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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, History of the Intellectual Development of
+Europe, Volume II (of 2), by John William Draper
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: History of the Intellectual Development of Europe, Volume II (of 2)
+       Revised Edition
+
+
+Author: John William Draper
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 9, 2010  [eBook #34051]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE INTELLECTUAL
+DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPE, VOLUME II (OF 2)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has Volume I of this two-volume work.
+      See http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/31345
+
+
+Transcribers' note:
+
+      Text in italic font is enclosed by underscores (_italics_).
+
+      The INDEX of this eBook also covers PG-eBook #31345, "History
+      of the Intellectual Development of Europe, Volume I (of 2),
+      by John William Draper."
+      See http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/31345
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPE.
+
+by
+
+JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER, M.D., LL.D.,
+
+Professor of Chemistry in the University of New York, Author of a
+"Treatise on Human Physiology," "Civil Policy of America,"
+"History of the American Civil War," &c.
+
+REVISED EDITION, IN TWO VOLUMES.
+
+VOL. II.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York:
+Harper & Brothers, Publishers,
+Franklin Square.
+
+Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by
+Harper & Brothers,
+In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST. THE THREE ATTACKS: NORTHERN OR MORAL;
+WESTERN OR INTELLECTUAL; EASTERN OR MILITARY.
+
+THE NORTHERN OR MORAL ATTACK ON THE ITALIAN SYSTEM, AND ITS TEMPORARY
+REPULSE.
+
+_Geographical Boundaries of Italian Christianity.--Attacks upon it._
+
+_The Northern or moral Attack.--The Emperor of Germany insists on a
+reformation in the Papacy.--Gerbert, the representative of these Ideas,
+is made Pope.--They are both poisoned by the Italians._
+
+_Commencement of the intellectual Rejection of the Italian System.--It
+originates in the Arabian doctrine of the supremacy of Reason over
+Authority.--The question of Transubstantiation.--Rise and development of
+Scholasticism.--Mutiny among the Monks._
+
+_Gregory VII. spontaneously accepts and enforces a Reform in the
+Church.--Overcomes the Emperor of Germany.--Is on the point of
+establishing a European Theocracy.--The Popes seize the military and
+monetary Resources of Europe through the Crusades._
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST--(_Continued_).
+
+THE WESTERN OR INTELLECTUAL ATTACK ON THE ITALIAN SYSTEM.
+
+_The intellectual Condition of Christendom contrasted with that of
+Arabian Spain._
+
+_Diffusion of Arabian intellectual Influences through France and
+Sicily.--Example of Saracen Science in Alhazen, and of Philosophy in
+Algazzali.--Innocent III. prepares to combat these Influences. Results
+to Western Europe of the Sack of Constantinople by the Catholics._
+
+_The spread of Mohammedan light Literature is followed by Heresy.--The
+crushing of Heresy in the South of France by armed Force, the
+Inquisition, mendicant Orders, auricular Confession, and Casuistry._
+
+_The rising Sentiment is embodied in Frederick II. in Sicily.--His
+Conflict with and Overthrow by the Pope.--Spread of Mutiny among the
+mendicant Orders._
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST--(_Continued_).
+
+OVERTHROW OF THE ITALIAN SYSTEM BY THE COMBINED INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL
+ATTACK.
+
+_Progress of Irreligion among the mendicant Orders.--Publication of
+heretical Books.--The Everlasting Gospel and the Comment on the
+Apocalypse._
+
+_Conflict between Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII.--Outrage upon and
+death of the Pope._
+
+_The French King removes the Papacy from Rome to Avignon.--Post-mortem
+Trial of the Pope for Atheism and Immorality.--Causes and Consequences
+of the Atheism of the Pope._
+
+_The Templars fall into Infidelity.--Their Trial, Conviction, and
+Punishment._
+
+_Immoralities of the Papal Court at Avignon.--Its return to
+Rome.--Causes of the great Schism.--Disorganization of the Italian
+System.--Decomposition of the Papacy.--Three Popes._
+
+_The Council of Constance attempts to convert the papal Autocracy into a
+constitutional Monarchy.--It murders John Huss and Jerome of
+Prague.--Pontificate of Nicolas V.--End of the intellectual influence
+of the Italian System._
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST--(_Concluded_).
+
+EFFECT OF THE EASTERN OR MILITARY ATTACK.--GENERAL REVIEW OF THE AGE OF
+FAITH.
+
+_The Fall of Constantinople.--Its momentary Effect on the Italian
+System._
+
+GENERAL REVIEW OF THE INTELLECTUAL CONDITION IN THE AGE OF
+FAITH.--_Supernaturalism and its Logic spread all over Europe.--It is
+destroyed by the Jews and Arabians.--Its total Extinction._
+
+_The Jewish Physicians.--Their Acquirements and Influence.--Their
+Collision with the Imposture-medicine of Europe.--Their Effect on the
+higher Classes.--Opposition to them._
+
+_Two Impulses, the Intellectual and Moral, operating against the
+Mediaeval state of Things.--Downfall of the Italian System through the
+intellectual Impulse from the West and the moral from the North.--Action
+of the former through Astronomy.--Origin of the moral Impulse.--Their
+conjoint irresistible Effect.--Discovery of the state of Affairs in
+Italy.--The Writings of Machiavelli.--What the Church had actually
+done._
+
+_Entire Movement of the Italian System determined from a consideration
+of the four Revolts against it._
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+APPROACH OF THE AGE OF REASON IN EUROPE.
+
+IT IS PRECEDED BY MARITIME DISCOVERY.
+
+_Consideration of the definite Epochs of Social Life._
+
+_Experimental Philosophy emerging in the Age of Faith._
+
+_The Age of Reason ushered in by Maritime Discovery and the rise of
+European Criticism._
+
+MARITIME DISCOVERY.--_The three great Voyages._
+
+COLUMBUS _discovers America_.--DE GAMA _doubles the Cape and reaches
+India_.--MAGELLAN _circumnavigates the Earth.--The Material and
+intellectual Results of each of these Voyages._
+
+DIGRESSION ON THE SOCIAL CONDITION OF AMERICA.--_In isolated human
+Societies the process of Thought and of Civilization is always the
+same.--Man passes through a determinate succession of Ideas and embodies
+them in determinate Institutions.--The state of Mexico and Peru proves
+the influence of Law in the development of Man._
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+APPROACH OF THE AGE OF REASON IN EUROPE.
+
+IT IS PRECEDED BY THE RISE OF CRITICISM.
+
+_Restoration of Greek Literature and Philosophy in Italy.--Development
+of Modern Languages and Rise of Criticism.--Imminent Danger to Latin
+Ideas._
+
+_Invention of Printing.--It revolutionizes the Communication of
+Knowledge, especially acts on Public Worship, and renders the Pulpit
+secondary._
+
+THE REFORMATION.--_Theory of Supererogation and Use of Indulgences.
+--The Right of Individual Judgment asserted.--Political History
+of the Origin, Culmination, and Check of the Reformation.--Its
+Effects in Italy._
+
+_Causes of the Arrest of the Reformation.--Internal Causes in
+Protestantism.--External in the Policy of Rome.--The Counter-Reformation.
+--Inquisition.--Jesuits.--Secession of the great Critics.--Culmination
+of the Reformation in America.--Emergence of Individual Liberty of
+Thought._
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+DIGRESSION ON THE CONDITION OF ENGLAND AT THE END OF THE AGE OF FAITH.
+
+RESULTS PRODUCED BY THE AGE OF FAITH.
+
+_Condition of England at the Suppression of the Monasteries._
+
+_Condition of England at the close of the seventeenth
+Century.--Locomotion, Literature, Libraries.--Social and private Life
+of the Laity and Clergy.--Brutality in the Administration of
+Law.--Profligacy of Literature.--The Theatre, its three
+Phases.--Miracle, Moral, and Real Plays._
+
+_Estimate of the Advance made in the Age of Faith.--Comparison with that
+already made in the Age of Reason._
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON.
+
+REJECTION OF AUTHORITY AND TRADITION, AND ADOPTION OF SCIENTIFIC
+TRUTH.--DISCOVERY OF THE TRUE POSITION OF THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE.
+
+_Ecclesiastical Attempt to enforce the_ GEOCENTRIC DOCTRINE _that the
+Earth is the Centre of the Universe, and the most important Body in it_.
+
+_The_ HELIOCENTRIC DOCTRINE _that the Sun is the Centre of the Solar
+System, and the Earth a small Planet, comes gradually into Prominence_.
+
+_Struggle between the Ecclesiastical and Astronomical Parties.--Activity
+of the Inquisition.--Burning of_ BRUNO.--_Imprisonment of_ GALILEO.
+
+INVENTION OF THE TELESCOPE.--_Complete Overthrow of the Ecclesiastical
+Idea.--Rise of Physical Astronomy._--NEWTON.--_Rapid and resistless
+Development of all Branches of Natural Philosophy._
+
+_Final Establishment of the Doctrine that the Universe is under the
+Dominion of mathematical, and, therefore, necessary Laws._
+
+_Progress of Man from Anthropocentric Ideas to the Discovery of his true
+Position and Insignificance in the Universe._
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON--(_Continued_).
+
+HISTORY OF THE EARTH.--HER SUCCESSIVE CHANGES IN THE COURSE OF TIME.
+
+_Oriental and Occidental Doctrines respecting the Earth in
+Time.--Gradual Weakening of the latter by astronomical Facts, and the
+Rise of Scientific Geology._
+
+_Impersonal Manner in which the Problem was eventually solved, chiefly
+through Facts connected with Heat._
+
+_Proofs of limitless Duration from inorganic Facts.--Igneous and Aqueous
+Rocks._
+
+_Proofs of the same from organic Facts.--Successive Creations and
+Extinctions of living Forms, and their contemporaneous Distribution._
+
+_Evidences of a slowly declining Temperature, and, therefore, of a long
+Time.--The Process of Events by Catastrophe and by Law.--Analogy of
+Individual and Race Development.--Both are determined by unchangeable
+Law._
+
+_Conclusion that the Plan of the Universe indicates a Multiplicity of
+Worlds in infinite Space, and a Succession of Worlds in infinite Time._
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON--(_Continued_).
+
+THE NATURE AND RELATIONS OF MAN.
+
+_Position of Man according to the Heliocentric and Geocentric Theories._
+
+OF ANIMAL LIFE.--_The transitory Nature of living Forms.--Relations of
+Plants and Animals.--Animals are Aggregates of Matter expending Force
+originally derived from the Sun._
+
+THE ORGANIC SERIES.--_Man a Member of it.--His Position determined by
+Anatomical and Physiological Investigation of his Nervous System.--Its
+triple Form: Automatic, Instinctive, Intellectual._
+
+_The same progressive Development is seen in individual Man, in the
+entire animal Series, and in the Life of the Globe.--They are all under
+the Control of an eternal, universal, irresistible Law._
+
+_The Aim of Nature is intellectual Development, and human Institutions
+must conform thereto._
+
+_Summary of the Investigation of the Position of Man.--Production of
+Inorganic and Organic Forms by the Sun.--Nature of Animals and their
+Series.--Analogies and Differences between them and Man.--The Soul.--The
+World._
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON--(_Continued_).
+
+THE UNION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.
+
+_European Progress in the Acquisition of exact Knowledge.--Its
+Resemblance to that of Greece._
+
+_Discoveries respecting the Air.--Its mechanical and chemical
+Properties.--Its Relation to Animals and Plants.--The Winds.
+--Meteorology.--Sounds.--Acoustic Phenomena._
+
+_Discoveries respecting the Ocean.--Physical and chemical
+Phenomena.--Tides and Currents.--Clouds.--Decomposition of Water._
+
+_Discoveries respecting other material Substances.--Progress of
+Chemistry._
+
+_Discoveries respecting Electricity, Magnetism, Light, Heat._
+
+_Mechanical Philosophy and Inventions.--Physical Instruments.--The
+Result illustrated by the Cotton Manufacture.--Steam-engine.
+--Bleaching.--Canals.--Railways.--Improvements in the Construction
+of Machinery.--Social Changes produced.--Its Effect on intellectual
+Activity._
+
+_The scientific Contributions of various Nations, and especially of
+Italy._
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+CONCLUSION--THE FUTURE OF EUROPE.
+
+_Summary of the Argument presented in this Book respecting the mental
+Progress of Europe._
+
+_Intellectual Development is the Object of Individual Life.--It is also
+the Result of social Progress._
+
+_Nations arriving at Maturity instinctively attempt their own
+intellectual Organization.--Example of the Manner in which this has been
+done in China.--Its Imperfection.--What it has accomplished._
+
+_The Organization of public Intellect is the End to which European
+Civilization is tending._
+
+
+
+
+THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPE.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST. THE THREE ATTACKS: NORTHERN OR MORAL;
+WESTERN OR INTELLECTUAL; EASTERN OR MILITARY.
+
+THE NORTHERN OR MORAL ATTACK ON THE ITALIAN SYSTEM, AND ITS TEMPORARY
+REPULSE.
+
+_Geographical Boundaries of Italian Christianity._--_Attacks upon it._
+
+_The Northern or moral Attack.--The Emperor of Germany insists on a
+reformation in the Papacy.--Gerbert, the representative of these Ideas,
+is made Pope.--They are both poisoned by the Italians._
+
+_Commencement of the intellectual Rejection of the Italian System.--It
+originates in the Arabian doctrine of the supremacy of Reason over
+Authority.--The question of Transubstantiation.--Rise and development of
+Scholasticism.--Mutiny among the Monks._
+
+_Gregory VII. spontaneously accepts and enforces a Reform in the
+Church.--Overcomes the Emperor of Germany.--Is on the point of
+establishing a European Theocracy.--The Popes seize the military and
+monetary Resources of Europe through the Crusades._
+
+
+The realm of an idea may often be defined by geometrical lines.
+
+[Sidenote: The geographical boundaries of Latin Christianity.] If from
+Rome, as a centre, two lines be drawn, one of which passes eastward, and
+touches the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus, the other westward, and
+crosses the Pyrenees, nearly all those Mediterranean countries lying to
+the south of these lines were living, at the time of which we speak,
+under the dogma, "There is but one God, and Mohammed is his prophet;"
+but the countries to the north had added to the orthodox conception of
+the Holy Trinity the adoration of the Virgin, the worship of images, the
+invocation of saints, and a devout attachment to relics and shrines.
+
+[Sidenote: Forces acting upon it.] I have now to relate how these lines
+were pushed forward on Europe, that to the east by military, that to the
+west by intellectual force. On Rome, as on a pivot, they worked; now
+opening, now closing, now threatening to curve round at their extremes
+and compress paganizing Christendom in their clasp; then, through the
+convulsive throes of the nations they had inclosed, receding from one
+another and quivering throughout their whole length, but receding only
+for an instant, to shut more closely again.
+
+It was as if from the hot sands of Africa invisible arms were put forth,
+enfolding Europe in their grasp, and trying to join their hands to give
+to paganizing Christendom a fearful and mortal compression. There were
+struggles and resistances, but the portentous hands clasped at last.
+Historically, we call the pressure that was then made the Reformation.
+
+Not without difficulty can we describe the convulsive struggles of
+nations so as to convey a clear idea of the forces acting upon them. I
+have now to devote many perhaps not uninteresting, certainly not
+uninstructive, pages to these events.
+
+In this chapter I begin that task by relating the consequences of the
+state of things heretofore described--the earnestness of converted
+Germany and the immoralities of the popes.
+
+[Sidenote: The Germans insist on a reform in the papacy.] The Germans
+insisted on a reformation among ecclesiastics, and that they should lead
+lives in accordance with religion. This moral attack was accompanied
+also by an intellectual one, arising from another source, and amounting
+to a mutiny in the Church itself. In the course of centuries, and
+particularly during the more recent evil times, a gradual divergence of
+theology from morals had taken place, to the dissatisfaction of that
+remnant of thinking men who here and there, in the solitude of
+monasteries, compared the dogmas of theology with the dictates of
+reason. Of those, and the number was yearly increasing, who had been
+among the Arabs in Spain, not a few had become infected with a love of
+philosophy.
+
+[Sidenote: Reappearance of philosophy.] Whoever compares the tenth and
+twelfth centuries together cannot fail to remark the great intellectual
+advance which Europe was making. The ideas occupying the minds of
+Christian men, their very turn of thought, had altogether changed. The
+earnestness of the Germans, commingling with the knowledge of the
+Mohammedans, could no longer be diverted from the misty clouds of
+theological discussion out of which Philosophy emerged, not in the
+Grecian classical vesture in which she had disappeared at Alexandria,
+but in the grotesque garb of the cowled and mortified monk. She timidly
+came back to the world as Scholasticism, persuading men to consider, by
+the light of their own reason, that dogma which seemed to put common
+sense at defiance--transubstantiation. Scarcely were her whispers heard
+in the ecclesiastical ranks when a mutiny against authority arose, and
+since it was necessary to combat that mutiny with its own weapons, the
+Church was compelled to give her countenance to Scholastic Theology.
+
+Lending himself to the demand for morality, and not altogether refusing
+to join in the intellectual progress, a great man, Hildebrand, brought
+on an ecclesiastical reform. He raised the papacy to its maximum of
+power, and prepared the way for his successors to seize the material
+resources of Europe through the Crusades.
+
+[Sidenote: The three pressures upon Rome.] Such is an outline of the
+events with which we have now to deal. A detailed analysis of those
+events shows that there were three directions of pressure upon Rome. The
+pressure from the West and that from the East were Mohammedan. Their
+resultant was a pressure from the North: it was essentially Christian.
+While those were foreign, this was domestic. It is almost immaterial in
+what order we consider them; the manner in which I am handling the
+subject leads me, however, to treat of the Northern pressure first, then
+of that of the West, and on subsequent pages of that of the East.
+
+[Sidenote: Foreign influence for reforming the papacy.] It had become
+absolutely necessary that something should be done for the reformation
+of the papacy. Its crimes, such as we have related in Chapter XII., Vol.
+I., outraged religious men. To the master-spirit of the movement for
+accomplishing this end we must closely look. He is the representative of
+influences that were presently to exert a most important agency.
+
+[Sidenote: Life of Gerbert.] In the train of the Emperor Otho III., when
+he resolved to put a stop to all this wickedness, was Gerbert, a French
+ecclesiastic, born in Auvergne. In his boyhood, while a scholar in the
+Abbey of Avrillac, he attracted the attention of his superiors; among
+others, of the Count of Barcelona, who took him to Spain. There he
+became a proficient in the mathematics, astronomy, and physics of the
+Mohammedan schools. [Sidenote: His Saracen education.] He spoke Arabic
+with the fluency of a Saracen. His residence at Cordova, where the
+khalif patronized all the learning and science of the age, and his
+subsequent residence in Rome, where he found an inconceivable ignorance
+and immorality, were not lost upon his future life. He established a
+school at Rheims, where he taught logic, music, astronomy, explained
+Virgil, Statius, Terence, and introduced what were at that time regarded
+as wonders, the globe and the abacus. He laboured to persuade his
+countrymen that learning is far to be preferred to the sports of the
+field. He observed the stars through tubes, invented a clock, and an
+organ played by steam. He composed a work on Rhetoric. Appointed Abbot
+of Bobbio, he fell into a misunderstanding with his monks, and had to
+retire first to Rome, and then to resume his school at Rheims. In the
+political events connected with the rise of Hugh Capet, he was again
+brought into prominence. [Sidenote: His reproaches against the Church.]
+The speech of the Bishop of Orleans at the Council of Rheims, which was
+his composition, shows us how his Mohammedan education had led him to
+look upon the state of things in Christendom: "There is not one at Rome,
+it is notorious, who knows enough of letters to qualify him for a
+door-keeper; with what face shall he presume to teach who has never
+learned?" He does not hesitate to allude to papal briberies and papal
+crimes: "If King Hugh's embassadors could have bribed the pope and
+Crescentius, his affairs had taken a different turn." He recounts the
+disgraces and crimes of the pontiffs: how John XII. had cut off the nose
+and tongue of John the Cardinal; how Boniface had strangled John XIII.;
+how John XIV. had been starved to death in the dungeons of the Castle of
+St. Angelo. He demands, "To such monsters, full of all infamy, void of
+all knowledge, human and divine, are all the priests of God to
+submit--men distinguished throughout the world for their learning and
+holy lives? The pontiff who so sins against his brother--who, when
+admonished, refuses to hear the voice of counsel, is as a publican and a
+sinner." With a prophetic inspiration of the accusations of the
+Reformation, he asks, "Is he not Anti-Christ?" He speaks of him as "the
+Man of Sin," "the Mystery of Iniquity." Of Rome he says, with an
+emphasis doubtless enforced by his Mohammedan experiences, "She has
+already lost the allegiance of the East; Alexandria, Antioch, Africa,
+and Asia are separate from her; Constantinople has broken loose from
+her; the interior of Spain knows nothing of the pope." He says, "How do
+your enemies say that, in deposing Arnulphus, we should have waited for
+the judgment of the Roman bishop? Can they say that his judgment is
+before that of God which our synod pronounced? The Prince of the Roman
+bishops and of the apostles themselves proclaimed that God must be
+obeyed rather than men; and Paul, the teacher of the Gentiles, announced
+anathema to him, though he were an angel, who should preach a doctrine
+different to that which had been delivered. Because the pontiff
+Marcellinus offered incense to Jupiter, must, therefore, all bishops
+sacrifice?" In all this there is obviously an insurgent spirit against
+the papacy, or, rather, against its iniquities.
+
+[Sidenote: His ecclesiastical advancement.] In the progress of the
+political movements Gerbert was appointed to the archbishopric of
+Rheims. On this occasion, it is not without interest that we observe his
+worldly wisdom. It was desirable to conciliate the clergy--perhaps it
+might be done by the encouragement of marriage. He had lived in the
+polygamic court of the khalif, whose family had occasionally boasted of
+more than forty sons and forty daughters. Well then may he say, "I
+prohibit not marriage. I condemn not second marriages. I do not blame
+the eating of flesh." His election not only proved unfortunate, but, in
+the tortuous policy of the times, he was removed from the exercise of
+his episcopal functions and put under interdict. The speech of the Roman
+legate, Leo, who presided at his condemnation, gives us an insight into
+the nature of his offence, of the intention of Rome to persevere in her
+ignorance and superstition, and is an amusing example of ecclesiastical
+argument: "Because the vicars of Peter and their disciples will not have
+for their teachers a Plato, a Virgil, a Terence, and the rest of the
+herd of philosophers, who soar aloft like the birds of the air, and dive
+into the depths like the fishes of the sea, ye say that they are not
+worthy to be door-keepers, because they know not how to make verses.
+Peter is, indeed, a door-keeper--but of heaven!" He does not deny the
+systematic bribery of the pontifical government, but justifies it. "Did
+not the Saviour receive gifts of the wise men?" Nor does he deny the
+crimes of the pontiffs, though he protests against those who would
+expose them, reminding them that "Ham was cursed for uncovering his
+father's nakedness." In all this we see the beginning of that struggle
+between Mohammedan learning and morals and Italian ignorance and crime,
+which was at last to produce such important results for Europe.
+
+Once more Gerbert retired to the court of the emperor. It was at the
+time that Otho III. was contemplating a revolution in the empire and a
+reformation of the Church. He saw how useful Gerbert might be to his
+policy, and had him appointed Archbishop of Ravenna. [Sidenote: Gerbert
+the pope.] On the death of Gregory V. he issued his decree for the
+election of Gerbert as pope. The low-born French ecclesiastic, thus
+attaining to the utmost height of human ambition, took the name of
+Sylvester II.
+
+But Rome was not willing thus to surrender her sordid interests; she
+revolted. Tusculum, the disgrace of the papacy, rebelled. It required
+the arms of the emperor to sustain his pontiff. For a moment it seemed
+as if the Reformation might have been anticipated by many
+centuries--that Christian Europe might have been spared the abominable
+papal disgraces awaiting it. [Sidenote: Poisoning of the emperor and
+pope.] There was a learned and upright pope, an able and youthful
+emperor; but Italian revenge, in the person of Stephania, the wife of
+the murdered Crescentius, blasted all these expectations. From the hand
+of that outraged and noble criminal, who, with more than Roman firmness
+of purpose, could deliberately barter her virtue for vengeance, the
+unsuspecting emperor took the poisoned cup, and left Rome only to die.
+He was but twenty-two years of age. Sylvester, also, was irretrievably
+ruined by the drugs that had been stealthily mixed with his food. He
+soon followed his patron to the grave. His steam organs, physical
+experiments, mechanical inventions, foreign birth, and want of
+orthodoxy, confirmed the awful imputation that he was a necromancer. The
+mouth of every one was full of stories of mystery and magic in which
+Gerbert had borne a part. Afar off in Europe, by their evening
+firesides, the goblin-scared peasants whispered to one another that in
+the most secret apartment of the palace at Rome there was concealed an
+impish dwarf, who wore a turban, and had a ring that could make him
+invisible, or give him two different bodies at the same time; that, in
+the midnight hours, strange sounds had been heard, when no one was
+within but the pope; that, while he was among the infidels in Spain, the
+future pontiff had bartered his soul to Satan, on condition that he
+would make him Christ's vicar upon earth, and now it was plain that both
+parties had been true to their compact. In their privacy, hollow-eyed
+monks muttered to one another under their cowls, "Homagium diabolo fecit
+et male finivit."
+
+To a degree of wickedness almost irremediable had things thus come. The
+sins of the pontiffs were repeated, without any abatement, in all the
+clerical ranks. Simony and concubinage prevailed to an extent that
+threatened the authority of the Church over the coarsest minds.
+Ecclesiastical promotion could in all directions be obtained by
+purchase; in all directions there were priests boasting of illegitimate
+families. [Sidenote: Commencing protest in the Church against its sins.]
+But yet, in the Church itself there were men of irreproachable life,
+who, like Peter Damiani, lifted up their voices against the prevailing
+scandal. He it was who proved that nearly every priest in Milan had
+purchased his preferment and lived with a concubine. The immoralities
+thus forced upon the attention of pious men soon began to be followed by
+consequences that might have been expected. It is but a step from the
+condemnation of morals to the criticism of faith. The developing
+intellect of Europe could no longer bear the acts or the thoughts that
+it had heretofore submitted to. The dogma of transubstantiation led to
+revolt.
+
+[Sidenote: Primitive agreement of philosophy and theology.] The early
+fathers delighted to point out the agreement of doctrines flowing from
+the principles of Christianity with those of Greek philosophy. For long
+it was asserted that a correspondence between faith and reason exists;
+but by degrees as one dogma after another of a mysterious and
+unintelligible kind was introduced, and matters of belief could no
+longer be co-ordinated with the conclusions of the understanding, it
+became necessary to force the latter into a subordinate position.
+[Sidenote: Their gradual alienation.] The great political interests
+involved in these questions suggested the expediency and even necessity
+of compelling such a subordination by the application of civil power. In
+this manner, as we have described, in the reign of Constantine the
+Great, philosophical discussions of religious things came to be
+discountenanced, and implicit faith in the decisions of existing
+authority required. Philosophy was subjugated and enslaved by theology.
+We shall now see what were the circumstances of her revolt.
+
+In the solitude of monasteries there was every inducement for those who
+had become weary of self-examination to enter on the contemplation of
+the external world. Herein they found a field offering to them endless
+occupation, and capable of worthily exercising their acuteness.
+[Sidenote: The mutiny against theology commences among the monks.] But
+it was not possible for them to take the first step without offending
+against the decisions established by authority. The alternative was
+stealthy proceeding or open mutiny; but before mutiny there occurs a
+period of private suggestion and another of more extensive discussion.
+[Sidenote: Persecution of Gotschalk,] It was thus that the German monk
+Gotschalk, in the ninth century, occupied himself in the profound
+problem of predestination, enduring the scourge and death in prison for
+the sake of his opinion. The presence of the Saracens in Spain offered
+an incessant provocation to the restless intellect of the West, now
+rapidly expanding, to indulge itself in such forbidden exercises.
+Arabian philosophy, unseen and silently, was diffusing itself throughout
+France and Europe, and churchmen could sometimes contemplate a refuge
+from their enemies among the infidel. In his extremity, Abelard himself
+looked forward to a retreat among the Saracens--a protection from
+ecclesiastical persecution.
+
+[Sidenote: who sets up reason against authority.] In the conflict with
+Gotschalk on the matter of predestination was already foreshadowed the
+attempt to set up reason against authority. John Erigena, who was
+employed by Hincmar, the Archbishop of Rheims, on that occasion, had
+already made a pilgrimage to the birthplaces of Plato and Aristotle,
+A.D. 825, and indulged the hope of uniting philosophy and religion in
+the manner proposed by the ecclesiastics who were studying in Spain.
+
+[Sidenote: John Erigena falls into Pantheism.] From Eastern sources John
+Erigena had learned the doctrines of the eternity of matter, and even of
+the creation, with which, indeed, he confounded the Deity himself. He
+was, therefore, a Pantheist; accepting the Oriental ideas of emanation
+and absorption not only as respects the soul of man, but likewise all
+material things. In his work "On the Nature of Things," his doctrine is,
+"That, as all things were originally contained in God, and proceeded
+from him into the different classes by which they are now distinguished,
+so shall they finally return to him and be absorbed in the source from
+which they came; in other words, that as, before the world was created,
+there was no being but God, and the causes of all things were in him,
+so, after the end of the world, there will be no being but God, and the
+causes of all things in him." This final resolution he denominated
+deification, or theosis. He even questioned the eternity of hell,
+saying, with the emphasis of a Saracen, "There is nothing eternal but
+God." It was impossible, under such circumstances, that he should not
+fall under the rebuke of the Church.
+
+[Sidenote: The conflict begins on transubstantiation.]
+Transubstantiation, as being, of the orthodox doctrines, the least
+reconcilable to reason, was the first to be attacked by the new
+philosophers. What was, perhaps, in the beginning, no more than a jocose
+Mohammedan sarcasm, became a solemn subject of ecclesiastical
+discussion. Erigena strenuously upheld the doctrine of the Stercorists,
+who derived their name from their assertion that a part of the
+consecrated elements are voided from the body in the manner customary
+with other relics of food; a doctrine denounced by the orthodox, who
+declared that the priest could "make God," and that the eucharistic
+elements are not liable to digestion.
+
+[Sidenote: Opinions of Berengar of Tours.] And now, A.D. 1050, Berengar
+of Tours prominently brought forward the controversy respecting the real
+presence. The question had been formularized by Radbert under the term
+transubstantiation, and the opinions entertained respecting the sacred
+elements greatly differed; mere fetish notions being entertained by
+some, by others the most transcendental ideas. In opposition to Radbert
+and the orthodox party, who asserted that those elements ceased to be
+what to the senses they appeared, and actually became transformed into
+the body and blood of the Saviour, Berengar held that, though there is a
+real presence in them, that presence is of a spiritual nature. These
+heresies were condemned by repeated councils, Berengar himself being
+offered the choice of death or recantation. He wisely preferred the
+latter, but more wisely resumed his offensive doctrines as soon as he
+had escaped from the hands of his persecutors.[Sidenote: The pope
+privately adopts them.] As might be supposed from the philosophical
+indefensibility of the orthodox doctrine, Berengar's opinions, which,
+indeed, issued from those of Erigena, made themselves felt in the
+highest ecclesiastical regions, and, from the manner in which Gregory
+VII. dealt with the heresiarch, there is reason to believe that he
+himself had privately adopted the doctrines thus condemned.
+
+[Sidenote: Peter Abelard among the insurgents.] But it is in Peter
+Abelard that we find the representative of the insurgent spirit of those
+times. The love of Heloisa seems in our eyes to be justified by his
+extraordinary intellectual power. In his Oratory, "The Paraclete," the
+doctrines of faith and the mysteries of religion were without any
+restraint discussed. No subject was too profound or too sacred for his
+contemplation. [Sidenote: St. Bernard attacks him.] By the powerful and
+orthodox influence of St. Bernard, "a morigerous and mortified monk,"
+the opinions of Abelard were brought under the rebuke of the
+authorities. In vain he appealed from the Council of Sens to Rome; the
+power of St. Bernard at Rome was paramount. "He makes void the whole
+Christian faith by attempting to comprehend the nature of God through
+human reason. He ascends up into Heaven; he goes down into hell. Nothing
+can elude him, either in the height above or in the nethermost depths.
+His branches spread over the whole earth. He boasts that he has
+disciples in Rome itself, even in the College of Cardinals. He draws the
+whole earth after him. It is time, therefore, to silence him by
+apostolic authority." Such was the report of the Council of Sens to
+Rome, A.D. 1140.
+
+Perhaps it was not so much the public accusation that Abelard denied the
+doctrine of the Trinity, as his assertion of the supremacy of
+reason--which clearly betrayed his intention of breaking the thraldom of
+authority--that insured his condemnation. It was impossible to restrict
+the rising discussions within their proper sphere, or to keep them from
+the perilous ground of ecclesiastical history. [Sidenote: The book "Sic
+et Non."] Abelard in his work entitled "Sic et Non," sets forth the
+contradictory opinions of the fathers, and exhibits their discord and
+strifes on great doctrinal points, thereby insinuating how little of
+unity there was in the Church. It was a work suggesting a great deal
+more than it actually stated, and was inevitably calculated to draw down
+upon its author the indignation of those whose interests it touched.
+
+[Sidenote: Scholastic philosophy, rise of.] Out of the discussions
+attending these events sprang the celebrated doctrines of Nominalism and
+Realism, though the terms themselves seem not to have been introduced
+till the end of the twelfth century. The Realists thought that the
+general types of things had a real existence; the Nominalists, that they
+were merely a mental abstraction expressed by a word. It was therefore
+the Old Greek dispute revived. [Sidenote: Nominalism and Realism.] Of
+the Nominalists, Roscelin of Compiegne, a little before A.D. 1100, was
+the first distinguished advocate; his materializing views, as might be
+expected, drawing upon him the reproof of the Church. In this contest,
+Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, attempted to harmonize reason in
+subordination to faith, and again, by his example, demonstrated the
+necessity of submitting all such questions to the decision of the human
+intellect.
+
+The development of scholastic philosophy, which dates from the time of
+Erigena, was accelerated by two distinct causes: the dreadful
+materialization into which, in Europe, all sacred things had fallen, and
+the illustrious example of the Mohammedans, who already, by their
+physical inquiries, had commenced a career destined to end in brilliant
+results. [Sidenote: The Arabs in Spain promote these discussions.] The
+Spanish universities were filled with ecclesiastics from many parts of
+Europe. Peter the Venerable, the friend and protector of Abelard, who
+had spent much time in Cordova, and not only spoke Arabic fluently, but
+actually translated the Koran into Latin, mentions that, on his first
+arrival in Spain, he found several learned men, even from England,
+studying astronomy. The reconciliation of many of the dogmas of
+authority with common sense was impossible for men of understanding.
+Could the clear intellect of such a statesman as Hildebrand be for a
+moment disgraced by accepting the received view of a doctrine like that
+of transubstantiation? His great difficulty was to reconcile what had
+been rendered orthodox by the authority of the Church with the
+suggestions of reason, or even with that reverence for holy things which
+is in the heart of every intelligent man. In such sentiments, we find an
+explanation of the lenient dealings of that stern ecclesiastic with the
+heretic Berengar. He saw that it was utterly impossible to offer any
+defence of many of the materialized dogmas of the age, but then those
+dogmas had been put forth as absolute truth by the Church. [Sidenote:
+Rise of Scholastic Theology.] Things had come to the point at which
+reason and theology must diverge; yet the Italian statesmen did not
+accept this issue without an additional attempt, and, under their
+permission, Scholastic Theology, which originated in the scholastic
+philosophy of Erigena and his followers, sought, in the strange union of
+the Holy Scriptures, the Aristotelian Philosophy, and Pantheism, to
+construct a scientific basis for Christianity. Heresy was to be combated
+with the weapons of the heretics, and a co-ordination of authority and
+reason effected. Under such auspices scholastic philosophy pervaded the
+schools, giving to some of them, as the University of Paris, a
+fictitious reputation, and leading to the foundation of others in other
+cities. It answered the object of its politic promoters in a double way,
+for it raised around the orthodox theology an immense and impenetrable
+bulwark of what seemed to be profound learning, and also diverted the
+awakening mind of Western Europe to occupations which, if profitless,
+were yet exciting, and without danger to the existing state of things.
+In that manner was put off for a time the inevitable day in which
+philosophy and theology were to be brought into mortal conflict with
+each other. [Sidenote: Its advantages in the existing state of the
+Church.] It was doubtless seen by Hildebrand and his followers that,
+though Berengar had set the example of protesting against the principle
+that the decision of a majority of voters in a council or other
+collective body should ever be received as ascertaining absolute truth,
+yet so great was the uncertainty of the principles on which the
+scholastic philosophy was founded, so undetermined its mental exercise,
+so ineffectual the results to which it could attain, that it was
+unlikely for a long time to disturb the unity of doctrine in the Church.
+While men were reasoning round and round again in the same vicious
+circle without finding any escape, and indeed without seeking any,
+delighted with the dexterity of their movements, but never considering
+whether they were making any real advance, it was unnecessary to
+anticipate inconvenience from their progress.
+
+[Sidenote: The philosophical dilemma of the Church.] Here was the
+difficulty. The decisions of the Church were asserted to be infallible
+and irrevocable; her philosophy, if such it can be called--as must be
+the case with any philosophy reposing upon a final revelation from
+God--was stationary. But the awakening mind of the West was displaying,
+in an unmistakable way, its propensity to advance. As one who rides an
+unruly horse will sometimes divert him from a career which could not be
+checked by main force by reining him round and round, and thereby
+exhausting his spirit and strength, and keeping him in a narrow space,
+so the wanton efforts of the mind may be guided, if they cannot be
+checked. These principles of policy answered their object for a time,
+until metaphysical were changed for physical discussions. Then it became
+impossible to divert the onward movement, and on the first great
+question arising--that of the figure and place of the earth--a question
+dangerous to the last degree, since it inferentially included the
+determination of the position of man in the universe, theology suffered
+an irretrievable defeat. Between her and philosophy there was
+thenceforth no other issue than a mortal duel.
+
+[Sidenote: Course of Scholasticism.] Though Erigena is the true founder
+of Scholasticism, Roscelin, already mentioned as renewing the question
+of Platonic Universals, has been considered by some to be entitled to
+that distinction. After him, William of Champeaux opened a school of
+logic in Paris, A.D. 1109, and from that time the University made it a
+prominent study. On the rise of the mendicant orders, Scholasticism
+received a great impulse, perhaps, as has been affirmed, because its
+disputations suited their illiterate state; Thomas Aquinas, the
+Dominican, and Duns Scotus, the Franciscan, founding rival schools,
+which wrangled for three centuries. In Italy, Scholasticism never
+prevailed as it did in France and elsewhere, and at last it died away,
+its uselessness, save in the political result before mentioned, having
+been detected.
+
+[Sidenote: Reaction in the papacy against these pressures.] The middle of
+the eleventh century ushers in an epoch for the papacy and for Europe.
+It is marked by an attempt at a moral reformation in the Church--by a
+struggle for securing for the papacy independence both of the Emperors
+of Germany and of the neighbouring Italian nobles--thus far the pope
+being the mere officer of the emperor, and often the creature of the
+surrounding nobility--by the conversion of the temporalities of the
+Church, heretofore indirect, into absolute possessions, by securing
+territories given "to the Church, the blessed Peter, and the Roman
+republic" to the first of these beneficiaries, excluding the last.
+[Sidenote: Preparation for a concentration of the papal power.] As
+events proceeded, these minor affairs converged, and out of their union
+arose the great conflict of the imperial and papal powers for supremacy.
+The same policy which had succeeded in depriving the Roman people of any
+voice in appointments of popes--which had secularized the Church in
+Italy, for a while seized all the material resources of Europe through
+the device of the Crusades, and nearly established a papal autocracy in
+all Europe. These political events demand from us notice, since from
+them arose intellectual consequences of the utmost importance.
+
+The second Lateran Council, under Nicolas II., accomplished
+the result of vesting the elective power for the papacy in the
+cardinals. That was a great revolution. It was this council which
+gave to Berengar his choice between death and recantation. [Sidenote:
+Three parties in Italy.] There were at this period three powers
+engaged in Italy--the Imperial, the Church party, and the Italian
+nobles. For the sake of holding the last in check--since it was the
+nearest, it required the most unremitting attention--Hildebrand had
+advised the popes who were his immediate predecessors to use the
+Normans, who were settled in the south of the peninsula, by whom
+the lands of the nobles were devastated. Thus the difficulties of
+their position led the popes to a repetition of their ancient policy;
+and as they had, in old times, sought the protection of the Frankish
+kings, so now they sought that of the Normans. [Sidenote: Hildebrand
+becomes pope.] But in the midst of the dissensions and tumults of
+the times, a great man was emerging--Hildebrand, who, with almost
+superhuman self-denial, again and again abstained from making himself
+pope. On the death of Alexander II. his opportunity came, and, with
+acceptable force, he was raised to that dignity, A.D. 1073.
+
+[Sidenote: Hildebrand resolves on a reform.] Scarcely was Hildebrand
+Pope Gregory VII. when he vigorously proceeded to carry into effect the
+policy he had been preparing during the pontificates of his
+predecessors. In many respects the times were propitious. The blameless
+lives of the German popes had cast a veil of oblivion over the
+abominations of their Italian predecessors. Hildebrand addressed himself
+to tear out every vestige of simony and concubinage with a remorseless
+hand. That task must be finished before he could hope to accomplish his
+grand project of an ecclesiastical autocracy in Europe, with the pope at
+its head, and the clergy, both in their persons and property,
+independent of the civil power. [Sidenote: Necessity of celibacy of the
+clergy.] It was plain that, apart from all moral considerations, the
+supremacy of Rome in such a system altogether turned on the celibacy of
+the clergy. If marriage was permitted to the ecclesiastic, what was to
+prevent him from handing down, as an hereditary possession, the wealth
+and dignities he had obtained. In such a state of things, the central
+government at Rome necessarily stood at every disadvantage against the
+local interests of an individual, and still more so if many individuals
+should combine together to promote, in common, similar interests. But
+very different would it be if promotion must be looked for from
+Rome--very different as regards the hold upon public sentiment, if such
+a descent from father to son was absolutely prevented, and a career
+fairly opened to all, irrespective of their station in life. To the
+Church it was to the last degree important that a man should derive his
+advancement from her, not from his ancestor. In the trials to which she
+was perpetually exposed, there could be no doubt that by such persons
+her interests would be best served.
+
+[Sidenote: It is enforced.] In these circumstances Gregory VII. took his
+course. The synod held at Rome in the first year of his pontificate
+denounced the marriage of the clergy, enforcing its decree by the
+doctrine that the efficacy of the sacraments altogether depended on
+their being administered by hands sinless in that respect, and made all
+communicants partners in the pastoral crime. [Sidenote: The pope seeks
+the friendship of the Normans.] With a provident foresight of the coming
+opposition, he carried out the policy he had taught his predecessors of
+conciliating the Normans in the south of Italy, though he did not
+hesitate to resist them, by the aid of the Countess Matilda, when they
+dared to touch the possessions of the Church. It was for the sake of
+this that the Norman invasion of England under William the Conqueror had
+already been approved of, a consecrated standard and a ring containing a
+hair from the head of St. Peter sent him, and permission given for the
+replacement of Saxon bishops and other dignitaries by Normans. It was
+not forgotten how great had been the gains to the papacy, three
+centuries before, by changing the dynasty of the Franks; and thus the
+policy of an Italian town gave a permanent impress to the history of
+England. Hildebrand foresaw that the sword of the Italian-Norman would
+be wanted to carry out his projected ends. He did not hesitate to
+authorize the overthrow of a Saxon dynasty by the French-Norman, that he
+might be more sure of the fidelity of that sword. Without the
+countenance of the pope, the Norman could never have consolidated his
+power, nor even held his ground in England.
+
+[Sidenote: The conflict concerning investitures.] From these movements
+of the papacy sprang the conflict with the Emperors of Germany
+respecting investitures. The Bishop of Milan--who, it appears, had
+perjured himself in the quarrel respecting concubinage--had been
+excommunicated by Alexander II. The imperial council appointed as his
+successor one Godfrey; the pope had nominated Atto. Hereupon Alexander
+had summoned the emperor to appear before him on a charge of simony, and
+granting investitures without his approbation. While the matter was yet
+in abeyance, Alexander died; but Gregory took up the contest. A synod he
+had assembled ordered that, if any one should accept investiture from a
+layman, both the giver and receiver should be excommunicated. The
+pretence against lay-investiture was that it was a usurpation of a papal
+right, and that it led to the appointment of evil and ignorant men; the
+reality was a determination to extend papal power, by making Rome the
+fountain of emolument. Gregory, by his movements, had thus brought upon
+himself three antagonists--the imperial power, the Italian nobles, and
+the married clergy. The latter, unscrupulous and exasperated, met him
+with his own weapons, not hesitating to calumniate his friendship with
+the Countess Matilda. It was also suspected that they were connected
+with the outrage perpetrated by the nobles that took place in Rome.
+[Sidenote: Outrage on Hildebrand.] On Christmas night, A.D. 1075, in the
+midst of a violent rain, while the pope was administering the communion,
+a band of soldiers burst into the church, seized Gregory at the altar,
+stripped and wounded him, and, haling him on horseback behind one of the
+soldiers, carried him off to a stronghold, from which he was rescued by
+the populace. But, without wavering for a moment, the undaunted pontiff
+pressed on his conflict with the imperial power, summoning Henry to Rome
+to account for his delinquencies, and threatening his excommunication if
+he should not appear before an appointed day. In haste, under the
+auspices of the king, a synod was assembled at Worms; charges against
+the pope of licentious life, bribery, necromancy, simony, murder,
+atheism, were introduced and sentence of deposition pronounced against
+him. On his side, Gregory assembled the third Lateran Council, A.D.
+1076, placed King Henry under interdict, absolved his subjects from
+allegiance, and deposed him. [Sidenote: He defines the position of the
+Church,] A series of constitutions, clearly defining the new bases of
+the papal system, was published. They were to the following effect:
+"That the Roman pontiff can alone be called universal; that he alone has
+a right to depose bishops; that his legates have a right to preside over
+all bishops in a general council; that he can depose absent prelates;
+that he alone has a right to use imperial ornaments; that princes are
+bound to kiss his feet, and his only; that he has a right to depose
+emperors; that no synod or council summoned without his commission can
+be called general; that no book can be called canonical without his
+authority; that his sentence can be annulled by none, but that he may
+annul the decrees of all; that the Roman Church has been, is, and will
+continue to be infallible; that whoever dissents from it ceases to be a
+catholic Christian, and that subjects may be absolved from their
+allegiance to wicked princes." The power that could assert such
+resolutions was near its culmination.
+
+And now was manifest the superiority of the spiritual over the temporal
+power. The quarrel with Henry went on, and, after a hard struggle and
+many intrigues to draw the Normans over to him, that monarch was
+compelled to submit, and in the depth of winter to cross the snowy Alps,
+under circumstances of unparalleled hardship, to seek absolution from
+his adversary. [Sidenote: and overcomes the King of Germany.] Then
+ensued the scene at Canosa--a penitent in white raiment standing in the
+dreary snow of three winter days, January 1077, cold and fasting at the
+gate, seeking pardon and reconciliation of the inexorable pontiff; that
+penitent was the King of Germany. Then ensued the dramatic scene at the
+sacrament, in which the gray-haired pontiff called upon Heaven to strike
+him dead on the spot if he were not innocent of the crimes of which he
+had been accused, and dared the guilty monarch to do the same.
+
+[Sidenote: Conclusions from these events.] Whoever will reflect on these
+interesting events cannot fail to discern two important conclusions. The
+tone of thought throughout Europe had changed within the last three
+ages; ideas were entertained, doctrines originated or controverted, a
+policy conceived and attempted altogether in advance of the old times.
+Intellect, both among the clergy and the laity, had undergone a great
+development. But the peculiar character of the papal power is also
+ascertained--that it is worldly, and the result of the policy of man.
+The outrage on Hildebrand shows how that power had diminished at its
+centre, but the victory over Henry that it maintained its strength at a
+distance. Natural forces diminish as the distance increases; this
+unnatural force displayed an opposite property.
+
+[Sidenote: Culmination of the ecclesiastical power.] Gregory had carried
+his point. He had not only beaten back the Northern attack, but had
+established the supremacy of the ecclesiastical over the temporal power,
+and that point, with inflexible resolution, he maintained, though in its
+consequences it cost Germany a civil war. But, while he was thus
+unyielding in his temporal policy, there is reason to suppose that he
+was not without misgivings in his theological belief. In the war between
+Henry and his rival Rodolph, Gregory was compelled by policy to be at
+first neutral. He occupied himself with the Eucharistic controversy.
+[Sidenote: Friendship of Hildebrand and Berengar.] This was at the time
+that he was associated with Berengar, who lived with him for a year. Nor
+did the pope think it unworthy of himself to put forth, in excuse of the
+heretic, a vision, in which the Virgin Mary had asserted the orthodoxy
+of Berengar; but, as his quarrel with King Henry went on to new
+excommunications and depositions, a synod of bishops presumed to condemn
+him as a partisan of Berengar and a necromancer. On the election of
+Gilbert of Ravenna as antipope, Gregory, without hesitation, pushed his
+principles to their consequences, denouncing kingship as a wicked and
+diabolical usurpation, an infraction of the equal rights of man.
+[Sidenote: The German contest resumed.] Hereupon Henry determined to
+destroy him or to be destroyed; and descending again into Italy, A.D.
+1081, for three successive years laid siege to Rome. In vain the amorous
+Matilda, with more than the devotion of an ally, endeavoured to succour
+her beleaguered friend. The city surrendered to Henry at Christmas, A.D.
+1084. With his antipope he entered it, receiving from his hands the
+imperial crown. The Norman allies of Hildebrand at last approached in
+strength. The emperor was compelled to retreat. A feeble attempt to hold
+the city was made. The Normans took it by surprise, and released Gregory
+from his imprisonment in the Castle of St. Angelo. An awful scene
+ensued. Some conflicts between the citizens and the Normans occurred; a
+battle in the streets was the consequence, and Rome was pillaged,
+sacked, and fired. Streets, churches, palaces, were left a heap of
+smoking ashes. The people by thousands were massacred. [Sidenote: The
+Mohammedans support Hildebrand.] The Saracens, of whom there were
+multitudes in the Norman army, were in the Eternal City at last, and,
+horrible to be said, were there as the hired supporters of the Vicar of
+Christ. Matrons, nuns, young women, were defiled. Crowds of men, women,
+and children were carried off and sold as slaves. [Sidenote: Sack of
+Rome, and death of the pope.] It was the treatment of a city taken by
+storm. In consternation, the pontiff with his infidel deliverers retired
+from the ruined capital to Salerno, and there he died, A.D. 1085.
+
+[Sidenote: The Crusades.] He had been dead ten years, when a policy was
+entered upon by the papacy which imparted to it more power than all the
+exertions of Gregory. The Crusades were instituted by a French pope,
+Urban II. Unpopular in Italy, perhaps by reason of his foreign birth, he
+aroused his native country for the recovery of the Holy Land. He began
+his career in a manner not now unusual, interfering in a quarrel between
+Philip of France and his wife, taking the part of the latter, as
+experience had shown it was always advisable for a pope to do. Soon,
+however, he devoted his attention to something more important than these
+matrimonial broils. It seems that a European crusade was first
+distinctly conceived of and its value most completely comprehended by
+Gerbert, to whom, doubtless, his Mohammedan experiences had suggested
+it. In the first year of his pontificate, he wrote an epistle, in the
+name of the Church of Jerusalem, to the Church throughout the world,
+exhorting Christian soldiers to come to her relief either with arms or
+money. It had been subsequently contemplated by Gregory VII. For many
+years, pilgrimages to Palestine had been on the increase; a very
+lucrative export trade in relics from that country had arisen; crowds
+from all parts of Europe had of late made their way to Jerusalem, for
+the singular purpose of being present at the great assize which the
+Scriptures were supposed to prophesy would soon take place in the Valley
+of Jehoshaphat. The Mohammedans had inflicted on these pious persons
+much maltreatment, being unable to comprehend the purport of their
+extraordinary journey, and probably perceiving a necessity of putting
+some restriction upon the influx of such countless multitudes.
+[Sidenote: The Council of Clermont authorizes a crusade.] Peter the
+Hermit, who had witnessed the barbarities to which his Christian
+brethren were exposed, and the abominations of the holy places now in
+the hands of the infidel, roused Europe, by his preaching, to a frantic
+state; and Urban, at the Council of Clermont, A.D. 1095, gave authority
+to the Holy War. "It is the will of God," was the unanimous shout of the
+council and the populace. The periodical shower of shooting stars was
+seen with remarkable brilliancy on April 25th, and mistaken by the
+council for a celestial monition that the Christians must precipitate
+themselves in like manner on the East. From this incident we may
+perceive how little there was of inspiration in these blundering and
+violent ecclesiastical assemblages; the moment that they can be brought
+to a scientific test their true nature is detected. As a preliminary
+exercise, a ferocious persecution of the Jews of France had burst forth,
+and the blood and tortures of multitudes offered a tardy expiation for
+the crimes that their ancestors had committed at the Crucifixion in
+Jerusalem, more than a thousand years previously.
+
+[Sidenote: The first crusade.] It does not fall within my plan to give a
+detailed description of the Crusades. It is enough to say that, though
+the clergy had promised the protection of God to every one who would
+thus come to his assistance--an ample reward for their pious work in
+this life, and the happiness of heaven in the next--Urban's crusade
+failed not only disastrously, but hideously, so far as the ignorant
+rabbles, under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, were
+concerned. Nevertheless, under the better-organized expeditions that
+soon followed, Jerusalem was captured, July 15th, A.D. 1099. The long
+and ghastly line of bones whitening the road through Hungary to the East
+showed how different a thing it was for a peaceable and solitary
+pilgrim, with his staff, and wallet, and scallop-shell, to beg his way,
+and a disorderly rabble of thousands upon thousands to rush forward
+without any subordination, any organization, trusting only to the
+providence of God. The van of the Crusades consisted of two hundred and
+seventy-five thousand men, accompanied by eight horses, and preceded by
+a goat and a goose, into which some one had told them that the Holy
+Ghost had entered. Driven to madness by disappointment and
+famine--expecting, in their ignorance, that every town they came to must
+be Jerusalem--in their extremity they laid hands on whatever they could.
+Their track was marked by robbery, bloodshed, and fire. In the first
+crusade more than half a million of men died. It was far more disastrous
+than the Moscow retreat.
+
+[Sidenote: Storming of Jerusalem.] But still, in a military sense, the
+first crusade accomplished its object. The capture of Jerusalem, as
+might be expected under such circumstances, was attended by the
+perpetration of atrocities almost beyond belief. What a contrast to the
+conduct of the Arabs! When the Khalif Omar took Jerusalem, A.D. 637, he
+rode into the city by the side of the Patriarch Sophronius, conversing
+with him on its antiquities. At the hour of prayer, he declined to
+perform his devotions in the Church of the Resurrection, in which he
+chanced to be, but prayed on the steps of the Church of Constantine;
+"for," said he to the patriarch, "had I done so, the Musselmen in a
+future age would have infringed the treaty, under colour of imitating my
+example." But, in the capture by the Crusaders, the brains of young
+children were dashed out against the walls; infants were thrown over the
+battlements; every woman that could be seized was violated; men were
+roasted at fires; some were ripped open, to see if they had swallowed
+gold; the Jews were driven into their synagogue, and there burnt; a
+massacre of nearly 70,000 persons took place; and the pope's legate was
+seen "partaking in the triumph."
+
+[Sidenote: Political results of the Crusades.] It had been expected by
+the politicians who first projected these wars that they would heal the
+divisions of the Latin and Greek churches, and give birth to a European
+republic, under the spiritual presidency of the pope. In these respects
+they proved a failure. It does not appear that the popes themselves
+personally had ever any living faith in the result. Not one of them ever
+joined a crusade; and the Church, as a corporation, took care to embark
+very little money in these undertakings. But, though they did not answer
+to the original intention, they gave, in an indirect way, a wonderful
+stimulus to the papal power. [Sidenote: Give to Rome the control of men
+and money in Europe.] Under the plausible pretences offered by them, the
+pope obtained control over the person of every Christian man from the
+highest to the lowest. The cross once taken, all civil control over the
+Crusader ceased--he became the man of the Church. Under those pretences,
+also, a right was imperceptibly acquired of raising revenue in all parts
+of Europe; even the clergy might be assessed. A drain was thus
+established on the resources of distant nations for an object which no
+man dared to gainsay; if he adventured on any such thing, he must
+encounter the odium of an infidel--an atheist. A steady stream of money
+flowed into Italy. Nor was it alone by this taxation of every Christian
+nation without permission of its government--this empire within every
+empire--immense wealth accrued to the projectors, while the infatuation
+could be kept up, by the diminished rate at which land could be
+obtained. Domains were thrown into the market; there were few purchasers
+except the Church. Immense domains were also given away by weak-minded
+sinners, and those on the point of death, for the salvation of their
+souls. Thus, all things considered, the effect of the Crusades, though
+not precisely that which was expected, was of singular advantage to the
+Church, giving it a commanding strength it had never before possessed.
+
+In their resistance to the German attack the popes never hesitated at
+any means. They prompted Prince Henry to revolt against their great
+antagonist, his father; they intervened, not to rebuke, but to abet him,
+when he threw his father into prison and deprived him of the necessaries
+of life. They carried their vengeance beyond the grave. When the aged
+emperor, broken in heart, escaped from their torment, and was honourably
+buried by the Bishop of Liege, that prelate was forthwith excommunicated
+and compelled to disinter the corpse. But crimes like these, against
+which human nature revolts, meet with retribution. [Sidenote: Resistance
+of Henry V.] This same Prince Henry, becoming Henry V., was forced by
+circumstances to resume his father's quarrel, and to refuse to yield his
+right of granting investitures. He marched upon Rome, and at the point
+of the sword compelled his adversary, Pope Paschal II., to surrender all
+the possessions and royalties of the Church--compelled him to crown him
+emperor--not, however, until the pontiff had been subjected to the
+ignominy of imprisonment, and brought into condemnation among his own
+party.
+
+[Sidenote: Bernard of Clairvaux stimulates the second crusade.] Things
+seemed to be going to ruin in Rome, and such must inevitably have been
+the issue, had not an extraneous influence arisen in Bernard of
+Clairvaux, to whom Europe learned to look up as the beater down of
+heresies, theological and political. He had been a pupil of William of
+Champeaux, the vanquished rival of Abelard, and Abelard he hated with a
+religious and personal hate. He was a wonder-worker. He excommunicated
+the flies which infested a church--they all fell down dead and were
+swept out by the basketful. He has been described as "the mellifluous
+doctor, whose works are not scientific, but full of unction." He could
+not tolerate the principle at the basis of Abelard's philosophy--the
+assertion of the supremacy of reason. Of Arnold of Brescia--who carried
+that principle to its political consequences, and declared that the
+riches and power of the clergy were inconsistent with their
+profession--he was the accuser and punisher. [Sidenote: Its failure.]
+Bernard preached a new crusade, authenticating his power by miracles,
+affirmed to be not inferior to those of our Saviour; promising to him
+who should slay an unbeliever happiness in this life and Paradise in the
+life to come. This second crusade was conducted by kings, and included
+fanatic ladies, dressed in the armour of men; but it ended in ruin.
+
+It was reserved for the only Englishman who ever attained to the papacy
+to visit Rome with the punishment she had so often inflicted upon
+others. Nicolas Breakspear--Adrian IV.--put the Eternal City under
+interdict, thereby ending the republic which the partisans of Arnold of
+Brescia had set up. But in this he was greatly aided by a change of
+sentiment in many of the inhabitants of Rome, who had found to their
+cost that it was more profitable for their city to be the centre of
+Christianity than the seat of a phantom republic. [Sidenote: Murder of
+Arnold of Brescia.] As an equivalent for his coronation by Adrian,
+Frederick Barbarossa agreed to surrender to the Church Arnold of
+Brescia. With indecent haste, the moment she had obtained possession of
+her arch-enemy she put him to death--not delivering him over to the
+secular arm, as the custom had been, but murdering him with her own
+hand. Seven centuries have elapsed, and the blood of Arnold is still
+crying from the ground for retribution. Notwithstanding a new--the
+third--crusade, things went from bad to worse in the Holy Land. Saladin
+had retaken Jerusalem, A.D. 1187. Barbarossa was drowned in a river in
+Pisidia. Richard of England was treacherously imprisoned; nor did the
+pope interfere for this brave soldier of the Cross. [Sidenote: Birth of
+Frederick II.] In the meantime, the Emperors of Germany had acquired
+Sicily by marriage--an incident destined to be of no little importance
+in the history of Europe; for, on the death of the Emperor Henry VI. at
+Messina, his son Frederick, an infant not two years old, was left to be
+brought up in that island. What the consequences were we shall soon see.
+
+[Sidenote: Review of the preceding events.] If we review the events
+related in this chapter, we find that the idolatry and immorality into
+which Rome had fallen had become connected with material interests
+sufficiently powerful to ensure their perpetuation; that converted
+Germany insisted on a reform, and therefore made a moral attack on the
+Italian system, attempting to carry it into effect by civil force. This
+attack was, properly speaking, purely moral, the intellectual element
+accompanying it being derived from Western or Arabian influences, as
+will be shown in the next chapter; and, in its resistance to this, the
+papacy was not only successful, but actually was able to retaliate,
+overthrowing the Emperors of Germany, and being even on the point of
+establishing a European autocracy, with the pope at its head. It was in
+these events that the Reformation began, though circumstances intervened
+to postpone its completion to the era of Luther. Henceforth we see more
+and more plainly the attitude in which the papacy, through its material
+interests, was compelled to stand, as resisting all intellectual
+advancement. Our subject has therefore here to be left unfinished until
+we shall have described the Mohammedan influences making pressures on
+the West and the East.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST--(_Continued_).
+
+THE WESTERN OR INTELLECTUAL ATTACK ON THE ITALIAN SYSTEM.
+
+_The intellectual Condition of Christendom contrasted with that of
+Arabian Spain._
+
+_Diffusion of Arabian intellectual Influences through France and
+Sicily.--Example of Saracen Science in Alhazen, and of Philosophy in
+Algazzali.--Innocent III. prepares to combat these Influences.--Results
+to Western Europe of the Sack of Constantinople by the Catholics._
+
+_The spread of Mohammedan light Literature is followed by Heresy.--The
+crushing of Heresy in the South of France by armed Force.--The
+Inquisition, mendicant Orders, auricular Confession, and Casuistry._
+
+_The rising Sentiment is embodied in Frederick II. in Sicily.--His
+Conflict with and Overthrow by the Pope.--Spread of Mutiny among the
+mendicant Orders._
+
+
+[Sidenote: The pressure from the West upon Rome.] A pressure upon the
+Italian system had meantime been arising in the West. It was due to the
+presence of the Arabs in Spain. It is necessary, therefore, to relate
+the circumstances of their invasion and conquest of that country, and to
+compare their social and intellectual condition with the contemporary
+state of Christendom.
+
+[Sidenote: Barbarism of Europe.] From the barbarism of the native people
+of Europe, who could scarcely be said to have emerged from the savage
+state, unclean in person, benighted in mind, inhabiting huts in which it
+was a mark of wealth if there were bulrushes on the floor and straw mats
+against the wall; miserably fed on beans, vetches, roots, and even the
+bark of trees; clad in garments of untanned skin, or at the best of
+leather--perennial in durability, but not conducive to personal
+purity--a state in which the pomp of royalty was sufficiently and
+satisfactorily manifested in the equipage of the sovereign, an ox-cart,
+drawn by not less than two yokes of cattle, quickened in their movements
+by the goads of pedestrian serfs, whose legs were wrapped in wisps of
+straw; from a people, devout believers in all the wild fictions of
+shrine-miracles and preposterous relics; from the degradation of a base
+theology, and from the disputes of ambitious ecclesiastics for power, it
+is pleasant to turn to the south-west corner of the continent, where,
+under auspices of a very different kind, the irradiations of light were
+to break forth. The crescent in the West was soon to pass eastward to
+its full.
+
+But I must retrace my steps through four centuries, and resume the
+description of the Arabian movement after the subjugation of Africa, as
+related in the former volume, Chapter XI.
+
+[Sidenote: Arab invasion of Spain.] Those were the circumstances of the
+Arab conquest of Spain. In that country the Arian Creed had been
+supplanted by the orthodox, and the customary persecutions had set in.
+From the time of the Emperor Hadrian, who had transported 50,000 Jewish
+families into Spain, that race had greatly increased, and, as might be
+expected, had received no mercy at the hands of the orthodox. Ninety
+thousand individuals had recently suffered compulsory baptism, and so
+had been brought under the atrocious Catholic law that whoever has been
+baptized shall be compelled to continue the observances of the Church.
+The Gothic monarchy was elective, and Roderic had succeeded to the
+throne, to the prejudice of the heirs of his predecessor. Though a very
+brave soldier, he was a luxurious and licentious man. It was the custom
+of the Goths to send their children to Toledo to be educated, and, under
+these circumstances, a young girl of extraordinary beauty, the daughter
+of Count Julian, governor of Ceuta in Africa, was residing there. King
+Roderic fell passionately in love with her, and, being unable to
+overcome her virtuous resolution by persuasion, resorted to violence.
+The girl found means to inform her father of what had occurred. "By the
+living God!" exclaimed the count, in a paroxysm of rage, "I will be
+revenged." But, dissembling his wrath, he crossed over into Spain, had
+an understanding with Oppas, the Archbishop of Toledo, and other
+disaffected ecclesiastics, and, under specious pretences, lulled the
+suspicions of Roderic, and brought his daughter away. And now he opened
+communications with the Emir Musa, prevailing upon him to attempt the
+conquest of the country, and offering that he himself would take the
+lead. The conditions were settled between them, and the consent of the
+khalif to the expedition obtained. [Sidenote: Its conquest.] Tarik, a
+lieutenant of the emir, was sent across the Straits with the van of the
+army. He landed on the rock called, in memory of his name, Gibraltar,
+April, A.D. 711. In the battle that ensued, a part of Roderic's troops,
+together with the Archbishop of Toledo, consummated their treasonable
+compact, and deserted to the Arabs; the rest were panic-stricken. In the
+rout, Roderic himself was drowned in the waters of the Guadalquivir.
+
+Tarik now proceeded rapidly northward, and was soon joined by his
+superior, the Emir Musa, who was not, perhaps, without jealousy at his
+success. As the Arab historians say, the Almighty delivered the
+idolators into their hand, and gave them one victory after another. As
+the towns successively fell, they left them in charge of the Jews, to
+whose revenge the conquest was largely due, and who could be thoroughly
+trusted; nor did they pause in their march until they had passed the
+French frontier and reached the Rhone. It was the intention of Musa to
+cross the European continent to Constantinople, subjugating the Frank,
+German, and Italian barbarians by the way. At this time it seemed
+impossible that France could escape the fate of Spain; and if she fell,
+the threat of Musa would inevitably have come to pass, that he would
+preach the Unity of God in the Vatican. But a quarrel had arisen between
+him and Tarik, who had been imprisoned and even scourged. The friends of
+the latter, however, did not fail him at the court of Damascus. An envoy
+from the Khalif Alwalid appeared, ordering Musa to desist from his
+enterprise, to return to Syria, and exonerate himself of the things laid
+to his charge. But Musa bribed the envoy to let him advance. Hereupon
+the angry khalif dispatched a second messenger, who, in face of the
+Moslems and Christians, audaciously arrested him, at the head of his
+troops, by the bridle of his horse. The conqueror of Spain was compelled
+to return. He was cast into prison, fined 200,000 pieces of gold,
+publicly whipped, and his life with difficulty spared. As is related of
+Belisarius, Musa was driven as a beggar to solicit charity, and the
+Saracen conqueror of Spain ended his days in grief and absolute want.
+
+[Sidenote: Arrest of Mohammedanism in Western Europe.] The dissensions
+among the Arabs, far more than the sword of Charles Martel, prevented
+the Mohammedanization of France. Their historians admit the great check
+received at the battle of Tours, in which Abderrahman was killed; they
+call that field the Place of the Martyrs; but their accounts by no means
+correspond to the relations of the Christian authors, who affirm that
+375,000 Mohammedans fell, and only 1500 Christians. The defeat was not
+so disastrous but that in a few months they were able to resume their
+advance, and their progress was arrested only by renewed dissensions
+among themselves--dissensions not alone among the leaders in Spain, but
+also more serious ones of aspirants for the khalifate in Asia. On the
+overthrow of the Ommiade house, Abderrahman, one of that family, escaped
+to Spain, which repaid the patronage of its conquest by acknowledging
+him as its sovereign. He made Cordova the seat of his government.
+Neither he nor his immediate successors took any other title than that
+of Emir, out of respect to the khalif, who resided at Bagdad, the
+metropolis of Islam, though they maintained a rivalry with him in the
+patronage of letters and science. Abderrahman himself strengthened his
+power by an alliance with Charlemagne.
+
+[Sidenote: Civilization and splendour of the Spanish Arabs.] Scarcely
+had the Arabs become firmly settled in Spain when they commenced a
+brilliant career. Adopting what had now become the established policy of
+the Commanders of the Faithful in Asia, the Emirs of Cordova
+distinguished themselves as patrons of learning, and set an example of
+refinement strongly contrasting with the condition of the native
+European princes. Cordova, under their administration, at its highest
+point of prosperity, boasted of more than two hundred thousand houses,
+and more than a million of inhabitants. After sunset, a man might walk
+through it in a straight line for ten miles by the light of the public
+lamps. Seven hundred years after this time there was not so much as one
+public lamp in London. Its streets were solidly paved. In Paris,
+centuries subsequently, whoever stepped over his threshold on a rainy
+day stepped up to his ankles in mud. Other cities, as Granada, Seville,
+Toledo, considered themselves rivals of Cordova. The palaces of the
+khalifs were magnificently decorated. Those sovereigns might well look
+down with supercilious contempt on the dwellings of the rulers of
+Germany, France, and England, which were scarcely better than
+stables--chimneyless, windowless, and with a hole in the roof for the
+smoke to escape, like the wigwams of certain Indians. The Spanish
+Mohammedans had brought with them all the luxuries and prodigalities of
+Asia. [Sidenote: Their palaces and gardens.] Their residences stood
+forth against the clear blue sky, or were embosomed in woods. They had
+polished marble balconies, overhanging orange-gardens; courts with
+cascades of water; shady retreats provocative of slumber in the heat of
+the day; retiring-rooms vaulted with stained glass, speckled with gold,
+over which streams of water were made to gush; the floors and walls were
+of exquisite mosaic. Here, a fountain of quicksilver shot up in a
+glistening spray, the glittering particles falling with a tranquil sound
+like fairy bells; there, apartments into which cool air was drawn from
+the flower-gardens, in summer, by means of ventilating towers, and in
+winter through earthen pipes, or caleducts, imbedded in the walls--the
+hypocaust, in the vaults below, breathing forth volumes of warm and
+perfumed air through these hidden passages. The walls were not covered
+with wainscot, but adorned with arabesques, and paintings of
+agricultural scenes and views of Paradise. From the ceilings, corniced
+with fretted gold, great chandeliers hung, one of which, it is said, was
+so large that it contained 1804 lamps. Clusters of frail marble columns
+surprised the beholder with the vast weights they bore. In the boudoirs
+of the sultanas they were sometimes of verd antique, and incrusted with
+lapis lazuli. The furniture was of sandal and citron wood, inlaid with
+mother-of-pearl, ivory, silver, or relieved with gold and precious
+malachite. In orderly confusion were arranged vases of rock crystal,
+Chinese porcelains, and tables of exquisite mosaic. The winter
+apartments were hung with rich tapestry; the floors were covered with
+embroidered Persian carpets. Pillows and couches, of elegant forms, were
+scattered about the rooms, perfumed with frankincense. It was the
+intention of the Saracen architect, by excluding the view of the
+external landscape, to concentrate attention on his work; and since the
+representation of the human form was religiously forbidden, and that
+source of decoration denied, his imagination ran riot with the
+complicated arabesques he introduced, and sought every opportunity of
+replacing the prohibited works of art by the trophies and rarities of
+the garden. For this reason, the Arabs never produced artists; religion
+turned them from the beautiful, and made them soldiers, philosophers,
+and men of affairs. Splendid flowers and rare exotics ornamented the
+courtyards and even the inner chambers. Great care was taken to make due
+provision for the cleanliness, occupation, and amusement of the inmates.
+Through pipes of metal, water, both warm and cold, to suit the season of
+the year, ran into baths of marble; in niches, where the current of air
+could be artificially directed, hung dripping alcarazzas. [Sidenote:
+Libraries and works of taste.] There were whispering-galleries for the
+amusement of the women; labyrinths and marble play-courts for the
+children; for the master himself, grand libraries. The Khalif Alhakem's
+was so large that the catalogue alone filled forty volumes. He had also
+apartments for the transcribing, binding, and ornamenting of books. A
+taste for caligraphy and the possession of splendidly-illuminated
+manuscripts seems to have anticipated in the khalifs, both of Asia and
+Spain, the taste for statuary and paintings among the later popes of
+Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: The court of Abderrahman III.] Such were the palace and
+gardens of Zehra, in which Abderrahman III. honoured his favourite
+sultana. The edifice had 1200 columns of Greek, Italian, Spanish, and
+African marble. Its hall of audience was incrusted with gold and pearls.
+Through the long corridors of its seraglio black eunuchs silently
+glided. The ladies of the harem, both wives and concubines, were the
+most beautiful that could be found. To that establishment alone 6300
+persons were attached, The body-guard of the sovereign was composed of
+12,000 horsemen, whose cimeters and belts were studded with gold. This
+was that Abderrahman who, after a glorious reign of fifty years, sat
+down to count the number of days of unalloyed happiness he had
+experienced, and could only enumerate fourteen. "Oh man!" exclaimed the
+plaintive khalif, "put not thy trust in this present world."
+
+[Sidenote: Social habits of the Moors.] No nation has ever excelled the
+Spanish Arabs in the beauty and costliness of their pleasure-gardens. To
+them we owe the introduction of very many of our most valuable
+cultivated fruits, such as the peach. Retaining the love of their
+ancestors for the cooling effect of water in a hot climate, they spared
+no pains in the superfluity of fountains, hydraulic works, and
+artificial lakes in which fish were raised for the table. Into such a
+lake, attached to the palace of Cordova, many loaves were cast each day
+to feed the fish. There were also menageries of foreign animals;
+aviaries of rare birds; manufactories in which skilled workmen, obtained
+from foreign countries, displayed their art in textures of silk, cotton,
+linen, and all the miracles of the loom; in jewelry and filigree-work,
+with which they ministered to the female pride of the sultanas and
+concubines. Under the shade of cypresses cascades disappeared; among
+flowering shrubs there were winding walks, bowers of roses, seats cut
+out of the rock, and crypt-like grottoes hewn in the living stone.
