is
+known in America as _Seven-up_, _Old-sledge_, or _High-low Jack_.
+
+ALL-HALLOWS, or ALL-HALLOWMAS, a name for All-saints' Day.
+
+AL'LIA, a small affluent of the Tiber, joining it about 12 miles from Rome,
+famous for the victory won by the Gauls, under Brennus, over the Roman
+army. This battle resulted in the capture and sack of Rome in 390 B.C.
+
+ALLIA'CEOUS PLANTS, plants belonging to the genus Allium (ord. Liliaceae),
+that to which the onion, leek, garlic, shallot, &c., belong, or to other
+allied genera, and distinguished by a certain peculiar pungent smell and
+taste characterized as _alliaceous_. This flavour is also found in a few
+plants having no botanical affinities with the above, as in the _Alliaria
+officin[=a]lis_, or Jack-by-the-hedge, a plant of the order Cruciferae.
+
+ALLI'ANCE, a league between two or more Powers. Alliances are divided into
+offensive and defensive. The former are for the purpose of attacking a
+common enemy, and the latter for mutual defence. An alliance often unites
+both of these conditions. Offensive alliances, of course, are usually
+directed against some particular enemy; defensive alliances against anyone
+from whom an attack may come. Among the more famous alliances in history
+are: The Triple Alliance of 1688 between Great Britain, Sweden, and the
+Netherlands; The Grand Alliance of 1689 between the Emperor, Holland,
+England, Spain, and Saxony; The Quadruple Alliance of 1814 between Great
+Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia; The Triple Alliance of 1882 between
+Germany, Austria, and Italy; and The Dual Alliance between Russia and
+France.
+
+ALLIANCE, HOLY. See _Holy Alliance_.
+
+ALLIANCE ISRAELITE UNIVERSELLE, an association founded in Paris in 1860 for
+the protection of the Jews all over the world, but particularly with a view
+to advocating by various means the emancipation of the Jews in those
+countries where they did not enjoy equal civil and political rights with
+the other inhabitants. It was established by six Jews of Paris: Aristide
+Astruc, Isidore Cahen, Jules Carvallo, Narcisse Leven, Eugene Manuel, and
+Charles Netter. Adolphe Cremieux and Salomon Munk were among the first
+presidents of the association. It is managed by a central committee
+resident in Paris, and consisting of 62 members, 23 of whom live in Paris.
+The Alliance has done a great deal towards raising the status of the Jews
+in the East by establishing educational institutions and industrial and
+agricultural schools, especially in Turkey, Egypt, Morocco, Persia,
+Bulgaria, Tunis, and Abyssinia. The chief sources of its income are the
+subscriptions and donations of the members. Its annual income amounts to
+about 200,000 francs. It also manages a fund of about L400,000 founded by
+Baron and Baroness de Hirsch for the establishment of Jewish Schools in
+Turkey. The Alliance Israelite works in unison with the Anglo-Jewish
+Association and the Board of Deputies in London, two organizations pursuing
+the same aims.
+
+ALLIA'RIA, a genus of plants, ord. Cruciferae, containing two species, one
+of which (_A. officin[=a]lis_), commonly called Jack-by-the-hedge, is
+widely spread in Europe, and often used as a pot-herb. See _Alliaceous
+Plants_.
+
+AL'LIBONE, Samuel Austin, LL.D., American author, born 1816, died 1889. He
+compiled a most useful _Critical Dictionary of English Literature and
+British and American Authors_ (3 vols., 1859, 1870, 1871, containing 50,000
+biographies, 2 vols. of supplement by J. F. Kirk, 1891).
+
+ALLICE, a name of the common shad.
+
+ALLIER ([.a]l-l[=e]-[=a]), a central department of France, intersected by
+the River Allier, and partly bounded by the Loire; its surface is
+diversified by offsets of the Cevennes and other ranges, rising in the
+south to over 4000 feet, and in general richly wooded. It has extensive
+beds of coal as well as other minerals, which are actively worked, there
+being several flourishing centres of mining and manufacturing enterprise;
+mineral waters at Vichy, Bourbon, L'Archambault, &c. Large numbers of sheep
+and cattle are bred. Area, 2848 sq. miles. Capital, Moulins. Pop. (1921),
+370,950.--The River Allier flows northward for 200 miles through Lozere,
+Upper Loire, Puy de Dome, and Allier, and enters the Loire, of which it is
+the chief tributary.
+
+ALLIGA'TION, a rule of arithmetic, chiefly found in the older books,
+relating to the solution of questions concerning the compounding or mixing
+together of different ingredients, or ingredients of different qualities or
+values. Thus if a quantity of tea worth 10d. the pound and another quantity
+worth 18d. are mixed, the question to be solved by alligation is, what is
+the value of the mixture by the pound?
+
+[Illustration: Alligators--1, Mississippi Alligator; 2, Banded Cayman; 3,
+Chinese Alligator]
+
+ALLIGA'TOR (a corruption of Sp. _el lagarto_, lit. the lizard--Lat.
+_lacertus_), a genus of reptiles of the family Crocodilidae, differing from
+the true crocodiles in having a shorter and flatter head, in having
+cavities or pits in the upper jaw, into which the long canine teeth of the
+under jaw fit, and in having the feet much less webbed. Their habits are
+less perfectly aquatic. They are confined to the warmer parts of America,
+where they frequent swamps and marshes, and may be seen basking on the dry
+ground during the day in the heat of the sun. They are most active during
+the night, when they make a loud bellowing. The largest of these animals
+grow to the length of 18 or 20 feet. They are covered by a dense armour of
+horny scales, impenetrable to a bullet, and have a large mouth, armed with
+strong, conical teeth. They swim with wonderful celerity, impelled by their
+long, laterally-compressed, and powerful tails. On land their motions are
+proportionally slow and embarrassed because of the length and unwieldiness
+of their bodies and the shortness of their limbs. They live on fish, and
+any small animals or carrion, and sometimes catch pigs on the shore, or
+dogs which are swimming. They even sometimes make man their prey. In winter
+they burrow in the mud of swamps and marshes, lying torpid till the warm
+weather. The female lays a great number of eggs, which are deposited in the
+sand or mud, and left to be hatched by the heat of the sun, but after this
+has taken place the mother alligator is very attentive to her young. The
+most fierce and dangerous species is that found in the southern parts of
+the United States (_Alligator Lucius_), having the snout a little turned
+up, slightly resembling that of the pike. The alligators of South America
+are there very often called _Caymans_. _A. sclerops_ is known also as the
+_Spectacled Cayman_, from the prominent bony rim surrounding the orbit of
+each eye. The flesh of the alligator is sometimes eaten, the tail being
+considered a great delicacy by the negroes. Among the fossils of the south
+of England are remains of a true alligator (_A. Hantoniensis_) in the
+Eocene beds of the Hampshire basin.
+
+ALLIGATOR-APPLE (_An[=o]na palustris_), a fruit allied to the
+custard-apple, growing in marshy districts in Jamaica, little eaten on
+account of its narcotic properties.
+
+ALLIGATOR-PEAR (_Pers[=e]a gratissima_), an evergreen tree of the nat. ord.
+Lauraceae, with a fruit resembling a large pear, 1 to 2 lb. in weight, with
+a firm marrow-like pulp of a delicate flavour; called also avocado-pear, or
+subaltern's butter. It is a native of tropical America and the West Indies.
+
+AL'LINGHAM, William, an Irish poet, born in Ireland in 1824 or 1828, died
+in 1889. He published his first volume (_Poems_) in 1850; _Day and Night
+Songs_ in 1855; _Lawrence Bloomfield in Ireland_, narrative poem, in 1864;
+_Songs, Poems, and Ballads_ in 1877 (including a number of new poems). He
+was a frequent contributor to periodicals, and for some time edited
+_Fraser's Magazine_.
+
+ALLITERA'TION, the repetition of the same letter at the beginning of two or
+more words immediately succeeding each other, or at short intervals; as
+"_m_any _m_en _m_any _m_inds"; "_d_eath _d_efies the _d_octor". "_A_pt
+_a_lliteration's _a_rtful _a_id" (_Churchill_). "_P_uffs, _p_owders,
+_p_atches, _b_ibles, _b_illet-doux" (_Pope_). "_W_eave the _w_arp and
+_w_eave the _w_oof" (_Gray_). In the ancient German and Scandinavian and in
+early English poetry alliteration took the place of terminal rhymes, the
+alliterative syllables being made to recur with a certain regularity in the
+same position in successive verses. In the _Vision of William Concerning
+Piers the Ploughman_, for instance, it is regularly employed as in the
+following lines:--
+
+  Hire _r_obe was ful _r_iche . of _r_ed scarlet engreyned,
+  With _r_ibanes of _r_ed gold . and of _r_iche stones;
+  Hire a_rr_aye me _r_avysshed . such _r_icchesse saw I nevere;
+  I had _w_ondre _w_hat she _w_as . and _w_has _w_yf she _w_ere.
+
+Alliteration was known to the Latin authors: "O _T_ite _t_ute, _T_ati,
+_t_ibi _t_anta, _t_yranne _t_ulisti" (_Ennius_). In the hands of some
+English poets and prose writers of later times alliteration became a mere
+conceit. It is still employed in Icelandic and Finnish poetry. So far has
+alliteration sometimes been carried that long compositions have been
+written every word of which commenced with the same letter. It may also be
+employed in the middle of words: "Un _f_rais par_f_um sortait des tou_ff_es
+d'as_f_odile" (_Victor Hugo_).
+
+AL'LIUM, a genus of plants, ord. Liliaceae;, containing numerous well-known
+species of pot-herbs. They are umbelliferous, and mostly perennial,
+herbaceous plants, but a few are biennial. Among them are garlic (_A.
+sat[=i]vum_), onion (_A. Cepa_), leek (_A. Porrum_), chives (_A.
+Schoenopr[)a]sum_), shallot (_A. ascalon[)i]cum_). The peculiar alliaceous
+flavour that belongs to them is well known.
+
+AL'LOA, a river port of Scotland, on the north bank of the Forth (where
+there is now a bridge), 7 miles from Stirling, county of Clackmannan. It
+carries on brewing, distilling, and shipbuilding; has manufactures of
+woollens, bottles, &c., and a shipping trade. Pop. (1921), 12,421.
+
+ALLOCU'TION, an address, a term particularly applied to certain addresses
+on important occasions made by the Pope to the cardinals, and through them
+to the Church in general.
+
+ALLO'DIUM (probably derived from _all_ and _odh_, property), land held in
+one's own right, without any feudal obligation to a superior or lord. In
+England, according to the theory of the British constitution, all land is
+held of the crown (by _feudal_ tenure); the word _allodial_ is, therefore,
+never applied to landed property there.
+
+ALLOGAMY (from the Gr. _allos_, other, and _gamos_, wedding), meaning the
+transfer of the pollen of one flower to the pistil of another. The opposite
+of allogamy is _autogamy_, or self-pollination.
+
+ALLOPHANE, a hydrous aluminium silicate, with the composition Al_2SiO_5 +
+5H_2O, forming crusts in the cavities of various rocks and commonly of a
+delicate blue colour.
+
+ALLOT'MENT SYSTEM, the system of allotting small portions of land (an acre
+or less) to farm-labourers or other workers, to be cultivated after their
+regular work by themselves and their families, a system believed by many to
+be calculated greatly to improve their condition. An Allotment Act for
+England, passed in 1887, authorizes the sanitary authorities in any
+locality to determine if there is a sufficient demand for allotments there,
+and to acquire land to be let to the labouring population resident in their
+district. Such land may be compulsorily acquired, due compensation being
+given; but land belonging to a park, pleasure-ground, &c., is not to be so
+acquired. No person is to hold more than 1 acre as an allotment; and the
+rents are to be fixed at such amount as may reasonably be deemed sufficient
+to guarantee the sanitary authority from loss. No building is to be erected
+on any allotment other than a tool-house, pig-sty, shed, or the like. In
+the Allotment Acts of 1887 and 1892 (Scotland) the definition is applied to
+a plot of land not exceeding 1 acre, but the Local Government Act of 1894
+authorized the letting of an allotment up to the area of 4 acres to one
+person, while the Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907 definitely
+extends the limit of an allotment to 5 acres. The distinction between
+allotments and small holdings has therefore been obliterated, at least as
+far as England and Wales are concerned. County councils will let plots of 1
+to 5 acres as small holdings, and parish councils as allotments. During the
+European War 183,000 allotments were registered under the Cultivation of
+Lands Order, and the number of allotments in Great Britain not exceeding 1
+acre now amounts to over 1,000,000. In proportion to the total agricultural
+area or population it is much smaller in Scotland than in England. The
+rents of allotments vary greatly, and near towns, or even villages, they
+are very high, often from L4 to L8 per acre. A measure corresponding to the
+English Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907 was passed for Scotland
+in 1911, and came into operation in 1912. In recent years a large number of
+co-operative allotment associations have come into existence.
+
+ALLOT'ROPY (Gr. _allos_, other, _tropos_, manner), a term used by Berzelius
+to express the fact that one and the same element may exist in different
+forms, differing widely in external physical properties. Thus carbon occurs
+as the diamond, and as charcoal and plumbago, and is therefore regarded as
+a substance subject to allotropy.
+
+AL'LOWAY, a parish of Scotland, now included in Ayr parish. Here Burns was
+born in 1759, and the "auld haunted kirk", near his birthplace, was the
+scene of the dance of witches in _Tam o' Shanter_.
+
+ALLOY' is the substance produced by melting together two or more metals.
+Sometimes a chemical compound is formed, but more generally one metal is
+interspersed throughout the other, much as sugar is through water in which
+it is dissolved. In this case the alloy is called a 'solid solution' of one
+metal in another. Many metals mix together in all proportions, others only
+in certain proportions, while some will not mix in any proportion.
+
+Scientific research has led to great advances in the use of alloys
+industrially. An alloy differs from its components in most of its physical
+properties, such as its hardness, ductility, strength, melting-point, and
+colour. The minutest trace of certain metals frequently produces an
+extraordinary change in the property of the body with which it is mixed.
+For instance, if bismuth is present in copper to the extent of more than
+0.5 per cent, the copper cannot be used successfully in the construction of
+electrical machinery. Frequently the addition of a small proportion of a
+metal produces highly-desirable effects in one direction, but is
+deleterious in other directions. For instance, the presence of a small
+amount of manganese in cast-iron gives clean castings, but the magnetic
+qualities of the material are impaired.
+
+Alloys are classified as ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.
+
+_Ferrous Alloys._--These alloys are of great industrial importance, as they
+include cast irons and steels. Pure iron is very little used in industry.
+Ordinary _cast iron_ contains iron and about 3 per cent of carbon. The
+ordinary wrought iron of the blacksmith contains less than 0.25 per cent of
+carbon. Cast iron is brittle, and unreliable when used to sustain tensile
+stresses, and it cannot be forged; but wrought iron can be safely used in
+tension, is not brittle, and can be forged. The raw material from which
+steel is made is cast iron or wrought iron. (For manufacture of steel see
+_Steel_.) The properties of steel can be varied within very wide limits by
+adding to it traces of certain metals. For instance, the addition of nickel
+up to 5 per cent makes the steel much stronger and tougher; the addition of
+tungsten up to about 19 per cent makes it hard (tool-steel, magnet steel),
+while molybdenum has a similar effect. Chromium and vanadium have a
+'stabilizing' effect, i.e. tend to make large masses of the alloy
+homogeneous, and to make the alloy retain its hardness over wide ranges of
+temperature. Cobalt has a similar stabilizing effect. Molybdenum high-speed
+steel is more expensive than tungsten high-speed steel, but is said to wear
+better.
+
+_Non-ferrous Alloys._--Of the non-ferrous alloys the most important have
+copper as the basic metal. They do not become rusty on exposure. Copper,
+when used for electrical purposes, must be nearly pure. It is deposited
+electrolytically (see _Electrolysis_) and then made into bars (electrolytic
+copper).
+
+_Brass_ is an alloy of copper and zinc and varies much in composition. The
+best-known varieties are:--
+
+  Best brass        Copper 70%,     Zinc 30%.
+  Admiralty brass   Copper 70%,     Zinc 29%,     Tin  1%.
+  Ordinary brass    Copper 67%,     Zinc 30%,     Lead 3%.
+
+Gun-metal is a mixture of copper, tin, and zinc. The standard Admiralty
+mixture is copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2. It possesses a tensile strength of 14
+tons per sq. inch.
+
+_Bronzes._--The bronzes are alloys of copper, with zinc or tin mainly. They
+can be cast easily, and when heated to a dull red the metal can be forged,
+stamped, rolled, pressed, or extruded. They are largely free from
+corrosion.
+
+_Phosphor Bronze._--This is a specially strong bronze. A typical
+composition is copper 89.5, tin 10, phosphorus 0.5. The tensile strength is
+higher than that of pure copper or brass (about 15 tons per sq. inch), and
+it has about one-half the electrical conductivity of pure copper. It is
+used for small castings, and it can be drawn into wire, which is used in
+alternating-current electric-railway construction for the overhead
+conductor.