+Nowhere was ornamental gardening better understood; for not only did the
+artist try to please the eye as it wandered over the pleasant gradation
+of vegetable colour and form--he also boasted his success in the
+gratification of the sense of smell by the studied succession of
+perfumes from beds of flowers.
+
+[Sidenote: Their domestic life.] To these Saracens we are indebted for
+many of our personal comforts. Religiously cleanly, it was not possible
+for them to clothe themselves according to the fashion of the natives of
+Europe, in a garment unchanged till it dropped to pieces of itself, a
+loathsome mass of vermin, stench, and rags. No Arab who had been a
+minister of state, or the associate or antagonist of a sovereign, would
+have offered such a spectacle as the corpse of Thomas a Becket when his
+haircloth shirt was removed. They taught us the use of the often-changed
+and often-washed under-garment of linen or cotton, which still passes
+among ladies under its old Arabic name. But to cleanliness they were not
+unwilling to add ornament. Especially among women of the higher classes
+was the love of finery a passion. Their outer garments were often of
+silk, embroidered and decorated with gems and woven gold. So fond were
+the Moorish women of gay colours and the lustre of chrysolites,
+hyacinths, emeralds, and sapphires, that it was quaintly said that the
+interior of any public building in which they were permitted to appear
+looked like a flower-meadow in the spring besprinkled with rain.
+
+[Sidenote: They cultivate literature, music,] In the midst of all this
+luxury, which cannot be regarded by the historian with disdain, since in
+the end it produced a most important result in the south of France, the
+Spanish khalifs, emulating the example of their Asiatic compeers, and in
+this strongly contrasting with the popes of Rome, were not only the
+patrons, but the personal cultivators of all the branches of human
+learning. One of them was himself the author of a work on polite
+literature in not less than fifty volumes; another wrote a treatise on
+algebra. When Zaryab the musician came from the East to Spain, the
+Khalif Abderrahman rode forth to meet him in honour. The College of
+Music in Cordova was sustained by ample government patronage, and
+produced many illustrious professors.
+
+[Sidenote: but disapprove of European mythology.] The Arabs never
+translated into their own tongue the great Greek poets, though they so
+sedulously collected and translated the Greek philosophers. Their
+religious sentiments and sedate character caused them to abominate the
+lewdness of our classical mythology, and to denounce indignantly any
+connexion between the licentious, impure Olympian Jove and the Most High
+God as an insufferable and unpardonable blasphemy. Haroun al Raschid had
+gratified his curiosity by causing Homer to be translated into Syriac,
+but he did not adventure on rendering the great epics into Arabic.
+Notwithstanding this aversion to our graceful but not unobjectionable
+ancient poetry, among them originated the Tensons, or poetic
+disputations, carried afterward to perfection among the Troubadours;
+from them, also, the Provencals learned to employ jongleurs. Across the
+Pyrenees, literary, philosophical, and military adventurers were
+perpetually passing; and thus the luxury, the taste, and above all, the
+chivalrous gallantry and elegant courtesies of Moorish society found
+their way from Granada and Cordova to Provence and Languedoc.
+
+[Sidenote: The south of France contracts their tastes.] The French, and
+German, and English nobles imbibed the Arab admiration of the horse;
+they learned to pride themselves on skilful riding. Hunting and falconry
+became their fashionable pastimes; they tried to emulate that Arab skill
+which had produced the celebrated breed of Andalusian horses. It was a
+scene of grandeur and gallantry; the pastimes were tilts and
+tournaments. The refined society of Cordova prided itself in its
+politeness. A gay contagion spread from the beautiful Moorish miscreants
+to their sisters beyond the mountains; the south of France was full of
+the witcheries of female fascinations, and of dancing to the lute and
+mandolin. [Sidenote: Light literature spreads into Sicily and Italy.]
+Even in Italy and Sicily the love-song became the favourite composition;
+and out of these genial but not orthodox beginnings the polite
+literature of modern Europe arose. The pleasant epidemic spread by
+degrees along every hillside and valley. In monasteries, voices that had
+vowed celibacy might be heard carolling stanzas of which St. Jerome
+would hardly have approved; there was many a juicy abbot, who could
+troll forth in jocund strains, like those of the merry sinners of Malaga
+and Xeres, the charms of women and wine, though one was forbidden to the
+Moslem and one to the monk. The sedate greybeards of Cordova had already
+applied to the supreme judge to have the songs of the Spanish Jew,
+Abraham Ibn Sahal, prohibited; for there was not a youth, nor woman, nor
+child in the city who could not repeat them by heart. Their immoral
+tendency was a public scandal. The light gaiety of Spain was reflected
+in the coarser habits of the northern countries. It was an archdeacon of
+Oxford who some time afterward sang,
+
+    "Mihi sit propositum in taberna mori,
+    Vinum sit appositum morientis ori,
+    Ut dicant, cum venerint angelorum chori;
+    'Deus sit propitius huic potatori,'" etc.
+
+Even as early as the tenth century, persons having a taste for learning
+and for elegant amenities found their way into Spain from all adjoining
+countries; a practice in subsequent years still more indulged in, when
+it became illustrated by the brilliant success of Gerbert, who, as we
+have seen, passed from the Infidel University of Cordova to the papacy
+of Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: The Arabian school system.] The khalifs of the West carried
+out the precepts of Ali, the fourth successor of Mohammed, in the
+patronage of literature. They established libraries in all their chief
+towns; it is said that not fewer than seventy were in existence. To
+every mosque was attached a public school, in which the children of the
+poor were taught to read and write, and instructed in the precepts of
+the Koran. For those in easier circumstances there were academies,
+usually arranged in twenty-five or thirty apartments, each calculated
+for accommodating four students; the academy being presided over by a
+rector. In Cordova, Granada, and other great cities, there were
+universities frequently under the superintendence of Jews; the
+Mohammedan maxim being that the real learning of a man is of more public
+importance than any particular religious opinions he may entertain. In
+this they followed the example of the Asiatic khalif, Haroun al Raschid,
+who actually conferred the superintendence of his schools on John Masue,
+a Nestorian Christian. The Mohammedan liberality was in striking
+contrast with the intolerance of Europe. Indeed, it may be doubted
+whether at this time any European nation is sufficiently advanced to
+follow such an example. In the universities some of the professors of
+polite literature gave lectures on Arabic classical works; others taught
+rhetoric or composition, or mathematics, or astronomy. From these
+institutions many of the practices observed in our colleges were
+derived. They held Commencements, at which poems were read and orations
+delivered in presence of the public. They had also, in addition to these
+schools of general learning, professional ones, particularly for
+medicine.
+
+[Sidenote: Cultivation of grammar, rhetoric, composition.] With a pride
+perhaps not altogether inexcusable, the Arabians boasted of their
+language as being the most perfect spoken by man. Mohammed himself, when
+challenged to produce a miracle in proof of the authenticity of his
+mission, uniformly pointed to the composition of the Koran, its
+unapproachable excellence vindicating its inspiration. The orthodox
+Moslems--the Moslems are those who are submissively resigned to the
+Divine will--are wont to assert that every page of that book is indeed a
+conspicuous miracle. It is not then surprising that, in the Arabian
+schools, great attention was paid to the study of language, and that so
+many celebrated grammarians were produced. By these scholars,
+dictionaries, similar to those now in use, were composed; their
+copiousness is indicated by the circumstance that one of them consisted
+of sixty volumes, the definition of each word being illustrated or
+sustained by quotations from Arab authors of acknowledged repute. They
+had also lexicons of Greek, Latin, Hebrew; and cyclopedias such as the
+Historical Dictionary of Sciences of Mohammed Ibn Abdallah, of Granada.
+In their highest civilization and luxury they did not forget the
+amusements of their forefathers--listening to the tale-teller, who never
+failed to obtain an audience in the midst of Arab tents. Around the
+evening fires in Spain the wandering literati exercised their wonderful
+powers of Oriental invention, edifying the eager listeners by such
+narrations as those that have descended to us in the Arabian Nights'
+Entertainments. The more sober and higher efforts of the educated were,
+of course, directed to pulpit eloquence, in conformity with the example
+of all the great Oriental khalifs, and sanctified by the practice of the
+Prophet himself. [Sidenote: Defects of their literature.] Their poetical
+productions embraced all the modern minor forms--satires, odes, elegies,
+etc.; but they never produced any work in the higher walks of poesy, no
+epic, no tragedy. Perhaps this was due to their false fashion of valuing
+the mechanical execution of a work. They were the authors and
+introducers of rhyme; and such was the luxuriance and abundance of their
+language, that, in some of their longest poems, the same rhyme is said
+to have been used alternately from the beginning to the end. Where such
+mechanical triumphs were popularly prized, it may be supposed that the
+conception and spirit would be indifferent. Even among the Spanish women
+there were not a few who, like Velada, Ayesha, Labana, Algasania,
+achieved reputation in these compositions; and some of them were
+daughters of khalifs. And this is the more interesting to us, since it
+was from the Provencal poetry, the direct descendant of these efforts,
+that European literature arose. Sonnets and romances at last displaced
+the grimly-orthodox productions of the wearisome and ignorant fathers of
+the Church.
+
+If fiction was prized among the Spanish Arabs, history was held in not
+less esteem. Every khalif had his own historian. The instincts of the
+race are perpetually peeping out; not only were there historians of the
+Commanders of the Faithful, but also of celebrated horses and
+illustrious camels. In connexion with history, statistics were
+cultivated; this having been, it may be said, a necessary study, from
+the first enforced on the Saracen officers in their assessment of
+tribute on conquered misbelievers, and subsequently continued as an
+object of taste. [Sidenote: Their taste for practical science.] It was,
+doubtless, a similar necessity, arising from their position, that
+stamped such a remarkably practical aspect on the science of the Arabs
+generally. Many of their learned men were travellers and voyagers,
+constantly moving about for the acquisition or diffusion of knowledge,
+their acquirements being a passport to them wherever they went, and a
+sufficient introduction to any of the African or Asiatic courts. They
+were thus continually brought in contact with men of affairs, soldiers
+of fortune, statesmen, and became imbued with much of their practical
+spirit; and hence the singularly romantic character which the
+biographies of many of these men display, wonderful turns of prosperity,
+violent deaths. The scope of their literary labours offers a subject
+well worthy of meditation; it contrasts with the contemporary ignorance
+of Europe. Some wrote on chronology; some on numismatics; some, now that
+military eloquence had become objectless, wrote on pulpit oratory; some
+on agriculture and its allied branches, as the art of irrigation. Not
+one of the purely mathematical, or mixed, or practical sciences was
+omitted. [Sidenote: Their continued inclination to the study of
+medicine.] Out of a list too long for detailed quotation, I may recall a
+few names. Assamh, who wrote on topography and statistics, a brave
+soldier, who was killed in the invasion of France, A.D. 720; Avicenna,
+the great physician and philosopher, who died A.D. 1037; Averroes, of
+Cordova, the chief commentator on Aristotle, A.D. 1198. It was his
+intention to unite the doctrines of Aristotle with those of the Koran.
+To him is imputed the discovery of spots upon the sun. The leading idea
+of his philosophy was the numerical unity of the souls of mankind,
+though parted among millions of living individuals. He died at Morocco.
+Abu Othman wrote on zoology; Alberuni, on gems--he had travelled to
+India to procure information; Rhazes, Al Abbas, and Al Beithar, on
+botany--the latter had been in all parts of the world for the purpose of
+obtaining specimens. Ebn Zoar, better known as Avenzoar, may be looked
+upon as the authority in Moorish pharmacy. Pharmacopoeias were published
+by the schools, improvements on the old ones of the Nestorians: to them
+may be traced the introduction of many Arabic words, such as syrup,
+julep, elixir, still used among apothecaries. [Sidenote: Relics of the
+Arab vocabulary.] A competent scholar might furnish not only an
+interesting, but valuable book, founded on the remaining relics of the
+Arab vocabulary; for, in whatever direction we may look, we meet, in the
+various pursuits of peace and war, of letters and of science, Saracenic
+vestiges. Our dictionaries tell us that such is the origin of admiral,
+alchemy, alcohol, algebra, chemise, cotton, and hundreds of other words.
+The Saracens commenced the application of chemistry, both to the theory
+and practice of medicine, in the explanation of the functions of the
+human body and in the cure of its diseases. [Sidenote: Their medicine
+and surgery.] Nor was their surgery behind their medicine. Albucasis, of
+Cordova, shrinks not from the performance of the most formidable
+operations in his own and in the obstetrical art; the actual cautery and
+the knife are used without hesitation. He has left us ample descriptions
+of the surgical instruments then employed; and from him we learn that,
+in operations on females in which considerations of delicacy intervened,
+the services of properly instructed women were secured. How different
+was all this from the state of things in Europe; the Christian peasant,
+fever-stricken or overtaken by accident, hied to the nearest
+saint-shrine and expected a miracle; the Spanish Moor relied on the
+prescription or lancet of his physician, or the bandage and knife of his
+surgeon.
+
+[Sidenote: Liberality of the Asiatic khalifs.] In mathematics the
+Arabians acknowledged their indebtedness to two sources, Greek and
+Indian, but they greatly improved upon both. The Asiatic khalifs had
+made exertions to procure translations of Euclid, Apollonius,
+Archimedes, and other Greek geometers. Almaimon, in a letter to the
+Emperor Theophilus, expressed his desire to visit Constantinople if his
+public duties would have permitted. He requests of him to allow Leo the
+mathematician to come to Bagdad to impart to him a portion of his
+learning, pledging his word that he would restore him quickly and safely
+again. "Do not," says the high-minded khalif, "let diversity of religion
+or of country cause you to refuse my request. Do what friendship would
+concede to a friend. In return, I offer you a hundred weight of gold, a
+perpetual alliance and peace." True to the instincts of his race and the
+traditions of his city, the Byzantine sourly and insolently refused the
+request, saying that "the learning which had illustrated the Roman name
+should never be imparted to a barbarian."
+
+[Sidenote: Their great improvements in arithmetic.] From the Hindus the
+Arabs learned arithmetic, especially that valuable invention termed by
+us the Arabic numerals, but honourably ascribed by them to its proper
+source, under the designation of "Indian numerals." They also entitled
+their treatises on the subject "Systems of Indian Arithmetic." This
+admirable notation by nine digits and cipher occasioned a complete
+revolution in arithmetical computations. As in the case of so many other
+things, the Arab impress is upon it; our word cipher, and its
+derivatives, ciphering, etc., recall the Arabic word tsaphara or ciphra,
+the name for the 0, and meaning that which is blank or void. Mohammed
+Ben Musa, said to be the earliest of the Saracen authors on algebra, and
+who made the great improvement of substituting sines for chords in
+trigonometry, wrote also on this Indian system. He lived at the end of
+the ninth century; before the end of the tenth it was in common use
+among the African and Spanish mathematicians. Ebn Junis, A.D. 1008, used
+it in his astronomical works. From Spain it passed into Italy, its
+singular advantage in commercial computation causing it to be eagerly
+adopted in the great trading cities. We still use the word algorithm in
+reference to calculations. The study of algebra was intently cultivated
+among the Arabs, who gave it the name it bears. Ben Musa, just referred
+to, was the inventor of the common method of solving quadratic
+equations. [Sidenote: Their astronomical discoveries.] In the
+application of mathematics to astronomy and physics they had been long
+distinguished. Almaimon had determined with considerable accuracy the
+obliquity of the ecliptic. His result, with those of some other Saracen
+astronomers, is as follows:
+
+    A.D.   830.   Almaimon                       23 deg. 35' 52"
+
+      "    879.   Albategnius, at Aracte         23 deg. 35' 00
+
+      "    987.   Aboul Wefa, at Bagdad          23 deg. 35' 00
+
+      "    995.   Aboul Rihau, with a quadrant
+                      of 25 feet radius          23 deg. 35' 00
+
+      "   1080.   Arzachael                      23 deg. 34' 00
+
+Almaimon had also ascertained the size of the earth from the measurement
+of a degree on the shore of the Red Sea--an operation implying true
+ideas of its form, and in singular contrast with the doctrine of
+Constantinople and Rome. While the latter was asserting, in all its
+absurdity, the flatness of the earth, the Spanish Moors were teaching
+geography in their common schools from globes. In Africa, there was
+still preserved, with almost religious reverence, in the library at
+Cairo, one of brass, reputed to have belonged to the great astronomer
+Ptolemy. Al Idrisi made one of silver for Roger II., of Sicily; and
+Gerbert used one which he had brought from Cordova in the school he
+established at Rheims. It cost a struggle of several centuries,
+illustrated by some martyrdoms, before the dictum of Lactantius and
+Augustine could be overthrown. Among problems of interest that were
+solved may be mentioned the determination of the length of the year by
+Albategnius and Thebit Ben Corrah; and increased accuracy was given to
+the correction of astronomical observations by Alhazen's great discovery
+of atmospheric refraction. Among the astronomers, some composed tables;
+some wrote on the measure of time; some on the improvement of clocks,
+for which purpose they were the first to apply the pendulum; some on
+instruments, as the astrolabe. The introduction of astronomy into
+Christian Europe has been attributed to the translation of the works of
+Mohammed Fargani. In Europe, also, the Arabs were the first to build
+observatories; the Giralda, or tower of Seville, was erected under the
+superintendence of Geber, the mathematician, A.D. 1196, for that
+purpose. Its fate was not a little characteristic. After the expulsion
+of the Moors it was turned into a belfry, the Spaniards not knowing what
+else to do with it.
+
+[Sidenote: Europe tries to hide its obligations to them.] I have to
+deplore the systematic manner in which the literature of Europe has
+contrived to put out of sight our scientific obligations to the
+Mohammedans. Surely they cannot be much longer hidden. Injustice founded
+on religious rancour and national conceit cannot be perpetuated for
+ever. What should the modern astronomer say when, remembering the
+contemporary barbarism of Europe, he finds the Arab Abul Hassan speaking
+of tubes, to the extremities of which ocular and object diopters,
+perhaps sights, were attached, as used at Meragha? what when he reads of
+the attempts of Abderrahman Sufi at improving the photometry of the
+stars? Are the astronomical tables of Ebn Junis (A.D. 1008), called the
+Hakemite tables, or the Ilkanic tables of Nasser Eddin Tasi, constructed
+at the great observatory just mentioned, Meragha, near Tauris,
+A.D. 1259, or the measurement of time by pendulum oscillations,
+and the methods of correcting astronomical tables by systematic
+observations--are such things worthless indications of the mental state?
+The Arab has left his intellectual impress on Europe, as, before long,
+Christendom will have to confess; he has indelibly written it on the
+heavens, as any one may see who reads the names of the stars on a common
+celestial globe.
+
+[Sidenote: Improvements in the arts of life.] Our obligations to the
+Spanish Moors in the arts of life are even more marked than in the
+higher branches of science, perhaps only because our ancestors were
+better prepared to take advantage of things connected with daily
+affairs. They set an example of skilful agriculture, the practice of
+which was regulated by a code of laws. Not only did they attend to the
+cultivation of plants, introducing very many new ones, they likewise
+paid great attention to the breeding of cattle, especially the sheep and
+horse. To them we owe the introduction of the great products, rice,
+sugar, cotton, and also, as we have previously observed, nearly all the
+fine garden and orchard fruits, together with many less important
+plants, as spinach and saffron. To them Spain owes the culture of silk;
+they gave to Xeres and Malaga their celebrity for wine. They introduced
+the Egyptian system of irrigation by flood-gates, wheels, and pumps.
+They also promoted many important branches of industry; improved the
+manufacture of textile fabrics, earthenware, iron, steel; the Toledo
+sword-blades were everywhere prized for their temper. The Arabs, on
+their expulsion from Spain, carried the manufacture of a kind of
+leather, in which they were acknowledged to excel, to Morocco, from
+which country the leather itself has now taken its name. They also
+introduced inventions of a more ominous kind--gunpowder and artillery.
+The cannon they used appeared to have been made of wrought iron. But
+perhaps they more than compensated for these evil contrivances by the
+introduction of the mariner's compass.
+
+[Sidenote: Their commerce.] The mention of the mariner's compass might
+lead us correctly to infer that the Spanish Arabs were interested in
+commercial pursuits, a conclusion to which we should also come when we
+consider the revenues of some of their khalifs. That of Abderrahman III.
+is stated at five and a half million sterling--a vast sum if considered
+by its modern equivalent, and far more than could possibly be raised by
+taxes on the produce of the soil. It probably exceeded the entire
+revenue of all the sovereigns of Christendom taken together. From
+Barcelona and other ports an immense trade with the Levant was
+maintained, but it was mainly in the hands of the Jews, who, from the
+first invasion of Spain by Musa, had ever been the firm allies and
+collaborators of the Arabs. Together they had participated in the
+dangers of the invasion; together they had shared its boundless success;
+together they had held in irreverent derision, nay, even in contempt,
+the woman-worshippers and polytheistic savages beyond the Pyrenees--as
+they mirthfully called those whose long-delayed vengeance they were in
+the end to feel; together they were expelled. Against such Jews as
+lingered behind the hideous persecutions of the Inquisition were
+directed. But in the days of their prosperity they maintained a merchant
+marine of more than a thousand ships. They had factories and consuls on
+the Tanais. With Constantinople alone they maintained a great trade; it
+ramified from the Black Sea and East Mediterranean into the interior of
+Asia; it reached the ports of India and China, and extended along the
+African coast as far as Madagascar. Even in these commercial affairs the
+singular genius of the Jew and Arabs shines forth. In the midst of the
+tenth century, when Europe was about in the same condition that
+Caffraria is now, enlightened Moors, like Abul Cassem, were writing
+treatises on the principles of trade and commerce. As on so many other
+occasions, on these affairs they have left their traces. The smallest
+weight they used in trade was the grain of barley, four of which were
+equal to one sweet pea, called in Arabic carat. We still use the grain
+as our unit of weight, and still speak of gold as being so many carats
+fine.
+
+[Sidenote: Obligations to the Khalifs of the West.] Such were the
+Khalifs of the West; such their splendour, their luxury, their
+knowledge; such some of the obligations we are under to
+them--obligations which Christian Europe, with singular insincerity, has
+ever been fain to hide. The cry against the misbeliever has long
+outlived the Crusades. Considering the enchanting country over which
+they ruled, it was not without reason that they caused to be engraven on
+the public seal, "The servant of the Merciful rests contented in the
+decrees of God." What more, indeed, could Paradise give them? But,
+considering also the evil end of all this happiness and pomp, this
+learning, liberality, and wealth, we may well appreciate the solemn
+truth which these monarchs, in their day of pride and power, grandly
+wrote in the beautiful mosaics on their palace walls, an ever-recurring
+warning to him who owes dominion to the sword, "There is no conqueror
+but God."
+
+[Sidenote: Examination of Mohammedan science.] The value of a
+philosophical or political system may be determined by its fruits. On
+this principle I examined in Vol. I., Chapter XII., the Italian system,
+estimating its religious merit from the biographies of the popes, which
+afford the proper criterion. In like manner, the intellectual state of
+the Mohammedan nations at successive epochs may be ascertained from what
+is its proper criterion, the contemporaneous scientific manifestation.
+
+At the time when the Moorish influences in Spain began to exert a
+pressure on the Italian system, there were several scientific writers,
+fragments of whose works have descended to us. As an architect may judge
+of the skill of the ancient Egyptians in his art from a study of the
+Pyramids, so from these relics of Saracenic learning we may demonstrate
+the intellectual state of the Mohammedan people, though much of their
+work has been lost and more has been purposely destroyed.
+
+[Sidenote: Review of the works of Alhazen.] Among such writers is
+Alhazen; his date was about A.D. 1100. It appears that he resided both
+in Spain and Egypt, but the details of his biography are very confused.
+Through his optical works, which have been translated into Latin, he is
+best known to Europe. [Sidenote: He corrects the theory of vision.] He
+was the first to correct the Greek misconception as to the nature of
+vision, showing that the rays of light come from external objects to the
+eye, and do not issue forth from the eye, and impinge on external
+things, as, up to his time, had been supposed. His explanation does not
+depend upon mere hypothesis or supposition, but is plainly based upon
+anatomical investigation as well as on geometrical discussion.
+[Sidenote: Determines the function of the retina.] He determines that
+the retina is the seat of vision, and that impressions made by light
+upon it are conveyed along the optic nerve to the brain. Though it might
+not be convenient, at the time when Alhazen lived, to make such an
+acknowledgment, no one could come to these conclusions, nor, indeed,
+know anything about these facts, unless he had been engaged in the
+forbidden practice of dissection. [Sidenote: Explains single vision.]
+With felicity he explains that we see single when we use both eyes,
+because of the formation of the visual images on symmetrical portions of
+the two retinas. To the modern physiologist the mere mention of such
+things is as significant as the occurrence of an arch in the interior of
+the pyramid is to the architect. But Alhazen shows that our sense of
+sight is by no means a trustworthy guide, and that there are illusions
+arising from the course which the rays of light may take when they
+suffer refraction or reflexion. It is in the discussion of one of these
+physical problems that his scientific greatness truly shines forth.
+[Sidenote: Traces the course of a ray of light through the air.] He is
+perfectly aware that the atmosphere decreases in density with increase
+of height; and from that consideration he shows that a ray of light,
+entering it obliquely, follows a curvilinear path which is concave
+toward the earth; and that, since the mind refers the position of an
+object to the direction in which the ray of light from it enters the
+eye, the result must be an illusion as respects the starry bodies; they
+appear to us, to use the Arabic term, nearer to the _zenith_ than they
+actually are, and not in their true place. [Sidenote: Astronomical
+refraction.] We see them in the direction of the tangent to the curve of
+refraction as it reaches the eye. Hence also he shows that we actually
+see the stars, and the sun, and the moon before they have risen and
+after they have set--a wonderful illusion. He shows that in its passage
+through the air the curvature of a ray increases with the increasing
+density, and that its path does not depend on vapours that chance to be
+present, but on the variation of density in the medium. [Sidenote: The
+horizontal sun and moon.] To this refraction he truly refers the
+shortening, in their vertical diameter, of the horizontal sun and moon;
+to its variations he imputes the twinkling of the fixed stars. The
+apparent increase of size of the former bodies when they are in the
+horizon he refers to a mental deception, arising from the presence of
+intervening terrestrial objects. [Sidenote: Explains the twilight.] He
+shows that the effect of refraction is to shorten the duration of night
+and darkness by prolonging the visibility of the sun, and considering
+the reflecting action of the air, he deduces that beautiful explanation
+of the nature of twilight--the light that we perceive before the rising
+and after the setting of the sun--which we accept at the present time as
+true. [Sidenote: Determines the height of the atmosphere.] With
+extraordinary acuteness, he applies the principles with which he is
+dealing to the determination of the height of the atmosphere, deciding
+that its limit is nearly 58-1/2 miles.
+
+All this is very grand. Shall we compare it with the contemporaneous
+monk miracles and monkish philosophy of Europe? It would make a profound
+impression if communicated for the first time to a scientific society in
+our own age. Nor perhaps does his merit end here. If the Book of the
+Balance of Wisdom, for a translation of which we are indebted to M.
+Khanikoff, the Russian consul-general at Tabriz, be the production of
+Alhazen, of which there seems to be internal proof, it offers us
+evidence of a singular clearness in mechanical conception for which we
+should scarcely have been prepared, and, if it be not his, at all events
+it indisputably shows the scientific acquirements of his age. [Sidenote:
+The weight of the air.] In that book is plainly set forth the connexion
+between the weight of the atmosphere and its increasing density. The
+weight of the atmosphere was therefore understood before Torricelli.
+This author shows that a body will weigh differently in a rare and in a
+dense atmosphere; that its loss of weight will be greater in proportion
+as the air is more dense. [Sidenote: Principles of hydrostatics.] He
+considers the force with which plunged bodies will rise through heavier
+media in which they are immersed, and discusses the submergence of
+floating bodies, as ships upon the sea. He understands the doctrine of
+the centre of gravity. [Sidenote: Theory of the balance.] He applies it
+to the investigation of balances and steelyards, showing the relations
+between the centre of gravity and the centre of suspension--when those
+instruments will set and when they will vibrate. He recognizes gravity
+as a force; asserts that it diminishes with the distance; but falls into
+the mistake that the diminution is as the distance, and not as its
+square. [Sidenote: Gravity; capillary attraction; the hydrometer.] He
+considers gravity as terrestrial, and fails to perceive that it is
+universal--that was reserved for Newton. He knows correctly the relation
+between the velocities, spaces, and times of falling bodies, and has
+very distinct ideas of capillary attraction. He improves the
+construction of that old Alexandrian invention, the hydrometer--the
+instrument which, in a letter to his fair but pagan friend Hypatia, the
+good Bishop of Ptolemais, Synesius, six hundred years previously,
+requests her to have made for him in Alexandria, as he wishes to try the
+wines he is using, his health being a little delicate. [Sidenote: Tables
+of specific gravities.] The determinations of the densities of bodies,
+as given by Alhazen, approach very closely to our own; in the case of
+mercury they are even more exact than some of those of the last century.
+I join, as, doubtless, all natural philosophers will do, in the pious
+prayer of Alhazen, that, in the day of judgment, the All-Merciful will
+take pity on the soul of Abur-Raihan, because he was the first of the
+race of men to construct a table of specific gravities; and I will ask
+the same for Alhazen himself, since he was the first to trace the
+curvilinear path of a ray of light through the air. Though more than
+seven centuries part him from our times, the physiologists of this age
+may accept him as their compeer, since he received and defended the
+doctrine now forcing its way, of the progressive development of animal
+forms. [Sidenote: The theory of development of organisms.] He upheld the
+affirmation of those who said that man, in his progress, passes through
+a definite succession of states; not, however, "that he was once a bull,
+and was then changed to an ass, and afterwards into a horse, and after
+that into an ape, and finally became a man." This, he says, is only a
+misrepresentation by "common people" of what is really meant. The
+"common people" who withstood Alhazen have representatives among us,
+themselves the only example in the Fauna of the world of that
+non-development which they so loudly affirm. At the best they are only
+passing through some of the earlier forms of that series of
+transmutations to which the devout Mohammedan in the above quotation
+alludes.
+
+The Arabians, with all this physical knowledge, do not appear to have
+been in possession of the thermometer, though they knew the great
+importance of temperature measures, employing the areometer for that
+purpose. They had detected the variation in density of liquids by heat,
+but not the variation in volume. In their measures of time they were
+more successful; they had several kinds of clepsydras. A balance
+clepsydra is described in the work from which I am quoting. [Sidenote:
+The pendulum clock.] But it was their great astronomer, Ebn Junis, who
+accomplished the most valuable of all chronometric improvements. He
+first applied the pendulum to the measure of time. Laplace, in the fifth
+note to his Systeme du Monde, avails himself of the observations of this
+philosopher, with those of Albategnius and other Arabians, as
+incontestable proof of the diminution of the eccentricity of the earth's
+orbit. [Sidenote: Astronomical works of Ebn Junis.] He states, moreover,
+that the observation of Ebn Junis of the obliquity of the ecliptic,
+properly corrected for parallax and refraction, gives for the year A.D.
+1000 a result closely approaching to the theoretical. He also mentions
+another observation of Ebn Junis, October 31, A.D. 1007, as of much
+importance in reference to the great inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn.
+[Sidenote: The Arabic numerals.] I have already remarked that, in the
+writings of this great Arabian, the Arabic numerals and our common
+arithmetical processes are currently used. From Africa and Spain they
+passed into Italy, finding ready acceptance among commercial men, who
+recognised at once their value, and, as William of Malmesbury says,
+being a wonderful relief to the "sweating calculators;" an epithet of
+which the correctness will soon appear to any one who will try to do a
+common multiplication or division problem by the aid of the old Roman
+numerals. It is said that Gerbert--Pope Sylvester--was the first to
+introduce a knowledge of them into Europe; he had learned them at the
+Mohammedan university of Cordova. It is in allusion to the cipher, which
+follows the 9, but which, added to any of the other digits, increases by
+tenfold its power, that, in a letter to his patron, the Emperor Otho
+III., with humility he playfully but truly says, "I am like the last of
+all the numbers."
+
+[Sidenote: Arabian philosophy.] The overthrow of the Roman by the Arabic
+numerals foreshadowed the result of a far more important--a
+political--contest between those rival names. But, before showing how
+the Arabian intellect pressed upon Rome, and the convulsive struggles of
+desperation which Rome made to resist it, I must for a moment consider
+the former under another point of view, and speak of Saracen philosophy.
+[Sidenote: The writings of Algazzali.] And here Algazzali shall be my
+guide. He was born A.D. 1058.
+
+Let us hear him speak for himself. He is relating his attempt to detach
+himself from the opinions which he had imbibed in his childhood: "I said
+to myself, 'My aim is simply to know the truth of things; consequently,
+it is indispensable for me to ascertain what is knowledge.' Now it was
+evident to me that certain knowledge must be that which explains the
+object to be known in such a manner that no doubt can remain, so that in
+future all error and conjecture respecting it must be impossible.
+[Sidenote: The certitude of knowledge.] Not only would the understanding
+then need no efforts to be convinced of certitude, but security against
+error is in such close connexion with knowledge, that, even were an
+apparent proof of falsehood to be brought forward, it would cause no
+doubt, because no suspicion of error would be possible. Thus, when I
+have acknowledged ten to be more than three, if any one were to say, 'On
+the contrary, three is more than ten, and to prove the truth of my
+assertion, I will change this rod into a serpent,' and if he were to
+change it, my conviction of his error would remain unshaken. His
+manoeuvre would only produce in me admiration for his ability. I should
+not doubt my own knowledge.
+
+"Then was I convinced that knowledge which I did not possess in this
+manner, and respecting which I had not this certainty, could inspire me
+with neither confidence nor assurance; and no knowledge without
+assurance deserves the name of knowledge.
+
+"Having examined the state of my own knowledge, I found it divested of
+all that could be said to have these qualities, unless perceptions of
+the senses and irrefragable principles were to be considered such.
+[Sidenote: Fallibility of the senses.] I then said to myself, 'Now,
+having fallen into this despair, the only hope of acquiring
+incontestable convictions is by the perceptions of the senses and by
+necessary truths.' Their evidence seemed to me to be indubitable. I
+began, however, to examine the objects of sensation and speculation, to
+see if they possibly could admit of doubt. Then doubts crowded upon me
+in such numbers that my incertitude became complete. Whence results the
+confidence I have in sensible things? The strongest of all our senses is
+sight; and yet, looking at a shadow, and perceiving it to be fixed and
+immovable, we judge it to be deprived of movement; nevertheless,
+experience teaches us that, when we return to the same place an hour
+after, the shadow is displaced, for it does not vanish suddenly, but
+gradually, little by little, so as never to be at rest. If we look at
+the stars, they seem to be as small as money-pieces; but mathematical
+proofs convince us that they are larger than the earth. These and other
+things are judged by the senses, but rejected by reason as false. I
+abandoned the senses, therefore, having seen all my confidence in their
+truth shaken.
+
+"'Perhaps,' said I, 'there is no assurance but in the notions of reason,
+that is to say, first principles, as that ten is more than three; the
+same thing cannot have been created and yet have existed from all
+eternity; to exist and not to exist at the same time is impossible.'
+
+[Sidenote: Fallibility of reason.] "Upon this the senses replied, 'What
+assurance have you that your confidence in reason is not of the same
+nature as your confidence in us? When you relied on us, reason stepped
+in and gave us the lie; had not reason been there, you would have
+continued to rely on us. Well, may there not exist some other judge
+superior to reason, who, if he appeared, would refute the judgments of
+reason in the same way that reason refuted us? The non-appearance of
+such a judge is no proof of his non-existence.'
+
+[Sidenote: The nature of dreams.] "I strove in vain to answer the
+objection, and my difficulties increased when I came to reflect on
+sleep. I said to myself, 'During sleep, you give to visions a reality
+and consistence, and you have no suspicion of their untruth. On
+awakening, you are made aware that they were nothing but visions. What
+assurance have you that all you feel and know when you are awake does
+actually exist? It is all true as respects your condition at that
+moment; but it is nevertheless possible that another condition should
+present itself which should be to your awakened state that which to your
+awakened state is now to you sleep; so that, as respects this higher
+condition, your waking is but sleep.'"
+
+It would not be possible to find in any European work a clearer
+statement of the scepticism to which philosophy leads than what is thus
+given by this Arabian. Indeed, it is not possible to put the argument in
+a more effective way. His perspicuity is in singular contrast with the
+obscurity of many metaphysical writers.
+
+[Sidenote: Intellectual despair.] "Reflecting on my situation, I found
+myself bound to this world by a thousand ties, temptations assailing me
+on all sides. I then examined my actions. The best were those relating
+to instruction and education, and even there I saw myself given up to
+unimportant sciences, all useless in another world. Reflecting on the
+aim of my teaching, I found it was not pure in the sight of the Lord. I
+saw that all my efforts were directed toward the acquisition of glory to
+myself. Having, therefore, distributed my wealth, I left Bagdad and
+retired into Syria, where I remained two years in solitary struggle with
+my soul, combating my passions, and exercising myself, in the
+purification of my heart and in preparation for the other world."
+
+This is a very beautiful picture of the mental struggles and the actions
+of a truthful and earnest man. In all this the Christian philosopher can
+sympathize with the devout Mohammedan. After all, they are not very far
+apart. Algazzali is not the only one to whom such thoughts have
+occurred, but he has found words to tell his experience better than any
+other man. And what is the conclusion at which he arrives? [Sidenote:
+Algazzali's ages of man.] The life of man, he says, is marked by three
+stages: "the first, or infantile stage, is that of pure sensation; the
+second, which begins at the age of seven, is that of understanding; the
+third is that of reason, by means of which the intellect perceives the
+necessary, the possible, the absolute, and all those higher objects
+which transcend the understanding. But after this there is a fourth
+stage, when another eye is opened, by which man perceives things hidden
+from others--perceives all that will be--perceives the things that
+escape the perceptions of reason, as the objects of reason escape the
+understanding, and as the objects of the understanding escape the
+sensitive faculty. This is prophetism." Algazzali thus finds a
+philosophical basis for the rule of life, and reconciles religion and
+philosophy.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+And now I have to turn from Arabian civilized life, its science, its
+philosophy, to another, a repulsive state of things. With reluctance I
+come back to the Italian system, defiling the holy name of religion with
+its intrigues, its bloodshed, its oppression of human thought, its
+hatred of intellectual advancement. [Sidenote: Renewal of the operation
+of Mohammedan influences.] Especially I have now to direct attention to
+two countries, the scenes of important events--countries in which the
+Mohammedan influences began to take effect and to press upon Rome. These
+are the South of France and Sicily.
+
+Innocent III. had been elected pope at the early age of thirty-seven
+years, A.D. 1198. The papal power had reached its culminating point. The
+weapons of the Church had attained their utmost force. In Italy, in
+Germany, in France and England, interdicts and excommunications
+vindicated the pontifical authority, as in the cases of the Duke of
+Ravenna, the Emperor Otho, Philip Augustus of France, King John of
+England. [Sidenote: Interference of Innocent III. in France.] In each of
+these cases it was not for the sake of sustaining great moral principles
+or the rights of humanity that the thunder was launched--it was in
+behalf of temporary political interests; interests that, in Germany,
+were sustained at the cost of a long war, and cemented by assassination;
+in France, strengthened by the well-tried device of an intervention in a
+matrimonial broil--the domestic quarrel of the king and queen about
+Agnes of Meran. "Ah! happy Saladin!" said the insulted Philip, when his
+kingdom was put under interdict; "he has no pope above him. I too will
+turn Mohammedan."
+
+[Sidenote: In Spain and Portugal.] So, likewise, in Spain, Innocent
+interfered in the matrimonial life of the King of Leon. The remorseless
+venality of the papal government was felt in every direction. Portugal
+had already been advanced to the dignity of a kingdom on payment of an
+annual tribute to Rome. The King of Aragon held his kingdom as feudatory
+to the pope.
+
+[Sidenote: In England; denounces Magna Charta.] In England, Innocent's
+interference assumed a different aspect. He attempted to assert his
+control over the Church in spite of the king, and put the nation under
+interdict because John would not permit Stephen Langton to be Archbishop
+of Canterbury. It was utterly impossible that affairs could go on with
+such an empire within an empire. For his contumacy, John was
+excommunicated; but, base as he was, he defied his punishment for four
+years. Hereupon his subjects were released from their allegiance, and
+his kingdom offered to anyone who would conquer it. In his extremity,
+the King of England is said to have sent a messenger to Spain, offering
+to become a Mohammedan. The religious sentiment was then no higher in
+him than it was, under a like provocation, in the King of France, whose
+thoughts turned in the same direction. But, pressed irresistibly by
+Innocent, John was compelled to surrender his realm, agreeing to pay to
+the pope, in addition to Peter's pence, 1000 marks a year as a token of
+vassalage. When the prelates whom he had refused or exiled returned, he
+was compelled to receive them on his knees--humiliations which aroused
+the indignation of the stout English barons, and gave strength to those
+movements which ended in extorting Magna Charta. Never, however, was
+Innocent more mistaken than in the character of Stephen Langton. John
+had, a second time, formally surrendered his realm to the pope, and done
+homage to the legate for it; but Stephen Langton was the first--at a
+meeting of the chiefs of the revolt against the king, held in London,
+August 25th, 1213--to suggest that they should demand a renewal of the
+charter of Henry I. From this suggestion Magna Charta originated. Among
+the miracles of the age, he was the greatest miracle of all; his
+patriotism was stronger than his profession. The wrath of the pontiff
+knew no bounds when he learned that the Great Charter had been conceded.
+In his bull, he denounced it as base and ignominious; he anathematized
+the king if he observed it; he declared it null and void. It was not the
+policy of the Roman court to permit so much as the beginnings of such
+freedom. The appointment of Simon Langton to the archbishopric of York
+was annulled. One De Gray was substituted for him. It illustrated the
+simony into which the papal government had fallen, that De Gray had
+become, in these transactions, indebted to Rome ten thousand pounds.
+[Sidenote: The drain of money from that country.] In fact, through the
+operation of the Crusades, all Europe was tributory to the pope. He had
+his fiscal agents in every metropolis; his travelling ones wandering in
+all directions, in every country, raising revenue by the sale of
+dispensations for all kinds of offences, real and fictitious--money for
+the sale of appointments, high and low--a steady drain of money from
+every realm. Fifty years after the time of which we are speaking, Robert
+Grostete, the Bishop of Lincoln and friend of Roger Bacon, caused to be
+ascertained the amount received by foreign ecclesiastics in England. He
+found it to be thrice the income of the king himself. This was on the
+occasion of Innocent IV. demanding provision to be made for three
+hundred additional Italian clergy by the Church of England, and that one
+of his nephews--a mere boy--should have a stall in Lincoln cathedral.
+
+[Sidenote: Goading of Europe into a new crusade.] While thus Innocent
+III. was interfering and intriguing with every court, and laying every
+people under tribute, he did not for a moment permit his attention to be
+diverted from the Crusades, the singular advantages of which to the
+papacy had now been fully discovered. They had given to the pope a
+suzerainty in Europe, the control of its military as well as its
+monetary resources. Not that a man like Innocent could permit himself to
+be deluded by any hopes of eventual success. The crusades must
+inevitably prove, so far as their avowed object was concerned, a
+failure. The Christian inhabitants of Palestine were degraded and
+demoralized beyond description. Their ranks were thinned by apostasy to
+Mohammedanism. In Europe, not only the laity begun to discover that the
+money provided for the wars in the Holy Land was diverted from its
+purpose, and in some inexplicable manner, found its way into Italy--even
+the clergy could not conceal their suspicions that the proclamation of a
+crusade was merely the preparation for a swindle. Nevertheless, Innocent
+pressed forward his schemes, goading on Christendom by upbraiding it
+with the taunts of the Saracens. "Where," they say, "is your God, who
+can not deliver you out of our hands? Behold! we have defiled your
+sanctuaries; we have stretched forth our arm; we have taken at the first
+assault, we hold in despite of you, those your desirable places, where
+your superstition had its beginning. Where is your God? Let him arise
+and protect you and himself." "If thou be the Son of God, save thyself
+if thou canst; redeem the land of thy birth from our hands. Restore thy
+cross, that we have taken, to the worshippers of the Cross." With great
+difficulty, however, Innocent succeeded in preparing the fourth crusade,
+A.D. 1202. The Venetians consented to furnish a fleet of transports. But
+the expedition was quickly diverted from its true purpose; the Venetians
+employing the Crusaders for the capture of Zara from the King of
+Hungary. [Sidenote: The crusade is used for the seizure of
+Constantinople.] Still worse, and shameful to be said--partly from the
+lust of plunder, and partly through ecclesiastical machinations--it
+again turned aside for an attack upon Constantinople, and took that city
+by storm A.D. 1204, thereby establishing Latin Christianity in the
+Eastern metropolis, but, alas! with bloodshed, rape, and fire. On the
+night of the assault more houses were burned than could be found in any
+three of the largest cities in France. [Sidenote: Sack of that city by
+the Catholics.] Even Christian historians compare with shame the
+storming of Constantinople by the Catholics with the capture of
+Jerusalem by Saladin. Pope Innocent himself was compelled to protest
+against enormities that had outrun his intentions. He says: "They
+practised fornications, incests, adulteries in the sight of men. They
+abandoned matrons and virgins, consecrated to God, to the lewdness of
+grooms. They lifted their hands against the treasures of the
+churches--what is more heinous, the very consecrated vessels--tearing
+the tablets of silver from the very altars, breaking in pieces the most
+sacred things, carrying off crosses and relics." In St. Sophia, the
+silver was stripped from the pulpit; an exquisite and highly-prized
+table of oblation was broken in pieces; the sacred chalices were turned
+into drinking-cups; the gold fringe was ripped off the veil of the
+sanctuary. Asses and horses were led into the churches to carry off the
+spoil. A prostitute mounted the patriarch's throne, and sang, with
+indecent gestures, a ribald song. The tombs of the emperors were rifled;
+and the Byzantines saw, at once with amazement and anguish, the corpse
+of Justinian--which even decay and putrefaction had for six centuries
+spared in his tomb--exposed to the violation of a mob. It had been
+understood among those who instigated these atrocious proceedings that
+the relics were to be brought into a common stock and equitably divided
+among the conquerors! but each ecclesiastic seized and secreted whatever
+he could. The idolatrous state of the Eastern Church is illustrated by
+some of these relics. [Sidenote: The relics found there,] Thus the Abbot
+Martin obtained for his monastery in Alsace the following inestimable
+articles: 1. A spot of the blood of our Saviour; 2. A piece of the true
+cross; 3. The arm of the Apostle James; 4. Part of the skeleton of John
+the Baptist; 5.--I hesitate to write such blasphemy--"A bottle of the
+milk of the Mother of God!" [Sidenote: and works of art destroyed.] In
+contrast with the treasures thus acquired may be set relics of a very
+different kind, the remains of ancient art which they destroyed: 1. The
+bronze charioteers from the Hippodrome; 2. The she-wolf suckling Romulus
+and Remus; 3. A group of a Sphinx, river-horse, and crocodile; 4. An
+eagle tearing a serpent; 5. An ass and his driver, originally cast by
+Augustus in memory of the victory of Actium; 6. Bellerophon and Pegasus;
+7. A bronze obelisk; 8. Paris presenting the apple to Venus; 9. An
+exquisite statute of Helen; 10. The Hercules of Lysippus; 11. A Juno,
+formerly taken from the temple at Samos. The bronzes were melted into
+coin, and thousands of manuscripts and parchments were burned. From that
+time the works of many ancient authors disappeared altogether.
+
+[Sidenote: The pope and the doge divide the spoil.] With well-dissembled
+regret, Innocent took the new order of things in the city of
+Constantinople under his protection. The bishop of Rome at last
+appointed the Bishop of Constantinople. The acknowledgment of papal
+supremacy was complete. Rome and Venice divided between them the
+ill-gotten gains of their undertaking. If anything had been wanting to
+open the eyes of Europe, surely what had thus occurred should have been
+enough. The pope and the doge--the trader in human credulity and the
+trader of the Adriatic--had shared the spoils of a crusade meant by
+religious men for the relief of the Holy Land. [Sidenote: Works of art
+carried to Venice.] The bronze horses, once brought by Augustus from
+Alexandria, after his victory over Antony and transferred from Rome to
+Constantinople by its founder, were set before the Church of St Mark.
+They were the outward and visible sign of a less obvious event that was
+taking place. For to Venice was brought a residue of the literary
+treasures that had escaped the fire and the destroyer; and while her
+comrades in the outrage were satisfied, in their ignorance, with
+fictitious relics, she took possession of the poor remnant of the
+glorious works of art, of letters, and of science. Through these was
+hastened the intellectual progress of the West.
+
+[Sidenote: The punishment of Constantinople.] So fell Constantinople,
+and fell by the parricidal hands of Christians. The days of retribution
+for the curse she had inflicted on Western civilization were now
+approaching. In these events she received a first instalment of her
+punishment. Three hundred years previously, the historian Luitprand, who
+was sent by the Emperor Otho I. to the court of Nicephorus Phocas, says
+of her, speaking as an eye-witness, "That city, once so wealthy, so
+flourishing, is now famished, lying, perjured, deceitful, rapacious,
+greedy, niggardly, vainglorious;" and since Luitprand's time she had
+been pursuing a downward career. It might have been expected that the
+concentration of all the literary and scientific treasures of the Roman
+empire in Constantinople would have given rise to great mental
+vigour--that to Europe she would have been a brilliant focus of light.
+[Sidenote: The literary worthlessness of that city.] But when the works
+on jurisprudence by Tribonian, under Justinian, have been mentioned,
+what is there that remains? There is Stephanus, the grammarian, who
+wrote a dictionary, and Procopius, the historian, who was secretary to
+Belisarius in his campaigns. There is then a long interval almost
+without a literary name, to Theophylact Simocatta, and to the Ladder of
+Paradise of John Climacus. The mental excitement of the iconoclastic
+dispute presents us with John of Damascus; and the ninth century, the
+Myriobiblion and Nomacanon of Photius. Then follows Constantine
+Porphyrogenitus, vainly and voluminously composing; and Basil II.
+doubtless truly expresses the opinion of the time, as he certainly does
+the verdict of posterity respecting the works of his country, when he
+says that learning is useless and unprofitable lumber. The Alexiad of
+Anna Comnena, and the history of Byzantine affairs by Nicephorous
+Bryennius, hardly redeem their age. This barrenness and worthlessness
+was the effect of the system introduced by Constantine the Great. The
+long line of emperors had been consistent in one policy--the repression
+or expulsion of philosophy; and yet it is the uniform testimony of those
+ages that the Eastern convents were full of secret Platonism--that in
+stealth, the doctrines of Plato were treasured up in the cells of
+Asiatic monks. The Byzantines had possessed in art and letters all the
+best models in the world, yet in a thousand years they never produced
+one original. Millions of Greeks never advanced one step in philosophy
+or science--never made a single practical discovery, composed no poem,
+no tragedy worth perusal. The spirit of their superficial literature--if
+literature it can be called--is well shadowed forth in the story of the
+patriarch Photius, who composed at Bagdad, at a distance from his
+library, an analysis of 280 works he had formerly read. [Sidenote: The
+absurdity of its intellectual pursuits.] The final age of the city was
+signalized by the Baarlamite controversy respecting the mysterious light
+of Mount Thabor--the possibility of producing a beatific vision and of
+demonstrating, by an unceasing inspection of the navel for days and
+nights together, the existence of two eternal principles, a visible and
+an invisible God!
+
+[Sidenote: Cause of all this.] What was it that produced this
+barrenness, this intellectual degradation in Constantinople? The tyranny
+of Theology over Thought.
+
+But with the capture of Constantinople by the Latins other important
+events were occurring. Everywhere an intolerance of papal power was
+engendering. [Sidenote: Heresy follows literature.] The monasteries
+became infected, and even from the holy lips of monks words of ominous
+import might be heard. In the South of France the intellectual
+insurrection first took form. There the influence of the Mohammedans and
+Jews beyond the Pyrenees began to manifest itself. [Sidenote: Spread of
+gay literature from Spain.] The songs of gallantry; tensons, or poetical
+contests of minstrels; satires of gay defiance; rivalry in praise of the
+ladies; lays, serenades, pastourelles, redondes, such as had already
+drawn forth the condemnation of the sedate Mussulmen of Cordova, had
+gradually spread through Spain and found a congenial welcome in France.
+[Sidenote: The Troubadours and Trouveres.] The Troubadours were singing
+in the langue d'Oc in the south, and the Trouveres in the langue d'Oil
+in the north. Thence the merry epidemic spread to Sicily and Italy. Men
+felt that a relief from the grim ecclesiastic was coming. Kings, dukes,
+counts, knights, prided themselves on their gentle prowess. The humbler
+minstrels found patronage among ladies and at courts: sly satires
+against the priests, and amorous ditties, secured them a welcome among
+the populace. When the poet was deficient in voice, a jongleur went with
+him to sing; and often there was added the pleasant accompaniment of a
+musical instrument. The Provencal or langue d'Oc was thus widely
+diffused; it served the purposes of those unacquainted with Latin, and
+gave the Italians a model for thought and versification, to Europe the
+germs of many of its future melodies. While the young were singing, the
+old were thinking; while the gay were carried away with romance, the
+grave were falling into heresy. [Sidenote: Commencing resistance of
+Rome.] But, true to her instincts and traditions, the Church had shown
+her determination to deal rigorously with all such movements. Already,
+A.D. 1134, Peter de Brueys had been burned in Languedoc for denying
+infant baptism, the worship of the cross, and transubstantiation.
+Already Henry the Deacon, the disciple of Peter, had been disposed of by
+St. Bernard. Already the valleys of Piedmont were full of Waldenses.
+Already the Poor Men of Lyons were proclaiming the portentous doctrine
+that the sanctity of a priest lay not in his office, but in the manner
+of his life. They denounced the wealth of the Church, and the
+intermingling of bishops in bloodshed and war; they denied
+transubstantiation, invocation of saints, purgatory, and especially
+directed their hatred against the sale of indulgences for sin. The rich
+cities of Languedoc were full of misbelievers. They were given up to
+poetry, music, dancing. Their people, numbers of whom had been in the
+Crusades or in Spain, had seen the Saracens. Admiration had taken the
+place of detestation. Amid shouts of laughter, the Troubadours went
+through the land, wagging their heads, and slyly winking their eyes, and
+singing derisive songs about the amours of the priests, and amply
+earning denunciations as lewd blasphemers and atheists. [Sidenote:
+Innocent III. alarmed at the spread of heresy.] Here was a state of
+things demanding the attention of Innocent. The methods he took for its
+correction have handed his name down to the maledictions of posterity.
+He despatched a missive to the Count of Toulouse--who already lay under
+excommunication for alleged intermeddling with the rights of the
+clergy--charging him with harbouring heretics and giving offices of
+emolument to Jews. The count was a man of gay life, having, in emulation
+of some of his neighbours across the Pyrenees, not fewer than three
+wives. His offences of that kind were, however, eclipsed by those with
+which he was now formally charged. It chanced that, in the ensuing
+disputes, the pope's legate was murdered. There is no reason to believe
+that Raymond was concerned in the crime. [Sidenote: He proclaims a
+crusade against the Count of Toulouse,] But the indignant pope held him
+responsible; instantly ordered to be published in all directions his
+excommunication, and called upon Western Christendom to engage in a
+crusade against him, offering, to him whoever chose to take them, the
+wealth and possessions of the offender. So thoroughly was he seconded by
+the preaching of the monks, that half a million of men, it is affirmed,
+took up arms.
+
+[Sidenote: and disciplines him.] For the count there remained nothing
+but to submit. He surrendered up his strong places, was compelled to
+acknowledge the crimes alleged against him, and the justice of his
+punishment. He swore that he would no longer protect heretics. Stripped
+naked to his middle, with a rope round his neck, he was led to the
+altar, and there scourged. But the immense army that had assembled was
+not to be satisfied by these inflictions on an individual, though the
+pope might be. They had come for blood and plunder, and blood and
+plunder they must have. Then followed such scenes of horror as the sun
+had never looked on before. The army was officered by Roman and French
+prelates; bishops were its generals, an archdeacon its engineer.
+[Sidenote: Atrocities of the Crusaders in the South of France.] It was
+the Abbot Arnold, the legate of the pope, who, at the capture of
+Beziers, was inquired of by a soldier, more merciful or more weary of
+murder than himself, how he should distinguish and save the Catholic
+from the heretic. "Kill them all," he exclaimed; "God will know his
+own." At the Church of St. Mary Magdalene 7000 persons were massacred,
+the infuriated Crusaders being excited to madness by the wicked
+assertion that these wretches had been guilty of the blasphemy of
+saying, in their merriment, "S. Mariam Magdalenam fuisse concubinam
+Christi." It was of no use for them to protest their innocence. In the
+town twenty thousand were slaughtered, and the place then fired, to be
+left a monument of papal vengeance. At the massacre of Lavaur 400 people
+were burned in one pile; it is remarked that "they made a wonderful
+blaze, and went to burn everlastingly in hell." Language has no powers
+to express the atrocities that took place at the capture of the
+different towns. Ecclesiastical vengeance rioted in luxury. The soil was
+steeped in the blood of men--the air polluted by their burning.
+[Sidenote: Institution of the Inquisition.] From the reek of murdered
+women, mutilated children, and ruined cities, the Inquisition, that
+infernal institution, arose. Its projectors intended it not only to put
+an end to public teaching, but even to private thought. In the midst of
+these awful events, Innocent was called to another tribunal to render
+his account. He died A.D. 1216.
+
+[Sidenote: Establishment of mendicant orders.] It was during the
+pontificate of this great criminal that the mendicant orders were
+established. The course of ages had brought an unintelligibility into
+public worship. The old dialects had become obsolete; new languages were
+forming. Among those classes, daily increasing in number, whose minds
+were awakening, an earnest desire for instruction was arising.
+Multitudes were crowding to hear philosophical discourses in the
+universities, and heresy was spreading very fast. But it was far from
+being confined to the intelligent. The lower orders furnished heretics
+and fanatics too. To antagonize the labours of these zealots--who, if
+they had been permitted to go on unchecked, would quickly have
+disseminated their doctrines through all classes of society--the
+Dominican and Franciscan orders were founded. They were well adapted for
+their duty. It was their business to move among the people, preaching to
+them, in their own tongue, wherever an audience could be collected. The
+scandal under which the Church was labouring because of her wealth could
+not apply to these persons who lived by begging alms. Their function was
+not to secure their own salvation, but that of other men.
+
+[Sidenote: St. Dominic.] St. Dominic was born A.D. 1170. His birth and
+life were adorned with the customary prodigies. Miracles and wonders
+were necessary for anything to make a sensation in the West. His was an
+immaculate conception, he was free from original sin. He was regarded as
+the adopted son of the Virgin; some were even disposed to assign him a
+higher dignity than that. He began his operations in Languedoc; but, as
+the prospect opened out before him, he removed from that unpromising
+region to Rome, the necessary centre of all such undertakings as his.
+Here he perfected his organization; instituted his friars, nuns, and
+tertiaries; and consolidated his pretensions by the working of many
+miracles. He exorcised three matrons, from whom Satan issued forth under
+the form of a great black cat, which ran up a bell-rope and vanished. A
+beautiful nun resolved to leave her convent. Happening to blow her nose,
+it dropped off into her handkerchief; but, at the fervent prayer of St.
+Dominic, it was replaced, and in gratitude, tempered by fear, she
+remained. St. Dominic could also raise the dead. Nevertheless, he died
+A.D. 1221, having worthily obtained the title of the burner and slayer
+of heretics. To him has been attributed the glory or the crime of being
+the inventor of "the Holy Inquisition." In a very few years his order
+boasted of nearly 500 monasteries, scattered over Europe, Asia, Africa.
+
+[Sidenote: St. Francis.] St. Francis, the compeer of St. Dominic, was
+born A.D. 1182. His followers delighted to point out, as it would seem
+not without irreverence, a resemblance to the incidents that occurred at
+the birth of our Lord. A prophetess foretold it; he was born in a
+stable; angels sung forth peace and good-will in the air; one, under the
+form of Simeon, bore him to baptism. In early life he saw visions and
+became ecstatic. His father, Peter Bernardini, a respectable tradesman,
+endeavoured to restrain his eccentricities, at first by persuasion, but
+eventually more forcibly, appealing for assistance to the bishop, to
+prevent the young enthusiast from squandering his means in alms to the
+poor. On that functionary's gently remonstrating, and pointing out to
+Francis his filial obligations, he stripped himself naked before the
+people, exclaiming, "Peter Bernardini was my father; I have now but one
+Father, he that is in heaven." At this affecting renunciation of all
+earthly possessions and earthly ties, those present burst into tears,
+and the good bishop threw his own mantle over him. When a man has come
+to this pass, there is nothing he cannot accomplish.
+
+[Sidenote: Authorization of these orders.] It is related that, when
+application was first made to Innocent to authorize the order, he
+refused; but, very soon recognizing the advantages that would accrue, he
+gave it his hearty patronage. So rapid was the increase, that in A.D.
+1219 it numbered not fewer than five thousand brethren. It was founded
+on the principles of chastity, poverty, obedience. They were to live on
+alms, but never to receive money. After a life of devotion to the
+Church, St. Francis attained his reward, A.D. 1226. Two years previous
+to his death, by a miraculous intervention there were impressed on his
+person marks answering to the wounds on our Saviour. These were the
+celebrated stigmata. A black growth, like nails, issued forth from the
+palms of his hands and his feet; a wound from which blood and water
+distilled opened in his side. It is not to be wondered at that these
+prodigies met with general belief. This was the generation which
+received as inestimable relics, through Andrew of Hungary, the skulls of
+St. Stephen and St. Margaret, the hands of St. Bartholomew and St.
+Thomas, a slip of the rod of Aaron, and one of the water-pots of the
+marriage at Cana in Galilee.
+
+[Sidenote: Influence derived from these orders.] The papal government
+quickly found the prodigious advantage arising from the institution of
+these mendicant orders. Vowed to poverty, living on alms, hosts of
+friars, begging and barefoot, pervaded all Europe, coming in contact,
+under the most favourable circumstances, with the lowest grades of
+society. They lived and moved among the populace, and yet were held
+sacred. The accusations of dissipation and luxury so forcibly urged
+against the regular clergy were altogether inapplicable to these
+rope-bound, starving fanatics. Through them the Italian government had
+possession of the ear of Europe. The pomp of worship in an unknown
+tongue, the gorgeous solemnities of the Church, were far more than
+compensated by the preaching of these missionaries, who held forth in
+the vernacular wherever an audience could be had. Among the early ones,
+some had been accustomed to a wandering life. Brother Pacificus, a
+disciple of St. Francis, had been a celebrated Trouvere. In truth, they
+not only warded off the present pressing danger, but through them the
+Church retained her hold on the labouring classes for several subsequent
+centuries. The pope might truly boast that the Poor Men of the Church
+were more than a match for the Poor Men of Lyons. Their influence began
+to diminish only when they abandoned their essential principles, joined
+in the common race for plunder, and became immensely rich.
+
+[Sidenote: Introduction of auricular confession.] Not only did Innocent
+III. thus provide himself with an ecclesiastical militia suited to meet
+the obviously impending insurrection, he increased his power greatly but
+insidiously by the formal introduction of auricular confession. It was
+by the fourth Lateran Council that the necessity of auricular confession
+was first formally established. Its aim was that no heretic should
+escape, and that the absent priest should be paramount even in the
+domestic circle. In none but a most degraded and superstitious society
+can such an infamous institution be tolerated. It invades the sacred
+privacy of life--makes a man's wife, children, and servants his spies
+and accusers. When any religious system stands in need of such a social
+immorality, we may be sure that it is irrecoverably diseased, and
+hastening to its end.
+
+[Sidenote: Development of casuistry.] Auricular confession led to an
+increasing necessity for casuistry, though that science was not fully
+developed until the time of the Jesuits, when it gave rise to an
+extensive literature, with a lax system and a false morality, guiding
+the penitent rather with a view to his usefulness to the Church than to
+his own reformation, and not hesitating at singular indecencies in its
+portion having reference to married life.
+
+[Sidenote: Attitude of Innocent III.] Great historical events often find
+illustrations in representative men. Such is the case in the epoch we
+are now considering. On one side stands Innocent, true to the instincts
+of his party, interfering with all the European nations; launching forth
+his interdicts and excommunications; steeped in the blood of French
+heretics; hesitating at no atrocity, even the outrage and murder of
+women and children, the ruin of flourishing cities, to compass his
+plans; in all directions, under a thousand pretences, draining Europe of
+its money; calling to his aid hosts of begging friars; putting forth
+imposture miracles; organizing the Inquisition, and invading the privacy
+of life by the contrivance of auricular confession.
+
+[Sidenote: Attitude of Frederick II.] On the other side stands Frederick
+II., the Emperor of Germany. His early life, as has been already
+mentioned, was spent in Sicily, in familiar intercourse with Jews and
+Arabs, and Sicily to the last was the favoured portion of his dominions.
+To his many other accomplishments he added the speaking of Arabic as
+fluently as a Saracen. He delighted in the society of Mohammedan ladies,
+who thronged his court. His enemies asserted that his chastity was not
+improved by his associations with these miscreant beauties. The Jewish
+and Mohammedan physicians and philosophers taught him to sneer at the
+pretensions of the Church. [Sidenote: His Mohammedan tendencies.] From
+such ridicule it is but a short step to the shaking off of authority. At
+this time the Spanish Mohammedans had become widely infected with
+irreligion; their greatest philosophers were infidel in their own
+infidelity. The two sons of Averroes of Cordova are said to have been
+residents at Frederick's court. Their father was one of the ablest men
+their nation ever produced: an experienced astronomer, he had translated
+the Almagest, and, it is affirmed, was the first who actually saw a
+transit of Mercury across the sun; a voluminous commentator on the works
+of Plato and Aristotle, but a disbeliever in all revelation. Even of
+Mohammedanism he said, alluding to the prohibition which the Prophet had
+enjoined on the use of the flesh of swine, "That form of religion is
+destitute of every thing that can commend it to the approval of any
+understanding, unless it be that of a hog." [Sidenote: He cultivates
+light literature and heresy.] In the Sicilian court, surrounded by such
+profane influences, the character of the young emperor was formed.
+Italian poetry, destined for such a brilliant future, here first found a
+voice in the sweet Sicilian dialect. The emperor and his chancellor were
+cultivators of the gay science, and in the composition of sonnets were
+rivals. A love of amatory poetry had spread from the South of France.
+
+With a view to the recovery of the Holy Land, Honorius III. had made
+Frederick marry Yolinda de Lusignan, the heiress of the kingdom of
+Jerusalem. It was not, therefore, to be wondered at that Frederick's
+frivolities soon drew upon him the indignation of the gloomy Pope
+Gregory IX., the very first act of whose pontificate was to summon a new
+crusade. [Sidenote: Refuses to go on a crusade, and then goes.] To the
+exhortations and commands of the aged pope the emperor lent a most
+reluctant ear, postponing, from time to time, the period of his
+departure, and dabbling in doubtful negotiations, through his Mohammedan
+friends, with the Sultan of Egypt. He embarked at last, but in three
+days returned. The octogenarian pope was not to be trifled with, and
+pronounced his excommunication. Frederick treated it with ostensible
+contempt, but appealed to Christendom, accusing Rome of avaricious
+intentions. [Sidenote: Presumes to rebuke the pontifical government.]
+Her officials, he said, were travelling in all directions, not to preach
+the Word of God, but to extort money. "The primitive Church, founded on
+poverty and simplicity, brought forth numberless saints. The Romans are
+now rolling in wealth. What wonder that the walls of the Church are
+undermined to the base, and threaten utter ruin." For saying this he
+underwent a more tremendous excommunication; but his partisans in Rome,
+raising an insurrection, expelled the pope. And now Frederick set sail,
+of his own accord, on his crusading expedition. On reaching the Holy
+Land, he was received with joy by the knights and pilgrims; but the
+clergy held aloof from him as an excommunicated person. The pontiff had
+despatched a swift-sailing ship to forbid their holding intercourse with
+him. [Sidenote: His friendship with the sultan,] His private
+negotiations with the Sultan of Egypt now matured. The Christian camp
+was thronged with infidel delegates: some came to discuss philosophical
+questions, some were the bearers of presents. Elephants and a bevy of
+dancing-girls were courteously sent by the sultan to his friend, who, it
+is said, was not insensible to the witcheries of these Oriental
+beauties. He wore a Saracen dress. In his privacy he did not hesitate to
+say, "I came not here to deliver the Holy City, but to maintain my
+estimation among the Franks." To the sultan he appealed, "Out of your
+goodness, surrender to me Jerusalem as it is, that I may be able to lift
+up my head among the kings of Christendom." [Sidenote: who gives up
+Jerusalem to him.] Accordingly, the city was surrendered to him. The
+object of his expedition was accomplished. But the pope was not to be
+deceived by such collusions. He repudiated the transactions altogether,
+and actually took measures to lay Jerusalem and our Saviour's sepulchre
+under interdict, and this in the face of the Mohammedans. [Sidenote: The
+pope denounces him.] While the emperor proclaimed his successes to
+Europe, the pope denounced them as coming from the union of Christ and
+Belial; alleging four accusations against Frederick: 1. That he had
+given the sword which he had received from the altar of St. Peter for
+the defence of the faith, as a present to the Sultan of Babylon; 2. That
+he had permitted the preaching of the Koran in the holy Temple itself;
+3. That he had excluded the Christians of Antioch from his treaty; 4.
+That he had bound himself, if a Christian army should attempt to cleanse
+the Temple and city from Mohammedan defilements, to join the Saracens.
+
+Frederick crowned himself at Jerusalem, unable to find any ecclesiastic
+who dared to perform the ceremony, and departed from the Holy Land. It
+was time, for Rome was intriguing against him at home, a false report of
+his death having been industriously circulated. He forthwith prepared to
+enter on his conflict with the pontiff. [Sidenote: Frederick establishes
+Saracen posts in Italy.] His Saracen colonies at Nocera and Luceria, in
+Italy, could supply him with 30,000 Mussulman soldiers, with whom it was
+impossible for his enemies to tamper. He managed to draw over the
+general sentiment of Europe to his side, and publicly offered to convict
+the pope himself of negotiations with the infidels; but his antagonist,
+conveniently impressed with a sudden horror of shedding blood, gave way,
+and peace between the parties was made. It lasted nearly nine years.
+
+[Sidenote: His political institutions.] In this period, the intellectual
+greatness of Frederick, and the tendencies of the influences by which
+he was enveloped, were strikingly manifested. In advance of his age,
+he devoted himself to the political improvement of Sicily. He
+instituted representative parliaments; enacted a system of wise
+laws; asserted the principle of equal rights and equal burdens,
+and the supremacy of the law over all, even the nobles and the
+Church. He provided for the toleration of all professions, Jewish
+and Mohammedan, as well as Christian; emancipated all the serfs
+of his domains; instituted cheap justice for the poor; forbade
+private war; regulated commerce--prophetically laying down some
+of those great principles, which only in our own time have been
+finally received as true; established markets and fairs; collected
+large libraries; caused to be translated such works as those of
+Aristotle and Ptolemy; built menageries for natural history; founded
+in Naples a great university; patronized the medical college at
+Salernum; made provisions for the education of promising but indigent
+youths. All over the land splendid architectural triumphs were created.
+Under him the Italian language first rose above a patois. Sculpture,
+painting, and music were patronized. His chancellor is said to have
+been the author of the oldest sonnet.
+
+[Sidenote: They are denounced.] In the eye of Rome all this was an
+abomination. Were human laws to take the precedence of the law of God?
+Were the clergy to be degraded to a level with the laity? Were the Jew
+and the Mohammedan to be permitted their infamous rites? Was this
+new-born product of the insolence of human intellect--this so-called
+science--to be brought into competition with theology, the
+heaven-descended? Frederick and his parliaments, his laws and
+universities, his libraries, his statues, his pictures and sonnets, were
+denounced. Through all, the ever-watchful eye of the Church discerned
+the Jew and the Saracen, and held them up to the abhorrence of Europe.
+But Gregory was not unwilling to show what could be done by himself in
+the same direction. He caused a compilation of the Decretals to be
+issued, intrusting the work to one Raymond de Pennaforte, who had
+attained celebrity as a literary opponent of the Saracens. It is amusing
+to remark that even this simple work of labour could not be promulgated
+without the customary embellishments. It was given out that an angel
+watched over Pennaforte's shoulder all the time he was writing.
+
+[Sidenote: Outbreak of his quarrel with the pope,] Meantime an unceasing
+vigilance was maintained against the dangerous results that would
+necessarily ensue from Frederick's movements. In Rome, many heretics
+were burned; many condemned to imprisonment for life. The quarrel
+between the pope and the emperor was resumed; the latter being once more
+excommunicated, and his body delivered over to Satan for the good of his
+soul. Again Frederick appealed to all the sovereigns of Christendom. He
+denounced the pontiff as an unworthy vicar of Christ, "who sits in his
+court like a merchant, weighing out dispensations for gold--himself
+writing and signing the bulls, perhaps counting the money. He has but
+one cause of enmity against me, that I refused to marry to his niece my
+natural son Enzio, now King of Sardinia." "In the midst of the Church
+sits a frantic prophet, a man of falsehood, a polluted priest." To this
+Gregory replied. [Sidenote: who rouses Christendom against him.] The
+tenor of his answer may be gathered from its commencement: "Out of the
+sea a beast is arisen, whose name is written all over 'Blasphemy.'" "He
+falsely asserts that I am enraged at his refusing his consent to the
+marriage of my niece with his natural son. He lies more impudently when
+he says that I have pledged my faith to the Lombards." "In truth, this
+pestilent king maintains, to use his own words, that the world has been
+deceived by three impostors--Jesus Christ, Moses, and Mohammed; that of
+these two died in honour, and the third was hanged on a tree. Even now,
+he has asserted, distinctly and loudly, that those are fools who aver
+that God, the Omnipotent Creator of the world, was born of a woman."
+This was in allusion to the celebrated and mysterious book, "De Tribus
+Impostoribus," in the authorship of which Frederick was accused of
+having been concerned.
+
+The pontiff had touched the right chord. The begging friars, in all
+directions, added to the accusations. "He has spoken of the Host as a
+mummery; he has asked how many gods might be made out of a corn-field;
+he has affirmed that, if the princes of the world would stand by him, he
+would easily make for mankind a better faith and a better rule of life;
+he has laid down the infidel maxim that 'God expects not a man to
+believe anything that cannot be demonstrated by reason.'" The opinion of
+Christendom rose against Frederick; its sentiment of piety was shocked.
+The pontiff proceeded to depose him, and offered his crown to Robert of
+France. [Sidenote: Frederick uses his Saracen troops.] But the Mussulman
+troops of the emperor were too much for the begging friars of the pope.
+His Saracens were marching across Italy in all directions. The pontiff
+himself would have inevitably fallen into the hands of his mortal enemy
+had he not found a deliverance in death, A.D. 1241. Frederick had
+declared that he would not respect his sacred person, but, if
+victorious, would teach him the absolute supremacy of the temporal
+power. It was plain that he had no intention of respecting a religion
+which he had not hesitated to denounce as "a mere absurdity."
+
+Whatever may have been the intention of Innocent IV.--who, after the
+short pontificate of Celestine IV. and an interval, succeeded--he was
+borne into the same policy by the irresistible force of circumstances.
+The deadly quarrel with the emperor was renewed. To escape his wrath,
+Innocent fled to France, and there in safety called the Council of
+Lyons. In a sermon, he renewed all the old accusations--the heresy and
+sacrilege--the peopling of Italian cities with Saracens, for the purpose
+of overturning the Vicar of Christ with those infidels--the friendship
+with the Sultan of Egypt--the African courtesans--the perjuries and
+blasphemies. [Sidenote: Excommunication of Frederick.] Then was
+proclaimed the sentence of excommunication and deposition. The pope and
+the bishops inverted the torches they held in their hands until they
+went out, uttering the malediction, "So may he be extinguished." Again
+the emperor appealed to Europe, but this time in vain. Europe would not
+forgive him his blasphemy. Misfortunes crowded upon him; his friends
+forsook him; his favourite son, Enzio, was taken prisoner; and he never
+smiled again after detecting his intimate, Pietro de Vinea, whom he had
+raised from beggary, in promising the monks that he would poison him.
+The day had been carried by a resort to all means justifiable and
+unjustifiable, good and evil. For thirty years Frederick had combated
+the Church and the Guelph party, but he sunk in the conflict at last.
+When Innocent heard of the death of his foe, he might doubtless well
+think that what he had once asserted had at last become true: "We are no
+mere mortal man; we have the place of God upon earth." [Sidenote: The
+triumph at his death.] In his address to the clergy of Sicily he
+exclaimed, "Let the heavens rejoice and let the earth be glad; for the
+lightning and tempest wherewith God Almighty has so long menaced your
+heads have been changed by the death of this man into refreshing zephyrs
+and fertilizing dews." This is that superhuman vengeance which hesitates
+not to strike the corpse of a man. Rome never forgives him who has told
+her of her impostures face to face; she never forgives him who has
+touched her goods.
+
+[Sidenote: Power of the Church at this moment.] The Saracenic influences
+had thus found an expression in the South of France and in Sicily,
+involving many classes of society, from the Poor Men of Lyons to the
+Emperor of Germany; but in both places they were overcome by the
+admirable organization and unscrupulous vigour of the Church. She
+handled her weapons with singular dexterity, and contrived to extract
+victory out of humiliation and defeat. As always since the days of
+Constantine, she had partisans in every city, in every village, in every
+family. And now it might have appeared that the blow she had thus
+delivered was final, and that the world, in contentment, must submit to
+her will. She had again succeeded in putting her iron heel on the neck
+of knowledge, had invoked against it the hatred of Christendom, and
+reviled it as the monstrous but legitimate issue of the detested
+Mohammedanism.
+
+[Sidenote: Vitality of Frederick's principles.] But the fate of men
+is by no means an indication of the fate of principles. The fall of
+the Emperor Frederick was not followed by the destruction of the
+influences he represented. These not only survived him, but were
+destined, in the end, to overcome the power which had transiently
+overthrown them. We are now entering on the history of a period
+which offers not only exterior opposition to the current doctrines,
+but, what is more ominous, interior mutiny. Notwithstanding the
+awful persecutions in the South of France--notwithstanding the
+establishment of auricular confession as a detective means, and
+the Inquisition as a weapon of punishment--notwithstanding the
+influence of the French king, St. Louis, canonized by the grateful
+Church--heresy, instead of being extirpated, extended itself among
+the laity, and even spread among the ecclesiastical ranks. [Sidenote:
+St. Louis.] St. Louis, the representative of the hierarchical party,
+gathers influence only from the circumstance of his relations with
+the Church, of whose interests he was a fanatical supporter. So far
+as the affairs of his people were concerned, he can hardly be looked
+upon as anything better than a simpleton. His reliance for checking
+the threatened spread of heresy was a resort to violence--the faggot
+and the sword. In his opinion, "A man ought never to dispute with
+a misbeliever except with his sword, which he ought to drive into
+the heretic's entrails as far as he can." It was the signal glory
+of his reign that he secured for France that inestimable relic,
+the crown of thorns. [Sidenote: His superstition,] This peerless
+memento of our Saviour's passion he purchased in Constantinople
+for an immense sum. But France was doubly and enviably enriched;
+for the Abbey of St. Denys was in possession of another, known to
+be equally authentic! Besides the crown, he also secured the sponge
+that was dipped in vinegar; the lance of the Roman soldier; also the
+swaddling-clothes in which the Saviour had first lain in the manger;
+the rod of Moses; and part of the skull of John the Baptist. These
+treasures he deposited in the "Holy Chapel" of Paris.
+
+[Sidenote: and crusade.] Under the papal auspices, St. Louis determined
+on a crusade; and nothing, except what we have already mentioned, can
+better show his mental imbecility than his disregard of all suitable
+arrangements for it. He thought that, provided the troops could be made
+to lead a religious life, all would go well; that the Lord would fight
+his own battles, and that no provisions of a military or worldly kind
+were needed. In such a pious reliance on the support of God, he reached
+Egypt with his expedition in June, A.D. 1249. The ever-conspicuous
+valour of the French troops could maintain itself in the battle-field,
+but not against pestilence and famine. [Sidenote: Its total failure.] In
+March of the following year, as might have been foreseen, King Louis was
+the prisoner of the Sultan, and was only spared the indignity of being
+carried about as a public spectacle in the Mohammedan towns by a ransom,
+at first fixed at a million of Byzantines, but by the merciful Sultan
+voluntarily reduced one fifth. Still, for a time, Louis lingered in the
+East, apparently stupefied by considering how God could in this manner
+have abandoned a man who had come to his help. Never was there a crusade
+with a more shameful end.
+
+[Sidenote: The Inquisition attempts to arrest the intellectual revolt.]
+Notwithstanding the support of St. Louis in his own dominions, the
+intellectual revolt spread in every direction, and that not only in
+France, but throughout all Catholic Europe. In vain the Inquisition
+exerted all its terrors--and what could be more terrible than its form
+of procedure? It sat in secret; no witness, no advocate was present; the
+accused was simply informed that he was charged with heresy, it was not
+said by whom. He was made to swear that he would tell the truth as
+regarded himself, and also respecting other persons, whether parents,
+children, friends, strangers. If he resisted he was committed to a
+solitary dungeon, dark and poisonous; his food was diminished;
+everything was done to drive him into insanity. Then the familiars of
+the Holy Office, or others in its interests, were by degrees to work
+upon him to extort confession as to himself or accusations against
+others. But this fearful tribunal did not fail to draw upon itself the
+indignation of men. Its victims, condemned for heresy, were perishing in
+all directions. The usual apparatus of death, the stake and faggots, had
+become unsuited to its wholesale and remorseless vengeance. The convicts
+were so numerous as to require pens made of stakes and filled with
+straw. [Sidenote: Burnings of heretics.] It was thus that, before the
+Archbishop of Rheims and seventeen other prelates, one hundred and
+eighty-three heretics, together with their pastor, were burned alive.
+Such outrages against humanity cannot be perpetrated without bringing in
+the end retribution. In other countries the rising indignation was
+exasperated by local causes; in England, for instance, by the continual
+intrusion of Italian ecclesiastics into the richest benefices. Some of
+them were mere boys; many were non-residents; some had not so much as
+seen the country from which they drew their ample wealth. The Archbishop
+of York was excommunicated, with torches and bells, because he would not
+bestow the abundant revenues of his Church on persons from beyond the
+Alps; but for all this "he was blessed by the people." The archbishopric
+of Canterbury was held, A.D. 1241, by Boniface of Savoy, to whom had
+been granted by the pope the first-fruits of all the benefices in his
+province. His rapacity was boundless. From all the ecclesiastics and
+ecclesiastical establishments under his control he extorted enormous
+sums. Some, who, like the Dean of St. Paul's, resisted him, were
+excommunicated; some, like the aged Sub-prior of St. Bartholomew's, were
+knocked down by his own hand. Of a military turn--he often wore a
+cuirass under his robes--he joined his brother, the Archbishop of Lyons,
+who was besieging Turin, and wasted the revenues of his see in England
+in intrigues and petty military enterprises against his enemies in
+Italy.
+
+[Sidenote: Mutiny arising in the Church.] Not among the laity alone was
+there indignation against such a state of things. Mutiny broke out in
+the ranks of the Church. It was not that among the humbler classes the
+sentiment of piety had become diminished. [Sidenote: The Shepherds and
+Flagellants.] The Shepherds, under the leadership of the Master of
+Hungary, passed by tens of thousands through France to excite the clergy
+to arouse for the rescue of good King Louis, in bondage among the
+Mussulmen. They asserted that they were commissioned by the Virgin, and
+were fed miraculously by the Master. Originating in Italy, the
+Flagellants also passed, two by two, through every city, scourging
+themselves for thirty-three days in memory of the years of our Lord.
+These dismal enthusiasts emulated each other, and were rivals of the
+mendicant friars in their hatred of the clergy. [Sidenote: The mendicant
+friars are affected.] The mendicants were beginning to justify that
+hesitation which Innocent displayed when he was first importuned to
+authorize them. The papacy had reaped from these orders much good; it
+was now to gather a fearful evil. They had come to be learned men
+instead of ferocious bigots. They were now, indeed, among the most
+cultivated men of their times. They had taken possession of many of the
+seats of learning. In the University of Paris, out of twelve chairs of
+theology, three only were occupied by the regular clergy. The mendicant
+friars had entered into the dangerous paths of heresy. They became
+involved in that fermenting leaven that had come from Spain, and among
+them revolt broke out.
+
+[Sidenote: Rome prohibits the study of science.] With an unerring
+instinct, Rome traced the insurrection to its true source. We have only
+to look at the measures taken by the popes to understand their opinion.
+Thus Innocent III., A.D. 1215, regulated, by his legate, the schools of
+Paris, permitting the study of the Dialectics of Aristotle, but
+forbidding his physical and metaphysical works and their commentaries.
+These had come through an Arabic channel. A rescript of Gregory XI.,
+A.D. 1231, interdicts those on natural philosophy until they had been
+purified by the theologians of the Church. These regulations were
+confirmed by Clement IV. A.D. 1265.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST--(_Continued_).
+
+OVERTHROW OF THE ITALIAN SYSTEM BY THE COMBINED INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL
+ATTACK.
+
+_Progress of Irreligion among the mendicant Orders.--Publication of
+heretical Books.--The Everlasting Gospel and the Comment on the
+Apocalypse._
+
+_Conflict between Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII.--Outrage upon and
+death of the Pope._
+
+_The French King removes the Papacy from Rome to Avignon.--Post-mortem
+Trial of the Pope for Atheism and Immorality.--Causes and Consequences
+of the Atheism of the Pope._
+
+_The Templars fall into Infidelity.--Their Trial, Conviction, and
+Punishment._
+
+_Immoralities of the Papal Court at Avignon.--Its return to
+Rome.--Causes of the great Schism.--Disorganization of the Italian
+System.--Decomposition of the Papacy.--Three Popes._
+
+_The Council of Constance attempts to convert the papal Autocracy into a
+constitutional Monarchy.--It murders John Huss and Jerome of
+Prague.--Pontificate of Nicolas V.--End of the intellectual influence of
+the Italian System._
+
+
+[Sidenote: "The Everlasting Gospel."] About the close of the twelfth
+century appeared among the mendicant friars that ominous work, which,
+under the title of "The Everlasting Gospel," struck terror into the
+Latin hierarchy. It was affirmed that an angel had brought it from
+heaven, engraven on copper plates, and had given it to a priest called
+Cyril, who delivered it to the Abbot Joachim. [Sidenote: Introduction to
+it by the General of the Franciscans.] The abbot had been dead about
+fifty years, when there was put forth, A.D. 1250, a true exposition of
+the tendency of his book, under the form of an introduction, by John of
+Parma, the general of the Franciscans, as was universally suspected or
+alleged. Notwithstanding its heresy, the work displayed an enlarged and
+masterly conception of the historical progress of humanity. In this
+introduction, John of Parma pointed out that the Abbot Joachim, who had
+not only performed a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but had been
+reverenced as a prophet, received as of unimpeachable orthodoxy, and
+canonized, had accepted as his fundamental position that Roman
+Christianity had done its work, and had now come to its inevitable
+termination. He proceeded to show that there are epochs or ages in the
+Divine government of the world; that, during the Jewish dispensation, it
+had been under the immediate influence of God the Father; during the
+Christian dispensation, it had been under that of God the Son; and that
+the time had now arrived when it would be under the influence of God the
+Holy Ghost; that, in the coming ages, there would be no longer any need
+of faith, but that all things would be according to wisdom and reason.
+It was the ushering in of a new time. So spake, with needful obscurity,
+the Abbot Joachim, and so, more plainly, the General of the Franciscans
+in his Introduction. "The Everlasting Gospel" was declared by its
+adherents to have supplanted the New Testament, as that had supplanted
+the Old--these three books constituting a threefold revelation,
+answering to the Trinity of the Godhead. At once there was a cry from
+the whole hierarchy. [Sidenote: Attempts to destroy the book.] The Pope,
+Alexander IV., without delay, took measures for the destruction of the
+book. Whoever kept or concealed a copy was excommunicated. But among the
+lower mendicants--the Spiritualists, as they were termed--the work was
+held in the most devout repute. With them it had taken the place of the
+Holy Scriptures. [Sidenote: The Comment on the Apocalypse.] So far from
+being suppressed, it was followed, in about forty years, A.D. 1297, by
+the Comment on the Apocalypse, by John Peter Oliva, who, in Sicily, had
+accepted the three epochs or ages, and divided the middle one--the
+Christian--into seven stages: the age of the Apostles; that of the
+Martyrs; that of Heresies; that of Hermits; that of the Monastic System;
+that of the overthrow of Anti-Christ, and that of the coming Millennium.
+He agreed with his predecessors in the impending abolition of Roman
+Christianity, stigmatized that Church as the purple harlot, and with
+them affirmed that the pope and all his hierarchy had become superfluous
+and obsolete--"their work was done, their doom sealed." [Sidenote:
+Spread of these doctrines among ecclesiastics.] His zealous followers
+declared that the sacraments of the Church were now all useless, those
+administering them having no longer any jurisdiction. The burning of
+thousands of these "Fratricelli" by the Inquisition was altogether
+inadequate to suppress them. Eventually, when the Reformation occurred,
+they mingled among the followers of Luther.
+
+[Sidenote: Approaching difficulties of the Church.] To the internal and
+doctrinal troubles thus befalling the Church, material and foreign ones
+of the most vital importance were soon added. The true reason of the
+difficulties into which the papacy was falling was now coming
+conspicuously into light. It was absolutely necessary that money should
+be drawn to Rome, and the sovereigns of the Western kingdoms, France and
+England, from which it had hitherto been largely obtained, were
+determined that it should be so no longer. They had equally urgent need
+themselves of all that could be extorted. In France, even by St. Louis,
+it was enacted that the papal power in the election of the clergy should
+be restrained; and, complaining of the drain of money from the kingdom
+to Rome, he applied the effectual remedy of prohibiting any such
+assessments or taxations for the future.
+
+[Sidenote: Peter Morrone becomes pope.] We have now reached the
+pontificate of Boniface VIII., an epoch in the intellectual history of
+Europe. Under the title of Celestine V. a visionary hermit had been
+raised to the papacy--visionary, for Peter Morrone (such was his name)
+had long been indulged in apparitions of angels and the sounds of
+phantom bells in the air. Peter was escorted from his cell to his
+supreme position by admiring crowds; but it very soon became apparent
+that the life of an anchorite is not a preparation for the duties of a
+pope. The conclave of cardinals had elected him, not from any impression
+of his suitableness, but because they were evenly balanced in two
+parties, neither of which would give way. They were therefore driven to
+a temporary and available election. But scarcely had this been done when
+his incapacity became conspicuous and his removal imperative. [Sidenote:
+Celestine V. terrified into abdication.] It is said that the friends of
+Benedetto Gaetani, the ablest of the cardinals, through a hole
+perforated in the pope's chamber wall, at midnight, in a hollow voice,
+warned him that he retained his dignity at the peril of his soul, and in
+the name of God commanded him to abdicate. And so, in spite of all
+importunity, he did. His abdication was considered by many pious persons
+as striking a death-blow at papal infallibility.
+
+[Sidenote: The miracle of Loretto.] It was during his pontificate that
+the miracle of Loretto occurred. The house inhabited by the Virgin
+immediately after her conception had been converted on the death of the
+Holy Family into a chapel, and St. Luke had presented to it an image,
+carved by his own hands, still known as our Lady of Loretto. Some angels
+chancing to be at Nazareth when the Saracen conquerors approached,
+fearing that the sacred relic might fall into their possession, took the
+house bodily in their hands, and, carrying it through the air, after
+several halts, finally deposited it at Loretto in Italy.
+
+[Sidenote: Boniface VIII. elected pope.] So Benedetto Gaetani, whether
+by such wily procurements or not, became Pope Boniface VIII., A.D. 1294.
+His election was probably due to King Charles, who held twelve electoral
+votes, the bitter personal animosity of the Colonnas having been either
+neutralized or overcome. The first care of Boniface was to consolidate
+his power and relieve himself of a rival. In the opinion of many it was
+not possible for a pope to abdicate. Confinement in prison soon (A.D.
+1296) settled that question. [Sidenote: Ascent of Pope Celestine to
+heaven.] The soul of Celestine was seen by a monk ascending the skies,
+which opened to receive it into heaven; and a splendid funeral informed
+his enemies that they must now acknowledge Boniface as the unquestioned
+pope. [Sidenote: Quarrel of Boniface and the Colonnas.] But the princely
+Colonnas, the leaders of the Ghibelline faction in Rome, who had
+resisted the abdication of Celestine to the last, and were, therefore,
+mortal enemies of Boniface, revolted. He published a bull against them;
+he excommunicated them. With an ominous anticipation of the future--for
+they were familiar with the papal power, and knew where to touch it to
+the quick--they appealed to a "General Council." Since supernatural
+weapons did not seem to avail, Boniface proclaimed a crusade against
+them. The issue answered his expectations. Palestrina, one of their
+strongholds, which in a moment of weakness they had surrendered, was
+utterly devastated and sown with salt. The Colonnas fled, some of them
+to France. There, in King Philip the Fair, they found a friend, who was
+destined to avenge their wrongs, and to inflict on the papacy a blow
+from which it never recovered.
+
+[Sidenote: Pecuniary necessities of Rome.] This was the state of affairs
+at the commencement of the quarrel between Philip and Boniface. The
+Crusades had brought all Europe under taxation to Rome, and loud
+complaints were everywhere made against the drain of money into Italy.
+Things had at last come to such a condition that it was not possible to
+continue the Crusades without resorting to a taxation of the clergy, and
+this was the true reason of the eventual lukewarmness, and even
+opposition to them. But the stream of money that had thus been passing
+into Italy had engendered habits of luxury and extravagance. Cost what
+it might, money must be had in Rome. The perennial necessity under which
+the kings of England and France found themselves--the necessity of
+revenue for the carrying out of their temporal projects--could only be
+satisfied in the same way. The wealth of those nations had insensibly
+glided into the hands of the Church. [Sidenote: The King of England
+compels the clergy to pay taxes.] In England, Edward I. enforced the
+taxation of the clergy. They resisted at first, but that sovereign found
+an ingenious and effectual remedy. He directed his judges to hear no
+cause in which an ecclesiastic was a complainant, but to try every suit
+brought against them; asserting that those who refused to share the
+burdens of the state had no right to the protection of its laws. They
+forthwith submitted. In the nature and efficacy of this remedy we for
+the first time recognize the agency of a class of men soon to rise to
+power--the lawyers.
+
+[Sidenote: The King of France attempts it.] In France, Philip the Fair
+made a similar attempt. It was not to be supposed that Rome would
+tolerate this trespassing on what she considered her proper domain, and
+accordingly Boniface issued the bull "_Clericis laicos_,"
+excommunicating kings who should levy subsidies on ecclesiastics.
+Hereupon Philip determined that, if the French clergy were not tributary
+to him, France should not be tributary to the pope, and issued an edict
+prohibiting the export of gold and silver from France without his
+license. But he did not resort to these extreme measures until he had
+tried others which perhaps he considered less troublesome. He had
+plundered the Jews, confiscated their property, and expelled them from
+his dominions. [Sidenote: Is abetted by the begging friars,] The Church
+was fairly next in order; and, indeed, the mendicant friars of the lower
+class, who, as we have seen, were disaffected by the publication of "The
+Everlasting Gospel," were loud in their denunciations of her wealth,
+attributing the prevailing religious demoralization to it. They pointed
+to the example of our Lord and his disciples; and when their antagonists
+replied that even He condescended to make use of money, the malignant
+fanatics maintained their doctrines, amid the applause of a jeering
+populace, by answering that it was not St. Peter, but Judas, who was
+intrusted with the purse, and that the pope stood in need of the bitter
+rebuke which Jesus had of old administered to his prototype Peter,
+saying, "Get thee behind me, Satan; for thou savourest not of the things
+that be of God, but of the things that be of men" (Mark viii. 33). Under
+that authority they affirmed that they might stigmatize the great
+culprit without guilt. So the king ventured to put forth his hand and
+touch what the Church had, and she cursed him to his face. At first a
+literary war ensued: the pope published his bull, the king his reply.
+[Sidenote: and ably sustained by the lawyers.] Already the policy which
+Philip was following, and the ability he was displaying, manifested that
+he had attached to himself that new power of which the King of England
+had taken advantage--a power soon to become the mortal enemy of the
+ecclesiastic--the lawyers. [Sidenote: Device of the jubilee.] In the
+meantime, money must be had in Rome; when, by the singularly felicitous
+device of the proclamation of a year of jubilee, A.D. 1300, large sums
+were again brought into Italy.
+
+[Sidenote: The four enemies of Boniface.] Boniface had thus four
+antagonists on his hands--the King of France, the Colonnas, the lawyers,
+and the mendicants. By the latter, both high and low, he was cordially
+hated. Thus the higher English Franciscans were enraged against him
+because he refused to let them hold lands. They attempted to bribe him
+with 40,000 ducats; but he seized the money at the banker's, under the
+pretence that it had no owners, as the mendicants were vowed to poverty,
+and then denied the privilege. As to the lower Franciscans, heresy was
+fast spreading among them. They were not only infected with the
+doctrines of "The Everlasting Gospel," but had even descended into the
+abyss of irreligion one step more by placing St. Francis in the stead of
+our Saviour. They were incessantly repeating in the ears of the laity
+that the pope was Anti-Christ, "The Man of Sin." [Sidenote: Collision
+between the French king and the pope.] The quarrel between Philip and
+Boniface was every moment increasing in bitterness. The former seized
+and imprisoned a papal nuncio, who had been selected because he was
+known to be personally offensive; the latter retaliated by the issue of
+bulls protesting against such an outrage, interfering between the king
+and his French clergy, and citing the latter to appear in Rome and take
+cognizance of their master's misdoings. The monarch was actually invited
+to be present and hear his own doom. In the lesser bull--if it be
+authentic--and the king's rejoinder, both parties seem to have lost
+their temper. [Sidenote: The bull "_Ausculta Fili_."] This was followed
+by the celebrated bull "_Ausculta Fili_" at which the king's indignation
+knew no bounds. He had it publicly burnt in Paris at the sound of a
+trumpet; assembled the States-General; and, under the advice of his
+lawyers, skilfully brought the issue to this: Does the king hold the
+realm of France of God or of the pope? Without difficulty it might be
+seen how the French clergy would be compelled to act: since many of them
+held fiefs of the king, all were in fear of the intrusion of Italian
+ecclesiastics into the rich benefices. France, therefore, supported her
+monarch. [Sidenote: The bull "_Unam Sanctam_."] On his side, Boniface,
+in the bull "_Unam Sanctam_" asserted his power by declaring that it is
+necessary to salvation to believe that "every human being is subject to
+the Pontiff of Rome." Philip, foreseeing the desperate nature of the
+approaching conflict, and aiming to attach his people firmly to him by
+putting himself forth as their protector against priestly tyranny, again
+skilfully appealed to their sentiments by denouncing the Inquisition as
+an atrocious barbarity, an outrage on human rights, violating all law,
+resorting to new and unheard-of tortures, and doing deeds at which men's
+minds revolt with horror. In the South of France this language was
+thoroughly understood. [Sidenote: William de Nogaret.] The lawyers,
+among whom William de Nogaret was conspicuous, ably assisted him;
+indeed, his whole movement exhibited the extraordinary intelligence of
+his advisers. It has been affirmed, and is, perhaps, not untrue, that De
+Nogaret's father had been burnt by the Inquisition. The great lawyer was
+bent on revenge. [Sidenote: Action of the States-General.] The
+States-General, under his suggestions, entertained four propositions: 1.
+That Boniface was not the true pope; 2. That he was a heretic; 3. That
+he was a simoniac; 4. That he was a man weighed down with crimes. De
+Nogaret, learning from the Colonnas how to touch the papacy in a vital
+point, demanded that the whole subject should be referred to a "General
+Council" to be summoned by the king. A second meeting of the
+States-General was held. William de Plaisian, the Lord of Vezenoble,
+appeared with charges against the pope. [Sidenote: Accusations against
+the pope.] Out of a long list, many of which could not possibly be true,
+some may be mentioned: that Boniface neither believed in the immortality
+nor incorruptibility of the soul, nor in a life to come, nor in the real
+presence in the Eucharist; that he did not observe the fasts of the
+Church--not even Lent; that he spoke of the cardinals, monks, and friars
+as hypocrites; that the Holy Land had been lost through his fault; that
+the subsidies for its relief had been embezzled by him; that his holy
+predecessor, Celestine, through his inhumanity had been brought to
+death; that he had said that fornication and other obscene practices are
+no sin; that he was a Sodomite, and had caused clerks to be murdered in
+his presence; that he had enriched himself by simony; that his nephew's
+wife had borne him two illegitimate sons. These, with other still more
+revolting charges, were sworn to upon the Holy Gospels. The king
+appealed to "a general council and to a legitimate pope."
+
+The quarrel had now become a mortal one. There was but one course for
+Boniface to take, and he did take it. He excommunicated the king. He
+deprived him of his throne, and anathematized his posterity to the
+fourth generation. The bull was to be suspended in the porch of the
+Cathedral of Anagni on September 8; but William de Nogaret and one of
+the Colonnas had already passed into Italy. They hired a troop of
+banditti, and on September 7 attacked the pontiff in his palace at
+Anagni. The doors of a church which protected him were strong, but they
+yielded to fire. The brave old man, in his pontifical robes, with his
+crucifix in one hand and the keys of St. Peter in the other, sat down on
+his throne and confronted his assailants. His cardinals had fled through
+a sewer. [Sidenote: His seizure by De Nogaret, and his death.] So little
+reverence was there for God's vicar upon earth, that Sciarra Colonna
+raised his hand to kill him on the spot; but the blow was arrested by De
+Nogaret, who, with a bitter taunt, told him that here, in his own city,
+he owed his life to the mercy of a servant of the King of France--a
+servant whose father had been burnt by the Inquisition. The pontiff was
+spared only to be placed on a miserable horse, with his face to the
+tail, and led off to prison. They meant to transport him to France to
+await the general council. He was rescued, returned to Rome, was seized
+and imprisoned again. On the 11th of October he died.
+
+Thus, after a pontificate of nine eventful years, perished Boniface
+VIII. His history and his fate show to what a gulf Roman Christianity
+was approaching. His successor, Benedict XI., had but a brief enjoyment
+of power; long enough, however, to learn that the hatred of the King of
+France had not died with the death of Boniface, and that he was
+determined not only to pursue the departed pontiff's memory beyond the
+grave, but also to effect a radical change in the papacy itself.
+[Sidenote: Poisoning of Benedict XI.] A basket of figs was presented to
+Benedict by a veiled female. She had brought them, she said, from the
+Abbess of St. Petronilla. In an unguarded moment the pontiff ate of them
+without the customary precaution of having them previously tasted. Alas!
+what was the state of morals in Italy? A dysentery came on; in a few
+days he was dead. But the Colonnas had already taught the King of France
+how one should work who desires to touch the popedom; the event that had
+just occurred was the preparation for putting their advice into
+operation. [Sidenote: Understanding between the king and the Archbishop
+of Bordeaux.] The king came to an understanding with Bernard de Goth,
+the Archbishop of Bordeaux. Six conditions were arranged between them:
+1. The reconciliation between the Church and the king; 2. The absolution
+of all persons engaged in the affair of Boniface; 3. Tenths from the
+clergy for five years; 4. The condemnation of the memory of Boniface; 5.
+The restoration of the Colonnas; 6. A secret article; what it was time
+soon showed. A swift messenger carried intelligence to the king's
+partisans in the College of Cardinals, and Bernard became Clement V. "It
+will be long before we see the face of another pope in Rome!" exclaimed
+the Cardinal Matteo Orsini, with a prophetic instinct of what was coming
+when the conspiracy reached its development. [Sidenote: Removal of the
+papacy to Avignon.] His prophecy was only too true. Now appeared what
+was that sixth, that secret article negotiated between King Philip and
+De Goth. Clement took up his residence at Avignon in France. The tomb of
+the apostles was abandoned. The Eternal City had ceased to be the
+metropolis of Christianity.
+
+But a French prelate had not bargained with a French king for the most
+eminent dignity to which a European can aspire without having given an
+equivalent. In as good faith as he could to his contract, in as good
+faith as he could to his present pre-eminent position, Clement V.
+proceeded to discharge his share of the obligation. To a certain extent
+King Philip was animated by an undying vengeance against his enemy, whom
+he considered as having escaped out of his grasp, but he was also
+actuated by a sincere desire of accomplishing a reform in the Church
+through a radical change in its constitution. [Sidenote: Post-mortem
+trial of Pope Boniface.] He was resolved that the pontiffs should be
+accountable to the kings of France, or that France should more directly
+influence their conduct. To reconcile men to this, it was for him to
+show, with the semblance of pious reluctance, what was the state to
+which morals and faith had come in Rome. The trial of the dead Boniface
+was therefore entered upon, A.D. 1310. The Consistory was opened at
+Avignon, March 18. The proceedings occupied many months; many witnesses
+were examined. [Sidenote: The accusations against him.] The main points
+attempted to be established by their evidence seem to have been these:
+"That Boniface had declared his belief that there was no such thing as
+divine law--what was reputed to be such was merely the invention of men
+to keep the vulgar in awe by the terrors of eternal punishment; that it
+was a falsehood to assert the Trinity, and fatuous to believe it; that
+it was falsehood to say that a virgin had brought forth, for it was an
+impossibility; that it was falsehood to assert that bread is
+transubstantiated into the body of Christ; that Christianity is false,
+because it asserts a future life, of which there is no evidence save
+that of visionary people." It was in evidence that the pope had said,
+"God may do the worst with me that he pleases in the future life; I
+believe as every educated man does, the vulgar believe otherwise. We
+have to speak as they do, but we must believe and think with the few."
+It was sworn to by those who had heard him disputing with some Parisians
+that he had maintained "that neither the body nor the soul rise again."
+Others testified that "he neither believed in the resurrection nor in
+the sacraments of the Church, and had denied that carnal gratifications
+are sins." The Primicerio of St. John's at Naples, deposed that, when a
+cardinal, Boniface had said in his presence, "So that God gives me the
+good things of this life, I care not a bean for that to come. A man has
+no more a soul than a beast. Did you ever see any one who had risen from
+the dead?" He took delight in deriding the blessed Virgin; "for," said
+he, "she was no more a virgin than my mother." As to the presence of
+Christ in the Host, "It is nothing but paste." Three knights of Lucca
+testified that when certain venerable ambassadors, whose names they
+gave, were in the presence of the pope at the time of the jubilee, and a
+chaplain happened to invoke the mercy of Jesus on a person recently
+dead, Boniface appalled all around him by exclaiming, "What a fool, to
+commend him to Christ! He could not help himself, and how can he be
+expected to help others? He was no Son of God, but a shrewd man and a
+great hypocrite." It might seem impossible to exceed such blasphemy: and
+yet the witnesses went on to testify to a conversation which he held
+with the brave old Sicilian admiral, Roger Loria. This devout sailor
+made the remark, in the pope's presence, that if, on a certain occasion,
+he had died, it was his trust that Christ would have had mercy on him.
+To this Boniface replied, "Christ! he was no Son of God; he was a man,
+eating and drinking like ourselves; he never rose from the dead; no man
+has ever risen. I am far mightier than he. I can bestow kingdoms and
+humble kings." Other witnesses deposed to having heard him affirm,
+"There is no harm in simony. There is no more harm in adultery than in
+rubbing one's hands together." Some testified to such immoralities and
+lewdness in his private life that the pages of a modern book cannot be
+soiled with the recital.
+
+[Sidenote: Philip consents to abstain from the prosecution.] In the
+meantime, Clement did all in his power to save the blackened memory of
+his predecessor. Every influence that could be brought to bear on the
+revengeful or politic king was resorted to, and at last with success.
+Perhaps Philip saw that he had fully accomplished his object. He had no
+design to destroy the papacy. His aim was to revolutionize it--to give
+the kings of France a more thorough control over it; and, for the
+accomplishment of that purpose, to demonstrate to what a condition it
+had come through the present system. Whatever might be the decision,
+such evidence had been brought forward as, notwithstanding its
+contradictions and apparent inconsistencies, had made a profound
+impression on every thinking man. It was the king's consummate policy to
+let the matter remain where it was. Accordingly, he abandoned all
+farther action. The gratitude of Clement was expressed in a bull
+exalting Philip, attributing his action to piety, exempting him from all
+blame, annulling past bulls prejudicial to him, revoking all punishments
+of those who had been concerned against Boniface except in the case of
+fifteen persons, on whom a light and nominal penance was inflicted. In
+November, A.D. 1311, the Council of Vienne met. In the following year
+three cardinals appeared before it to defend the orthodoxy and holy life
+of Pope Boniface. Two knights threw down their gauntlets to maintain his
+innocence by wager of battle. There was no accuser! no one took up the
+gage; and the council was at liberty quietly to dispose of the matter.
+
+[Sidenote: The religious condition of Pope Boniface.] How far the
+departed pontiff was guilty of the charges alleged against him was,
+therefore, never fairly ascertained. But it was a tremendous, an
+appalling fact that charges of such a character could be even so much as
+brought forward, much more that a succeeding pontiff had to listen to
+them, and attribute intentions of piety to the accuser. The immoralities
+of which Boniface was accused were such as in Italy did not excite the
+same indignation as among the more moral people beyond the Alps; the
+heresies were those everywhere pervading the Church. We have already
+seen what a profound impression "The Everlasting Gospel" had made, and
+how many followers and martyrs it had. What was alleged against Boniface
+was only that he had taken one step more in the downward course of
+irreligion. His fault lay in this, that in an evil hour he had given
+expression to thoughts which, considering his position, ought to have
+remained locked up in his inmost soul. As to the rest, if he was
+avaricious, and accumulated enormous treasures, such as it was said the
+banditti of the Colonnas seized when they outraged his person, he was no
+worse than many other popes. Clement V., his successor, died enormously
+rich; and, what was worse, did not hesitate to scandalize Europe by his
+prodigal munificence to the beautiful Brunisard, the Countess of
+Talleyrand, his lady.
+
+[Sidenote: Its causes.] The religious condition of Boniface, though not
+admitting of apology, is capable of explanation. By the Crusades all
+Europe had been wrought up to a fanatical expectation, doomed
+necessarily to disappointment. From them the papacy had derived
+prodigious advantages both in money and power. It was now to experience
+fearful evils. It had largely promised rewards in this life, and also in
+the world to come, to those who would take up the Cross; it had
+deliberately pitted Christianity against Mohammedanism, and staked the
+authenticity of each on the issue of the conflict. In face of the whole
+world it had put forth as the true criterion the possession of the holy
+places, hallowed by the life, the sufferings, the death, the
+resurrection of the Redeemer. Whatever the result might be, the
+circumstances under which this had been done were such that there was no
+concealing, no dissembling. In all Europe there was not a family which
+had not been pecuniarily involved in the Crusades, perhaps few that had
+not furnished men. Was it at all to be wondered at that everywhere the
+people, accustomed to the logic of trial by battle, were terror-stricken
+when they saw the result? Was it to be wondered at that even still more
+dreadful heresies spontaneously suggested themselves? Was it at all
+extraordinary that, if there had been popes sincerely accepting that
+criterion, the issue should be a pope who was a sincere misbeliever? Was
+it extraordinary that there should be a loss of papal prestige? It was
+the papacy which had voluntarily, for its own ends, brought things into
+this evil channel, and the papacy deserved a just retribution of
+discredit and ruin. It had wrought on the devout temper of religious
+Europe for its own sinister purposes; it had drained the Continent of
+its blood, and perhaps of what was more highly prized--its money; it had
+established a false issue, an unwarrantable criterion, and now came the
+time for it to reap consequences of a different kind--intellectual
+revolt among the people, heresy among the clergy. Nor was the pope
+without eminent comrades in his sin. [Sidenote: Apostacy of the
+Templars.] The Templars, whose duty it had been to protect pilgrims on
+the way to Jerusalem--who had therefore been long and thoroughly
+familiar with the state of events in Palestine--had been treading in the
+same path as the pope. Dark rumours had begun to circulate throughout
+Europe that these, the very vanguard of Christianity, had not only
+proved traitors to their banner, but had actually become Mohammedanized.
+On their expulsion from the Holy Land, at the close of the Crusades,
+they spread all over Europe, to disseminate by stealth their fearful
+heresies, and to enjoy the riches they had acquired in the service they
+had betrayed. Men find a charm in having it mysteriously and secretly
+divulged to them that their long-cherished opinions are all a delusion.
+There was something fascinating in hearing privately, from those who
+could speak with authority, that, after all, Mohammed was not an
+impostor, but the author of a pure and noble Theism; that Saladin was
+not a treacherous assassin, a despicable liar, but a most valiant,
+courteous, and gentle knight. In his proceedings against the Templars,
+King Philip the Fair seems to have been animated by a pure intention of
+checking the disastrous spread of these opinions; yet William de
+Nogaret, who was his chief adviser on this matter as on that of
+Boniface, was not without reasons of personal hatred. It was said that
+he divided his wrath between the Templars and the pope. They had had
+some connexion with the burning of his father, and vengeance he was
+resolved to wreak upon them. [Sidenote: They are arrested and tried.]
+Under colour of the charges against them, all the Templars in France
+were simultaneously arrested in the dawn of one day, October 13, A.D.
+1307, so well devised were the measures. The grand master, Du Molay, was
+secured, not, however, without some perfidy. Now were openly brought
+forward the charges which struck Europe with consternation.
+Substantiation of them was offered by witnesses, but it was secured by
+submitting the accused to torture. The grand master, Du Molay, at first
+admitted their guilt of the crimes alleged. After some hesitation, the
+pope issued a bull, commanding the King of England to do what the King
+of France had already done, to arrest the Templars and seize their
+property. His declaration, that one of the order, a man of high birth,
+had confessed to himself his criminality, seems to have made a profound
+impression on the mind of the English king, and of many other persons
+until that time reluctant to believe. The Parliament and the University
+of Paris expressed themselves satisfied with the evidence. New
+examinations were held, and new convictions were made. The pope issued a
+bull addressed to all Christendom, declaring how slowly, but, alas! how
+certainly, he had been compelled to believe in the apostacy of the
+order, and commanding that everywhere proceedings should be instituted
+against it. A papal commission assembled in Paris, August 7, A.D. 1309.
+The grand master was brought before it. He professed his belief in the
+Catholic faith, but now denied that the order was guilty of the charges
+alleged against it, as also did many of the other knights. Other
+witnesses were, however, brought forward, some of whom pretended to have
+abandoned the order on account of its foul acts. At the Porte St.
+Antoine, on many pleasant evenings in the following May, William de
+Nogaret revelled in the luxury of avenging the shade of his father.
+[Sidenote: Found guilty and punished.] One hundred and thirteen Templars
+were, in slow succession, burnt at stakes. The remorseless lawyer was
+repaying the Church in her own coin. Yet of this vast concourse of
+sufferers all died protesting their innocence; not one proved an
+apostate. Notwithstanding this most significant fact--for those who were
+ready to lay down their lives, and to meet with unshaken constancy the
+fire, were surely the bravest of the knights, and their dying
+declaration is worthy of our most reverent consideration--things were
+such that no other course was possible than the abolition of the order,
+and this accordingly took place. The pope himself seems to have been
+satisfied that the crimes had been perpetrated under the instigation or
+temptation of Satan; but men of more enlarged views appear to have
+concluded that, though the Templars were innocent of the moral
+abominations charged against them, a familiarity with other forms of
+belief in the East had undoubtedly sapped their faith. After a weary
+imprisonment of six years, embittered by many hardships, the grand
+master, Du Molay, was brought up for sentence. He had been found guilty.
+With his dying breath, "before Heaven and earth, on the verge of death,
+when the least falsehood bears like an intolerable weight on the soul,"
+he declared the innocence of the order and of himself. [Sidenote:
+Burning of Du Molay.] The vesper-bell was sounding when Du Molay and a
+brother convict were led forth to their stakes, placed on an island in
+the Seine. King Philip himself was present. As the smoke and flames
+enveloped them they continued to affirm their innocence. Some averred
+that forth from the fire Du Molay's voice sounded, "Clement! thou wicked
+and false judge, I summon thee to meet me within forty days at the bar
+of God." Some said that he also summoned the king. In the following year
+King Philip the Fair and Pope Clement the Fifth were dead.
+
+John XXII., elected after an interval of more than two years spent in
+rivalries and intrigues between the French and Italian cardinals,
+continued the residence at Avignon. His movements took a practical turn
+in the commencement of a process for the recovery of the treasures of
+Clement from the Viscount de Lomenie. This was only a part of the wealth
+of the deceased pope, but it amounted to a million and three quarters of
+florins of gold. The Inquisition was kept actively at work for the
+extermination of the believers in "The Everlasting Gospel," and the
+remnant of the Albigenses and Waldenses. But all this had no other
+result than that which eventually occurred--an examination of the
+authenticity and rightfulness of the papal power. With an instinct as to
+the origin of the misbelief everywhere spreading, the pope published
+bulls against the Jews, of whom a bloody persecution had arisen, and
+ordered that all their Talmuds and other blasphemous books should be
+burnt. [Sidenote: Marsilio's work, "The Defender of Peace."] A
+physician, Marsilio of Padua, published a work, "The Defender of Peace."
+It was a philosophical examination of the principles of government, and
+of the nature and limits of the sacerdotal power. Its democratic
+tendency was displayed by its demonstration that the exposition of the
+law of Christianity rests not with the pope nor any other priest, but
+with a general council; it rejected the papal political pretensions;
+asserted that no one can be rightfully excommunicated by a pope alone,
+and that he has no power of coercion over human thought; that the civil
+immunities of the clergy ought to be ended; that poverty and humility
+ought alone to be their characteristics; that society ought to provide
+them with a decent sustenance, but nothing more: their pomp,
+extravagance, luxury, and usurpations, especially that of tithes, should
+be abrogated; that neither Christ nor the Scriptures ever gave St. Peter
+a supremacy over the other apostles; that, if history is to be
+consulted, St. Paul, and not St. Peter, was bishop of Rome--indeed, it
+is doubtful whether the latter was ever in that city, the Acts of the
+Apostles being silent on that subject. From these and many other such
+arguments he drew forty-one conclusions adverse to the political and
+ecclesiastical supremacy of the pope.
+
+It is not necessary to consider here the relations of John XXII. to
+Louis of Bavaria, nor of the antipope Nicholas; they belong merely to
+political history. But, as if to show how the intellectual movement was
+working its way, the pontiff himself did not escape a charge of heresy.
+[Sidenote: The "beatific vision."] Though he had so many temporal
+affairs on his hands, John did not hesitate to raise the great question
+of the "beatific vision." In his opinion, the dead, even the saints, do
+not enjoy the beatific vision of God until after the Judgment-day. At
+once there was a demand among the orthodox, "What! do not the apostles,
+John, Peter, nay, even the blessed Virgin, stand yet in the presence of
+God?" The pope directed the most learned theologians to examine the
+question, himself entering actively into the dispute. The University of
+Paris was involved. The King of France declared that his realm should
+not be polluted with such heretical doctrines. A single sentence
+explains the practical direction of the dogma, so far as the interests
+of the Church were concerned: "If the saints stand not in the presence
+of God, of what use is their intercession? What is the use of addressing
+prayers to them?" The folly of the pontiff perhaps might be excused by
+his age. He was now nearly ninety years old. That he had not guided
+himself according to the prevailing sentiment of the lower religious
+orders, who thought that poverty is essential to salvation, appeared at
+his death, A.D. 1334. He left eighteen millions of gold florins in
+specie, and seven millions in plate and jewels.
+
+[Sidenote: It is explained by Benedict XII.] His successor, Benedict
+XII., disposed of the question of the "beatific vision:" "It is only
+those saints who do not pass through Purgatory that immediately behold
+the Godhead." The pontificate of Benedict, which was not without many
+good features, hardly verified the expression with which he greeted the
+cardinals when they elected him, "You have chosen an ass." His was a gay
+life. There is a tradition that to him is due the origin of the proverb,
+"As drunk as a pope."
+
+[Sidenote: Voluptuousness of Avignon.] In the subsequent pontificate of
+Clement VI., A.D. 1342, the court at Avignon became the most voluptuous
+in Christendom. It was crowded with knights and ladies, painters and
+other artists. It exhibited a day-dream of equipages and banquets. The
+pontiff himself delighted in female society, but, in his weakness,
+permitted his lady, the Countess of Turenne, to extort enormous revenues
+by the sale of ecclesiastical promotions. Petrarch, who lived at Avignon
+at this time, speaks of it as a vast brothel. His own sister had been
+seduced by the holy father, John XXII. During all these years the Romans
+had made repeated attempts to force back the papal court to their city.
+With its departure all their profits had gone. But the fatal policy of
+electing Frenchmen into the College of Cardinals seemed to shut out
+every hope. [Sidenote: Rienzi.] The unscrupulous manner in which this
+was done is illustrated by the fact that Clement made one of his
+relatives, a lad of eighteen, a cardinal. For a time the brief glories
+of Rienzi cast a flickering ray on Rome; but Rienzi was only a
+demagogue--an impostor. It was the deep impression made upon Europe that
+the residence at Avignon was an abandonment of the tomb of St. Peter,
+that compelled Urban V. to return to Rome. This determination was
+strengthened by a desire to escape out of the power of the kings of
+France, and to avoid the free companies who had learned to extort bribes
+for sparing Avignon from plunder. He left Avignon, A.D. 1367, amid the
+reluctant grief of his cardinals, torn from that gay and dissipated
+city, and in dread of the recollections and of the populace of Rome. And
+well it might be so; for not only in Rome, but all over Italy, piety was
+held in no respect, and the discipline of the Church in derision.
+[Sidenote: Irreverence of Barnabas Visconti.] When Urban sent to
+Barnabas Visconti, who was raising trouble in Tuscany, a bull of
+excommunication by the hands of two legates, Barnabas actually compelled
+them, in his presence, to eat the parchment on which the bull was
+written, together with the leaden seal and the silken string, and,
+telling them that he hoped it would sit as lightly on their stomachs as
+it did on his, sent them back to their master! In a little time--it was
+but two years--absence from France became insupportable; the pope
+returned to Avignon, and there died. [Sidenote: The popes return to
+Rome.] It was reserved for his successor, Gregory XI., finally to end
+what was termed, from its seventy years' duration, the Babylonish
+captivity, and restore the papacy to the Eternal City, A.D. 1376.
+
+[Sidenote: Causes of the great schism.] But, though the popes had thus
+returned to Rome, the effects of King Philip's policy still continued.
+On the death of Gregory XI., the conclave, meeting at Rome--for the
+conclave must meet where the pope dies--elected Urban VI., under
+intimidation of the Roman populace, who were determined to retain the
+papacy in their city; but, escaping to Fondi, and repenting of what they
+had thus done, they proclaimed his election void, and substituted
+Clement VII. for him. They were actually at one time on the point of
+choosing the King of France as pope. Thus began the great schism. It
+was, in reality, a struggle between France and Italy for the control of
+the papacy. The former had enjoyed it for seventy years; the latter was
+determined to recover it. The schism thus rested originally on political
+considerations, but these were doubtless exasperated by the conduct of
+Urban, whose course was overbearing and even intolerable to his
+supporters. Nor did he amend as his position became more consolidated.
+In A.D. 1385, suspecting his cardinals of an intention to seize him,
+declare him a heretic, and burn him, he submitted several of them to
+torture in his own presence, while he recited his breviary. Escaping
+from Nocera, where he had been besieged, he caused the Bishop of Aquila
+to be killed on the road-side. Others he tied in sacks, and threw into
+the sea at Genoa. It was supposed, not without reason, that he was
+insane.
+
+[Sidenote: Pecuniary necessities of the rival popes.] If there had
+formerly been pecuniary difficulty in supporting one papal court, it, of
+course, became greater now that there were two. Such troubles, every day
+increasing, led at length to unhappy political movements. There was an
+absolute necessity for drawing money to Rome and also to Avignon. The
+device of a jubilee was too transitory and inadequate, even though, by
+an improvement in the theory of that festival, it was expedited by
+thirty-three years, answering to our Saviour's life. At Avignon, the
+difficulty of Clement, who was of amiable and polished manners, turned
+on the French Church being obliged to support him; and it is not to be
+wondered at that the French clergy looked with dislike on the pontifical
+establishment among them, since it was driven by its necessities to prey
+on all their best benefices. [Sidenote: Organization of simony.] Under
+such circumstances, no other course was possible to the rival popes and
+their successors than a thorough reorganization of the papal financial
+system--the more complete development of simony, indulgences, and other
+improper sources of emolument. In this manner Boniface IX. tripled the
+value of the annates upon the papal books. Usurers or brokers,
+intervening between the purchasers of benefices and the papal exchequer,
+were established, and it is said that, under the pressing difficulties
+of the case, benefices were known to have been sold, many times in
+succession, to different claimants in one week. Late applicants might
+obtain a preference for appointments on making a cash payment of
+twenty-five florins; an increased preference might be had for fifty. It
+became, at last, no unusual thing to write to kings and prelates for
+subsidies--a proof how greatly the papacy had been weakened by the
+events of the times.
+
+[Sidenote: Indignation of religious Europe.] But religious Europe
+could not bear with such increasing scandals. The rival popes were
+incessantly accusing each other of falsehood and all manner of
+wickedness. At length the public sentiment found its expression
+in the Council of Pisa, called by the cardinals on their own
+responsibility. This council summoned the two popes--Benedict XIII.
+and Gregory XII.--before it; declared the crimes and excesses
+imputed to them to be true, and deposed them both, appointing
+in their stead Alexander V. [Sidenote: Three popes.] There were
+now, therefore, three popes. But, besides thus rendering the position
+of things worse than it was before in this respect, the council had
+taken the still more extraordinary step of overthrowing the autocracy
+of the pope. It had been compelled by the force of circumstances to
+destroy the very foundation of Latin Christianity by assuming the
+position of superiority over the vicar of Christ. Now might be
+discerned by men of reflexion the purely human nature of the papacy.
+It had broken down. Out of the theological disputes of preceding years
+a political principle was obviously emerging; the democratic spirit
+was developing itself, and the hierarchy was in rebellion against its
+sovereign.
+
+Nor was this great movement limited to the clergy. In every direction
+the laity participated in it, pecuniary questions being in very many
+instances the incentive. Things had come to such a condition that it
+seemed to be of little moment what might be the personal character of
+the pontiff; the necessities of the position irresistibly drove him to
+replenish the treasury by shameful means. [Sidenote: Balthazar Cossa
+made pope.] Thus, on Alexander's death, Balthazar Cossa, an evil but an
+able man, who succeeded as John XXIII., was not only compelled to extend
+the existing simoniacal practices of the ecclesiastical brokers'
+offices, but actually to derive revenue from the licensing of
+prostitutes, gambling-houses, and usurers. [Sidenote: Dissatisfaction in
+England.] In England, for ages a mine of wealth to Rome, the tendency of
+things was shown by such facts as the remonstrance of the Commons with
+the crown on the appointment of ecclesiastics to all the great offices;
+the allegations made by the "Good Parliament" as to the amount of money
+drawn by Rome from the kingdom. They asserted that it was five times as
+much as the taxes levied by the king, and that the pope's revenue from
+England was greater than the revenue of any prince in Christendom. It
+was shown again by such facts as the passage of the statutes of
+Mortmain, Provisors, and Praemunire, and by the universal clamour against
+the mendicant orders. This dissatisfaction with the clergy was
+accompanied by a desire for knowledge. [Sidenote: Wiclif, the English
+reformer.] Thousands of persons crowded to the universities both on the
+Continent and in England. In a community thus well prepared, Wiclif
+found no difficulty in disseminating his views. He had adopted in many
+particulars the doctrines of Berengar. He taught that the bread in the
+Eucharist is not the real body of Christ, but only its image; that the
+Roman Church has no true claim to headship over other churches; that its
+bishop has no more authority than any other bishop; that it is right to
+deprive a delinquent Church of temporal possessions; that no bishop
+ought to have prisons for the punishment of those obnoxious to him; and
+that the Bible alone is a sufficient guide for a Christian man.
+[Sidenote: He translates the Bible.] His translation of the Bible into
+English was the practical carrying out of that assertion for the benefit
+of his own countrymen. All classes of society were becoming infected.
+The government for a season vacillated. It was said that every other man
+in England was a Lollard. The Lollards were Wiclifites. But the Church
+at last persuaded the government to let her try her hand, and the
+statute "de heretico comburendo" was passed A.D. 1400. [Sidenote:
+Burning of English heretics.] William Sautree, a priest who had turned
+Wiclifite, was the first English martyr. John Badbee, a tailor, who
+denied transubstantiation--accused of having said that, if it were true,
+there were 20,000 gods in every corn-field in England--next suffered in
+like manner at the stake, in presence of the Prince of Wales. Lord
+Cobham, the head of the Lollards, who had denounced the pope as
+Anti-Christ, the Son of Perdition, was imprisoned; but escaping, became
+involved in political movements, and suffered at length the double
+penalty for heresy and treason, being hung on a gallows with a fire
+blazing at his feet. It is interesting to remark the social rank of
+these three early martyrs. Heresy was pervading all classes, from the
+lowest to the highest.
+
+[Sidenote: The Council of Constance deposes the pope,] The Council of
+Constance met A.D. 1415. It had a threefold object: 1. The union of the
+Church under one pope; 2. The reformation of the clergy; 3. The
+suppression of heresy. Its policy from the first was determined. It
+proclaimed itself supreme. It demanded the abdication of the pope John
+XXIII.; exhibited articles of accusation against him, some of them of
+such enormity as almost to surpass belief, and justifying the epithet
+that he was "a devil incarnate." The suffrage of the council was
+changed. The plan of voting by nations, which reduced the Italians to a
+single vote, was introduced. These incidental facts may indicate to us
+that there were present men who understood thoroughly how to manage the
+machinery of such an assembly, and that the remark of Aeneas Sylvius,
+afterward Pope Pius II., respecting the Council of Basle was equally
+true as to that of Constance, that it was not so much directed by the
+Holy Ghost as by the passions of men. The influence that lawyers were
+now exercising in social affairs--their habits of arrangement, of
+business, and intrigue, is strikingly manifested in the management of
+these assemblages; their arts had passed to the clergy, and even in part
+to the people. But how vast was the change that had occurred in the
+papacy from the voluntary abdication of Celestine to the compulsory
+abdication of John!
+
+[Sidenote: and murders John Huss.] To this council, also, came John
+Huss, under a safe-conduct from the Emperor Sigismund. Scarcely,
+however, had he arrived when he was imprisoned; this treachery being
+excused from the necessity of conceding it to the reforming party. On
+June 5th, A.D. 1416, Huss was brought in chains before the council. It
+was declared unlawful to keep faith with a heretic. His countrymen, the
+Bohemian lords present, protested against such perfidy, and loudly
+demanded his release. Articles of accusation, derived from his works,
+were presented. He avowed himself ready to defend his opinions. The
+uproar was so great that the council temporarily adjourned. Two days
+afterwards the trial was resumed. It was ushered in by an eclipse of the
+sun, said to have been total at Prague. No one of the bloodthirsty
+ecclesiastics laid to heart the solemn monition that, after his moment
+of greatest darkness was over, the sun shone forth with recovered
+effulgence again. The emperor was present, with all the fathers. The
+first accusation entered on related to transubstantiation. On this and
+on succeeding occasions the emperor took part in the discussions, among
+other things observing that, in his opinion, the prisoner was worthy of
+death. After a lengthy inquiry into his alleged errors, a form of
+recantation was prepared for Huss. [Sidenote: Noble conduct of Huss.]
+With modest firmness he declined it, concluding his noble answer with
+the words, "I appeal to Christ Jesus, the one all-powerful and all-just
+Judge. To him I commend my cause, who will judge every man, not
+according to false witnesses and erring councils, but according to truth
+and man's desert." On July 1st the council met in full session. Thirty
+articles against Huss were read. Among other things, they alleged that
+he believed the material bread to be unchanged after the consecration.
+In his extremity the prisoner looked steadfastly at the traitor
+Sigismund, and solemnly exclaimed, "Freely came I here under the
+safe-conduct of the emperor." The conscience-stricken monarch blushed.
+Huss was then made to kneel down and receive his sentence. It condemned
+his writings and his body to the flames.
+
+[Sidenote: He is burnt.] He was then degraded and despoiled of his
+orders. Some of the bishops mocked at him; some, more merciful, implored
+him to recant. They cut his hair in the form of a cross, and set upon
+his head a high paper crown on which devils were painted. "We devote thy
+soul to the devils in hell." "And I commend my soul to the most merciful
+Lord Christ Jesus." He was then led forth. They passed by the bishop's
+palace, where Huss's books were burning. When they fastened him with a
+chain to his stake, the painted crown fell off, but the soldiers
+replaced it. "Let him and his devils be burned together." As the flames
+closed over him, he chanted psalms and prayed to the Redeemer. Can that
+be true which requires for its support the murder of a true man?
+
+[Sidenote: It murders, also, Jerome of Prague.] So acted without a
+dissenting voice the Council of Constance. It feared the spread of
+heresy, but it did not fear, perhaps did not consider, that higher
+tribunal to whose inexorable verdict councils, and popes, and emperors
+must submit--posterity. It asserted itself to be under the inspiration
+of the Holy Ghost. It took profit by a shameful perfidy. It was a
+conclave of murderers. It stifled the voice of an earnest man, solemnly
+protesting against a doctrine now derided by all the intellect of
+Europe. The revolution it was compassing it inaugurated in blood, not
+alone that of John Huss, but also of Jerome of Prague. These martyrs
+were no common men. [Sidenote: His singular eloquence.] Poggio
+Bracciolini, an eye-witness, says, in a letter to Leonardo Aretino,
+speaking of the eloquence of Jerome, "When I consider what his choice of
+words was, what his elocution, what his reasoning, what his countenance,
+his voice, his action I must affirm, however much we may admire the
+ancients, that in such a cause no one could have approached nearer to
+the model of their eloquence."
+
+John XXIII. was compelled to abdicate. Gregory XII. died. Some time
+after, Benedict XIII. followed him. The council had elected Martin V.,
+and in him found a master who soon put an end to its doings. [Sidenote:
+What the council did.] It had deposed one pope and elected another; it
+had cemented the dominant creed with blood; it had authorized the
+dreadful doctrine that a difference in religious opinion justifies the
+breaking of plighted faith between man and man; it had attempted to
+perpetuate its own power by enacting that councils should be held every
+five years; but it had not accomplished its great object--ecclesiastical
+reform.
+
+[Sidenote: The Council of Basle.] In a room attached to the Cathedral of
+Basle, with its roof of green and parti-coloured tiles, the modern
+traveller reads on a piece of paper this inscription: "The room of the
+council, where the famous Council of Basil was assembled. In this room
+Pope Eugene IV. was dethroned, and replaced by Felix V., Duc of Savoie
+and Cardinal of Repaile. The council began 1431, and lasted 1448." That
+chamber, with its floor of little red earthen flags and its oaken
+ceiling, witnessed great events.
+
+The democratic influence pervading the Church showed no symptoms of
+abatement. The fate of Huss had been avenged in blood and fire by the
+Bohemian sword. Eugenius IV., now pontiff, was afraid that negotiations
+would be entered upon with the Hussite chiefs. Such a treaty, he
+affirmed, would be blasphemy against God and an insult to the pope. He
+was therefore bent on the prorogation of the council, and spared no
+means to accomplish his purpose. Its ostensible object was the
+reformation of the clergy; its real intent was to convert the papal
+autocracy into a constitutional monarchy. [Sidenote: It declares the
+pope in contumacy.] To this end it cited the pope, and, on his
+non-appearance, declared him and seventeen of the cardinals in
+contumacy. He had denounced it as the Synagogue of Satan; on its part,
+it was assuming the functions of the Senate of Christendom. It had
+prepared a great seal, and asserted that, in case of the death of the
+pope, the election of his successor was vested in it. It was its firm
+purpose never again to leave that great event in the hands of a conclave
+of intriguing Italian cardinals, but to intrust it to the
+representatives of united Christendom. After a due delay since he was
+declared in contumacy, the council suspended the pope, and, slowly
+moving towards its object, elected Amadeus of Savoy, Felix V., his
+successor. It was necessary that its pope should be a rich man, for the
+council had but slender means of offering him pecuniary support. Amadeus
+had that qualification. And perhaps it was far from being, in the eyes
+of many, an inopportune circumstance that he had been married and had
+children. [Sidenote: Its real intentions.] We may discern, through the
+shifting scenes of the intrigues of the times, that the German hierarchy
+had come to the resolution that the election of the popes should be
+taken from the Italians and given to Europe; that his power should be
+restricted; that he should no longer be the irresponsible vicar of God
+upon earth; but the accountable chief executive officer of Christendom;
+and that the right of marriage should be conceded to the clergy. These
+are significantly Teutonic ideas.
+
+[Sidenote: Cause and close of these troubles.] We have pursued the story
+of these events nearly as far as is necessary for the purpose of this
+book. We shall not, therefore, follow the details of the new schism. It
+fell almost without interest on Europe. Aeneas Sylvius, the ablest man of
+the day, in three words gives us the true insight into the state of
+things: "Faith is dead." On the demise of Eugenius IV., Nicolas V.
+succeeded. An understanding was had with those in the interest of the
+council. It was dissolved. Felix V. abdicated. The morality of the times
+had improved. The antipope was neither blinded nor murdered. The schism
+was at an end.
+
+[Sidenote: End of the intellectual influence of the papacy.] Thus we
+have seen that the personal immoralities and heresy of the popes brought
+on the interference of the King of France, who not only shook the papal
+system to its basis but destroyed its prestige by inflicting the most
+conspicuous indignity upon it. For seventy years Rome was disfranchised,
+and the rivalries of France and Italy produced the great schism, than
+which nothing could be more prejudicial to the papal power. We have seen
+that, aided by the pecuniary difficulties of the papacy, the rising
+intellect of Europe made good its influence and absolutely deposed the
+pope. It was in vain to deny the authenticity of such a council; there
+stood the accomplished fact. At this moment there seemed no other
+prospect for the Italian system than utter ruin; yet, wonderful to be
+said, a momentary deliverance came from a quarter whence no man would
+have expected. The Turks were the saviours of the papacy.
+
+At this point is the true end of the Italian system--that system which
+had pressed upon Europe like a nightmare. The great men of the
+times--the statesmen, the philosophers, the merchants, the lawyers, the
+governing classes--those whose weight of opinion is recognized by the
+uneducated people at last, had shaken off the incubus and opened their
+eyes. A glimmering of the true state of things was breaking upon the
+clergy. No more with the vigour it once possessed was the papacy again
+to domineer over human thought and be the controlling agent of European
+affairs. Convulsive struggles it might make, but they were only
+death-throes. The sovereign pontiff must now descend from the autocracy
+he had for so many ages possessed, and become a small potentate,
+tolerated by kings in that subordinate position only because of the
+remnant of his influence on the uneducated multitude and those of feeble
+minds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST--(_Concluded_).
+
+EFFECT OF THE EASTERN OR MILITARY ATTACK.--GENERAL REVIEW OF THE AGE OF
+FAITH.
+
+_The Fall of Constantinople.--Its momentary Effect on the Italian
+System._
+
+GENERAL REVIEW OF THE INTELLECTUAL CONDITION IN THE AGE OF
+FAITH.--_Supernaturalism and its Logic spread all over Europe.--It is
+destroyed by the Jews and Arabians.--Its total Extinction._
+
+_The Jewish Physicians.--Their Acquirements and Influence.--Their
+Collision with the Imposture-medicine of Europe.--Their Effect on the
+higher Classes.--Opposition to them._
+
+_Two Impulses, the Intellectual and Moral, operating against the
+Mediaeval state of Things.--Downfall of the Italian System through the
+intellectual Impulse from the West and the moral from the North.--Action
+of the former through Astronomy.--Origin of the moral Impulse.--Their
+conjoint irresistible Effect.--Discovery of the state of Affairs in
+Italy.--The Writings of Machiavelli.--What the Church had actually
+done._
+
+_Entire Movement of the Italian System determined from a consideration
+of the four Revolts against it._
+
+
+[Sidenote: The Eastern pressure.] From the West I have now to return to
+the East, and to describe the pressure made by Mohammedanism on that
+side. It is illustrated by many great events, but, above all, by the
+fall of Constantinople. The Greek Church, so long out of sight that it
+is perhaps almost forgotten by the reader, comes for a moment before us
+like a spectre from the dead.
+
+[Sidenote: Invasions of the Turks.] A wandering tribe of Turks had found
+its way into Asia Minor, and, under its leader Ertogrul and his son
+Othman, consolidated its power and commenced extending its influence by
+possessions taken from the sultans of Iconium and the Byzantine empire.
+The third prince of the race instituted the Janissaries, a remarkable
+military force, and commenced driving the Greeks out of Asia Minor. His
+son Soliman crossed the Hellespont and captured Gallipoli, thus securing
+a foothold in Europe, A.D. 1358.
+
+[Sidenote: Extension of their power in Europe.] This accomplished, the
+Turkish influence began to extend rapidly. Thrace, Macedon, and Servia
+were subdued. Sigismund, the King of Hungary, was overthrown at the
+battle of Nicopolis by Bajazet. Southern Greece, the countries along the
+Danube, submitted, and Constantinople would have fallen had it not been
+for the unexpected irruption of Tamerlane, who defeated Bajazet and took
+him prisoner. The reign of Mohammed I., who succeeded, was occupied in
+the restoration of Turkish affairs. Under Amurath II., the possession of
+the Euxine shore was obtained, the fortifications across the Isthmus of
+Corinth were stormed, and the Peloponnesus entered.
+
+[Sidenote: The Byzantine sovereigns apply to the West.] Mohammed II.
+became the Sultan of the Turks A.D. 1451. From the moment of his
+accession, he turned all his powers to the capture of Constantinople.
+Its sovereigns had long foreseen the inevitable event, and had made
+repeated attempts to secure military aid from the West. They were ready
+to surrender their religious belief. On this principle, the monk Barlaam
+was despatched on an embassy to Benedict XII. to propose the reunion of
+the Greek and Latin Churches, as it was delicately termed, and to
+obtain, as an equivalent for the concession, an army of Franks. As the
+danger became more urgent, John Palaeologus I. sought an interview with
+Urban V., and, having been purified from his heresies respecting the
+supremacy of the pope and the double procession of the Holy Ghost, was
+presented before the pontiff in the Church of St. Peter. The Greek
+monarch, after three genuflexions, was permitted to kiss the feet of the
+holy father and to lead by its bridle his mule. But, though they might
+have the will, the popes had lost the power, and these great submissions
+were productive of no good. Thirty years subsequently, Manuel, the son
+and successor of Palaeologus, took what might have seemed a more certain
+course. He travelled to Paris and to London to lay his distress before
+the kings of France and England; but he received only pity, not aid. At
+the Council of Constance Byzantine ambassadors appeared. It was,
+however, reserved for the synods of Ferrara and of Florence to mature,
+as far as might be, the negotiation. The second son of John Palaeologus
+journeyed again into Italy, A.D. 1438; and while Eugenius was being
+deposed in the chamber at Basle, he was consummating the union of the
+East and West in the Cathedral of Florence. [Sidenote: The Greek Church
+yields to the Latin.] In the pulpit of that edifice, on the sixth of
+July of that year, a Roman cardinal and a Greek archbishop embraced each
+other before the people; Te Deum was chanted in Greek, mass was
+celebrated in Latin, and the Creed was read with the "Filioque." The
+successor of Constantine the Great had given up his religion, but he had
+received no equivalent--no aid. The state of the Church, its disorders
+and schisms, rendered any community of action in the West impossible.
+
+[Sidenote: Mohammed II.] The last, the inevitable hour at length struck.
+Mohammed II. is said to have been a learned man, able to express himself
+in five different languages; skilful in mathematics, especially in their
+practical application to engineering; an admirer of the fine arts;
+prodigal in his liberality to Italian painters. In Asia Minor, as in
+Spain, there was free thinking among the disciples of the Prophet. It
+was affirmed that the sultan, in his moments of relaxation, was often
+heard to deride the religion of his country as an imposture. His doubts
+in that particular were, however, compensated for by his determination
+to carry out the intention of so many of his Mohammedan
+predecessors--the seizure of Constantinople.
+
+[Sidenote: The siege of Constantinople.] At this time the venerable city
+had so greatly declined that it contained only 100,000 inhabitants--out
+of them only 4970 able or willing to bear arms. The besieging force was
+more than a quarter of a million of men. As Mohammed pressed forward his
+works, the despairing emperor in vain looked for the long-promised
+effectual Western aid. In its extremity, the devoted metropolis was
+divided by religious feuds; and when a Latin priest officiated in St.
+Sophia, there were many who exclaimed that they would rather see the
+turban of the sultan than the tiara of the pope. In several particulars
+the siege of Constantinople marked out the end of old ages and the
+beginning of new. Its walls were shaken by the battering rams of the
+past, and overthrown by cannon, just then coming into general use. Upon
+a plank road, shipping was passed through the open country, in the
+darkness of a single night, a distance of ten miles. The works were
+pushed forward toward the walls, on the top of which the sentinels at
+length could hear the shouts of the Turks by their nocturnal fires. They
+were sounds such as Constantinople might well listen to. She had taught
+something different for many a long year. "God is God; there is none but
+God." In the streets an image of the Virgin was carried in solemn
+procession. Now or never she must come to the help of those who had done
+so much for her, who had made her a queen in heaven and a goddess upon
+earth. The cry of her worshippers was in vain.
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of the city.] On May 29th, 1453, the assault was
+delivered. Constantine Palaeologus, the last of the Roman emperors,
+putting off his purple, that no man might recognize and insult his
+corpse when the catastrophe was over, fell, as became a Roman emperor,
+in the breach. After his death resistance ceased, and the victorious
+Turks poured into the town. To the Church of St. Sophia there rushed a
+promiscuous crowd of women and children, priests, monks, religious
+virgins, and--men. Superstitious to the last, in this supreme moment
+they expected the fulfilment of a prophecy that, when the Turks should
+have forced their way to the square before that church, their progress
+would be arrested, for an angel with a sword in his hand would descend
+from heaven and save the city of the Lord. The Turks burst into the
+square, but the angel never came.
+
+More than two thirds of the inhabitants of Constantinople were carried
+prisoners into the Turkish camp--the men for servitude, the women for a
+still more evil fate. The churches were sacked. From the dome of St.
+Sophia its glories were torn down. The divine images, for the sake of
+which Christendom had been sundered in former days, unresistingly
+submitted to the pious rage of the Mohammedans without working a single
+miracle, and, stripped of their gems and gold, were brought to their
+proper value in the vile uses of kitchens and stables. On that same day
+the Muezzin ascended the loftiest turret of St. Sophia, and over the
+City of the Trinity proclaimed the Oneness of God. The sultan performed
+his prayers at the great altar, directing the edifice to be purified
+from its idolatries and consecrated to the worship of God. Thence he
+repaired to the palace, and, reflecting on the instability of human
+prosperity, repeated, as he entered it, the Persian verse: "The spider
+has woven his web in the imperial palace; the owl hath sung her watch
+song on the towers of Afrasiab."
+
+This solemn event--the fall of Constantinople--accomplished, there was
+no need of any reconciliation of the Greek and Latin Churches. The sword
+of Mohammed had settled their dispute. Constantinople had submitted to
+the fate of Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria, Carthage. [Sidenote: Terror
+of Christendom at the fall of Constantinople.] Christendom was struck
+with consternation. The advance of the Turks in Europe was now very
+rapid. Corinth and Athens fell, and the reduction of Greece was
+completed. The confines of Italy were approached A.D. 1461. The
+Mohammedan flag confronted that peninsula along the Adriatic coast. In
+twenty years more Italy was invaded. Otranto was taken; its bishop
+killed at the door of his church. At this period, it was admitted that
+the Turkish infantry, cavalry, and artillery were the best in the world.
+Soliman the Magnificent took Belgrade A.D. 1520. [Sidenote: Progress of
+the Turks.] Nine years afterwards the Turks besieged Vienna, but were
+repulsed. Soliman now prepared for the subjugation of Italy, and was
+only diverted from it by an accident which turned him upon the
+Venetians. It was not until the battle of Lepanto that the Turkish
+advance was fairly checked. Even as it was, in the complicated policy
+and intrigues of Europe its different sovereigns could not trust one
+another; their common faith had ceased to be a common bond: in all it
+had been weakened, in some destroyed. Aeneas Sylvius, speaking of
+Christendom, says, "It is a body without a head, a republic without laws
+or magistrates. The pope or the emperor may shine as lofty titles, an
+splendid images; but they are unable to command, and no one is willing
+to obey." But, during this period of Turkish aggression, had not the
+religious dissensions of Christendom been decently composed, there was
+imminent danger that Europe would have been Mohammedanized. A bitter
+experience of past ages, as well as of the present, had taught it that
+the Roman Church was utterly powerless against such attacks. Safety was
+to be looked for, not in any celestial aid, but in physical knowledge
+and pecuniary resources, carried out in the organization of armies and
+fleets. Had her authority been derived from the source she pretended,
+she should have found an all-sufficient protection in prayer--indeed,
+not even that should have been required. Men discovered at last that her
+Litanies and her miracles were equally of no use, and that she must
+trust, like any other human tyranny, to cannon and the sword.