+
+_Delta metals_ are bronzes of specially high tensile strength (30-50 tons
+per sq. inch).
+
+_Manganese bronzes_ are bronzes of high tensile strength and ductility, and
+are largely used for marine propellers. Manganese bronze is not affected by
+sea-water. It usually contains copper, zinc, and manganese, with a little
+aluminium and tin.
+
+A recently-discovered copper alloy is known as _monel metal_. It is a
+naturally-occurring alloy of copper, nickel, iron, and manganese (copper
+27-29 per cent, nickel 68-70 per cent, iron and manganese 4-5 per cent),
+and possesses, roughly, the qualities of a mild steel and copper. It has a
+high tensile strength, which it retains over a wide range of temperature
+change. It is ductile, is not affected by immersion in sea-water, and can
+be machined. It is used for pump-valves, pump-pistons, turbine blading, &c.
+
+In the British silver coinage silver is alloyed with 7.5 per cent copper,
+which renders it harder and more durable. British gold coinage contains 8.3
+per cent of copper.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Law, _Alloys_; Osmond and Stead,
+_Microscopic Analysis of Metals_; Mellor, _Crystallization of Iron and
+Steel_; Desch, _Metallography_.
+
+ALL SAINTS' DAY, a festival of the Christian Church, instituted in 835, and
+celebrated on 1st Nov. in honour of the saints in general.
+
+ALL SOULS' COLLEGE, a college of Oxford University, founded in 1437 by
+Henry Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury. Attached to it are the Chichele
+Professorship of International Law and the Chichele Professorship of Modern
+History.
+
+ALL SOULS' DAY, a festival of the Roman Catholic Church, instituted in 998,
+and observed on 2nd Nov. for the relief of souls in purgatory.
+
+[Illustration: Allspice (_Myrtus Pimenta_)]
+
+ALLSPICE ([a:]l'sp[=i]s), or PIMENTA, is the dried and ground berry of a
+West Indian species of myrtle (_Myrtus Pimenta_), a beautiful tree with
+white and fragrant aromatic flowers and leaves of a deep shining green. The
+tree is often 30 feet high, and may yield 150 lb. of raw berries,
+equivalent to 100 lb. of dried spice. Pimenta is thought to resemble in
+flavour a mixture of cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence the popular name
+of _allspice_; it is also called Jamaica pepper, the trees being cultivated
+there extensively. It is employed in cookery, also in medicine as an
+agreeable aromatic, and forms the basis of a distilled water, a spirit, and
+an essential oil.
+
+ALL'STON ([:a]l'stun), Washington, an American painter, born 1779, died
+1843. He studied in London and Rome, and is most celebrated for his
+pictures on scriptural subjects. Among his pictures _The Angel Uriel_ is at
+Stafford House; _The Prophet Jeremiah_ at Yale College, Newport. A portrait
+of Coleridge by Allston is in the National Gallery. He also wrote poems and
+a tragical romance (_Monaldi_).
+
+ALLU'VIUM (Lat. _alluvium_--_ad_, to, and _luo_, to wash), deposits of soil
+collected by the action of water, such as are found in valleys and plains,
+consisting of loam, clay, gravel, &c., washed down from the higher grounds.
+Great alterations are often produced by alluvium--deltas and whole islands
+being often formed by this cause. Much of the rich land along the banks of
+rivers is alluvial in its origin. There are great tracts of alluviums lying
+along the banks of the Derwent, the Ouse, and the Trent, and the Romney
+Marsh of Kent along the banks of the Thames.
+
+ALLYGURH. See _Aligarh_.
+
+ALMA, a small river of Russia, in the Crimea, celebrated from the victory
+gained by the allied British and French over the Russians, 20th Sept.,
+1854.
+
+AL'MACK'S, the name formerly given to certain assembly-rooms in King
+Street, St. James's, London, derived from Almack, a tavern-keeper, by whom
+they were built, and whose real name is said to have been McCall, of which
+Almack is an anagram; afterwards called _Willis's Rooms_. They were first
+opened about 1770, and became famous for the extreme exclusiveness
+displayed by the lady patronesses in regard to the admission of applicants
+for tickets to the balls held here--only those of the most assured social
+standing being admitted. They were turned into a restaurant in 1890.
+
+ALMA'DA, a town of Portugal, on the Tagus, opposite Lisbon. Pop. 7913.
+
+AL'MADEN, a place in California, United States, about 60 miles S.E. of San
+Francisco, with rich quicksilver-mines, the product of which has been
+largely employed in gold and silver mining.
+
+ALMADEN', a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real, celebrated both in
+ancient and modern times for its mines of quicksilver (in the form of
+cinnabar). Pop. 7410.
+
+ALMADEN PROCESS. See _Mercury_.
+
+AL'MAGEST (Ar. _al_, the, and Gr. _megist[=e]_, greatest, _sc._ 'treatise')
+the name of a celebrated astronomical work composed by Claudius Ptolemy.
+
+ALMA'GRO, an old town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), with
+important lace manufactures. Pop. 7700.
+
+ALMA'GRO, Diego de, Spanish 'Conquistador', a foundling, born in 1475,
+killed 1538. He took part with Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, and after
+frequent disputes with Pizarro about their respective shares in their
+conquests led an expedition against Chile, which he failed to conquer. On
+his return a struggle took place between him and Pizarro, in which Almagro
+was finally overcome, taken prisoner, strangled, and afterwards beheaded.
+He was avenged by his son, born in 1520, who raised an insurrection, in
+which Pizarro was assassinated, in 1541. The younger Almagro was put to
+death at Cuzco in 1542 by De Castro, the new Viceroy of Peru.
+
+ALMALEE', a town of Asia Minor, 50 miles from Adalia, with thriving
+manufactures and a considerable trade. Pop. 3500.
+
+AL'MA MA'TER (Lat., fostering or bounteous mother), a term familiarly
+applied to their own university by those who have had a university
+education.
+
+AL-MAMUN (m[.a]-m[:o]n'), a caliph of the Abasside dynasty, son of
+Harun-al-Rashid, born 786, died 833. Under him Bagdad became a great centre
+of art and science.
+
+AL'MANAC, a calendar, in which are set down the rising and setting of the
+sun, the phases of the moon, the most remarkable positions and phenomena of
+the heavenly bodies, for every month and day of the year; also the several
+fasts and feasts to be observed in the Church and State, &c., and often
+much miscellaneous information likely to be useful to the public. The term
+is of Arabic origin, but the Arabs were not the first to use almanacs,
+which indeed existed from remote ages. In England they are known from the
+fourteenth century, there being several English almanacs of this century
+existing in MS. They became generally used in Europe within a short time
+after the invention of printing; and they were very early remarkable, as
+some are still, for the mixture of truth and falsehood which they
+contained. Their effects in France were found so mischievous, from the
+pretended prophecies which they published, that an edict was promulgated by
+Henry III in 1579 forbidding any predictions to be inserted in them
+relating to civil affairs, whether those of the State or of private
+persons. In the reign of James I of England letters-patent were granted to
+the two universities and the Stationers' Company for an exclusive right of
+printing almanacs, but in 1775 this monopoly was abolished. During the
+civil war of Charles I, and thence onward, English almanacs were
+conspicuous for the unblushing boldness of their astrological predictions,
+and their determined perpetuation of popular errors. The most famous
+English almanac was _Poor Robin's Almanack_, which was published from 1663
+to 1775. Gradually, however, a better taste began to prevail, and in 1828
+the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, by publishing the
+_British Almanac_, had the merit of taking the lead in the production of an
+unexceptionable almanac in Great Britain. The example thus set has been
+almost universally adopted. The circulation of almanacs continued to be
+much cramped by the very heavy duty of one shilling and threepence per copy
+till 1834, when this duty was abolished. About 200 new almanacs were
+started immediately on the repeal. Almanacs, from their periodical
+character, and the frequency with which they are referred to, are now more
+and more used as vehicles for conveying statistical and other useful
+information, some being intended for the inhabitants of a particular
+country or district, others for a particular class or party. Some of the
+almanacs that are regularly published every year are extremely useful, and
+are indeed almost indispensable to men engaged in official, mercantile,
+literary, or professional business. Such in Great Britain are _Thom's
+Official Directory of the United Kingdom_, _The British Almanac_, _Oliver
+and Boyd's New Edinburgh Almanac_, and _Whitaker's Almanac_, started in
+1868. In the United States is published _The American Almanac_, a useful
+compilation. The _Almanach de Gotha_, which has appeared at Gotha since
+1764, contains in small bulk a wonderful quantity of information regarding
+the reigning families and Governments, the finances, commerce, population,
+&c., of the different States throughout the world. Since 1871 it is
+published both in a French and in a German edition. Among French almanacs
+the most famous was the _Almanach Liegeois_, whilst the _Almanach
+National_, first published in 1679 as _Almanach Royal_, is the most
+important of modern almanacs in France. Almanacs that pretend to foretell
+the weather and occurrences of various kinds are still popular in Britain,
+France, and elsewhere.--_The Nautical Almanac_ is an important work
+published annually by the British Government, two or three years in
+advance, in which is contained much useful astronomical matter, more
+especially the distances of the moon from the sun, and from certain fixed
+stars, for every three hours of apparent time, adapted to the meridian of
+the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. By comparing these with the distances
+carefully observed at sea the mariner may, with comparative ease, infer his
+longitude to a degree of accuracy unattainable in any other way, and
+sufficient for most nautical purposes. This almanac was commenced in 1767
+by Dr. Maskelyne, Astronomer Royal. The French _Connaissance des Temps_ is
+published for the same purpose as the English _Nautical Almanac_, and
+nearly on the same plan. It commenced in 1679. Of a similar character is
+the _Astronomisches Jahrbuch_ published at Berlin.
+
+ALMAN'DINE, a mineral of a reddish or violet colour, a variety of precious
+or noble garnet.
+
+ALMAN'SA, a town of south-eastern Spain (Murcia), near which was fought
+(25th April, 1707) a decisive battle in the War of the Spanish Succession,
+when the French, under the Duke of Berwick, defeated the Anglo-Spanish army
+under the Earl of Galway. Pop. 11,887.
+
+ALMAN'ZUR, or ALMANSUR, a caliph of the Abasside dynasty, reigned 754-75.
+He was cruel and treacherous and a persecutor of the Christians, but a
+patron of learning.
+
+ALMA-TAD'EMA, Sir Lawrence, Dutch painter, born in 1836, resided since 1870
+in England, where he became a naturalized subject. He was made A.R.A. in
+1876, R.A. in 1879, knighted in 1899, and awarded the Order of Merit in
+1905. He died at Wiesbaden, 25th June, 1912. He is especially celebrated
+for his pictures of ancient Roman, Greek, and Egyptian life, which are
+painted with great realism and archaeological correctness.
+
+AL'MEH, the name given in Egypt to a class of girls whose profession is to
+sing for the amusement of the upper classes, as distinguished from the
+_gawasi_, who perform before the lower classes. They perform at feasts and
+other entertainments (including funerals), and many of them are skilful
+improvisatrici. One of their most famous dances is called 'The Bee'.
+
+ALMEIDA ([.a]l-m[=a]'i-d[.a]), one of the strongest fortresses in Portugal,
+in the province of Beira, near the Spanish border, on the Coa. Pop. 2350.
+Taken by Massena from the English in 1810, retaken by Wellington in 1811.
+
+ALMEIDA (d[.a]l-m[=a]'i-d[.a]), Francisco d', first Portuguese viceroy of
+India, son of the Conde de Abrantes, born about the middle of the fifteenth
+century. He fought with renown against the Moors, and being appointed
+governor of the new Portuguese settlements on the African and Indian
+coasts, he sailed for India in 1505, accompanied by his son Lorenzo and
+other eminent men. In Africa he took possession of Quiloa and Mombas, and
+in the East he conquered Cananor, Cochin, Calicut, &c., and established
+forts and factories. His son Lorenzo discovered the Maldives and
+Madagascar, but perished in an attack made on him by a fleet sent by the
+Sultan of Egypt, with the aid of the Porte and the Republic of Venice.
+Having signally defeated the Mussulmans (1508), and avenged his son, and
+being superseded by Albuquerque, he sailed for Portugal, but was killed in
+a skirmish on the African coast in 1510.
+
+ALMELO', a town of Holland, province of Overyssel, on the Vechte; with
+manufactures of linen. Pop. 7360.
+
+ALMENDRALEJO (-[=a]'h[=o]), a town of Spain, province of Badajoz, in a
+district rich in grain, wine, and fruits, with many brandy distilleries.
+Pop. 12,587.
+
+ALMERIA ([.a]l-m[=a]-r[=e]'[.a]), a fortified seaport of Southern Spain,
+capital of province of Almeria, near the mouth of a river and on the gulf
+of same name, with no building of consequence except a Gothic cathedral,
+but with a large trade, exporting grapes, iron ore, lead, esparto, &c. The
+province, which has an area of 3360 sq. miles, is generally mountainous,
+and rich in minerals. Pop. of town, 48,614; of province, 393,689.
+
+ALMODO'VAR, a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), near
+the Sierra Morena. Pop. 12,640.
+
+ALMOHADES (al'mo-h[=a]dz), a Moorish dynasty that ruled in Africa and Spain
+in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, founded by Mohammed Ibn Tumart, a
+religious enthusiast, who assumed the title of _Mahdi_. They overthrew the
+Almoravides in Spain, but themselves received a defeat in 1212 from which
+they did not recover, and in 1269 were overthrown in Africa, when Idris
+El-Wathik, their last emir, was murdered by a slave.
+
+AL-MOKANNA. See _Mokanna_.
+
+ALMOND ([.a]'mund), the fruit of the almond tree (_Amygd[)a]lus
+comm[=u]nis_), a tree which grows usually to the height of 20 feet, and is
+akin to the peach, nectarine, &c. (ord. Rosaceae). It has beautiful pinkish
+flowers that appear before the leaves, which are oval, pointed, and
+delicately serrated. It is a native of Africa and Asia, naturalized in
+Southern Europe, and cultivated in England for its beauty, as it seldom
+produces edible fruit even in the warmer portions of Southern England. The
+fruit is a drupe, ovoid, and with downy outer surface; the fleshy covering
+is tough and fibrous; it covers the compressed wrinkled stone enclosing the
+seed or almond within it. There are two varieties, one sweet and the other
+bitter; both are produced from _A. communis_, though from different
+varieties. Most of the sweet almonds imported into Britain come from
+Southern Europe, the Levant, and California, the finest being the
+Valencian, Jordan, and Malaga. They contain a bland fixed oil, consisting
+chiefly of olein. Bitter almonds come from Mogador, and besides a fixed oil
+they contain a substance called _emulsin_, and also a bitter crystalline
+substance called _amygdalin_, which, acting on the emulsin, produces
+prussic acid, whence the aroma of bitter almonds when mixed with water.
+_Almond-oil_, a bland fixed oil, is expressed from the kernels of either
+sweet or bitter almonds, and is used by perfumers and in medicine. A
+poisonous essential oil is obtained from bitter almonds, which is used for
+flavouring by cooks and confectioners, also by perfumers and in medicine.
+The name _almond_, with a qualifying word prefixed, is also given to the
+seeds of other species of plants; thus _Java almonds_ are the kernels of
+_Canarium commune_.
+
+ALMONDBURY ([.a]'mund-be-ri), a town of England, West Riding of Yorkshire,
+S.E. of Huddersfield, in which it is now included, with manufactures of
+woollens, cotton and silk goods.
+
+AL'MONER, an officer of a religious establishment to whom belonged the
+distribution of alms. The grand almoner (_grand aumonier_) of France was
+the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in that kingdom before the revolution.
+The lord almoner, or lord high almoner of England, is generally a bishop,
+whose office is well-nigh a sinecure. He distributes the sovereign's doles
+to the poor on Maundy Thursday.
+
+ALMO'RA, a town and fortress of India, in the United Provinces, capital of
+Kumaon, 170 miles E.N.E. of Delhi, a thriving little place. Pop. about
+10,560.
+
+ALMO'RAVIDES (-v[=i]dz), a Moorish dynasty which arose in North-Western
+Africa in the eleventh century, and reigned from 1055-1147. The town of
+Marrakesh, built in 1062, became the capital of this dynasty. Having
+crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, the family gained possession of all
+Arabic Spain, but was overthrown by the Almohades in the following century.
+
+AL'MUG (or AL'GUM) TREE, names which occur in _1 Kings_, x, 11, 12, and _2
+Chron_., ii, 8, and ix, 10, 11, as the names of trees of which the wood was
+used for pillars in the temple and the king's house, for harps and
+psalteries, &c. They are said in one passage to be hewn in Lebanon, in
+another to be brought from Ophir. They have been identified by critics with
+the red sandalwood of India. Some of them may possibly have been
+transplanted to Lebanon by the Phoenicians.
+
+ALMUNECAR ([.a]l-m[u:]n-ye-k[:a]r'), a seaport of Spain, Granada, on the
+Mediterranean. Pop. 8000.
+
+AL'NAGER, formerly, in England, an official whose duty it was to inspect,
+measure, and stamp woollen cloth.
+
+AL'NUS. See _Alder_.
+
+ALNWICK (an'ik), a town of England, county town of Northumberland, 34 miles
+north of Newcastle, near the Aln. It is well built, and carries on tanning,
+brewing, and a general trade. The town is famous for the curious ceremonies
+which take place there annually during the election of the common council
+(25th March). Alnwick Castle, residence of the Dukes of Northumberland, for
+many centuries a fortress of great strength, stands close to the town. Pop.
+(1921), 6991.
+
+[Illustration: Socotrine Aloe (_Aloe socotr[=i]na_)]
+
+ALOE (al'[=o]), the name of a number of plants belonging to the genus Aloe
+(ord. Liliaceae), some of which are not more than a few inches, whilst
+others are 30 feet and upwards in height; natives of South Africa and
+Socotra; leaves fleshy, thick, and more or less spinous at the edges or
+extremity; flowers with a tubular corolla. Some of the larger kinds are of
+great use, the fibrous parts of the leaves being made into cordage, fishing
+nets and lines, cloth, &c. The inspissated juice of several species is used
+in medicine, under the name of _aloes_, forming a bitter purgative. The
+medicinal value of bitter aloes was known to the Greeks in the fourth
+century B.C. According to the Arabian historian Edrisi, the occupation of
+Socotra by the Macedonians was due to Aristotle's persuading Alexander the
+Great to secure the monopoly of the supplies of the drug. The drug is said
+to have been commended to Alfred the Great by the Patriarch of Jerusalem,
+but a direct trade in it between Socotra and Britain was opened only in the
+seventeenth century. The principal drug-producing species are the Socotrine
+aloe (_A. Socotr[=i]na_); the Barbados aloe (_A. vulg[=a]ris_), first
+imported into Britain in 1693; the Cape aloe (_A. spic[=a]ta_), 1780; and
+Natal aloes, 1870; &c. A beautiful violet colour is yielded by the leaves
+of the Socotrine aloe. The American aloe (see _Agave_) is a different plant
+altogether; as are also the aloes or lign-aloes of Scripture, which are
+supposed to be the _Aquilaria Agall[)o]chum_, or aloes-wood (q. v.). _Aloe
+fibre_ is obtained from species of Aloe, Agave, Yucca, &c., and is made
+into coarse fabrics, ropes, &c.
+
+ALOES-WOOD, EAGLE-WOOD, or AGILAWOOD, the inner portion of the trunk of
+_Aquil[=a]ria ov[=a]ta_ and _A. Agall[)o]chum_, forest trees belonging to
+the ord. Aquilariaceae, found in tropical Asia, and yielding a fragrant
+resinous substance, which, as well as the wood, is burned for its perfume.
+Another tree, the _Aloex[)y]lon Agall[)o]chum_ (ord. Leguminosae), also
+produces aloes-wood. This wood is supposed to be the lign-aloes (a
+corruption of the Lat. _lignum aloe_) of the Bible.
+
+ALOPE'CIA, a variety of baldness in which the hair falls off from the beard
+and eyebrows, as well as the scalp.
+
+ALOPECU'RUS, a genus of grasses. See _Foxtail-grass_.
+
+ALO'RA, a town of Southern Spain, province of Malaga. Pop. 6200.
+
+ALOST, or AALST ([:a]'lost, [:a]lst), a town of Belgium, 15 miles W.N.W. of
+Brussels, on the Dender (here navigable), with a beautiful, though
+unfinished, church, and an ancient town hall (thirteenth century);
+manufactures of lace, thread, linen and cotton goods, &c., and a
+considerable trade. In the market-place stands a statue of Thierry
+Maartens, who introduced the art of typography into the Netherlands in
+1473. The town was occupied by the Germans in 1914. Pop. 35,603.
+
+[Illustration: Alpaca (_Auch[=e]nia Paco_)]
+
+ALPAC'A, a ruminant mammal of the camel tribe, and genus Auch[=e]nia (_A.
+Paco_), a native of the Andes, especially of the mountains of Chile and
+Peru, and closely allied to the llama. Llamas and alpacas are mutually
+fertile when crossed, and this explains the existence of intermediate forms
+between the two breeds. It has been domesticated, and remains also in a
+wild state. In form and size it approaches the sheep, but has a longer
+neck. It is valued chiefly for its long, soft, and silky wool, which is
+straighter than that of the sheep, and very strong, and is woven into
+fabrics of great beauty, used for shawls, clothing for warm climates,
+coat-linings, and umbrellas, and known by the same name. Cloth made from
+imported alpaca wool is manufactured in England, principally in Yorkshire.
+Attempts have been made to introduce and acclimatize the alpaca in Europe
+and in Australia, but no measure of success has attended the experiments.
+Its flesh is pleasant and wholesome.
+
+ALPE'NA, a town of the United States, Michigan, at the entrance of the
+Thunder into Lake Huron, with saw-mills, woollen factories, &c. Pop.
+12,706.
+
+ALPEN-HORN, or ALP-HORN (Ger.), a long, nearly-straight horn, curving
+slightly, and widening towards its extremity, used in the Alps to convey
+signals, or notice of something.
+
+ALPEN-STOCK (Ger.), a strong, tall stick shod with iron, pointed at the end
+so as to take hold in, and give support on, ice and other dangerous places
+in climbing the Alps and other high mountains.
+
+ALPES ([.a]lp), the name of three departments in the south-east of France,
+all more or less covered by the Alps or their offshoots:--_Basses-Alpes_
+(b[:a]s-[.a]lp; Lower Alps) has mountains rising to a height of 8000 to
+10,000 feet, is drained by the Durance and its tributaries, and is the most
+thinly-peopled department in France; area, 2697 sq. miles; capital, Digne.
+Pop. (1921), 91,882.--_Hautes-Alpes_ ([=o]t-[.a]lp; Upper Alps), mostly
+formed out of ancient Dauphine, traversed by the Cottian and Dauphine Alps
+(highest summits 12,000 feet), drained chiefly by the Durance and its
+tributaries. It is the lowest department in France in point of absolute
+population; area, 2178 sq. miles; capital, Gap. Pop. (1921),
+89,275.--_Alpes-Maritimes_ ([.a]lp-m[.a]-ri-t[=e]m; Maritime Alps) has the
+Mediterranean on the south, and mainly consists of the territory of Nice,
+ceded to France by Italy in 1860. The greater part of the surface is
+covered by the Maritime Alps; the principal river is the Var. It produces
+in the south, cereals, vines, olives, oranges, citrons, and other fruits;
+and there are manufactories of perfumes, liqueurs, soap, &c., and valuable
+fisheries. It is a favourite resort for invalids; area, 1443 sq. miles;
+capital, Nice. Pop. 357,759.
+
+AL'PHA and O'MEGA, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet,
+sometimes used to signify the beginning and the end, or the first and the
+last of anything; also as a symbol of the Divine Being (_Rev._ i, 8; xxi,
+6; xxii, 13). They were also formerly the symbol of Christianity, and
+engraved accordingly on the tombs of the ancient Christians. Some of these
+engravings are to be seen in the Louvre.
+
+AL'PHABET (from _Alpha_ and _Beta_, the two first letters of the Greek
+alphabet), the series of characters used in writing a language, and
+intended to represent the sounds of which it consists. The English
+alphabet, like most of those of modern Europe, is derived directly from the
+Latin, the Latin from the ancient Greek, and that from the Phoenician,
+which again is believed to have had its origin in the Egyptian
+hieroglyphics, although Egyptologists are not unanimous on this point.
+There is little evidence in support of the theory that the Phoenician
+alphabet had developed from the Assyrian cuneiform. Some scholars, like Sir
+Arthur Evans, are of opinion that the Philistines established on the coast
+of Palestine had brought the alphabet over from Crete, and that from them
+it passed to the Phoenicians. The names of the letters in Phoenician and
+Hebrew must have been almost the same, for the Greek names, which, with the
+letters, were borrowed from the former, differ little from the Hebrew. By
+means of the names we may trace the process by which the Egyptian
+characters were transformed into letters by the Phoenicians. Some Egyptian
+character would, by its form, recall the idea of a house, for example, in
+Phoenician or Hebrew _beth_. This character would subsequently come to be
+used wherever the sound b occurred. Its form might be afterwards
+simplified, or even completely modified, but the name would still remain,
+as _beth_ still continues the Hebrew name for b, and _beta_ the Greek. Our
+letter m, which in Hebrew was called _mim_, water, has still a considerable
+resemblance to the zig-zag wavy line which had been chosen to represent
+water, as in the zodiacal symbol for _Aquarius_. The letter o, of which the
+Hebrew name means eye, no doubt was originally intended to represent that
+organ. While the ancient Greek alphabet gave rise to the ordinary Greek
+alphabet and the Latin, the Greek alphabet of later times furnished
+elements for the Coptic, the Gothic, and the old Slavic alphabets. The
+Latin characters are now employed by a great many nations, such as the
+Italian, the French, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the English, the Dutch,
+the German, the Hungarian, the Polish, &c., each nation having introduced
+such modifications or additions as are necessary to express the sound of
+the language peculiar to it. The Greek alphabet originally possessed only
+sixteen letters, though the Phoenician had twenty-two. The original Latin
+alphabet, as it is found in the oldest inscriptions, consisted of
+twenty-one letters; namely, the vowels a, e, i, o, and u (v), and the
+consonants b, c, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, x, z. The Anglo-Saxon
+alphabet had two characters for the digraph th, which were unfortunately
+not retained in later English; it had also the character ae. It wanted j,
+v, y (consonant), and z. The German alphabet consists of the same letters
+as the English, but the sounds of some of them are different. Anciently
+certain characters called _Runic_ were made use of by the Teutonic nations,
+to which some would attribute an origin independent of the Greek and Latin
+alphabets. Wimmer, the Danish scholar, is, however, of opinion that the
+_runes_ were developed from the Latin alphabet. While the alphabets of the
+west of Europe are derived from the Latin, the Russian, which is very
+complete, is based on the Greek, with some characters borrowed from the
+Armenian, &c; it is called _azbouka_, from the first two letters _az_, a,
+and _bouki_, b. Among Asiatic alphabets, the Arabian (ultimately of
+Phoenician origin) has played a part analogous to that of the Latin in
+Europe, the conquests of Mohammedanism having imposed it on the Persian,
+the Turkish, the Hindustani, &c. The Sanskrit or Devan[=a]gari alphabet is
+one of the most remarkable alphabets of the world. As now used it has
+fourteen characters for the vowels and diphthongs, and thirty-three for the
+consonants, besides two other symbols. Our alphabet is a very imperfect
+instrument for what it has to perform, being both defective and redundant.
+An alphabet is not essential to the writing of a language, since ideograms
+or symbols may be used instead, as in Chinese. See
+_Writing_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Clodd, _The Alphabet_ (Useful Knowledge
+Series, Hodder & Stoughton); Canon J. Taylor, _The Alphabet_; Philippe
+Berger, _Histoire de l'Ecriture dans l'Antiquite_.
+
+ALPH[=E]'US (now RUFIA), the largest river of Peloponnesus, flowing
+westwards into the Ionian Sea. In Greek mythology Alph[=e]us is supposed to
+have been the son of Oceanus and Tethys.
+
+ALPHON'SO, the name of a number of Portuguese and Spanish kings. Among the
+former may be mentioned ALPHONSO I, the Conqueror, first King of Portugal,
+son of Henry of Burgundy, the Conqueror and first Count of Portugal; born
+1110, fought successfully against the Spaniards and the Moors, named
+himself King of Portugal, and was as such recognized by the Pope; died
+1185.--ALPHONSO V, the African, born in 1432; succeeded his father, Edward
+I, 1438; conquered Tangiers in 1471; died 1481. During his reign Prince
+Henry the Navigator continued the important voyages of discovery already
+begun by the Portuguese. Under him was drawn up an important code of
+laws.--Among kings of Spain may be mentioned ALPHONSO X, King of Castile
+and Leon, surnamed the _Astronomer_, the _Philosopher_, or the _Wise_ (El
+Sabio); born in 1226; succeeded in 1252. Being grandson of Philip of
+Hohenstaufen, son of Frederick Barbarossa, he endeavoured to have himself
+elected Emperor of Germany, and in 1257 succeeded in dividing the election
+with Richard, Earl of Cornwall. On Richard's death in 1272 he again
+unsuccessfully contested the imperial crown. Meantime his throne was
+endangered by conspiracies of the nobles and the attacks of the Moors. The
+Moors he conquered, but his domestic troubles were less easily overcome,
+and he was finally dethroned by his son Sancho, and died two years after,
+1284. Alphonso was the most learned prince of his age. Under his direction
+or superintendence were drawn up a celebrated code of laws, valuable
+astronomical tables which go under his name (_Alphonsine Tables_), the
+first general history of Spain in the Castilian tongue, and a Spanish
+translation of the Bible.--ALPHONSO V of Aragon, I of Naples and Sicily,
+born in 1385, was the son of Ferdinand I of Aragon, the throne of which he
+ascended in 1416, ruling also over Sicily and the Island of Sardinia. Queen
+Joanna of Naples made him her heir, but after her death in 1435 her will
+was disputed by Rene of Anjou. Alphonso now proceeded to take possession of
+Naples by force, which he succeeded in doing in 1442, and reigned till his
+death in 1458. He was an enlightened patron of literary men, by whom, in
+the latter part of his reign, his Court was thronged.--ALPHONSO XII, King
+of Spain, the only son of Queen Isabella II and her cousin Francis of
+Assisi, was born in 1857 and died in 1885. He left Spain with his mother
+when she was driven from the throne by the revolution of 1868, and till
+1874 resided partly in France, partly in Austria. In the latter year he
+studied for a time at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, being then
+known as Prince of the Asturias. His mother had given up her claims to the
+throne in 1870 in his favour, and in 1874 Alphonso came forward himself as
+claimant, and in the end of the year was proclaimed by General Martinez
+Campos as king. He now passed over into Spain and was enthusiastically
+received, most of the Spaniards being by this time tired of the republican
+Government, which had failed to put down the Carlist party. Alphonso was
+successful in bringing the Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and
+henceforth he reigned with little disturbance. His minister Canovas del
+Castillo ruined, however, Alphonso's popularity when he advised the king to
+conclude an alliance with Bismarck and Germany. He married first his cousin
+Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of the Duc de Montpensier; second, Maria
+Christina, Archduchess of Austria, whom he left a widow with two daughters
+and a son.--ALPHONSO XIII, King of Spain, born in 1886, the posthumous son
+of Alphonso XII. His mother was appointed regent during his minority, and
+acted as such until 1902. On attaining his sixteenth year, the king assumed
+personal charge of the Government. In 1906 (31st May) he married Princess
+Ena, daughter of Princess Henry of Battenberg, a daughter of Queen
+Victoria.
+
+ALPINE CLUB, an association of English gentlemen, originating in 1856 or
+1857, having as their common bond of union a delight in making the ascent
+of mountains, in the Alps or elsewhere, difficult to ascend, and in
+investigating everything connected with mountains. Similar associations now
+exist in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France.
+
+ALPINE CROW, or ALPINE CHOUGH (_Pyrrhoc[)o]rax alp[=i]nus_), a European
+bird closely akin to the chough of England.
+
+ALPINE MUSEUM, a museum established at Munich in 1911 by the German and
+Austrian Alpine Club. Its purpose is to spread knowledge about the Alps,
+and to disseminate the results of scientific research by means of exhibits
+and literary publications. Not only alpine geology, botany, and zoology,
+but also industry, custom, and costumes are well demonstrated in the
+exhibits.
+
+ALPINE PLANTS, the name given to those plants whose habitat is in the
+neighbourhood of the snow, on mountains partly covered with it all the year
+round. As the height of the snow-line varies according to the latitude and
+local conditions, so also does the height at which these plants grow. The
+mean height for the alpine plants of Central Europe is about 6000 feet; but
+it rises in parts of the Alps and in the Pyrenees to 9000 feet, or even
+more. The high grounds clear of snow among these mountains present a very
+well marked flora, the general characters of the plants being a low
+dwarfish habit, a tendency to form thick turfs, stems partly or wholly
+woody, and large brilliantly-coloured and often very sweet-smelling
+flowers. They are also often closely covered with woolly hairs. In the Alps
+of Middle Europe the eye is at once attracted by gentians, saxifrages,
+rhododendrons, primroses of different kinds, &c. Ferns and mosses of many
+kinds also characterize these regions. Some alpine plants are found only in
+one locality. Considerable success has attended the attempt to grow alpine
+plants in gardens, the first necessity being a situation where there is
+plenty of sunlight, and which is free from the shade of trees.
+
+ALPINE WARBLER (_Accentor alp[=i]nus_), a European bird of the same genus
+as the hedge-sparrow.
+
+ALPIN'IA, a genus of plants. See _Galanga_.