+
+[Sidenote: Effect of the Turkish invasion.] The Turkish aggression led
+to the staying of the democratic outbreak in the bosom of the
+Church--the abstaining for a season from any farther sapping of the
+papal autocracy. It was necessary that ecclesiastical disputes, if they
+could not be ended, should, at all events, be kept for a time in
+abeyance, and so indeed they were, until the pent-up dissensions burst
+forth in "the Reformation." And thus, as we have related, by Mohammedan
+knowledge in the West, papal Christianity was well-nigh brought to ruin;
+thus, by a strange paradox, the Mohammedan sword in the East gave it for
+a little longer a renewed lease of political power, though never again
+of life.
+
+[Sidenote: Nicolas V. a patron of art.] To Nicolas V., a learned and
+able pope, the catastrophe of Constantinople was the death-blow. He had
+been the intimate friend of Cosmo de' Medici, and from him had imbibed a
+taste for letters and art, but, like his patron, he had no love for
+liberty. It was thus through commerce that the papacy first learned to
+turn to art. The ensuing development of Europe was really based on the
+commerce of upper Italy, and not upon the Church. The statesmen of
+Florence were the inventors of the balance of power. A lover of
+literature, Nicolas was the founder of the Vatican Library. He clearly
+perceived the only course in which the Roman system could be directed;
+that it was unfit for, and, indeed, incompatible with science, but might
+be brought into unison with art. Its influence upon the reason was gone,
+but the senses yet remained for it. [Sidenote: Gradual rise of the fine
+arts.] In continuing his policy, the succeeding popes acted with wisdom.
+They gratified the genius of their institutions, of their country, and
+their age. In the abundant leisure of monasteries, the monks had found
+occupation in the illumination of manuscripts. From the execution of
+miniatures they gradually rose to an undertaking of greater works. In
+that manner painting had originated in Italy in the twelfth century.
+Sculpture, at first merged in architecture, had extricated herself from
+that bondage in the fourteenth. The mendicant orders, acquiring wealth,
+became munificent patrons. From caligraphic illustrations to the grand
+works of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle is a prodigious advance, yet it
+took but a short time to accomplish it.
+
+[Sidenote: Review of the Age of Faith.] I have now completed the history
+of the European Age of Faith as far as is necessary for the purposes of
+this book. It embraces a period of more than a thousand years, counting
+from the reign of Constantine. It remains to consider the intellectual
+peculiarity that marks the whole period--to review briefly the agents
+that exerted an influence upon it and conducted it to its close.
+
+[Sidenote: Philosophical peculiarities of the Age of Faith.]
+Philosophically, the most remarkable peculiarity is the employment of a
+false logic, a total misconception of the nature of evidence. It is
+illustrated by miracle-proofs, trial by battle, ordeal tests, and a
+universal belief in supernatural agency even for objectless purposes. On
+the principles of this logic, if the authenticity of a thing or the
+proof of a statement be required, it is supposed to be furnished by an
+astounding illustration of something else. If the character of a
+princess is assailed, she offers a champion; he proves victorious, and
+therefore she was not frail. [Sidenote: The character of its logic.] If
+a national assembly, after a long discussion, cannot decide "whether
+children should inherit the property of their father during the lifetime
+of their grandfather," an equal number of equal combatants is chosen for
+each side; they fight; the champions of the children prevail, and
+therefore the law is fixed in their favour. A relic of some martyr is
+bought at a great price; no one seeks to criticize the channel through
+which it has come, but every one asks, Can it work a miracle? A vast
+institution demands the implicit obedience of all men. It justifies its
+claim, not by the history of the past, but by promises and threats of
+the future. A decrepit crone is suspected of witchcraft. She is stripped
+naked and thrown into the nearest pond: if she sinks, she is innocent;
+if she swims, she is in commerce with the Devil. In all such cases the
+intrinsic peculiarity of the logic is obvious enough; it shows a
+complete misconception of the nature of evidence. [Sidenote: Its
+adoption of supernaturalism.] Yet this ratiocination governed Europe for
+a thousand years, giving birth to those marvellous and supernatural
+explanations of physical phenomena and events upon which we now look
+back with unfeigned surprise, half disbelieving that it was possible for
+our ancestors to have credited such things. [Sidenote: The Jews and
+Saracens destroy supernaturalism.] Against this preposterous logic the
+Mohammedans and Jews struck the first blows. We have already heard what
+Algazzali the Arabian says respecting the enchanter who would prove that
+three are more than ten by changing a stick into a serpent. The
+circumstances under which the Jewish physicians acted we shall consider
+presently.
+
+It will not be useless to devote a little space to this belief in the
+supernatural. It offers an opportunity of showing how false notions may
+become universal, embody themselves in law and practical life, and
+wonderful to be said, how they may, without anything being done to
+destroy them, vanish from sight of themselves, like night-spectres
+before the day. At present we only encounter them among the lowest
+peasant grades, or among those who have been purposely kept in the most
+abject state of ignorance. Less than a century ago the clergy of Spain
+wished to have the Opera prohibited, because that ungodly entertainment
+had given rise to a want of rain; but now, in a country so
+intellectually backward as that--a witch was burnt there so lately as
+A.D. 1781--such an attempt would call up sly wit, and make the rabble of
+Madrid suspect that the archbishop was smarting under the rivalry of the
+prima donna, and that he was furbishing up the rusty ecclesiastical
+enginery to sustain his cause.
+
+[Sidenote: Respective influence of the clergy, the lawyers, and
+physicians.] In the day of their power the ecclesiastical profession
+were the supporters of this delusion. They found it suitable to their
+interests, and, by dint of at first persuading others to believe, they
+at last, by habit, came to believe in it themselves. The Mohammedans and
+Jews were the first to assail it philosophically and by sarcasm, but its
+final ruin was brought about by the action of the two other professions,
+the legal and the medical. The lawyers, whose advent to power is seen in
+the history of Philip the Fair, and whose rise from that time was very
+rapid, were obliged to introduce the true methods of evidence; the
+physicians, from their pursuits, were perpetually led to the material
+explanation of natural phenomena in contradistinction to the mystical.
+It is to the honour of both these professions that they never sought for
+a perpetuation of power by schemes of vast organization, never attempted
+to delude mankind by stupendous impostures, never compelled them to
+desist from the expression of their thoughts, and even from thinking, by
+alliances with civil power. Far from being the determined antagonists of
+human knowledge, they uniformly fostered it, and, in its trials,
+defended it. The lawyers were hated because they replaced supernatural
+logic by philosophical logic; the physicians, because they broke down
+the profitable but mendacious system of miracle-cures.
+
+[Sidenote: Position of the Church.] Yet the Church is not without
+excuse. In all her varied history it was impossible to disentangle her
+from the principles which at the beginning had entered into her
+political organization. For good or evil, right or wrong, her necessity
+required that she should put herself forth as the possessor of all
+knowledge within the reach of human intellect--the infallible arbitress
+of every question that should arise among men. Doubtless it was a
+splendid imposture, capable for a time of yielding great results, but
+sooner or later certain to be unmasked. Early discovering the antagonism
+of science, which could not fail, in due season, to subject her
+pretensions to investigation, she lent herself to a systematic delusion
+of the illiterate, and thereby tried to put off that fatal day when
+creeds engendered in the darkness would have to be examined in the
+light, enforcing her attempt with an unsparing, often with a bloody
+hand. [Sidenote: She could not extricate herself from her false
+position.] It was for this reason that, when the inevitable time of
+trial came, no intellectual defence could be made in her behalf, and
+hence there only remained a recourse to physical and political
+compulsion. But such a compulsion, under such circumstances, is not only
+a testimony to the intrinsic weakness of that for which it is invoked,
+it is also a token that they who resort to it have lost all faith in any
+inherent power of the system they are supporting, and that, in truth, it
+is fast coming to an end.
+
+[Sidenote: Successive order in supernatural ideas.] The reader will
+remark, from the incidents connected with supernatural delusions now to
+be related, that they follow a law of continuous variation, the
+particular embodiment they assumed changing with the condition of the
+human mind at each epoch under examination. For ages they are implicitly
+believed in by all classes; then, to a few, but the number perpetually
+increasing, they become an idle story of bare-faced imposture. At last
+humanity wakens from its delusion--its dream. The final rejection of the
+whole, in spite of the wonderful amount of testimony which for ages had
+accumulated, occurs spontaneously the moment that pyschical development
+has reached a certain point. There can be no more striking illustration
+of the definite advancement of the human mind. The boy who is
+terror-stricken in a dark room insensibly dismisses his idle fears as he
+grows up to be a man.
+
+[Sidenote: Oriental magicians--Simon Magus.] Clemens Romanus and
+Anastasius Sinaita, speaking of Simon Magus, say that he could make
+himself invisible; that he formed a man out of air; that he could pass
+bodily through mountains without being obstructed thereby; that he could
+fly and sit unharmed in flames; that he constructed animated statues and
+self-moving furniture, and not only changed his countenance into the
+similitude of many other men, but that his whole body could be
+transformed into the shape of a goat, a sheep, a snake; that, as he
+walked in the street, he cast many shadows in different directions; that
+he could make trees suddenly spring up in desert places; and, on one
+occasion, compelled an enchanted sickle to go into a field and reap
+twice as much in one day as if it had been used by a man. [Sidenote:
+Greek thaumaturgists.] Of Apollonius of Tyana we are told that, after an
+unbroken silence of five years, he comprehended the languages of all
+animals and all men; that, under circumstances very picturesquely
+related, he detected the genius of a plague at Ephesus, and dragged him,
+self-convicted, before the people; that, at the wedding-dinner of
+Menippus, he caused all the dishes and viands to vanish, thereby
+compelling the bride to acknowledge that she was a vampire, intending to
+eat the flesh and lap the blood of her husband in the night; that he
+exhibited the prodigy of being in many places at the same time; raised a
+young woman from the dead; and, finally, weary of the world, ascended
+bodily into heaven.
+
+[Sidenote: Introduction of an Arabian element.] As Arabian influence
+spread, ideas of Oriental aspect appear. There are peris who live on
+perfumes, and divs who are poisoned by them; enchanted palaces; moving
+statues; veiled prophets, like Mokanna; brazen flying horses; charmed
+arrows; dervises who can project their soul into the body of a dead
+animal, giving it temporary life; enchanted rings, to make the wearer
+invisible, or give him two different bodies at the same time; ghouls who
+live in cemeteries, and at night eat the flesh of dead men. As the
+European counterpart of these Perso-Arabic ideas, there are fairies, and
+their dancing by moonlight, their tampering with children, and imposing
+changelings on horror-stricken mothers. [Sidenote: Introduction of
+European sorcery and witchcraft.] Every one believes that rain and wind
+may be purchased of wizards, and that fair weather may be obtained and
+storms abated by prayer. Whoever attains to wealth or eminence does so
+by a compact with Satan, signed with blood. The head of the Church,
+Sylvester II., makes a brazen head, which speaks to him prophetically.
+He finds underground treasures in a subterranean magic palace beneath a
+mountain. The protestator of the Greek emperor is accused of a
+conspiracy against his master's life by making invisible men. Robert
+Grostete, the Bishop of Lincoln, makes another speaking head. Nay, more,
+Albertus Magnus constructs a complete brazen man, so cunningly contrived
+as to serve him for a domestic. This was at the time that Thomas Aquinas
+was living with him. The household trouble arising from the excessive
+garrulity of this simulacrum grew so intolerable--for it was incessantly
+making mischief among the other inmates--that Thomas, unable to bear it
+any longer, took a hammer and broke the troublesome android to pieces.
+[Sidenote: These ideas infect all classes.] This reverend father, known
+among his contemporaries as the "seraphic doctor," was not without
+experience in the mysterious craft. Annoyed by the frequent passing of
+horses near his dwelling, he constructed a magical horse of brass, and
+buried it in the road. From that moment no animal could be made to pass
+his door. Among brazen heads of great celebrity is that of Friar Bacon
+and Friar Bungy. This oracle announced, "Time is; time was; time is
+passed;" perhaps it was some kind of clock. The alchemist Peter d'Apono
+had seven spirits in glass bottles. He had entrapped them by baiting
+with distilled dew, and imprisoned them safely by dexterously putting in
+the corks. He is the same who possessed a secret which it is greatly to
+be regretted that he did not divulge for the benefit of chemists who
+have come after him, that, whatever money he paid, within the space of
+one hour's time came back of itself again into his pocket. That was
+better than even the philosopher's stone.
+
+[Sidenote: Modifications of supernaturalism.] These supernatural notions
+were at different times modified by two intrusive elements, the first
+being the Perso-Arabic just alluded to, the second derived from the
+north of Europe. This element was witchcraft; for, though long before,
+among Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, decrepit women were known as
+witches--as the Thessalian crone who raised a corpse from the dead for
+Sextus by lashing it with a snake--it was not until a later period that
+this element was fairly developed. [Sidenote: The persecutions for
+witchcraft.] A bull of Pope Innocent VIII., published A.D. 1484, says,
+"It has come to our ears that numbers of both sexes do not avoid to have
+intercourse with the infernal fiends, and that by their sorceries they
+afflict both man and beast. They blight the marriage-bed; destroy the
+births of women and the increase of cattle; they blast the corn on the
+ground, the grapes in the vineyard, the fruits of the trees, and the
+grass and herbs of the field." At this time, therefore, the head of the
+Church had not relinquished a belief in these delusions. The
+consequences of the punishment he ordained were very dreadful. In the
+valleys of the Alps many hundred aged women were committed to the flames
+under an accusation of denying Christ, dishonouring the crucifix, and
+solemnizing a devil's sabbath in company with the fiend. Such
+persecutions, begun by papal authority, continued among illiterate
+zealots till late times, and, as is well known, were practised even in
+America. Very masculine minds fell into these delusions. Thus Luther, in
+his work on the abuses attendant on private masses, says that he had
+conferences with the Devil on that subject, passing many bitter nights
+and much restless and wearisome repose; that once, in particular, Satan
+came to him in the dead of the night, when he was just awakened out of
+sleep. [Sidenote: Experiences of Luther.] "The Devil," says Luther,
+"knows well enough how to construct his arguments, and to urge them with
+the skill of a master. He delivers himself with a grave and yet with a
+shrill voice. Nor does he use circumlocutions and beat about the bush,
+but excels in forcible statements and quick rejoinders. I no longer
+wonder that the persons whom he assails in this way are occasionally
+found dead in their beds. He is able to compress and throttle, and more
+than once he has so assaulted me and driven my soul into a corner that I
+have felt as if the next moment it must leave my body. I am of opinion
+that Gesner and OEcolampadius came in that manner to their deaths. The
+Devil's manner of opening a debate is pleasant enough, but he soon urges
+things so peremptorily that the respondent in a short time knows not how
+to acquit himself."
+
+[Sidenote: English wizards--Scotch witches.] Social eminence is no
+preservative from social delusion. When it was affirmed that Agnes
+Sampson, with two hundred other Scotch witches, had sailed in sieves
+from Leith to North Berwick church to hold a banquet with the Devil,
+James I. had the torture applied to the wretched woman, and took
+pleasure in putting appropriate questions to her after the racking had
+been duly prolonged. It then came out that the two hundred crones had
+baptized and drowned a black cat, thereby raising a dreadful storm in
+which the ship that carried the king narrowly escaped being wrecked.
+Upon this Agnes was condemned to the flames. She died protesting her
+innocence, and piteously calling on Jesus to have mercy on her, for
+Christian men would not. On the accession of James to the English throne
+he procured an act of Parliament against any one convicted of
+witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment, or having commerce with the Devil.
+Under this monstrous statute many persons suffered. At this time England
+was intellectually in a very backward state. [Sidenote: French and
+English legal proceedings.] The statute remained until 1736 unrepealed.
+The French preceded the English in putting a stop to these atrocities;
+for Louis XIV., A.D. 1672, by an order in council, forbade the tribunals
+from inflicting penalty in accusations of sorcery.
+
+Can the reader of the preceding paragraphs here pause without demanding
+of himself the value of human testimony? All these delusions, which
+occupied the minds of our forefathers, and from which not even the
+powerful and learned were free, have totally passed away. [Sidenote: The
+total disappearance of these delusions.] The moonlight has now no
+fairies; the solitude no genius; the darkness no ghost, no goblin. There
+is no necromancer who can raise the dead from their graves--no one who
+has sold his soul to the Devil and signed the contract with his
+blood--no angry apparition to rebuke the crone who has disquieted him.
+Divination, agromancy, pyromancy, hydromancy, cheiromancy, augury,
+interpreting of dreams, oracles, sorcery, astrology, have all gone. It
+is 350 years since the last sepulchral lamp was found, and that was near
+Rome. There are no gorgons, hydras, chimaeras; no familiars; no incubus
+or succubus. The housewives of Holland no longer bring forth sooterkins
+by sitting over lighted chauffers. No longer do captains buy of Lapland
+witches favourable winds; no longer do our churches resound with prayers
+against the baleful influences of comets, though there still linger in
+some of our noble old rituals forms of supplication for dry weather and
+rain, useless but not unpleasing reminiscences of the past. The
+apothecary no longer says prayers over the mortar in which he is
+pounding to impart a divine afflatus to his drugs. Who is there now that
+pays fees to a relic or goes to a saint-shrine to be cured? These
+delusions have vanished with the night to which they appertained, yet
+they were the delusions of fifteen hundred years. In their support might
+be produced a greater mass of human testimony than probably could be
+brought to bear on any other matter of belief in the entire history of
+man; and yet, in the nineteenth century, we have come to the conclusion
+that the whole, from the beginning to the end, was a deception.
+[Sidenote: Value of human testimony.] Let him, therefore, who is
+disposed to balance the testimony of past ages against the dictates of
+his own reason ponder on this strange history; let him who relies on the
+authority of human evidence in the guidance of his opinions now settle
+with himself what that evidence is worth.
+
+[Sidenote: Supernaturalism appertains to a period of life.] But, though
+in one sense this history is humiliating to the philosopher, in another
+it is full of interest. Supernaturalism, both in the individual and in
+society, appertains to a definite period of life. It is shaken off as
+men and nations approach maturity. The child and the youth people
+solitude and darkness with unrealities. The adult does not so much
+convince himself of their fictitious nature by reasoning on the results
+of his experience--he grows out of them, as we see that society has
+done. Nevertheless, his emancipation is quickened if he is among those
+who instruct his curiosity and deride his fears. It was in this manner
+that the decline of supernaturalism in the West was very much
+accelerated by Jewish physicians. They, more than the lawyers, were
+concerned in the ending of these delusions. [Sidenote: Influence of the
+Jews on supernaturalism.] These apparitions, as is the nature of their
+kind, vanished as soon as the crowing of the Aesculapian cock announced
+that the intellectual day of Europe was on the point of breaking. The
+Jews held in their hands much of the trade of the world; they were in
+perpetual movement and commercial intercommunication. Locomotion--for
+such is always its result--tended to make them intellectual. The
+persecutions under which they had long suffered bound their distant
+communities together. The Spanish Jews knew very well what was going on
+among their co-religionists beyond the Euphrates. As Cabanis says, "They
+were our factors and bankers before we knew how to read; they were also
+our first physicians." To this it may be added that they were, for
+centuries, the only men in Europe who saw the course of human affairs
+from the most general point of view.
+
+The Hellenizing Jewish physicians inoculated the Arabs with learning on
+their first meeting with them in Alexandria, obtaining a private and
+personal influence with many of khalifs, and from that central point of
+power giving an intellectual character to the entire Saracenic movement.
+We have already seen that in this they were greatly favoured by the
+approximation of their unitarianism to that of the Mohammedans. The
+intellectual activity of the Asiatic and African Jews soon communicated
+an impulse to those of Europe. The Hebrew doctor was viewed by the
+vulgar with wonder, fear, and hatred; no crime could be imputed to him
+too incredible. Thus Zedekias, the physician to Charles the Bald, was
+asserted to have devoured at one meal, in the presence of the court, a
+waggon-load of hay, together with its horses and driver. [Sidenote:
+Writings of Jewish physicians.] The titles of some of the works that
+appeared among them deserve mention, as displaying a strong contrast
+with the mystical designations in vogue. Thus Isaac Ben Soleiman, an
+Egyptian, wrote "On Fevers," "On Medicine," "On Food and Remedies," "On
+the Pulse," "On Philosophy," "On Melancholy," "An Introduction to
+Logic." The simplicity of these titles displays an intellectual
+clearness and a precision of thought which have ever been shown by the
+Israelites. They are in themselves sufficient to convince us of the
+strong common sense which these men were silently infusing into the
+literature of Western Europe in ages of concealment and mystification.
+Roger Bacon, at a much later time, gave to one of his works the title of
+"The Green Lion;" to another, "The Treatise of Three Words."
+
+Since it was by the power and patronage of the Saracens that the Jewish
+physicians were acting, it is not surprising that the language used in
+many of their compositions was Arabic. Translations were, however,
+commonly made into Hebrew, and, at a subsequent period, into Latin.
+Through the ninth century the Asiatic colleges maintained their previous
+celebrity in certain branches of knowledge. Thus the Jew Shabtai Donolo
+was obliged to go to Bagdad to complete his studies in astronomy.
+[Sidenote: Foundation of colleges.] As Arabian influence extended itself
+into Sicily and Italy, Jewish intelligence accompanied it, and schools
+were founded at Tarentum, Salerno, Bari, and other places. Here the Arab
+and Jew Orientalists first amalgamated with a truly European
+element--the Greek--as is shown by the circumstance that in the college
+at Salerno instruction was given through the medium of all three
+languages. At one time, Pontus taught in Greek, Abdallah in Arabic, and
+Elisha in Hebrew. A similar influence of the Arab and Jew combined
+founded the University of Montpellier.
+
+[Sidenote: Medical studies among the Jews.] After the foundation of
+medical colleges, the progress of medicine among the Jews was very
+rapid. Judged by our standard, in some respects it was peculiar. Thus,
+they looked upon the practice of surgery as altogether mechanical, and
+therefore ignoble. A long list of eminent names might be extracted from
+the tenth and eleventh centuries. In it we should find Haroun of
+Cordova, Jehuda of Fez, Amram of Toledo. Already it was apparent that
+the Saracenic movement would aid in developing the intelligence of
+barbarian Western Europe through Hebrew physicians, in spite of
+opposition encountered from theological ideas imported from
+Constantinople and Rome. Mohammedanism had all along been the patron of
+physical science; paganizing Christianity not only repudiated it, but
+exhibited towards it sentiments of contemptuous disdain and hatred.
+[Sidenote: Imposture-medicine.] Hence physicians were viewed by the
+Church with dislike, and regarded as atheists by the people, who held
+firmly to the lessons they had been taught that cures must be wrought by
+relics of martyrs and bones of saints, by prayers and intercessions, and
+that each region of the body was under some spiritual charge--the first
+joint of the right thumb being in the care of God the Father, the second
+under that of the blessed Virgin, and so on of other parts. For each
+disease there was a saint. A man with sore eyes must invoke St. Clara,
+but if it were an inflammation elsewhere he must turn to St. Anthony. An
+ague would demand the assistance of St. Pernel. For the propitiating of
+these celestial beings it was necessary that fees should be paid, and
+thus the practice of imposture-medicine became a great source of profit.
+
+In all this there was no other intention than that of extracting money
+from the illiterate. With men of education and position it was
+different. Bishops, princes, kings, and popes had each in private his
+Hebrew doctor, though all understood that he was a contraband luxury, in
+many countries pointedly and absolutely prohibited by the law.
+[Sidenote: The rabbis cultivate medicine and other sciences.] In the
+eleventh century nearly all the physicians in Europe were Jews. This was
+due to two different causes: the Church would tolerate no interference
+with her spiritual methods of treating disease, which formed one of her
+most productive sources of gain; and the study of medicine had been
+formally introduced into the rabbinical schools. The monk was prohibited
+a pursuit which gave to the rabbi an honourable emolument. From the
+older institutions offshoots in quick succession appeared, particularly
+in France. Thus the school at Narbonne was under the presidency of
+Doctor Rabbi Abou. There was also a flourishing school at Arles. In
+these institutions instruction was given through the medium of Hebrew
+and Arabic, the Greek element present at Salerno being here wanting. In
+the French schools, to the former languages Latin and Provencal were, in
+the course of time, added. The versatility of acquirement among the
+physicians, who were taking the lead in this intellectual movement, is
+illustrated both by the Spanish and French Jews. Some, like Djanah, a
+native of Cordova, acquired reputation in grammar, criticism, astronomy;
+others in poetry or theology.
+
+If thus the social condition of the rabbis, who drew no income from
+their religious duties, induced them to combine the practice of medicine
+with their pursuits, great facilities had arisen for mental culture
+through the establishment of so many schools. Henceforth the Jewish
+physician is recognised as combining with his professional skill a
+profound knowledge of theology, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy,
+music, law. In a singular manner he stands aloof in the barbarian
+societies among whom he lives, looking down like a philosopher upon
+their idolatries, permitting, or even excusing them, like a statesman.
+[Sidenote: Writings of the Spanish-Jewish physicians.] Of those who thus
+adorned the eleventh century was Rabbi Solomon Ben Isaac, better known
+under the abbreviation Raschi--called by his countrymen the Prince of
+Commentators. He was equally at home in writing commentaries on the
+Talmud, or in giving instructions for great surgical operations, as the
+Caesarean section. He was the greatest French physician of his age. Spain
+during the same century, produced a worthy competitor to him, Ebn Zohr,
+physician to the court of Seville. His writings were in Hebrew, Arabic,
+Syriac, and both in prose and verse. He composed a treatise on the cure
+of diseases, and two on fevers. In singular contrast with the
+superstitious notions of the times, he possessed a correct view of the
+morbific nature of marsh miasm. He was followed by Ben Ezra, a Jew of
+Toledo, who was at once a physician, philosopher, mathematician,
+astronomer, critic, poet. He travelled all over Europe and Asia, being
+held in captivity for some time in India. Among his medical writings was
+a work on theoretical and practical medicine, entitled "Book of Proofs."
+Through the wars arising in Spain between the Mohammedans and
+Christians, many learned Jews were driven into France, imparting to that
+country, by their presence, a new intellectual impulse. Of such were
+Aben Tybbon, who gave to his own profession a pharmaceutical tendency by
+insisting on the study of botany and art of preparing drugs. Ben Kimchi,
+a Narbonnese physician and grammarian, wrote commentaries on the Bible,
+sacred and moral poems, a Hebrew grammar. Notwithstanding the opposition
+of the ecclesiastics, William, the Lord of Montpellier, passed an edict
+authorizing all persons, without exception, to profess medicine in the
+university of his city. This was specially meant for the relief of the
+Jews, though expressed in a general way. [Sidenote: Maimonides.] Spain,
+though she had thus lost many of her learned men, still continued to
+produce others of which she had reason to be proud. Moussa Ben Maimon,
+known all over Europe as Maimonides, was recognized by his countrymen as
+"the Doctor, the Great Sage, the Glory of the West, the Light of the
+East, second only to Moses." He is often designated by the four initials
+R. M. B. M., that is Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, or briefly Rambam. His
+biography presents some points of interest. He was born at Cordova A.D.
+1135, and, while yet young, wrote commentaries on the Talmuds both of
+Babylon and Jerusalem, and also a work on the Calendar; but, embracing
+Mohammedanism, he emigrated to Egypt, and there became physician to the
+celebrated Sultan Saladin. Among his works are medical aphorisms,
+derived from former Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Arabic sources; an
+abridgment of Galen; and of his original treatises, which were very
+numerous, may be mentioned those "On Hemorrhoids," "On Poisons and
+Antidotes," "On Asthma," "On the Preservation of Health,"--the latter
+being written for the benefit of the son of Saladin--"On the Bites of
+Venomous Animals"--written by order of the sultan--"On Natural History."
+His "Moreh Nevochim," or "Teacher of the Perplexed," was an attempt to
+reconcile the doctrines of the Old Testament with reason. In addition to
+these, he had a book on Idolatry, and one on Christ. Besides Maimonides,
+the sultan had another physician, Ebn Djani, the author of a work on the
+medical topography of the city of Alexandria. From the biographies of
+these learned men of the twelfth century it would seem that their
+religious creed hung lightly upon them. Not unfrequently they became
+converted to Mohammedanism.
+
+[Sidenote: Later Jewish physicians.] It might be tedious if I should
+record the names and writings of the learned European Jews of the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a period more prolific of these great
+men than even the preceding ages. But I cannot pass these later
+centuries without mentioning the Alphonsine Tables, calculated for
+Alphonso, the King of Castile, by Mascha, his Hebrew physician. The
+irreligious tendency of the times is illustrated by the well-known
+sarcasm uttered by that Spanish monarch respecting the imperfect
+construction of the heavens, according to the Ptolemaic hypothesis. For
+long, however, the Jews had been dabbling in free-thinking speculations.
+Thus Aben Tybbon, above-mentioned, anticipating that branch of science
+which has drawn upon itself, in later years, so much opprobrium, wrote a
+work containing a discussion of the causes which prevent the waters of
+the sea from encroaching on the land. Abba Mari, a Marseillese Jew,
+translated the Almagest of Ptolemy and the Commentary of Averroes upon
+it. The school of Salerno was still sending forth its doctors. In Rome,
+Jewish physicians were very numerous, the popes themselves employing
+them. Boniface VIII. had for his medical adviser Rabbi Isaac. At this
+period Spain and France were full of learned Jews; and perhaps partly by
+their exerting upon the higher classes with whom they came in contact
+too much influence, for the physician of a Christian prince was very
+often the rival of his confessor, and partly because the practice of
+medicine, as they pursued it, interfered with the gains of the Church,
+the clergy took alarm, and caused to be re-enacted or enforced the
+ancient laws. The Council of Beziers, A.D. 1246, and the Council of
+Alby, A.D. 1254, prohibited all Christians from resorting to the
+services of an Israelitish physician. It would appear that these
+enactments had either fallen into desuetude or had failed to be
+enforced. The faculty of Paris, awakening at last to the danger of the
+case, caused, A.D. 1301, a decree to be published prohibiting either man
+or woman of the religion of Moses from practising medicine upon any
+person of the Catholic religion. A similar course was also taken in
+Spain. At this time the Jews were confessedly at the head of French
+medicine. It was the appointment of one of their persuasion, Profatius,
+as regent of the faculty of Montpellier A.D. 1300, which drew upon them
+the wrath of the faculty of Paris. This learned man was a skilful
+astronomer; he composed tables of the moon; of the longitudes of many
+Asiatic and African towns; he determined the obliquity of the ecliptic,
+his result being honourably alluded to by Copernicus. [Sidenote: The
+University of Paris causes the expulsion of the Jews from France.] The
+animosity of the French ecclesiastics against the Jewish physicians at
+last led to the banishment of all the Jews from France, A.D. 1306. "It
+was," say the historians of this event, "a most revolting spectacle to
+see so many learned men, who had adorned and benefited France,
+proscribed, wanderers without a country or an asylum. Some of them
+expired of grief upon the road. Abba Mari gives in his work
+heart-rending details of the expulsion of the Jews from Montpellier, at
+the head of whom were the professors and doctors of the faculty."
+
+[Sidenote: Result that they had accomplished.] But, though thus driven
+into exile, these strangers had accomplished their destiny. They had
+silently deposited in France their ideas. They had sapped the credulity
+of the higher classes in Europe, and taught them to turn away from the
+supernatural. A clear recognition of their agency in this matter
+fastened upon them the watchful eye of Inquisition, and made them the
+victims of its tyranny.
+
+And so it might well be. Out of the Spanish peninsula there had come
+across the Pyrenees an intellectual influence, which reached the
+populace under the form of a fresh and pleasing literature, and the
+better classes by novel but unorthodox ideas. To a very great extent the
+Jews had been its carriers. The result was the overthrow of
+supernaturalism. [Sidenote: Destruction of fairies by tobacco.] We shall
+hardly accept the affirmation of good Catholics that fairies disappeared
+on account of the Reformation, unable to bear the morose sectarianism
+with which it was accompanied, or the still more material explanation of
+the rustics that it was through the introduction of tobacco. However
+that may be, no longer is Robin Goodfellow the compeller of household
+duties--no longer do bad elves sit by the dying embers of the
+hearth-stone at night, in the shape of shrivelled frogs, after the
+family have gone to bed. For a long time there have been no miracles in
+Europe. Even Rome, the workshop of those artifices, has ceased to be the
+seat of that trade.
+
+From human institutions of any kind, a great principle, firmly inwrought
+and inwoven at the beginning, can never be removed. It will show itself
+whenever occasion permits. The animosity between the Byzantine
+ecclesiastical system and all true wisdom was inextinguishable, though
+it was utterly foreign to Christianity. [Sidenote: Causes of the
+ecclesiastical opposition.] It was fastened by imperial violence on the
+nations, and made its appearance, with unabated force, at intervals of
+ages. The same evil instinct which tore Hypatia piecemeal in the church
+at Alexandria brought Galileo into the custody of the familiars of the
+holy office at Rome. The necessary consequence of this upholding
+ignorance by force was the emergence of ideas successively more and more
+depraved. [Sidenote: Degraded state of Italy.] Whoever will ingenuously
+compare the religious state of Italy in the fourteenth century with its
+state in the fourth--that is, the recent Italian with the old
+Roman--will find that among the illiterate classes nothing whatever had
+been accomplished. There were no elevated thoughts of holy things. From
+practical devotion God had altogether disappeared; the Saviour had been
+supplanted by the blessed Virgin; and she herself--such was the
+increasing degradation--had been abandoned for the ignoble worship of
+apotheosized men, who, under the designation of saints, had engrossed
+all the votaries. There had been a rapid descent to the last degree of
+more than African abasement in bleeding statues and winking pictures.
+
+[Sidenote: Rise of a new social system.] In Europe there had been
+incorporated old forms of worship and old festivals with Christian ones;
+the local gods and goddesses had been replaced by saints; for
+deification canonization had been substituted. There had been produced a
+civilization, the character of which was its extraordinary intolerance.
+A man could not be suspected of doubting the popular belief without risk
+to his goods, his body, or his life. As a necessary consequence, there
+could be no great lawgivers, no philosophers, no poets. Society was
+pervaded by a systematic hypocrisy. This tyranny over others sometimes
+led to strange results. It caused the Jews to discover the art of making
+wealth invisible by bills of exchange and other such like means, so that
+money might be imperceptibly but instantaneously moved.
+
+[Sidenote: Influence of that new system,] Thus, after the dying out of
+Greek science, there followed, among the new populations, an
+intellectual immobility, which soon became the centre of a vast number
+of growing interests quickly and firmly crystallizing round it. For them
+it was essential that there should be no change--no advance. In the
+midst of jarrings and conflicts between those interests, that condition
+was steadfastly maintained, as if through instinct, by them all. It
+mattered not how antiquated were the forms insisted on, nor how far they
+outraged common sense. New life was given to decaying illusions, and, in
+return, strength was gathered from them. [Sidenote: and degradation by
+African ideas.] Isis, with the moon beneath her feet, was planted, under
+a new name, on the Bosphorus and the Tiber. African theology, African
+ecclesiastical machinery, and African monasticism were made objects of
+reverence to unsuspecting Europe. Juvenal says that the Roman painters
+of his day lived on the goddess Isis. The Italian painters of a later
+day lived on her modernized form.
+
+[Sidenote: No literature in the Age of Faith.] In such a condition of
+things the literary state could be no other than barren. Political
+combinations had not only prescribed an intellectual terminus, but had
+even laid down a rail upon which mental excursions were to be made, and
+from which there was no departing; or, if a turn-out was permitted, it
+was managed by a tonsured man. For centuries together, if we exclude
+theological writings, there was absolutely no literature worth the name.
+Life seems to have been spent in the pursuit of mere physical enjoyment,
+and that enjoyment of a very low kind. When in the South of France and
+Sicily literature began to dawn, it is not to be overlooked how much of
+it was of an amatory kind; and love is the strongest of the passions.
+The first aspect of Western literature was animal, not intellectual.
+[Sidenote: Its critical innocence.] A taste for learning excited, there
+reappeared in the schools the old treatises written a thousand years
+before--the Elements of Euclid, the Geography of Ptolemy. Long after the
+Reformation there was an intellectual imbecility which might well excite
+our mirth, if it were not the index of a stage through which the human
+mind must pass. Often enough we see it interestingly in the interweaving
+of the new with the old ideas. If we take up a work on metallurgy, it
+commences with Tubal Cain; if on music, with Jubal. The history of each
+country is traced back to the sons of Noah, or at least to the fugitives
+from the siege of Troy. An admiration for classical authors may perhaps
+be excused. It exhibited itself amusingly in the eccentricity of
+interlarding compositions of every kind with Greek and Latin quotations.
+This was an age of literary innocence, when no legend was too stupendous
+for credulity; when there was no one who had ever suspected that Tully,
+as they delighted to call him, was not a great philosopher, and Virgil
+not a great poet.
+
+[Sidenote: Disuse of patristic works.] Of those ponderous, those massive
+folios on ecclesiastical affairs, at once the product and
+representatives of the time, but little needs here to be said. They
+boasted themselves as the supreme effort of human intellect; they laid
+claim to an enduring authority; to many they had a weight little less
+than the oracles of God. But if their intrinsic value is to be measured
+by their pretensions, and their pretensions judged of by their present
+use, what is it that must be said? Long ago their term was reached, long
+ago they became obsolete. They have no reader. Such must be the issue of
+any literature springing from an immovable, an unexpanding basis, the
+offspring of thought that has been held in subjugation by political
+formulas, or of intellectual energies that have been cramped.
+
+[Sidenote: Spread of science in France.] The Roman ecclesiastical
+system, like the Byzantine, had been irrevocably committed in an
+opposition to intellectual development. It professed to cultivate the
+morals, but it crushed the mind. Yet, in the course of events, this
+state of things was to come to an end through the working of other
+principles equally enduring and more powerful. They constitute what we
+may speak of under the title of the Arabian element. On preceding pages
+it has been shown that, when the Saracens conquered Egypt, they came
+under the influence of the Nestorians and Hellenizing Jews, acquiring
+from them a love of philosophy, which soon manifested itself in full
+energy from the banks of the Euphrates to those of Guadalquivir. The
+hammer of Charles Martel might strike down the ranks of the Saracens on
+the field of Tours, but there was something intangible, something
+indestructible accompanying them, which the Frank chivalry could not
+confront. To the Church there was an evil omen. It has been well
+remarked that in the Provencal poetry there are noble bursts of
+crusading religious sentiment, but they are incorporated with a
+sovereign contempt for the clergy.
+
+The biography of any of the physicians or alchemists of the thirteenth
+century would serve the purpose of illustrating the watchfulness of the
+Church, the unsound condition of the universities, the indirect
+patronage extended to heretics by eminent men, and the manner in which
+the rival powers, ecclesiasticism and philosophy, were preparing for
+their final conflict. [Sidenote: Illustration from the biography of
+Arnold.] As an example of the kind, I may present briefly that of Arnold
+de Villa Nova, born about A.D. 1250. He enjoyed a great reputation for
+his knowledge of medicine and alchemy. For some years he was physician
+to the King of Aragon. Under an accusation of defective orthodoxy he
+lost his position at court, his punishment being rendered more effective
+by excommunication. Hoping to find in Paris more liberality than he had
+met with in Spain, he fled to that city, but was pursued by an adverse
+ecclesiastical influence with a charge of having sold his soul to the
+Devil, and of having changed a plate of copper into gold. In
+Montpellier, to which he was obliged to retire, he found a more
+congenial intellectual atmosphere, and was for long one of the regents
+of the faculty of medicine. In succession, he subsequently resided in
+Florence, Naples, Palermo, patronized and honoured by the Emperor
+Frederick II.--at that time engaged in the attempt to unite Italy into
+one kingdom and give it a single language--on account of his
+extraordinary reputation as a physician. Even the pope, Clement V.,
+notwithstanding the unfortunate attitude in which Arnold stood toward
+the Church, besought a visit from him in hopes of relief from the stone.
+On his voyage for the purpose of performing the necessary operation,
+Arnold suffered shipwreck and was drowned. His body was interred at
+Genoa. The pope issued an encyclic letter, entreating those who owed him
+obedience to reveal where Arnold's Treatise on the Practice of Medicine
+might be found, it having been lost or concealed. It appears that the
+chief offences committed by Arnold against the Church were that he had
+predicted that the world would come to an end A.D. 1335; that he had
+said the bulls of the pope were only the work of a man, and that the
+practice of charity is better than prayer, or even than the mass. If he
+was the author of the celebrated book "De Tribus Impostoribus," as was
+suspected by some, it is not remarkable that he was so closely watched
+and disciplined. Like many of his contemporaries, he mingled a great
+deal of mysticism with his work, recommending, during his alchemical
+operations, the recitation of psalms, to give force to the materials
+employed. Among other such things, he describes a seal, decorated with
+scriptural phrases, of excellent use in preserving one from sudden
+death. It appears, however, to have failed of its effect on the night
+when Arnold's ship was drifting on an Italian lee-shore, and he had most
+need of it.
+
+[Sidenote: Two impulses--intellectual and moral--in operation.] The two
+antagonistic principles--ecclesiastical and intellectual--were thus
+brought in presence of each other. On other occasions they had already
+been in partial collision, as at the iconoclastic dispute which
+originated in the accusations of the Mohammedans, and ended in the
+tearing of Christendom asunder.
+
+[Sidenote: Struggle of ecclesiasticism against the intellectual
+principle.] Again there was a collision, a few centuries later, when the
+Spanish Moors and Jews began to influence the higher European classes.
+Among the bishops, sovereigns, and even popes thus affected, there were
+many men of elevated views, who saw distinctly the position of Europe,
+and understood thoroughly the difficulties of the Church. It had already
+become obvious to them that it would be impossible to restrain the
+impulse arising from the vigorous movements of the Saracens, and that it
+was absolutely necessary so to order things that the actual condition of
+faith in Europe might be accommodated to or even harmonized with these
+philosophical conceptions, which it was quite clear would, soon or late,
+pervade the whole Continent. This, as we have seen, is the explanation
+of the introduction of Scholasticism from the Arabian schools, and its
+accommodation to the Christian code, on which authority looked with so
+much favour at first. But hardly had this attempt been entered upon
+before it became manifest that the risks to be incurred through the
+remedy itself were as great as the anticipated dangers. There was then
+no other course than for the Church to retrace her steps, ostensibly
+maintaining her consistency by permitting scholastic literature, though
+declining scholastic theology. She thus allured the active intellect,
+arising in all directions in the universities, to fruitless and
+visionary pursuits. This policy, therefore, threw her back upon a system
+of repression; it was the only course possible; yet there can be no
+doubt that it was entered upon with reluctance. [Sidenote: The
+difficulty was in the system, not in the men.] We do injustice to the
+great men who guided ecclesiastical policy in those times when we
+represent them as recklessly committing themselves to measures at once
+violent and indefensible. They did make the attempt to institute an
+opposite policy; it proved not only a failure, but mischievous. They
+were then driven to check the spread of knowledge--driven by the
+necessities of their position. The fault was none of theirs; it dated
+back to the time of Constantine the Great; and the impossibility of
+either correcting or neutralizing it is only an example, as has been
+said, of the manner in which a general principle, once introduced, will
+overbear the best exertions of those attempting to struggle against it.
+We can appreciate the false position into which those statesmen were
+thrown when we compare their personal with their public relations. Often
+the most eminent persons lived in intimacy and friendship with Jewish
+physicians, who, in the eye of the law, were enemies of society; often
+those who were foremost in the cultivation of knowledge--who, indeed,
+suffered excommunication for its sake--maintained amicable relations of
+a private kind with those who in public were the leaders of their
+persecutors. The systems were in antagonism, not the men. Arnold de
+Villa Nova, though excommunicated, was the physician of one pope; Roger
+Bacon, though harshly imprisoned, was the friend and correspondent of
+another. These incidents are not to be mistaken for that compassion
+which the truly great are ever ready to show to erring genius. They are
+examples of what we often see in our own day, when men engaged in the
+movements of a great political party loyally carry out its declared
+principles to their consequences, though individually they may find in
+those consequences many things to which they could mentally object.
+Their private objection they thus yield for the sake of what appears to
+them, in a general way, a practical good.
+
+Such was the state of affairs when the Arab element, having pervaded
+France and Italy, made its formal intellectual attack. It might almost
+have been foreseen in what manner that attack would be made, and the
+shape it would be likely to assume. Of the sciences, astronomy was the
+oldest and most advanced. [Sidenote: The intellectual impulse makes its
+attack through astronomy,] Its beginning dates earlier than the historic
+period, and both in India and in Egypt it had long reached correctness,
+so far as its general principles were concerned. The Saracens had been
+assiduous cultivators of it in both its branches, observation and
+mathematical investigation. Upon one point, the figure and relations of
+the earth, it is evident that not the slightest doubt existed among
+them. Nay, it must be added that no learned European ecclesiastic or
+statesman could deny the demonstrated truths. Nevertheless, it so fell
+out that upon this very point the conflict broke out. In India the
+Brahmans had passed through the same trial--for different nations walk
+through similar paths--with a certain plausible success, by satisfying
+the popular clamour that there was, in reality, nothing inconsistent
+between the astronomical doctrine of the globular form and movement of
+the earth, and the mythological dogma that it rests upon a succession of
+animals, the lowest of which is a tortoise. But the strong common sense
+of Western Europe was not to be deluded in any such idle way. It is not
+difficult to see the point of contact, the point of pressure with the
+Church. The abstract question gave her no concern; it was the
+consequences that might possibly follow. The memorable battle was fought
+upon the question thus sharply defined: Is the earth a moving globe, a
+small body in the midst of suns and countless myriads of worlds, or is
+it the central and greatest object in the universe, flat, and canopied
+over with a blue dome, motionless while all is in movement around it?
+[Sidenote: and the Church is defeated.] The dispute thus definitely put,
+its issue was such as must always attend a controversy in which he who
+is defending is at once lukewarm and conscious of his own weakness.
+Never can moral interests, however pure, stand against intellect
+enforcing truth. On this ill-omened question the Church ventured her
+battle and lost it.
+
+[Sidenote: The moral impulse.] Though this great conflict is embodied in
+the history of Galileo, who has become its historical representative,
+the prime moving cause must not be misunderstood. From the Pyrenees had
+passed forth an influence which had infected all the learned men of
+Western Europe. Its tendency was altogether unfavourable to the Church.
+Moreover, the illiterate classes had been touched, but in a different
+way. To the first action the designation of the intellectual impulse may
+be given; to the latter, the moral. It is to be especially observed that
+in their directions these impulses conspired. We have seen how, through
+the Saracens and Jews conjointly, the intellectual impulse came into
+play. [Sidenote: Origin of the moral impulse.] The moral impulse
+originated in a different manner, being due partly to the Crusades and
+partly to the state of things in Rome. On these causes it is therefore
+needful for us to reflect.
+
+First, of the Crusades. There had been wrenched from Christendom its
+fairest and most glorious portions. Spain, the north of Africa, Egypt,
+Syria, Asia Minor, were gone. The Mohammedans had been repeatedly under
+the walls of Constantinople; its fall was only a question of time. They
+had been in the streets of Rome. They had marched across Italy in every
+direction. [Sidenote: Loss of the holy places.] But perhaps the
+geographical losses, appalling as they were, did not appear so painful
+as the capture of the holy places; the birthplace of our Redeemer; the
+scene of His sufferings; the Mount of Olives; the Sea of Galilee; the
+Garden of Gethsemane; Calvary; the Sepulchre. Too often in their day of
+strength, while there were Roman legions at their back, had the bishops
+taunted Paganism with the weakness of its divinities, who could not
+defend themselves, their temples, or their sacred places. That logic was
+retaliated now. To many a sincere heart must many an ominous reflexion
+have occurred. In Western Europe there was a strong common sense which
+quickly caught the true position of things--a common sense that could
+neither be blinded nor hoodwinked. The astuteness of the Italian
+politicians was insufficient to conceal altogether the great fact,
+though it might succeed in dissembling its real significance for a time.
+The Europe of that day was very different from the Europe of ours. It
+was in its Age of Faith. Recently converted, as all recent converts do,
+it made its belief a living rule of action. In our times there is not
+upon that continent a nation which, in its practical relations with
+others, carries out to their consequences its ostensible, its avowed
+articles of belief. Catholics, Protestants, Mohammedans, they of the
+Greek communion, indiscriminately consort together under the expediences
+of the passing hour. Statesmanship has long been dissevered from
+religion--a fact most portentous for future times. But it was not so in
+the Middle Ages. Men then believed their form of faith with the same
+clearness, the same intensity with which they believed their own
+existence or the actual presence of things upon which they cast their
+eyes. The doctrines of the Church were to them no mere inconsequential
+affair, but an absolute, an actual reality, a living and a fearful
+thing. It would have passed their comprehension if they could have been
+assured that a day would come when Christian Europe, by a breath, could
+remove from the holy places the scandal of an infidel intruder, but,
+upon the whole, would consider it not worth her while to do so. How
+differently they acted. [Sidenote: Effect of the Crusades.] When, by the
+preaching of Peter the Hermit and his collaborators, who had received a
+signal from Rome, a knowledge had come to their ears of the reproach
+that had befallen Jerusalem and the sufferings of the pilgrims, their
+plain but straightforward common sense taught them at once what was the
+right remedy to apply, and forthwith they did apply it, and Christendom,
+precipitated headlong upon the Holy Land, was brought face to face with
+Mohammedanism. But what a scene awaited the zealous, the religious
+barbarians--for such they truly were--when Constantinople, with its
+matchless splendours, came in view! What a scene when they had passed
+into Asia Minor, that garden of the world, presenting city after city,
+with palaces and edifices, the pride of twenty centuries! [Sidenote:
+Change of opinion in the Crusaders.] How unexpected the character of
+those Saracens, whom they had been taught, by those who had incited them
+to their enterprise, to regard as no better than bloodthirsty fiends,
+but whom they found valiant, merciful, just! When Richard the
+Lion-hearted, King of England, lay in his tent consumed by a fever,
+there came into the camp camels laden with snow, sent by his enemy, the
+Sultan Saladin, to assuage his disease, the homage of one brave soldier
+to another. But when Richard was returning to England, it was by a
+Christian prince that he was treacherously seized and secretly confined.
+This was doubtless only one of many such incidents which had often
+before occurred. Even down to the meanest camp-follower, every one must
+have recognized the difference between what they had anticipated and
+what they had found. They had seen undaunted courage, chivalrous
+bearing, intellectual culture far higher than their own. They had been
+in lands filled with the prodigies of human skill. They did not melt
+down into the populations to whom they returned without imparting to
+them a profound impression destined to make itself felt in the course of
+time.
+
+[Sidenote: They discover the immoralities of Italy.] But, secondly, as
+to the state of things in Rome. The movement into which all Europe had
+been thrown by these wars brought to light the true condition of things
+in Italy as respects morality. Locomotion in a population is followed by
+intellectual development. The old stationary condition of things in
+Europe was closed by the Crusades. National movement gave rise to better
+observation, better information, and could not but be followed by
+national reflexion. And though we are obliged to speak of the European
+population as being in one sense in a barbarous state, it was a moral
+population, earnestly believing the truth of every doctrine it had been
+taught, and sincerely expecting that those doctrines would be carried to
+their practical application, and that religious profession must, as a
+matter of course, be illustrated by religious life. The Romans
+themselves were an exception to this. They had lived too long behind the
+scenes. Indeed, it may be said that all the Italian peninsula had
+emancipated itself from that delusion, as likewise certain classes in
+France, who had become familiar with the state of things during the
+residence of the popes at Avignon. It has been the destiny of Southern
+France to pass, on a small scale, under the same influence, and to
+exhibit the same results as were appointed for all Europe at last.
+
+And now, what was it that awakening Europe found to be the state of
+things in Italy? I avert my eyes from looking again at the biography of
+the popes; it would be only to renew a scene of sin and shame. Nor can
+I, without injustice to truth, speak of the social condition of the
+inhabitants of that peninsula without relating facts which would compel
+my reader to turn over the page with a blush. I prefer to look at the
+maxims of political life which had been followed for many centuries, and
+which were first divulged by one of the greatest men that Italy has
+produced, in a work--A.D. 1513--truly characterized as a literary
+prodigy. Certainly nothing can surpass in atrocity the maxims therein
+laid down.
+
+[Sidenote: The principles of Italian statesmanship--Machiavelli.]
+Machiavelli, in that work, tells us that there are three degrees of
+capacity among men. That one understands things by his own natural
+powers; another, when they are explained to him; a third, not at all.
+In dealing with these different classes different methods must be
+used. The last class, which is by far the most numerous, is so simple
+and weak that it is very easy to dupe those who belong to it. If they
+cease to believe of their own accord they ought to be constrained by
+force, in the application of which, though there may be considerable
+difficulties at first, yet, these once overcome by a sufficient
+unscrupulousness--veneration, security, tranquillity, and happiness
+will follow. That, if a prince is constrained to make his choice, it
+is better for him to be feared than loved; he should remember that all
+men are ungrateful, fickle, timid, dissembling, and self-interested;
+that love depends on them, but fear depends on him, and hence it is
+best to prefer the latter, which is always in his own hands. The great
+aim of statesmanship should be permanence, which is worth everything
+else, being far more valuable than freedom. That, if a man wants to
+ruin a republic, his proper course is to set it on bold undertakings,
+which it is sure to mismanage; that men, being naturally wicked,
+incline to good only when they are compelled; they think a great deal
+more of the present than the past, and never seek change so long as
+they are made comfortable.
+
+He recommends a ruler to bear in mind that, while the lower class of men
+may desert him, the superior will not only desert, but conspire. If such
+cannot with certainty be made trustworthy friends, it is very clearly
+necessary to put it out of their power to be enemies. Thus it may be
+observed that the frequent insurrections in Spain, Gaul, and Greece
+against the Romans were entirely due to the petty chiefs inhabiting
+those countries; but that, after these had been put to death, everything
+went on very well. Up to a certain point, it should be the grand maxim
+of a wise government to content the people and to manage the nobles; but
+that, since hatred is just as easily incurred by good actions as by bad
+ones, there will occasionally arise the necessity of being wicked in
+order to maintain power, and, in such a case, there should be no
+hesitation; for, though it is useful to persevere in the path of
+rectitude while there is no inconvenience, we should deviate from it at
+once if circumstances so advise. A prudent prince ought not keep his
+word to his own injury; he ought to bear in mind that one who always
+endeavours to act as duty dictates necessarily insures his own
+destruction; that new obligations never extinguish the memory of former
+injuries in the minds of the superior order of men; that liberality, in
+the end, generally insures more enemies than friends; that it is the
+nature of mankind to become as much attached to one by the benefits they
+render as by the favours they receive; that, where the question is as to
+the taking of life or the confiscation of property, it is useful to
+remember that men forget the death of their relatives, but not the loss
+of their patrimony; that, if cruelties should become expedient, they
+should be committed thoroughly and but once--it is very impolitic to
+resort to them a second time; that there are three ways of deciding any
+contest--by fraud, by force, or by law, and a wise man will make the
+most suitable choice; that there are also three ways of maintaining
+control in newly-conquered states that have once been free--by ruining
+them, by inhabiting them, or by permitting them to keep their own laws
+and to pay tribute. Of these the first will often be found the best, as
+we may see from the history of the Romans, who were experienced judges
+of such cases. That, as respects the family of a rival but conquered
+sovereign, the greatest pains should be taken to extinguish it
+completely; for history proves, what many fabulous traditions relate,
+that dangerous political consequences have originated in the escape of
+some obscure or insignificant member; that men of the highest order, who
+are, therefore, of sound judgment--who seek for actual social truths for
+their guidance rather than visionary models which never existed--will
+conform to the decisions of reason, and never be influenced by feelings
+of sentiment, unless it is apparent that some collateral advantage will
+arise from the temporary exhibition thereof; and that they will put a
+just estimate on the delusions in which the vulgar indulge, casting
+aside the so-called interventions of Divine Providence, which are, in
+reality, nothing more than the concatenation of certain circumstances
+following the ordinary law of cause and effect, but which, by
+interfering with the action of each other, have assumed a direction
+which the judgment of the wisest could not have foreseen.
+
+Europe has visited with its maledictions the great political writer by
+whom these atrocious maxims have been recommended, forgetting that his
+offence consists not in inventing, but in divulging them. His works thus
+offer the purest example we possess of physical statesmanship. They are
+altogether impassive. He views the management of a state precisely as he
+might do the construction of a machine, recommending that such a wheel
+or such a lever should be introduced, his only inquiry being whether it
+will accomplish his intention. As to any happiness or misery it may
+work, he gives himself no concern, unless, indeed, they evidently ought
+to enter into the calculation. He had suffered the rack himself under a
+charge of conspiracy, and borne it without flinching. But, before
+Machiavelli wrote, his principles had all been carried into practice;
+indeed, it would not be difficult to give abundant examples in proof of
+the assertion that they had been for ages regarded in Italy as rules of
+conduct.
+
+[Sidenote: Conjoined effect of the intellectual and moral impulses.]
+Such was the morality which Europe detected as existing in Italy,
+carried out with inconceivable wickedness in public and private life;
+and thus the two causes we have been considering--contact with the
+Saracens in Syria and a knowledge of the real state of things in
+Rome--conspired together to produce what may be designated as the moral
+impulse, which, in its turn, conspired with the intellectual. Their
+association foreboded evil to ecclesiastical authority, thus taken at
+great disadvantage. Though, from its very birthday, that authority had
+been in absolute opposition to the intellectual movement, it might,
+doubtless, for a much longer time have successfully maintained its
+conflict therewith had the conditions remained unchanged. Up to this
+time its chief strength reposed upon its moral relations. It could
+point, and did point the attention of those whose mental culture enabled
+them to understand the true position of affairs, to Europe brought out
+of barbarism, and beginning a course of glorious civilization. That
+achievement was claimed by the Church. If it were true that she had thus
+brought it to pass, it had been altogether wrought by the agency of her
+moral power, intellectual influence in no manner aiding therein, but
+being uniformly, from the time of Constantine the Great to that of the
+Reformation, instinctively repulsed. When, now, the moral power suffered
+so great a shock, and was not only ready to go over to, but had actually
+allied itself with the intellectual, there was great danger to
+ecclesiastical authority. And hence we need not be surprised that an
+impression began to prevail among the clear-thinking men of the time
+that the real functions of that authority were completed in producing
+the partially-civilized condition to which Europe had attained, the
+course of events tending evidently to an elimination of that authority
+as an active element in the approaching European system. [Sidenote: The
+excuses of ecclesiasticism.] To such the Church might emphatically
+address herself, pointing out the signal and brilliant results to which
+she had given rise, and displaying the manifest evils which must
+inevitably ensue if her relations, as then existing, should be touched.
+For it must have been plain that the first effect arising from the
+coalition of the intellectual with the moral element would be an
+assertion of the right of private judgment in the individual--a
+condition utterly inconsistent with the dominating influence of
+authority. It was actually upon that very principle that the battle of
+the Reformation was eventually fought. She might point out--for it
+needed no prophetic inspiration--that, if once this principle was
+yielded, there could be no other issue in Christendom than a total
+decomposition; that though, for a little while, the separation might be
+limited to a few great confessions, these, under the very influence of
+the principle that had brought themselves into existence, must, in their
+turn, undergo disintegration, and the end of it be a complete anarchy of
+sects. [Sidenote: Her feeble resistance.] In one sense it may be said
+that it was in wisdom that the Church took her stand upon this point,
+determining to make it her base of resistance; unwisely in another, for
+it was evident that she had already lost the initiative of action, and
+that her very resistance would constitute the first stage in the process
+of decomposition.
+
+[Sidenote: Contemporaneous changes in Europe.] Europe had made a vast
+step during its Age of Faith. Spontaneously it had grown through its
+youth; and the Italians, who had furnished it with many of its ideas,
+had furnished it also with many of its forms of life. In that respect
+justice has still to be done them. When Rome broke away from her
+connexions with Constantinople, a cloud of more than Cimmerian darkness
+overshadowed Europe. It was occupied by wandering savages. Six hundred
+years organized it into families, neighbourhoods, cities. Those
+centuries found it full of bondmen; they left it without a slave. They
+found it a scene of violence, rapine, lust; they left it the abode of
+God-fearing men. Where there had been trackless forests, there were
+innumerable steeples glittering in the sun; where there had been bloody
+chieftains, drinking out of their enemies' skulls, there were grave
+ecclesiastics, fathoming the depths of free-will, predestination,
+election. Investing the clergy with a mysterious superiority, the Church
+asserted the equality of the laity from the king to the beggar before
+God. It disregarded wealth and birth, and opened a career for all. Its
+influence over the family and domestic relations was felt through all
+classes. It fixed paternity by a previous ceremony; it enforced the rule
+that a wife passes into the family of her husband, and hence it followed
+that legitimate children belong to the father, illegitimate to the
+mother. It compelled women to domestic life, shut them out from the
+priesthood, and tried to exclude them from government. In a worldly
+sense, the mistake that Rome committed was this: she attempted to
+maintain an intellectual immobility in the midst of an advancing social
+state. She saw not that society could no more be stopped in its career
+through her mere assertion that it could not and should not move, than
+that the earth could be checked in its revolution merely because she
+protested that it was at rest. She tried, first by persuasion and then
+by force, to arrest the onward movement, but she was overborne,
+notwithstanding her frantic resistance, by the impetuous current. Very
+different would it have been had the Italian statesmen boldly put
+themselves in the van of progress, and, instead of asserting an
+immutability and infallibility, changed their dogmas and maxims as the
+progress of events required. Europe need not have waited for Arabs and
+Jews.
+
+[Sidenote: Loss of power in Church organizations.] In describing these
+various facts, I have endeavoured to point out impressively how the
+Church, so full of vigour at first, contained within itself the seeds of
+inevitable decay. From the period when it came into collision with the
+intellectual and moral elements, the origin of which we have traced, and
+which conspired together for its overthrow, it exhibited a gradual
+decline; first losing its influence upon nations, and ceasing to be in
+them a principle of public action; next, witnessing the alienation of
+the higher and educated classes, the process descending downward through
+the social scale, therein retracing the steps of its advance. When
+ecclesiasticism became so weak as to be unable to regulate international
+affairs, and was supplanted by diplomacy, in the castle the physician
+was more than a rival for the confessor, in the town the mayor was a
+greater man than the abbot. There remained a lingering influence over
+individuals, who had not yet risen above a belief that it could control
+their state after death. This decline of its ancient influence should be
+a cause of rejoicing to all intelligent men, for an ecclesiastical
+organization allying itself to political power can never now be a source
+of any good. In America we have seen the bond that held the Church and
+State together abruptly snapped. [Sidenote: Return of things to the
+ancient Christian times.] It is therefore well that, since the close of
+the Age of Faith, things have been coming back with an accelerated pace,
+to the state in which they were in the early Christian times, before the
+founder of Constantinople beguiled the devotional spirit to his personal
+and family benefit--to the state in which they were before ambitious men
+sought political advancement and wealth by organizing hypocrisy--when
+maxims of morality, charity, benevolence, were rules of life for
+individual man--when the monitions of conscience were obeyed without the
+suggestions of an outward, often an interested and artful prompter--when
+the individual lived not under the sleepless gaze, the crushing hand of
+a great overwhelming hierarchical organization, surrounding him on all
+sides, doing his thinking for him, directing him in his acts, making him
+a mere automaton, but in simplicity, humility, and truthfulness guiding
+himself according to the light given him, and discharging the duties of
+this troublesome and transitory life "as ever in his great Taskmaster's
+eye."
+
+For the progressive degradations exhibited by the Roman Church during
+the Age of Faith, something may be offered as at once an explanation and
+an excuse. Machiavelli relates, in his "History of Florence"--a work
+which, if inferior in philosophical penetration to his "Prince," is of
+the most singular merit as a literary composition--that Osporco, a
+Roman, having become pope, exchanged his unseemly name for the more
+classical one Sergius, and that his successors have ever since observed
+the practice of assuming a new name. [Sidenote: Connexion of religious
+ideas in Italy with its ethnical state.] This incident profoundly
+illustrates the psychical progress of that Church. During the fifteen
+centuries that we have had under consideration--counting from a little
+before the Christian era--the population of Italy had been constantly
+changing. The old Roman ethnical element had become eliminated partly
+through the republican and imperial wars, and partly through the slave
+system. The degenerated half-breeds, of whom the Peninsula was full
+through repeated northern immigrations, degenerated, as time went on,
+still more and more. After that blood admixture had for the most part
+ceased, it took a long time for the base ethnical element which was its
+product to come into physiological correspondence with the country, for
+the adaptation of man to a new climate is a slow, a secular change.
+
+But blood-degeneration implies thought-degeneration. It is nothing more
+than might be expected that, in this mongrel race, customs, and
+language, and even names should change--that rivers, and towns, and men
+should receive new appellations. As the great statesman to whom I have
+referred observes, Caesar and Pompey had disappeared; John, Matthew, and
+Peter had come in their stead. Barbarized names are the outward and
+visible signs of barbarized ideas. Those early bishops of Rome whose
+dignified acts have commanded our respect, were men of Roman blood, and
+animated with sentiments that were truly Latin; but the succeeding
+pontiffs, whose lives were so infamous and thoughts so base, were
+engendered of half-breeds. Nor was it until the Italian population had
+re-established itself in a physiological relation with the country--not
+until it had passed through the earlier stages of national life--that
+manly thoughts and true conceptions could be regained.
+
+Ideas and dogmas that would not have been tolerated for an instant in
+the old, pure, homogeneous Roman race, found acceptance in this
+adulterated, festering mass. This was the true cause of the increasing
+debasement of Latin Christianity. Whoever will take the trouble of
+constructing a chart of the religious conceptions as they successively
+struggled into light, will see how close was their connexion with the
+physiological state of the Italian ethnical element at the moment.
+[Sidenote: Successive steps in the religious decline.] It is a sad and
+humiliating succession. Mariolatry; the invocation of saints; the
+supreme value of virginity; the working of miracles by relics; the
+satisfaction of moral crimes by gifts of money or goods to the clergy;
+the worship of images; Purgatory; the sale of benefices;
+transubstantiation, or the making of God by the priest; the
+materialization of God--that He has eyes, feet, hands, toes; the virtue
+of pilgrimages; vicarious religion, the sinner paying the priest to pray
+for him; the corporeality of spirits; the forbidding of the Bible to the
+laity; the descent to shrine-worship and fetichism; the doctrine that
+man can do more than his duty, and hence have a claim upon God; the sale
+by the priests of indulgences in sin for money.
+
+But there is another, a very different aspect under which we must regard
+this Church. Enveloped as it was with the many evils of the times, the
+truly Christian principle which was at its basis perpetually vindicated
+its power, giving rise to numberless blessings in spite of the
+degradation and wickedness of man. [Sidenote: Statement of what the
+Church had actually done.] As I have elsewhere (Physiology, Book II.,
+Chap. VIII.) remarked, "The civil law exerted an exterior power in human
+relations; Christianity produced an interior and moral change. The idea
+of an ultimate accountability for personal deeds, of which the old
+Europeans had an indistinct perception, became intense and precise. The
+sentiment of universal charity was exemplified not only in individual
+acts, the remembrance of which soon passes away, but in the more
+permanent institution of establishments for the relief of affliction,
+the spread of knowledge, the propagation of truth. Of the great
+ecclesiastics, many had risen from the humblest ranks of society, and
+these men, true to their democratic instincts, were often found to be
+the inflexible supporters of right against might. Eventually coming to
+be the depositaries of the knowledge that then existed, they opposed
+intellect to brute force, in many instances successfully, and by the
+example of the organization of the Church, which was essentially
+republican, they showed how representative systems may be introduced
+into the state. Nor was it over communities and nations that the Church
+displayed her chief power. Never in the world before was there such a
+system. From her central seat at Rome, her all-seeing eye, like that of
+Providence itself, could equally take in a hemisphere at a glance, or
+examine the private life of any individual. Her boundless influences
+enveloped kings in their palaces, and relieved the beggar at the
+monastery gate. In all Europe there was not a man too obscure, too
+insignificant, or too desolate for her. Surrounded by her solemnities,
+every one received his name at her altar; her bells chimed at his
+marriage, her knell tolled at his funeral. She extorted from him the
+secrets of his life at her confessionals, and punished his faults by her
+penances. In his hour of sickness and trouble her servants sought him
+out, teaching him, by her exquisite litanies and prayers, to place his
+reliance on God, or strengthening him for the trials of life by the
+example of the holy and just. Her prayers had an efficacy to give repose
+to the souls of his dead. When, even to his friends, his lifeless body
+had become an offence, in the name of God she received it into her
+consecrated ground, and under her shadow he rested till the great
+reckoning-day. From little better than a slave she raised his wife to be
+his equal, and, forbidding him to have more than one, met her recompense
+for those noble deeds in a firm friend at every fireside.
+Discountenancing all impure love, she put round that fireside the
+children of one mother, and made that mother little less than sacred in
+their eyes. In ages of lawlessness and rapine, among people but a step
+above savages, she vindicated the inviolability of her precincts against
+the hand of power, and made her temples a refuge and sanctuary for the
+despairing and oppressed. Truly she was the shadow of a great rock in
+many a weary land!"
+
+[Sidenote: Analysis of the career of the Church.] This being the point
+which I consider the end of the Italian system as a living force in
+European progress, its subsequent operation being directed to the senses
+and not to the understanding, it will not be amiss if for a moment we
+extend our view to later times and to circumstances beyond the strict
+compass of this book, endeavouring thus to ascertain the condition of
+the Church, especially as to many devout persons it may doubtless appear
+that she has lost none of her power.
+
+[Sidenote: Four revolts against the Italian system.] On four occasions
+there have been revolts against the Italian Church system: 1st, in the
+thirteenth century, the Albigensian; 2nd, in the fourteenth, the
+Wiclifite; 3rd, in the sixteenth, the Reformation; 4th, in the
+eighteenth, at the French Revolution. On each of these occasions
+ecclesiastical authority has exerted whatever offensive or defensive
+power it possessed. Its action is a true indication of its condition at
+the time. Astronomers can determine the orbit of a comet or other
+celestial meteor by three observations of its position as seen from the
+earth, and taken at intervals apart.
+
+[Sidenote: The Albigensian revolt.] 1st. Of the Albigensian revolt. We
+have ascertained that the origin of this is distinctly traceable to the
+Mohammedan influence of Spain, through the schools of Cordova and
+Granada, pervading Languedoc and Provence. Had these agencies produced
+only the gay scenes of chivalry and courtesy as their material results,
+and, as their intellectual, war-ballads, satires, and amorous songs,
+they had been excused; but, along with such elegant frivolities, there
+was something of a more serious kind. A popular proverb will often
+betray national belief, and there was a proverb in Provence, "Viler than
+a priest." The offensive sectaries also quoted, for the edification of
+the monks, certain texts, to the effect that, "if a man will not work
+neither let him eat." The event, in the hands of Simon de Montfort,
+taught them that there is such a thing as wresting Scripture to one's
+own destruction.
+
+How did the Church deal with this Albigensian heresy? As those do who
+have an absolutely overwhelming power. She did not crush it--that would
+have been too indulgent; she absolutely annihilated it. Awake to what
+must necessarily ensue from the imperceptible spread of such opinions,
+she remorselessly consumed its birthplace with fire and sword; and,
+fearful that some fugitives might have escaped her vigilant eye, or that
+heresy might go wherever a bale of goods might be conveyed, she
+organized the Inquisition with its troops of familiars and spies. Six
+hundred years have elapsed since these events, and the south of France
+has never recovered from the blow.
+
+That was a persecution worthy of a sovereign--a persecution conducted on
+sound Italian principles of policy--to consider clearly the end to be
+attained, and adopt the proper means without any kind of concern as to
+their nature. But it was a persecution that implied the possession of
+unlimited and irresponsible power.
+
+[Sidenote: The revolt of Wiclif.] 2nd. Of the revolt of Wiclif. We have
+also considered the state of affairs which aroused the resistance of
+Wiclif. It is manifested by legal enactments early in the fourteenth
+century, such as that ecclesiastics shall not go armed, nor join
+themselves with thieves, nor frequent taverns, nor chambers of
+strumpets, nor visit nuns, nor play at dice, nor keep concubines--by the
+Parliamentary bill of 1376, setting forth that the tax paid in England
+to the pope for ecclesiastical dignities is fourfold as much as that
+coming to the king from the whole realm; that alien clergy, who have
+never seen nor care to see their flocks, convey away the treasure of the
+country--by the homely preaching of John Ball, that all men are equal in
+the sight of God. Wiclif's opposition was not only directed against
+corruptions of discipline in the Church, but equally against doctrinal
+errors. His dogma that "God bindeth not men to believe any thing they
+cannot understand" is a distinct embodiment of the rights of reason, and
+the noble purpose he carried into execution of translating the Bible
+from the Vulgate shows in what direction he intended the application of
+that doctrine to be made. Through the influence of the queen of Richard
+the Second, who was a native of that country, his doctrines found an
+echo in Bohemia--Huss not only earnestly adopting his theological views,
+but also joining in his resistance to the despotism of the court of Rome
+and his exposures of the corruptions of the clergy. The political point
+of this revolt in England occurs in the refusal of Edward III., at the
+instigation of Wiclif, to do homage to the pope; the religious, in the
+translation of the Bible.
+
+Though a bull was sent to London requiring the arch-heretic to be seized
+and put in irons, Wiclif died in his bed, and his bones rested quietly
+in the grave for forty-four years. Ecclesiastical vengeance burned them
+at last, and scattered them to the winds.
+
+There was no remissness in the ecclesiastical authority, but there were
+victories won by the blind hero, John Zisca. After the death of that
+great soldier--whose body was left by the road-side to the wolves and
+crows, and his skin dried and made into a drum--in vain was all that
+perfidy could suggest and all that brutality could execute resorted
+to--in vain the sword and fire were passed over Bohemia, and the last
+effort of impotent vengeance tried in England--the heretics could not be
+exterminated nor the detested translation of the Bible destroyed.
+
+[Sidenote: The revolt of Luther.] 3rd. Of the revolt of Luther. As we
+shall have, in a subsequent chapter, to consider the causes that led to
+the Reformation, it is not necessary to anticipate them in any detail
+here. The necessities of the Roman treasury, which suggested the
+doctrine of supererogation and the sale of indulgences as a ready means
+of relief, merely brought on a crisis which otherwise could not have
+been long postponed, the real point at issue being the right of
+interpretation of the Scriptures by private judgment.
+
+The Church did not restrict her resistance to the use of ecclesiastical
+weapons--those of a carnal kind she also employed. Yet we look in vain
+for the concentrated energy with which she annihilated the Albigenses,
+or the atrocious policy with which the Hussites were met. The times no
+longer permitted those things. But the struggle was maintained with
+unflinching constancy through the disasters and successes of one hundred
+and thirty years. Then came the peace of Westphalia, and the result of
+the contest was ascertained. The Church had lost the whole of northern
+Europe.
+
+[Sidenote: The revolt of the philosophers.] 4th. Of the revolt of the
+philosophers. Besides the actual loss of the nations who openly fell
+away to Protestantism, a serious detriment was soon found to have
+befallen those still remaining nominally faithful to the Church. The
+fact of secession or adherence depending, in a monarchy, on the personal
+caprice or policy of the sovereign, is by no means a true index of the
+opinions or relations of the subjects; and thus it happened that in
+several countries in which there was an outward appearance of agreement
+with the Church because of the attitude of the government, there was, in
+reality, a total disruption, so far as the educated and thinking classes
+were concerned. This was especially the case in France.
+
+When the voyage of circumnavigation of the globe by Magellan had for
+ever settled all such questions as those of the figure of the earth and
+the existence of the antipodes, the principles upon which the contest
+was composed between the conflicting parties are obvious from the most
+superficial perusal of the history of physics. Free thought was extorted
+for science, and, as its equivalent, an unmolested state for theology.
+It was an armed truce.
+
+It was not through either of the parties to that conflict that new
+troubles arose, but through the action of a class fast rising into
+importance--literary men. From the beginning to the middle of the last
+century these philosophers became more and more audacious in their
+attacks. Unlike the scientific, whose theological action was by
+implication rather than in a direct way, these boldly assaulted the
+intellectual basis of faith. The opportune occurrence of the American
+Revolution, by bringing forward in a prominent manner social evils and
+political methods for their cure, gave a practical application to the
+movement in Europe, and the Church was found unable to offer any kind of
+resistance.
+
+[Sidenote: Summary of the Italian system.] From these observations of
+the state of the Church at four different epochs of her career we are
+able to determine her movement. There is a time of abounding strength, a
+time of feebleness, a time of ruinous loss, a time of utter exhaustion.
+What a difference between the eleventh and the eighteenth centuries! It
+is the noontide and evening of a day of empire.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+APPROACH OF THE AGE OF REASON IN EUROPE.
+
+IT IS PRECEDED BY MARITIME DISCOVERY.
+
+_Consideration of the definite Epochs of Social Life._
+
+_Experimental Philosophy emerging in the Age of Faith._
+
+_The Age of Reason ushered in by Maritime Discovery and the rise of
+European Criticism._
+
+MARITIME DISCOVERY.--_The three great Voyages._
+
+COLUMBUS _discovers America_.--DE GAMA _doubles the Cape and reaches
+India_.--MAGELLAN _circumnavigates the Earth.--The Material
+andintellectual Results of each of these Voyages._
+
+DIGRESSION ON THE SOCIAL CONDITION OF AMERICA.--_In isolated human
+Societies the process of Thought and of Civilization is always the
+same.--Man passes through a determinate succession of Ideas and embodies
+them in determinate Institutions.--The state of Mexico and Peru proves
+the influence of Law in the development of Man._
+
+
+[Sidenote: Peculiarities of the Age of Reason.] I have arrived at the
+last division of my work, the period in national life answering to
+maturity in individual. The objects to be considered differ altogether
+from those which have hitherto occupied our attention. We have now to
+find human authority promoting intellectual advancement, and accepting
+as its maxim that the lot of man will be ameliorated, and his power and
+dignity increased, in proportion as he is able to comprehend the
+mechanism of the world, the action of natural laws, and to apply
+physical forces to his use.
+
+[Sidenote: Natural periods merge into one another.] The date at which
+this transition in European life was made will doubtless be differently
+given according as the investigator changes his point of view. In truth,
+there is not in national life any real epoch, because there is nothing
+in reality abrupt. Events, however great or sudden, are consequences of
+preparations long ago made. In this there is a perfect parity between
+the course of national and that of individual life. In the individual,
+one state merges by imperceptible degrees into another, each in its
+beginning and end being altogether indistinct. No one can tell at what
+moment he ceased to be a child and became a boy--at what moment he
+ceased to be a youth and became a man. Each condition, examined at a
+suitable interval, exhibits characteristics perfectly distinctive, but,
+at their common point of contact, the two so overlap and blend that,
+like the intermingling of shadow and light, the beginning of one and end
+of the other may be very variously estimated.
+
+[Sidenote: Artificial epochs.] In individual life, since no precise
+natural epoch exists, society has found it expedient to establish an
+artificial one, as, for example, the twenty-first year. The exigencies
+of history may be satisfied by similar fictions. A classical critic
+would probably be justified in selecting for his purpose the foundation
+of Constantinople as the epoch of the commencement of the Age of Faith,
+and its capture by the Turks as the close. It must be admitted that a
+very large number of historical events stand in harmony with that
+arrangement. [Sidenote: Origin and end of the Age of Faith.] A political
+writer would perhaps be disposed to postpone the date of the latter
+epoch to that of the treaty of Westphalia, for from that time
+theological elements ceased to have a recognized force, Protestant,
+Catholic, Mohammedan, consorting promiscuously together in alliance or
+at war, according as temporary necessities might indicate. Besides these
+other artificial epochs might be assigned, each doubtless having
+advantages to recommend it to notice. But, after all, the chief
+peculiarity is obvious enough. It is the gradual decline of a system
+that had been in activity for many ages, and its gradual replacement by
+another.
+
+[Sidenote: Prelude to the Age of Reason.] As with the Age of Reason in
+Greece, so with the Age of Reason in Europe, there is a prelude marked
+by the gradual emergence of a sound philosophy; a true logic displaces
+the supernatural; experiment supersedes speculation. It is very
+interesting to trace the feeble beginnings of modern science in alchemy
+and natural magic in countries where no one could understand the
+writings of Alhazen or the Arabian philosophers. Out of many names of
+those who took part in this movement that might be mentioned there are
+some that deserve recollection.
+
+[Sidenote: Albertus Magnus, the Dominican.] Albertus Magnus was born
+A.D. 1193. It was said of him that "he was great in magic, greater in
+philosophy, greatest in theology." By religious profession he was a
+Dominican. Declining the temptations of ecclesiastical preferment, he
+voluntarily resigned his bishopric, that he might lead in privacy a
+purer life. As was not uncommon in those days, he was accused of illicit
+commerce with Satan, and many idle stories were told of the miracles he
+wrought. At a great banquet on a winter's day, he produced all the
+beauties of spring--trees in full foliage, flowers in perfume, meadows
+covered with grass; but, at a word, the phantom pageant was dissolved,
+and succeeded by appropriate wastes of snow. This was an exaggeration of
+an entertainment he gave, January 6th, 1259, in the hot-house of the
+convent garden. He interested himself in the functions of plants, was
+well acquainted with what is called the sleep of flowers, studied their
+opening and closing. He understood that the sap is diminished in volume
+by evaporation from the leaves. He was the first to use the word
+"affinity" in its modern acceptation. His chemical studies present us
+with some interesting details. He knew that the whitening of copper by
+arsenic is not a transmutation, but only the production of an alloy,
+since the arsenic can be expelled by heat. He speaks of potash as an
+alkali; describes several acetates; and alludes to the blackening of the
+skin with nitrate of silver.
+
+[Sidenote: Roger Bacon, discoveries of.] Contemporary with him was Roger
+Bacon, born A.D. 1214. His native country has never yet done him
+justice, though his contemporaries truly spoke of him as "the Admirable
+Doctor." The great friar of the thirteenth century has been eclipsed by
+an unworthy namesake. His claims on posterity are enforced by his
+sufferings and ten years' imprisonment for the cause of truth.
+
+His history, so far as is known, may be briefly told. He was born at
+Ilchester, in Somersetshire, and studied at the University of Oxford.
+Thence he went to the University of Paris, where he took the degree of
+doctor of theology. He was familiar with Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and
+Arabic. Of mathematics he truly says that "it is the first of all the
+sciences; indeed, it precedes all others, and disposes us to them." In
+advance of his age, he denied the authority of Aristotle, and tells us
+that we must substitute that of experiment for it. Of his astronomical
+acquirements we need no better proof than his recommendation to Pope
+Clement IV. to rectify the Calendar in the manner actually done
+subsequently. If to him be rightly attributed the invention of
+spectacles, the human race is his debtor. He described the true theory
+of telescopes and microscopes, saying that lenses may be ground and
+arranged in such a way as to render it possible to read the smallest
+letters at incredible distances, and to count grains of sand and dust,
+because of the magnitude of the angle under which we may perceive such
+objects. He foresaw the greatest of all inventions in practical
+astronomy--the application of optical means to instruments for the
+measurement of angles. He proposed the propulsion of ships through the
+water and of carriages upon roads by merely mechanical means. He
+speculated upon the possibility of making a flying-machine. Admitting
+the truth of alchemy, he advised the experimenter to find out the method
+by which Nature makes metals and then to imitate it. He knew that there
+are different kinds of air, and tells us that there is one which will
+extinguish flame. These are very clear views for an age which mistook
+the gases for leather-eared ghosts. He warned us to be cautious how we
+conclude that we have accomplished the transmutation of metals, quaintly
+observing that the distance between whitened copper and pure silver is
+very great. He showed that air is necessary for the support of fire, and
+was the author of the well-known experiment illustrating that fact by
+putting a lighted lamp under a bell-jar and observing its extinction.
+
+[Sidenote: Is persecuted and imprisoned.] There is no little
+significance in the expression of Friar Bacon that the ignorant mind
+cannot sustain the truth. He was accused of magical practices and of a
+commerce with Satan, though, during the life of Clement IV., who was his
+friend, he escaped without public penalties. This pope had written to
+him a request that he would furnish him an account of his various
+inventions. In compliance therewith, Bacon sent him the "Opus Majus" and
+other works, together with several mathematical instruments which he had
+made with his own hands. But, under the pontificate of Nicolas III., the
+accusation of magic, astrology, and selling himself to the Devil was
+again pressed, one point being that he had proposed to construct
+astronomical tables for the purpose of predicting future events.
+Apprehending the worst, he tried to defend himself by his work "De
+Nullitate Magiae." "Because these things are beyond your comprehension,
+you call them the works of the Devil; your theologians and canonists
+abhor them as the productions of magic, regarding them as unworthy of a
+Christian." But it was in vain. His writings were condemned as
+containing dangerous and suspected novelties, and he was committed to
+prison. There he remained for ten years, until, broken in health, he was
+released from punishment by the intercession of some powerful and
+commiserating personages. He died at the age of seventy-eight. On his
+death-bed he uttered the melancholy complaint, "I repent now that I have
+given myself so much trouble for the love of science." If there be found
+in his works sentiments that are more agreeable to the age in which he
+lived than to ours, let us recollect what he says in his third letter to
+Pope Clement: "It is on account of the ignorance of those with whom I
+have had to deal that I have not been able to accomplish more."
+
+[Sidenote: Minor alchemists of England, France, and Germany.] A number
+of less conspicuous though not unknown names succeed to Bacon. There is
+Raymond Lully, who was said to have been shut up in the Tower of London
+and compelled to make gold for Edward II.; Guidon de Montanor, the
+inventor of the philosopher's balm; Clopinel, the author of the "Romance
+of the Rose;" Richard the Englishman, who makes the sensible remark that
+he who does not join theory to practice is like an ass eating hay and
+not reflecting on what he is doing; Master Ortholan, who describes very
+prettily the making of nitric acid, and approaches to the preparation of
+absolute alcohol under the title of the quintessence of wine; Bernard de
+Treves, who obtained much reputation for the love-philters he prepared
+for Charles V. of France, their efficacy having been ascertained by
+experiments made on servant-girls; Bartholomew, the Englishman who first
+described the method of crystallizing and purifying sugar; Eck de
+Sulzbach, who teaches how metallic crystallizations, such as the tree of
+Diana, a beautiful silvery vegetation, may be produced. He proved
+experimentally that metals, when they oxidize, increase in weight; and
+says that in the month of November, A.D. 1489, he found that six pounds
+of an amalgam of silver heated for eight days augmented in weight three
+pounds. The number is, of course, erroneous, but his explanation is very
+surprising. "This augmentation of weight comes from this, that a spirit
+is united with the metal; and what proves it is that this artificial
+cinnabar, submitted to distillation, disengages that spirit." He was
+within a hair's-breadth of anticipating Priestley and Lavoisier by three
+hundred years.
+
+[Sidenote: Augurelli, the poetical alchemist.] The alchemists of the
+sixteenth century not only occupied themselves with experiment; some of
+them, as Augurelli, aspired to poetry. He undertook to describe in Latin
+verses the art of making gold. His book, entitled "Chrysopoeia," was
+dedicated to Leo X., a fact which shows the existence of a greater
+public liberality of sentiment than heretofore. It is said that the
+author expected the Holy Father to make him a handsome recompense, but
+the good-natured pope merely sent him a large empty sack, saying that he
+who knew how to make gold so admirably only needed a purse to put it in.
+
+[Sidenote: Basil Valentine introduces antimony.] The celebrated work of
+Basil Valentine, entitled "Currus triumphalis Antimonii," introduced the
+metal antimony into the practice of medicine. The attention of this
+author was first directed to the therapeutical relations of the metal by
+observing that some swine, to which a portion of it had been given, grew
+fat with surprising rapidity. There were certain monks in his vicinity
+who, during the season of Lent, had reduced themselves to the last
+degree of attenuation by fasting and other mortifications of the flesh.
+On these Basil was induced to try the powers of the metal. To his
+surprise, instead of recovering their flesh and fatness, they were all
+killed; hence the name popularly given to the metal, antimoine, because
+it does not agree with the constitution of a monk. Up to this time it
+had passed under the name of stibium. With a result not very different
+was the application of antimony in the composition of printer's
+type-metal. Administered internally or thus mechanically used, this
+metal proved equally noxious to ecclesiastics.
+
+[Sidenote: The new epoch.] It is scarcely necessary to continue the
+relation of these scientific trifles. Enough has been said to illustrate
+the quickly-spreading taste for experimental inquiry. I now hasten to
+the description of more important things.
+
+[Sidenote: Difficulty of treating it scientifically.] In the limited
+space of this book I must treat these subjects, not as they should be
+dealt with philosophically, but in the manner that circumstances permit.
+Even with this imperfection, their description spontaneously assumes an
+almost dramatic form, the facts offering themselves to all reflecting
+men with an air of surpassing dignity. On one hand it is connected with
+topics the most sublime, on the other it descends to incidents the most
+familiar and useful; on one hand it elevates our minds to the relations
+of suns and myriads of worlds, on the other it falls to the every-day
+acts of our domestic and individual life; on one hand it turns our
+thoughts to a vista of ages so infinite that the vanishing point is in
+eternity, on the other it magnifies into importance the transitory
+occupation of a passing hour. Knowing how great are the requirements for
+the right treatment of such topics, I might shrink from this portion of
+my book with a conviction of incapacity. I enter upon it with
+hesitation, trusting rather to the considerate indulgence of the reader
+than to any worthiness in the execution of the work.
+
+In the history of the philosophical life of Greece, we have seen
+(Chapter II.) how important were the influences of maritime discovery
+and the rise of criticism. Conjointly they closed the Greek Age of
+Faith. In the life of Europe, at the point we have now reached, they
+came into action again. [Sidenote: Approach of the Age of Reason.] As on
+this occasion the circumstances connected with them are numerous and
+important, I shall consider them separately in this and the following
+chapter. And, first, of maritime enterprise, which was the harbinger of
+the Age of Reason in Europe. It gave rise to three great voyages--the
+discovery of America, the doubling of the Cape, and the circumnavigation
+of the earth.
+
+[Sidenote: State of Mediterranean trade.] At the time of which we are
+speaking, the commerce of the Mediterranean was chiefly in two
+directions. The ports of the Black Sea furnished suitable depots for
+produce brought down the Tanais and other rivers, and for a large
+portion of the India trade that had come across the Caspian. The seat of
+this commerce was Genoa.
+
+The other direction was the south-east. The shortest course to India was
+along the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, but the Red and Arabian seas
+offered a cheaper and safer route. In the ports of Syria and Egypt were
+therefore found the larger part of the commodities of India. This trade
+centred in Venice. A vast development had been given to it through the
+Crusades, the Venetians probably finding in the transport service of the
+Holy Wars as great a source of profit as in the India trade.
+
+[Sidenote: Rivalry of Genoa and Venice.] Toward the latter part of the
+fourteenth century it became apparent that the commercial rivalry
+between Venice and Genoa would terminate to the disadvantage of the
+latter. The irruption of the Tartars and invasion of the Turks had
+completely dislocated her Asiatic lines of trade. In the wars between
+the two republics Genoa had suffered severely. Partly for this reason,
+and partly through the advantageous treaties that Venice had made with
+the sultans, giving her the privilege of consulates at Alexandria and
+Damascus, this republic had at last attained a supremacy over all
+competitors. The Genoese establishments on the Black Sea had become
+worthless.
+
+[Sidenote: Attempt to reach India by the west.] With ruin before them,
+and unwilling to yield their Eastern connexions, the merchants of Genoa
+had tried to retrieve their affairs by war; her practical sailors saw
+that she might be re-established in another way. There were among them
+some who were well acquainted with the globular form of the earth, and
+with what had been done by the Mohammedan astronomers for determining
+its circumference by the measurement of a degree on the shore of the Red
+Sea. These men originated the attempt to reach India by sailing to the
+west.
+
+[Sidenote: Opposition to this scheme.] By two parties--the merchants and
+the clergy--their suggestions were received with little favour. The
+former gave no encouragement, perhaps because such schemes were unsuited
+to their existing arrangements; the latter disliked them because of
+their suspected irreligious nature. The globular form had been condemned
+by such fathers as Lactantius and Augustine. In the Patristic Geography
+the earth is a flat surface bordered by the waters of the sea, on the
+yielding support of which rests the crystalline dome of the sky. These
+doctrines were for the most part supported by passages from the Holy
+Scriptures, perversely wrested from their proper meaning. Thus Cosmas
+Indicopleustes, whose Patristic Geography had been an authority for
+nearly eight hundred years, triumphantly disposed of the sphericity of
+the earth by demanding of its advocates how in the day of judgment, men
+on the other side of a globe could see the Lord descending through the
+air!
+
+Among the Genoese sailors seeking the welfare of their city was one
+destined for immortality--Christopher Columbus.
+
+[Sidenote: Columbus, early life of.] His father was a wool-comber, yet
+not a man of the common sort. He procured for his son a knowledge of
+arithmetic, drawing, painting; and Columbus is said to have written a
+singularly beautiful hand. For a short time he was at the University of
+Pavia, but he went to sea when he was only fourteen. After being engaged
+in the Syrian trade for many years, he had made several voyages to
+Guinea, occupying his time when not at sea in the construction of charts
+for sale, thereby supporting not only himself, but also his aged father,
+and finding means for the education of his brothers. Under these
+circumstances he had obtained a competent knowledge of geography, and,
+though the state of public opinion at the time did not permit such
+doctrines to be openly avowed, he believed that the sea is everywhere
+navigable, that the earth is round and not flat, that there are
+antipodes, that the torrid zone is habitable, and that there is a
+proportionate distribution of land in the northern and southern
+hemispheres. [Sidenote: His argument for lands to the west.] Adopting
+the Patristic logic when it suited his purpose, he reasoned that since
+the earth is made for man, it is not likely that its surface is too
+largely covered with water, and that, if there are lands, they must be
+inhabited, since the command was renewed at the Flood that man should
+replenish the earth. He asked, "Is it likely that the sun shines upon
+nothing, and that the nightly watches of the stars are wasted on
+trackless seas and desert lands?" But to this reasoning he added facts
+that were more substantial. One Martin Vincent, who had sailed many
+miles to the west of the Azores, related to him that he had found,
+floating on the sea, a piece of timber evidently carved without iron.
+Another sailor, Pedro Correa, his brother-in-law, had met with enormous
+canes. On the coast of Flores the sea had cast up two dead men with
+large faces, of a strange aspect. Columbus appears to have formed his
+theory that the East Indies could be reached by sailing to the west
+about A.D. 1474. He was at that time in correspondence with Toscanelli,
+the Florentine astronomer, who held the same doctrine, and who sent him
+a map or chart constructed on the travels of Marco Polo. He offered his
+services first to his native city, then to Portugal, then to Spain, and,
+through his brother, to England; his chief inducement in each instance
+being that the riches of India might be thus secured. In Lisbon he had
+married. While he lay sick near Belem an unknown voice whispered to him
+in a dream, "God will cause thy name to be wonderfully resounded through
+the earth, and will give thee the keys of the gates of the ocean, which
+are closed with strong chains!" The death of his wife appears to have
+broken the last link which held him to Portugal, where he had been since
+1470. One evening, in the autumn of 1485, a man of majestic presence,
+pale, care-worn, and, though in the meridian of life, with silver hair,
+leading a little boy by the hand, asked alms at the gate of the
+Franciscan convent near Palos--not for himself, but only a little bread
+and water for his child. This was that Columbus destined to give to
+Europe a new world.
+
+[Sidenote: Is confuted by the Council of Salamanca.] In extreme poverty,
+he was making his way to the Spanish court. After many wearisome delays
+his suit was referred to a council at Salamanca, before which, however,
+his doctrines were confuted from the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the
+Prophecies, the Gospels, the Epistles, and the writings of the
+fathers--St. Chrysostom, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, St. Gregory, St.
+Basil, St. Ambrose. Moreover, they were demonstrably inconsistent with
+reason; since, if even he should depart from Spain, "the rotundity of
+the earth would present a kind of mountain up which it was impossible
+for him to sail, even with the fairest wind;" and so he could never get
+back. The Grand Cardinal of Spain had also indicated their irreligious
+nature, and Columbus began to fear that, instead of receiving aid as a
+discoverer, he should fall into trouble as a heretic. [Sidenote: Queen
+Isabella adopts his views.] However, after many years of mortification
+and procrastination, he at length prevailed with Queen Isabella; and on
+April 17, 1492, in the field before Granada, then just wrenched from the
+Mohammedans by the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella, he received his
+commission. With a nobleness of purpose, he desired no reward unless he
+should succeed; but, in that case, stipulated that he should have the
+title of Admiral and Viceroy, and that his perquisite should be one
+tenth of all he should discover--conditions which show what manner of
+man this great sailor was. [Sidenote: The expedition prepared.] He had
+bound himself to contribute one-eighth to the expenses of the
+expedition: this he accomplished through the Pinzons of Palos, an old
+and wealthy seafaring family. These arrangements once ratified, he lost
+not a moment in completing the preparations for his expedition. The
+royal authority enabled him to take--forcibly, if necessary--both ships
+and men. But even with that advantage he would hardly have succeeded if
+the Pinzons had not joined heartily with him, personally sharing in the
+dangers of the voyage.
+
+[Sidenote: The voyage across the Atlantic.] The sun, by journeying to
+the west, rises on India at last. On Friday, August 3, 1492, the weary
+struggles and heart-sickness of eighteen years of supplication were
+over, and, as the day was breaking, Columbus sailed with three little
+ships from Palos, carrying with him charts constructed on the basis of
+that which Toscanelli had formerly sent, and also a letter to the Grand
+Khan of Tartary. On the 9th he saw the Canaries, being detained among
+them three weeks by the provisioning and repairing of his ships. He left
+them on September 6th, escaping the pursuit of some caravels sent out by
+the Portuguese government to intercept him. He now steered due west.
+Nothing of interest occurred until nightfall on September 13th, when he
+remarked with surprise that the needle, which the day before had pointed
+due north, was varying half a point to the west, the effect becoming
+more and more marked as the expedition advanced. He was now beyond the
+track of any former navigator, and with no sure guide but the stars; the
+heaven was everywhere, and everywhere the sea. On Sunday, 16th, he
+encountered many floating weeds, and picked up what was mistaken for a
+live grasshopper. For some days the weeds increased in quantity, and
+retarded the sailing of the ships. On the 19th two pelicans flew on
+board. Thus far he had had an easterly wind; but on September 20th it
+changed to south-west, and many little birds, "such as those that sing
+in orchards," were seen. His men now became mutinous, and reproached the
+king and queen for trusting to "this bold Italian, who wanted to make a
+great lord of himself at the price of their lives."
+
+On September 25th Pinzon reported to him that he thought he saw land;
+but it proved to be only clouds. With great difficulty he kept down his
+mutinous crew. On October 2nd he observed the seaweeds drifting from
+east to west. Pinzon, in the Pinta, having seen a flight of parrots
+going to the south-west, the course was altered on October 7th, and he
+steered after them west-south-west; he had hitherto been on the parallel
+26 deg. N. On the evening of October 11th the signs of land had become so
+unmistakable that, after vesper hymn to the Virgin, he made an address
+of congratulation to his crew, and commended watchfulness to them.
+[Sidenote: Discovery of America.] His course was now due west. A little
+before midnight, Columbus, on the fore-castle of his ship, saw a moving
+light at a distance; and two hours after a signal-gun was fired from the
+Pinta. A sailor, Rodrigo de Triana, had descried land. The ships were
+laid to. As soon as day dawned they made it out to be a verdant island.
+There were naked Indians upon the beach watching their movements. At
+sunrise, October 12, 1492, the boats were manned and armed, and Columbus
+was the first European to set foot on the new world.
+
+[Sidenote: Events of the voyage.] The chief events of the voyage of
+Columbus were, 1st. The discovery of the line of no magnetic variation,
+which, as we shall see, eventually led to the circumnavigation of the
+earth. 2nd. The navigability of the sea to the remote west, the weeds
+not offering any insuperable obstruction. When the ships left Palos it
+was universally believed that the final border or verge of the earth is
+where the western sky rests upon the sea, and the air and clouds, fogs
+and water, are commingled. Indeed, that boundary could not actually be
+attained; for, long before it was possible to reach it, the sea was
+laden with inextricable weeds, through which a ship could not pass. This
+legend was perhaps derived from the stories of adventurous sailors, who
+had been driven by stress of weather towards the Sargasso Sea, and seen
+an island of weeds many hundreds of square miles in extent--green
+meadows floating in the ocean. 3rd. As to the new continent, Columbus
+never knew the nature of his own discovery. He died in the belief that
+it was actually some part of Asia, and Americus Vespucius entertained
+the same misconception. Their immediate successors supposed that Mexico
+was the Quinsay, in China, of Marco Polo. For this reason I do not think
+that the severe remark that the "name of America is a monument of human
+injustice" is altogether merited. Had the true state of things been
+known, doubtless the event would have been different. The name of
+America first occurs in an edition of Ptolemy's Geography, on a map by
+Hylacomylus.
+
+[Sidenote: End of Patristic Geography.] Two other incidents of no little
+interest followed this successful voyage: the first was the destruction
+of Patristic Geography; the second the consequence of the flight of
+Pinzon's parrots. Though, as we now know, the conclusion that India had
+been reached was not warranted by the facts, it was on all sides
+admitted that the old doctrine was overthrown, and that the admiral had
+reached Asia by sailing to the west. This necessarily implied the
+globular form of the earth. As to the second, never was an augury more
+momentous than that flight of parrots. It has been well said that this
+event determined the distribution of Latin and German Christianity in
+the New World.
+
+[Sidenote: Previous Scandinavian discovery.] The discovery of America by
+Leif, the son of Eric the Red, A.D. 1000, cannot diminish the claims of
+Columbus. The wandering Scandinavians had reached the shores of America
+first in the vicinity of Nantucket, and had given the name of Vinland to
+the region extending from beyond Boston to the south of New York. But
+the memory of these voyages seems totally to have passed away, or the
+lands were confounded with Greenland, to which Nicolas V. had appointed
+a bishop A.D. 1448. Had these traditions been known to or respected by
+Columbus, he would undoubtedly have steered his ships more to the north.
+
+[Sidenote: The papal grant to Spain.] Immediately on the return of
+Columbus, March 15, 1493, the King and Queen of Spain despatched an
+ambassador to Pope Alexander VI. for the purpose of insuring their
+rights to the new territories, on the same principle that Martin V. had
+already given to the King of Portugal possession of all lands he might
+discover between Cape Bojador and the East Indies, with plenary
+indulgence for the souls of those who perished in the conquest. The
+pontifical action was essentially based on the principle that pagans and
+infidels have no lawful property in their lands and goods, but that the
+children of God may rightfully take them away. The bull that was issued
+bears date May, 1493. Its principle is, that all countries under the sun
+are subject of right to papal disposal. It gives to Spain, in the
+fulness of apostolic power, all lands west and south of a line drawn
+from the Arctic to the Antarctic pole, one hundred leagues west of the
+Azores. The donation includes, by the authority of Almighty God,
+whatever there is toward India, but saves the existing rights of any
+Christian princes. It forbids, under pain of excommunication, any one
+trading in that direction, threatening the indignation of Almighty God
+and his holy apostles Peter and Paul. It directs the barbarous nations
+to be subdued, and no pains to be spared for reducing the Indians to
+Christianity.
+
+[Sidenote: The magnetic line of no variation.] This suggestion of the
+line of no magnetic variation was due to Columbus, who fell into the
+error of supposing it to be immovable. The infallibility of the pontiff
+not extending to matters of science, he committed the same mistake. In a
+few years it was discovered that the line of no variation was slowly
+moving to the east. It coincided with the meridian of London in 1662.
+
+[Sidenote: Patristic ethnical ideas.] The obstacles that Patristic
+Geography had thrown in the way of maritime adventure were thus finally
+removed, but Patristic Ethnology led to a fearful tragedy. With a
+critical innocence that seems to have overlooked physical
+impossibilities and social difficulties, it had been the practice to
+refer the peopling of nations to legendary heroes or to the patriarchs
+of Scripture. The French were descended from Francus, the son of Hector;
+the Britons from Brutus, the son of Aeneas; the genealogy of the Saxon
+kings could be given up to Adam; but it may excite our mirthful surprise
+that the conscientious Spanish chronicles could rise no higher than to
+Tubal, the grandson of Noah. The divisions of the Old World, Asia,
+Africa, and Europe, were assigned to the three sons of Noah--Shem, Ham,
+and Japheth; and the parentage of those continents was given to those
+patriarchs respectively. In this manner all mankind were brought into a
+family relationship, all equally the descendants of Adam, equally
+participators in his sin and fall. As long as it was supposed that the
+lands of Columbus were a part of Asia there was no difficulty; but when
+the true position and relations of the American continent were
+discovered, that it was separated from Asia by a waste of waters of many
+thousand miles, how did the matter stand with the new-comers thus
+suddenly obtruded on the scene? [Sidenote: Denial that the Indians are
+men.] The voice of the fathers was altogether against the possibility of
+their Adamic descent. St. Augustine had denied the globular form and the
+existence of Antipodes; for it was impossible that there should be
+people on what was thus vainly asserted to be the other side of the
+earth, since none such are mentioned in the Scriptures. The lust for
+gold was only too ready to find its justification in the obvious
+conclusion; and the Spaniards, with appalling atrocity, proceeded to act
+toward these unfortunates as though they did not belong to the human
+race. Already their lands and goods had been taken from them by
+apostolic authority. [Sidenote: The American tragedy.] Their persons
+were next seized, under the text that the heathen are given as an
+inheritance, and the uttermost parts of the earth for a possession. It
+was one unspeakable outrage, one unutterable ruin, with out
+discrimination of age or sex. Those who died not under the lash in a
+tropical sun died in the darkness of the mine. From sequestered
+sand-banks, where the red flamingo fishes in the grey of the morning;
+from fever-stricken mangrove thickets, and the gloom of impenetrable
+forests; from hiding-places in the clefts of rocks, and the solitude of
+invisible caves; from the eternal snows of the Andes, where there was no
+witness but the all-seeing Sun, there went up to God a cry of human
+despair. By millions upon millions, whole races and nations were
+remorselessly cut off. The Bishop of Chiapa affirms that more than
+fifteen millions were exterminated in his time! [Sidenote: The crime of
+Spain.] From Mexico and Peru a civilization that might have instructed
+Europe was crushed out. Is it for nothing that Spain has been made a
+hideous skeleton among living nations, a warning spectacle to the world?
+Had not her punishment overtaken her, men would have surely said, "There
+is no retribution, there is no God!" It has been her evil destiny to
+ruin two civilizations, Oriental and Occidental, and to be ruined
+thereby herself. With circumstances of dreadful barbarity she expelled
+the Moors, who had become children of her soil by as long a residence as
+the Normans have had in England from William the Conqueror to our time.
+In America she destroyed races more civilized than herself. Expulsion
+and emigration have deprived her of her best blood, her great cities
+have sunk into insignificance, and towns that once had more than a
+million of inhabitants can now only show a few scanty thousands.
+
+The discovery of America agitated Europe to its deepest foundations. All
+classes of men were affected. The populace at once went wild with a lust
+of gold and a love of adventure. Well might Pomponius Laetus, under
+process for his philosophical opinions in Rome, shed tears of joy when
+tidings of the great event reached him; well might Leo X., a few years
+later, sit up till far in the night reading to his sister and his
+cardinals the "Oceanica" of Anghiera.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Sidenote: Vasco de Gama. African coasting voyages.]
+If Columbus failed in his attempt to reach India by sailing to the west,
+Vasco de Gama succeeded by sailing to the south. He doubled the Cape of
+Good Hope, and retraced the track of the ships of Pharaoh Necho, which
+had accomplished the same undertaking two thousand years previously. The
+Portuguese had been for long engaged in an examination of the coast of
+Africa under the bull of Martin V., which recognised the possibility of
+reaching India by passing round that continent. It is an amusing
+instance of making scientific discoveries by contract, that King
+Alphonso made a bargain with Ferdinand Gomez, of Lisbon, for the
+exploration of the African coast, the stipulation being that he should
+discover not less than three hundred miles every year, and that the
+starting-point should be Sierra Leone.
+
+[Sidenote: Papal confines of Spain and Portugal.] We have seen that a
+belief in the immobility of the line of no magnetic variation had led
+Pope Alexander VI. to establish a perpetual boundary between the Spanish
+and Portuguese possessions and fields of adventure. That line he
+considered to be the natural boundary between the eastern and western
+hemispheres. An accurate determination of longitude was therefore a
+national as well as a nautical question. Columbus had relied on
+astronomical methods; Gilbert at a subsequent period proposed to
+determine it by magnetical observations. The variation itself could not
+be accounted for on the doctrine vulgarly received, that magnetism is an
+effluvium issuing forth from the root of the tail of the Little Bear,
+but was scientifically, though erroneously, explained by Gilbert's
+hypothesis that earthy substance is attractive--that a needle
+approaching a continent will incline toward it; and hence that in the
+midst of the Atlantic, being equally disturbed by Europe and America, it
+will point evenly between both.
+
+[Sidenote: News that Africa might be doubled.] Pedro de Covilho had sent
+word to King John II., from Cairo, by two Jews, Rabbi Abraham and Rabbi
+Joseph, that there was a south cape of Africa which could be doubled.
+They brought with them an Arabic map of the African coast. This was
+about the time that Bartholomew Diaz had reached the Cape in two little
+pinnaces of fifty tons apiece. He sailed August, 1486, and returned
+December, 1487, with an account of his discovery. Covilho had learned
+from the Arabian mariners, who were perfectly familiar with the east
+coast, that they had frequently been at the south of Africa, and that
+there was no difficulty in passing round the continent that way.
+
+[Sidenote: De Gama's successful voyage. He reaches India.] A voyage to
+the south is even more full of portents than one to the west. The
+accustomed heavens seem to sink away, and new stars are nightly
+approached. Vasco de Gama set sail July 9, 1497, with three ships and
+160 men, having with him the Arab map. King John had employed his Jewish
+physicians, Roderigo and Joseph, to devise what help they could from the
+stars. They applied the astrolabe to marine use, and constructed tables.
+These were the same doctors who had told him that Columbus would
+certainly succeed in reaching India, and advised him to send out a
+secret expedition in anticipation, which was actually done, though it
+failed through want of resolution in its captain. Encountering the usual
+difficulties, tempestuous weather, and a mutinous crew, who conspired to
+put him to death, De Gama succeeded, November 20, in doubling the Cape.
+On March 1st he met seven small Arab vessels, and was surprised to find
+that they used the compass, quadrants, sea-charts, and "had divers
+maritime mysteries not short of the Portugals." With joy he soon after
+recovered sight of the northern stars, so long unseen. He now bore away
+to the north-east, and on May 19, 1498, reached Calicut, on the Malabar
+coast.
+
+[Sidenote: A commercial revolution the result.] The consequences of this
+voyage were to the last degree important. The commercial arrangements of
+Europe were completely dislocated; Venice was deprived of her mercantile
+supremacy; the hatred of Genoa was gratified; prosperity left the
+Italian towns; Egypt, hitherto supposed to possess a pre-eminent
+advantage as offering the best avenue to India, suddenly lost her
+position; the commercial monopolies so long in the hands of the European
+Jews were broken down. The discovery of America and passage of the Cape
+were the first steps of that prodigious maritime development soon
+exhibited by Western Europe. And since commercial prosperity is
+forthwith followed by the production of men and concentration of wealth,
+and moreover implies an energetic intellectual condition, it appeared
+before long that the three centres of population, of wealth, of
+intellect were shifting westwardly. The front of Europe was suddenly
+changed; the British islands, hitherto in a sequestered and eccentric
+position, were all at once put in the van of the new movement.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Sidenote: Ferdinand Magellan enters the Spanish service.] Commercial
+rivalry had thus passed from Venice and Genoa to Spain and Portugal. The
+circumnavigation of the earth originated in a dispute between these
+kingdoms respecting the Molucca Islands, from which nutmegs, cloves, and
+mace were obtained. Ferdinand Magellan had been in the service of the
+King of Portugal; but an application he had made for an increase of half
+a ducat a month in his stipend having been refused, he passed into the
+service of the King of Spain along with one Ruy Falero, a friend of his,
+who, among the vulgar, bore the reputation of a conjurer or magician,
+but who really possessed considerable astronomical attainments, devoting
+himself to the discovery of improved means for finding the place of a
+ship at sea. Magellan persuaded the Spanish government that the Spice
+Islands could be reached by sailing to the west, the Portuguese having
+previously reached them by sailing to the east, and, if this were
+accomplished, Spain would have as good a title to them, under the bull
+of Alexander VI., as Portugal. [Sidenote: His great voyage commenced.]
+Five ships, carrying 237 men, were accordingly equipped, and on August
+10, 1519, Magellan sailed from Seville. The Trinitie was the admiral's
+ship, but the San Vittoria was destined for immortality. He struck
+boldly for the south-west, not crossing the trough of the Atlantic as
+Columbus had done, but passing down the length of it, his aim being to
+find some cleft or passage in the American Continent through which he
+might sail into the Great South Sea. For seventy days he was becalmed
+under the line. He then lost sight of the north star, but courageously
+held on toward the "pole antartike." He nearly foundered in a storm,
+"which did not abate till the three fires called St. Helen, St.
+Nicholas, and St. Clare appeared playing in the rigging of the ships."
+In a new land, to which he gave the name of Patagoni, he found giants
+"of good corporature" clad in skins; one of them, a very pleasant and
+tractable giant, was terrified at his own visage in a looking-glass.
+[Sidenote: He penetrates the American continent.] Among the sailors,
+alarmed at the distance they had come, mutiny broke out, requiring the
+most unflinching resolution in the commander for its suppression. In
+spite of his watchfulness, one ship deserted him and stole back to
+Spain. His perseverance and resolution were at last rewarded by the
+discovery of the strait named by him San Vittoria, in affectionate
+honour of his ship, but which, with a worthy sentiment, other sailors
+soon changed to "the Strait of Magellan." [Sidenote: Reaches the Pacific
+Ocean.] On November 28, 1520, after a year and a quarter of struggling,
+he issued forth from its western portals and entered the Great South
+Sea, shedding tears of joy, as Pigafetti, an eye-witness, relates, when
+he recognized its infinite expanse--tears of stern joy that it had
+pleased God to bring him at length where he might grapple with its
+unknown dangers. Admiring its illimitable but placid surface, and
+exulting in the meditation of its secret perils soon to be tried, he
+courteously imposed on it the name it is for ever to bear, "the Pacific
+Ocean." While baffling for an entry into it, he observed with surprise
+that in the month of October the nights are only four hours long, and
+"considered, in this his navigation, that the pole antartike hath no
+notable star like the pole artike, but that there be two clouds of
+little stars somewhat dark in the middest, also a cross of fine clear
+stars, but that here the needle becomes so sluggish that it needs must
+be moved with a bit of loadstone before it will rightly point."
+
+[Sidenote: The Pacific Ocean crossed.] And now the great sailor, having
+burst through the barrier of the American continent, steered for the
+north-west, attempting to regain the equator. For three months and
+twenty days he sailed on the Pacific, and never saw inhabited land. He
+was compelled by famine to strip off the pieces of skin and leather
+wherewith his rigging was here and there bound, to soak them in the sea
+and then soften them with warm water, so as to make a wretched food; to
+eat the sweepings of the ship and other loathsome matter; to drink water
+that had become putrid by keeping; and yet he resolutely held on his
+course, though his men were dying daily. As is quaintly observed, "their
+gums grew over their teeth, and so they could not eat." He estimated
+that he sailed over this unfathomable sea not less than 12,000 miles.
+
+In the whole history of human undertakings there is nothing that
+exceeds, if indeed there is anything that equals, this voyage of
+Magellan's. That of Columbus dwindles away in comparison. It is a
+display of superhuman courage, superhuman perseverance--a display of
+resolution not to be diverted from its purpose by any motive or any
+suffering, but inflexibly persisting to its end. Well might his
+despairing sailors come to the conclusion that they had entered on a
+trackless waste of waters, endless before them and hopeless in a return.
+"But, though the Church hath evermore from Holy Writ affirmed that the
+earth should be a wide-spread plain bordered by the waters, yet he
+comforted himself when he considered that in the eclipses of the moon
+the shadow cast of the earth is round; and as is the shadow, such, in
+like manner, is the substance." It was a stout heart--a heart of triple
+brass--which could thus, against such authority, extract unyielding
+faith from a shadow.
+
+[Sidenote: Succeeds in his attempt, and dies.] This unparalleled
+resolution met its reward at last. Magellan reached a group of islands
+north of the equator--the Ladrones. In a few days more he became aware
+that his labours had been successful; he met with adventurers from
+Sumatra. But, though he had thus grandly accomplished his object, it was
+not given to him to complete the circumnavigation of the globe. At an
+island called Zebu, or Mutan, he was killed, either, as has been
+variously related, in a mutiny of his men, or as they declared--in a
+conflict with the savages, or insidiously by poison. "The general," they
+said, "was a very brave man, and received his death wound in his front;
+nor would the savages yield up his body for any ransom." Through treason
+and revenge it is not unlikely that he fell, for he was a stern man; no
+one but a very stern man could have accomplished so daring a deed.
+Hardly was he gone when his crew learned that they were actually in the
+vicinity of the Moluccas, and that the object of their voyage was
+accomplished. On the morning of November 8, 1521, having been at sea two
+years and three months, as the sun was rising they entered Tidore, the
+chief port of the Spice Islands. The King of Tidore swore upon the Koran
+alliance to the King of Spain.
+
+[Sidenote: Circumnavigation of the earth.] I need not allude to the
+wonderful objects--destined soon to become common to voyagers in the
+Indian Archipelago--that greeted their eyes: elephants in trappings;
+vases, and vessels of porcelain; birds of Paradise, "that fly not, but
+be blown by the wind;" exhaustless stores of the coveted spices,
+nutmegs, mace, cloves. And now they prepared to bring the news of their
+success back to Spain. Magellan's lieutenant, Sebastian d'Elcano,
+directed his course for the Cape of Good Hope, again encountering the
+most fearful hardships. Out of his slender crew he lost twenty-one men.
+He doubled the Cape at last; and on September 7, 1522, in the port of
+St. Lucar, near Seville, under his orders, the good ship San Vittoria
+came safely to an anchor. She had accomplished the greatest achievement
+in the history of the human race. She had circumnavigated the earth.
+
+[Sidenote: Elcano, the lieutenant of Magellan.] Magellan thus lost his
+life in his enterprise, and yet he made an enviable exchange. Doubly
+immortal, and thrice happy! for he impressed his name indelibly on the
+earth and the sky, on the strait that connects the two great oceans, and
+on those clouds of starry worlds seen in the southern heavens. He also
+imposed a designation on the largest portion of the surface of the
+globe. His lieutenant, Sebastian d'Elcano, received such honours as
+kings can give. Of all armorial bearings ever granted for the
+accomplishment of a great and daring deed, his were the proudest and
+noblest--the globe of the earth belted with the inscription, "Primus
+circumdedisti me!"
+
+[Sidenote: Results of the circumnavigation.] If the circumnavigation of
+the earth by Magellan did not lead to such splendid material results as
+the discovery of America and the doubling of the Cape, its moral effects
+were far more important. Columbus had been opposed in obtaining means
+for his expedition because it was suspected to be of an irreligious
+nature. Unfortunately, the Church, satisfying instincts impressed upon
+her as far back as the time of Constantine, had asserted herself to be
+the final arbitress in all philosophical questions, and especially in
+this of the figure of the earth had committed herself against its being
+globular. Infallibility can never correct itself--indeed, it can never
+be wrong. Rome never retracts anything; and, no matter what the
+consequences, never recedes. It was thus that a theological
+dogma--infallibility--came to be mixed up with a geographical problem,
+and that problem liable at any moment to receive a decisive solution. So
+long as it rested in a speculative position, or could be hedged round
+with mystification, the real state of the case might be concealed from
+all except the more intelligent class of men; but after the
+circumnavigation had actually been accomplished, and was known to every
+one, there was, of course, nothing more to be said. It had now become
+altogether useless to bring forward the authority of Lactantius, of St.
+Augustine, or of other fathers, that the globular form is impious and
+heretical. Henceforth the fact was strong enough to overpower all
+authority, an exercise of which could have no other result than to
+injure itself. It remained only to permit the dispute to pass into
+oblivion; but even this could not occur without those who were observant
+being impressed with the fact that physical science was beginning to
+display a fearful advantage over Patristicism, and presenting
+unmistakable tokens that ere long she would destroy her ancient
+antagonist.
+
+[Sidenote: Minor voyages and travels.] In the midst of these immortal
+works it is hardly worth while to speak of minor things. Two centuries
+had wrought a mighty change in the geographical ideas of Western Europe.
+The travels of Marco Polo, A.D. 1295, had first given some glimmering of
+the remote East, the interest in which was doubtless enhanced by the
+irruption of the Moguls. Sir John Mandeville had spent many years in the
+interior of Asia before the middle of the next century. Conti had
+travelled in Persia and India, between 1419 and 1444. Cadamosto, a
+Venetian, in 1455 had explored the west coast of Africa. Sebastian Cabot
+had re-discovered Newfoundland, and, persisting in the attempt to find a
+north-west passage to China, had forced his way into the ice to 67 deg.
+30' N. By 1525 the American coast-line had been determined from Terra del
+Fuego to Labrador. New Guinea and part of Australia, had been
+discovered. The fleet of Cabral, attempting to double the Cape of Good
+Hope in 1500, was driven to Brazil. A ship was sent back to Portugal
+with the news. Hence, had not Columbus sailed when he did, the discovery
+of America could not have been long postponed. Balboa saw the Great
+South Sea September 25th, 1513. Wading up to his knees in the water,
+with his sword in one hand and the Spanish flag in the other, he claimed
+that vast ocean for Castile. Nothing could now prevent the geography of
+the earth from being completed.
+
+[Sidenote: Participation of other nations in these events.] I cannot
+close these descriptions of maritime adventure without observing that
+they are given from the European point of view. The Western nations have
+complacently supposed that whatever was unknown to them was therefore
+altogether unknown. We have seen that the Arabs were practically and
+perfectly familiar with the fact that Africa might be circumnavigated;
+the East Indian geography was thoroughly understood by the Buddhist
+priesthood, who had, on an extensive scale, carried forward their
+propagandism for twenty-five hundred years in those regions. But
+doubtless the most perfect geographical knowledge existed among the
+Jews, those cosmopolite traders who conducted mercantile transactions
+from the Azores to the interior of China, from the Baltic to the coast
+of Mozambique. It was actually through them that the existence of the
+Cape of Good Hope was first made known in Europe. Five hundred years
+before Columbus, the Scandinavian adventurers had discovered America,
+but so low was the state of intelligence in Europe that the very memory
+of these voyages had been altogether lost. The circumnavigation of the
+earth is, however, strictly the achievement of the West. I have been led
+to make the remarks in this paragraph, since they apply again on another
+occasion--the introduction of what is called the Baconian philosophy,
+the principles of which were not only understood, but carried into
+practice in the East eighteen hundred years before Bacon was born.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is scarcely necessary that I should offer any excuse for devoting a
+few pages to a digression on the state of affairs in Mexico and Peru.
+Nothing illustrates more strikingly the doctrine which it is the object
+of this book to teach.
+
+[Sidenote: Progress of man in the New World the same as in the Old.] The
+social condition of America at its discovery demonstrates that similar
+ideas and similar usages make their appearance spontaneously in the
+progress of civilization of different countries, showing how little they
+depend on accident, how closely they are connected with the
+organization, and, therefore, with the necessities of man. From
+important ideas and great institutions down to the most trifling
+incidents of domestic life, so striking is the parallel between the
+American aborigines and Europeans that with difficulty do we divest
+ourselves of the impression that there must have been some
+intercommunication. Each was, however, pursuing an isolated and
+spontaneous progress; and yet how closely does the picture of life in
+the New World answer to that in the Old. [Sidenote: Mexico, its
+political system.] The monarch of Mexico lived in barbaric pomp, wore a
+golden crown resplendent with gems; was aided in his duties by a privy
+council; the great lords held their lands of him by the obligation of
+military service. In him resided the legislative power, yet he was
+subject to the laws of the realm. The judges held their office
+independently of him, and were not liable to removal by him. The laws
+were reduced to writing, which, though only a system of hieroglyphics,
+served its purpose so well that the Spaniards were obliged to admit its
+validity in their courts, and to found a professorship for perpetuating
+a knowledge of it. Marriage was regarded as an important social
+engagement. Divorces were granted with difficulty. Slavery was
+recognized in the case of prisoners of war, debtors, and criminals, but
+no man could be born a slave in Mexico. No distinction of castes was
+permitted. The government mandates and public intelligence were
+transmitted by a well-organized postal service of couriers able to make
+two hundred miles a day. The profession of arms was the recognized
+avocation of the nobility; the military establishments, whether in
+active service in the field, or as garrisons in large towns, being
+supported by taxation on produce or manufactures. The armies were
+divided into corps of 10,000, and these again into regiments of 400.
+Standards and banners were used; the troops executed their evolutions to
+military music, and were provided with hospitals, army surgeons, and a
+medical staff. In the human hives of Europe, Asia, and America, the bees
+were marshalled in the same way, and were instinctively building their
+combs alike.
+
+[Sidenote: Its religion, priesthood, and ceremonies.] The religious
+state is a reflexion of that of Europe and Asia. The worship was an
+imposing ceremonial. The common people had a mythology of many gods, but
+the higher classes were strictly Unitarian, acknowledging one almighty,
+invisible Creator. Of the popular deities, the god of war was the chief.
+He was born of a virgin, and conceived by mysterious conception of a
+ball of bright-coloured feathers floating on the air. The priests
+administered a rite of baptism to infants for the purpose of washing
+away their sins, and taught that there are rewards and punishments in a
+life to come--a paradise for the good, a hell of darkness for the
+wicked. The hierarchy descended by due degrees from the chief priests,
+who were almost equal to the sovereign in authority, down to the humble
+ecclesiastical servitors. Marriage was permitted to the clergy. They had
+monastic institutions, the inmates praying thrice a day and once at
+night. They practised ablutions, vigils, penance by flagellation or
+pricking with aloe thorns. They compelled the people to auricular
+confession, required of them penance, gave absolution. Their
+ecclesiastical system had reached a strength which was never attained in
+Europe, since absolution by the priest for civil offences was an
+acquittal in the eye of the law. It was the received doctrine that men
+do not sin of their own free will, but because they are impelled thereto
+by planetary influences. With sedulous zeal, the clergy engrossed the
+duty of public education, thereby keeping society in their grasp.
+[Sidenote: Its literary condition.] Their writing was on cotton cloth or
+skins, or on papyrus made of the aloe. At the conquest immense
+collections of this kind of literature were in existence, but the first
+Archbishop of Mexico burnt, as was affirmed, a mountain of such
+manuscripts in the market-place, stigmatizing them as magic scrolls.
+About the same time, and under similar circumstances, Cardinal Ximenes
+burnt a vast number of Arabic manuscripts in Granada.
+
+[Sidenote: Divisions of time: the week, month, year.] The condition of
+astronomy in Mexico is illustrated as it is in Egypt by the calendar.
+The year was of eighteen months, each month of twenty days, five
+complementary ones being added to make up the three hundred and
+sixty-five. The month had four weeks, the week five days; the last day,
+instead of being for religious purposes, was market day. To provide for
+the six additional hours of the year, they intercalated twelve and a
+half days every fifty-two years. At the conquest the Mexican calendar
+was in a better condition than the Spanish. As in some other countries,
+the clergy had for ecclesiastical purposes a lunar division of time. The
+day had sixteen hours, commencing at sunrise. They had sun-dials for
+determining the hour, and also instruments for the solstices and
+equinoxes. They had ascertained the globular form of the earth and the
+obliquity of the ecliptic. The close of the fifty-second year was
+celebrated with grand religious ceremonials; all the fires were suffered
+to go out, and new ones kindled by the friction of sticks. [Sidenote:
+Private life, mechanical arts, trade.] Their agriculture was superior to
+that of Europe; there was nothing in the Old World to compare with the
+menageries and botanical gardens of Huaxtepec, Chapultepec, Istapalapan,
+and Tezcuco. They practised with no inconsiderable skill the more
+delicate mechanical arts, such as those of the jeweller and enameller.
+From the aloe they obtained pins and needles, thread, cord, paper, food,
+and an intoxicating drink. They made earthenware, knew how to lacquer
+wood, employed cochineal as a scarlet dye. They were skilful weavers of
+fine cloth, and excelled in the production of feather-work, their
+gorgeous humming-birds furnishing material for that purpose. In
+metallurgy they were behind the Old World, not having the use of iron;
+but, as the Old World had formerly done, they employed bronze in its
+stead. They knew how to move immense masses of rock; their great
+calendar stone, of porphyry, weighed more than fifty tons, and was
+brought a distance of many miles. Their trade was carried on, not in
+shops, but by markets or fairs held on the fifth day. They employed a
+currency of gold dust, pieces of tin, and bags of cacao. [Sidenote:
+Luxury of the higher classes.] In their domestic economy, though
+polygamy was permitted, it was in practice confined to the wealthy. The
+women did not work abroad, but occupied themselves in spinning,
+embroidering, feather-work, music. Ablution was resorted to both before
+and after meals; perfumes were used at the toilet. The Mexicans gave to
+Europe tobacco, snuff, the turkey, chocolate, cochineal. Like us, they
+had in their entertainments solid dishes, with suitable condiments,
+gravies, sauces, and desserts of pastries, confections, fruits, both
+fresh and preserved. They had chafing-dishes of silver or gold. Like us,
+they knew the use of intoxicating drinks; like us, they not unfrequently
+took them to excess; like us, they heightened their festivities with
+dancing and music. They had theatrical and pantomimic shows. At Tezcuco
+there was a council of music, which, moreover, exercised a censorship on
+philosophical works, as those of astronomy and history. In that city
+North American civilization reached its height. The king's palace was a
+wonderful work of art. It was said that 200,000 men were employed in its
+construction. Its harem was adorned with magnificent tapestries of
+feather-work; in its garden were fountains, cascades, baths, statues,
+alabasters, cedar groves, forests, and a wilderness of flowers. In
+conspicuous retirement in one part of the city was a temple, with a dome
+of polished black marble, studded with stars of gold, in imitation of
+the sky. It was dedicated to the omnipotent, invisible God. In this no
+sacrifices were offered, but only sweet-scented flowers and gums.
+[Sidenote: Their monotheism and philosophical sentiments.] The
+prevailing religious feeling is expressed by the sentiments of one of
+the kings, many of whom had prided themselves in their poetical skill:
+"Let us," he says, "aspire to that heaven where all is eternal, and
+where corruption never comes." He taught his children not to confide in
+idols, but only to conform to the outward worship of them in deference
+to public opinion.
+
+[Sidenote: Peru--unknown to Mexico.] To the preceding description of the
+social condition of Mexico I shall add a similar brief account of that
+of Peru, for the conclusions to be drawn from a comparison of the
+spontaneous process of civilization in these two countries with the
+process in Europe is of importance to the attainment of a just idea of
+the development of mankind. The most competent authorities declare that
+the Mexicans and Peruvians were ignorant of each other's existence.
+
+[Sidenote: Its geographical peculiarities.] In one particular especially
+is the position of Peru interesting. It presents an analogy to Upper
+Egypt, that cradle of the civilization of the Old World, in this, that
+its sandy coast is a rainless district. This sandy-coast region is about
+sixty miles in width, hemmed in on the east by grand mountain ranges,
+which diminish in size on approaching the Isthmus of Panama; the entire
+length of the Peruvian empire having been nearly 2,400 miles, it reached
+from the north of the equator to what is now known as Chili. In breadth
+it varied at different points. [Sidenote: A rainless country like
+Egypt.] The east wind, which has crossed the Atlantic, and is therefore
+charged with humidity, being forced by the elevation of the South
+American continent, and especially by the range of the Andes, upward, is
+compelled to surrender most of its moisture, which finds its way back to
+the Atlantic in those prodigious rivers that make the country east of
+the Andes the best watered region of the world; but as soon as that wind
+has crossed the mountain ridge and descends on the western slope, it
+becomes a dry and rainless wind, and hence the district intervening to
+the Pacific has but a few insignificant streams. [Sidenote: Its system
+of agriculture.] The sides of this great mountain range might seem
+altogether unadapted to the pursuit of agriculture, but the state of
+Peruvian civilization is at once demonstrated when it is said that these
+mountain slopes had become a garden, immense terraces having been
+constructed wherever required, and irrigation on a grander scale than
+that of Egypt carried on by gigantic canals and aqueducts. Advantage was
+taken of the different mean annual temperatures at different altitudes
+to pursue the cultivation of various products, for difference in height
+topographically answers to difference in latitude geographically, and
+thus, in a narrow space, the Peruvians had every variety of temperature,
+from that corresponding to the hottest portions of Southern Europe to
+that of Lapland. In the mountains of Peru, as has been graphically said,
+man sees "all the stars of the heavens and all the families of plants."
+On plateaus at a great elevation above the sea there were villages and
+even cities. Thus the plain upon which Quito stands, under the equator,
+is nearly ten thousand feet high. So great was their industry that the
+Peruvians had gardens and orchards above the clouds, and on ranges still
+higher flocks of lamas, in regions bordering on the limit of perpetual
+snow.
+
+[Sidenote: Its great roads and engineering,] Through the entire length
+of the empire two great military roads were built, one on the plateau,
+the other on the shore. The former, for nearly two thousand miles,
+crossed sierras covered with snow, was thrown over ravines, or went
+through tunnels in the rocks; it scaled the more difficult precipices by
+means of stairways. Where it was possible, it was carried over the
+mountain clefts by filling them with masonry, or, where that could not
+be done, suspension bridges were used, the cables being made of osiers
+or maguey fibres. Some of these cables are said to have been as thick as
+a man, and two hundred feet long. Where such bridges could not be thrown
+across, and a stream flowed in the bottom of the mountain valley, the
+passage was made by ferry-boats or rafts. As to the road itself, it was
+about twenty feet in width, faced with flags covered with bitumen, and
+had mile-stones. Our admiration at this splendid engineering is enhanced
+when we remember that it was accomplished without iron and gunpowder.
+The shore road was built on an embankment, with a clay parapet on each
+side, and shade trees. Where circumstances called for it, piles were
+used. [Sidenote: and expresses by couriers.] Every five miles there was
+a post-house. The public couriers, as in Mexico, could make, if
+necessary, two hundred miles a day. Of these roads Humboldt says that
+they were among the most useful and most stupendous executed by the hand
+of man. The reader need scarcely be told that there were no such
+triumphs of skill in Spain. From the circumstance that there were no
+swift animals, as the horse or dromedary, the width of these roads was
+sufficient, since they were necessarily used for foot passage alone.
+
+[Sidenote: Cuzco--the military centre.] In Cuzco, the metropolis, was
+the imperial residence of the Inca and the Temple of the Sun. It
+contained edifices which excited the amazement of the Spanish
+adventurers themselves--streets, squares, bridges, fortresses surrounded
+by turreted walls, subterranean galleries by which the garrison could
+reach important parts of the town. Indeed, the great roads we have
+spoken of might be regarded as portions of an immense system of military
+works spread all over the country, and having their centre at Cuzco.
+
+[Sidenote: The Inca--the Lord of the Empire.] The imperial dignity was
+hereditary, descending from father to son. As in Egypt, the monarch not
+unfrequently had his sisters for wives. His diadem consisted of a
+scarlet tasseled fringe round his brow, adorned with two feathers. He
+wore earrings of great weight. His dress of lama-wool was dyed scarlet,
+inwoven with gold and studded with gems. Whoever approached him bore a
+light burden on the shoulder as a badge of servitude, and was barefoot.
+The Inca was not only the representative of the temporal, but also of
+the spiritual power. He was more than supreme pontiff, for he was a
+descendant of the Sun, the god of the nation. He made laws, imposed
+taxes, raised armies, appointed or removed judges at his pleasure. He
+travelled in a sedan ornamented with gold and emeralds; the roads were
+swept before him, strewn with flowers, and perfumed. [Sidenote: The
+national palace.] His palace at Yucay was described by the Spaniards as
+a fairy scene. It was filled with works of Indian art; images of animals
+and plants decorated the niches of its walls; it had an endless
+labyrinth of gorgeous chambers, and here and there shady crypts for
+quiet retirement. Its baths were great golden bowls. It was embosomed in
+artificial forests. The imperial ladies and concubines spent their time
+in beautifully furnished chambers, or in gardens, with cascades and
+fountains, grottoes and bowers. It was in what few countries can boast
+of, a temperate region in the torrid zone.
+
+[Sidenote: Religion of Peru, its establishments and ceremonial.] The
+Peruvian religion ostensibly consisted of a worship of the Sun, but the
+higher classes had already become emancipated from such a material
+association, and recognized the existence of one almighty, invisible
+God. They expected the resurrection of the body and the continuance of
+the soul in a future life. It was their belief that in the world to come
+our occupations will resemble those we have followed here. Like the
+Egyptians, who had arrived at similar ideas, the Peruvians practised
+embalming, the mummies of their Incas being placed in the Temple of the
+Sun at Cuzco, the kings on the right, the queens on the left, clad in
+their robes of state, and with their hands crossed on their bosoms,
+seated in golden chairs, waiting for the day when the soul will return
+to reanimate the body. The mummies of distinguished personages were
+buried in a sitting posture under tumuli of earth. To the Supreme Being
+but one temple was dedicated. It was in a sacred valley, to which
+pilgrimages were made. In the Peruvian mythology, heaven was above the
+sky, hell in the interior of the earth--it was the realm of an evil
+spirit called Cupay. The general resemblance of these to Egyptian
+doctrines may forcibly impress upon us that they are ideas with which
+the human mind necessarily occupies itself in its process of
+intellectual development. As in all other countries, the educated
+classes were greatly in advance of the common people, who were only just
+emerging from fetichism, and engrossed in the follies of idolatry and
+man-worship. Nevertheless, the government found it expedient to
+countenance the vulgar delusion; indeed, the political system was
+actually founded upon it. But the Peruvians were in advance of the
+Europeans in this respect, that they practised no persecutions upon
+those who had become mentally emancipated. Besides the sun, the visible
+god, other celestial bodies were worshipped in a subordinate way. It was
+supposed that there were spirits in the wind, lightning, thunder; genii
+in the mountains, rivers, springs, and grottoes. In the great Temple of
+the Sun at Cuzco an image of that deity was placed so as to receive the
+rays of the luminary at his rising; a like artifice had been practised
+in the Serapion at Alexandria. There was also a sanctuary dedicated to
+the Sun in the island of Titicaca, and, it is said, between three and
+four hundred temples of a subordinate kind in Cuzco. To the great temple
+were attached not fewer than four thousand priests and fifteen hundred
+vestal virgins, the latter being intrusted with the care of the sacred
+fire, and from them the most beautiful were chosen to pass into the
+Inca's seraglio. The popular faith had a ritual and a splendid
+ceremonial, the great national festival being at the summer solstice.
+The rays of the sun were then collected by a concave mirror, and fire
+rekindled thereby, or by the friction of wood.
+
+[Sidenote: Social system--the nobility, the people.] As to their social
+system, polygamy was permitted, but practically it was confined to the
+higher classes. Social subordination was thoroughly understood. The Inca
+Tupac Yupanqui says, "Knowledge was never intended for the people, but
+only for those of generous blood." The nobility were of two orders, the
+polygamic descendants of the Incas, who were the main support of the
+state, and the adopted nobles of nations that have been conquered. As to
+the people, nowhere else in the whole world was such an extraordinary
+policy of supervision practised. They were divided into groups of ten,
+fifty, one hundred, five hundred, one thousand, ten thousand, and over
+the last an Inca noble was placed. Through this system a rigid
+centralization was insured, the Inca being the pivot upon which all the
+national affairs turned, it was an absolutism worthy of the admiration
+of many existing European nations. [Sidenote: Organization of Labour.]
+The entire territory was divided into three parts; one belonged to the
+Sun, one to the Inca, one to the people. As a matter of form, the
+subdivision was annually made; in practice, however, as perhaps must
+always be the result of such agrarianism, the allotments were
+continually renewed. All the land was cultivated by the people, and in
+the following order: first, that of the Sun, then that of the destitute
+and infirm, then that of the people, and, lastly, that of the Inca. The
+Sun and the Inca owned all the sheep, which were sheared and their wool
+distributed to the people, or cotton furnished in its stead. The Inca's
+officers saw that it was all woven, and that no one was idle. An annual
+survey of the country, its farming and mineral products, was made, the
+inventory being transmitted to the government. A register was kept of
+births and deaths; periodically a general census was taken. The Inca, at
+once emperor and pope, was enabled, in that double capacity, to exert a
+rigorous patriarchal rule over his people, who were treated like mere
+children--not suffered to be oppressed, but compelled to be occupied;
+for, with a worldly wisdom which no other nation presents, labour was
+here acknowledged not only as a means, but also as an end. In Peru a man
+could not improve his social state; by these refinements of legislation
+he was brought into an absolutely stationary condition. He could become
+neither richer nor poorer; but it was the boast of the system that every
+one lived exempt from social suffering--that all enjoyed competence.
+
+[Sidenote: Military system; warlike resources.] The army consisted of
+200,000 men. Their weapons were bows, lances, slings, battle-axes,
+swords; their means of defence, shields, bucklers, helmets, and coats of
+quilted cotton. Each regiment had its own banner, but the imperial
+standard, the national emblem, was a rainbow, the offspring of the Sun.
+The swords and many of the domestic implements were of bronze; the
+arrows were tipped with quartz or bone, or points of gold and silver. A
+strict discipline was maintained on marching, granaries and depots being
+established at suitable distances on the roads. With a policy inflexibly
+persisted in, the gods of conquered countries were transported to Cuzco,
+and the vanquished compelled to worship the Sun; their children were
+obliged to learn the Peruvian language, the government providing them
+teachers for that purpose. As an incitement, this knowledge was
+absolutely required as a condition for public office. To amalgamate the
+conquered districts thoroughly, their inhabitants were taken away by ten
+thousand, transported to distant parts of the empire, not, as in the Old
+World, to be worked to death as slaves, but to be made into Peruvians;
+an equal number of natives were sent in their stead, to whom, as a
+recompense for their removal, extraordinary privileges were given. It
+was the immemorial policy of the empire to maintain profound
+tranquillity in the interior and perpetual war on the frontiers.
+
+The philosophical advancement of the Peruvians was much retarded by
+their imperfect method of writing--a method greatly inferior to that of
+Egypt. [Sidenote: Peruvian literature--the quipus.] A cord of coloured
+threads, called quipus, was only indifferently suited to the purposes of
+enumeration, and by no means equal to hieroglyphics as a method of
+expressing general facts. But it was their only system. Notwithstanding
+this drawback, they had a literature consisting of poetry, dramatic
+compositions, and the like. Their scientific attainments were inferior
+to the Mexican. Their year was divided into months, their months into
+weeks. They had gnomons to indicate the solstices. One, in the form of
+an obelisk, in the centre of a circle, on which was marked an east and
+west line, indicated the equinox. These gnomons were destroyed by the
+Spaniards in the belief that they were for idolatrous purposes, for on
+the national festivals it was customary to decorate them with leaves and
+flowers. As the national religion consisted in the worship of the Sun,
+it was not without reason that Quito was regarded as a holy place, from
+its position upon the equator.
+
+[Sidenote: Agriculture carried to perfection.] In their extraordinary
+provisions for agriculture, the national pursuit, the skill of the
+Peruvians is well seen. A rapid elevation from the sea-level to the
+heights of the mountains gave them, in a small compass, every variety of
+climate, and they availed themselves of it. They terraced the mountain
+sides, filling the terraces with rich earth. They excavated pits in the
+sand, surrounded them with adobe walls, and filled them with manured
+soil. On the low level they cultivated bananas and cassava; on the
+terraces above, maize and quinoa; still higher, tobacco; and above that
+the potato. From a comparatively limited surface, they raised great
+crops by judiciously using manures, employing for that purpose fish, and
+especially guano. Their example has led to the use of the latter
+substance for a like purpose in our own times in Europe. The whole
+civilized world has followed them in the cultivation of the potato. The
+Peruvian bark is one of the most invaluable remedies. Large tracts of
+North America would be almost uninhabitable without the use of its
+active alkaloid quinine, which actually, in no insignificant manner,
+reduces the percentage mortality throughout the United States.
+
+[Sidenote: The great aqueduct of Condesuya.] Indispensably necessary to
+their agricultural system were their great water-works. In Spain there
+was nothing worthy of being compared with them. The aqueduct of
+Condesuya was nearly 500 miles long. Its engineers had overcome
+difficulties in a manner that might well strike modern times with
+admiration. Its water was distributed as prescribed by law; there were
+officers to see to its proper use. From these great water-works and from
+their roads it may be judged that the architectural skill of the
+Peruvians was far from insignificant. They constructed edifices of
+porphyry, granite, brick; but their buildings were for the most part
+low, and suitable to an earthquake country.
+
+[Sidenote: The stages of human development always the same.] I have
+dwelt at some length on the domestic history of Mexico and Peru because
+it is intimately connected with one of the philosophical principles
+which it is the object of this book to teach, viz., that human progress
+takes place under an unvarying law, and therefore in a definite way. The
+trivial incidents mentioned in the preceding paragraphs may perhaps have
+seemed insignificant or wearisome, but it is their very commonness,
+their very familiarity, that gives them, when rightly considered, a
+surprising interest. There is nothing in these minute details but what
+we find to be perfectly natural from the European point of view. They
+might be, for that matter, instead of reminiscences of the spontaneous
+evolution of a people shut out from the rest of the world by impassable
+oceans, a relation of the progress of some European or Asiatic nation.
+The man of America advanced in his course of civilization as did the man
+of the Old World, devising the same institutions, guided by the same
+intentions, constrained by the same desires. From the great features of
+his social system down to the little details of his domestic life, there
+is a sameness with what was done in Asia, Africa, Europe. But similar
+results imply a similar cause. What, then, is there possessed in common
+by the Chinese, the Hindoo, the Egyptian, the European, the American?
+Surely not climate, nor equal necessities, nor equal opportunity. Simply
+nothing but this--corporeal organization! As automatons constructed in
+the same way will do the same things, so, in organic forms, sameness of
+structure will give rise to identity of function and similarity of acts.
+The same common sense guides men all over the world. Common sense is a
+function of common organization. All natural history is full of
+illustrations. [Sidenote: Analogy between societies of men and societies
+of animals.] It may be offensive to our pride, but it is none the less
+true, that in his social progress, the free-will of which man so boasts
+himself in his individual capacity disappears as an active influence,
+and the domination of general and inflexible laws becomes manifest. The
+free-will of the individual is supplanted by instinct and automatism in
+the race. To each individual bee the career is open; he may taste of
+this flower and avoid that; he may be industrious in the garden, or idle
+away his time in the air; but the history of one hive is the history of
+another hive; there will be a predestined organization--the queen, the
+drones, the workers. In the midst of a thousand unforeseen,
+uncalculated, variable acts, a definite result, with unerring certainty,
+emerges; the combs are built in a pre-ordained way, and filled with
+honey at last. From bees, and wasps, and ants, and birds--from all that
+low animal life on which he looks with such supercilious contempt, man
+is destined one day to learn what in truth he really is.
+
+[Sidenote: The crime of Spain in America.] For a second reason, also, I
+have dwelt on these details. The enormous crime of Spain in destroying
+this civilization has never yet been appreciated in Europe. After an
+attentive consideration of the facts of the case, I agree in the
+conclusion of Carli, that at the time of the conquest the moral man in
+Peru was superior to the European, and I will add, the intellectual man
+also. Was there in Spain, or even in all Europe, a political system
+carried out into the practical details of actual life, and expressed in
+great public works, as its outward visible and enduring sign, which
+could at all compare with that of Peru? Its only competitor was the
+Italian system, but that for long had been actively used to repress the
+intellectual advancement of man. [Sidenote: The Spaniard and the
+American.] In vain the Spaniards excuse their atrocities on the plea
+that a nation like the Mexican, which permitted cannibalism, should not
+be regarded as having emerged from the barbarous state, and that one
+which, like Peru, sacrificed human hecatombs at the funeral solemnities
+of great men, must have been savage. Let it be remembered that there is
+no civilized nation whose popular practices do not lag behind its
+intelligence; let it be remembered that in this respect Spain herself
+also was guilty. In America, human sacrifice was part of a religious
+solemnity, unstained by passion. The auto da fe of Europe was a dreadful
+cruelty; not an offering to heaven, but a gratification of spite,
+hatred, fear, vengeance--the most malignant passions of earth.
+[Sidenote: European and American human sacrifice.] There was no
+spectacle on the American continent at which a just man might so deeply
+blush for his race as that presented in Western Europe when the heretic
+from whom confession had been wrung by torture passed to his stake in a
+sleeveless garment, with flames of fire and effigies of an abominable
+import depicted upon it. Let it be remembered that by the Inquisition,
+from 1481 to 1808, 340,000 persons had been punished, and of these
+nearly 32,000 burnt. Let what was done in the south of France be
+remembered. Let it be also remembered that, considering the
+worthlessness of the body of man, and that, at the best, it is at last
+food for the worm--considering the infinite value of his immortal soul,
+for the redemption of which the agony and death of the Son of God were
+not too great a price to pay--indignities offered to the body are less
+wicked than indignities offered to the soul. It would be well for him
+who comes forward as an accuser of Mexico and Peru in their sin to
+dispose of the fact that at that period the entire authority of Europe
+was directed to the perversion, and even total repression of thought--to
+an enslaving of the mind, and making that noblest creation of Heaven a
+worthless machine. To taste of human flesh is less criminal in the eye
+of God than to stifle human thought.