+
+ALPS, the highest and most extensive system of mountains in Europe,
+included between lat. 44deg and 48deg N., and long. 5deg and 18deg E.,
+covering great part of Northern Italy, several departments of France,
+nearly the whole of Switzerland, and a large part of Austria, while its
+extensive ramifications connect it with nearly all the mountain systems of
+Europe. The culminating peak is Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the
+true centre is the St. Gothard, or the mountain mass to which it belongs,
+and from whose slopes flow, either directly or by affluents, the great
+rivers of Central Europe--the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. Round the
+northern frontier of Italy the Alps form a remarkable barrier, shutting it
+off from the mainland of Europe, so that formerly it could hardly be
+approached from France, Germany, or Switzerland, except through high and
+difficult passes. In the west this barrier approaches close to the
+Mediterranean coast, and near Nice there is left a free passage into the
+Italian peninsula between the mountains and the sea. From this point
+eastward the chain proceeds along the coast till it forms a junction with
+the Apennines. In the opposite direction it proceeds north-west, and
+afterwards north to Mont Blanc, on the boundaries of France and Italy; it
+then turns north-east and runs generally in this direction to the Gross
+Glockner, in Central Tyrol, between the Rivers Drave and the Salza, where
+it divides into two branches, the northern proceeding north-east towards
+Vienna, the southern towards the Balkan Peninsula. The principal valleys of
+the Alps run mostly in a direction nearly parallel with the principal
+ranges, and therefore east and west. The transverse valleys are commonly
+shorter, and frequently lead up through a narrow gorge to a depression in
+the main ridge between two adjacent peaks. These are the passes or _cols_,
+which may usually be found by tracing a stream which descends from the
+mountains up to its source.
+
+The Alps in their various great divisions receive different names. The
+_Maritime Alps_, so called from their proximity to the Mediterranean,
+extend westward from their junction with the Apennines for a distance of
+about 100 miles; culminating points Aiguille de Chambeyron, 11,155 feet,
+and Grand Rioburent, 11,142 feet; principal pass, the Col di Tende (6158
+feet), which was made practicable for carriages by Napoleon I. Proceeding
+northward the next group consists of the _Cottian Alps_, length about 60
+miles; principal peaks: Monte Viso, 12,605 feet; Pic des Ecrins, 13,462;
+Pelvoux, 12,973. Next come the _Graian Alps_, 50 miles long, with extensive
+ramifications in Savoy and Piedmont; principal peaks: Aiguille de la
+Sassiere, 12,326 feet; Grand Paradis, 13,300; Grande Casse, 12,780. To this
+group belongs Mont Cenis (6765 feet), over which a carriage road was
+constructed by Napoleon I, while a railway now passes through the mountain
+by a tunnel nearly 8 miles long. These three divisions of the Alps are
+often classed together as the _Western Alps_, while the portion of the
+system immediately east of this forms the _Central Alps_. The _Pennine
+Alps_ form the loftiest portion of the whole system, having Mont Blanc (in
+France) at one extremity and Monte Rosa at the other (60 miles), and
+including the Alps of Savoy and the Valais. In the east the valley of the
+Upper Rhone separates the Pennine Alps from the great chain of the _Bernese
+Alps_ running nearly parallel, the great peaks of the two ranges being
+about 20 miles apart. The principal heights of the Pennine Alps are Mont
+Blanc, 15,781 feet; Monte Rosa, 15,217; Mischabelhoerner (Dom), 14,935;
+Weisshorn, 14,804; Matterhorn, 14,780. In the Bernese Alps, the
+Finsteraarhorn, 14,026; Aletschhorn, 13,803; Jungfrau, 13,671. The pass of
+Great St. Bernard is celebrated for its hospice. The most easterly pass is
+the Simplon, 6595 feet, with a carriage road made by Napoleon I, and a
+tunnel leading into Italy, fully 12 miles long. Farther east are the
+_Lepontine Alps_, which give off a number of streams that feed the Italian
+lakes--Maggiore, Como, &c. The principal pass is the St. Gothard (6936
+feet), over which a carriage road leads to Italy, while through this
+mountain mass a railway tunnel more than 9 miles long has been opened.
+Highest peaks: Toedi, 11,887 feet; Monte Leone, 11,696. The _Rhaetian
+Alps_, extending east to about lat. 12deg 30', are the most easterly of the
+Central Alps, and are divided into two portions by the Engadine, or valley
+of the Inn, and also broken by the valley of the Adige; principal peaks:
+Piz Bernina, 13,294 feet; Ortlerspitze, 12,814; Monte Adamello, 11,832. The
+Brenner Pass (4588 feet), from Verona to Innsbruck, and between the Central
+and the Eastern Alps, is crossed by a railway. On the railway from
+Innsbruck to the Lake of Constance is the Arlberg Tunnel, over 6 miles
+long. The _Eastern Alps_ form the broadest and lowest portion of the
+system, and embrace the _Noric Alps_, the _Carnic Alps_, the _Julian Alps_,
+&c.; highest peak, the Gross Glockner, 12,405 feet. The height of the
+south-eastern continuations of the Alps rapidly diminishes, and they lose
+themselves in ranges having nothing in common with the great mountain
+masses which distinguish the centre of the system.
+
+The Alps are very rich in lakes and streams. Among the chief of the former
+are the Lakes of Geneva, Constance, Zuerich, Thun, Brienz, on the north
+side; on the south Maggiore, Como, Lugano, Garda, &c. The drainage is
+carried to the North Sea by the Rhine, to the Mediterranean by the Rhone,
+to the Adriatic by the Po, to the Black Sea by the Danube.
+
+In the lower valleys of the Alps the mean temperature ranges from 50deg to
+60deg. Half-way up the Alps it averages about 32deg--a height which in the
+snowy regions it never reaches. But even where the temperature is lowest
+the solar radiation produced by the rocks and snow is often so great as to
+raise the photometer to 120deg and even higher. The exhilarating and
+invigorating nature of the climate in the upper regions during summer has
+been acknowledged by all.
+
+In respect to vegetation the Alps have been divided into six zones,
+depending on height modified by exposure and local circumstances. The first
+is the olive region. This tree flourishes better on sheltered slopes of the
+mountains than on the plains of Northern Italy. The vine, which bears
+greater winter cold, distinguishes the second zone. On slopes exposed to
+the sun it flourishes to a considerable extent. The third is called the
+mountainous region. Cereals and deciduous trees form the distinguishing
+features of its vegetation. The mean temperature about equals that of Great
+Britain, but the extremes are greater. The fourth region is the sub-Alpine
+or coniferous. Here are vast forests of pines of various species. Most of
+the Alpine villages are in the two last regions. On the northern slopes
+pines grow to 6000, and on the southern slopes to 7000 feet above the level
+of the sea. This is also the region of the lower or permanent pastures
+where the flocks are fed in winter. The fifth is the pasture region, the
+term _alp_ being used in the local sense of high pasture grounds. It
+extends from the uppermost limit of trees to the region of perpetual snow.
+Here there are shrubs, rhododendrons, junipers, bilberries, and dwarf
+willows, &c. The sixth zone is the region of perpetual snow. The line of
+snow varies, according to seasons and localities, from 8000 to 9500 feet,
+but the line is not continuous, being often broken in upon. Few flowering
+plants extend above 10,000 feet, but they have been found as high as 12,000
+feet.
+
+At this great elevation are found the wild goat and the chamois. In summer
+the high mountain pastures are covered with large flocks of cattle, sheep,
+and goats, which are in winter removed to a lower and warmer level. The
+marmot, and white or Alpine hare, inhabit both the snowy and the woody
+regions. Lower down are found the wild-cat, fox, lynx, bear, and wolf; the
+last two are now extremely rare. The vulture, eagle, and other birds of
+prey frequent the highest elevations, the ptarmigan seeks its food and
+shelter among the diminutive plants that border upon the snow-line.
+Excellent trout and other fish are found; but the most elevated lakes are,
+from their low temperature, entirely destitute of fish.
+
+The geological structure of the Alps is highly involved, and is far, as
+yet, from being thoroughly investigated or understood. In general three
+zones can be distinguished, a central, in which crystalline rocks prevail,
+and two exterior zones, in which sedimentary rocks predominate. The rocks
+of the central zone consist of granite, gneiss, hornblende, mica slate, and
+other slates and schists. In the western Alps there are also considerable
+elevations in the central zone that belong to the Jurassic (Oolite) and
+Cretaceous formations. From the disposition of the beds, which are broken,
+tilted, and distorted on a gigantic scale, the Alps appear to have been
+formed by a succession of disruptions and elevations extending over a very
+protracted period. Among the minerals that are obtained are iron and lead,
+gold, silver, copper, zinc, alum, and coal.
+
+Extensive views of alpine scenery are now commanded by means of special
+railways climbing to the summit of Mont Blanc, the Jungfrau, and other
+mountains. The Rigi railway was one of the earliest constructed of these.
+Here there are hotels at the top, 5905 feet above the level of the sea, and
+4468 above the Lake of Lucerne. A favourite view from hence is to watch the
+sun rise over the Bernese Alps. The Becca di Nona (8415 feet), south of
+Aosta, gives, according to some authorities, the finest panoramic view to
+be obtained from any summit of the Alps. The most accessible glaciers are
+those of Aletsch, Chamonix, and Zermatt.
+
+ALPUJARRAS ([.a]l-p[:o]-_h_[.a]r'r[.a]s), a district of Spain, in
+Andalusia, between the Sierra Nevada and the Mediterranean, mountainous,
+but with rich and well-cultivated valleys, yielding grain, vines, olives,
+and other fruits. The inhabitants are Christianized descendants of the
+Moors.
+
+ALQUIFOU (al'ki-f[:o]), a sort of lead ore used by potters as a green
+varnish or glaze.
+
+ALSACE ([.a]l-s[.a]s; Ger. _Elsass_), before the French revolution a
+province of France, on the Rhine, afterwards constituting the French
+departments of Haut- and Bas-Rhin, and subsequently to the Franco-Prussian
+war of 1870-1 annexed by Germany, and incorporated in the province of
+Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine). Alsace is generally a level country,
+though there are several ranges of low hills richly wooded. The principal
+river is the Ill. Corn, flax, tobacco, grapes, and other fruits are grown.
+Area, 3202 sq. miles. Pop. 1,218,803. Alsace was originally a part of
+ancient Gaul. It afterwards became a dukedom of the German Empire. In 1268,
+the line of its dukes becoming extinct, it was parcelled out to several
+members of the empire. By the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, a great part of
+it was ceded to France, which afterwards seized the rest of it, this
+seizure being recognized by the peace of Ryswick, in 1697.
+
+ALSACE-LORRAINE, the imperial territory, or Reichsland of
+Elsass-Lothringen, taken by Germany from France in 1871, and restored to
+France in 1919. The province is partly bounded by the Rhine; area, 5605 sq.
+miles. Pop. 1,874,014. Under the German system the province was divided
+into three districts, namely, Lorraine, Upper Alsace, and Lower Alsace, and
+governed by a Statthalter, having his seat at Strassburg. By the law of
+31st May, 1911, a constitution was granted to Alsace-Lorraine, by which it
+received three votes in the Federal Council. After the signing of the
+armistice, French troops occupied Alsace-Lorraine, and the French
+Government, by a decree of 26th Nov., 1918, took over the administration of
+the restored territories, and French officials were installed. The three
+chief towns are Strassburg, Mulhausen, and Metz. About 76 per cent of the
+inhabitants are Roman Catholics, 22 per cent Evangelical, and between 1 and
+2 per cent Jews. The chief crops are wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes,
+and hay; the potash deposits of Alsace are superior to and more extensive
+than those of Strassfurt, Germany. _See France; Moselle._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M.
+Harrison, _The Stolen Lands: a Study on Alsace-Lorraine_; G. W. Edwards,
+_Alsace-Lorraine_.
+
+ALSA'TIA, formerly a cant name for Whitefriars, a district in London
+between the Thames and Fleet Street, and adjoining the Temple, which,
+possessing certain privileges of sanctuary, became for that reason a nest
+of mischievous characters who were liable to be arrested. These privileges
+were abolished in 1697. The name Alsatia is a Latinized form of Alsace,
+which, being on the frontiers of France and Germany, was a harbour for
+necessitous or troublesome characters from both countries.
+
+AL'SEN, an island on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein; length, 20
+miles, breadth, from 5 to 7 miles, diversified with forests, lakes,
+well-cultivated fields, orchards, and towns. Pop. 25,000.
+
+AL SIRAT (s[=e]'rat), in Mahommedan belief the bridge extending over the
+abyss of hell, which must be crossed by everyone on his journey to heaven.
+It is finer than a hair, as sharp as the edge of a sword, and beset with
+thorns on either side. The righteous will pass over with ease and
+swiftness, but the wicked will fall into hell below.
+
+ALSTROEME'RIA, a genus of South American plants, ord. Amaryllidaceae, some
+of them cultivated in European greenhouses and gardens. _A. Salsilla_ and
+_A. ov[=a]ta_ are cultivated for their edible tubers.
+
+ALTAIC LANGUAGES (also called URAL-ALTAIC and TURANIAN), a family of
+languages occupying a portion of Northern and Eastern Europe, and nearly
+the whole of Northern and Central Asia, together with some other regions,
+and divided into five branches, the Ugrian or Finno-Hungarian, Samoyedic,
+Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic.
+
+ALTAI MOUNTAINS ([.a]l't[=i]), an important Asiatic system on the borders
+of Siberia and Mongolia, partly in Russian and partly in Chinese territory,
+between lat. 46deg and 53deg N., long. 83deg and 91deg E., but having great
+eastern extensions. The Russian portion is comprised in the governments of
+Tomsk and Semipalatinsk, the Chinese in Dsungaria. The rivers of this
+region, which are large and numerous, are mostly headwaters of the Obi and
+Irtish. The mountain scenery is generally grand and interesting. The
+highest summit is Byeluka ('white mountain', from its snowy top), height
+11,000 feet. The area covered by perpetual snow is very considerable, and
+glaciers occupy a large area. In the high lands the winter is very severe,
+but on the whole the climate is comparatively mild and is also healthy. The
+flora of the Altai Mountains greatly resembles that of the Alps, about
+five-sixths of the latter being found here. The mountain forests are
+composed of birch, alder, aspen, fir, larch, stone-pine, &c. The wild sheep
+has here its native home, and several kinds of deer are found. The Altai is
+exceedingly rich in minerals, including gold, silver, copper, and iron. The
+name Altai means 'gold mountain'. The inhabitants are chiefly Russians and
+Kalmuks. The chief town is Barnaul.
+
+ALTAMU'RA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, at the foot of the
+Apennines, walled, well built, and containing a magnificent cathedral. Pop.
+25,616.
+
+ALTAR ([a:]l'tar), any pile or structure raised above the ground for
+receiving sacrifices to some divinity. Amongst the Semites the altar was
+primarily the place where the victim was slaughtered, and amongst the
+Indo-Germanic peoples the place where it was burnt. The Greek and Roman
+altars were various in form, and often highly ornamental; in temples they
+were usually placed before the statue of the god. In the Jewish ceremonial
+the altar held an important place, and was associated with many of the most
+significant rites of religion. Two altars were erected in the tabernacle in
+the wilderness, and the same number in the temple. In most sections of the
+Christian Church the communion-table, or table on which the eucharist is
+placed, is called an altar. In the primitive Church it was a table of wood,
+but subsequently stone and metal were introduced with rich ornaments,
+sculpture, and painting. After the introduction of Gothic art the altar
+frequently became a lofty and most elaborate structure. Originally there
+was but one altar in a church, but later on there might be several in a
+large church, the chief or _high altar_ standing at the east end. Over an
+altar there is often a painting (an _altar-piece_), and behind it there may
+be an ornamental _altar-screen_ separating the choir from the east end of
+the church.
+
+ALTAZ'IMUTH (also called UNIVERSAL INSTRUMENT), an astronomical instrument
+similar to a theodolite, having a telescope so mounted that it can be
+turned round in a plane perpendicular to the horizon, while it and the
+graduated vertical circle connected can also be turned horizontally to any
+point of the compass above a graduated horizontal circle. The altazimuth
+can thus determine the altitude and azimuth of objects, hence the name.
+
+ALTDORF. See _Altorf_.
+
+AL'TENA, a town of Prussia, Westphalia, 40 miles N.N.E. of Cologne; it has
+wire-works, rolling-mills, chain-works, manufactories of needles, pins,
+thimbles, &c. Pop. 14,579.
+
+AL'TENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of Saxe-Altenburg, 23 miles south of
+Leipzig. It has some fine streets and many handsome buildings, including a
+splendid palace; it manufactures cigars, woollen yarn, gloves, hats,
+musical instruments, glass, brushes, &c. Pop. 39,976.
+
+ALTERATIVES ([a:]l'-), medicines, as mercury, iodine, &c., which,
+administered in small doses, gradually induce a change in the habit or
+constitution, and imperceptibly alter disordered secretions and actions,
+and restore healthy functions without producing any sensible evacuation by
+perspiration, purging, or vomiting.