+
+[Sidenote: Antiquity of American civilization.] Lastly, there is another
+point to which I will with brevity allude. It has been widely asserted
+that Mexican and Peruvian civilization was altogether a recent affair,
+dating at most only two or three centuries before the conquest. It would
+be just as well to say that there was no civilization in India before
+the time of the Macedonian invasion because there exist no historic
+documents in that country anterior to that event. The Mexicans and
+Peruvians were not heroes of a romance to whom wonderful events were of
+common occurrence, whose lives were regulated by laws not applying to
+the rest of the human race, who could produce results in a day for which
+elsewhere a thousand years are required. They were men and women like
+ourselves, slowly and painfully, and with many failures, working out
+their civilization. The summary manner in which they have been disposed
+of reminds us of the amusing way in which the popular chronology deals
+with the hoary annals of Egypt and China. Putting aside the imperfect
+methods of recording events practised by the autochthons of the Western
+world, he who estimates rightly the slowness with which man passes
+forward in his process of civilization, and collates therewith the
+prodigious works of art left by those two nations--an enduring evidence
+of the point to which they had attained--will find himself constrained
+to cast aside such idle assertions as altogether unworthy of
+confutation, or even of attention.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+APPROACH OF THE AGE OF REASON IN EUROPE.
+
+IT IS PRECEDED BY THE RISE OF CRITICISM.
+
+_Restoration of Greek Literature and Philosophy in Italy.--Development
+of Modern Languages and Rise of Criticism.--Imminent Danger to Latin
+Ideas._
+
+_Invention of Printing.--It revolutionizes the Communication of
+Knowledge, especially acts on Public Worship, and renders the Pulpit of
+secondary importance._
+
+THE REFORMATION.--_Theory of Supererogation and Use of Indulgences.--The
+Right of Individual Judgment asserted.--Political History of the Origin,
+Culmination, and Check of the Reformation.--Its Effects in Italy._
+
+_Causes of the Arrest of the Reformation.--Internal Causes in
+Protestantism.--External in the Policy of Rome.--The Counter-Reformation.
+--Inquisition.--Jesuits.--Secession of the great Critics.--Culmination
+of the Reformation in America.--Emergence of Individual Liberty of
+Thought._
+
+
+[Sidenote: The rise of criticism.] In estimating the influences of
+literature on the approach of the Age of Reason in Europe, the chief
+incidents to be considered are the disuse of Latin as a learned
+language, the formation of modern tongues from the vulgar dialects, the
+invention of printing, the decline of the power of the pulpit, and its
+displacement by that of the press. These, joined to the moral and
+intellectual influences at that time predominating, led to the great
+movement known as the Reformation.
+
+[Sidenote: Epoch of the intellectual movement.] As if to mark out to the
+world the real cause of its intellectual degradation, the regeneration
+of Italy commenced with the exile of the popes to Avignon. During their
+absence, so rapid was the progress that it had become altogether
+impossible to make any successful resistance, or to restore the old
+condition of things on their return to Rome. The moment that the leaden
+cloud which they had kept suspended over the country was withdrawn, the
+light from heaven shot in, and the ready peninsula became instinct with
+life.
+
+[Sidenote: Use of Latin as a sacred language.] The unity of the Church,
+and, therefore, its power, required the use of Latin as a sacred
+language. Through this Rome had stood in an attitude strictly European,
+and was enabled to maintain a general international relation. It gave
+her far more power than her asserted celestial authority, and, much as
+she claims to have done, she is open to condemnation that, with such a
+signal advantage in her hands, never again to be enjoyed by any
+successor, she did not accomplish much more. Had not the sovereign
+pontiffs been so completely occupied with maintaining their emoluments
+and temporalities in Italy, they might have made the whole Continent
+advance like one man. Their officials could pass without difficulty into
+every nation, and communicate without embarrassment with each other,
+from Ireland to Bohemia, from Italy to Scotland. The possession of a
+common tongue gave them the administration of international affairs with
+intelligent allies everywhere speaking the same language.
+
+[Sidenote: Causes of the dislike of Rome to the Greek,] Not, therefore,
+without cause was the hatred manifested by Rome to the restoration of
+Greek and introduction of Hebrew, and the alarm with which she perceived
+the modern languages forming out of the vulgar dialects. The prevalence
+of Latin was the condition of her power, its deterioration the measure
+of her decay, its disuse the signal of her limitation to a little
+principality in Italy. In fact, the development of European languages
+was the instrument of her overthrow. They formed an effectual
+communication between the mendicant friars and the illiterate populace,
+and there was not one of them that did not display in its earliest
+productions a sovereign contempt for her. We have seen how it was with
+the poetry of Languedoc.
+
+[Sidenote: and danger from modern languages.] The rise of the
+many-tongued European literature was therefore coincident with the
+decline of papal Christianity. European literature was impossible under
+the Catholic rule. A grand, and solemn, and imposing religious unity
+enforced the literary unity which is implied in the use of a single
+language. No more can a living thought be embodied in a dead language
+than activity be imparted to a corpse.
+
+[Sidenote: Public disadvantages of a sacred tongue.] That principle
+of stability which Italy hoped to give to Europe essentially rested on
+the compulsory use of a dead tongue. The first token of intellectual
+emancipation was the movement of the great Italian poets, led by Dante,
+who often, not without irreverence, broke the spell. Unity in religion
+implies unity through a sacred language, and hence the non-existence of
+particular national literatures.
+
+[Sidenote: Effect of modern languages.] Even after Rome had suffered her
+great discomfiture on the scientific question respecting the motion of
+the earth, the conquering party was not unwilling to veil its thoughts
+in the Latin tongue, partly because it thereby insured a more numerous
+class of intelligent readers, and partly because ecclesiastical
+authority was now disposed to overlook what must otherwise be treated as
+offensive, since to write in Latin was obviously a pledge of abstaining
+from an appeal to the vulgar. The effect of the introduction of modern
+languages was to diminish intercommunication among the learned.
+
+[Sidenote: Approach of a crisis in Europe.] The movement of human
+affairs, for so many years silent and imperceptible, was at length
+coming to a crisis. An appeal to the emotions and moral sentiments at
+the basis of the system, the history of which has occupied us so long,
+had been fully made, and found ineffectual. It was now the time for a
+like appeal to the understanding. Each age of life has its own logic.
+The logic of the senses is in due season succeeded by that of the
+intellect. Of faith there are two kinds, one of acquiescence, one of
+conviction; and a time inevitably arrives when emotional faith is
+supplanted by intellectual.
+
+[Sidenote: Cosmo de' Medici. Florence.] As if to prove that the
+impending crisis was not the offspring of human intentions, and not
+occasioned by any one man, though that man might be the sovereign
+pontiff, Nicolas V. found in his patronage of letters and art a rival
+and friend in Cosmo de' Medici. An instructive incident shows how great
+a change had taken place in the sentiments of the higher classes: Cosmo,
+the richest of Italians, who had lavished his wealth on palaces,
+churches, hospitals, libraries, was comforted on his death-bed, not, as
+in former days would have been the case, by ministers of religion, but
+by Marsilius Ficinus, the Platonist, who set before him the arguments
+for a future life, and consoled his passing spirit with the examples and
+precepts of Greek philosophy, teaching him thereby to exchange faith for
+hope, forgetting that too often hopes are only the day-dreams of men,
+not less unsubstantial and vain than their kindred of the night. Ficinus
+had perhaps come to the conviction that philosophy is only a higher
+stage of theology, the philosopher a very enlightened theologian.
+[Sidenote: Reappearance of Platonism in Italy.] He was the
+representative of Platonism, which for so many centuries had been hidden
+from the sight of men in Eastern monasteries since its overthrow in
+Alexandria, and which was now emerging into existence in the favouring
+atmosphere of Italy. His school looked back with delight, and even with
+devotion, to the illustrious pagan times, commemorating by a symposium
+on November 13th the birthday of Plato. The Academy of Athens was
+revived in the Medicean gardens of Florence. Not that Ficinus is to be
+regarded as a servile follower of the great philosopher. [Sidenote:
+Doctrines of Marsilius Ficinus.] He alloyed the doctrines of Plato with
+others derived from a more sinister source--the theory of the Mohammedan
+Averroes, of which it was an essential condition that there is a soul of
+humanity, through their relations with which individual souls are
+capable of forming universal ideas, for such, Averroes asserted, is the
+necessary consequence of the emanation theory.
+
+[Sidenote: Revival of Greek learning in Italy.] Under such auspices, and
+at this critical moment, occurred the revival of Greek literature in
+Italy. It had been neglected for more than seven hundred years. In the
+solitary instances of individuals to whom here and there a knowledge of
+that language was imputed, there seem satisfactory reasons for supposing
+that their requirements amounted to little more than the ability of
+translating some "petty patristic treatise." The first glimmerings of
+this revival appear in the thirteenth century; they are somewhat more
+distinct in the fourteenth. The capture of Constantinople by the Latin
+Crusaders had done little more than diffuse a few manuscripts and works
+of art along with the more highly prized monkish relics in the West. It
+was the Turkish pressure, which all reflecting Greeks foresaw could have
+no other result than the fall of the Byzantine power, that induced some
+persons of literary tastes to seek a livelihood and safety in Italy.
+
+[Sidenote: Gradual progress of the Restoration.] In the time of
+Petrarch, 1304-1374, the improvement did not amount to much. That
+illustrious poet says that there were not more than ten persons in Italy
+who could appreciate Homer. Both Petrarch and Boccacio spared no pains
+to acquaint themselves with the lost tongue. The latter had succeeded in
+obtaining for Leontius Pilatus, the Calabrian, a Greek professorship at
+Florence. He describes this Greek teacher as clad in the mantle of a
+philosopher, his countenance hideous, his face overshadowed with black
+hair, his beard long and uncombed, his deportment rustic, his temper
+gloomy and inconstant, but his mind was stored with the treasures of
+learning. Leontius left Italy in disgust, but, returning again, was
+struck dead by lightning in a storm while tied to the mast of the ship.
+The author from whom I am quoting significantly adds that Petrarch
+laments his fate, but nervously asks whether "some copy of Euripides or
+Sophocles might not be recovered from the mariners."
+
+The restoration of Greek to Italy may be dated A.D. 1395, at which time
+Chrysoloras commenced teaching it. A few years after Aurispa brought
+into Italy two hundred and thirty-eight Greek manuscripts; among them
+were Plato and Pindar. The first endeavour was to translate such
+manuscripts into Latin. To a considerable extent, the religious scruples
+against Greek literature were giving way; the study found a patron in
+the pope himself, Eugenius IV. As the intention of the Turks to seize
+Constantinople became more obvious, the emigration of learned Greeks
+into Italy became more frequent. And yet, with the exception of
+Petrarch, and he was scarcely an exception, not one of the Italian
+scholars was an ecclesiastic.
+
+[Sidenote: Lorenzo de' Medici, his villas, gardens, and philosophy.]
+Lorenzo de' Medici, the grandson of Cosmo, used every exertion to
+increase the rising taste, generously permitting his manuscripts to be
+copied. Nor was it alone to literature that he extended his patronage.
+In his beautiful villa at Fiesole the philosophy of the old times was
+revived; his botanic garden at Careggi was filled with Oriental exotics.
+From 1470 to 1492, the year of his death, his happy influence continued.
+He lived to witness the ancient Platonism overcoming the Platonism of
+Alexandria, and the pure doctrine of Aristotle expelling the base
+Aristotelian doctrine of the schools.
+
+[Sidenote: Effects instantly produced by the Greek language.] The last
+half of the fifteenth century revealed to Western Europe two worlds, a
+new one and an old; the former by the voyage of Columbus, the latter by
+the capture of Constantinople; one destined to revolutionize the
+industrial, the other the religious condition. Greek literature, forced
+into Italy by the Turkish arms, worked wonders; for Latin Europe found
+with amazement that the ancient half of Christendom knew nothing
+whatever of the doctrine or of the saints of the West. Now was divulged
+the secret reason of that bitter hatred displayed by the Catholic clergy
+to Grecian learning. [Sidenote: Causes of the prevailing dislike of
+Greek.] It had sometimes been supposed that the ill-concealed dislike
+they had so often shown to the writings of Aristotle was because of the
+Arab dress in which his Saracen commentators had presented him; now it
+appeared that there was something more important, more profound. It was
+a terror of the Greek itself. Very soon the direction toward which
+things must inevitably tend became manifest; the modern languages, fast
+developing, were making Latin an obsolete tongue, and political events
+were giving it a rival--Greek--capable of asserting over it a supremacy;
+and not a solitary rival, for to Greek it was clear that Hebrew would
+soon be added, bringing with it the charms of a hoary antiquity and the
+sinister learning of the Jew. With a quick, a jealous suspicion, the
+ecclesiastic soon learned to detect a heretic from his knowledge of
+Greek and Hebrew, just as is done in our day from a knowledge of
+physical science. The authority of the Vulgate, that corner-stone of the
+Italian system, was, in the expectation of Rome, inevitably certain to
+be depreciated; and, in truth, judging from the honours of which that
+great translation was soon despoiled by the incoming of Greek and
+Hebrew, it was declared, not with more emphasis than truth, yet not,
+perhaps, without irreverence, that there was a second crucifixion
+between two thieves. Long after the times of which we are speaking, the
+University of Paris resisted the introduction of Greek into its course
+of studies, not because of any dislike to letters, but because of its
+anticipated obnoxious bearing on Latin theology.
+
+[Sidenote: Tendency of "The Imitation of Christ."] We can scarcely look
+in any direction without observing instances of the wonderful change
+taking place in the opinions of men. To that disposition to lean on a
+privileged mediating order, once the striking characteristic of all
+classes of the laity in Europe, there had succeeded a sentiment of
+self-reliance. Of this perhaps mo better proof can be furnished than the
+popularity of the work reputed to have been written by Thomas a Kempis,
+and entitled "The Imitation of Christ." It is said to have had probably
+more readers than any other book except the Bible. Its great celebrity
+is a proof how profoundly ecclesiastical influence had been affected,
+for its essential intention was to enable the pious to cultivate their
+devotional feeling without the intervention of the clergy. Such a work,
+if written in the present day, would have found an apt and popular title
+in "Every Man his own Priest." There is no reason for supposing that the
+condition to which man had at that time been brought, as the general
+result of Italian Christianity, was one of intense selfishness, as has
+been asserted; the celebrity of this book was rather dependent on a
+profound distrust everywhere felt in the clergy, both as regards morals
+and intellect. And why should we be surprised that such should be the
+case with the laity, when in all directions the clergy themselves were
+giving proof that they could not trust their own strength? They could
+not conceal their dread at the incoming of Greek; they could not speak
+without horror of the influence of Hebrew; they were loud in their
+protestations against the study of pagan philosophy, and held up to the
+derision and condemnation of the world science denounced by them as
+profane. [Sidenote: Danger to the unity of the Church.] They foresaw
+that that fictitious unity of which they had boasted was drawing to an
+end; that men would become acquainted with the existence and history of
+churches more ancient, and, therefore, more venerable than the Roman,
+and, like it, asserting an authenticity upon unimpeachable proofs. But
+once let sects with such an impressive prestige be introduced to the
+knowledge of the West, once let the appearance of inviolate unity be
+taken from the Latin Church, and nothing could prevent a spontaneous
+decomposition forthwith occurring in it. It must break up into sects,
+which, in their turn, must break up, in process of time, into smaller
+and smaller divisions, and, through this means, the European must emerge
+at last into individual liberty of thought. The compelling hand of
+ecclesiastical tyranny must be removed, and universal toleration ensue.
+Nor were such anticipations mere idle suspicions, for such was the
+course that events actually took. Scarcely had the Reformation occurred
+when sectarian subdivisions made their appearance, and in modern times
+we see that an anarchy of sects is the inevitable harbinger of
+individual liberty of thought.
+
+[Sidenote: Higher requirements in evidence.] As we have just said, it
+was impossible to look in any direction on the latter half of the
+fifteenth century without recognizing the wonderful change. It had
+become obviously useless any longer to assert an immobility of humanity
+when men were standing face to face with the new forms into which it had
+been transposed. New ideas had driven out old ones. Natural phenomena
+could not again be likened to human acts, nor the necessities of man
+regarded as determining the movements of the universe. A better
+appreciation of the nature of evidence was arising, perhaps in part
+through the influence of the lawyers, but in part through a commencing
+taste for criticism. We see it in such facts as the denial that a
+miracle can be taken as the proof of anything else than the special
+circumstances with which it is connected; we see it in the assertion
+that the martyrdom of men in support of a dogma, so far from proving its
+truth, proves rather its doubtfulness, no geometer having ever thought
+it worth his while to die in order to establish any mathematical
+proposition, truth needing no such sacrifices, which are actually
+unserviceable and useless to it, since it is able spontaneously to force
+its own way. [Sidenote: Disbelief setting in in Italy.] In Italy, where
+the popular pecuniary interests were obviously identical with those of
+the Church, a dismal disbelief was silently engendering.
+
+And now occurred an event the results of which it is impossible to
+exaggerate.
+
+[Sidenote: Invention of printing: its early history.] About A.D. 1440
+the art of printing seems to have been invented in Europe. It is not
+material to our purpose to inquire into the particulars of its history,
+whether we should attribute it to Coster of Haarlaem or Gutenberg of
+Mentz, or whether, in reality, it was introduced by the Venetians from
+China, where it had been practised for nearly two thousand years. In
+Venice a decree was issued in 1441 in relation to printing, which would
+seem to imply that it had been known there for some years. Coster is
+supposed to have printed the "Speculum Humanae Salvationis" about 1440,
+and Gutenberg and Faust the Mentz Bible without date, 1455. The art
+reached perfection at once; their Bible is still admired for its
+beautiful typography. Among the earliest specimens of printing extant is
+an exhortation to take up arms against the Turks, 1454; there are also
+two letters of indulgence of Nicolas V. of the same date. In the
+beginning each page was engraved on a block of wood, but soon movable
+types were introduced. Impressions of the former kind pass under the
+name of block books; at first they were sold as manuscripts. Two of
+Faust's workmen commenced printing in Italy, but not until 1465; they
+there published an edition of "Lactantius," one of "Cicero de Officiis,"
+and one of "Augustine de Civitate Dei." The art was carried to France
+1469, and in a few years was generally practised in all the large
+European towns. [Sidenote: Early books and booksellers.] The printers
+were their own booksellers; the number of copies in each edition usually
+about three hundred. Folios were succeeded by quartos, and in 1501
+duodecimos were introduced. Very soon the price of books was reduced by
+four fifths, and existing interests required regulations not only
+respecting the cost, but also respecting the contents. Thus the
+University of Paris established a tariff for their sale, and also
+exercised a supervision in behalf of the Church, and the State. From the
+outset it was clear that printing would inevitably influence the
+intellectual movement synchronously occurring.
+
+[Sidenote: Measure of the contemporaneous mental state of nations.] Some
+authors have endeavoured to estimate the intellectual condition of
+different countries in Europe at the close of the fifteenth century by
+the literary activity they displayed in the preparation and printing of
+editions of books. Though it is plain that such estimates can hardly be
+rigorously correct, since to print a book not only implies literary
+capacity, but also the connexions of business and trade, and hence works
+are more likely to be issued in places where there is a mercantile
+activity, yet such estimates are perhaps the most exact that we can now
+obtain; they also lead us to some very interesting and unexpected
+results of singular value in their connexion with that important epoch.
+Thus it appears that in all Europe, between 1470 and 1500, more than ten
+thousand editions of books and pamphlets were printed, and of them a
+majority in Italy, demonstrating that Italy was in the van of the
+intellectual movement. Out of this large number, in Venice there had
+been printed 2,835; Milan, 625; Bologna, 298; Rome, 925; Paris, 751;
+Cologne, 530; Nuremberg, 382; Leipsic, 851; Bale, 320; Strasburg, 526;
+Augsburg, 256; Louvain, 116; Mentz, 134; Deventer, 169; London, 130;
+Oxford, 7; St. Alban's, 4.
+
+[Sidenote: Italy compared with the rest of Europe.] Venice, therefore,
+took the lead. England was in a very backward state. This conclusion is
+confirmed by many other circumstances, which justify the statement that
+Italy was as far advanced intellectually in 1400 as England in 1500.
+Paris exhibits a superiority sixfold over London, and in the next ten
+years the disproportion becomes even more remarkable, for in Paris four
+hundred and thirty editions were printed, in London only twenty-six. The
+light of learning became enfeebled by distance from its Italian focus.
+As late as 1550, a complete century after the establishment of the art,
+but seven works had been printed in Scotland, and among them not a
+single classic. It is an amusing proof how local tastes were consulted
+in the character of the books thus put forth, that the first work issued
+in Spain, 1474, was on the "Conception of the Virgin."
+
+[Sidenote: Effect of printing on literature and the Church.] The
+invention of printing operated in two modes altogether distinct; first,
+in the multiplying and cheapening of books, secondly, in substituting
+reading for pulpit instruction.
+
+[Sidenote: Cheapening of books.] First, as to the multiplication and
+cheapening of books--there is no reason to suppose that the supply had
+ever been inadequate. As, under the Ptolemies, book manufacture was
+carried forward in the Museum at Alexandria to an extent which fully
+satisfied demands, so in all the great abbeys there was an
+apartment--the Scriptorium--for the copying and making of books. Such a
+sedentary occupation could not but be agreeable to persons of a
+contemplative or quiet habit of life. But Greece, Rome, Egypt--indeed,
+all the ancient governments except that of China, were founded upon
+elements among which did not appear that all-important one of modern
+times, a reading class. Information passed from mouth to mouth, not from
+eye to eye. With a limited demand, the compensation to the copier was
+sufficient, and the cost to the purchaser moderate. It is altogether a
+mistake to suppose that the methods and advantages of printing were
+unknown. Modifications of that art were used wherever occasion called
+for them. We do not need the Roman stamps to satisfy us of that fact
+every Babylonian brick and signet ring is an illustration. [Sidenote:
+The want of paper. Damascus paper.] Printing processes of various kinds
+were well enough known. The real difficulty was the want of paper. That
+substance was first made in Europe by the Spanish Moors from the fine
+flax of Valentia and Murcia. Cotton paper, sold as charta Damascena, had
+been previously made at Damascus, and several different varieties had
+long been manufactured in China.
+
+Had there been more readers, paper would have been more abundantly
+produced, and there would have been more copiers--nay, even there would
+have been printers. An increased demand would have been answered by an
+increased supply. As soon as such a demand arose in Europe the press was
+introduced, as it had been thousands of years before in China.
+
+[Sidenote: Longevity of books curtailed.] So far as the public is
+concerned, printing has been an unmixed advantage; not so, however, in
+its bearing on authors. The longevity of books is greatly impaired, a
+melancholy conclusion to an ambitious intellect. The duration of many
+ancient books which have escaped the chances of time is to be hoped for
+no more. In this shortening of their term the excessive multiplication
+of works greatly assists. A rapid succession soon makes those of
+distinction obsolete, and then consigns them to oblivion. No author can
+now expect immortality. His utmost hope is only this, that his book may
+live a little longer than himself.
+
+[Sidenote: Multiplication of books.] But it was with printing as with
+other affairs of the market--an increased demand gave origin to an
+increased supply, which, in its turn reacting, increased the demand.
+Cheap books bred readers. When the monks, abandoning their useless and
+lazy life of saying their prayers a dozen times a day, turned to the
+copying and illustrating of manuscripts, a mental elevation of the whole
+order was the result; there were more monks who could read. And so, on
+the greater scale, as books through the press became more abundant,
+there were more persons to whom they became a necessity.
+
+[Sidenote: The mode of communicating knowledge changes.] But, secondly,
+as to the change which ensued in the mode of communicating
+information--a change felt instantly in the ecclesiastical, and, at a
+later period, in the political world. The whole system of public worship
+had been founded on the condition of a non-reading people; hence the
+reading of prayers and the sermon. Whoever will attentively compare the
+thirteenth with the nineteenth century cannot fail to see how essential
+oral instruction was in the former, how subordinate in the latter.
+[Sidenote: Injury to pulpit instruction.] The invention of the
+printing-press gave an instant, a formidable rival to the pulpit. It
+made possible that which had been impossible before in Christian
+Europe--direct communication between the government and the people
+without any religious intermedium, and was the first step in that
+important change subsequently carried out in America, the separation of
+Church and state. Though in this particular the effect was desirable, in
+another its advantages are doubtful, for the Church adhered to her
+ancient method when it had lost very much of its real force, and this
+even at the risk of falling into a lifeless and impassive condition.
+
+[Sidenote: Influence of church services on the people.] And yet we must
+not undervalue the power once exercised on a non-reading community by
+oral and scenic teachings. What could better instruct it than a formal
+congregating of neighbourhoods together each Sabbath-day to listen in
+silence and without questioning? In those great churches, the
+architectural grandeur of which is still the admiration of our material
+age, nothing was wanting to impress the worshipper. The vast pile, with
+its turrets or spire pointing to heaven; its steep inclining roof; its
+walls, with niches and statues; its echoing belfry; its windows of
+exquisite hues and of every form, lancet, or wheel, or rose, through
+which stole in the many-coloured light; its chapels, with their pictured
+walls; its rows of slender, clustering columns, and arches tier upon
+tier; its many tapering pendants; the priest emerging from his scenic
+retreat; his chalice and forbidden wine; the covering paten, the cibory,
+and the pix. Amid clouds of incense from smoking censers, the blaze of
+lamps, and tapers, and branching candlesticks, the tinkling of silver
+bells, the play of jewelled vessels and gorgeous dresses of violet,
+green, and gold, banners and crosses were borne aloft through lines of
+kneeling worshippers in processional services along the aisles. The
+chanting of litanies and psalms gave a foretaste of the melodies of
+heaven, and the voices of the choristers and sounds of the organ now
+thundered forth glory to God in the highest, now whispered to the broken
+in spirit peace.
+
+[Sidenote: Influence of village churches.] If such were the influences
+in the cathedral, not less were those that gathered round the little
+village church. To the peasant it was endeared by the most touching
+incidents of his life. At its font his parents had given him his name;
+at its altar he had plighted his matrimonial vows; beneath the little
+grass mounds in its yard there awaited the resurrection those who had
+been untimely taken away. Connected thus with the profoundest and
+holiest sentiments of humanity, the pulpit was for instruction a sole
+and sufficient means. Nothing like it had existed in paganism. The
+irregular, ill-timed, occasional eloquence of the Greek republican
+orators cannot for an instant be set in comparison with such a steady
+and enduring systematic institution.
+
+In a temporal as well as in a spiritual sense, the public authorities
+appreciated its power. Queen Elizabeth was not the only sovereign who
+knew how to thunder through a thousand pulpits.
+
+[Sidenote: The pulpit yields to the press.] For a length of time, as
+might have been expected, considering its power and favouring
+adventitious circumstances, the pulpit maintained itself successfully
+against the press. Nevertheless, its eventual subordination was none the
+less sure. If there are disadvantages in the method of acquiring
+knowledge by reading, there are also signal advantages; for, though upon
+the printed page the silent letters are mute and unsustained by any
+scenic help, yet often--a wonderful contradiction--they pour forth
+emphatic eloquence, that can make the heart leap with emotion, or kindle
+on the cheek the blush of shame. The might of persuasiveness does not
+always lie in articulate speech. The strong are often the silent. God
+never speaks.
+
+[Sidenote: Listening and reading.] There is another condition which
+gives to reading a great advantage over listening. In the affairs of
+life, how wide is the difference between having a thing done for us and
+doing it ourselves! In the latter case, how great is the interest
+awakened, how much more thorough the examination, how much more perfect
+the acquaintance. To listen implies merely a passive frame of mind; to
+read, an active. But the latter is more noble.
+
+[Sidenote: Decline of pulpit influence.] From these and other such
+considerations, it might have been foreseen that the printing-press
+would at last deprive the pulpit of its supremacy, making it become
+ineffective, or reducing it to an ancillary aid. It must have been clear
+that the time would arrive when, though adorned by the eloquence of
+great and good men, the sermon would lose its power for moving popular
+masses or directing public thought.
+
+[Sidenote: Newspapers; their origin.] Upon temporal as well as
+ecclesiastical authority, the influence of this great change was also
+felt. During the Turkish war of 1563 newspapers first made their
+appearance in Venice. They were in manuscript. The "Gazette de France"
+commenced in 1631. There seems to be doubt as to the authenticity of the
+early English papers reputed to have been published during the
+excitement of the Spanish Armada, and of which copies remain in the
+British Museum. It was not until the civil wars that, under the names of
+Mercuries, Intelligences, etc., newspapers fairly established themselves
+in England.
+
+[Sidenote: Decline of power in parliamentary eloquence.] What I have
+said respecting the influence of the press upon religious life applies
+substantially to civil life also. Oratory has sunk into a secondary
+position, being every day more and more thoroughly supplanted by
+journalism. No matter how excellent it may be in its sphere of action,
+it is essentially limited, and altogether incompetent to the influencing
+of masses of men in the manner which our modern social system requires.
+Without a newspaper, what would be the worth of the most eloquent
+parliamentary attempts? It is that which really makes them instruments
+of power, and gives to them political force, which takes them out of a
+little circle of cultivated auditors, and throws them broadcast over
+nations.
+
+[Sidenote: Dawn of the Reformation.] Such was the literary condition of
+Western Europe, such the new power that had been found in the press.
+These were but initiatory to the great drama now commencing. We have
+already seen that synchronously with this intellectual there was a moral
+impulse coming into play. The two were in harmony. At the time now
+occupying our attention there was a possibility for the moral impulse to
+act under several different forms. The special mode in which it came
+into effect was determined by the pecuniary necessities of Italy. It
+very soon, however, assumed larger proportions, and became what is known
+to us as the Reformation. The movement against Rome that had been
+abandoned for a century was now recommenced.
+
+[Sidenote: Variation of human thought.] The variation of human thought
+proceeds in a continuous manner, new ideas springing out of old ones
+either as corrections or developments, but never spontaneously
+originating. With them, as with organic forms, each requires a germ, a
+seed. The intellectual phase of humanity observed at any moment is
+therefore an embodiment of many different things. It is connected with
+the past, is in unison with the present, and contains the embryo of the
+future.
+
+Human opinions must hence, of absolute necessity, undergo
+transformation. What has been received by one generation as undoubted,
+to a subsequent one becomes so conspicuously fallacious as to excite the
+wonder of those who do not distinctly appreciate the law of psychical
+advance that it could ever have been received as true. These phases of
+transformation are not only related in a chronological way, so as to be
+obvious when we examine the ideas of society at epochs of a few years or
+of centuries apart--they exist also contemporaneously in different
+nations or in different social grades of the same nation, according as
+the class of persons considered has made a greater or less intellectual
+progress.
+
+[Sidenote: Variations in Italian ideas.] Notwithstanding the assertion
+of Rome, the essential ideas of the Italian system had undergone
+unavoidable modifications. An illiterate people, easily imposed upon,
+had accepted as true the asseveration that there had been no change even
+from the apostolic times. But the time had now come when that fiction
+could no longer be maintained, the divergence no longer concealed. In
+the new state of things, it was impossible that dogmas in absolute
+opposition to reason, such as that of transubstantiation, could any
+longer hold their ground. The scholastic theology and scholastic
+philosophy, though supported by the universities, had become obsolete.
+With the revival of pure Latinity and the introduction of Greek, the
+foundations of a more correct criticism were laid. An age of erudition
+was unavoidable, in which whatever could not establish its claims
+against a searching examination must necessarily be overthrown.
+
+[Sidenote: The Reformation: its history.] We are thus brought to the
+great movement known as the Reformation. The term is usually applied in
+reference to the Protestant nations, and therefore is not sufficiently
+comprehensive, for all Europe was in truth involved. A clear
+understanding of its origin, its process, its effects, is perhaps best
+obtained by an examination of the condition of the northern and southern
+nations, and the issue of the event in each respectively.
+
+[Sidenote: The preparatory state of Germany, France, England.] Germany
+had always been sincere, and therefore always devout. Of her disposition
+she had given many proofs from the time when the Emperor Otho descended
+into Italy, his expedition having been, as was said, an armed procession
+of ecclesiastics resolved to abate the scandals of the Church. The
+Councils of Constance and Basle may be looked upon as an embodiment of
+the same sentiment. The resolution to limit the papal authority and to
+put a superior over the pope arose from a profound conviction of the
+necessity of such a measure. Those councils were precursors of the
+coming Reformation. In other countries events had long been tending in
+the same direction: in Sicily and Italy by the acts of Frederick II.; in
+France through those of Philip the Fair. The educated had been estranged
+by the Saracens and Jews; the enthusiastic by such works as the
+Everlasting Gospel; the devout had been shocked by the tale of the
+Templars and the detected immoralities in Rome; the patriotic had been
+alienated by the assumptions of the papal court and its incessant
+intermeddling in political affairs; the inferior, unreflecting orders
+were in all directions exasperated by its importunate, unceasing
+exactions of money. In England, for instance, though less advanced
+intellectually than the southern nations, the commencement of the
+Reformation is perhaps justly referred as far back as the reign of
+Edward III., who, under the suggestion of Wiclif, refused to do homage
+to the pope, but a series of weaker princes succeeding, it was not until
+Henry VII. that the movement could be continued. In that country the
+immediately exciting causes were no doubt of a material kind, such as
+the alleged avarice and impurity of the clergy, the immense amount of
+money taken from the realm, the intrusion of foreign ecclesiastics. In
+the South of France and in Italy, where the intellectual condition was
+much more advanced, the movement was correspondingly of a more
+intellectual kind. To this difference between the north and the south
+must be referred not only the striking geographical distribution of
+belief which was soon apparent, but also the speedy and abrupt
+limitation of the Reformation, restrictedly so called.
+
+[Sidenote: The theory of supererogation,] In recent ages, under her
+financial pressure, Rome had asserted that the infinite merits of our
+Saviour, together with the good works of supererogation of many holy
+men, constituted, as it were, a fund from which might be discharged
+penalties of sins of every kind, for the dead as well as the living, and
+therefore available for those who had passed into Purgatory, as well as
+for us who remain. [Sidenote: and nature of indulgences.] This fund,
+committed to the care of St. Peter and his successors, may be disbursed,
+under the form of indulgences, by sale for money. A traffic in
+indulgences was thus carried on to a great extent through the medium of
+the monks, who received a commission upon the profits. Of course, it is
+plain that the religious conception of such a transaction is liable to
+adverse criticism--the bartering for money so holy a thing as the merit
+of our Redeemer. This was, however, only the ostensible explanation,
+which it was judged necessary to present to sincerely pious communities:
+behind it there lay the real reason, which was essentially of a
+political kind. It was absolutely necessary that papal Rome should
+control a revenue far beyond that arising in a strictly legitimate way.
+As all the world had been drained of money by the senate and Caesars for
+the support of republican or imperial power, so too there was a need of
+a like supply for the use of the pontiffs. The collection of funds had
+often given rise to contentions between the ecclesiastical and temporal
+authorities, and in some of the more sturdy countries had been
+resolutely resisted. To collect a direct tax is often a troublesome
+affair; but such is human nature--a man from whom it might be difficult
+to extort the payment of an impost lawfully laid, will often cheerfully
+find means to purchase for himself indulgence for sin. In such a
+semi-barbarian but yet religious population as that with which the
+Church was dealing, it was quite clear that this manner of presenting
+things possessed singular advantages, an obvious equivalent being given
+for the money received. The indulgence implied not only a release from
+celestial, but also, in many cases, from civil penalties. It was an
+absolute guarantee from hell.
+
+[Sidenote: Martin Luther.] It is said that the attention of Martin
+Luther, formerly an Augustinian monk, was first attracted to this
+subject by the traffic having been conferred on the Dominicans instead
+of upon his own order at the time when Leo X. was raising funds by this
+means for building St. Peter's at Rome, A.D. 1517. That was probably
+only an insinuation of Luther's adversaries, and is very far from being
+borne out by his subsequent conduct. His first public movement was the
+putting forth of ninety-five theses against the practice. He posted them
+on the door of the cathedral of Wittenberg, and enforced them in his
+sermons, though at this time he professed obedience to the papal
+authority. With a rapidity probably unexpected by him, his acts excited
+public attention so strongly, that, though the pope was at first
+disposed to regard the whole affair as a mere monkish squabble for
+gains, it soon became obvious, from the manner in which the commotion
+was spreading, that something must be done to check it. The pope
+therefore summoned Luther to Rome to answer for himself; but through the
+influence of certain great personages, and receiving a submissive letter
+from the accused, he, on reconsideration, referred the matter to
+Cardinal Cajetan, his legate in Germany. The cardinal, on looking into
+the affair, ordered Luther to retract; and now came into prominence the
+mental qualities of this great man. Luther, with respectful firmness,
+refused; but remembering John Huss, and fearing that the imperial
+safe-conduct which had been given to him would be insufficient for his
+protection, he secretly returned to Wittenberg, having first, however,
+solemnly appealed from the pope, ill informed at the time, to the pope
+when he should have been better instructed. Thereupon he was condemned
+as a heretic. Undismayed, he continued to defend his opinions, but,
+finding himself in imminent danger, he fell upon the suggestion which,
+since the days of Philip the Fair, had been recognized as the true
+method of dealing with the papacy, and appealed to a general council as
+the true representative of the Church, and therefore superior to the
+pope, who is not infallible any more than St. Peter himself had been. To
+this denial of papal authority he soon added a dissent from the
+doctrines of purgatory, auricular confession, absolution. [Sidenote: The
+right of individual judgment asserted.] It was now that the grand idea
+which had hitherto silently lain at the bottom of the whole movement
+emerged into prominence--the right of individual judgment--under the
+dogma that it is not papal authority which should be the guide of life,
+but the Bible, and that the Bible is to be interpreted by private
+judgment. Thus far it had been received that the Bible derives its
+authenticity and authority from the Church; now it was asserted that the
+Church derives her authenticity and authority from the Bible. At this
+moment there was but one course for the Italian court to take with the
+audacious offender, for this new doctrine of the right of exercising
+private judgment in matters of faith was dangerous to the last extreme,
+and not to be tolerated for a moment. [Sidenote: Excommunication of
+Luther.] Luther was therefore ordered to recant, and to burn his own
+works, under penalty, if disobedient, of being excommunicated, and
+delivered over unto Satan. The bull thus issued directed all secular
+princes to seize his person and punish his crimes.
+
+[Sidenote: He resists, and publicly burns the bull,] But Luther was not
+to be intimidated; nay, more, he retaliated. He denounced the pope, as
+Frederick and the Fratricelli had formerly done, as the Man of Sin, the
+Anti-Christ. He called upon all Christian princes to shake off his
+tyranny. In presence of a great concourse of applauding spectators, he
+committed the volumes of the canon law and the bull of excommunication
+to the flames. The pope now issued another bull expelling him from the
+Church. This was in January, 1521. This separation opened to Luther an
+unrestrained career. He forthwith proceeded to an examination of the
+Italian system of theology and policy, in which he was joined by many
+talented men who participated in his views. The Emperor Charles V. found
+it necessary to use all his influence to check the spreading
+Reformation. But it was already too late, for Luther had obtained the
+firm support of many personages of influence, and his doctrines were
+finding defenders among some of the ablest men in Europe.
+
+An imperial diet was therefore held at Worms, before which Luther, being
+summoned, appeared. But nothing could induce him to retract his
+opinions. An edict was published putting him under the ban of the
+empire; but the Elector of Saxony concealed him in the castle of
+Wartburg. [Sidenote: and the revolt spreads.] While he was in this
+retirement his doctrines were rapidly extending, the Augustinians of
+Wittenberg not hesitating to change the usages of the Church, abolishing
+private masses, and giving the cup as well as the bread to the laity.
+
+[Sidenote: The Swiss Reformation. Zuinglius.] While Germany was agitated
+to her centre, a like revolt against Italian supremacy broke out in
+Switzerland. It too commenced on the question of indulgences, and found
+a leader in Zuinglius.
+
+Even at this early period the inevitable course of events was beginning
+to be plainly displayed in sectarian decomposition; for, while the
+German and Swiss Reformers agreed in their relation toward the papal
+authority, they differed widely from each other on some important
+doctrinal points, more especially as to the nature of the Eucharist. The
+Germans supposed that the body and blood of Christ are actually present
+in the bread and wine in some mysterious way; the Swiss believed that
+those substances are only emblems or symbols. Both totally rejected the
+Italian doctrine of transubstantiation. The old ideas of Berengar were
+therefore again fermenting among men. An attempt was made, under the
+auspices of the Landgrave of Hesse, to compose the dissension in a
+conference at Marburg; but it was found, after a long disputation, that
+neither party would give up its views, and they therefore separated, as
+it was said, in Christian charity, but not in brotherhood.
+
+At the first Diet of Spires, held in 1526, it was tried to procure the
+execution of the sentence passed upon Luther, but the party of the
+Reformation proved to be too strong for the Catholics. At a second diet,
+held at the same place three years subsequently, it was resolved that no
+change should be made in the established religion before the action of a
+general council, which had been recommended by both diets, should be
+known. On this occasion the Catholic interest preponderated sufficiently
+to procure a revocation of the power which had been conceded to the
+princes of the empire of managing for a time the ecclesiastical matters
+of their own dominions. [Sidenote: The Protestants; origin of the name.]
+Against this action several of the princes and cities _protested_, this
+being the origin of the designation Protestants subsequently given to
+the Reformers. At a diet held the following year at Augsburg, a
+statement, composed by Luther and Melanchthon, of the doctrines of the
+Reformers was presented; it also treated to some extent of the errors
+and superstitions of the Catholics. This is what is known as the
+Confession of Augsburg. [Sidenote: Organization of the Reformation.] The
+diet however not only rejected it, but condemned most of its doctrines.
+The Protestants, therefore, in an assembly at Smalcalde, contracted a
+treaty for their common defence, and this may be looked upon as the
+epoch of organization of the Reformation. This league did not include
+the Reformers of Switzerland, who could not conscientiously adopt the
+Confession of Augsburg, which was its essential basis. The
+Sacramentarians, as they were called, became thus politically divided
+from the Lutherans. Moreover, in Switzerland the process of
+decomposition went on, Calvin establishing a new sect, characterized by
+the manner in which it insisted on the Augustinian doctrines of
+predestination and election, by the abolition of all festivals, and the
+discontinuance of Church ceremonies. At a later period the followers of
+Zuinglius and Calvin coalesced.
+
+[Sidenote: Its culmination. Peace of Westphalia.] The political
+combinations which had thus occurred as Protestantism rapidly acquired
+temporal power gave rise, as might have been anticipated, to wars. The
+peace of Augsburg, 1555, furnished the Reformers the substantial
+advantages they sought--freedom from Italian ecclesiastical authority,
+the right of all Germans to judge for themselves in matters of religion,
+equality in civil privileges for them and the Catholics. A second time,
+sixty-four years subsequently, war broke out--the Thirty Years' War--and
+finally the dispute was composed by the treaty of Westphalia. This may
+be regarded as the culmination of the Reformation. Peace was made in
+spite of all the intrigues and opposition of Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: Extent of the movement.] The doctrines of the Reformation
+were adopted with singular avidity throughout the north of Europe, and
+established themselves for a time in France and in Italy. Even as early
+as 1558 a report of the Venetian ambassador estimates the Catholics of
+the German empire at only one-tenth of the population. For twenty years
+not a student of the University of Vienna had become a priest.
+
+[Sidenote: The revolt in Italy.] Such was the Reformation among the
+German nations. It is not possible, however, to comprehend correctly
+that great movement without understanding the course of events in Italy,
+for that peninsula was involved, though in a very different way. In its
+intellectual condition it was far in advance of the rest of Europe, as
+is proved by such facts as those to which we have alluded respecting the
+printing of books. Between it and the nations of which we have been
+speaking there was also a wide difference in material interests. What
+was extorted from them was enjoyed by it. The mental and material
+condition of Italy soon set a limit to the progress of the Reformation.
+
+[Sidenote: Position of the Italians.] The Italians had long looked upon
+the transalpine nations with contempt. On the principle that the
+intellectually strong may lawfully prey on the intellectually weak, they
+had systematically drained them of their wealth. As we exchange with
+savages beads, and looking-glasses, and nails, for gold, they had driven
+a profitable barter with the valiant but illiterate barbarians,
+exchanging possessions in heaven for the wealth of the earth, and
+selling for money immunities or indulgences for sin. But in another
+respect they had looked upon them with dread--they had felt the edge of
+the French and German sword. The educated classes, though seeking the
+widest liberty of thought for themselves, were not disposed to more than
+a very select propagandism of opinions, which plainly could only be
+detrimental to the pecuniary interests of their country. Their faith had
+long ago ceased to be that of conviction; it had become a mere outward
+patriotic acquiescence. Even those who were willing enough to indulge
+themselves in the utmost latitude of personal free-thinking never made
+an objection when some indiscreet zealot of their own kind was compelled
+by ecclesiastical pressure to flee beyond the Alps. No part of Europe
+was so full of irreligion as Italy. It amounted to a philosophical
+infidelity among the higher classes; to Arianism among the middle and
+less instructed; to an utter carelessness, not even giving itself the
+trouble of disbelief, among the low. [Sidenote: State of their
+universities.] The universities and learned academies were hot-beds of
+heresy; thus the University of Padua was accused of having been for long
+a focus of atheism, and again and again learned academies, as those of
+Modena and Venice, had been suppressed for heresy. [Sidenote: State of
+the learned academies.] The device of the Academy of the Lyncei
+indicated only too plainly the spirit of these institutions; it was a
+lynx, with its eyes turned upward to heaven, tearing the triple-headed
+Cerberus with its claws. Nor was this alarming condition restricted to
+Italy; France had long participated in it. From the University of Paris,
+that watch-tower of the Church, the alarm had often been sounded; now it
+was against men, now against books. Once, under its suggestions, the
+reading of the physics and metaphysics of Aristotle had been prohibited,
+and works of philosophy interdicted until they should have been
+corrected by the theologians of the Church. The physical heresies of
+Galileo, the pantheism of Caesalpinus had friendly counterparts in
+France. Even the head of the Church, Leo X., at the beginning of the
+Reformation, could not escape obloquy, and stories were circulated
+touching his elevation to the pontificate at once prejudicial to his
+morals and to his belief.
+
+[Sidenote: False position of the papacy.] In such an ominous condition,
+the necessity of carrying out the policy to which Italy had so long been
+committed perpetually forced the papal Government to acts against which
+the instructed judgment of its own officials revolted. It was a
+continual struggle between their duty and their disposition. Why should
+they have thought it expedient to suppress the Koran when it was printed
+in Venice, 1530? why, when Paul IV., 1559, promulgated the Index
+Expurgatorius of prohibited books, was it found necessary that not less
+than forty-eight editions of the Bible should be included in it,
+sixty-one printers put under the ban, and all their publications
+forbidden, at first the interdict being against all prohibited books,
+and, on this being found insufficient, even those that had not been
+permitted being prohibited? Why was it that Galileo was dealt with so
+considerately and yet so malignantly? It was plain that toleration,
+either of men or books, was altogether irreconcilable with the
+principles of the Holy See, and that under its stern exigencies the
+former must be disposed of, and the latter suppressed or burnt, no
+matter what personal inclinations or favouring sentiments might be in
+the way. If any faltering took place in the carrying out of this
+determination, the control of Rome over the human mind would be put into
+the most imminent jeopardy.
+
+[Sidenote: Check of the Reformation in Italy.] So stood affairs in Italy
+at the beginning and during the active period of the Reformation, the
+ancient system inexorably pressing upon the leading men, and impelling
+them to acts against which their better judgment revolted. They were
+bound down to the interests of their country, those interests being
+interwoven with conditions which they could no longer intellectually
+accept. For men of this class the German and Swiss reformations did not
+go far enough. They affirmed that things were left just as inconsistent,
+with reason, just as indefensible as before. Doubtless they considered
+that the paring away of the worship of saints, of absolution for money,
+penances, indulgences, freedom from papal taxation, the repudiation of
+intrusive foreign ecclesiastics, was all to the detriment of the
+pecuniary interests of Italy. They affirmed that the doctrines put forth
+by the Reformers made good their ground, not through the force of
+reason, but through appeals to the ignorant, and even to women; not
+through an improved and sounder criticism, but, as it was declared,
+through the inward light of the Spirit; that nothing had been done to
+alleviate the ancient intolerant dogmatism, the forcible suppression of
+freedom of thought. [Sidenote: Leo X.; his character.] Leo X., it is
+well known, at first altogether mistook the nature of the Reformation.
+He was a man of refined tastes and pleasure, delighting in sumptuous
+feasts, and too often scandalizing the devout by his indecent
+conversation and licentious conduct. He gloried in being the patron of
+the learned, devoting all his attention to the progress of literature
+and the fine arts, a connoisseur in antiques. The amenities of the life
+of an accomplished gentleman were not to be disturbed. He little dreamt
+that in the coarse German monk there was an antagonist worthy of the
+papacy. The gay Italians looked upon Luther with ineffable contempt, as
+introducing ideas even more absurd than those he was trying to displace,
+and, what was perhaps a still greater offence, upholding his bad
+doctrines in worse Latin. They affected to believe that they discerned a
+taint of insanity in the Reformer's account of his conflicts with the
+Devil, yet were willing to concede that there was a method in his
+madness, since he was bent on having a wife. In their opinion, the
+result of the German movement must be exceedingly detrimental to
+learning, and necessarily lead to the production of very vulgar results,
+exciting among the common people a revolutionary and destructive spirit.
+Nor was this personal distaste for Luther altogether undeserved. The
+caricatures which that great man permitted himself to put forth are too
+indelicate to be described to a modern reader. They would be worthy of
+our disgust and indignation did we not find some palliation in the
+coarseness of the communities and times in which he lived. Leo awoke to
+his blunder when it was too late, and found that he had been
+superciliously sneering at what he should have combated with all his
+might.
+
+[Sidenote: Check of the Reformation in Europe.] It is now more than
+three centuries since the Reformation commenced, and we are able, with
+some degree of accuracy, to ascertain its influence. Founded as it was
+on the right of private interpretation of the Scriptures, it introduced
+a better rule of life, and made a great advance towards intellectual
+liberty. It compelled men to be more moral, and permitted them to be
+more learned. For the traditions of superstition it substituted the
+dictates of common sense; it put an end to the disgraceful miracles that
+for so many ages had been the scandal of Europe. The assertion of the
+Italians that it was a great injury to letters is untrue. Though not to
+be regarded in any respect as a learned man, Luther approved of the
+study of Greek and Hebrew, recognized by all parties to be dangerous to
+the Latin system. And even if the accusation be admitted that he
+approved of their cultivation, not from any love of them, but from
+hatred to it, the world was equally a gainer. Toward the close of his
+life it seemed as if there was no other prospect for papal power than
+total ruin: yet at this day, out of three hundred millions of
+Christians, more than half owe allegiance to Rome. Almost as if by
+enchantment the Reformation suddenly ceased to advance. Rome was not
+only able to check its spread, but even to gain back a portion of what
+she had lost. [Sidenote: Its causes were not supernatural.] The cause of
+this, which may seem at first an extraordinary result, is not to be
+attributed to any supernatural influence, as some have supposed. When
+natural causes suffice, it is needless to look for supernatural.
+
+Though there might be sovereigns who, like Henry VIII., had personal
+reasons for discontent with the Italian court; though there were some
+who sought to usurp the power and prerogatives of the popes; though
+there might be nobles who, as the Prince of Wales's tutor wrote to Sir
+W. Paget, were "importunate wolves, as are able to devour chantries,
+cathedral churches, universities, and a thousand times as much;" some
+who desired the plunder of establishments endowed by the piety of ages,
+and who therefore lent all their influence in behalf of this great
+revolution; there was among such and above such that small but
+all-important body of men who see human affairs from the most general
+point of view. [Sidenote: Influence of statesmen and philosophers.] To
+these, whatever might be the nation to which they happened to belong, it
+was perfectly evident that the decomposition of faith which had set in,
+if permitted to go on unchecked, could not possibly end in any other way
+than in producing an anarchy of sects. In their opinion, the German
+Reformation did not go far enough. It still practically left untouched
+the dependency of the Church upon the State. In the southern nations of
+the Continent it had merely irritated the great European ulcer, whereas
+what was required was the complete amputation of the rotten mass. In
+their judgment it was better to leave things as they were until a
+thorough eradication could be accomplished, and this, at the time, was
+obviously impossible. Not understanding, perhaps, how much human affairs
+are developed according to law, and how little by the volition of
+individuals, they liberally conceded that Catholicism had been the
+civilizing agency of Europe, and had become inwoven with the social
+fabric for good or for evil. It could not now be withdrawn without
+pulling the whole texture to pieces. Moreover, the curtain of papal
+authority, which at one time enveloped all Europe in its ample folds,
+had, in the course of these late events, been contracted and stretched
+across the Continent, dividing the northern and southern nations from
+each other. The people of the south saw on its embroidered surface
+nothing but forms of usefulness and beauty, they on the north a
+confusion of meaningless threads. But the few who considered it as a
+whole, and understood the relations of both sides, knew well enough that
+the one is the necessary incident of the other, and that it is quite as
+useless to seek for explanations as to justify appearances. To them it
+was perfectly clear that the tranquillity and happiness of Christendom
+were best subserved by giving no encouragement to opinions which had
+already occasioned so much trouble, and which seemed to contain in their
+very constitution principles of social disorganization.
+
+[Sidenote: Influence of the nature of the Reformation.] A reason for the
+sudden loss of expansive force in the Reformation is found in its own
+intrinsic nature. The principle of decomposition which it represented,
+and with which it was inextricably entangled, necessarily implied
+oppugnancy. For a short season the attention of Protestantism was
+altogether directed to the papal authority from which it had so recently
+separated itself; but, with its growing strength and ascertained
+independence, that object ceased to occupy it, becoming, as it were,
+more distant and more obscure. Upon the subordinate divisions which were
+springing from it, or which were of collateral descent from the original
+Catholic stock, the whole view of each denomination was concentrated.
+The bitterness once directed against the papacy lost none of its
+intensity when pointed at rivals or enemies nearer home. Nor was it
+alone dissensions among the greater sects, oppositions such as those
+between the Church of England and the Church of Scotland, whose discords
+were founded on points admitted by all to be great and essential; the
+same principle ran down through all the modes of sectarian combination
+as they emerged into life, producing among those of equal power
+struggles, and in the strong toward the weak persecution. [Sidenote:
+Effect of sectarian disputes.] Very soon the process of decomposition
+had advanced to such an extent that minor sects came into existence on
+very unessential points. Yet even among these little bodies there was
+just as much acrimony, just as much hatred as among the great. These
+differences were carried into the affairs of civil life, each sect
+forming a society within itself, and abstaining, as far as might be,
+from associations with its rivals. Of such a state of things the
+necessary result was weakness, and, had there been no other reason, this
+in itself would have been quite sufficient in the end to deprive
+Protestantism of its aggressive power. An army divided against itself is
+in no condition to make warfare against a watchful and vigorous enemy.
+
+[Sidenote: Want of concentrated power.] But this was not all. It was in
+the nature of Protestantism from its outset that it was not
+constructive. Unlike its great antagonist, it contained no fundamental
+principle that could combine distant communities and foreign countries
+together. It originated in dissent, and was embodied by separation. It
+could not possess a concentrated power, nor recognize one apostolic man
+who might compress its disputes, harmonize its powers, wield it as a
+mass. For the attainment of his aims the Protestant had only wishes, the
+Catholic had a will. The Church of England, of Scotland, or of any other
+Protestant nation, undoubtedly did discharge its duty excellently well
+for the community in which it was placed, but, at the most, it was only
+a purely local institution, altogether insignificant in comparison with
+that great old Church, hoary and venerable with age, which had seen
+every government and every institution in Europe come into existence,
+many of them at its bidding, which had extirpated paganism from the
+Roman empire, compelled the Caesars to obey its mandates, precipitated
+the whole white race upon the Holy Land--that great old Church, once the
+more than imperial sovereign of Christendom, and of which the most
+respectable national Church was only a fragment of a fragment.
+
+[Sidenote: Condition of Catholicism.] Very different was it with
+Catholicism. It possessed an organization which concentrated in the hand
+of one man irresistible power, and included all the southern countries
+of Europe not Mohammedan. It could enforce its policy by the armies and
+fleets of obedient kings. It is not surprising, when this state of
+things is considered, that the spread of the Reformation was limited to
+its first fervour--that the men who saw its origin saw also its
+culmination. It is not to be wondered at that, with the political
+weakening arising from a tendency to subdivision and disintegration on
+one side, and the preparing of a complete and effective organization
+against the danger that was threatening on the other, the issue should
+have turned out as it did.
+
+[Sidenote: The means of resistance resorted to by Rome.] Rome, awaking
+at last to her danger, met the Reformation with four weapons--a
+counter-reformation, an increased vigour in the Inquisition, the
+institution of the Jesuits, and a greater embellishment of worship. The
+disposition of the northern nations was to a simplification of worship,
+that of the south to adorn it with whatever could captivate the senses.
+Ranke asserts that the composition of the mass of Marcellus by
+Palestrina, 1560, had a wonderful effect in the revival of religion;
+there can be no doubt that it constituted an epoch in devotion.
+[Sidenote: A counter-reformation.] But of all these, the first and best
+was a moral change which she instantly imposed upon herself. Henceforth
+it was her intention that in the chair of St. Peter should never again
+be seen atheists, poisoners, thieves, murderers, blasphemers,
+adulterers, but men, who, if they were sometimes found, as must be the
+case, considering the infirmities of humanity, incompetent to deal with
+the great trials which often befell them, were yet of such personal
+purity, holiness of life, and uprightness of intention as to command
+profound respect. Those scandals that hitherto had everywhere disgraced
+her began to disappear, a true reformation, but not a schism, occurring
+through all ecclesiastical grades. Had Protestantism produced no other
+result than this, it would have been an unspeakable blessing to the
+world.
+
+[Sidenote: The Inquisition brought into activity.] By another very
+different means the Italian power sought to insure its domination--by an
+increased activity of the Inquisition. It is difficult to understand how
+men of capacity could have justified this iniquitous institution.
+Certainly it could not have been upon any principles of Christian
+morality, nor even upon those of high statesmanship. For the Inquisition
+to accomplish its purpose, it must needs be as all-seeing as Providence,
+as inexorable as the grave; not inflicting punishments which the
+sufferer could remember, but remorselessly killing outright; not
+troubling itself to ascertain the merits of a case and giving the
+accused the benefit of a doubt, but regarding suspicion and certainty as
+the same thing. If worked with the unscrupulous, impassive resolution of
+Machiavellianism, this great engine for the coercion of the human mind
+could be made to accomplish its purpose. It thoroughly extinguished
+Protestantism in Spain and Italy, and in those countries maintained a
+barrier against the progressive reason of man.
+
+[Sidenote: The Jesuits are established.] But the most effective weapon
+to which the papacy resorted was the institution of the order of the
+Jesuits. This was established by a bull of Paul III., 1540, the rules
+being that the general, chosen for life, should be obeyed as God; that
+they should vow poverty, chastity, obedience, and go wherever they were
+commanded; their obedience was to the pope, not to the Church--a most
+politic distinction, for thereby an unmistakable responsibility was
+secured. They had no regular hours of prayer; their duties were
+preaching, the direction of consciences, education. By the Jesuits Rome
+penetrated into the remotest corners of the earth, established links of
+communication with her children who remained true to her in the heart of
+Protestant countries, and, with a far-seeing policy for the future,
+silently engrossed the education of the young. At the confessional she
+extorted from women the hidden secrets of their lives and those of their
+families, took the lead in devotion wherever there were pious men, and
+was equally foremost in the world of fashion and dissipation. [Sidenote:
+Their influence all over the world.] There was no guise under which the
+Jesuit might not be found--a barefoot beggar, clothed in rags; a learned
+professor, lecturing gratuitously to scientific audiences; a man of the
+world, living in profusion and princely extravagance; there have been
+Jesuits the wearers of crowns. There were no places into which they did
+not find their way: a visitor to one of the loyal old families of
+England could never be sure but that there was a Jesuit hidden in the
+garret or secreted behind the wainscot of the bedroom. They were the
+advisers of the leading men of the age, sat in the cabinets of kings,
+and were their confessors. They boasted that they were the link between
+religious opinion and literature. With implicit and unquestioning
+obedience to his superior, like a good soldier, it was the paramount
+duty of the Jesuit to obey his orders, whatever those orders might be.
+It was for him to go, at the summons of a moment, with his life in his
+hand, to the very centre of pagan or of reformed and revolted countries,
+where his presence was death by law, and execute the mission intrusted
+to him. If he succeeded, it was well; if he should fall, it was also
+well. To him all things were proper for the sake of the Church. It was
+his business to consider how the affair he had in hand was to be most
+surely accomplished--to resort to justifiable means if they should
+appear sufficient, if not, to unjustifiable; to the spiritual weapon,
+but also to be prepared with the carnal; to sacrifice candour if the
+occasion should require, if necessary even truth, remembering that the
+end justifies the means, if that end is the good of the Church.
+
+While some religious orders were founded on retirement, and aimed at
+personal improvement by solitude, the Jesuits were instructed to mix in
+the affairs of men, and gather experience in the ways of worldly wisdom.
+And since it is the infirmity of humanity, whatever may be the vigour of
+its first intentions, too often to weary in well-doing, provision was
+made to re-enforce the zeal of those becoming lukewarm to admonish the
+delinquent, by making each a spy on all the others, under oath to reveal
+everything to his superior. In that manner a control was exercised over
+the brotherhood in all parts of the world. In Europe they had, in a very
+short time, stealthily but largely engrossed public education; had mixed
+themselves up with every public affair; were at the bottom of every
+intrigue, making their power felt through the control they exerted over
+sovereigns, ministers of state, and great court ladies, influencing the
+last through the spiritual means of the confessional, or by the more
+natural but equally effectual entanglements of requited love. Already
+they had recognized the agency of commerce in promoting and diffusing
+religious belief, and hence simultaneously became great missionaries and
+great merchants. With the Indies, East and West, they carried forward
+extensive commercial undertakings, and had depots in various parts of
+Europe. In these operations they were necessarily absolved from their
+vows of poverty, and became immensely rich. In South America they
+obtained a footing in Paraguay, and commenced their noble attempt at the
+civilization of the Indians, bringing them into communities, teaching
+them social usages, agricultural arts, and the benefits arising to
+themselves and the community from labour. They gave them a military
+organization, subdivided according to the European system, into the
+customary arms--infantry, cavalry, artillery; they supplied them with
+munitions of war. It was their hope that from this basis they should be
+able to spread the rule of the Church over America, as had been done in
+preceding ages over Europe.
+
+[Sidenote: Causes of their suppression.] An intolerable apprehension of
+their invisible presence and unscrupulous agency made all Europe put
+them down at last. The amenities of exquisite courteousness, the
+artifices of infinite dissimulation, cannot for ever deceive. Men found,
+by bitter experience, that within the silken glove there was an iron
+hand. From their general in Rome, who was absolute commander of their
+persons and unchallengeable administrator of their prodigious wealth,
+down to the humblest missionary who was wearing away his life among the
+Andes, or on the banks of the Hoang-ho, or in the solitary prairies of
+Missouri, or under the blazing sun of Abyssinia--whether he was
+confessing the butterfly ladies of Paris, whispering devilish
+suggestions into the ear of the King of Spain, consoling the dying
+peasant in an Irish cabin, arguing with mandarins in the palace of the
+Emperor of China, stealing away the hearts of the rising generation in
+the lower schools and academies, extorting the admiration of learned
+societies by the profundity of his philosophy and the brilliancy of his
+scientific discoveries--whether he was to be seen in the exchanges and
+marts of the great capitals, supervising commercial operations on a
+scale which up to that time had been attempted by none but the
+Jews--whether he was held in an English jail as a suspected vagabond, or
+sitting on the throne of France--whether he appeared as a great landed
+proprietor, the owner of countless leagues in the remote parts of India
+or South America, or whether he was mixing with crowds in the streets of
+London, and insinuating in Protestant ears the rights of subjects to
+oppose and even depose their monarchs, or in the villages of Castile and
+Leon, preaching before Catholic peasants the paramount duty of a good
+Christian implicitly to obey the mandates of his king--wherever the
+Jesuit was, or whatever he was doing, men universally felt that the
+thing he had in hand was only auxiliary to some higher, some hidden
+design. This stealth, and silence and power became at last so
+intolerable that the Jesuits were banished from France, Spain, Portugal,
+and other Catholic countries. But such was their vitality that, though
+the order was abolished by a papal bull in 1773, they have been again
+restored.
+
+[Sidenote: Effects of change of opinion among the learned.] Though it is
+sometimes said that Rome in this manner, by her admirable combinations
+and irresistible movement, succeeded at last in checking the
+Reformation, a full consideration of the state of affairs would lead us
+to receive that assertion with very considerable restriction. She came
+out of the conflict much less powerful than she had entered it. If we
+attribute to her policy all that it can justly claim, we must also
+attribute to causes over which she had no kind of control their rightful
+influence. The Reformation had been, to no small extent, due to the rise
+of criticism, which still continued its development, and was still
+fruitful of results. Latin had fallen from its high estate; the modern
+languages were in all directions expanding and improving; the
+printing-press was not only giving Greek learning to the world, but
+countless translations and commentaries. The doctrine successfully
+established by Luther and his colleagues--the right of private
+interpretation and judgment--was the practical carrying out of the
+organic law of criticism to the highest affairs with which man can be
+concerned--affairs of religion. The Reformation itself, philosophically
+considered, really meant the casting off of authority, the installation
+of individual inquiry and personal opinion. [Sidenote: Effects of
+criticism on religion and literature.] If criticism, thus standing upon
+the basis of the Holy Scriptures, had not hesitated to apply itself to
+an examination of public faith, and, as the consequence thereof, had
+laid down new rules for morality and the guidance of life, it was not to
+be expected that it would hesitate to deal with minor things--that it
+would spare the philosophy, the policy, the literature of antiquity. And
+so, indeed, it went on, comparing classical authors with classical
+authors, the fathers with the fathers, often the same writer with
+himself. Contradictions were pointed out, errors exposed, weakness
+detected, and new views offered of almost everything within the range of
+literature.
+
+[Sidenote: The Bible.] From this burning ordeal one book alone came out
+unscathed. It was the Bible. It spontaneously vindicated for itself what
+Wiclif in the former times, and Luther more lately, had claimed for it.
+And not only did it hold its ground, but it truly became incalculably
+more powerful than ever it had been before. The press multiplied it in
+every language without end, until there was scarcely a cottage in
+reformed Europe that did not possess a copy.
+
+But if criticism was thus the stimulating principle that had given life
+to the Reformation, it had no little to do with its pause; and this is
+the influence over which Rome had no kind of control, and to which I
+have made allusion. The phases through which the Reformation passed were
+dependent on the coincident advances of learning. First it relied on the
+Scriptures, which were to the last its surest support; then it included
+the Fathers. [Sidenote: Decline of the value of patristic learning.]
+But, from a more intimate study of the latter, many erudite Protestants
+were gradually brought back to the ancient fold. Among such may be
+mentioned Erasmus, who by degrees became alienated from the Reformers,
+and subsequently Grotius, the publication of whose treatise, "De jure
+belli et pacis," 1625, really constituted an epoch in the political
+system of Europe. This great man had gradually become averse to the
+Reformation, believing that, all things considered, it had done more
+harm than good; he had concluded that it was better to throw differences
+into oblivion for the sake of peace, and to enforce silence on one's own
+opinions, rather than to expect that the Church should be compelled to
+accommodate herself to them. If such men as Erasmus, Casaubon, and
+Grotius had been brought to this dilemma by their profound philosophical
+meditations, their conclusion was confirmed among the less reflecting by
+the unhappy intolerance of the new as well as the old Church. [Sidenote:
+Moral effects of persecutions.] Men asked what was the difference
+between the vindictiveness with which Rome dealt with Antonio de
+Dominis, at once an ecclesiastic and a natural philosopher, who, having
+gone over to Protestantism and then seceded, imprudently visited Rome,
+was there arrested, and dying, his body was dug up and burnt, and the
+rigour of Calvin, who seized Servetus, the author of the "Christianismi
+Restitutio," and in part the discoverer of the circulation of the blood,
+when he happened to pass through Geneva, and committed him to the
+flames.
+
+[Sidenote: End of patristicism.] Criticism had thus, in its earlier
+stage, produced well-marked results. As it developed it lost none of its
+power. It had enthroned patristic theology; now it wrenched from its
+hand the sceptre. In the works of Daille it showed that the fathers are
+of no kind of use--they are too contradictory of one another; even
+Jeremy Taylor speaks of their authority and reputation as clean gone for
+ever. In a few years they had sunk into desuetude, a neglect shared by
+many classical authors, whose opinions were now only quoted with a
+respectful smile. The admiration for antiquity was diminishing under the
+effect of searching examination. Books were beginning to appear, turning
+the old historians into ridicule for their credulity. [Sidenote: The
+burning of Servetus by Calvin.] The death of Servetus was not without
+advantage to the world. There was not a pious or thoughtful man in all
+reformed Europe who was not shocked when the circumstances under which
+that unhappy physician had been brought to the stake at Geneva by John
+Calvin were made known. For two hours he was roasted in the flames of a
+slow fire, begging for the love of God that they would put on more wood,
+or do something to end his torture. Men asked, with amazement and
+indignation, if the atrocities of the Inquisition were again to be
+revived. On all sides they began to inquire how far it is lawful to
+inflict the punishment of death for difference of opinion. It opened
+their eyes to the fact that, after all they had done, the state of
+civilization in which they were living was still characterized by its
+intolerance. In 1546 the Venetian ambassador at the court of Charles V.
+reported to his government that in Holland and Friesland more than
+thirty thousand persons had suffered death at the hands of justice for
+Anabaptist errors. From such an unpromising state of things toleration
+could only emerge with difficulty. It was the offspring, not of charity,
+but of the checked animosities of ever-multiplying sects, and the
+detected impossibility of their coercing one another.
+
+[Sidenote: The Reformation continued in America.] The history of the
+Reformation does not close, as many European authors have imagined, in a
+balanced and final distribution of the north and south between the
+Protestant and the Catholic. The predestined issue of sectarian
+differences and dissensions is individual liberty of thought. So long as
+there was one vast, overshadowing, intolerant corporation, every man
+must bring his understanding to its measure, and think only as it
+instructed him to do. As soon as dissenting confessions gathered
+sufficient military power to maintain their right of existence--as soon
+as from them, in turn, incessant offshoots were put forth, toleration
+became not only possible, but inevitable, and that is perhaps as far as
+the movement has at this time advanced in Europe. But Macaulay and
+others who have treated of the Reformation have taken too limited a view
+of it, supposing that this was its point of arrest. [Sidenote:
+Separation of Church and State.] It made another enormous stride when,
+at the American Revolution, the State and the Church were solemnly and
+openly dissevered from one another. Now might the vaticinations of the
+prophets of evil expect to find credit; a great people had irrevocably
+broken off its politics from its theology, and it might surely have been
+expected that the unbridled interests, and instincts, and passions of
+men would have dragged everything into the abyss of anarchy. Yet what do
+we, who are living nearly a century after that time, find the event to
+be? Sectarian decomposition, passing forward to its last extreme, is the
+process by which individual mental liberty is engendered and maintained.
+A grand and imposing religious unity implies tyranny to the individual;
+the increasing emergence of sects gives him increasing latitude of
+thought--with their utmost multiplication he gains his utmost liberty.
+In this respect, unity and liberty are in opposition; as the one
+diminishes, the other increases. [Sidenote: Emergence of liberty of
+thought.] The Reformation broke down unity; it gave liberty to masses of
+men grouped together in sufficient numbers to insure their position; it
+is now invisibly, but irresistibly making steps, never to be stayed
+until there is an absolute mental emancipation for man.
+
+[Sidenote: The American clergy.] Great revolutions are not often
+accomplished without much suffering and many crimes. It might have been
+supposed before the event, perhaps it is supposed by many who are not
+privileged to live among the last results, that this decomposition of
+religious faith must be to the detriment of personal and practical
+piety. Yet America, in which, of all countries, the Reformation at the
+present moment has farthest advanced, should offer to thoughtful men
+much encouragement. Its cities are filled with churches built by
+voluntary gifts; its clergy are voluntarily sustained, and are, in all
+directions, engaged in enterprises of piety, education, mercy. What a
+difference between their private life and that of ecclesiastics before
+the Reformation! Not, as in the old times, does the layman look upon
+them as the cormorants and curse of society; they are his faithful
+advisers, his honoured friends, under whose suggestion and supervision
+are instituted educational establishments, colleges, hospitals, whatever
+can be of benefit to men in this life, or secure for them happiness in
+the life to come.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+DIGRESSION ON THE CONDITION OF ENGLAND AT THE END OF THE AGE OF FAITH.
+
+RESULTS PRODUCED BY THE AGE OF FAITH.
+
+_Condition of England at the Suppression of the Monasteries._
+
+_Condition of England at the close of the seventeenth
+Century.--Locomotion, Literature, Libraries.--Social and private Life of
+the Laity and Clergy.--Brutality in the Administration of
+Law.--Profligacy of Literature.--The Theatre, its three
+Phases.--Miracle, Moral, and Real Plays._
+
+_Estimate of the Advance made in the Age of Faith.--Comparison with that
+already made in the Age of Reason._
+
+
+[Sidenote: Results of the Age of Faith.] Arrived at the commencement of
+the Age of Reason, we might profitably examine the social condition of
+those countries destined to become conspicuous in the new order of
+things. I have not space to present such an examination as extensively
+as it deserves, and must limit my remarks to that nation which, of all
+others, is most interesting to the English or American reader--that
+England which we picture to ourselves as foremost in civilization, her
+universities dating back for many centuries; her charters and laws, on
+which individual, and therefore social, liberty rests, spoken of as the
+ancient privileges of the realm; her people a clear-headed race, lovers
+and stout defenders of freedom. [Sidenote: The social condition produced
+in England.] During by far the greater part of the past period she had
+been Catholic, but she had also been Reformed--ever, as she will always
+be, religious. A correct estimate of her national and individual life
+will point out to us all that had been done in the Age of Faith. From
+her condition we may gather what is the progress made by man when guided
+by such theological ideas as those which had been her rule of life.
+
+The following paragraphs convey an instructive lesson. They dissipate
+some romantic errors; they are a verdict on a political system from its
+practical results. What a contrast with the prodigious advancement made
+within a few years when the Age of Reason had set in! How strikingly are
+we reminded of the inconsequential, the fruitless actions of youth, and
+the deliberate, the durable undertakings of manhood!
+
+For many of the facts I have now to mention the reader will find
+authorities in the works of Lord Macaulay and Mr. Froude on English
+history. My own reading in other directions satisfies me that the
+picture here offered represents the actual condition of things.