+
+ALTER EGO (Lat., 'another I'), a second self, one who represents another in
+every respect. This term was formerly given, in the official style of the
+Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, to a substitute appointed by the king to
+manage the affairs of the kingdom, with full royal power.
+
+[Illustration: Alternate leaves]
+
+ALTER'NATE, in botany, placed on opposite sides of an axis at a different
+level, as leaves.--_Alternate generation_, the reproduction of young not
+resembling their parents, but their grandparents, continuously, as in the
+jelly-fishes, &c. See _Generations, Alternation of_.
+
+ALTERNATOR. See _Electricity_.
+
+ALTHAE'A, a genus of plants. See _Hollyhock_ and _Marsh-mallow_.
+
+ALTHORN, one of the instruments of the sax-horn family, the tenor sax-horn.
+See _Sax-horn_.
+
+AL'TISCOPE, an instrument consisting of an arrangement of mirrors in a
+vertical framework, by means of which a person is enabled to overlook an
+object (a parapet, for instance) intervening between himself and any view
+that he desires to see, the picture of the latter being reflected from a
+higher to a lower mirror, where it is seen by the observer.
+
+AL'TITUDE, in mathematics, the perpendicular height of the vertex or apex
+of a plane figure or solid above the base. In astronomy it is the vertical
+height of any point or body above the horizon. It is measured or estimated
+by the angle subtended between the object and the plane of the horizon, and
+may be either _true_ or _apparent_. The _apparent_ altitude is that which
+is obtained immediately from observation; the _true_ altitude, that which
+results from correcting the apparent altitude, by making allowance for
+parallax, refraction, &c. Altitude is one of the main determining
+influences of local climate. Its increase has the same effect on
+temperature as an increase of distance north or south of the equator.
+
+ALTITUDE-AND-AZIMUTH INSTRUMENT. See _Altazimuth_.
+
+ALTO, in music, the highest singing voice of a male adult, the lowest of a
+boy or a woman, being in the latter the same as _contralto_. The alto, or
+_counter-tenor_, is not a natural voice, but a development of the
+_falsetto_. It is almost entirely confined to English singers, and the only
+music written for it is by English composers. It is especially used in
+cathedral compositions and glees.
+
+ALTOFTS, a town of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, on the south of the
+Calder, 3 miles north-east of Wakefield, with a fourteenth-century Gothic
+church, and extensive collieries adjoining. Pop. (1921), 5050 (urban
+district).
+
+AL'TON, a town of England, in Hampshire, 16 miles north-east of Winchester,
+famous for its ale. Pop. (1921), 5580.
+
+AL'TON, a town of the United States, in Illinois, on the Mississippi near
+the mouth of the Missouri, with a state penitentiary, several mills and
+manufactories, and in the neighbourhood limestone and coal. Pop. 23,783.
+
+AL'TONA, an important commercial city of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right
+bank of the Elbe, adjoining Hamburg, with which it virtually forms one
+city. It is a free port, and its commerce, both inland and foreign, is
+large, being quite identified with that of Hamburg. Pop. (1919), 168,729.
+
+ALTOO'NA, a town of the United States, in Pennsylvania, at the eastern base
+of the Alleghanies, 244 miles west of Philadelphia, with large
+machine-shops and locomotive factories. Pop. (1920), 60,331.
+
+AL'TORF, a small town of Switzerland, capital of the canton of Uri
+beautifully situated, near the Lake of Lucerne, amid gardens and orchards,
+and memorable as the place where, according to legend, Tell shot the apple
+from his son's head. A colossal statue of Tell now stands here. The town
+possesses a beautiful church containing a remarkable organ and a picture by
+Van Dyck. Pop. 3837.
+
+[Illustration: Alto-rilievo.--Soldiers of the Praetorian Guard, the
+personal body-guard of the Emperor Augustus (in the Louvre, Paris).]
+
+ALTO-RILIEVO ([.a]l't[=o]-r[=e]-l[=e]-[=a]"vo), high relief, a term applied
+in regard to sculptured figures to express that they stand out boldly from
+the background, projecting more than half their thickness, without being
+entirely detached. In mezzo-rilievo, or middle relief, the projection is
+one-half, and in basso-rilievo, or bas-relief, less than one-half.
+Alto-rilievo is further distinguished from mezzo-rilievo by some portion of
+the figures standing usually quite free from the surface on which they are
+carved, while in the latter the figures, though rounded, are not detached
+in any part.
+
+ALTOETTING ([.a]lt-eut'ing), a famous place of pilgrimage, in Bavaria, 52
+miles E.N.E. of Munich, near the Inn, with an ancient image of the Madonna
+(the Black Virgin) in a chapel dating from 696, and containing a rich
+treasure in gold and precious stones; and another chapel in which Tilly was
+buried. Pop. 5408.
+
+ALTRANST[:A]DT ([.a]lt'-r[.a]n-stet), a village of Saxony, where a treaty
+was concluded between Charles XII, King of Sweden, and Augustus, Elector of
+Saxony and King of Poland, 24th Sept., 1706, by which the latter resigned
+the crown of Poland.
+
+ALT'RINGHAM, or ALTRINCHAM, a town of England, in Cheshire, 8 miles
+south-west of Manchester, resorted to by invalids; large quantities of
+fruit and vegetables are raised; and there are several industrial works.
+Pop. 20,461. Also a parliamentary division of the county.
+
+AL'TRUISM, a term first employed by the French philosopher Comte, to
+signify devotion to others or to humanity: the opposite of _selfishness_ or
+_egoism_. It was adopted by the English positivists and applied to
+sociological problems of the physical theory of organic evolution. Herbert
+Spencer gives considerable space to the discussion of altruism and egoism
+in his _Data of Ethics_.
+
+ALTST[:A]TTEN ([.a]lt'stet-n), a town of Switzerland, canton St. Gall, in
+the valley of the Rhine, 10 miles south of the Lake of Constance, with
+manufactures of cotton and woollen goods. Pop. 8743.
+
+ALTWASSER ([.a]lt'v[.a]s-[.e]r), a town of Prussia, in Silesia, 35 miles
+south-west of Breslau; here are made porcelain, machinery, iron, yarn,
+mirrors, &c. Pop. 17,321.
+
+AL'UM, a well-known crystalline, astringent substance with a sweetish
+taste, a double sulphate of potassium and aluminium with water of
+crystallization; formula, K_2SO_4.Al_2(SO_4)_3.24 H_2O. It crystallizes in
+colourless regular octahedra. Its solution reddens vegetable blues. When
+heated, its water of crystallization is driven off, and it becomes light
+and spongy with slightly corrosive properties, and is used as a caustic
+under the name of _burnt alum_. Alum is prepared in Great Britain at Whitby
+from alum-slate--where it forms the cliffs for miles--and was once
+manufactured near Glasgow from bituminous alum-shale and slate-clay,
+obtained from old coal-pits. It is also prepared near Rome from alum-stone.
+Common alum is strictly _potash_ alum; other two varieties are _soda_ alum
+and _ammonia_ alum, both similar in properties. _Iron alum_ (pale mauve)
+and _chrome alum_ (deep purple) are compounds containing iron and chromium
+in place of aluminium. Alum is employed to harden tallow, to remove grease
+from printers' cushions and blocks in calico manufactories, and in dyeing
+as a mordant. It is also largely used in the composition of crayons, in
+tannery, and in medicine (as an astringent and styptic). Wood and paper are
+dipped in a solution of alum to render them less combustible.
+
+ALUMBAGH (_a_-l_a_m-b[:a]g'), a palace and connected buildings in
+Hindustan, about 4 miles south of Lucknow. On the outbreak of the Indian
+Mutiny it was occupied by the revolted sepoys, and converted into a fort.
+On the 23rd Sept., 1857, it was captured by the British, and during the
+following winter a British garrison, under Sir James Outram, held out
+there, though repeatedly attacked by overwhelming numbers of the rebels,
+till in March, 1858, it was finally relieved. Sir Henry Havelock was buried
+within the grounds.
+
+ALU'MINA (Al_2O_3), the single oxide of the metal aluminium. As found
+native it is called corundum, when crystallized ruby or sapphire, when
+amorphous emery. It is next to the diamond in hardness. In combination with
+silica it is one of the most widely distributed of substances, as it enters
+in large quantity into the composition of granite, traps, slates, schists,
+clays, loams, and other rocks. The porcelain clays and kaolins contain
+about half their weight of this earth, to which they owe their most
+valuable properties. It forms compounds with certain colouring matters,
+which causes it to be employed in the preparation of the colours called
+_lakes_ in dyeing and calico-printing. It combines with the acids and forms
+numerous salts, the most important of which are the sulphate (see _Alum_)
+and acetate, the latter of extensive use as a mordant.
+
+ALUMIN'IUM (symbol Al, atomic weight 27.1), a metal discovered in 1827, but
+nowhere found native, although its oxide, alumina (which see), is
+abundantly distributed. The minerals _bauxite_ and _cryolite_ are sources
+of aluminium, but the chief source is the pure oxide, from which the metal
+is obtained by means of a strong electric current. It is a shining white
+metal, of a colour between that of silver and platinum, very light
+(specific gravity, 2.56 cast, 2.67 hammered), not liable to tarnish nor
+undergo oxidation in the air, very ductile and malleable, and remarkably
+sonorous. It forms several useful alloys with iron and copper; one of the
+latter (_aluminium gold_) much resembles gold, and is made into cheap
+trinkets. Another, known as _aluminium bronze_, possesses great hardness
+and tenacity. Spoons, tea and coffee pots, dish-covers, musical and
+mathematical instruments, trinkets, &c., are made of aluminium.
+
+ALUM-ROOT, the name given in America to two plants from the remarkable
+astringency of their roots, which are used for medical purposes:
+_Ger[=a]nium macul[=a]tum_ and _Heuch[)e]ra americ[=a]na_ (nat. ord.
+Saxifragaceae).
+
+ALUM-SLATE, or ALUM-SCHIST, a slaty rock from which much alum is prepared;
+colour greyish, bluish, or iron-black; often possessed of a glossy or
+shining lustre; chiefly composed of clay (silicate of alumina), with
+variable proportions of sulphide of iron (iron-pyrites), lime, bitumen, and
+magnesia.
+
+ALUM-STONE. See _Alunite_.
+
+ALUNITE, a mineral sulphate of aluminium and potassium, greyish or
+yellowish white, from which alum is prepared in Sicily by roasting and
+lixiviation. It is regarded as a possible source of potassium for
+agriculture and also of aluminium. A considerable vein occurs in Utah.
+
+ALUN'NO, Niccolo (real name NICCOLO DE LIBERATORE), an Italian painter of
+the fifteenth century, the founder of the Umbrian School, born in Foligno
+about 1430, died 1502. Vasari, interpreting wrongly the passage "Nicholaus
+alumnus Fulginiae", gave him the name of Alunno.
+
+AL'VA, a town of Scotland, in Clackmannanshire, 2-1/2 miles north of Alloa,
+near the River Devon, at the foot of the Ochils. It manufactures woollen
+shawls, tweeds, yarn, &c. Pop. (1921), 4107.
+
+AL'VA, or AL'BA, Ferdinand Alvarez, Duke of, Spanish statesman and general
+under Charles V and Philip II, was born in 1508; early embraced a military
+career, and fought in the wars of Charles V in France, Italy, Africa,
+Hungary, and Germany. He is more especially remembered for his bloody and
+tyrannical government of the Netherlands (1567-73), which had revolted, and
+which he was commissioned by Philip II to reduce to entire subjection to
+Spain. Among his first proceedings was to establish the 'Council of Blood',
+a tribunal which condemned, without discrimination, all whose opinions were
+suspected, and whose riches were coveted. The present and absent, the
+living and the dead, were subjected to trial and their property
+confiscated. Many merchants and mechanics emigrated to England; people by
+hundreds of thousands abandoned their country. The Counts of Egmont and
+Horn, and other men of rank, were executed, and William and Louis of Orange
+had to save themselves in Germany. The most oppressive taxes were imposed,
+and trade was brought completely to a standstill. As a reward for his
+services to the faith the Pope presented him with a consecrated hat and
+sword, a distinction previously conferred only on princes. Resistance was
+only quelled for a time, and soon the provinces of Holland and Zealand
+revolted against his tyranny. A fleet which was fitted out at his command
+was annihilated, and he was everywhere met with insuperable courage.
+Hopeless of finally subduing the country he asked to be recalled, and
+accordingly, in Dec., 1573, Alva left the country, in which, as he himself
+boasted, he had executed 18,000 men. He was received with distinction in
+Madrid, but did not long enjoy his former credit. He had the honour,
+however, before his death (which took place in 1582) of reducing all
+Portugal to subjection to his sovereign. It is said of him that during
+sixty years of warfare he never lost a battle and was never taken by
+surprise.
+
+ALVARADO ([.a]l-v[.a]-r[:a]'d[=o]), Pedro de, one of the Spanish
+'conquistadores', was born towards the end of the fifteenth century, and
+died in 1541. Having crossed the Atlantic, he was associated (1519) with
+Cortez in his expedition to conquer Mexico; and was entrusted with
+important operations. In July, 1520, during the disastrous retreat from the
+capital after the death of Montezuma, the perilous command of the
+rear-guard was assigned to Alvarado. On his return to Spain he was received
+with honour by Charles V, who made him governor of Guatemala, which he had
+himself conquered. To this was subsequently added Honduras. He continued to
+add to the Spanish dominions in America till his death.
+
+ALVAREZ ([.a]l-v[.a]-reth'), Don Jose, a Spanish sculptor, born 1768, died
+1827. His works are characterized by truth to nature, dignity, and feeling,
+one of the chief representing a scene in the defence of Saragossa. The
+Museo del Prado, in Madrid, contains some of his finest work.
+
+ALVE'OLUS, one of the sockets in which the teeth of mammals are fixed.
+Hence _alveolar arches_, the parts of the jaws containing these sockets.
+
+ALVERSTOKE. See _Gosport_.
+
+ALVERSTONE, Richard Everard Webster, first Viscount, eminent English
+lawyer, born in 1842, died in 1915. Educated at King's College School, the
+Charterhouse, and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar in
+1868, and made Q.C. in 1878. He was Member of Parliament for Launceston for
+a short time in 1885, and from that year to 1900 represented the Isle of
+Wight. He was Attorney-General from 1885-6, 1886-92, and 1895-1900, being
+then made Lord Chief Justice and elevated to the peerage: he had been
+created a baronet in 1899. He represented Britain in the arbitration with
+the United States regarding the Behring Sea (1893), in the affair of the
+Venezuelan and Guiana boundary (1898-9), and was one of three British
+commissioners who, with three from the United States, settled the Canada
+and Alaska boundary in 1903. Upon retiring in 1913 he was created viscount.
+His book _Recollections of Bar and Bench_ was published in 1914.
+
+ALWAR (_a_l-w_a_r'), a State of north-western Hindustan, in Rajputana;
+area, 3141 sq. miles; surface generally elevated and rugged, and much of it
+of an arid description, though water is generally found on the plains by
+digging a little beneath the surface, and the means of irrigation being
+thus provided, the soil, though sandy, is highly productive. This
+semi-independent State has as its ruler a rajah with a revenue of L232,000;
+military force, about 5000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. Pop.
+791,688.--_Alwar_, the capital, is situated at the base of a rocky hill
+crowned by a fort, 80 miles S.S.W. of Delhi. It is surrounded by a moat and
+rampart, and is poorly built, but has fine surroundings; it contains the
+rajah's palace and a few other good buildings. Pop. 41,305.
+
+ALYS'SUM (_A. saxatile_, L.), a native of Crete, a genus of cruciferous
+plants, several species of which are cultivated on account of their white
+or yellow coloured flowers; madwort.
+
+ALYTH ([=a]'lith), a town of Scotland, Perthshire, near the eastern
+boundary, with linen and jute manufactures. Pop. (1921), 1710.
+
+AMAD'AVAT (_Estrilda amand[=a]va_), a small Indian singing bird allied to
+the finches and buntings; the female is olive-brown, and the male, in
+summer, largely crimson.
+
+AMADE'US, the name of several counts of Savoy. The first was the son of
+Humbert I, and succeeded him in 1048, dying about 1078; others who have
+occupied an important place in history are the following:--AMADEUS V, 'the
+Great', succeeded in 1285; gained great honour in defending Rhodes against
+the Turks; increased his possessions by marriage and war; was made a prince
+of the empire; died in 1323.--AMADEUS VIII succeeded his father, Amadeus
+VII, in 1391, and had his title raised to that of duke by the Emperor
+Sigismund. He was chosen regent of Piedmont; but after this elevation
+retired from his throne and family into a religious house. He now aspired
+to the papacy, and was chosen by the Council of Basel (1439), becoming
+Pope, or rather anti-Pope, under the name of Felix V, though he had never
+taken holy orders. He was recognized as Pope by only a few princes, and
+resigned in 1449, being the last of the anti-Popes. He died in 1451.
+
+AMADE'US, Duke of Aosta, for a short time King of Spain, second son of
+Victor Emanuel of Italy, and brother of Humbert I, King of Italy. He was
+born in 1845, and, thanks to the influence of Marshals Prim and Serrano,
+was chosen by the Cortes King of Spain in 1870, Queen Isabella having had
+to leave the country in 1868. He made his entrance into Madrid as king on
+2nd Jan., 1871, and took the oath to the constitution. His position was far
+from comfortable, however, and, having little hope of becoming acceptable
+to all parties, he abdicated in 1873 (11th Feb.). He died in 1890.
+
+AMADE'US, Lake, a large salt lake or salt swamp in South Australia, and
+nearly in the centre of Australia. It was discovered by Giles in 1872, and
+is seldom visited, being in a dreary, arid region.
+
+AM'ADIS, a name belonging to a number of heroes in the romances of
+chivalry, Amadis de Gaul being the greatest among them, and represented as
+the progenitor of the whole. The Spanish series of Amadis romances is the
+oldest. It is comprised in fourteen books, of which the first four narrate
+the adventures of Amadis de Gaul, this portion of the series having
+originated about the end of the thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth
+century, and the subsequent books being added by various hands. An abridged
+English translation of _Amadis of Gaul_ was published by Southey in 1803.
+
+AMADOU (am'a-d[:o]), a name of several fungi, genus Polyp[)o]rus, of a
+leathery appearance, growing on trees. See _German Tinder_.
+
+AMAGER ([.a]m'a-ger), a small Danish island in the Sound, opposite
+Copenhagen, part of which is situated on it. Rural pop. 25,000.
+
+AMAKO'SA, one of the Kaffir tribes of S. Africa.
+
+AMALASUN'THA, daughter of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, and after his
+death regent of Italy for her son Athalarich. Athalarich died in 534, after
+which Amalasuntha married her cousin Theodahad, but retained the power in
+her own hands. Mainly on this account she was imprisoned and strangled in
+her bath by order of her second husband, A.D. 535.
+
+AMAL'EKITES, an ancient tribe occupying the peninsula between Egypt and
+Palestine, named after a grandson of Esau. They were denounced by Moses for
+their hostility to the Israelites during their journey through the
+wilderness, and they seem to have been all but exterminated by Saul and
+David. The Kenites seem to have been a branch of the Amalekites.
+
+AMAL'FI, a seaport in Southern Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno, 23 miles from
+Naples, the seat of an archbishop. In the early part of the Middle Ages it
+was a place of great commercial importance, and it long enjoyed a
+republican constitution of its own. Quarrels with its neighbours,
+encroachments of the sea, and other causes led to its downfall, but it is
+still much visited by tourists. The road from Salerno to Amalfi is a
+magnificent carriage-way, partly hewn in the cliffs, and affords charming
+views. Amalfi is surrounded by rocky heights, and its harbour was choked up
+by a landslip in 1900. Here arose the _Amalfian Code_ of maritime law,
+composed in 1010 and containing 66 articles, which once had great influence
+in the maritime affairs of the Mediterranean trading peoples. The MS. was
+discovered by the Prince of Andorra, in 1844, in the imperial library at
+Vienna. Pop. 7472.
+
+AMAL'GAM, a name applied to the alloys of mercury with the other metals.
+One of them is the amalgam of mercury with tin, which is used to silver
+looking-glasses. Mercury unites very readily with gold and silver at
+ordinary temperatures, and advantage is taken of this to separate them from
+their ores, the process being called _amalgamation_. The mercury dissolves
+and combines with the precious metal and separates it from the waste
+matters, and is itself easily driven off by heat. An amalgam made of
+cadmium and copper is frequently used in dentistry, and an amalgam of zinc
+and tin is used for the rubbers of frictional electric machines.
+
+[Illustration: Amanita.--Two forms of fly-agaric]
+
+AMANI'TA, a genus of fungi, one species of which, _A. musc[=a]ria_, or
+fly-agaric, is extremely poisonous.
+
+AMA'NUS, a branch of the Taurus Mountains in Asia Minor.
+
+AMAPALA ([.a]-m[.a]-p[:a]'l[.a]), a seaport of Central America, State of
+Honduras, on a small island.
+
+AMARANTHA'CEAE, the amaranths, a nat. ord. of apetalous plants, chiefly
+found in tropical countries, where they are often troublesome weeds. They
+are remarkable for the white or sometimes reddish scales of which their
+flowers are composed. Amaranthus, the typical genus, comprises _A.
+caud[=a]tus_, or love-lies-bleeding, a common plant in gardens, with
+pendulous racemes of crimson flowers; and _A. hypochondri[)a]cus_, or
+prince's feather. The blossoms keep their bloom after being plucked and
+dried (hence the name: Gr. _a_, not, and _marain[=o]_, to wither).
+
+AMARAPURA (_a_-m_a_-r_a_-p[:o]'r_a_), a deserted city, once the capital of
+the Burmese Empire, on the left bank of the Irawadi, quite close to
+Mandalay. In 1810, when the city had about 175,000 inhabitants, it was
+completely destroyed by fire; in 1839 it was visited by a destructive
+earthquake. In 1857 the seat of government was removed to Mandalay. Pop.
+6500.
+
+AMARYLLIDA'CEAE, an order of monocotyledonous plants, generally bulbous,
+occasionally with a tall, cylindrical, woody stem (as in Agave); with a
+highly-coloured flower, six stamens, and an inferior three-celled ovary;
+natives of Europe and most of the warmer parts of the world. The order
+includes the snowdrop, the snow-flake, the daffodil, the belladonna-lily
+(belonging to the typical genus Amaryllis), the so-called Guernsey-lily
+(probably a native of Japan), the Brunsvigias, the blood-flowers
+(Haemanthus) of the Cape of Good Hope, different species of Narcissus,
+Agave (American aloe), &c. Many are highly prized in gardens and
+hot-houses; the bulbs of some are extremely poisonous.
+
+AMASIA ([.a]-m[.a]-s[=e]'[.a]), a town in the north of Asia Minor, on the
+Irmak, 60 miles from the Black Sea, surmounted by a rocky height in which
+is a ruined fortress; has numerous mosques, richly-endowed Mahommedan
+schools, and a trade in wine, silk, &c. Amasia was a residence of the
+ancient kings of Pontus. A few miles from Amasia, on the road leading to
+Zilleh, is the famous battle-field where Caesar defeated Pharnaces, King of
+Pontus, and whence he sent his famous message to Rome: _Veni, vidi, vici_.
+Pop. 30,000.
+
+AMA'SIS, King of Egypt from 569 to 526 B.C., obtained the throne by
+rebelling against his predecessor and benefactor Apries, and is chiefly
+known from his friendship for the Greeks, and his wise government of the
+kingdom, which, under him, was in the most prosperous condition. He was
+succeeded by his son Psammetik.
+
+AMATI ([.a]-m[:a]'t[=e]), a family, almost a dynasty, of Cremona who
+manufactured violins in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Andrea
+(about 1540-1600) was the founder of the business, which was carried on by
+his sons Geronimo and Antonio, and by Niccolo the son of Geronimo. The
+first instrument signed Amati bears the date 1546. Most of the violins made
+by them are of comparatively small size and flat model, and the tone
+produced by the fourth or G string is somewhat thin and sharp. Many of
+Niccolo Amati's violins are, however, of a larger size and have all the
+fulness and intensity of tone characteristic of those manufactured by
+Stradivario and Guarnerio.
+
+AMATIT'LAN, a town in Central America, State of Guatemala, about 15 miles
+south of the city of Guatemala, a busy modern town, the inhabitants of
+which are actively engaged in the cochineal trade. There is a small lake of
+the same name close to the town. Pop. 12,000.
+
+AMAURO'SIS (Gr. _amauros_, dark), a species of blindness, formerly called
+_gutta serena_ (the 'drop serene', as Milton, whose blindness was of this
+sort, called it), caused by disease of the nerves of vision. The most
+frequent causes are a long-continued direction of the eye on minute
+objects, long exposure to a bright light, to the fire of a forge, to snow,
+or irritating gases, overfulness of blood, disease of the brain, &c. If
+taken in time it may be cured or mitigated; but, unless caused by loss of
+blood, by lead-poisoning, or debility, it is usually incurable.
+
+AMAXICHI ([.a]-m[.a]ks'[=e]-h[=e]), the chief town and seaport of Santa
+Maura (Leukadia), one of the Ionian Isles, the seat of a Greek bishop;
+manufactures cotton and leather. Pop. 5500.
+
+AM'AZON, or AM'AZONS, a river of South America, the largest in the world,
+formed by a great number of sources which rise in the Andes, the two head
+branches being the Tunguragua or Maranon and the Ucayali, both rising in
+Peru, the former from Lake Lauricocha, in lat. 10deg 29' S., the latter
+formed by the Apurimac and Urubamba, the headwaters of which are between
+lat. 14deg and 16deg S.; general course north of east; length, including
+windings, between 3000 and 4000 miles; area of drainage basin, 2,500,000
+sq. miles. It enters the Atlantic under the equator by a mouth 200 miles
+wide, divided into two principal and several smaller arms by the large
+island Marajo and a number of smaller islands. In its upper course
+navigation is interrupted by rapids, but from its mouth upwards for a
+distance of 3300 miles (mostly in Brazil) there is no obstruction. It
+receives the waters of about 200 tributaries, 100 of which are navigable
+and seventeen of these 1000 to 2300 miles in length; northern tributaries:
+Santiago, Morona, Pastaca, Tigre, Napo, Putumayo, Japura, Rio Negro (the
+Cassiquiare connects this stream with the Orinoco), &c.; southern:
+Huallaga, Ucayali, Javari, Jutay, Jurua, Coary, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos,
+Xingu, &c. At Tabatinga, where it enters Brazilian territory, the breadth
+is 1-1/2 miles; below the mouth of the Madeira it is 3 miles wide, and
+where there are islands often as much as 7; from the sea to the Rio Negro,
+750 miles in a straight line, the depth is nowhere less than 30 fathoms; up
+to the junction of the Ucayale there is depth sufficient for the largest
+vessels. The Amazonian water system affords some 50,000 miles of river
+suitable for navigation. The rapidity of the river is considerable,
+especially during the rainy season (Jan. to June), when it is subject to
+floods; but there is no great fall in its course. The tides reach up as far
+as 400 miles from its mouth. The singular phenomenon of the _bore_, or as
+it is called on the Amazon the _pororoca_, occurs at the mouth of the river
+at spring-tides on a grand scale. The river swarms with alligators,
+turtles, and a great variety of fish. The country through which it flows is
+extremely fertile, and is mostly covered with immense forests; it must at
+some future time support a numerous population, and be the theatre of a
+busy commerce. Steamers and other craft ply on the river, the chief centre
+of trade being Para, at its mouth. The Amazon was discovered by Vicente
+Yanez Pinzon in 1500, but the stream was not navigated by any European till
+1541, when Francis Orellana descended it. Orellana stated that he found on
+its banks a nation of armed women, and this circumstance gave the name to
+the river.
+
+AMAZ'ONAS, the largest state of Brazil, traversed by the Amazon and its
+tributaries; area, 731,000 sq. miles. Pop. 459,309.
+
+AM'AZONS, according to an ancient Greek tradition, the name of a community
+of women, who permitted no men to reside among them, fought under the
+conduct of a queen, and long constituted a formidable State. They were said
+to burn off the right breast that it might not impede them in the use of
+the bow--a legend that arose from the Greeks supposing the name was from
+_a_, not, _mazos_, breast. It is probably from _a_, together, and _mazos_,
+breast, the name meaning therefore sisters. Several nations of Amazons are
+mentioned, the most famous being those who dwelt in Pontus, who built
+Ephesus and other cities. Their queen, Hippolyta, was vanquished by
+Hercules, who took from her the girdle of Mars. They attacked Attica in the
+time of Theseus. They came to the assistance of Troy under their queen,
+Penthesil[=e]a, who was slain by Achilles.
+
+AMAZU'LU, a branch of the Zulu Kaffir race. See _Zulus_.
+
+AMBA'LA, or UMBALL'A, a town of India, in the Punjab, in an open plain 3
+miles from the Ghaggar, consisting of an old and a new portion, with a
+flourishing trade in grain and other commodities. The military cantonment
+is several miles distant. Total pop. 80,131.
+
+AMBALE'MA, a town of S. America, Colombia, on the Magdalena; the centre of
+an important tobacco district. Pop. 6285.
+
+AM'BAREE, a fibre similar to jute largely used in India, obtained from
+_Hibiscus cannab[=i]nus_.
+
+AMBARVALIA, an ancient Roman festival held annually in May, and celebrated
+by the Arval Brothers (Fratres Arvales). Its object was to preserve the
+growing crops from harm of any kind.
+
+AMBAS'SADOR, a minister of the highest rank, employed by one prince or
+State at the Court of another to manage the public concerns, or support the
+interests of his own prince or State, and representing the power and
+dignity of his sovereign or State. Ambassadors are _ordinary_ when they
+reside permanently at a foreign Court, or _extraordinary_ when they are
+sent on a special occasion. When _ambassadors extraordinary_ have full
+powers, as of concluding peace, making treaties, and the like, they are
+called _plenipotentiaries_. Ambassadors are often called simply
+_ministers_. _Envoys_ are ministers employed on special occasions, and are
+of less dignity than ambassadors. The term _ambassador_, however, is also
+used in a more general sense for any diplomatic agent or minister. An
+ambassador and his suite are not amenable to the laws of the country in
+which they are residing. See _Diplomacy_.
+
+AM'BATCH (_Hermini[=e]ra elaphrox[)y]lon_), a thorny leguminous shrub with
+yellow flowers growing in the shallows of the Upper Nile and other rivers
+of tropical Africa, 15 to 20 feet high. Its wood is extremely light and
+spongy, and hence is made into floats or rafts. A raft capable of bearing
+eight persons can easily be carried by one.
+
+AMBA'TO, a town of Ecuador, on the side of Chimborazo, 70 miles south of
+Quito. Pop. 12,000.
+
+AM'BER, a semi-mineral substance of resinous composition, a sort of fossil
+resin, the produce of extinct Coniferae, used for the manufacture of
+ornamental objects. It is usually of yellow or reddish-brown colour;
+brittle; yields easily to the knife; is translucent, and possessed of a
+resinous lustre. Specific gravity, 1.065. It burns with a yellow flame,
+emitting a pungent aromatic smoke, and leaving a light carbonaceous
+residue, which is employed as the basis of the finest black varnishes. By
+friction it becomes strongly electric. It is found in masses from the size
+of coarse sand to that of a man's head, and occurs in beds of bituminous
+wood situated upon the shores of the Baltic and Adriatic Seas; also in
+Poland, France, Italy, and Denmark. It is often washed up on the Prussian
+shores of the Baltic, and is also obtained by fishing for it with nets.
+Sometimes it is found on the east coast of Britain, in gravel pits round
+London, also in the United States.
+
+AM'BERG, a town of South Germany, in Bavaria, on the Vils, well built, with
+a Gothic church of the fifteenth century, royal palace, town house, &c.; it
+manufactures iron-wares, stone-ware, tobacco, beer, vinegar, and arms. Pop.
+25,242.
+
+AM'BERGRIS, a substance derived from the intestines of the sperm-whale, and
+found floating or on the shore; yellowish or blackish white; very light;
+melts at 140deg, and is entirely dissipated on red-hot coals; is soluble in
+ether, volatile oils, and partially in alcohol, and is chiefly composed of
+a peculiar fatty, substance. Its odour is very agreeable, and hence it is
+used as a perfume.
+
+AMBLE, a town (urban district) of England, Northumberland, near the mouth
+of the River Coquet, with a harbour at which coal is exported, fishing also
+being carried on. Pop. 4851.
+
+AMBLESIDE, an old market-town of England, Westmorland, near the head of
+Windermere, a great tourist centre. Pop. (1921), 2878.
+
+AMBLETEUSE ([.a][n.]-bl-t_eu_z), a small seaport of France, 6 miles from
+Boulogne. After the capture of Boulogne in 1544 the English began to
+construct a military harbour here under the name of New Haven, but had to
+abandon the enterprise in 1554. Here James II landed on Christmas Day,
+1688, after his flight from England; and from its harbour Napoleon I
+prepared to dispatch a flotilla of flat-bottomed boats for the invasion of
+Britain.
+
+AMBLYOP'SIS, a genus of blind fishes, containing only one species, _A.
+spelaeus_, found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.
+
+AM'BLYOPY, dullness or obscurity of eyesight without any apparent defect in
+the organs; the first stage of amaurosis.
+
+AM'BO, or AM'BON, in early Christian churches a kind of raised desk or
+pulpit, sometimes richly ornamented, from which certain parts of the
+service were read, or discourses delivered, there being sometimes two in
+one church. Some of the most ancient of these pulpits (fourth century) are
+at Salonica and at Ravenna (fifth and sixth centuries). The ambo
+constructed by Justinian in the Church of St. Sophia was destroyed by an
+earthquake.
+
+AMBOINA. See _Amboyna_.