+
+[Sidenote: Condition at the suppression of the monasteries.] At the time
+of the suppression of the monasteries in England the influences which
+had been in operation for so many centuries had come to an end. Had they
+endured a thousand years longer they could have accomplished nothing
+more. The condition of human life shows what their uses and what their
+failures had been. There were forests extending over great districts;
+fens forty or fifty miles in length, reeking with miasm and fever,
+though round the walls of the abbeys there might be beautiful gardens,
+green lawns, shady walks, and many murmuring streams. In trackless woods
+where men should have been, herds of deer were straying; the sandy hills
+were alive with conies, the downs with flocks of bustards. The peasant's
+cabin was made of reeds or sticks plastered over with mud. His fire was
+chimneyless--often it was made of peat. In the objects and manner of his
+existence he was but a step above the industrious beaver who was
+building his dam in the adjacent stream. There were highwaymen on the
+roads, pirates on the rivers, vermin in abundance in the clothing and
+beds. The common food was peas, vetches, fern roots, and even the bark
+of trees. There was no commerce to put off famine. Man was altogether at
+the mercy of the seasons. The population, sparse as it was, was
+perpetually thinned by pestilence and want. Nor was the state of the
+townsman better than that of the rustic; his bed was a bag of straw,
+with a hard round log for his pillow. If he was in easy circumstances,
+his clothing was of leather, if poor, a wisp of straw wrapped round his
+limbs kept off the cold. It was a melancholy social condition when
+nothing intervened between reed cabins in the fen, the miserable wigwams
+of villages, and the conspicuous walls of the castle and monastery. Well
+might they who lived in those times bewail the lot of the ague-stricken
+peasant, and point, not without indignation, to the troops of pilgrims,
+mendicants, pardoners, and ecclesiastics of every grade who hung round
+the Church, to the nightly wassail and rioting drunkenness in the
+castle-hall, secure in its moats, its battlements, and its warders. The
+local pivots round which society revolved were the red-handed baron,
+familiar with scenes of outrage and deeds of blood, and the abbot,
+indulging in the extreme of luxury, magnificent in dress, exulting in
+his ambling palfrey, his hawk, his hounds. Rural life had but little
+improved since the time of Caesar; in its physical aspect it was
+altogether neglected. As to the mechanic, how was it possible that he
+could exist where there were no windows made of glass, not even of oiled
+paper, no workshop warmed by a fire. For the poor there was no
+physician, for the dying the monk and his crucifix. The aim was to
+smooth the sufferer's passage to the next world, not to save him for
+this. Sanitary provisions there were none except the paternoster and the
+ave. In the cities the pestilence walked unstayed, its triumphs numbered
+by the sounds of the death-crier in the streets or the knell for the
+soul that was passing away.
+
+Our estimate of the influence of the system under which men were thus
+living as a regulator of their passions may at this point derive much
+exactness from incidents such as those offered by the history of
+syphilis and the usages of war. For this purpose we may for a moment
+glance at the Continent.
+
+[Sidenote: Moral state indicated by the spread of syphilis,] The
+attention of all Europe was suddenly arrested by a disease which broke
+out soon after the discovery of America. It raged with particular
+violence in the French army commanded by Charles VIII. at the siege of
+Naples, A.D. 1495, and spread almost like an epidemic. It was syphilis.
+Though there have been medical authors who supposed that it was only an
+exacerbation of a malady known from antiquity, that opinion cannot be
+maintained after the learned researches of Astruc. That it was something
+recognized at the time as altogether new seems to be demonstrated by the
+accusations of different nations against each other of having given
+origin to it. Very soon, however, the truth appeared. It had been
+brought by the sailors of Columbus from the West Indies. Its true
+character, and the conditions of its propagation, were fully established
+by Fernel.
+
+[Sidenote: and by the usages of war.] Now, giving full weight to the
+fact that the virulence of a disease may be greatest at its first
+invasion, but remembering that there is nothing in the history of
+syphilis that would lead us to suppose it ever was, or indeed could be
+infectious, but only contagious, or communicated by direct contact from
+person to person; remembering also the special circumstances under
+which, in this disease, that contagion is imparted, the rapidity of its
+spread all over Europe is a significant illustration of the fearful
+immorality of the times. If contemporary authors are to be trusted,
+there was not a class, married, or unmarried, clergy or laity, from the
+holy father, Leo X., to the beggar by the wayside, free from it. It
+swept over Europe, not as Asiatic cholera has done, running along the
+great lines of trade, and leaving extensive tracts untouched, settling
+upon and devastating great cities here and there, while others had an
+immunity. The march of syphilis was equable, unbroken, universal, making
+good its ground from its point of appearance in the south-west, steadily
+and swiftly taking possession of the entire Continent, and offering an
+open manifestation and measure of the secret wickedness of society.
+
+If thus the sins man practises in privacy became suddenly and
+accidentally exposed, that exposure showing how weak is the control that
+any system can exercise over human passions, we are brought to the same
+melancholy conclusion when we turn to those crimes that may be
+perpetrated in the face of day. The usages of war in the civil contests
+of the fifteenth century, or in the religious conflicts of the sixteenth
+and seventeenth, are perfectly appalling; the annals of those evil days
+are full of wanton and objectless barbarities, refusal of quarter,
+murder in cold blood, killing of peasants. Invading armies burnt and
+destroyed everything in their way; the taking of plunder and ransom of
+prisoners were recognized sources of wealth. Prosperous countries were
+made "a sea of fire;" the horrible atrocities of the Spaniards in
+America were rivalled by those practised in Europe; deliberate
+directions were given to make whole tracts "a desert." Attempts had been
+made to introduce some amelioration into warfare again and again, either
+by forbidding hostilities at certain times, as was the object of the
+"truces of God," repeatedly enforced by ecclesiastical authority, or by
+establishing between the combatants themselves courtesies which are at
+once the chief grace and glory of chivalry; but, to judge by the result
+as offered, even so late as the eighteenth century, those attempts must
+be regarded as having proved altogether abortive.
+
+[Sidenote: Backward condition of England.] England, at the close of the
+Age of Faith, had for long been a chief pecuniary tributary to Italy,
+the source from which large revenues had been drawn, the fruitful field
+in which herds of Italian ecclesiastics had been pastured. A wonderful
+change was impending. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the
+island was far more backward intellectually and politically than is
+commonly supposed. Its population hardly reached five millions, and was
+stationary at that point, not so much because of the effects of civil
+and foreign war as merely through the operation of ordinary economical
+causes. There was no reason to call more men into existence. It was
+regarded as good statesmanship to maintain the population at a constant
+standard. The municipal policy corresponded to the national; it was not
+so much advanced as that contemporaneously existing in Peru. [Sidenote:
+Apparent decline of her prosperity.] Swarms of idle ecclesiastics had
+set such a pernicious example that the indisposition among common people
+to work had become quite a formidable difficulty. In every village there
+were stocks for the punishment of "valiant beggars," as they were
+termed. By the act of 1531, vagrants "whole and mighty in body" caught
+begging for the first time might be whipped at the cart-tail; the second
+time their ears were to be slit; by the act of 1536, if caught the third
+time they were to be put to death. In all directions large towns were
+falling into decay, a misfortune popularly attributed to the laziness of
+the lower orders, but in reality due to causes of a very different kind.
+Hitherto land had been the representative of authority and the source of
+power. Society had been organized upon that imperfect basis; a
+descending scale of landed proprietors had been established, and in that
+system every man had a place assigned to him, just as in Peru, though
+less perfectly. It was a system of organized labour, the possession of
+land being a trust, not a property. But now commerce was beginning to
+disturb the foundations on which all these arrangements had been
+sustained, and to compel a new distribution of population; trading
+companies were being established; men were unsettled by the rumours or
+realities of immense fortunes rapidly gained in foreign adventure.
+Maritime enterprise was thus not only dislocating society, but even
+destroying its spirit, substituting self-interest for loyalty.
+[Sidenote: It is imputed to the clergy.] A nation so illiterate that
+many of its peers in Parliament could neither read nor write, was hardly
+able to trace the troubles befalling it to their proper source; with one
+voice it imputed them to the bad example and shortcomings of the clergy.
+Long before Henry VIII., England was ready for the suppression of the
+monasteries. She regarded them as the very hot-beds of her evils. There
+were incessant complaints against the clergy for their scandalous lusts,
+for personal impurities such as in modern times we do not allude to, for
+their holding livings in plurality, for their extortion of exorbitant
+profits, and neglect in the discharge of their duty. [Sidenote: Causes
+of irritation of the laity against the clergy.] In public opinion, to so
+great an extent had these immoralities gone that it was openly asserted
+that there were one hundred thousand women in England made dissolute by
+the clergy. It was well known that brothels were kept in London for
+their use. It was affirmed that the confessional was shamefully abused,
+and, through it, advantage taken of females; that the vilest crime in an
+ecclesiastic might be commuted for money, six shillings and eightpence
+being sufficient in the case of mortal sin. Besides these general causes
+of complaint, there were some which, though of a minor, were not of a
+less irritating kind; such for instance, as the mortuary, soul-shot, or
+corpse present, a claim for the last dress worn by persons brought to a
+priest for burial, or some exaggerated commutation thereof.
+
+[Sidenote: Accusation against the clergy by the House of Commons.] That
+such was the demoralized condition of the English Church, and such its
+iniquitous relations to the people, we have the most unimpeachable
+evidence, under circumstances of an imposing and solemn character. The
+House of Commons brought an accusation against the clergy before the
+king. When Parliament met A.D. 1529, that House, as its very first act,
+declared to the sovereign that sedition and heresy were pervading the
+land, and that it had become absolutely necessary to apply a corrective.
+It affirmed that the troubles into which the realm had fallen were
+attributable to the clergy; that the chief foundation, occasion, and
+cause thereof was the parallel jurisdiction of the Church and State;
+that the incompatible legislative authority of convocation lay at the
+bottom of the mischief. Among other specific points it alleged the
+following:--That the houses of convocation made laws without the royal
+assent, and without the consent or even the knowledge of the people;
+that such laws were never published in the English language, and that,
+nevertheless, men were daily punished under them without ever having had
+an opportunity to eschew the penalties; that the demoralization extended
+from the Archbishop of Canterbury down to the lowest priest, that
+dignitary having tampered with the despatch of justice in his Court of
+Arches; that parsons, vicars, priests, and curates were in the habit of
+denying the administration of the sacraments save upon the payment of
+money; that poor men were harrassed without any legal cause in the
+spiritual courts for the mere purpose of extortion, and exorbitant fees
+were exacted from them; that the probate of wills was denied except on
+the gratification of the appetite of prelates and ordinaries for money;
+that the high ecclesiastics extorted large sums for the induction of
+persons into benefices, and that they did daily confer benefices on
+"young folk," their nephews and relatives, being minors, for the purpose
+of detaining the fruits and profits in their own hands; that the bishops
+illegally imprisoned, sometimes for a year or more, persons in their
+jails, without informing them of the cause of their imprisonment or the
+name of their accuser; that simple, unlearned men, and even
+"well-witted" ones, were entrapped by subtle questions into heresy in
+the ecclesiastical courts, and punishment procured against them.
+
+These are serious charges; they imply that the Church had degenerated
+into a contrivance for the extortion of money. The House of Commons
+petitioned the king to make such laws as should furnish a remedy. The
+king submitted the petition to the bishops, and required of them an
+answer.
+
+[Sidenote: Reply of the bishops to that accusation.] In that answer the
+ecclesiastical manner of thought is very striking. The bishops insist
+that the laws of the realm shall give way to the canon law, or, if
+incompatible, shall be altered so as to suit it; they identify attacks
+on themselves with those on the doctrine of the Church, a time-honoured
+and well-tried device; they affirm that they have no kind of enmity
+against the laymen, "their ghostly children," but only against the
+pestilent poison of heresy; that their authority for making laws is
+grounded on the Scriptures, to which the laws of the realm must be made
+to conform; that they cannot conscientiously permit the king's consent
+to the laws, since that would be to put him in the stead of God, under
+whose inspiration they are made; that, as to troubling poor men, it is
+the Holy Ghost who inspireth them to acts tending to the wealth of his
+elect folk, that, if any ecclesiastic hath offended in this respect,
+though "in multis offendimus omnes," as St. James hath it, let him bear
+his own fault, and let not the whole Church be blamed; that the
+Protestants, their antagonists, are lewd, idle fellows, who have
+embraced the abominable opinions recently sprung up in Germany; that
+there are many advantages in commuting Church penances and censures for
+money; that tithes are a divine institution, and that debts of money
+owing to God may be recovered after one hundred or seven hundred years
+of non-payment, since God can never lose his rights thereto; that,
+however, it is not well to collect a tithe twice over; that priests may
+lawfully engage in secular occupations of a certain kind; that the
+punishments inflicted on the laymen have been for the health of their
+souls, and that, generally, the saints may claim powers to which common
+men are not entitled.
+
+[Sidenote: The House passes the Clergy Discipline Act.] A fierce
+struggle between the Commons and the bishops ensued; but the House was
+firm, and passed several bills, and among them the Clergy Discipline
+Act. The effect was to cut down ecclesiastical incomes, probate and
+legacy duties were defined, mortuaries were curtailed, extortionate fees
+for burial terminated, clergymen were forbidden to engage in farming,
+tanning, brewing, or to buy merchandise for the purpose of selling it
+again. It was made unlawful any longer to hold eight or nine benefices,
+or to purchase dispensations for not doing duty. They were compelled to
+reside in the parishes for the care of which they were paid, under
+penalty of L10 a month; and it was made a high penal offence to obtain
+dispensations from any of the provisions of this Act from Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: The Church is compelled to submit.] Nothing could be more
+significant of the position of the parties than the high-toned, the
+conservative moderation of these Acts. The bishops did not yield,
+however, without a struggle. In all directions from the pulpits arose a
+cry of "atheism," "lack of faith," "heresy." But the House resolutely
+stood to its ground. Still more, it sent its speaker to the king with a
+complaint against the Bishop of Rochester, who had dared to stigmatize
+it as "infidel." The bishop was compelled to equivocate and apologize.
+
+[Sidenote: The king is sustained by his people.] The English nation and
+their king were thus together in the suppression of the monasteries;
+they were together in the enforcing of ecclesiastical reforms. It was
+nothing but this harmony which so quickly brought the clergy to reason,
+and induced them, in 1532, to anticipate both Parliament and the people
+in actually offering to separate themselves from Rome. In the next year
+the king had destroyed the vast power which in so many centuries had
+gathered round ecclesiastical institutions, and had forced the clergy
+into a fitting subordination. Henceforth there was no prospect that they
+would monopolize all the influential and lucrative places in the realm;
+henceforth, year by year, with many vicissitudes and changes, their
+power continued to decline. Their special pursuit, theology, was
+separated more and more perfectly from politics. In the House of Lords,
+of which they had once constituted one-half, they became a mere shadow.
+
+[Sidenote: Religious feeling of the nation changed.] Henry VIII. cannot,
+therefore, be properly considered as the author of the downfall of
+ecclesiasticism in England, though he was the instrument by which it was
+ostensibly accomplished. The derisive insinuation that the Gospel light
+had flashed upon him from Anna Boleyn's eyes was far from expressing all
+the truth. The nullity of papal disciplines, excommunications,
+interdicts, penances, proved that the old tone of thought was utterly
+decayed. This oblivion of old emotions, this obsoleteness of old things,
+was by no means confined to England. On the Continent the attacks of
+Erasmus on the monks were everywhere received with applause. In 1527 one
+printer issued an edition of 24,000 copies of the Colloquies of Erasmus,
+and actually sold them all. He understood the signs of the times.
+
+[Sidenote: State of England at the close of the seventeenth century.]
+From this digression on parties and policy in England, let us again
+return to special details, descending for that purpose to the close of
+the seventeenth century. For a long time London had been the most
+populous capital in Europe; yet it was dirty, ill built, without
+sanitary provisions. The deaths were one in twenty-three each year; now,
+in a much more crowded population, they are not one in forty. Much of
+the country was still heath, swamp, warren. [Sidenote: Wild state of the
+country.] Almost within sight of the city was a tract twenty-five miles
+round nearly in a state of nature; there were but three houses in it.
+Wild animals roamed here and there. It is incidentally mentioned that
+Queen Anne, on a journey to Portsmouth, saw a herd of five hundred red
+deer. With such small animals as the marten and badger, found
+everywhere, there was still seen occasionally the wild bull.
+
+[Sidenote: Locomotion: the roads and carriages.] Nothing more strikingly
+shows the social condition than the provisions for locomotion. In the
+rainy seasons the roads were all but impassable, justifying the epithet
+often applied to them of being in a horrible state. Through such
+gullies, half filled with mud, carriages were dragged, often by oxen,
+or, when horses were used, it was as much a matter of necessity as in
+the city a matter of display to drive half a dozen of them. If the
+country was open the track of the road was easily mistaken. It was no
+uncommon thing for persons to lose their way, and have to spend the
+night out in the air. Between places of considerable importance the
+roads were sometimes very little known, and such was the difficulty for
+wheeled carriages that a principal mode of transport was by pack-horses,
+of which passengers took advantage, stowing themselves away between the
+packs. We shall probably not dissent from their complaint that this
+method of travelling was hot in summer and cold in winter. The usual
+charge for freight was fifteen pence per ton per mile. Toward the close
+of the century what were termed "flying coaches" were established; they
+could move at the rate of from thirty to fifty miles in a day. Many
+persons thought the risk so great that it was a tempting of Providence
+to go in them. [Sidenote: The mails; penny-post disliked.] The mail-bag
+was carried on horseback at about five miles an hour. A penny-post had
+been established in the city, but with much difficulty, for many
+long-headed men, who knew very well what they were saying, had denounced
+it as an insidious "popish contrivance."
+
+Only a few years before the period under consideration Parliament had
+resolved that "all pictures in the royal collection which contained
+representations of Jesus or the Virgin Mother should be burnt; Greek
+statues were delivered over to Puritan stone-masons to be made decent."
+[Sidenote: Lewis Muggleton; his doctrines.] A little earlier, Lewis
+Muggleton had given himself out as the last and greatest of the
+prophets, having power to save or damn whom he pleased. It had been
+revealed to him that God is only six feet high, and the sun only four
+miles off. The country beyond the Trent was still in a state of
+barbarism, and near the sources of the Tyne there were people scarcely
+less savage than American Indians, their "half-naked women chanting a
+wild measure, while the men, with brandished dirks, danced a war-dance."
+
+[Sidenote: Printing-presses and private libraries.] At the beginning of
+the eighteenth century there were thirty-four counties without a
+printer. The only press in England north of the Trent was at York. As to
+private libraries, there were none deserving the name. "An esquire
+passed for a great scholar if 'Hudibras,' 'Baker's Chronicle,'
+'Tarleton's Jests,' and the 'Seven Champions of Christendom' lay in his
+hall-window." It might be expected that the women were ignorant enough
+when very few men knew how to write correctly or even intelligibly, and
+it had become unnecessary for clergymen to read the Scriptures in the
+original tongues.
+
+[Sidenote: Social discipline; its barbarity.] Social discipline was very
+far from being of that kind which we call moral. The master whipped his
+apprentice, the pedagogue his scholar, the husband his wife. Public
+punishments partook of the general brutality. It was a day for the
+rabble when a culprit was set in the pillory to be pelted with
+brickbats, rotten eggs, and dead cats; when women were fastened by the
+legs in the stocks at the market-place, or a pilferer flogged through
+the town at the cart-tail, a clamour not unfrequently arising unless the
+lash were laid on hard enough "to make him howl." In punishments of
+higher offenders these whippings were perfectly horrible; thus Titus
+Oates, after standing twice in the pillory, was whipped, and, after an
+interval of two days, whipped again. A virtuoso in these matters gives
+us the incredible information that he counted as many as seventeen
+hundred stripes administered. So far from the community being shocked at
+such an exhibition, they appeared to agree in the sentiment that, "since
+his face could not be made to blush, it was well enough to try what
+could be done with his back." Such a hardening of heart was in no little
+degree promoted by the atrocious punishments of state offenders; thus,
+after the decapitation of Montrose and Argyle, their heads decorated the
+top of the Tolbooth; and gentlemen, after the rising of Monmouth, were
+admonished to be careful of their ways, by hanging in chains to their
+park gate the corpse of a rebel to rot in the air.
+
+[Sidenote: Private life in different classes of society.] To a debased
+public life private life corresponded. The houses of the rural
+population were huts covered with straw-thatch; their inmates, if able
+to procure fresh meat once a week, were considered to be in prosperous
+circumstances. One-half of the families in England could hardly do that.
+Children six years old were not unfrequently set to labour. The lord of
+the manor spent his time in rustic pursuits; was not an unwilling
+associate of pedlars and drovers; knew how to ring a pig or shoe a
+horse; his wife and daughters "stitched and spun, brewed gooseberry
+wine, cured marigolds, and made the crust for the venison pasty."
+Hospitality was displayed in immoderate eating, and drinking of beer,
+the guest not being considered as having done justice to the occasion
+unless he had gone under the table. The dining-room was uncarpeted; but
+then it was tinted with a decoction of "soot and small beer." The chairs
+were rush-bottomed. In London the houses were mostly of wood and
+plaster, the streets filthy beyond expression. After nightfall a
+passenger went at his peril, for chamber windows were opened and
+slop-pails unceremoniously emptied down. There were no lamps in the
+streets until Master Heming established his public lanterns. As a
+necessary consequence, there were plenty of shoplifters, highwaymen, and
+burglars.
+
+[Sidenote: General immorality and brutality.] As to the moral condition,
+it is fearfully expressed in the statement that men not unfrequently
+were willing to sacrifice their country for their religion. Hardly any
+personage died who was not popularly suspected to have been made away
+with by poison, an indication of the morality generally supposed to
+prevail among the higher classes. If such was the state of society in
+its serious aspect, it was no better in its lighter. We can scarcely
+credit the impurity and immodesty of the theatrical exhibitions. What is
+said about them would be beyond belief if we did not remember that they
+were the amusements of a community whose ideas of female modesty and
+female sentiment were altogether different from ours. Indecent jests
+were put into the mouths of lively actresses, and the dancing was not
+altogether of a kind to meet our approval. The rural clergy could do but
+little to withstand this flood of immorality. [Sidenote: Degraded
+condition of the lower clergy.] Their social position for the last
+hundred years had been rapidly declining; for, though the Church
+possessed among her dignitaries great writers and great preachers, her
+lower orders, partly through the political troubles that had befallen
+the state, but chiefly in consequence of sectarian bitterness, had been
+reduced to a truly menial condition. It was the business of the rich
+man's chaplain to add dignity to the dinner-table by saying grace "in
+full canonicals," but he was also intended to be a butt for the mirth of
+the company. "The young Levite," such was the phrase then in use, "might
+fill himself with the corned beef and the carrots, but as soon as the
+tarts and cheese-cakes made their appearance he quitted his seat, and
+stood aloof till he was summoned to return thanks for the repast," the
+daintiest part of which he had not tasted. If need arose, he could curry
+a horse, "carry a parcel ten miles," or "cast up the farrier's bill."
+The "wages" of a parish priest were at starvation-point. The social
+degradation of the ecclesiastic is well illustrated by an order of Queen
+Elizabeth, that no clergyman should presume to marry a servant-girl
+without the consent of her master or mistress.
+
+The clergy, however, had not fallen into this condition without in a
+measure deserving it. Their time had been too much occupied in
+persecuting Puritans and other sectaries, with whom they would have
+gladly dealt in the same manner as they had dealt with the Jews, who,
+from the thirteenth century till Cromwell, were altogether interdicted
+from public worship. [Sidenote: Burning of books and persecution of
+preachers.] The University of Oxford had ordered the political works of
+Buchanan, Milton, and Baxter to be publicly burnt in the court of the
+schools. The immortal vagabond, Bunyan, had been committed to jail for
+preaching the way of salvation to the common people, and had remained
+there twelve years, the stout old man refusing to give his promise not
+to offend in that manner again. The great doctrine inculcated from the
+pulpit was submission to temporal power. Men were taught that rebellion
+is a sin not less deadly than witchcraft. [Sidenote: The Puritan's
+hatred of orthodoxy.] On a community thirsting after the waters of life
+were still inflicted wearisome sermons respecting "the wearing of
+surplices, position at the Eucharist, or the sign of the cross at
+baptism," things that were a stench in the nostrils of the lank-haired
+Puritan, who, with his hands clasped on his bosom, his face corrugated
+with religious astringency, the whites of his eyes turned upward to
+heaven, rocking himself alternately on his heels and the tips of his
+toes, delivered, in a savoury prayer uttered through his nose, all such
+abominations of the Babylonish harlot to the Devil, whose affairs they
+were.
+
+[Sidenote: Brutal administration of the law.] In administering the law,
+whether in relation to political or religious offences, there was an
+incredible atrocity. In London, the crazy old bridge over the Thames was
+decorated with grinning and mouldering heads of criminals, under an idea
+that these ghastly spectacles would fortify the common people in their
+resolves to act according to law. The toleration of the times may be
+understood from a law enacted by the Scotch Parliament, May 8, 1685,
+that whoever preached or heard in a conventicle should be punished with
+death and the confiscation of his goods. That such an infamous spirit
+did not content itself with mere dead-letter laws there is too much
+practical evidence to permit any one to doubt. A silly labouring man,
+who had taken it into his head that he could not conscientiously attend
+the Episcopal worship, was seized by a troop of soldiers, "rapidly
+examined, convicted of non-conformity, and sentenced to death in the
+presence of his wife, who led one little child by the hand, and it was
+easy to see was about to give birth to another. He was shot before her
+face, the widow crying out in her agony, 'Well, sir, well, the day of
+reckoning will come.'" Shrieking Scotch Covenanters were submitted to
+torture by crushing their knees flat in the boot; women were tied to
+stakes on the sea-sands and drowned by the slowly advancing tide because
+they would not attend Episcopal worship, or branded on their cheeks and
+then shipped to America; gallant but wounded soldiers were hung in
+Scotland for fear they should die before they could be got to England.
+In the troubles connected with Monmouth's rising, in one county alone,
+Somersetshire, two hundred and thirty-three persons were hanged, drawn
+and quartered, to say nothing of military executions, for the soldiers
+amused themselves by hanging a culprit for each toast they drank, and
+making the drums and fifes play, as they said, to his dancing. It is
+needless to recall such incidents as the ferocity of Kirk's lambs, for
+such was the name popularly given to the soldiers of that colonel, in
+allusion to the Paschal lamb they bore on their flag; or the story of
+Tom Boilman, so nicknamed from having been compelled by those veterans
+to seethe the remains of his quartered friends in melted pitch. Women,
+for such idle words as women are always using, were sentenced to be
+whipped at the cart's-tail through every market town in Dorset; a lad
+named Tutching was condemned to be flogged once a fortnight for seven
+years. Eight hundred and forty-one human beings judicially condemned to
+transportation to the West India islands, and suffering all the horrible
+pains of a slave-ship in the middle passage, "were never suffered to go
+on deck;" in the holds below, "all was darkness, stench, lamentation,
+disease, and death." One fifth of them were thrown overboard to the
+sharks before they reached their destination, and the rest obliged to be
+fattened before they could be offered in the market to the Jamaica
+planters. The court ladies, and even the Queen of England herself, were
+so utterly forgetful of womanly mercy and common humanity as to join in
+this infernal traffic. That princess requested that a hundred of the
+convicts should be given to her. "The profit which she cleared on the
+cargo, after making a large allowance for those who died of hunger and
+fever during the passage, cannot be estimated at less than a thousand
+guineas."
+
+[Sidenote: Profligate condition of literature.] It remains to add a few
+words respecting the state of literature. This, at the end of the
+seventeenth century, had become indescribably profligate, and, since the
+art of reading was by no means generally cultivated, the most ready
+method of literary communication was through theatrical representation.
+It was for that reason that play-writing was the best means of literary
+remuneration, if we except the profit derived from the practice which,
+to some extent, survives, though its disgraceful motive has ceased, of
+dedicating books to rich men for the sake of the fee they would give. It
+is said that books have actually been printed in consideration of the
+profits of the dedication. Especially in the composition of plays was it
+judged expedient to minister to the depraved public taste by indecent
+expressions, or allusions broad and sly. The playwright was at the mercy
+of an audience who were critical on that point, and in a position, if he
+should not come up to the required standard, to damn him and his work in
+an instant. [Sidenote: Milton's "Paradise Lost."] From these remarks
+must be excepted the writings of Milton, which are nowhere stained by
+such a blemish. And yet posterity will perhaps with truth assert that
+"Paradise Lost" has wrought more intellectual evil than even its base
+contemporaries, since it has familiarized educated minds with images
+which, though in one sense sublime, in another are most unworthy, and
+has taught the public a dreadful materialization of the great and
+invisible God. A Manichean composition in reality, it was mistaken for a
+Christian poem.
+
+[Sidenote: The English theatre.] The progress of English literature not
+only offers striking proofs of the manner in which it was affected by
+theatrical representations, but also furnishes an interesting
+illustration of that necessary course through which intellectual
+development must pass. It is difficult for us, who live in a reading
+community, to comprehend the influence once exercised by the pulpit and
+the stage in the instruction of a non-reading people.
+
+As late as the sixteenth century they were the only means of mental
+access to the public, and we should find, if we were to enter on a
+detailed examination of either one or the other, that they furnish a
+vivid reflexion of the popular intellectual condition. Leaving to others
+such interesting researches into the comparative anatomy of the English
+pulpit, I may, for a moment, direct attention to theatrical exhibitions.
+
+[Sidenote: Its successive phases.] There are three obvious phases
+through which the drama has passed, corresponding to as many phases in
+the process of intellectual development. These are respectively the
+miracle play, corresponding to the stage of childhood; the moral,
+corresponding to that of youth; the real, corresponding to that of
+manhood. In them respectively the supernatural, the theological, the
+positive predominates. The first went out of fashion soon after the
+middle of the fifteenth century, the second continued for about one
+hundred and fifty years, the third still remains. By the miracle play is
+understood a representation of Scripture incidents, enacted, however,
+without any regard to the probabilities of time, place, or action, such
+subjects as the Creation, the fall of man, the Deluge, being considered
+as suitable, and in these scenes, without any concern for chronology,
+other personages, as the Pope or Mohammed, being introduced, or the
+Virgin Mary wearing a French hood, or Virgil worshipping the Saviour.
+Our forefathers were not at all critical historians; they indulged
+without stint in a highly pleasing credulity. They found no difficulty
+in admitting that Mohammed was originally a cardinal, who turned heretic
+out of spite because he was not elected Pope; that, since the taking of
+the true cross by the Turks, all Christian children have twenty-two
+instead of thirty-two teeth, as was the case before that event; and that
+men have one rib less than women, answering to that taken from Adam. The
+moral play personifies virtues, vices, passions, goodness, courage,
+honesty, love. The real play introduces human actors, with a plot free
+from the supernatural, and probability is outraged as little as
+possible. Its excellence consists in the perfect manner in which it
+delineates human character and action.
+
+[Sidenote: Miracle plays, their character.] The miracle play was
+originally introduced by the Church, the first dramas of the kind, it is
+said, having been composed by Gregory Nazianzen. They were brought from
+Constantinople by the Crusaders; the Byzantines were always infatuated
+with theatrical shows. The parts of these plays were often enacted by
+ecclesiastics, and not unfrequently the representations took place at
+the abbey gate. So highly did the Italian authorities prize the
+influence of these exhibitions on the vulgar, that the pope granted a
+thousand days of pardon to any person who should submit to the pleasant
+penance of attending them. All the arguments that had been used in
+behalf of picture-worship were applicable to these plays; even the
+Passion, Resurrection, and Ascension were represented. Over illiterate
+minds a coarse but congenial influence was obtained; a recollection,
+though not an understanding of sacred things. In the play of "the Fall
+of Lucifer," that personage was introduced, according to the vulgar
+acceptation, with horns, and tail, and cloven hoof; his beard, however,
+was red, our forefathers having apparently indulged in a singular
+antipathy against hair of that colour. There still remain accounts of
+the expenses incurred on some of these occasions, the coarse quaintness
+of which is not only amusing, but also shows the debased ideas of the
+times. For instance, in "Mysteries," enacted at Coventry, are such
+entries as "paid for a pair of gloves for God;" "paid for gilding God's
+coat;" "dyvers necessaries for the trimmynge of the Father of Heaven."
+In the play of the "Shepherds" there is provision for green cheese and
+Halton ale, a suitable recruitment after their long journey to the
+birthplace of our Saviour. "Payd to the players for rehearsal: imprimis,
+to God, ii_s._ viii_d._; to Pilate his wife, ii_s._; item, for keeping
+fyer at hell's mouth, iii_d._" A strict attention to chronology is not
+exacted; Herod swears by Mohammed, and promises one of his councillors
+to make him pope. Noah's wife, who, it appears, was a termagant, swears
+by the Virgin Mary that she will not go into the ark, and, indeed, is
+only constrained so to do by a sound cudgelling administered by the
+patriarch, the rustic justice of the audience being particularly
+directed to the point that such a flogging should not be given with a
+stick thicker than her husband's thumb. The sentiment of modesty seems
+not to have been very exacting, since in the play of "the Fall of Man"
+Adam and Eve appear entirely naked; one of the chief incidents is the
+adjustment of the fig-leaves. Many such circumstances might be related,
+impressing us perhaps with an idea of the obscenity and profanity of the
+times. But this would scarcely be a just conclusion. As the social state
+improved, we begin to find objections raised by the more thoughtful
+ecclesiastics, who refused to lend the holy vestments for such purposes,
+and at last succeeded in excluding these exhibitions from consecrated
+places. After dwindling down by degrees, these plays lingered in the
+booths at fairs or on market-days, the Church having resigned them to
+the guilds of different trades, and these, in the end, giving them up to
+the mountebank. And so they died. Their history is the outward and
+visible sign of a popular intellectual condition in process of passing
+away.
+
+[Sidenote: Moral plays, their character.] The mystery and miracle plays
+were succeeded by the moral play. It has been thought by some, who have
+studied the history of the English theatre, that these plays were the
+result of the Reformation, with the activity of which movement their
+popularity was coincident. But perhaps the reader who is impressed with
+the principle of that definite order of social advancement so frequently
+referred to in this book, will agree with me that this relation of cause
+and effect can hardly be sustained, and that devotional exercises and
+popular recreations are in common affected by antecedent conditions. Of
+the moral play, a very characteristic example still remains under the
+title of "Everyman," It often delineates personification and allegory
+with very considerable power. This short phase of our theatrical career
+deserves a far closer attention than it has hitherto obtained, for it
+has left an indelible impression on our literature. I think that it is
+to this, in its declining days, that we are indebted for much of the
+machinery of Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress." Whoever will compare that
+work with such plays as "Everyman" and "Lusty Juventus," cannot fail to
+be struck with their resemblances. Such personages as "Good Council,"
+"Abominable Living," "Hypocrasie," in the play, are of the same family
+as those in the Progress. The stout Protestantism of both is at once
+edifying and amusing. An utter contempt for "holy stocks and holy
+stones, holy clouts and holy bones," as the play has it, animates them
+all. And it can hardly be doubted that the immortal tinker, in the
+carnal days when he played at tipcat and romped with the girls on the
+village green at Elstow, indulged himself in the edification of
+witnessing these dramatic representations.
+
+[Sidenote: Real plays, Shakespeare.] As to the passage from this
+dramatic phase to the real, in which the character and actions of man
+are portrayed, to the exclusion or with the subordination of the
+supernatural, it is only necessary to allude with brevity--indeed, it is
+only necessary to recall one name, and that one name is Shakespeare. He
+stands, in his relations to English literature, in the same position
+that the great Greek sculptors stood with respect to ancient art,
+embodying conceptions of humanity in its various attributes with
+indescribable skill, and with an exquisite agreement to nature.
+
+[Sidenote: The pulpit and the stage.] Not without significance is it
+that we find mystery in the pulpit and mystery on the stage. They
+appertain to social infancy. Such dramas as those I have alluded to, and
+many others that, if space had permitted, might have been quoted, were
+in unison with the times. The abbeys were boasting of such treasures as
+the French hood of the Virgin, "her smocke or shifte," the manger in
+which Christ was laid, the spear which pierced his side, the crown of
+thorns. The transition from this to the following stage is not without
+its political attendants, the prohibition of interludes containing
+anything against the Church of Rome, the royal proclamation against
+preaching out of one's own brain, the appearance of the Puritan upon the
+national stage, an increasing acerbity of habit and sanctimoniousness of
+demeanour.
+
+With peculiar facility we may, therefore, through an examination of the
+state of the drama, determine national mental condition. The same may be
+done by a like examination of the state of the pulpit. Whoever will take
+the trouble to compare the results cannot fail to observe how remarkably
+they correspond.
+
+Such was the state of the literature of amusement; as to political
+literature, even at the close of the period we are considering, it could
+not be expected to flourish after the judges had declared that no man
+could publish political news except he had been duly authorized by the
+crown. [Sidenote: Newspapers and coffee-houses.] Newspapers were,
+however, beginning to be periodically issued, and, if occasion called
+for it, broadsides, as they were termed were added. In addition,
+newsletters were written by enterprising individuals in the metropolis,
+and sent to rich persons who subscribed for them; they then circulated
+from family to family, and doubtless enjoyed a privilege which has not
+descended to their printed contemporary, the newspaper, of never
+becoming stale. Their authors compiled them from materials picked up in
+the gossip of the coffee-houses. The coffee-houses, in a non-reading
+community, were quite an important political as well as social
+institution. They were of every kind, prelatical, popish, Puritan,
+scientific, literary, Whig, Tory. Whatever a man's notions might be, he
+could find in London, in a double sense, a coffee-house to his taste. In
+towns of considerable importance the literary demand was insignificant;
+thus it is said that the father of Dr. Johnson, the lexicographer,
+peddled books from town to town, and was accustomed to open a stall in
+Birmingham on market-days, and it is added that this supply of
+literature was equal to the demand.
+
+[Sidenote: Liberty of the press slowly secured.] The liberty of the
+press has been of slow growth. Scarcely had printing been invented when
+it was found necessary everywhere to place it under some restraint, as
+was, for instance, done by Rome in her "Index Expurgatorius" of
+prohibited books, and the putting of printers who had offended under the
+ban; the action of the University of Paris, alluded to in this volume,
+p. 198, was essentially of the same kind. In England, at first, the
+press was subjected to the common law; the crown judges themselves
+determined the offence, and could punish the offender with fine,
+imprisonment, or even death. Within the last century this power of
+determination has been taken from them, and a jury must decide, not only
+on the fact, but also on the character of the publication, whether
+libellous, seditious, or otherwise offensive. [Sidenote: Its present
+condition.] The press thus came to be a reflector of public opinion,
+casting light back upon the public; yet as with other reflectors, a
+portion of the illuminating power is lost. The restraints under which it
+is laid are due, not so much to the fear that liberty will degenerate
+into license, for public opinion would soon correct that; they are
+rather connected with the necessities of the social state.
+
+[Sidenote: Contrast between progress in the ages of Faith and Reason.]
+Whoever will examine the condition of England at successive periods
+during her passage through the Age of Faith will see how slow was her
+progress, and will, perhaps, be surprised to find at its close how small
+was her advance. The ideas that had served her for so many centuries as
+a guide had rather obstructed than facilitated her way. But whoever will
+consider what she has done since she fairly entered on her Age of Reason
+will remark a wonderful contrast. There has not been a progress in
+physical conditions only--a securing of better food, better clothing,
+better shelter, swifter locomotion, the procurement of individual
+happiness, an extension of the term of life. There has been a great
+moral advancement. Such atrocities as those mentioned in the foregoing
+paragraphs are now impossible, and so unlike our own manners that
+doubtless we read of them at first with incredulity, and with difficulty
+are brought to believe that these are the things our ancestors did. What
+a difference between the dilatoriness of the past, its objectless
+exertions, its unsatisfactory end, and the energy, and well-directed
+intentions of the present age, which have already yielded results like
+the prodigies of romance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON.
+
+REJECTION OF AUTHORITY AND TRADITION, AND ADOPTION OF SCIENTIFIC
+TRUTH.--DISCOVERY OF THE TRUE POSITION OF THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE.
+
+_Ecclesiastical Attempt to enforce the_ GEOCENTRIC DOCTRINE _that the
+Earth is the Centre of the Universe, and the most important Body in it._
+
+_The_ HELIOCENTRIC DOCTRINE _that the Sun is the Centre of the Solar
+System, and the Earth a small Planet, comes gradually into Prominence._
+
+_Struggle between the Ecclesiastical and Astronomical Parties.--Activity
+of the Inquisition.--Burning of_ BRUNO.--_Imprisonment of_ GALILEO.
+
+INVENTION OF THE TELESCOPE.--_Complete Overthrow of the Ecclesiastical
+Idea.--Rise of Physical Astronomy._--NEWTON.--_Rapid and resistless
+Development of all Branches of Natural Philosophy._
+
+_Final Establishment of the Doctrine that the Universe is under the
+Dominion of mathematical, and, therefore, necessary Laws._
+
+_Progress of Man from the Anthropocentric Ideas to the Discovery of his
+true Position and Insignificance in the Universe._
+
+
+[Sidenote: An astronomical problem.] The Age of Reason in Europe was
+ushered in by an astronomical controversy.
+
+Is the earth the greatest and most noble body in the universe, around
+which, as an immovable centre, the sun, and the various planets, and
+stars revolve, ministering by their light and other qualities to the
+wants and pleasures of man, or is it an insignificant orb--a mere
+point--submissively revolving, among a crowd of compeers and superiors,
+around a central sun? The former of these views was authoritatively
+asserted by the Church; the latter, timidly suggested by a few
+thoughtful and religious men at first, in the end gathered strength, and
+carried the day.
+
+[Sidenote: Its important consequences.] Behind this physical question--a
+mere scientific problem--lay something of the utmost importance--the
+position of man in the universe. The conflict broke out upon an
+ostensible issue, but every one saw what was the real point in the
+dispute.
+
+[Sidenote: Treatment of the Age of Reason.] In the history of the Age of
+Reason in Europe, which is to fill the remaining pages of this book, I
+am constrained to commence with this astronomical controversy, and have
+therefore been led by that circumstance to complete the survey of the
+entire period from the same, that is, the scientific point of view. Many
+different modes of treating it spontaneously present themselves; but so
+vast are the subjects to be brought under consideration, so numerous
+their connexions, and so limited the space at my disposal, that I must
+give the preference to one which, with sufficient copiousness, offers
+also precision. Whoever will examine the progress of European
+intellectual advancement thus far manifested will find that it has
+concerned itself with three great questions: 1. The ascertainment of the
+position of the earth in the universe; 2. The history of the earth in
+time; 3. The position of man among living beings. Under this last is
+ranged all that he has done in scientific discovery, and all those
+inventions which are the characteristics of the present industrial age.
+
+What am I? Where am I? we may imagine to have been the first
+exclamations of the first man awakening to conscious existence. Here, in
+our Age of Reason, we have been dealing with the same thoughts. They are
+the same which, as we have seen, occupied Greek intellectual life.
+
+[Sidenote: Roman astronomical ideas.] When Halley's comet appeared in
+1456, it was described by those who saw it as an object of "unheard-of
+magnitude;" its tail, which shook down "diseases, pestilence, and war"
+upon earth, reached over a third part of the heavens. It was considered
+as connected with the progress of Mohammed II., who had just then taken
+Constantinople. It struck terror into all people. From his seat,
+invisible to it, in Italy, the sovereign pontiff, Calixtus III., issued
+his ecclesiastical fulminations; but the comet in the heavens, like the
+sultan on the earth, pursued its course undeterred. In vain were all the
+bells in Europe ordered to be rung to scare it away; in vain was it
+anathematized; in vain were prayers put up in all directions to stop it.
+True to its time, it punctually returns from the abysses of space,
+uninfluenced by anything save agencies of a material kind. A signal
+lesson for the meditations of every religious man.
+
+[Sidenote: More correct ideas among some of the clergy.] Among the
+clergy there were, however, some who had more correct cosmic ideas than
+those of Calixtus. A century before Copernicus, Cardinal de Cusa had
+partially adopted the heliocentric theory, as taught in the old times by
+Philolaus, Pythagoras, and Archimedes. He ascribed to the earth a
+globular form, rotation on its axis, and a movement in space; he
+believed that it moves round the sun, and both together round the pole
+of the universe.
+
+[Sidenote: The geocentric and heliocentric theories.] By geocentric
+theory is meant that doctrine which asserts the earth to be the
+immovable centre of the universe; by heliocentric theory that which
+demonstrates the sun to be the centre of our planetary system, implying,
+as a necessary influence, that the earth is a very small and subordinate
+body revolving round the sun.
+
+[Sidenote: The geocentric doctrine adopted by the Church.] I have
+already, in sufficient detail, described how the Roman Church had been
+constrained by her position to uphold the geocentric doctrine. She had
+come to regard it as absolutely essential to her system, the
+intellectual basis of which she held would be sapped if this doctrine
+should be undermined. Hence it was that such an alarm was shown at the
+assertion of the globular form of the earth, and hence the surpassing
+importance of the successful voyage of Magellan's ship. That
+indisputable demonstration of the globular figure was ever a solid
+support to the scientific party in the portentous approaching conflict.
+
+[Sidenote: Preparations for the heliocentric doctrine.] Preparations had
+been silently making for a scientific revolution in various directions.
+The five memoirs of Cardinal Alliacus "On the Concordance of Astronomy
+with Theology," show the turn that thought was taking. His "Imago Mundi"
+was published in 1460, and is said to have been a favourite work with
+Columbus. In the very Cathedral of Florence, Toscanelli had constructed
+his celebrated gnomon, 1468, a sun-ray, auspicious omen! being admitted
+through a plate of brass in the lantern of the cupola. John Muller,
+better known as Regiomontanus, had published an abridgment of Ptolemy's
+"Almagest," 1520. Euclid had been printed with diagrams on copper as
+long before as 1482, and again in Venice twenty-three years
+subsequently. The Optics of Vitello had been published 1533. Fernel,
+physician to Henry II. of France, had even ventured so far, supported by
+Magellan's voyage, as to measure, 1527, the size of the earth, his
+method being to observe the height of the pole at Paris, then to proceed
+northward until its elevation was increased exactly one degree, and to
+ascertain the distance between the stations by the number of revolutions
+of his carriage wheel. He concluded that it is 24,480 Italian miles
+round the globe. The last attempt of the kind had been that of the
+Khalif Almaimon seven hundred years previously on the shore of the Red
+Sea, and with nearly the same result. The mathematical sciences were
+undergoing rapid advancement. Rhaeticus had published his trigonometrical
+tables; Cardan, Tartaglia, Scipio Ferreo, and Stefel were greatly
+improving algebra.
+
+[Sidenote: Copernicus, the works of.] The first formal assertion of the
+heliocentric theory was made in a timid manner, strikingly illustrative
+of the expected opposition. It was by Copernicus, a Prussian, speaking
+of the revolutions of the heavenly bodies; the year was about 1536. In
+his preface, addressed to Pope Paul III., whether written by himself,
+or, as some have affirmed, for him by Andreas Osiander, he complains of
+the imperfections of the existing system, states that he has sought
+among ancient writers for a better way, and so had learned the
+heliocentric doctrine. "Then I too began to meditate on the motion of
+the earth, and, though it appeared an absurd opinion, yet since I knew
+that in previous times others had been allowed the privilege of feigning
+what circles they chose in order to explain the phenomena, I conceived
+that I might take the liberty of trying whether, on the supposition of
+the earth's motion, it was possible to find better explanations than the
+ancient ones of the revolutions of the celestial orbs."
+
+"Having, then, assumed the motions of the earth, which are hereafter
+explained, by laborious and long observation I at length found that, if
+the motions of the other planets be compared with the revolution of the
+earth, not only their phenomena follow from the suppositions, but also
+that the several orbs and the whole system are so connected in order and
+magnitude that no one point can be transposed without disturbing the
+rest, and introducing confusion into the whole universe."
+
+[Sidenote: Introduction of his system.] The apologetic air with which he
+thus introduces his doctrine is again remarked in his statement that he
+had kept his book for thirty-six years, and only now published it at the
+entreaty of Cardinal Schomberg. The cardinal had begged of him a
+manuscript copy. "Though I know that the thoughts of a philosopher do
+not depend on the judgment of the many, his study being to seek out
+truth in all things as far as is permitted by God to human reason, yet,
+when I considered how absurd my doctrine would appear, I long hesitated
+whether I should publish my book, or whether it were not better to
+follow the example of the Pythagoreans and others, who delivered their
+doctrine only by tradition and to friends." [Sidenote: He fears being
+accused of heresy.] He concludes: "If there be vain babblers who,
+knowing nothing of mathematics, yet assume the right of judging on
+account of some place of Scripture perversely wrested to their purpose,
+and who blame and attack my undertaking, I heed them not, and look upon
+their judgments as rash and contemptible."
+
+Copernicus clearly recognized not only the relative position of the
+earth, but also her relative magnitude. He says the magnitude of the
+world is so great that the distance of the earth from the sun has no
+apparent magnitude when compared with the sphere of the fixed stars.
+
+[Sidenote: Early correction of the Copernican theory.] To the earth
+Copernicus attributed a triple motion--a daily rotation on her axis, an
+annual motion round the sun, a motion of declination of the axis. The
+latter seemed to be necessary to account for the constant direction of
+the pole; but as this was soon found to be a misconception, the theory
+was relieved of it. With this correction, the doctrine of Copernicus
+presents a clear and great advance, though in the state in which he
+offered it he was obliged to retain the mechanism of epicycles and
+eccentrics, because he considered the planetary motions to be circular.
+It was the notion that, since the circle is the most simple of all
+geometrical forms, it must therefore be the most natural, which led to
+this imperfection. His work was published in 1543. He died a few days
+after he had seen a copy.
+
+Against the opposition it had to encounter, the heliocentric theory made
+its way slowly at first. Among those who did adopt it were some whose
+connexion served rather to retard its progress, because of the ultraism
+of their views, or the doubtfulness of their social position. [Sidenote:
+Giordano Bruno of Nola.] Such was Bruno, who contributed largely to its
+introduction into England, and who was the author of a work on the
+Plurality of Worlds, and of the conception that every star is a sun,
+having opaque planets revolving round it--a conception to which the
+Copernican system suggestively leads. Bruno was born seven years after
+the death of Copernicus. He became a Dominican, but, like so many other
+thoughtful men of the times, was led into heresy on the doctrine of
+transubstantiation. Not concealing his opinions, he was persecuted,
+fled, and led a vagabond life in foreign countries, testifying that
+wherever he went he found scepticism under the polish of hypocrisy, and
+that he fought not against the belief of men, but against their
+pretended belief. [Sidenote: He teaches the heliocentric theory,] For
+teaching the rotation of the earth he had to flee to Switzerland, and
+thence to England, where, at Oxford, he gave lectures on cosmology.
+Driven from England, France, and Germany in succession, he ventured in
+his extremity to return to Italy, and was arrested in Venice, where he
+was kept in prison in the Piombi for six years without books, or paper,
+or friends. Meantime the Inquisition demanded him as having written
+heretical works. He was therefore surrendered to Rome, and, after a
+farther imprisonment of two years, tried, excommunicated, and delivered
+over to the secular authorities, to be punished "as mercifully as
+possible, and without the shedding of his blood," the abominable formula
+for burning a man alive. He had collected all the observations that had
+been made respecting the new star in Cassiopeia, 1572; he had taught
+that space is infinite, and that it is filled with self-luminous and
+opaque worlds, many of them inhabited--this being his capital offence.
+He believed that the world is animated by an intelligent soul, the cause
+of forms but not of matter; that it lives in all things, even such as
+seem not to live; that every thing is ready to become organized; that
+matter is the mother of forms and then their grave; that matter and the
+soul of the world together constitute God. His ideas were therefore
+pantheistic, "Est Deus in nobis." In his "Cena de le Cenere" he insists
+that the Scripture was not intended to teach science, but morals only.
+The severity with which he was treated was provoked by his asseverations
+that he was struggling with an orthodoxy that had neither morality nor
+belief. This was the aim of his work entitled "The triumphant Beast."
+[Sidenote: and is burnt alive as a heretic.] He was burnt at Rome,
+February 16, 1600. With both a present and prophetic truth, he nobly
+responded, when the atrocious sentence was passed upon him, "Perhaps it
+is with greater fear that ye pass this sentence upon me than I receive
+it." His tormentors jocosely observed, as the flames shut him out
+forever from view, that he had gone to the imaginary worlds he had so
+wickedly feigned.
+
+This vigorous but spasmodic determination of the Church to defend
+herself was not without effect. It enabled her to hold fast the timid,
+the time-servers, the superficial. [Sidenote: Lord Bacon. Rejects the
+Copernican doctrine.] Among such may be mentioned Lord Bacon, who never
+received the Copernican system. With the audacity of ignorance, he
+presumed to criticize what he did not understand, and, with a superb
+conceit, disparaged the great Copernicus. He says, "In the system of
+Copernicus there are many and grave difficulties; for the threefold
+motion with which he encumbers the earth is a serious inconvenience, and
+the separation of the sun from the planets, with which he has so many
+affections in common, is likewise a harsh step; and the introduction of
+so many immovable bodies in nature, as when he makes the sun and stars
+immovable, the bodies which are peculiarly lucid and radiant, and his
+making the moon adhere to the earth in a sort of epicycle, and some
+other things which he assumes, are proceedings which mark a man who
+thinks nothing of introducing fictions of any kind into nature, provided
+his calculations turn out well." The more closely we examine the
+writings of Lord Bacon, the more unworthy does he seem to have been of
+the great reputation which has been awarded to him. The popular delusion
+to which he owes so much originated at a time when the history of
+science was unknown. They who first brought him into notice knew nothing
+of the old school of Alexandria. This boasted founder of a new
+philosophy could not comprehend, and would not accept, the greatest of
+all scientific doctrines when it was plainly set before his eyes.
+
+It has been represented that the invention of the true method of
+physical science was an amusement of Bacon's hours of relaxation from
+the more laborious studies of law and duties of a court. His chief
+admirers have been persons of a literary turn, who have an idea that
+scientific discoveries are accomplished by a mechanico-mental operation.
+[Sidenote: The practical uselessness of his philosophy.] Bacon never
+produced any great practical result himself, no great physicist has ever
+made any use of his method. He has had the same to do with the
+development of modern science that the inventor of the orrery has had to
+do with the discovery of the mechanism of the world. Of all the
+important physical discoveries, there is not one which shows that its
+author made it by the Baconian instrument. Newton never seems to have
+been aware that he was under any obligation to Bacon. Archimedes, and
+the Alexandrians, and the Arabians, and Leonardo da Vinci did very well
+before he was born; the discovery of America by Columbus and the
+circumnavigation by Magellan can hardly be attributed to him, yet they
+were the consequences of a truly philosophical reasoning. But the
+investigation of nature is an affair of genius, not of rules. No man can
+invent an organon for writing tragedies and Epic poems. Bacon's system
+is, in it own terms, an idol of the theatre. It would scarcely guide a
+man to a solution of the riddle of Aelia Laelia Crispis, or to that of the
+charade of Sir Hilary.
+
+[Sidenote: His scientific errors.] Few scientific pretenders have made
+more mistakes than Lord Bacon. He rejected the Copernican system, and
+spoke insolently of its great author; he undertook to criticise
+adversely Gilbert's treatise "De Magnete;" he was occupied in the
+condemnation of any investigation of final causes, while Harvey was
+deducing the circulation of the blood from Aquapendente's discovery of
+the valves in the veins; he was doubtful whether instruments were of any
+advantage, while Galileo was investigating the heavens with the
+telescope. Ignorant himself of every branch of mathematics, he presumed
+that they were useless in science, but a few years before Newton
+achieved by their aid his immortal discoveries. It is time that the
+sacred name of philosophy should be severed from its long connexion with
+that of one who was a pretender in science, a time-serving politician,
+an insidious lawyer, a corrupt judge, a treacherous friend, a bad man.
+
+[Sidenote: Adoption of the Copernican doctrine.] But others were not so
+obtuse as Bacon. Gilbert, one of the best of the early English
+experimentalists, an excellent writer on magnetism, adopted the views of
+Copernicus. Milton, in "Paradise Lost," set forth in language such as he
+only could use the objections to the Ptolemaic, and the probabilities of
+the Copernican system. Some of the more liberal ecclesiastics gave their
+adhesion. Bishop Wilkins not only presented it in a very popular way,
+but also made some sensible suggestions explanatory of the supposed
+contradictions of the new theory to the Holy Scriptures. It was,
+however, among geometricians, as Napier, Briggs, Horrox, that it met
+with its best support. On the continent the doctrine was daily making
+converts, and nightly gathering strength from the accordance of the
+tables of the motions of the heavenly bodies calculated upon its
+principles with actual observation.
+
+[Sidenote: Invention of the telescope.] It is by no means uninteresting
+to notice the different classes of men among whom this great theory was
+steadily winning its way. Experimental philosophers, Republican poets,
+Episcopal clergymen, Scotch lords, West of England schoolmasters,
+Italian physicists, Polish pedants, painstaking Germans, each from his
+own special point of view, was gradually receiving the light, and
+doubtless, from such varied influence, the doctrine would have
+vindicated its supremacy at last, though it might have taken a long
+time. On a sudden, however, there occurred a fortunate event, which led
+forthwith to that result by a new train of evidence, bringing the
+matter, under the most brilliant circumstances, clearly to the
+apprehension of every one. This great and fortunate event was the
+invention of the telescope.
+
+[Sidenote: Galileo constructs one.] It is needless to enter on any
+examination of the authorship of this invention. It is enough for our
+purpose to know that Lippershey, a Dutchman, had made one toward the
+close of 1608, and that Galileo, hearing of the circumstance, but
+without knowing the particulars of the construction, in April or May of
+the following year invented a form of it for himself. Not content with
+admiring how close and large it made terrestrial objects, he employed it
+for examining the heavens. [Sidenote: Telescopic astronomical
+discoveries.] On turning it to the moon, he found that she has mountains
+casting shadows, and valleys like those of the earth. The discovery of
+innumerable fixed stars--not fewer than forty were counted by him in the
+well-known group of the Pleiades--up to that time unseen by man, was
+felt at once to offer an insuperable argument against the opinion that
+these bodies were created only to illuminate the night; indeed, it may
+be said that this was a death-blow to the time-honoured doctrine of the
+human destiny of the universe. Already Galileo began to encounter vulgar
+indignation, which accused him loudly of impiety. On January 7th, 1610,
+he discovered three of Jupiter's satellites, and a few days later the
+fourth. To these he gave the designation of the Medicean stars, and in
+his "Sidereal Messenger" published an account of the facts he had thus
+far observed. As it was perceived at once that this planet offered a
+miniature representation of the ideas of Copernicus respecting the solar
+system, this discovery was received by the astronomical party with the
+liveliest pleasure, by the ecclesiastical with the most bitter
+opposition, some declaring that it was a mere optical deception, some a
+purposed fraud, some that it was sheer blasphemy, and some, fairly
+carrying out to its consequences the absurd philosophy of the day,
+asserted that, since the pretended satellites were invisible to the
+naked eye, they must be useless, and, being useless, they could not
+exist. Continuing his observations, Galileo found that Saturn differs in
+an extraordinary manner from other planets; but the telescope he used
+not being sufficient to demonstrate the ring, he fell into the mistake
+that the body of the planet is triple. This was soon followed by the
+discovery of the phases of Venus, which indisputably established for her
+a motion round the sun, and actually converted what had hitherto, on all
+hands, been regarded as one of the weightiest objections against the
+Copernican theory, into a most solid support. "If the doctrine of
+Copernicus be true, the planet Venus ought to show phases like the moon,
+which is not the case;" so said the objectors. Copernicus himself saw
+the difficulty, and tried to remove it by suggesting that the planet
+might be transparent. The telescope of Galileo for ever settled the
+question by showing that the expected phases do actually exist.
+
+[Sidenote: Commencing opposition to Galileo.] In the garden of Cardinal
+Bandini at Rome, A.D. 1611, Galileo publicly exhibited the spots upon
+the sun. He had observed them the preceding year. Goaded on by the
+opposition his astronomical discoveries were bringing upon him, he
+addressed a letter in 1613 to the Abbe Castelli, for the purpose of
+showing that the Scriptures were not intended as a scientific authority.
+This was repeating Bruno's offence. Hereupon the Dominicans, taking
+alarm, commenced to attack him from their pulpits. It shows how
+reluctantly, and with what misgivings the higher ecclesiastics entered
+upon the quarrel, that Maraffi, the general of the Dominicans,
+apologized to Galileo for what had taken place. The astronomer now
+published another letter reiterating his former opinions, asserting that
+the Scriptures were only intended for our salvation, and otherwise
+defending himself, and recalling the fact that Copernicus had dedicated
+his book to Pope Paul III.
+
+[Sidenote: He is summoned to Rome.] Through the suggestion of the
+Dominicans, Galileo was now summoned to Rome to account for his conduct
+and opinions before the Inquisition. He was accused of having taught
+that the earth moves; that the sun is stationary; and of having
+attempted to reconcile these doctrines with the Scriptures. The sentence
+was that he must renounce these heretical opinions, and pledge himself
+that he would neither publish nor defend them for the future. [Sidenote:
+Is condemned by the Inquisition,] In the event of his refusal he was to
+be imprisoned. With the fate of Bruno in his recollection, he assented
+to the required recantation, and gave the promise demanded. The
+Inquisition then proceeded to deal with the Copernican system,
+condemning it as heretical; the letters of Galileo, which had given rise
+to the trouble, were prohibited; also Kepler's epitome of the Copernican
+theory, and also the work of Copernicus. [Sidenote: which condemns the
+Copernican system.] In their decree prohibiting this work "De
+Revolutionibus," the Congregation of the Index, March 5, 1616, denounced
+the new system of the universe as "that false Pythagorean doctrine
+utterly contrary to the Holy Scriptures."
+
+Again it appears how reluctant the Roman authorities were to interfere,
+and how they were impelled rather by the necessity of their position
+than by their personal belief in the course they had been obliged to
+take. [Sidenote: The personal sentiments of the Popes.] After all that
+had passed, the Pope, Paul V., admitted Galileo to an audience, at which
+he professed to him personally the kindest sentiments, and assured him
+of safety. When Urban VIII. succeeded to the pontifical chair, Galileo
+received the distinction of not less than six audiences; the Pope
+conferred on him several presents, and added the promise of a pension
+for his son. In a letter to the Duke of Florence his Holiness used the
+most liberal language, stated how dear to him Galileo was, that he had
+very lovingly embraced him, and requested the duke to show him every
+favour.
+
+[Sidenote: Galileo publishes "The System of the World".] Whether it was
+that, under these auspicious circumstances, Galileo believed he could
+with impunity break through the engagement he had made, or whether an
+instinctive hatred of that intellectual despotism and hypocrisy which
+was weighing upon Europe became irrepressible in his breast, in 1632 he
+ventured on the publication of his work, entitled "The System of the
+World," its object being to establish the truth of the Copernican
+doctrine. It is composed in the dialogue form, three speakers being
+introduced, two of them true philosophers, the third an objector.
+Whatever may have been the personal opinion of the Pope, there can be no
+doubt that his duty rendered it necessary for him to act. Galileo was
+therefore again summoned before the Inquisition, the Tuscan ambassador
+expostulating against the inhumanity of thus dealing with an old man in
+ill health. But no such considerations were listened to, and Galileo was
+compelled to appear at Rome, February, 1633, and surrender himself to
+the Holy Office. The Pope's nephew did all in his power to meet the
+necessity of the Church and yet to spare the dignity of science. He paid
+every attention to the personal comfort of the accused. When the time
+came for Galileo to be put into solitary confinement, he endeavoured to
+render the imprisonment as light as possible; but, finding it to prey
+upon the spirits of the aged philosopher, he, on his own responsibility,
+liberated him, permitting him to reside in the house of the Tuscan
+ambassador. [Sidenote: Is again condemned by the Inquisition.] The trial
+being completed, Galileo was directed to appear, on June 22nd, to hear
+his sentence. Clothed in the penitential garment, he received judgment.
+His heretical offences were specified, the pledges he had violated
+recited; he was declared to have brought upon himself strong suspicions
+of heresy, and to be liable to the penalties thereof; but from these he
+might be absolved if, with a sincere heart, he would abjure and curse
+his heresies. However, that his offences might not altogether go
+unpunished, and that he might be a warning to others, he was condemned
+to imprisonment during the pleasure of the Inquisition, his dialogues
+were prohibited by public edict, and for three years he was directed to
+recite, once a week, the seven penitential psalms.
+
+[Sidenote: His degradation and punishment.] In his garment of disgrace
+the aged philosopher was now made to fall upon his knees before the
+assembled cardinals, and, with his hand on the Gospels, to make the
+required abjuration of the heliocentric doctrine, and to give the
+pledges demanded. He was then committed to the prison of the
+Inquisition; the persons who had been concerned in the printing of his
+book were punished; and the sentence and abjuration were formally
+promulgated, and ordered to be publicly read in the universities. In
+Florence, the adherents of Galileo were ordered to attend in the Church
+of Santa Croce to witness his disgrace. After a short imprisonment in
+the jail of the Inquisition, he was ordered to Arcetri, and confined in
+his own house. Here severe misfortunes awaited him; his favourite
+daughter died; he fell into a state of melancholy; an application that
+he might go to Florence for the sake of medical advice was refused. It
+became evident that there was an intention to treat him with inexorable
+severity. After five years of confinement, permission was reluctantly
+accorded to him to remove to Florence for his health; but still he was
+forbidden to leave his house, or receive his friends, or even to attend
+mass during Passion Week without a special order. The Grand-duke tried
+to abate this excessive severity, directing his ambassador at the court
+of Rome to plead the venerable age and ill health of the immortal
+convict, and that it was desirable to permit him to communicate certain
+scientific discoveries he had made to some other person, such as Father
+Castelli. Not even that was accorded unless the interview took place in
+the presence of an official of the Inquisition. Soon after Galileo was
+remanded to Arcetri. He spent the weary hours in composing his work on
+Local Motion, his friends causing it to be surreptitiously published in
+Holland. [Sidenote: The calamities of his old age.] His infirmities and
+misfortunes now increased. In 1637 he became totally blind. In a letter
+he plaintively says, referring to this calamity, "So it pleases God, it
+shall therefore please me also." The exquisite refinement of
+ecclesiastical vengeance pursued him remorselessly, and now gave him
+permission to see his friends when sight was no longer possible. It was
+at this period that an illustrious stranger, the author of "Paradise
+Lost," visited him. Shortly after he became totally deaf; but to the
+last he occupied himself with investigations respecting the force of
+percussion. [Sidenote: His death; is refused burial.] He died, January,
+1642, in the seventy-eighth year of his age, the prisoner of the
+Inquisition. True to its instincts, that infernal institution followed
+him beyond the grave, disputing his right to make a will, and denying
+him burial in consecrated ground. The pope also prohibited his friends
+from raising to him a monument in the church of Santa Croce, in
+Florence. It was reserved for the nineteenth century to erect a suitable
+memorial in his honour.
+
+[Sidenote: Steady advance of the Copernican system.] The result of the
+discoveries of Copernicus and Galileo was thus to bring the earth to her
+real position of subordination and to give sublimer views of the
+universe. Moestlin expresses correctly the state of the case when he
+says, "What is the earth and the ambient air with respect to the
+immensity of space? It is a point, a punctule, or something, if there be
+any thing, less." It had been brought down to the condition of one of
+the members of a family--the solar system. And since it could be no
+longer regarded as holding all other bodies in submissive attendance
+upon it, dominating over their movements, there was reason to suppose
+that it would be found to maintain interconnexions with them in the
+attitude of an equal or subordinate; in other words, that general
+relations would be discovered expressive of the manner in which all the
+planetary members of the solar system sustain their movements round the
+sun.
+
+[Sidenote: Kepler, his mode of inquiry.] Among those whose minds were
+thoroughly occupied with this idea, Kepler stands pre-eminently
+conspicuous. It is not at all surprising, considering the tone of
+thought of those times, that he regarded his subject with a certain
+mysticism. They who condemn his manner of thus viewing things do not
+duly appreciate the mental condition of the generation in which he
+lived. Whatever may be said on that point, no one can deny him a
+marvellous patience, and almost superhuman painstaking disposition.
+Guess after guess, hypothesis after hypothesis, he submitted to
+computations of infinite labour, and doubtless he speaks the melancholy
+truth when he says, "I considered and reflected till I was almost mad."
+Yet, in the midst of repeated disappointment, he held, with a truly
+philosophical determination, firmly to the belief that there must be
+some physical interconnexion among the parts of the solar system, and
+that it would certainly be displayed by the discovery of laws presiding
+over the distances, times, and velocities of the planets. In these
+speculations he was immersed before the publications of Galileo. In his
+"Mysterium Cosmographicum" he says, "In the year 1595 I was brooding
+with the whole energy of my mind on the subject of the Copernican
+system."
+
+[Sidenote: Discovery of Kepler's laws.] In 1609 he published his work
+entitled "On the Motion of Mars." This was the result of an attempt,
+upon which he had been engaged since the beginning of the century, to
+reconcile the motions of that planet to the hypothesis of eccentrics and
+epicycles. It ended in the abandonment of that hypothesis, and in the
+discovery of the two great laws now known as the first and second laws
+of Kepler. They are respectively that the orbits of the planets are
+elliptical, and that the areas described by a line drawn from the planet
+to the sun are proportional to the times.
+
+In 1617 he was again rewarded by the discovery which passes under the
+designation of Kepler's third law: it expresses the relation of the mean
+distances of the planets from the sun with the times of their
+revolutions--"the squares of the periodic times are in the same
+proportion as the cubes of the distances." In his "Epitome of the
+Copernican Astronomy," published 1622, he showed that this law likewise
+holds good for the satellites of Jupiter as regards their primary.
+
+[Sidenote: His remonstrance with the Church.] Humboldt, referring to the
+movement of Jupiter's satellites, remarks: "It was this which led
+Kepler, in his 'Harmonices Mundi,' to state, with the firm confidence
+and security of a German spirit of philosophical independence, to those
+whose opinions bore sway beyond the Alps, 'Eighty years have elapsed
+during which the doctrines of Copernicus regarding the movement of the
+earth and the immobility of the sun have been promulgated without
+hindrance, because it was deemed allowable to dispute concerning natural
+things and to elucidate the works of God, and, now that new testimony is
+discovered in proof of the truth of those doctrines--testimony which was
+not known to the spiritual judges, ye would prohibit the promulgation of
+the true system of the structure of the universe.'"
+
+[Sidenote: Rectification of the Copernican theory.] Thus we see that the
+heliocentric theory, as proposed by Copernicus, was undergoing
+rectification. The circular movements admitted into it, and which had
+burdened it with infinite perplexity, though they had hitherto been
+recommended by an illusive simplicity, were demonstrated to be
+incorrect. They were replaced by the real ones, the elliptical. Kepler,
+as was his custom, ingenuously related his trials and disappointments.
+Alluding on one occasion to this, he says: "My first error was that the
+path of a planet is a perfect circle--an opinion which was a more
+mischievous thief of my time, in proportion as it was supported by the
+authority of all philosophers, and apparently agreeable to metaphysics."
+
+[Sidenote: The philosophical import of these laws.] The philosophical
+significance of Kepler's discoveries was not recognized by the
+ecclesiastical party at first. It is chiefly this, that they constitute
+a most important step to the establishment of the doctrine of the
+government of the world by law. But it was impossible to receive these
+laws without seeking for their cause. The result to which that search
+eventually conducted not only explained their origin, but also showed
+that, as laws, they must, in the necessity of nature, exist. It may be
+truly said that the mathematical exposition of their origin constitutes
+the most splendid monument of the intellectual power of man.
+
+[Sidenote: Necessity for mechanical science.] Before the heliocentric
+theory could be developed and made to furnish a clear exposition of the
+solar system, which is obviously the first step to just views of the
+universe, it was necessary that the science of mechanics should be
+greatly improved--indeed, it might be said, created; for during those
+dreary ages following the establishment of Byzantine power, nothing had
+been done toward the acquisition of correct views either in statics or
+dynamics. It was impossible that Europe, in her lower states of life,
+could produce men capable of commencing where Archimedes had left off.
+She had to wait for the approach of her Age of Reason for that.
+
+[Sidenote: Leonardo da Vinci.] The man of capacity at last came.
+Leonardo da Vinci was born A.D. 1452. The historian Hallam, enumerating
+some of his works, observes, "His knowledge was almost preternatural."
+Many of his writings still remain unpublished. Long before Bacon, he
+laid down the maxim that experience and observation must be the
+foundation of all reasoning in science; that experiment is the only
+interpreter of nature, and is essential to the ascertainment of laws.
+Unlike Bacon, who was ignorant of mathematics, and even disparaged them,
+he points out their supreme advantage. Seven years after the voyage of
+Columbus, this great man--great at once as an artist, mathematician, and
+engineer--gave a clear exposition of the theory of forces obliquely
+applied on a lever; a few years later he was well acquainted with the
+earth's annual motion. He knew the laws of friction, subsequently
+demonstrated by Amontons, and the principle of virtual velocities; he
+described the camera obscura before Baptista Porta, understood aerial
+perspective, the nature of coloured shadows, the use of the iris, and
+the effects of the duration of visible impressions on the eye. He wrote
+well on fortification, anticipated Castelli on hydraulics, occupied
+himself with the fall of bodies on the hypothesis of the earth's
+rotation, treated of the times of descent along inclined planes and
+circular arcs, and of the nature of machines. He considered, with
+singular clearness, respiration and combustion, and foreshadowed one of
+the great hypotheses of geology, the elevation of continents.
+
+[Sidenote: Stevinus continues the movement in Natural Philosophy.] This
+was the commencement of the movement in Natural Philosophy; it was
+followed up by the publication of a work on the principles of
+equilibrium by Stevinus, 1586. In this the author established the
+fundamental property of the inclined plane, and solved, in a general
+manner, the cases of forces acting obliquely. Six years later Galileo's
+treatise on mechanics appeared, a fitting commencement of that career
+which, even had it not been adorned with such brilliant astronomical
+discoveries, would alone have conferred the most illustrious distinction
+upon him.
+
+[Sidenote: Discovery of the laws of motion.] The dynamical branch of
+Mechanics is that which is under most obligation to Galileo. To him is
+due the establishment of the three laws of motion. They are to the
+following effect, as given by Newton:
+
+(1.) Every body perseveres in its state of rest or of uniform motion in
+a right line unless it is compelled to change that state by forces
+impressed thereon.
+
+(2.) The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force
+impressed, and is made in the direction of the right line in which that
+force is impressed.
+
+(3.) To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction, or the
+mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and
+directed to contrary parts.
+
+Up to this time it was the general idea that motion can only be
+maintained by a perpetual application, impression, or expenditure of
+force. Galileo himself for many years entertained that error, but in
+1638 he plainly states in his "Dialogues on Mechanics" the true law of
+the uniformity and perpetuity of motion. Such a view necessarily implies
+a correct and clear appreciation of the nature of resistances. No
+experimental motion that man can establish is unrestrained. But a
+perception of the uniformity and perpetuity of motion lies at the very
+basis of physical astronomy. With difficulty the true idea was attained.