+
+AMBOISE ([.a][n.]-bw[:a]z), a town of France, department Indre-et-Loire, 12
+miles east of Tours, on the Loire, with an antique castle, the residence of
+several French kings, and manufactures of files and rasps. Near the Chateau
+d'Amboise is that of Cloux, which was given by Francis I to Leonardo da
+Vinci, and where the artist died in 1519. Pop. 4660.
+
+AMBOY'NA, AMBOINA, or APON, one of the Molucca Islands in the Indian
+Archipelago, close to the large island of Ceram; area, about 360 sq. miles.
+Here is the seat of government of the Dutch residency or province of
+Amboyna, which includes also Ceram, Buru, &c. Its surface is generally
+hilly or mountainous, its general aspect beautiful, and its climate on the
+whole salubrious, but frequently visited by earthquakes. It affords a
+variety of useful trees, including the coco-nut and sago palms. Cloves and
+nutmegs are the staple productions. The soil in the valleys and along the
+shores is very fertile, but a large portion remains uncultivated. The
+natives are mostly of Malayan race. The capital, also called _Amboyna_, is
+situated on the Bay of Amboyna, and is well built and defended by a
+citadel. The streets are planted on each side with rows of fruit-trees. It
+is a free port. Pop. 10,000. In 1607 Amboyna and the other Moluccas were
+taken by the Dutch from the Portuguese, and it was for some years the seat
+of government of the Dutch East Indies. Trade with the Moluccas was secured
+to the British by treaty in 1619, but the British establishment was
+destroyed and several persons massacred in 1623, an outrage for which no
+satisfaction was obtained till Cromwell obtained it in 1654. Amboyna was
+taken by the British in 1796 and 1810, but each time restored to the Dutch.
+Pop. about 40,000. The Dutch residency of Amboyna, including the Banda
+group, Ceram, Buru, and other islands, has an area of 19,870 sq. miles and
+a population of about 300,000.
+
+AMBOYNA WOOD, a beautiful curled orange or brownish coloured wood brought
+from the Moluccas, yielded by _Pterospermum indicum_.
+
+AMBRA'CIA. See _Arta_.
+
+AMBRINE, a preparation of paraffin, resin, and wax, used as a remedy in the
+treatment of burns and scalds and in rheumatic disorders. It was discovered
+by Barthe de Sandford, a French doctor, in 1904.
+
+AM'BROSE, Saint, a celebrated father of the Church; born in A.D. 333 or
+334, probably at Treves, where his father was prefect; died in 397. He was
+educated at Rome, studied law, practised as a pleader at Milan, and in 369
+was appointed governor of Liguria and Aemilia (North Italy). His kindness
+and wisdom gained him the esteem and love of the people, and in 374 he was
+unanimously called to the bishopric of Milan, though not yet baptized. For
+a time he refused to accept this dignity, but he had to give way, and at
+once ranged himself against the Arians. In his struggles against the Arian
+heresy he was opposed by Justina, mother of Valentinian II, and for a time
+by the young emperor himself, together with the courtiers and the Gothic
+troops. Backed by the people of Milan, however, he felt strong enough to
+deny the Arians the use of a single church in the city, although Justina,
+in her son's name, demanded that two should be given up. He had also to
+carry on a war with paganism, Symmachus, the prefect of the city, an
+eloquent orator, having endeavoured to restore the worship of heathen
+deities. In 390, on account of the ruthless massacres at Thessalonica
+ordered by the emperor Theodosius, he refused him entrance into the church
+of Milan for eight months. The later years of his life were devoted to the
+more immediate care of his see. His writings, which are numerous, show that
+his theological knowledge extended little beyond an acquaintance with the
+works of the Greek fathers. He wrote Latin hymns, but the _Te Deum
+Laudamus_, which has been ascribed to him, was written a century later. He
+introduced the _Ambrosian Chant_, a mode of singing more monotonous than
+the Gregorian, which superseded it. He also compiled a form of ritual known
+by his name. The best edition of his works is that published in Paris,
+1686-90, in 2 vols. fol., and reissued at Lyons in 1853.
+
+AMBRO'SIA, in Greek mythology the food of the gods, as nectar was their
+drink.
+
+AMBROSIAN CHANT. See _Ambrose_.
+
+AMBROSIAN LIBRARY, a public library in Milan founded by the cardinal
+archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a relation of St. Charles Borromeo, who sent
+scholars, among them Antonio Olgiati, all over Europe to acquire books. The
+library was opened in 1609, now containing 230,000 printed books and many
+MSS., among the latter being the famous collection of Pinelli. It was named
+in honour of St. Ambrose, the patron saint of Milan.
+
+AM'BRY, a niche or recess in the wall of ancient churches near the altar,
+fitted with a door and used for keeping the sacred utensils, &c.
+
+AMBULA'CRAL SYSTEM, the locomotive apparatus of the Echinodermata
+(sea-urchins, star-fishes, &c.), the most important feature of which is the
+protrusible tube-feet that the animal can at will dilate with water and
+thus move forward.
+
+AM'BULANCE (FIELD), a military medical unit attached to an army in the
+field for the purpose of providing medical and surgical first-aid to sick
+and wounded immediately behind the fighting-line. The term field-ambulance
+was adopted in the British service in 1905-6. The chief and most important
+duty of a field-ambulance is to relieve fighting troops of their sick and
+wounded and transfer them to the rear to the collecting-hospitals, known as
+Casualty Clearing Stations, situated at the head of the line of
+communications to the army's base. Three field-ambulances are attached to
+each division in the field, one to each brigade, and their officers and men
+are divided into bearer and nursing sections and equipped with horse or
+mule and motor transport for wounded and sick. In the East sick and wounded
+are often carried in litters on camel-back, two of the cacolets being
+balanced against each other. A medical ambulance is theoretically able to
+undertake any hospital work, but in practice it confines itself when in
+action with its division to clearing the front line, and when at rest to
+treating the minor maladies such as lice, scabies, and slight illnesses
+which do not require much time or equipment. The medical and surgical
+outfit of an ambulance is carried in panniers and is usually in excess of
+its requirements. The word ambulance is often used to designate the motors
+or other vehicles employed by military or civil authorities in carrying the
+sick and wounded.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. M. Bird, _The Errand of Mercy: a
+History of Ambulance Work upon the Battle-field_; G. H. Painton, _The Field
+Ambulance Guide_.
+
+AMELAN'CHIER (-k[=e]-[.e]r), a genus of small trees natives of Europe and
+N. America, allied to the medlar. _A. vulg[=a]ris_, long cultivated in
+English gardens, has showy white flowers; _A. Botry[=a]pium_ (grape-pear)
+and _A. ov[=a]lis_, American species, yield pleasant fruits.
+
+AMELAND ([:a]'me-l[.a]nt), an island off the north coast of Holland, 13
+miles long and 3 broad; flat; inhabitants (about 2000 in number) chiefly
+engaged in fishing and agriculture.
+
+AMELIE-LES-BAINS ([.a]-m[=a]-l[=e]-l[=a]-ba[n.]), a village of France,
+department Pyrenees-Orientales, frequented as a winter residence for
+invalids, and for its warm sulphureous springs. The place was known to the
+Romans, as it has been proved by the discovery of Roman medals there.
+
+AMEN ([=a]-men'), a Hebrew word, signifying 'verily', 'truly', transferred
+from the religious language of the Jews to that of the Christians, and used
+at the end of prayers as equivalent to 'so be it', 'may this be granted'.
+
+AMEND'MENT, a proposal brought forward in a meeting of some public or other
+body, either in order to get an alteration introduced into some proposal
+already before the meeting, or entirely to overturn such proposal. In
+Parliament an amendment denotes an alteration made in the original draft of
+a Bill whilst it is passing through the houses. Amendments may be made so
+as totally to alter the nature of the proposition; and this is a way of
+getting rid of a proposition, by making it bear a sense different from what
+was intended by the movers, who are thus compelled to abandon it.
+
+AMENO'PHIS (or AMENHOTEP) III, a king of ancient Egypt about 1500 B.C.;
+warred successfully against Syrians and Ethiopians; built magnificent
+temples and palaces at Thebes, where the so-called Memnon statue is a
+statue of this king. He was the only Egyptian king deified during his
+lifetime.
+
+AMENORRHOE'A, absence or suspension of menstruation. The former may arise
+from general debility or from defective development, the latter from
+exposure to cold, from attacks of fever or other ailment, violent
+excitement, &c.
+
+AMENTA'CEAE, an order of plants having their flowers arranged in amenta or
+catkins; now broken up into several orders, the chief of which are
+Betulaceae (the birch), Salicaceae (the willow), Fagaceae (the beech),
+Juglandaceae (the walnut), and Myricaceae (bog-myrtle).
+
+AMEN'TIA, imbecility from birth, especially when extreme; idiocy.
+
+[Illustration: Amentum
+Hazel (_Corylus Avellana_) showing Catkins and Nuts.]
+
+AMEN'TUM, in botany, that kind of inflorescence which is commonly known as
+a catkin (as in the birch or willow), consisting of unisexual apetalous
+flowers in the axil of scales or bracts.
+
+AMER'ICA, or the NEW WORLD, the largest of the great divisions of the globe
+except Asia, is washed on the west by the Pacific, on the east by the
+Atlantic, on the north by the Arctic Ocean, while on the south it tapers to
+a point. On the north-west it approaches within about 50 miles of Asia,
+while on the north-east the island of Greenland approaches within 370 miles
+of the European island Iceland; but in the south the distance between the
+American mainland and Europe or Africa is very great. Extreme points of the
+continent--north, Boothia Felix, at the Strait of Bellot, lat. 72deg N.;
+south, Cape Horn, lat. 56deg S.; west, Cape Prince of Wales, long. 168deg
+W.; east, Point de Guia, long. 35deg W. America as a whole forms the two
+triangular continents of North and South America, united by the narrow
+Isthmus of Panama, and having an entire length of about 10,000 miles; a
+maximum breadth (in North America) of 3500 miles; a coast-line of 44,000
+miles; and a total area, including the islands, of over 16,000,000, of
+which N. America contains about 8,300,000 sq. miles. South America is more
+compact in form than N. America, in this respect resembling Africa, while
+N. America more resembles Europe. Between the two on the east side is the
+great basin which comprises the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the
+West India Islands. Like Europe also N. America possesses numerous islands,
+while those of S. America are less important and confined almost to the
+southern extremity.
+
+Three-fourths of the area of America is comparatively flat, and this
+portion of the surface is bounded on the west by lofty mountain systems
+which stretch continuously from north to south between the extremities of
+the continent, generally at no great distance from the west shore. In North
+America the Rocky Mountains, a broad series of masses partly consisting of
+plateaux, form the most important portion of the elevated surface, being
+continued southward in the mountains and tableland of Mexico and the ranges
+of Central America. Separated by depressions from the Rocky Mountains
+proper, and running close to and parallel with the western coast, are
+several lofty ranges (Sierra Nevada, Cascade Mountains, &c.). Near the
+eastern coast, and forming an isolated mass, are the Appalachians, a system
+of much inferior magnitude. The loftiest mountains in N. America are
+McKinley (20,470 feet), in Alaska; Logan (19,514 feet), in N. W. Canada;
+and Popocatepetl (18,000 feet). The depression of the Isthmus of Panama
+(about 260 feet) forms a natural separation between the systems of the
+north and the south. In S. America the Andes form a system of greater
+elevation but less breadth than the Rocky Mountains, and consist of a
+series of ranges (_cordilleras_) closely following the line of the west
+coast from the Isthmus of Panama to Cape Horn. The highest summits are
+Aconcagua (23,080 feet), Sorata or Illampu (21,484), and Sahama (21,054).
+Volcanoes are numerous. Isolated mountain groups of minor importance are
+the highlands of Venezuela and of Brazil, the latter near the eastern
+coast, reaching a height of 10,000 feet.
+
+The fertile lowlands which lie to the east of the Rocky Mountains and the
+Andes form a depression extending through both continents from the northern
+to the southern oceans. They have somewhat different features and different
+names in different portions; in N. America are _prairies_ and _savannahs_,
+in S. America _llanos_, _selvas_, and _pampas_.
+
+Through these low grounds flow the numerous great rivers which form so
+characteristic a feature of America. The principal are the Mackenzie,
+Coppermine, and Great Fish Rivers, entering the Northern Ocean; the
+Churchill, Nelson, Severn, and Albany, entering Hudson's Bay; the St.
+Lawrence, entering the Atlantic; Mississippi and Rio del Norte, entering
+the Gulf of Mexico (all these being in N. America); the Magdalena, Orinoco,
+Amazon, Paranahiba, Rio de la Plata, Colorado, and Rio Negro, entering the
+Atlantic (all in S. America); and the Yukon, Fraser, Colombia, San Joaquin,
+Sacramento, and Colorado, entering the Pacific. The rivers which flow into
+the Pacific, however, owing to the fact that the great backbone of the
+continent, the Rocky Mountains and the Andes, lies so near the west coast,
+are of comparatively little importance, in S. America being all quite
+small. Sometimes rivers traversing the same plains, and nearly on the same
+levels, open communications with each other, a remarkable instance being
+the Cassiquiari in S. America, which, branching off from the Rio Negro and
+joining the Orinoco, forms a kind of natural canal, uniting the basins of
+the Orinoco and the Amazon. The Amazon or Maranon in S. America, the
+largest river in the world, has a course of about 3500 miles, and a basin
+of 2,300,000 sq. miles; the Mississippi-Missouri, the largest river of
+North America, runs a longer course than the Amazon, but the area of its
+basin is not nearly so great. North America has the most extensive group of
+lakes in the world--Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario,
+which through the St. Lawrence send their drainage to the Atlantic. Thus by
+means of lakes and rivers the interior of both N. and S. America is opened
+up and made accessible.
+
+In regard to climate N. America naturally differs very much from S.
+America, and has more resemblance to the continents of Europe and Asia
+(regarded as a whole). In N. America, as in the older continent, the
+eastern parts are colder than the western, and hence the towns on the
+Atlantic coast have a winter temperature about 10deg lower than those in
+corresponding latitudes of Europe. The winter temperature of the greater
+part of N. America is indeed severe, though the intense cold is less felt
+on account of the dryness of the air. There is no regular season of
+rainfall unless in the south. Although two-thirds of S. America lies within
+the tropics the heat is not so great as might be expected, owing to the
+prevailing winds, the influences of the Andes, and other causes. The
+highest temperature experienced is probably not more than 100deg in the
+shade; at Rio de Janeiro the mean is about 74deg, at Lima 72deg. Over a
+great part of S. America there is a wet and a dry season, varying in
+different regions; on the upper Amazon the rains last for ten months, being
+caused by the prevailing easterly winds bringing moisture from the
+Atlantic, which is condensed on the eastern slopes of the Andes. In each of
+the Americas there is a region in which little or no rain falls; in N.
+America it extends over a part of the United States and Northern Mexico, in
+S. America over a part of the coast region of Peru and Chile.
+
+America is rich in valuable minerals. It has supplied the world with
+immense quantities of gold and silver, which it still yields in no small
+amount, especially in the United States. It possesses inexhaustible stores
+of coal (United States), with iron, copper, lead, tin, mercury, &c.
+Petroleum may be called one of its specialities, its petroleum wells having
+caused whole towns to spring into existence. Diamonds and other precious
+stones are found.
+
+As regards vegetation America may be called a region of forests and
+verdure, vast tracts being covered by the grassy prairies, llanos, and
+pampas where the forests fail. In N. America the forests have been largely
+made use of by man; in S. America vast areas are covered with forests,
+which as yet are traversed only by the uncivilized Indian. In the north is
+the region of pines and firs; farther south come the deciduous trees, as
+the oak, beech, maple, elm, chestnut, &c. Then follow the evergreen forests
+of the tropical regions. The useful timber trees are very numerous; among
+the most characteristic of America are mahogany and other ornamental woods,
+and various dyewoods. In the tropical parts are numerous palms, cacti in
+great variety, and various species of the agave or American aloe. In the
+virgin forests of S. America the trees are often bound together into an
+impenetrable mass of vegetation by various kinds of climbing and twining
+plants. Among useful plants belonging to the American continent are maize,
+the potato, cacao, tobacco, cinchona, vanilla, Paraguay tea, &c. The most
+important plants introduced are wheat, rice, and other grains, sugar-cane,
+coffee, and cotton, with various fruits and vegetables. The vine is native
+to the continent, and both the American and introduced varieties are now
+largely cultivated.
+
+The animals of America include, among carnivora, the jaguar or American
+tiger, found only in S. America; the puma or American lion, found mostly in
+S. America; the grizzly bear of N. America, fully as powerful an animal as
+either; the black bear, the skunk, the racoon, the American or prairie
+wolf, several species of foxes, &c. The rodents are represented by the
+beaver, the porcupine, and squirrels of several species; the marsupials by
+the opossum. Among ruminants are the bison, or, as it is commonly called,
+the buffalo, the moose or elk, the Virginian stag, the musk-ox; and in S.
+America the llama (which takes the place of the camel of the Old World),
+the alpaca, and the vicuna. Other animals most distinctive of S. America
+are sloths, fitted to live only in its dense and boundless forests;
+ant-eaters and armadillos; monkeys with prehensile tails, in this and other
+respects differing from those of the Old World; the condor among the
+heights of the Andes, the nandu, rhea or three-toed ostrich, beautiful
+parrots and humming-birds. Among American reptiles are the boa-constrictor,
+the rattlesnake, the alligator or cayman, the iguana and other large
+lizards, large frogs and toads. The domestic animals of America, horses,
+cattle, and sheep, are of foreign origin. The electrical eel exists in the
+tropical waters.
+
+The population of America consists partly of an aboriginal race or races,
+partly of immigrants or their descendants. The aboriginal inhabitants are
+the American Indians or red men, being generally of a brownish-red colour,
+and now forming a very small portion of the total population, especially in
+N. America, where the white population has almost exterminated them. These
+people are divided into branches, some of which have displayed a
+considerable aptitude for civilization. When the Europeans became
+acquainted with the New World, Mexico, Central America, and part of S.
+America were inhabited by populations which had made great advances in many
+things that pertain to civilized life, dwelling in large and well-built
+cities under a settled form of government, and practising agriculture and
+the mechanical arts. Ever since the discovery of America at the close of
+the fifteenth century Europeans of all nations have crowded into it; and
+the comparatively feeble native races have rapidly diminished, or lost
+their distinctive features by intermixtures with whites, and also with
+negroes brought from Africa to work as slaves. These mixed races are
+distinguished by a variety of names, as Mestizos, Mulattoes, Zambos, &c. In
+North America the white population is mainly of British origin, though to a
+considerable extent it also consists of Germans, Scandinavians, &c., and
+the descendants of such. In Central and South America the prevailing white
+nationality is the Spanish and Portuguese. In the extreme north are the
+Eskimos--a scattered and stunted race closely allied to some of the peoples
+of Northern Asia. That the aboriginal inhabitants of America passed over
+from Asia is tolerably certain, but when and from what part we do not know.
+The total population of the New World is estimated at 180,000,000, of which
+perhaps 124,000,000 are whites, 28,000,000 mixed races, 15,000,000 negroes,
+and 13,000,000 Indians. As regards religion, the bulk of the population of
+N. America is Protestant; of Central and S. America the religion is almost
+exclusively Roman Catholic. Several millions of the Indians are
+heathens.--The independent States of America are all republican in form of
+government, Brazil having become a republic in 1889. See _North America_,
+_Central America_, _South America_, _West Indies_, &c.
+
+The merit of first opening up the American continent to modern Europe
+belongs to the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus, who discovered, in
+Oct., 1492, one of the Bahamas, and named it San Salvador. Europeans,
+however, had on different former occasions discovered the American coasts,
+and the coasts of Massachusetts and Rhode Island were visited by Northmen
+and named Vinland in the year 1000. Still these discoveries had no
+influence on the enterprise of Columbus, and cannot detract in the least
+from his merit; they were forgotten, and had never been made known to the
+inhabitants of the rest of Europe. Though Columbus was the first of his
+time who set foot in the New World, it has taken its name not from him, but
+from Amerigo Vespucci. The mainland was first seen in 1497 by Sebastian
+Cabot, who sailed under the patronage of Henry VII of England. For further
+particulars of discovery see _North America_ and _South America_.
+
+The known history of America hardly goes beyond the period of its discovery
+by Columbus; but it possesses many monuments of antiquity that might take
+us many centuries backward, could we learn anything of their origin or of
+those by whom they were produced. Among such antiquities are great
+earthworks in the form of mounds, or of raised enclosures, crowning the
+tops of hills, river peninsulas, &c., and no doubt serving for defence.
+They enclose considerable areas, are surrounded by an exterior ditch, and
+by ramparts which are composed of mingled earth and stones, and are often
+of great extent in proportion to the area enclosed. They are always
+supplied either naturally or artificially with water, and give other
+indications of having been provided for a siege. Barrows and tumuli
+containing human bones, and bearing indications of having been used both as
+places of sepulture and as temples, are also numerous. They are in
+geometrical forms--circles, squares, parallelograms, &c. A mound on the
+plain of Cahokia in Illinois, opposite the city of St. Louis, is 700 feet
+long, 500 feet broad, and 90 feet high. Earth mounds of another class
+represent gigantic animal forms in bas-relief on the ground. One is a man
+with two heads, the body 50 feet long and 25 feet broad across the breast;
+another represents a serpent 1000 feet in length, with graceful curves. The
+monuments of Mexico, Central America, and Peru are of a more advanced state
+of civilization, approach nearer to the historical period, and make the
+loss of authentic information more keenly felt. Here there are numerous
+ruined towns with most elaborate sculptures, lofty pyramidal structures
+serving as temples or forts, statues, picture writing, hieroglyphics,
+roads, aqueducts, bridges, &c. Some remarkable prehistoric remains
+discovered in recent years are what are known as the abodes of the
+'cliff-dwellers'. These consist of habitations constructed on terraces and
+in caves high up and steep sides of canons in Colorado and other parts of
+the western states of N. America. Some of these buildings are several
+stories high. See also _Mexico_, _Peru_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Farrand,
+_The American Nation_; Prescott, _The Conquest of Mexico_ and _The Conquest
+of Peru_; Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History of America_; F. W.
+Halsey, _Great Epochs in American History_ (11 vols.).
+
+AMERICAN INDIANS. See _Indians_.
+
+AMERICANISM, a term, phrase, or idiom peculiar to the English language as
+spoken in America, and not forming part of the language as spoken in
+England. The following is a list of a few of the more noteworthy
+Americanisms, some of them being rather slangy or vulgar.
+
+    _Approbate_, to approve.
+
+    _Around_ or _round_, about or near. To _hang around_ is to loiter about
+    a place.
+
+    _Backwoods_, the partially-cleared forest regions in the western
+    States.
+
+    _Bee_, an assemblage of persons to unite their labours for the benefit
+    of an individual or family, or to carry out a joint scheme.
+
+    _Boss_, an employer or superintendent of labourers, a leader.
+
+    _Bug_, a coleopterous insect, or what in England is called a _beetle_.
+
+    _Buggy_, a four-wheeled vehicle.
+
+    _Bulldose_, to; to intimidate voters.
+
+    _Bunkum_ or _buncombe_, a speech made solely to please a constituency;
+    talk for talking's sake, and in an inflated style.
+
+    _Bureau_, a chest of drawers, a dressing-table surmounted by a mirror.
+
+    _Calculate_, to suppose, to believe, to think.
+
+    _Camp-meeting_, a meeting held in the fields or woods for religious
+    purposes, and where the assemblage encamps and remains several days.
+
+    _Cane-brake_, a thicket of canes.
+
+    _Car_, a carriage or wagon of a railway train. The Englishman 'travels
+    by rail' or 'takes the train'; the American takes or goes by the
+    _cars_.
+
+    _Carpet-bagger_, a needy political adventurer who carries all his
+    worldly goods in a carpet-bag.
+
+    _Caucus_, a private meeting of the leading politicians of a party to
+    agree upon the plans to be pursued in an approaching election.
+
+    _Chalk_: a _long chalk_ means a great distance, a good deal.
+
+    _Clever_, good-natured, obliging.
+
+    _Cocktail_, a stimulating drink made of brandy or gin mixed with
+    bitters, sugar, and water.
+
+    _Corn_, maize (in England it means wheat, or grain in general).
+
+    _Corn-husking_, or _corn-shucking_, an occasion on which a farmer
+    invites his neighbours to assist him in stripping the husks from his
+    Indian corn.
+
+    _Cow-hide_, a whip made of twisted strips of raw hide.
+
+    _Creek_, a small river or brook; not, as in England, a small arm of the
+    sea.
+
+    _Cunning_, small and pretty, nice, e.g. 'It was such a _cunning_ baby'.
+
+    _Dander_; to get one's _dander raised_, to have one's _dander up_, is
+    to have been worked into a passion.
+
+    _Dead-heads_, people who have free admission to entertainments, or who
+    have the use of public conveyances, or the like, free of charge.
+
+    _Depot_, a railway station.
+
+    _Down east_, in or into the New England States. A _down-easter_ is a
+    New Englander.
+
+    _Drummer_, a bagman or commercial traveller.
+
+    _Dry goods_, a general term for such articles as are sold by
+    linen-drapers, haberdashers, hosiers, &c.
+
+    _Dutch_, the German language.--_Dutchman_, a German.
+
+    _Fix_, to; to put in order, to prepare, to adjust. To fix the hair, the
+    table, the fire, is to dress the hair, lay the table, make up the fire.
+
+    _Fixings_, arrangements, dress, embellishments, luggage, furniture,
+    garnishings of any kind.
+
+    _Gerrymander_, to arrange political divisions so that in an election
+    one party may obtain an advantage over its opponent, even though the
+    latter may possess a majority of votes in the State; from the deviser
+    of such a scheme, named _Gerry_, governor of Massachusetts.
+
+    _Given name_, a Christian name.
+
+    _Guess_, to; to believe, to suppose, to think, to fancy; also used
+    emphatically, as 'Joe, will you liquor up?' 'I guess I will.'
+
+    _Gulch_, a deep abrupt ravine, caused by the action of water.
+
+    _Happen in_, to; to happen to come in or call.
+
+    _Help_, a servant.
+
+    _High-falutin_, inflated speech, bombast.
+
+    _Hoe-cake_, a cake of Indian meal baked on a hoe or before the fire.
+
+    _Indian summer_, the short season of pleasant weather usually occurring
+    about the middle of November.
+
+    _Johnny Cake_, a cake made of Indian corn meal mixed with milk or water
+    and sometimes a little stewed pumpkin; the term is also applied to a
+    New Englander.
+
+    _Julep_, a drink composed of brandy or whisky with sugar, pounded ice,
+    and some sprigs of mint.
+
+    _Log-rolling_, the assembly of several parties of wood-cutters to help
+    one of them in rolling their logs to the river after they are felled
+    and trimmed; also employed in politics to signify a like system of
+    mutual co-operation.
+
+    _Lot_, a piece or division of land, an allotment.
+
+    _Lumber_, timber sawed and split for use; as beams, joists, planks,
+    staves, hoops, &c.
+
+    _Lynch law_, an irregular species of justice executed by the populace
+    or a mob, without legal authority or trial.
+
+    _Mail letters_, to; to post letters.
+
+    _Make tracks_, to; to run away.
+
+    _Mitten_; to _get the mitten_ is to meet with a refusal.
+
+    _Mizzle_, to; to abscond, or run away.
+
+    _Mush_, a kind of hasty-pudding.
+
+    _Muss_, a state of confusion.
+
+    _Notions_, a term applied to every variety of small-wares.
+
+    _One-horse_: a one-horse thing is a thing of no value or importance, a
+    mean and trifling thing.
+
+    _Picaninny_, a negro child.
+
+    _Pile_, a quantity of money.
+
+    _Planks_, in a political sense, are the several principles which
+    appertain to a party; _platform_ is the collection of such principles.
+
+    _Reckon_, to; to suppose, to think.
+
+    _Rock_, a stone of any size; a pebble; as to throw _rocks_ at a dog.
+
+    _Scalawag_, a scamp, a scapegrace.
+
+    _Shanty_, a mean structure such as squatters erect; a temporary hut.
+
+    _Skedaddle_, to; to run away; a word introduced during the civil war.
+
+    _Smart_, often used in the sense of considerable, a good deal, as a
+    _smart chance_.
+
+    _Soft sawder_, flattering, coaxing talk.
+
+    _Span_ of horses, two horses as nearly as possible alike, harnessed
+    side by side.
+
+    _Spread-eagle style_, a compound of exaggeration, bombast, mixed
+    metaphor, &c.
+
+    _Store_, a shop, as a book _store_, a grocery _store_.
+
+    _Strike oil_, to; to come upon petroleum: hence to make a lucky hit,
+    especially financially.
+
+    _Stump speech_, a bombastic speech calculated to please the popular
+    ear, such speeches in newly-settled districts being often delivered
+    from stumps of trees.
+
+    _Sun-up_, sunrise.
+
+    _Tall_, great, fine (used by Shakespeare much in the same sense); _tall
+    talk_ is extravagant talk.
+
+    _Ticket_: to vote the _straight ticket_ is to vote for all the men or
+    measures your party wishes.
+
+    _Truck_, the small produce of gardens; _truck patch_, a plot in which
+    the smaller fruits and vegetables are raised.
+
+    _Ugly_, ill-tempered, vicious.
+
+    _Vamose_, to; to run off (from the Sp. _vamos_, let us go).
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Pickering, _Vocabulary of Words and Phrases Supposed to be
+Peculiar to America_; J. R. Bartlett, _Dictionary of Americanisms_; Schele
+de Vere, _Americanisms_.
+
+AMERICAN JUTE. See _Abutilon_.
+
+AMERICAN ORGAN. See _Organ_.
+
+AMER'ICUS, a town of the United States, Georgia, in a good cotton and corn
+district. Pop. 11,000.
+
+AMERIGO VESPUCCI ([.a]-mer-[=e]'go vesp[u:]t'ch[=e]), a maritime
+discoverer, after whom America has been named, born, 1451, at Florence;
+died, 1512, at Seville. In 1499 he coasted along the continent of America
+for several hundred leagues, and the publication of his narrative, while
+the prior discovery of Columbus was yet comparatively a secret, led to the
+giving of his name to the new continent.
+
+AMERONGEN, a village in Holland. Here, at the chateau belonging to Count
+Goddard Bentinck, the ex-Kaiser Wilhelm II took up his residence after
+signing his letters of abdication at Spa on 9th Nov., 1918.
+
+AMERSFOORT ([:a]'merz-f[=o]rt), a town in Holland, province of Utrecht,
+communicating by the Eem with the Zuider-Zee; manufactures woollen goods,
+tobacco, glass, and silk yarn. Pop. 28,777.
+
+AMES, Fisher, American statesman, born 1758, died 1808; studied law, and
+became prominent in his profession--distinguished as a political orator and
+essayist.
+
+AMES, Joseph, English antiquary, born at Yarmouth, 1689, died 1759. He
+became a ship-chandler at Wapping, devoted himself to antiquarian pursuits,
+and was for many years secretary to the Society of Antiquaries. His chief
+publication is, _Typographical Antiquities: being an historical account of
+Printing in England_ (1749).
+
+AMETAB'OLA (Gr. _ametabolos_, unchangeable), a division of insects,
+including only the apterous or wingless insects, as lice, spring-tails,
+&c., which do not undergo any metamorphosis, but which escape from the egg
+nearly under the same form which they preserve through life.
+
+AM'ETHYST, a violet-blue or purple variety of quartz, generally occurring
+crystallized in hexahedral prisms or pyramids, also in rolled fragments,
+composed of imperfect prismatic crystals. It is wrought into various
+articles of jewellery. The _oriental amethyst_ is a rare violet-coloured
+gem, a variety of alumina or corundum, of much brilliance and beauty. The
+name is generally said to be of Greek origin, and expresses some supposed
+quality in the stone of preventing or curing intoxication. The gem was one
+of the twelve stones in the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest.
+
+AMHARA ([.a]m-h[:a]'r[.a]), a district of Abyssinia, lying between the
+Tacazze and the Blue Nile, but of which the limits are not well defined.
+The Amharic language, developed from the ancient Gheez, and written since
+the sixteenth century, has gradually gained ground in Southern and Central
+Abyssinia, and has also become the Court language.
+
+AMHERST (am'[.e]rst), a seaport of Canada, in Nova Scotia, on an arm of
+Chignecto Bay, with flourishing industries, and trade by railway and sea.
+Pop. 10,320. Also a port of Burmah, 31 miles south of Moulmein, a health
+resort of Europeans. Pop. 3750.
+
+AMHERST, Jeffrey, Lord, born 1717, died 1797; distinguished British
+general, who fought at Dettingen and Fontenoy, and commanded in America,
+where he took Louisburg, Ticonderoga, and Quebec, and restored the British
+prestige in Canada. He was raised to the peerage, became
+commander-in-chief, and ultimately field-marshal.
+
+AMHERST, William Pitt, first earl, nephew of the above; Governor-General of
+India, 1823; prosecuted the first Burmese war, and suppressed the
+Barrackpore mutiny. Born 1773, died 1857.
+
+AMIAN'THUS, a kind of flexible asbestos. See _Asbestos_.
+
+AMICE (am'is), an oblong piece of linen with an embroidered apparel sewed
+upon it, worn under the alb by priests of the Roman Catholic Church when
+engaged in the sacrifice of the mass.
+
+AMIDE, or AMINE (am'id, am'in), names used in chemistry. The amines are
+compounds formed by the introduction of alcohol radicles into ammonia, e.g.
+C_2H_5NH_2, which is known as ethylamine. They closely resemble ammonia in
+properties. The amides are formed by replacing one of the hydrogen atoms of
+ammonia by an acid radicle, e.g. C_2H_3ONH_2, which is called acetamide.
+They are not strongly basic, and are usually crystalline, and have high
+boiling-points.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1
+Part 1, by Various
+
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