+The same may be said as respects rectilinear direction, for many
+supposed that uniform motion can only take place in a circle.
+
+[Sidenote: Establishment of the first law of motion,] The establishment
+of the first law of motion was essential to the discovery of the laws of
+falling bodies, in which the descent is made under the influence of a
+continually acting force, the velocity increasing in consequence
+thereof. Galileo saw clearly that, whether a body is moving slowly or
+swiftly, it will be equally affected by gravity. This principle was with
+difficulty admitted by some, who were disposed to believe that a swiftly
+moving body would not be as much affected by a constant force like
+gravity as one the motion of which is slower. With difficulty, also, was
+the old Aristotelian error eradicated that a heavy body falls more
+swiftly than a light one.
+
+[Sidenote: and of the second,] The second law of motion was also
+established and illustrated by Galileo. In his "Dialogues" he shows that
+a body projected horizontally must have, from what has been said, a
+uniform horizontal motion, but that it will also have compounded
+therewith an accelerated motion downward. Here again we perceive it is
+necessary to retain a steady conception of this intermingling of forces
+without deterioration, and, though it may seem simple enough to us,
+there were some eminent men of those times who did not receive it as
+true. The special case offered by Galileo is theoretically connected
+with the paths of military projectiles, though in practice, since they
+move in a resisting medium, the air, their path is essentially different
+from the parabola. Curvilinear motions, which necessarily arise from the
+constant action of a central force, making a body depart from the
+rectilinear path it must otherwise take, are chiefly of interest, as we
+shall presently find, in the movements of the celestial bodies.
+
+[Sidenote: and of the third.] A thorough exposition of the third law of
+motion was left by Galileo to his successors, who had directed their
+attention especially to the determination of the laws of impact. Indeed,
+the whole subject was illustrated and the truth of the three laws
+verified in many different cases by an examination of the phenomena of
+freely falling bodies, pendulums, projectiles, and the like. Among those
+who occupied themselves with such labours may be mentioned Torricelli,
+Castelli, Viviani, Borelli, Gassendi. Through the investigations of
+these, and other Italian, French, and English natural philosophers, the
+principles of Mechanics were solidly established, and a necessary
+preparation made for their application in astronomy. By this time every
+one had become ready to admit that the motion of the planetary bodies
+would find an explanation on these principles.
+
+[Sidenote: Application of Mechanics to the celestial motions.] The steps
+thus far taken for an explanation of the movements of the planets in
+curvilinear paths therefore consisted in the removal of the old
+misconception that for a body to continue its motion forward in a
+straight line a continued application of force is necessary, the first
+law of motion disposing of that error. In the next place, it was
+necessary that clear and distinct ideas should be held of the
+combination or composition of forces, each continuing to exercise its
+influence without deterioration or diminution by the other. The time had
+now come for it to be shown that the perpetual movement of the planets
+is a consequence of the first law of motion; their elliptic paths, such
+as had been determined by Kepler, a consequence of the second. Several
+persons almost simultaneously had been brought nearly to this conclusion
+without being able to solve the problem completely. Thus Borelli, A.D.
+1666, in treating of the motions of Jupiter's satellites, distinctly
+shows how a circular motion may arise under the influence of a central
+force; he even uses the illustration so frequently introduced of a stone
+whirled round in a sling. In the same year a paper was presented to the
+Royal Society by Mr. Hooke, "explicating the inflection of a direct
+motion into a circular by a supervening attractive principle." Huygens
+also, in his "Horologium Oscillatorium," had published some theorems on
+circular motions, but no one as yet had been able to show how elliptical
+orbits could, upon these principles, be accounted for, though very many
+had become satisfied that the solution of this problem would before long
+be given.
+
+[Sidenote: Newton; publication of the "Principia."] In April, 1686, the
+"Principia" of Newton was presented to the Royal Society. This immortal
+work not only laid the foundation of Physical Astronomy, it also carried
+the structure thereof very far toward its completion. It unfolded the
+mechanical theory of universal gravitation upon the principle that all
+bodies tend to approach each other with forces directly as their masses,
+and inversely as the squares of their distances.
+
+[Sidenote: Propounds the theory of universal gravitation.] To the force
+producing this tendency of bodies to approach each other the designation
+of attraction of gravitation, or gravity, is given. All heavy bodies
+fall to the earth in such a way that the direction of their movement is
+toward its centre. Newton proved that this is the direction in which
+they must necessarily move under the influence of an attraction of every
+one of the particles of which the earth is composed, the attraction of a
+sphere taking effect as if all its particles were concentrated in its
+centre.
+
+[Sidenote: Preparation for Newton.] Galileo had already examined the
+manner in which gravity acts upon bodies as an accelerating force, and
+had determined the connexion between the spaces of descent and the
+times. He illustrated such facts experimentally by the use of inclined
+planes, by the aid of which the velocity may be conveniently diminished
+without otherwise changing the nature of the result. He had also
+demonstrated that the earth's attraction acts equally on all bodies.
+This he proved by inclosing various substances in hollow spheres, and
+showing that, when they were suspended by strings of equal length and
+made to vibrate, the time of oscillation was the same for all. On the
+invention of the air-pump, a more popular demonstration of the same fact
+was given by the experiment proving that a gold coin and a feather fall
+equally swiftly in an exhausted receiver. Galileo had also proved, by
+experiments on the leaning tower of Pisa, that the velocity of falling
+bodies is independent of their weight. It was for these experiments that
+he was expelled from that city.
+
+[Sidenote: Extension of attraction or gravity.] Up to the time of Newton
+there were only very vague ideas that the earth's attraction extended to
+any considerable distance. Newton was led to his discovery by reflecting
+that at all altitudes accessible to man, gravity appears to be
+undiminished, and that, therefore, it may possibly extend as far as the
+moon, and actually be the force which deflects her from a rectilinear
+path, and makes her revolve in an orbit round the earth. Admitting the
+truth of the law of the inverse squares, it is easy to compute whether
+the moon falls from the tangent she would describe if the earth ceased
+to act upon her by a quantity proportional to that observed in the case
+of bodies falling near the surface. In the first calculations made by
+Newton, he found that the moon is deflected from the tangent thirteen
+feet every minute; but, if the hypothesis of gravitation were true, her
+deflection should be fifteen feet. It is no trifling evidence of the
+scrupulous science of this great philosopher that hereupon he put aside
+the subject for several years, without, however, abandoning it. At
+length, in 1682, learning the result of the measures of a degree which
+Picard had executed in France, and which affected the estimate of the
+magnitude of the earth he had used, and therefore the distance of the
+moon, he repeated the calculations with these improved data. It is
+related that "he went home, took out his old papers, and resumed his
+calculations. As they drew to a close, he became so much agitated that
+he was obliged to desire a friend to finish them." The expected
+coincidence was verified. And thus it appeared that the moon is retained
+in her orbit and made to revolve round the earth by the force of
+terrestrial gravity.
+
+[Sidenote: The cause of Kepler's laws.] These calculations were founded
+upon the hypothesis that the moon moves in a circular orbit with a
+uniform velocity. But in the "Principia" it was demonstrated that when a
+body moves under the influence of an attractive force, varying as the
+inverse square of the distances, it must describe a conic section, with
+a focus at the centre of force, and under the circumstances designated
+by Kepler's laws. Newton, therefore, did far more than furnish the
+expected solution of the problem of elliptical motion, and it was now
+apparent that the existence of those laws might have been foreseen,
+since they arise in the very necessities of the case.
+
+[Sidenote: Resistless spread of the heliocentric theory.] This point
+gained, it is obvious that the evidence was becoming unquestionable,
+that as the moon is made to revolve round the earth through the
+influence of an attractive force exercised by the earth, so likewise
+each of the planets is compelled to move in an elliptical orbit round
+the sun by his attractive force. The heliocentric theory, at this stage,
+was presenting physical evidence of its truth. It was also becoming
+plain that the force we call gravitation must be imputed to the sun, and
+to all the planetary bodies as well as to the earth. Accordingly, this
+was what Newton asserted in respect to all material substance.
+
+[Sidenote: Perturbations accounted for.] But it is a necessary
+consequence of this theory that many apparent irregularities and
+perturbations of the bodies of the solar system must take place by
+reason of the attraction of each upon all the others. If there were but
+one planet revolving round the sun, its orbit might be a mathematically
+perfect ellipse; but the moment a second is introduced, perturbation
+takes place in a variable manner as the bodies change their positions or
+distances. An excessive complication must therefore be the consequence
+when the number of bodies is great. Indeed, so insurmountable would
+these difficulties be, that the mathematical solution of the general
+problem of the solar system would be hopeless were it not for the fact
+that the planetary bodies are at very great distances from one another,
+and their masses, compared with the mass of the sun, very small.
+
+[Sidenote: Results of the theory of gravitation.] Taking the theory of
+gravitation in its universal acceptation, Newton, in a manner that looks
+as if he were divinely inspired, succeeded in demonstrating the chief
+inequalities of the moon and planetary bodies; in determining the figure
+of the earth--that it is not a perfect sphere, but an oblate spheroid;
+in explaining the precession of the equinoxes and the tides of the
+ocean. To such perfection have succeeding mathematicians brought his
+theory, that the most complicated movements and irregularities of the
+solar system have been satisfactorily accounted for and reduced to
+computation. Trusting to these principles, not only has it been found
+possible, knowing the mass of a given planet, to determine the
+perturbations it may produce in adjacent ones, but even the inverse
+problem has been successfully attacked, and from the perturbations the
+place and mass of a hitherto unknown planet determined. It was thus
+that, from the deviations of Uranus from his theoretical place, the
+necessary existence of an exterior disturbing planet was foreseen, and
+our times have witnessed the intellectual triumph of mathematicians
+directing where the telescope should point in order to find a new
+planet. The discovery of Neptune was thus accomplished.
+
+It adds to our admiration of the wonderful intellectual powers of Newton
+to know that the mathematical instrument he used was the ancient
+geometry. Not until subsequently was the analytical method resorted to
+and cultivated. This method possesses the inappreciable advantage of
+relieving us from the mental strain which would otherwise oppress us. It
+has been truly said that the symbols think for us. [Sidenote: The
+"Principia;" its incomparable merit.] Mr. Whewell observes: "No one for
+sixty years after the publication of the 'Principia,' and, with Newton's
+methods, no one up to the present day, has added any thing of value to
+his deductions. We know that he calculated all the principal lunar
+inequalities; in many of the cases he has given us his processes, in
+others only his results. But who has presented in his beautiful geometry
+or deduced from his simple principles any of the inequalities which he
+left untouched? The ponderous instrument of synthesis, so effective in
+his hands, has never since been grasped by any one who could use it for
+such purposes; and we gaze at it with admiring curiosity, as on some
+gigantic implement of war which stands idle among the memorials of
+ancient days, and makes us wonder what manner of man he was who could
+wield as a weapon what we can hardly lift as a burden."
+
+[Sidenote: Philosophical import of Newton's discoveries.] Such was the
+physical meaning of Newton's discoveries; their philosophical meaning
+was of even greater importance. The paramount truth was resistlessly
+coming into prominence--that the government of the solar system is under
+necessity, and that it is mathematically impossible for the laws
+presiding over it to be other than they are.
+
+Thus it appears that the law of gravitation holds good throughout our
+solar system. But the heliocentric theory, in its most general
+acceptation, considers every fixed star as being, like the sun, a
+planetary centre. [Sidenote: Unity of idea in the construction of the
+universe.] Hence, before it can be asserted that the theory of
+gravitation is truly universal, it must be shown that it holds good in
+the case of all other such systems. The evidence offered in proof of
+this is altogether based upon the observations of the two Herschels on
+the motions of the double stars. Among the stars there are some in such
+close proximity to each other that Sir W. Herschel was led to suppose it
+would be possible, from observations upon them, to ascertain the stellar
+parallax. While engaged in these inquiries, which occupied him for many
+years, he discovered that many of these stars are not merely optically
+in proximity, as being accidentally in the same line of view, but are
+actually connected physically, revolving round each other in regular
+orbits. The motion of these double suns is, however, in many instances
+so slow as to require many years for a satisfactory determination.
+[Sidenote: Gravitation of double stars.] Sir J. Herschel therefore
+continued the observations of his father, and with other mathematicians,
+investigated the characteristics of these motions. The first instance in
+which the true elliptic elements of the orbit of a binary star were
+determined was given by M. Savary in the case of chi Ursae Majoris,
+indicating an elliptic orbit of 58-1/4 years. But the period of others,
+since determined, is very much longer; thus, in sigma Coronae, it is,
+according to Mr. Hind, more than 736 years. From the fact that the
+orbits in which these stars move round each other are elliptical, it
+necessarily follows that the law of gravitation, according to the
+inverse square, holds good in them. Considering the prodigious distances
+of these bodies, and the departure, as regards structure of the systems
+to which they belong, from the conditions obtaining in our unisolar
+system, we may perhaps assert the prevalence of the law of gravitation
+throughout the universe.
+
+[Sidenote: Coloured light of double stars.] If, in association with
+these double suns--sometimes, indeed, they are triple, and occasionally,
+as in the case of epsilon Lyrae, quadruple--there are opaque planetary
+globes, such solar systems differ from ours not only in having several
+suns instead of a single one, but, since the light emitted is often of
+different tints, one star shining with a crimson and another with a blue
+light, the colours not always complementary to one another, a wonderful
+variety of phenomena must be the result, especially in their organic
+creations; for organic forms, both vegetable and animal, primarily
+depend on the relations of coloured light. How varied the effects where
+there are double, triple, or even quadruple sunrises, and sunsets, and
+noons; and the hours marked off by red, or purple, or blue tints.
+
+[Sidenote: Grandeur of Newton's discoveries.] It is impossible to look
+back on the history of the theory of gravitation without sentiments of
+admiration and, indeed, of pride. How felicitous has been the manner in
+which have been explained the inequalities of a satellite like the moon
+under the disturbing influence of the sun; the correspondence between
+the calculated and observed quantities of these inequalities; the
+extension of the doctrine to satellites of other planets, as those of
+Jupiter; the determination of the earth's figure; the causes of the
+tides; the different force of gravity in different latitudes, and a
+multitude of other phenomena. The theory asserted for itself that
+authority which belongs to intrinsic truth. It enabled mathematicians to
+point out facts not yet observed, and to foretell future events.
+
+And yet how hard it is for truth to force its way when bigotry resists.
+In 1771, the University of Salamanca, being urged to teach physical
+science, refused, and this was its answer; "Newton teaches nothing that
+would make a good logician or metaphysician; and Gassendi and Descartes
+do not agree so well with revealed truth as Aristotle does."
+
+[Sidenote: The earth in time.] Among the interesting results of Newton's
+theory may be mentioned its application to secular inequalities, such as
+the acceleration of the moon's mean motion, that satellite moving
+somewhat quicker now than she did ages ago. Laplace detected the cause
+of this phenomenon in the influence of the sun upon the moon, combined
+with the secular variation of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit.
+Moreover, he showed that this secular inequality of the motion of the
+moon is periodical, that it requires millions of years to re-establish
+itself, and that, after an almost inconceivable time, the acceleration
+becomes a retardation. In like manner, the same mathematician explained
+the observed acceleration in the mean motion of Jupiter, and retardation
+of that of Saturn, as arising from the mutual attraction of the two
+planets, and showed that this secular inequality has a period of 929-1/2
+years. With such slow movements may be mentioned the diminution of the
+obliquity of the ecliptic, which has been proceeding for ages, but which
+will reach a limit and then commence to increase. These secular motions
+ought not to be without interest to those who suffer themselves to adopt
+the patristic chronology of the world, who suppose that the earth is
+only six thousand years old, and that it will come to an end in about
+one thousand years more. They must accept, along with that preposterous
+delusion, its necessary consequences, that the universe has been so
+badly constructed, and is such a rickety machine, that it can not hold
+together long enough for some of its wheels to begin to revolve.
+Astronomy offers us many illustrations of the scale upon which the world
+is constructed as to time, as well as that upon which it is constructed
+as to space.
+
+[Sidenote: Dominion of law in the universe.] From what has been said,
+the conclusion forces itself upon us that the general laws obtaining as
+respects the earth, hold good likewise for all other parts of the
+universe; a conclusion sustained not only by the mechanism of such
+motions as we have been considering, but also by all evidence of a
+physical kind accessible to us. The circumstances under which our sun
+emits light and heat, and thereby vivifies his attendant planets, are
+indisputably the same as those obtaining in the case of every fixed
+star, each of which is a self-luminous sun. There is thus an aspect of
+homogeneousness in the structure of all systems in the universe, which,
+though some have spoken of it as if it were the indication of a
+uniformity of plan, and therefore the evidence of a primordial idea, is
+rather to be looked upon as the proof of unchangeable and resistless
+law.
+
+[Sidenote: Ruin of anthropocentric ideas.] What, therefore, now becomes
+of the doctrine authoritatively put forth, and made to hold its sway for
+so many centuries, that the earth is not only the central-body of the
+universe, but in reality, the most noble body in it; that the sun and
+other stars are mere ministers or attendants for human use? In the place
+of these utterly erroneous and unworthy views, far different conceptions
+must be substituted. Man, when he looks upon the countless multitude of
+stars--when he reflects that all he sees is only a little portion of
+those which exist, yet that each is a light and life-giving sun to
+multitudes of opaque, and therefore, invisible worlds--when he considers
+the enormous size of these various bodies and their immeasurable
+distance from one another, may form an estimate of the scale on which
+the world is constructed, and learn therefrom his own unspeakable
+insignificance.
+
+[Sidenote: Aids for measurements in the universe.] In one beat of a
+pendulum a ray of light would pass eight times round the circumference
+of the earth. Thus we may take the sunbeam as a carpenter does his
+measuring-rule; it serves as a gauge in our measurements of the
+universe. A sunbeam would require more than three years to reach us from
+alpha Centauri; nine and a quarter years from 61 Cygni; from alpha Lyrae
+twelve years. These are stars whose parallax has been determined, and
+which are therefore nearest to us.
+
+[Sidenote: Clusters of stars.] Of suns visible to the naked eye there
+are about 8000, but the telescope can discern in the Milky Way more than
+eighteen millions, the number visible increasing as more powerful
+instruments are used. Our cluster of stars is a disc divided into two
+branches at about one-third of its length. In the midst of innumerable
+compeers and superiors, the sun is not far from the place of
+bifurcation, and at about the middle of the thickness. Outside the plane
+of the Milky Way the appearance would be like a ring, and, still farther
+off, a nebulous disc.
+
+[Sidenote: Distribution of matter and force in space.] From the
+contemplation of isolated suns and congregated clusters we are led to
+the stupendous problem of the distribution of matter and force in space,
+and to the interpretation of those apparent phantoms of self-luminous
+vapour, circular and elliptic discs, spiral wreaths, rings and fans,
+whose edges fade doubtfully away, twins and triplets of phosphorescent
+haze connected together by threads of light and grotesque forms of
+indescribable complexity. Perhaps in some of these gleaming apparitions
+we see the genesis, in some the melting away of universes. There is
+nothing motionless in the sky. In every direction vast transformations
+are occurring, yet all things proclaim the eternity of matter and the
+undiminished perpetuity of force.
+
+[Sidenote: Limit of the theory of gravitation.] The theory of
+gravitation, as delivered by Newton, thus leads us to a knowledge of the
+mathematical construction of the solar system, and inferentially
+likewise to that of other systems; but it leaves without explanation a
+large number of singular facts. It explains the existing conditions of
+equilibrium of the heavenly bodies, but it tells us nothing of their
+genesis; or, at the best, in that particular it falls back on the simple
+fiat of God.
+
+[Sidenote: Phenomena of the solar system.] The facts here referred to
+conduct us, however, to another and far higher point of view. Some of
+them, as enumerated by Laplace, are the following:--1. All the planets
+and their satellites move in ellipses of such small eccentricity that
+they are nearly circles; 2. The movements of the planets are in the same
+direction and nearly in the same plane; 3. The movements of the
+satellites are in the same direction as those of the planets; 4. The
+movements of rotation of these various bodies and of the sun are in the
+same direction as their orbitual motions, and in planes little
+different.
+
+[Sidenote: The nebular hypothesis.] The nebular hypothesis requires us
+to admit that all the ponderable material now constituting the various
+bodies of the solar system once extended in a rarefied or nebulous and
+rotating condition, beyond the confines of the most distant planet. That
+postulate granted; the structure and present condition of the system may
+be mathematically deduced.
+
+For, as the vast rotating spheroid lost its heat by radiation, it
+contracted, and its velocity of rotation was necessarily increased; and
+thus were left behind from its equatorial zone, by reason of the
+centrifugal force, rotating rings, the same result occurring
+periodically again and again. These rings must lie all in one plane.
+They might break, collapsing into one rotating spheroid, a planet; or
+into many, asteroids; or maintain the ring-like form. From the larger of
+these secondary rotating spheroids other rings might be thrown off, as
+from the parent mass; these, in their turn breaking and becoming
+spheroids, constitute satellites, whose movements correspond to those of
+their primaries.
+
+We might, indeed, advance a step farther, and show how, by the radiation
+of heat from a motionless nebula, a movement of rotation in a
+determinate direction could be engendered, and that upon these
+principles, the existence of a nebulous matter admitted, and the present
+laws and forces of nature regarded as having been unchanged, the manner
+of origin of the solar system might be deduced, and all those singular
+facts previously alluded to explained; and not only so, but there is
+spontaneously suggested the cause of many minor peculiarities not yet
+mentioned.
+
+[Sidenote: Facts accounted for by it.] For it follows from the nebular
+hypothesis that the large planets should rotate rapidly, and the small
+ones more slowly; that the outer planets and satellites should be larger
+than the inner ones. Of the satellites of Saturn, the largest is the
+outermost; of those of Jupiter, the largest is the outermost save one.
+Of the planets themselves, Jupiter is the largest, and outermost save
+three. These cannot be coincidences, but must be due to law. The number
+of satellites of each planet, with the doubtful exception of Venus,
+might be foreseen, the presence of satellites and their number being
+determined by the centrifugal force of their primary. The hypothesis
+also points out the time of revolution of the planets in their orbits,
+and of the satellites in theirs; it furnishes a reason for the genesis
+and existence of Saturn's rings, which are indeed its remaining
+witnesses--their position and movements answering to its requirements.
+It accounts for the physical state of the sun, and also for the physical
+state of the earth and moon as indicated by their geology. It is also
+not without furnishing reasons for the existence of comets as integrant
+members of our system; for their singular physical state; for the
+eccentric, almost parabolic orbits of so many of them; for the fact that
+there are as many of them with a retrograde as with a direct motion; for
+their more frequent occurrence about the axis of the solar system than
+in its plane; and for their general antithetical relations to planets.
+
+[Sidenote: Whether nebulae actually exist.] If these and very many other
+apparently disconnected facts follow as the mechanical necessities of
+the admission of a gravitating nebula--a very simple postulate--it
+becomes important to ascertain whether, by actual observation, the
+existence of such material forms may be demonstrated in any part of the
+universe. It was the actual telescopic observation of such objects that
+led Herschel to the nebular hypothesis. He concluded that there are two
+distinct kinds of nebulae, one consisting of clusters of stars so remote
+that they could not be discerned individually, but that these may be
+discerned by sufficient telescopic power; the other being of a hazy
+nature, and incapable of resolution. Nebulae do not occur at random in
+the heavens: the regions poorest in stars are richest in them; they are
+few in the plane of our sidereal system, but numerous about its poles,
+in that respect answering to the occurrence of comets in the solar
+system. The resolution of many of these hazy patches of light into stars
+by no means disproves the truly nebulous condition of many others.
+
+Fortunately, however, other means than telescopic observation for the
+settlement of this question are available. In 1846, it was discovered by
+the author of this book that the spectrum of an ignited solid is
+continuous, that is, has neither dark nor bright fixed lines. Fraunhofer
+had previously made known that the spectrum of ignited gases is
+discontinuous. Here, then, is the means of determining whether the light
+emitted by a given nebula comes from an incandescent gas, or from a
+congeries of ignited solids, stars, or suns. If its spectrum be
+discontinuous, it is a true nebula or gas; if continuous, a congeries of
+stars.
+
+In 1864, Mr. Huggins made this examination in the case of a nebula in
+the constellation Draco. It proved to be gaseous.
+
+Subsequent observations have shown that of sixty nebulae examined,
+nineteen give discontinuous or gaseous spectra; the remainder continuous
+ones.
+
+It may, therefore, be admitted that physical evidence has at length been
+obtained, demonstrating the existence of vast masses of matter in a
+gaseous condition, and at a temperature of incandescence. The hypothesis
+of Laplace has thus a firm basis.
+
+[Sidenote: Opposition to the nebular hypothesis.] Notwithstanding the
+great authority of the astronomers who introduced it, the nebular
+hypothesis has encountered much adverse criticism; not so much, however,
+from its obvious scientific defects, such as its inability to deal with
+the cases of Uranus and Neptune, as from moral and extraneous
+considerations. There is a line in Aristophanes which points out
+precisely the difficulty:
+
+    Ho Zeus ouk on, all' ant' autou Dinos nuni basileuon.
+
+A reluctance to acknowledge the presidency of law in the existing
+constitution and movements of the solar system has been yielded only to
+be succeeded by a reluctance to acknowledge the presidency of law in its
+genesis. And yet whoever will reflect on the subject will be drawn to
+the conclusion that the principle involved was really settled by Newton
+in his "Principia"--that is to say, when it became geometrically certain
+that Kepler's laws originate in a mathematical necessity.
+
+As matters now stand, the nebular hypothesis may be regarded as the
+first superficial, and therefore imperfect, glimpse of a series of the
+grandest problems soon to present themselves for solution--the
+mathematical distribution of matter and force in space, and the
+variations of that distribution in time.
+
+[Sidenote: The intellectual ruin of ecclesiasticism.] Such is the
+history of the dispute respecting the position of the earth in the
+universe. Not without reason, therefore, have I assigned the pontificate
+of Nicolas V. as the true close of the intellectual dominion of the
+Church. From that time the sceptre had passed into another hand. In all
+directions Nature was investigated, in all directions new methods of
+examination were yielding unexpected and beautiful results. On the ruins
+of its ivy-grown cathedrals, Ecclesiasticism, surprised and blinded by
+the breaking day, sat solemnly blinking at the light and life about it,
+absorbed in the recollection of the night that had passed, dreaming of
+new phantoms and delusions in its wished-for return, and vindictively
+striking its talons at any derisive assailant who incautiously
+approached too near. I have not space to describe the scientific
+activity displayed in all directions; to do it justice would demand
+volumes. Mathematics, physics, chemistry, anatomy, medicine, and all the
+many branches of human knowledge received an impulse. [Sidenote:
+Wonderful development of scientific activity.] Simultaneously with the
+great events I have been relating, every one of these branches was
+advancing. Vieta made the capital improvement of using letters as
+general symbols in algebra, and applied that science to geometry. Tycho,
+emulating Hipparchus of old, made a new catalogue of the stars; he
+determined that comets are beyond the moon, and that they cut the
+crystalline firmament of theology in all directions. Gilbert wrote his
+admirable book on the magnet; Gesner led the way to zoology, taking it
+up at the point to which the Saracens had continued Aristotle, by the
+publication of his work on the history of animals; Belon at the same
+time, 1540, was occupied with fishes and birds. Fallopius and
+Eustachius, Arantius and Varolius, were immortalizing themselves by
+their dissections: the former reminding us of the times of Ptolemy
+Philadelphus, when he naively confesses "the Duke of Tuscany was
+obliging enough to send living criminals to us, whom we killed and then
+dissected." Piccolomini laid the foundations of general anatomy by his
+description of cellular tissue. Coiter created pathological anatomy,
+Prosper Alpinus diagnosis, Plater the classification of disease, and
+Ambrose Pare modern surgery. Such were the occupations and prospect of
+science at the close of the sixteenth century.
+
+[Sidenote: The movement becomes still more vigorous.] Scarcely had the
+seventeenth opened when it became obvious that the movement, far from
+slackening, was gathering force. It was the age of Galileo. Descartes
+introduced the theory of an ether and vortices; but, hearing of the
+troubles that had befallen Galileo, was on the point of burning his
+papers. Several years later, he was restrained from publishing his
+"Cosmos" "from a pious desire not to treat irreverently the decrees of
+the holy chair against the planetary movement of the earth." This was in
+1633, when the report of the sentence of the Inquisition was made known.
+He also developed Vieta's idea of the application of algebra to
+geometry, and brought into prominence the mechanical fact, destined to
+an important application in physical astronomy, that every curvilinear
+deflection is due to a controlling force. To him, among Europeans, also
+is to be attributed the true explanation of the rise of water in an
+exhausted space--"the weight of the water counter-balances that of the
+air." Napier perfected his great and useful invention of logarithms.
+Hydraulics was created by Castelli; hydrostatics by Torricelli, who also
+discovered barometric variations: both were pupils of Galileo. Fabricius
+ab Aquapendente discovered the valves in the veins; Servetus almost
+detected the course of the circulation. Harvey completed what Servetus
+had left unfinished, and described the entire course of the blood;
+Asellius discovered the lacteals; Van Helmont introduced the theory of
+vitality into medicine, and made the practice or art thereof consist in
+regulating by diet the Archeus, whose seat he affirmed to be in the
+stomach. In strong contrast with this phantasy, Sanctorio laid the
+foundation of modern physiology by introducing the balance into its
+inquiries. Pascal, by a decisive experiment, established the doctrines
+of the weight and pressure of the air, and published some of the most
+philosophical treatises of the age: "his Provincial Letters did more
+than any thing to ruin the name of the Jesuits." The contagion spread to
+the lawyers: in 1672 appeared Puffendorf's work on the "Law of Nature
+and Nations." The phlogistic theory, introduced by Beccher and perfected
+by Stahl, created chemistry, in contradistinction to the Arabian
+alchemy. Otto Guericke invented the air-pump, Boyle improved it. Hooke,
+among many other discoveries, determined the essential conditions of
+combustion. Far above all contemporaries in mathematical learning and
+experimental skill, Newton was already turning his attention to the
+"reflexions, refractions, inflexions and colours of light," and
+introducing the idea of attractions into physics. Ray led the way to
+comparative anatomy in his synopsis of quadrupeds; Swammerdam improved
+the art of dissection, applying it to the general history of insects;
+Lister published his synopsis of shells; Tournefort and Malpighi devoted
+themselves to botany; Grew discovered the sexes of plants; Brown the
+quinary arrangement of flowers. Geology began to break loose from the
+trammels of theology, and Burnet's Sacred theory of the Earth could not
+maintain its ground against more critical investigations. The Arabian
+doctrine of the movement of the crust of the earth began to find
+supporters. Lister ascertained the continuity of strata over great
+distances; Woodward improved mineralogy; the great mathematician,
+Leibnitz, the rival of Newton, propounded the doctrine of the gradual
+cooling of the globe, the descent of its strata by fracture, the deposit
+of sedimentary rocks, and their induration. Among physicians, Willis
+devoted himself to the study of the brain, traced the course of the
+nerves and classified them, and introduced the doctrine of the
+localization of functions in the brain. Malpighi and Lewenhoeck applied
+the microscope as an aid to anatomy; the latter discovered spermatozoa.
+Graaf studied the function of the generative organs; Borelli attempted
+the application of mathematics to muscular movement; Duverney wrote on
+the sense of hearing, Mayow on respiration; Ruysch perfected the art of
+injection, and improved minute anatomy.
+
+But it is in vain to go on. The remainder of these pages would be
+consumed in an attempt to record the names of the cultivators of
+science, every year increasing in number, and to do justice to their
+works. From the darkness that had for so many ages enveloped it, the
+human mind at last emerged into light. The intellectual motes were
+dancing in the sunbeam, and making it visible in every direction.
+
+[Sidenote: Institution of scientific societies.] Despairing thus to do
+justice to individual philosophers and individual discoveries, there is,
+however, one most important event to which I must prominently allude. It
+is the foundation of learned societies. Imitating the examples of the
+Academia Secretorum Naturae, instituted at Naples, 1560, by Baptista
+Porta, and of the Lyncean Academy, founded 1603 by Prince Frederic Cesi
+at Rome for the promotion of natural philosophy, the Accademia del
+Cimento was established at Florence, 1637; the Royal Society of London,
+1645; and the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris, 1666.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Sidenote: Review of anthropocentric philosophy.] Arrived at the close
+of the description of this first great victory of scientific truth over
+authority and tradition, it is well for us to pause and look back on the
+progress of man from the erroneous inferences of his social infancy to
+the true conclusions of his maturity--from anthropocentric ideas, which
+in all nations and parts of the world have ever been the same, to the
+discovery of his true position and insignificance in the universe.
+
+[Sidenote: The sky, apparent nature of.] We are placed in a world
+surrounded with illusions. The daily events of our life and the objects
+before us tend equally to deceive us. If we cast our eyes on the earth,
+it seems to be made only to minister to our pleasures or our wants. If
+we direct our attention to the sky, that blue and crystalline dome, the
+edges of which rest on the flat land or the sea--a glacial vault, which
+Empedocles thought was frozen air, and the fathers of the Church the
+lowest of the seven concentric strata of heavens--we find a thousand
+reasons for believing that whatever it covers was intended by some Good
+Being for our use. Of the various living things placed with us beneath
+it, all are of an inferior grade when compared with ourselves, and all
+seem intended for us. The conclusions at which we thus arrive are
+strengthened by a principle of vanity implanted in our hearts,
+unceasingly suggesting to us that this pleasant abode must have been
+prepared for our reception, and furnished and ornamented expressly for
+our use.
+
+[Sidenote: Anthropocentric ideas of God.] But reflexion teaches us that
+we came not hither of ourselves, and that doubtless the same Good Being
+who prepared this delightful abode brought us as tenants into it. From
+the fact of our own existence, we are insensibly and inevitably led to
+infer the existence of God; from the favourable circumstances in which
+our lot is cast, we gather evidences of His goodness; and in the energy
+which natural phenomena often display, we see the tokens of His power.
+What other explanation can we give of tempests in the sea or lightning
+in the heavens? Moreover, it is only during a part of our time--our
+waking hours--that we are brought into relation with these material
+things; for the rest, when we are asleep, a state in which we spend more
+than a third part of our life, we are introduced to other scenery, other
+beings, another world. [Sidenote: Of the world and heaven.] From these
+we gather that there are agents of an intangible and more ethereal
+mould, perhaps of the nature of Him who brought us here, perhaps His
+subordinates and messengers. Whence do they issue and whither do they
+go? Is there not beyond the sky above us a region to which our imperfect
+vision cannot penetrate, but which may be accessible to them from the
+peaks of elevated mountains, or to be reached only with wings? And thus
+we picture to ourselves a heaven shut off from earth, with all its sins
+and cares, by the untroubled and impenetrable sky--a place of light and
+repose, its pavement illuminated by the sun and countless other shining
+bodies--a place of peace, but also a place of power.
+
+[Sidenote: Of evil beings and hell.] Still more, a thousand facts of our
+life teach us that we are exposed to influences of an evil nature as
+well as to those that are good. How often, in our dreams, does it happen
+that we are terror-stricken by the approach of hideous forms, faces of
+fearful appearance, from which we vainly struggle to escape. Is it not
+natural for us to attribute the evil we see in the world to these as the
+good to those? and, since we can not conceive of the existence of beings
+without assigning them a place, where shall we find for these malignant
+spirits a habitation? Is it not in the dark region beneath the ground,
+far away from the realms of light--a region from which, through the
+volcano, smoke and burning sulphur are cast into this upper world--a
+place of everlasting fire and darkness, whose portals are in caves and
+solitudes of unutterable gloom?
+
+[Sidenote: Of man, the supernatural.] Placed thus on the boundary
+between such opposing powers, man is the sport of circumstances,
+sustained by beings who seek his happiness, and tempted by those who
+desire his destruction. Is it at all surprising that, guided by such
+obvious thoughts and simple reasonings, he becomes superstitious? that
+he sees in every shadow a spirit, and peoples every solitary place with
+invisibles? that he casts a longing look to the good beings who can
+protect him, seeking to invoke their aid by entreaties, and to
+propitiate their help by free-will sacrifices of things that are
+pleasant and valuable? Open to such influences himself, why should he
+not believe in the efficacy of prayer? His conscious superiority lends
+force to his suspicion that he is a worthy object for the opposing
+powers to contend for, a conclusion verified by the inward strifes he
+feels, as well as by the trials of life to which he is exposed.
+
+[Sidenote: His immortality and future life.] But dreams at night, and
+sometimes visions by day, serve to enforce the conclusion that life is
+not limited to our transitory continuance here, but endures hereafter.
+How often at night do we see the well-known forms of those who have been
+dead a long time appearing before us with surprising vividness, and hear
+their almost forgotten voices? These are admonitions full of the most
+solemn suggestions, profoundly indicating to us that the dead still
+continue to exist, and that what has happened to them must also happen
+to us, and we too are destined for immortality. Perhaps involuntarily we
+associate these conclusions with others, expecting that in a future life
+good men will enjoy the society of good beings like themselves, the evil
+being dismissed to the realms of darkness and despair. And, as human
+experience teaches us that a final allotment can only be made by some
+superior power, we expect that He who was our Creator shall also be our
+Judge; that there is an appointed time and a bar at which the final
+destination of all who have lived shall be ascertained, and eternal
+justice measure out its punishments and rewards.
+
+[Sidenote: Inducements to morality.] From these considerations there
+arises an inducement for us to lead a virtuous life, abstaining from
+wickedness and wrong; to set apart a body of men who may mediate for us,
+and teach us by precept and example the course it is best for us to
+pursue; to consecrate places, such as groves or temples, as the more
+immediate habitations of the Deity to which we may resort.
+
+Such are the leading doctrines of Natural Theology of primitive man both
+in the old and new continent. They arise from the operations of the
+human mind considering the fitness of things.
+
+Just as we have in Comparative Anatomy the structure of different
+animals examined, and their identities and differences set forth,
+thereby establishing their true relations; just as we have in
+Comparative Physiology the functions of one organic being compared with
+those of another, to the end that we may therefrom deduce their proper
+connexions, so, from the mythologies of various races of men, a
+Comparative Theology may be constructed. [Sidenote: Course of
+Comparative Theology.] Through such a science alone can correct
+conclusions be arrived at respecting this, the most important of the
+intellectual operations of man--the definite process of his religious
+opinions. But it must be borne in mind that Comparative Theology
+illustrates the result or effect of the phase of life, and is not its
+cause.
+
+[Sidenote: Corrections of anthropocentric ideas.] As man advances in
+knowledge he discovers that of his primitive conclusions some are
+doubtless erroneous, and many require better evidence to establish their
+truth incontestably. A more prolonged and attentive examination gives
+him reason, in some of the most important particulars, to change his
+mind. He finds that the earth on which he lives is not a floor covered
+over with a starry dome, as he once supposed, but a globe self-balanced
+in space. The crystalline vault, or sky, is recognized to be an optical
+deception. It rests upon the earth nowhere, and is no boundary at all;
+there is no kingdom of happiness above it, but a limitless space,
+adorned with planets and suns. Instead of a realm of darkness and woe in
+the depths on the other side of the earth, men like ourselves are found
+there, pursuing, in Australia and New Zealand, the innocent pleasures
+and encountering the ordinary labours of life. By the aid of such lights
+as knowledge gradually supplies, he comes at last to discover that this,
+our terrestrial habitation, instead of being a chosen, a sacred spot, is
+only one of similar myriads, more numerous than the sands of the sea,
+and prodigally scattered through space.
+
+[Sidenote: Consequence of discovering the form of the earth.] Never,
+perhaps, was a more important truth discovered. All the visible evidence
+was in direct opposition to it. [Sidenote: Detection of its
+insignificance.] The earth, which had hitherto seemed to be the very
+emblem of immobility, was demonstrated to be carried with a double
+motion, with prodigious velocity, through the heavens; the rising and
+setting of the stars were proved to be an illusion; and, as respects the
+size of the globe, it was shown to be altogether insignificant when
+compared with multitudes of other neighbouring ones--insignificant
+doubly by reason of its actual dimensions, and by the countless numbers
+of others like it in form, and doubtless, like it, the abodes of many
+orders of life.
+
+And so it turns out that our earth is a globe of about twenty-five
+thousand miles in circumference. The voyager who circumnavigates it
+spends no inconsiderable portion of his life in accomplishing his task.
+It moves round the sun in a year, but at so great a distance from that
+luminary that, if seen from him, it would look like a little spark
+traversing the sky. It is thus recognized as one of the members of the
+solar system. [Sidenote: Other solar bodies.] Other similar bodies, some
+of which are of larger, some of smaller dimensions, perform similar
+revolutions round the sun in appropriate periods of time.
+
+[Sidenote: Magnitude of the universe.] If the magnitude of the earth be
+too great for us to attach to it any definite conception, what shall we
+say of the compass of the solar system? There is a defect in the human
+intellect which incapacitates us for comprehending distances and periods
+that are either too colossal or too minute. We gain no clearer insight
+into the matter when we are told that a comet which does not pass beyond
+the bounds of the system, may perhaps be absent on its journey for more
+than a thousand years. Distances and periods such as these are beyond
+our grasp. They prove to us how far human reason excels imagination, the
+one measuring and comparing things of which the other can form no
+conception, but in the attempt is utterly bewildered and lost.
+
+[Sidenote: The infinity of worlds.] But as there are other globes like
+our earth, so too there are other worlds like our solar system. There
+are self-luminous suns exceeding in number all computation. The
+dimensions of this earth pass into nothingness in comparison with the
+dimensions of the solar system, and that system, in its turn, is only an
+invisible point if placed in relation with the countless hosts of other
+systems which form, with it, clusters of stars. Our solar system, far
+from being alone in the universe, is only one of an extensive
+brotherhood, bound by common laws and subject to like influences. Even
+on the very verge of creation, where imagination might lay the beginning
+of the realms of chaos, we see unbounded proofs of order, a regularity
+in the arrangement of inanimate things, suggesting to us that there are
+other intellectual creatures like us, the tenants of those islands in
+the abysses of space.
+
+Though it may take a beam of light a million of years to bring to our
+view those distant worlds, the end is not yet. Far away in the depths of
+space we catch the faint gleams of other groups of stars like our own.
+The finger of a man can hide them in their remoteness. Their vast
+distances from one another have dwindled into nothing. They and their
+movements have lost all individuality; the innumerable suns of which
+they are composed blend all their collected light into one pale milky
+glow.
+
+[Sidenote: Insignificance of man.] Thus extending our view from the
+earth to the solar system, from the solar system to the expanse of the
+group of stars to which we belong, we behold a series of gigantic
+nebular creations rising up one after another, and forming greater and
+greater colonies of worlds. No numbers can express them, for they make
+the firmament a haze of stars. Uniformity, even though it be the
+uniformity of magnificence, tires at last, and we abandon the survey,
+for our eyes can only behold a boundless prospect, and conscience tells
+us our own unspeakable insignificance.
+
+[Sidenote: Triumph of scientific truth.] But what has become of the
+time-honoured doctrine of the human destiny of the universe? that
+doctrine for the sake of which the controversy I have described in this
+chapter was raised. It has disappeared. In vain was Bruno burnt and
+Galileo imprisoned; the truth forced its way, in spite of all
+opposition, at last. The end of the conflict was a total rejection of
+authority and tradition, and the adoption of scientific truth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON--(_Continued_).
+
+HISTORY OF THE EARTH.--HER SUCCESSIVE CHANGES IN THE COURSE OF TIME.
+
+_Oriental and Occidental Doctrines respecting the Earth in
+Time.--Gradual Weakening of the latter by astronomical Facts, and the
+Rise of Scientific Geology._
+
+_Impersonal Manner in which the Problem was eventually solved, chiefly
+through Facts connected with Heat._
+
+_Proofs of limitless Duration from inorganic Facts.--Igneous and Aqueous
+Rocks._
+
+_Proofs of the same from organic Facts.--Successive Creations and
+Extinctions of living Forms, and their contemporaneous Distribution._
+
+_Evidences of a slowly declining Temperature, and, therefore, of a long
+Time.--The Process of Events by Catastrophe and by Law.--Analogy of
+Individual and Race Development.--Both are determined by unchangeable
+Law._
+
+_Conclusion that the Plan of the Universe indicates a Multiplicity of
+Worlds of infinite Space, and a Succession of Worlds in infinite Time._
+
+
+[Sidenote: Age of the earth.] A victory could not be more complete nor a
+triumph more brilliant than that which had been gained by science in the
+contest concerning the position of the earth. Though there followed
+closely thereupon an investigation of scarcely inferior moment--that
+respecting the age of the earth--so thoroughly was the ancient authority
+intellectually crushed that it found itself incapable of asserting by
+force the Patristic idea that our planet is less than six thousand years
+old.
+
+[Sidenote: The question is impersonally solved.] Not but that a
+resistance was made. It was, however, of an indirect kind. The contest
+might be likened rather to a partisan warfare than to the deliberate
+movement of regular armies under recognized commanders. In its history
+there is no central figure like Galileo, no representative man, no
+brilliant and opportune event like the invention of the telescope. The
+question moves on to its solution impersonally. A little advance is made
+here by one, there by another. The war was finished, though no great
+battle was fought. In the chapter we are entering upon there is,
+therefore, none of that dramatic interest connected with the last.
+Impersonally the question was decided, and, therefore, impersonally I
+must describe it.
+
+[Sidenote: Oriental and Western doctrines of the age of the earth.] In
+Oriental countries, where the popular belief assigns to the creation of
+man a very ancient date, and even asserts for some empires a duration of
+hundreds of thousands of years, no difficulty as respects the age of the
+earth was felt, there seeming to have been time enough for every event
+that human researches have detected to transpire. But in the West, where
+the doctrine that not only the earth, but the universe itself, was
+intended for man, has been carried to its consequences with exacting
+rigour, circumstances forbid us to admit that there was any needless
+delay between the preparation of the habitation and the introduction of
+the tenant. They also force upon us the conclusion that a few centuries
+constitute a very large portion of the time of human existence, since,
+if we adopt the doctrine of an almost limitless period, we should fall
+into a difficulty in explaining what has become of the countless myriads
+of generations in the long time so past, and, considering that we are
+taught that the end of the world is at hand, and must be expected in a
+few years at the most, we might seem to arraign the goodness of God in
+this, that He has left to their fate immeasurably the larger proportion
+of our race, and has restricted His mercy to us alone, who are living in
+the departing twilight of the evening of the world.
+
+[Sidenote: Correction of the European doctrine.] But in this, as in the
+former case, a closer examination of the facts brings us to the
+indisputable conclusion that we have decided unworthily and untruly;
+that our guiding doctrine of the universe being intended for us is a
+miserable delusion; that the scale on which the world is constructed as
+to time answers to that on which it is constructed as to space; that, as
+respects our planet, its origin dates from an epoch too remote for our
+mental apprehension; that myriads of centuries have been consumed in its
+coming to its present state; that, by a slow progression, it has passed
+from stage to stage, uninhabited, and for a long time uninhabitable by
+any living thing; that in their proper order and in due lapse of time,
+the organic series have been its inhabitants, and of these a vast
+majority, whose numbers are so great that we cannot offer an
+intelligible estimate of them, have passed away and become extinct, and
+that finally, for a brief period, we have been its possessors.
+
+Of the intentions of God it becomes us, therefore, to speak with
+reverence and reserve. In those ages when there was not a man upon the
+earth, what was the object? Was the twilight only given that the wolf
+might follow his fleeing prey, and the stars made to shine that the
+royal tiger might pursue his midnight maraudings? Where was the use of
+so much that was beautiful and orderly, when there was not a solitary
+intellectual being to understand and enjoy? Even now, when we are so
+much disposed to judge of other worlds from their apparent adaptedness
+to be the abodes of a thinking and responsible order like ourselves, it
+may be of service to remember that this earth itself was for countless
+ages a dungeon of pestiferous exhalations and a den of wild beasts.
+
+[Sidenote: It elevates rather than degrades the position of man.] It
+might moreover appear that the conclusions to which we come, both as
+respects the position and age of the world, must necessarily have for
+their consequences the diminution and degradation of man, the rendering
+him too worthless an object for God's regard. But here again we fall
+into an error. True, we have debased his animal value, and taught him
+how little he is--how insignificant are the evils, how vain the
+pleasures of his life. But, as respects his intellectual principle, how
+does the matter stand? What is it that has thus been measuring the
+terrestrial world, and weighing it in a balance? What is it that has
+been standing on the sun, and marking out the orbits and boundaries of
+the solar system? What is it that has descended into the infinite
+abysses of space, examined the countless worlds that they contain, and
+compared and contrasted them together? What is it that has shown itself
+capable of dealing with magnitudes that are infinite, even of comparing
+infinites together! What is it that has not hesitated to trace things in
+their history through a past eternity, and been found capable of
+regarding equally the transitory moment and endless duration? That which
+is competent to do all this, so far from being degraded, rises before us
+with an air of surpassing grandeur and inappreciable worth. It is the
+soul of man.
+
+[Sidenote: Relations of the earth in time.] From the facts given in the
+last chapter respecting the relations of the earth in space, we are next
+led to her relations in time.
+
+So long as science was oppressed with the doctrine of the human destiny
+of the universe, which, as its consequence, made this earth the great
+central body, and elevated man to supreme importance, there was much
+difficulty in treating the problem of the age of the world. The history
+of the earth was at first a wild and fictitious cosmogony. Scientific
+cosmogony arose, not from any theological considerations, but from the
+telescopic ascertainment of the polar compression of the planet Jupiter,
+and the consequent determination by Newton that the earth is a spheroid
+of revolution. With a true cosmogony came a better chronology.
+[Sidenote: Anthropocentric ideas of the beginning and end of the world.]
+The patristic doctrine had been that the earth came into existence but
+little more than five thousand years ago, and to this a popular opinion
+long current was added, that its end might be very shortly expected.
+From time to time periods were set by various authorities determining
+the latter event, and, as true knowledge was extinguished, the year 1000
+came to be the universally appointed date. In view of this, it was not
+an uncommon thing for persons to commence their testamentary bequests
+with the words, "In expectation of the approaching end of the world."
+But the tremendous moment passed by, and still the sun rose and set,
+still the seasons were punctual in their courses, and Nature wore her
+accustomed aspect. A later day was then predicted, and again and again
+disappointment ensued, until sober-minded men began to perceive that the
+Scriptures were never intended to give information on such subjects, and
+predictions of the end of the world fell into discredit, abandoned to
+the illiterate, whose morbid anticipations they still amuse.
+
+As it was thus with the end of our planet, so it was as regards her
+origin. By degrees evidence began to accumulate casting a doubt on her
+recent date, evidence continually becoming more and more cogent.
+[Sidenote: Rise of the doctrine of illimitable age.] In no insignificant
+manner did the establishment of the heliocentric theory, aided by the
+discoveries of the telescope, assist in this result. As I have said, it
+utterly ruined past restoration the doctrine of the human destiny of the
+universe. With that went down all arguments which had depended on making
+man the measure of things. Ideas of unexpected sublimity as to the scale
+of magnitude on which the world is constructed soon enforced themselves,
+and proved to be the precursors of similar ideas as to time. At length
+it was perceived by those who were in the van of the movement that the
+Bible was never intended to deliver a chronological doctrine respecting
+the beginning any more than the end of things, and that those
+well-meaning men who were occupied in wresting it from its true purposes
+were engaged in an unhappy employment, for its tendency could be no
+other than to injure the cause they designed to promote. Nevertheless,
+so strong were the ancient persuasions, that it was not without a
+struggle that the doctrine of a long period forced its way--a struggle
+for the age of the earth, which, in its arguments, in its tendencies,
+and in its results, forcibly recalls the preceding one respecting the
+position of the earth; but, in the end, truth overrode all authority and
+all opposition, and the doctrine of an extremely remote origin of our
+planet ceased to be open to dispute.
+
+In a scientific conception of the universe, illimitable spaces are of
+necessity connected with limitless time.
+
+[Sidenote: Indications depending on the progressive motion of light.]
+The discovery of the progressive motion of light offered the means of an
+absolute demonstration of this connexion. Rays emitted by an object, and
+making us sensible of its presence by impinging on the eye, do not reach
+us instantaneously, but consume a certain period in their passage.
+
+If any sudden visible effect took place in the sun, we should not see it
+at the absolute moment of its occurrence, but about eight minutes and
+thirteen seconds later, this being the time required for light to cross
+the intervening distance. All phenomena take place in reality anterior
+to the moment at which we observe them by a time longer in proportion as
+the distance to be travelled is greater.
+
+There are objects in the heavens so distant that it would take many
+hundreds of thousands of years for their light to reach us. Then it
+necessarily follows, since we can see them, that they must have been
+created and must have been shining so long.
+
+The velocity with which light moves was first determined by the Danish
+astronomer Roemer from the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, November,
+1675. It was, therefore, a determination of the rate for reflected solar
+light in a vacuum, and gave 198,000 miles in a second. In 1727, Bradley
+determined it for direct stellar light by his great discovery of the
+aberration of the fixed stars. More recently, the experiments of M.
+Foucault and those of M. Fizeau, by the aid of rotating mirrors or
+wheels, have confirmed these astronomical observations, Fizeau's
+determination of the velocity approaching that of Roemer. Probably,
+however, the most correct is that of Struve, 191,515 miles per second.
+
+[Sidenote: Investigation of the age of the earth through the phenomena
+of heat.] This astronomical argument, which serves as a general
+introduction, is strengthened by numerous physical and physiological
+facts. But of the different methods by which the age of the earth may be
+elucidated, I shall prefer that which approaches it through the
+phenomena of heat. Such a manner of viewing the problem has led to its
+determination in the minds of many thinking men.
+
+[Sidenote: Astronomical heat alone on the earth's surface.] As correct
+astronomical ideas began to prevail, it was perceived that all the heat
+now on the surface of our planet is derived from the sun. Through the
+circumstance of the inclination of her axis of rotation to the plane of
+her annual motion, or through the fact of her globular form occasioning
+the presentation of different parts of her surface, according to their
+latitudes, with more or less obliquity, and hence the reception of less
+or more of the rays, there may be local and temporary variations. But
+these do not affect the general principle that the quantity of heat thus
+received must be the same from year to year.
+
+[Sidenote: The equilibrium of interior heat.] This thermometric
+equilibrium not only holds good for the surface, it may also be
+demonstrated for the whole mass of the planet. The day has not shortened
+by the 1/200 of a second since the time of Hipparchus, and therefore the
+decrease of heat can not have been so much as the 1/300 of a Fahrenheit
+degree, on the hypothesis that the mean dilatation of all terrestrial
+substances is equal to that of glass, 1/180000 for one degree. If a
+decline had taken place in the intrinsic heat of the earth, there must
+have been a diminution in her size, and, as a necessary consequence, the
+length of the day must have become less. The earth has therefore reached
+a condition of equilibrium as respects temperature.
+
+[Sidenote: Its ancient decline.] A vast body of evidence has, however,
+come into prominence, establishing with equal certainty that there was
+in ancient times a far higher temperature in the planet; not a
+temperature concerned with a fraction of a degree, but ranging beyond
+the limits of our thermometric scale. The mathematical figure of the
+earth offers a resistless argument for its ancient liquefied
+condition--that is, for its originally high temperature. But how is this
+to be co-ordinated with the conclusion just mentioned? Simply by the
+admission that there have elapsed prodigious, it might almost be said
+limitless, periods. [Sidenote: Necessity for a long time.] As thus the
+true state of affairs began to take on shape, it was perceived that the
+age of the earth is not a question of authority, not a question of
+tradition, but a mathematical problem sharply defined: to determine the
+time of cooling of a globe of known diameter and of given conductibility
+by radiation in a vacuum.
+
+In such a state of things, what could be more unwise than to attempt to
+force opinion by the exercise of authority? How unspeakably mischievous
+had proved to be a like course as respects the globular form of the
+earth, which did not long remain a mere mathematical abstraction, but
+was abruptly brought to a practical issue by the voyage of Magellan's
+ship. And on this question of the age of the earth it would have been
+equally unwise to become entangled with or committed to the errors of
+patristicism--errors arising from well-meant moral considerations, but
+which can never exert any influence on the solution of a scientific
+problem.
+
+[Sidenote: Indications of the interior heat of the earth.] One fact
+after another bearing upon the question gradually emerged into view. It
+was shown that the diurnal variations of temperature--that is, those
+connected with night and day--extend but a few inches beneath the
+surface, the seasonal ones, connected with winter and summer, to many
+feet; but beyond this was discovered a stratum of invariable
+temperature, beneath which, if we descend, the heat increases at the
+rate of 1 deg. Fahr. for every fifty or seventy feet. The uniformity of
+this rate seemed to imply that, at depths quite insignificant, a very
+high temperature must exist. This was illustrated by such facts that the
+water which rushes up from a depth of 1794 feet in the Artesian well of
+Grenelle has a temperature of 82 deg. Fahr. The mean temperature of
+Paris being about 51 deg. Fahr., these numbers give a rate of 1 deg. for
+every fifty-eight feet. If, then, the increase of heat is only 100 deg.
+per mile, at a depth of less than ten miles every thing must be red hot,
+and at thirty or forty in a melted state. It was by all admitted that
+the rise of temperature with the depth is not at all local, but occurs
+in whatever part of the earth the observation may be made. The general
+conclusion thus furnished was re-enforced by the evidence of volcanoes,
+which could no longer be regarded as merely local, depending on
+restricted areas for the supply of melted material, since they are found
+all over the land and under the sea, in the interior of continents and
+near the shores, beneath the equator and in the polar regions. It had
+been estimated that there are probably two thousand aerial or subaqueous
+eruptions every century. Some volcanoes, as Aetna, have for thousands of
+years poured forth their lavas, and still there is an unexhausted
+supply. Everywhere a common source is indicated by the rudely uniform
+materials ejected. The fact that the lines of volcanic activity shift
+pointed to a deep source; the periodic increments and decrements of
+force bore the same interpretation. They far transcend the range of
+history. The volcanoes of central France date from the Eocene period;
+their power increased in the Miocene, and continued through the
+Pliocene; those of Catalonia belong to the Pliocene, probably. Coupled
+with volcanoes, earthquakes, with their vertical, horizontal, and rotary
+vibrations, having a linear velocity of from twenty to thirty miles per
+minute, indicated a profound focus of action. The great earthquake of
+Lisbon was felt from Norway to Morocco, from Algiers to the West Indies,
+from Thuringia to the Canadian lakes. It absolutely lifted the whole bed
+of the North Atlantic Ocean. Its origin was in no superficial point.
+
+[Sidenote: Proof from the mean density.] A still more universal proof of
+a high temperature affecting the whole mass of the interior of the globe
+was believed to be presented in the small mean density of the earth, a
+density not more than 5.66 times that of water, the mean density of the
+solid surface being 2.7, and that of the solid and sea-surface together
+1.6. But this is not a density answering to that which the earth should
+have in virtue of the attraction of her own parts. It implied some agent
+capable of rarefying and dilating, and the only such agent is heat.
+Although the law of the increase of density from the upper surface to
+the centre is unknown, yet a comparison of the earth's compression with
+her velocity of rotation demonstrated that there is an increasing
+density in the strata as we descend. The great fact, however, which
+stands prominently forth is the interior heat.
+
+Not only were evidences thus offered of the existence of a high
+temperature, and, therefore, of the lapse of a long time by the present
+circumstances of the globe; every trace of its former state, duly
+considered, yielded similar indications, the old evidence corroborating
+the new. And soon it appeared that this would hold good whether
+considered in the inorganic or organic aspect.
+
+[Sidenote: Inorganic proofs of a former high temperature.] In the
+inorganic, what other interpretation could be put on the universal
+occurrence of igneous rocks, some in enormous mountain ranges, some
+ejected from beneath, forcing their tortuous way through thus resisting
+superincumbent strata; veins of various mineral constitution, and, as
+their relations with one another showed, veins of very different dates?
+What other interpretation of layers of lava in succession, one under
+another, and often with old disintegrated material between? What of
+those numerous volcanoes which have never been known to show any signs
+of activity in the period of history, though they sometimes occur in
+countries like France, eminently historic? What meaning could be
+assigned to all those dislocations, subsidences, and elevations which
+the crust of the earth in every country presents, indications of a loss
+of heat, of a contraction in diameter, and its necessary consequence,
+fracture of the exterior consolidated shell along lines of least
+resistance? And though it was asserted by some that the catastrophes of
+which these are the evidences were occasioned by forces of unparalleled
+energy and incessant operation--unparalleled when compared with such
+terrestrial forces as we are familiar with--that did not, in any
+respect, change the interpretation, for there could have been no abrupt
+diminution in the intensity of those forces, which, if they had lessened
+in power, must have passed through a long, a gradual decline. [Sidenote:
+These necessarily imply long time.] In that very decline there thus
+spontaneously came forth evidences of a long lapse of time. The whole
+course of Nature satisfies us how gradual and deliberate are her
+proceedings; that there is no abrupt boundary between the past and the
+present, but that the one insensibly shades off into the other, the
+present springing gently and imperceptibly out of the past. If volcanic
+phenomena and all kinds of igneous manifestations--if dislocations,
+injections, the intrusion of melted material into strata were at one
+time more frequent, more violent--if, in the old times, mundane forces
+possessed an energy which they have now lost, their present diminished
+and deteriorated condition, coupled with the fact that for thousands of
+years, throughout the range of history, they have been invariably such
+as we find them now, should be to us a proof how long, how very long ago
+those old times must have been.
+
+[Sidenote: Support from astronomical facts.] Thus, therefore, was
+perceived the necessity of co-ordinating the scale of time with the
+scale of space, and such views of the physical history of the earth were
+extended to celestial bodies which were considered as having passed
+through a similar course. In one, at least, this assertion was no mere
+matter of speculation, but of actual observation. The broken surface of
+the moon, its volcanic cones and craters, its mountains, with their
+lava-clad sides and ejected blocks glistening in the sun, proved a
+succession of events like those of the earth, and demonstrated that
+there is a planetary as well as a terrestrial geology, and that in our
+satellite there is evidence of a primitive high temperature, of a
+gradual decline, and, therefore, of a long process of time. Perhaps
+also, considering the rate of heat-exchange in Venus by reason of her
+proximity to the sun, the pale light which it is said has been observed
+on her non-illuminated part is the declining trace of her own intrinsic
+temperature, her heat lasting until now.
+
+[Sidenote: Astronomical facts imply slow secular changes.] If
+astronomers sought in systematic causes an explanation of these facts
+if, for instance, they were disposed to examine how far changes in the
+obliquity of the ecliptic are connected therewith--it was necessary at
+the outset to concede that the scale of time on which the event proceeds
+is of prodigious duration, this secular variation observing a slow
+process of only 45.7'' in a century; and hence, since the time of
+Hipparchus, two thousand years ago, the plane of the ecliptic has
+approached that of the equator by only a quarter of a degree. Or if,
+again, they looked to a diminishing of the eccentricity of the earth's
+orbit, they were compelled to admit the same postulate, and deal with
+thousands of centuries. Under whatever aspect, then, the theory was
+regarded, if once a former high temperature were admitted, and the fact
+coupled therewith that there has been no sensible decline within the
+observation of man, whether the explanation was purely geological or
+purely astronomical, the motion of heat in the mass of the earth is so
+slow, yet the change that has taken place is so great, the variations of
+the contemplated relations of the solar system so gradual--under
+whatever aspect and in whatever way the fact was dealt with, there arose
+the indispensable concession of countless centuries.
+
+To the astronomer such a concession is nothing extraordinary. It is not
+because of the time required that he entertains any doubt that the sun
+and his system accomplish a revolution round a distant centre of gravity
+in nineteen millions of years, or that the year of epsilon Lyrae is
+half a million of ours. He looks forward to that distant day when Sirius
+will disappear from our skies, and the Southern Cross be visible, and
+Vega the polar star. He looks back to the time when gamma Draconis
+occupied that conspicuous position, and the builders of the great
+pyramid, B.C. 3970, gave to its subterranean passage an inclination of
+26 deg. 15', corresponding to the inferior culmination of that star. He
+tells us that the Southern Cross began to be invisible in 52 deg. 30' N.,
+2900 years before our era, and that it had previously attained an
+altitude of more than 10 deg.. When it disappeared from the horizon of
+the countries on the Baltic, the pyramid of Cheops had been erected more
+than a thousand years.
+
+[Sidenote: Proofs of time from aqueous effects,] We must pass by a
+copious mass of evidence furnished by aqueous causes of change operating
+on the earth's surface, though these add very weighty proof to the
+doctrine of a long period. The filling up of lakes, the formation of
+deltas, the cutting power of running water, the deposit of travertines,
+the denudation of immense tracts of country, the carrying of their
+detritus into the sea, the changes of shores by tides and waves, the
+formation of strata hundreds of miles in length, and the imbedding
+therein of fossil remains in numbers almost beyond belief, furnished
+many interesting and important facts. Of these not a few presented means
+of computation. It would not be difficult to assign a date for such
+geographical events as the production of the Caspian and Dead Seas from
+an examination of the sum of saline material contained in their waters
+and deposited in their bed, with the annual amount brought into them by
+their supplying rivers. Such computations were executed as respects the
+growth of Lower Egypt and the backward cutting of Niagara Falls, and,
+though they might be individually open to criticism, their mutual
+accordance and tendency furnished an evidence that could not be
+gainsaid. The continual accumulation of such evidence ought not to be
+without its weight on those who are still disposed to treat slightingly
+the power of geological facts in developing truth.
+
+[Sidenote: and from the movements of the earth's crust.] To such facts
+were added all those, with which volumes might be filled, proving the
+universality of the movements of the solid crust of the earth--strata
+once necessarily horizontal now inclined at all angles, strata
+unconformable to one another--a body of evidence most copious and most
+satisfactory, yet demonstrating from the immensity of the results how
+slowly the work had gone on.
+
+How was it possible to conceive that beds many hundred feet in thickness
+should have been precipitated suddenly from water? Their mechanical
+condition implied slow disintegration and denudation in other localities
+to furnish material; their contents showed no trace of violence; they
+rather proved the deposition to have occurred in a tranquil and quiet
+way. What interpretation could be put upon facts continually increasing
+in number like those observed in the south-east of England, where
+fresh-water beds a thousand feet thick are covered by other beds a
+thousand feet thick, but of marine origin? What upon those in the north
+of England, where masses once uplifted a thousand feet above the level,
+and, at the time of their elevation, presenting abrupt precipices and
+cliffs of that height, as is proved by the fractures and faults of the
+existing strata, have been altogether removed, and the surface left
+plain? In South Wales there are localities where 11,000 feet in
+thickness have been bodily carried away. Whether, therefore, the strata
+that have been formed, and which remain to strike us with astonishment
+at their prodigious mass, were considered; or those that have been
+destroyed, not, however, without leaving unmistakable traces of
+themselves; the processes of wearing away to furnish material as well as
+the accumulation, of necessity required the lapse of long periods of
+time. The undermining of cliffs by the beating of the sea, the
+redistribution of sands and mud at the bottom of the ocean, the washing
+of material from hills into the lowlands by showers of rain, its
+transport by river courses, the disintegration of soils by the influence
+of frost, the weathering of rocks by carbonic acid, and the solution of
+limestone by its aid in water--these are effects which, even at the
+quickest, seem not to amount to much in the course of the life of a man.
+A thousand years could yield but a trifling result.
+
+We have already alluded to another point of view from which these
+mechanical effects were considered. The level of the land and sea has
+unmistakably changed. There are mountain eminences ten or fifteen
+thousand feet in altitude in the interior of continents over which, or
+through which shells and other products of the sea are profusely
+scattered. And though, considering the proverbial immobility of the
+solid land and the proverbial instability of the water, it might at
+first be supposed much more likely that the sea had subsided than that
+the land had risen, a more critical examination soon led to a change of
+opinion. Before our eyes, in some countries, elevations and depressions
+are taking place, sometimes in a slow secular manner, as in Norway and
+Sweden, that peninsula on the north rising, and on the south sinking, at
+such a rate that, to accomplish the whole seven hundred feet of
+movement, more than twenty-seven thousand years would be required if it
+had always been uniform as now. Elsewhere, as on the south-western coast
+of South America, the movement is paroxysmal, the shore line lifting for
+hundreds of miles instantaneously, and then pausing for many years. In
+the Morea also, range after range of old sea cliffs exist, some of them
+more than a thousand feet high, with terraces at the base of each; but
+the Morea has been well known for the last twenty-five centuries, and in
+that time has undergone no material change. Again, in Sicily, similar
+interior sea-cliffs are seen, the rubbish at their bases containing the
+bones of the hippopotamus and mammoth, proofs of the great change the
+climate has undergone since the sea washed those ancient beaches. Italy,
+pre-eminently the historic country, in which, within the memory of man,
+no material change of configuration has taken place since the
+Pleistocene period, very late geologically speaking has experienced
+elevations of fifteen hundred feet. The seven hills of Rome are of the
+Pliocene, with fluviatile deposits and recent terrestrial shells two
+hundred feet above the Tiber. There intervened between the older
+Pliocene and the newer a period of enormous length, as is demonstrated
+by the accumulated effects taking place in it, and, indeed, the same may
+be said of every juxtaposed pair of distinctly marked strata. It
+demanded an inconceivable time for beds once horizontal at the bottom of
+the sea to be tilted to great inclinations; it required also the
+enduring exertion of a prodigious force. Ascent and descent may be
+detected in strata of every age: movements sometimes paroxysmal, but
+more often of tranquil and secular kind. The coal-bearing strata, by
+gradual submergence, attained in South Wales a thickness of 12,000 feet,
+and in Nova Scotia, a total thickness of 14,570 feet; the uniformity of
+the process of submergence and its slow steadiness is indicated by the
+occurrence of erect trees at different levels: seventeen such
+repetitions may be counted in a thickness of 4515 feet. The age of the
+trees is proved by their size, some being four feet in diameter. Round
+them, as they gradually went down with the subsiding soil, calamites
+grew at one level after another. In the Sidney coal-field fifty-nine
+fossil forests thus occur in superposition.
+
+[Sidenote: Organic proofs of a former high temperature.] Such was the
+conclusion forcing itself from considerations connected with inorganic
+nature. It received a most emphatic endorsement from the organic world,
+for there is an intimate connexion between the existence and well-being
+both of plants and animals, and the heat to which they are exposed. Why
+is it that the orange and lemon do not grow in New York? What is it that
+would inevitably ensue if these exotics were exposed to a cold winter?
+What must take place if, in Florida or other of the Southern states, a
+season of unusual rigor should occur? Does not heat thus confine within
+a fixed boundary the spread of these plants? And so, again, how many
+others there are which grow luxuriantly in a temperate climate, but are
+parched up and killed if fortuitously carried beneath a hot tropical
+sun. To every one there is a climate which best suits the condition of
+its life, and certain limits of heat and cold beyond which its existence
+is not possible.
+
+If the mean annual heat of the earth's surface were slowly to rise, and,
+in the course of some centuries, the temperature now obtaining in
+Florida should obtain in New York, the orange and lemon would certainly
+be found here. [Sidenote: Boundary of organisms by heat.] With the
+increasing heat those plants would commence a northward march, steadily
+advancing as opportunity was given. Or, if the reverse took place, and
+for any reason the heat of the torrid zone declined until the winter's
+cold of New York should be at last reached under the equator, as the
+descent went on the orange and lemon would retreat within a narrow and
+narrower region, and end by becoming extinct, the conditions of their
+exposure being incompatible with the continuance of their life. From
+such considerations it is therefore obvious that not only does heat
+arrange the limits of the distribution of plants, erecting round them
+boundaries which, though invisible, are more insuperable than a wall of
+brass, it also regulates their march, if march there is to be--nay, even
+controls their very existence, and to genera, and species, and
+individuals appoints a period of duration.
+
+[Sidenote: Animals localized as well as plants.] Such observations apply
+not alone to plants; the animal kingdom offers equally significant
+illustrations. Why does the white bear enjoy the leaden sky of the pole
+and his native iceberg? Why does the tiger restrict himself to the
+jungles of India? Can it be doubted that, if the mean annual temperature
+should decline, the polar bear would come with his iceberg to
+corresponding southern latitudes, or, if the heat should rise, the tiger
+would commence a northward journey? Does he not, indeed, every summer
+penetrate northward in Asia as far as the latitude of Berlin, and retire
+again as winter comes on? Why is it that, at a given signal, the birds
+of passage migrate, pressed forward in the spring by the heat, and
+pressed backward in the autumn by the cold? The annual migration of
+birds illustrates the causes of geological appearances and extinctions.
+Do we not herein recognize the agent that determines animal
+distribution? We must not deceive ourselves with any fancied terrestrial
+impediment or restraint. Let the heat rise but a few degrees, and the
+turkey-buzzard, to whose powerful wing distances are of no moment and
+the free air no impediment, would be seen hovering over New York; let it
+fall a few degrees, and he would vanish from the streets of Charleston;
+let it fall a little more, and he would vanish from the earth.
+Shell-fish, once the inhabitants of the British seas, retired during the
+glacial period to the Mediterranean, and with the returning warmth have
+gone back northward again.
+
+[Sidenote: Control of animals by food.] Animals are thus controlled by
+heat in an indirect as well as a direct way. Indirectly; for, if their
+food be diminished, they must seek a more ample supply; if it fails,
+they must perish. Doubtless it was insufficient food, as well as the
+setting in of a more rigorous climate, that occasioned the destruction
+of the mastodon giganteus, which abounded in the United States after the
+drift period. Such great elephantine forms could not possibly sustain
+themselves against the rigors of the present winters, nor could they
+find a sufficient supply of food for a considerable portion of the year.
+The disappearance of animals from the face of the earth was, as
+Palaeontology advanced, ascertained to have been a determinate process, a
+condition of their existence, and either inherent in themselves or
+dependent on their environment. It was proved that the forms now
+existing are only an insignificant part of the countless tribes that
+have lived. [Sidenote: Nature of creations and extinctions.] The earth
+has been the theatre of a long succession of appearances and removals,
+of creations and extinctions, reaching to the latest times. In the
+Pleistocene of Sicily, 35/124 of the fossil shells are extinct; in the
+bone caverns of England, out of thirty-seven mammals eighteen are
+extinct. But judging, from what may be observed of the duration of races
+contemporary with us, that their life is prolonged for thousands of
+years, successive generations of the same species in a long order
+replacing their predecessors before final removal occurs, this again
+resistlessly brought forward the same conclusion to which all the
+foregoing facts had pointed, that there have transpired since the
+introduction of animal life upon this globe very long periods of time.
+
+Through the operation of this law of extinction and of creation,
+animated nature, both on the continents and in the seas, has undergone a
+marvellous change. In the lias and oolitic seas, the Enaliosauria,
+Cetiosauria, and Crocodilia dominated as the Delphinidae and Balaenidae do
+in ours; the former have been eliminated, the latter produced. Along
+with the cetaceans came the soft-scaled Cycloid and Ctenoid fishes,
+orders which took the place of the Ganoids and Placoids of the Mesozoic
+times. One after another successive species of air-breathing reptiles
+have emerged, continued for their appointed time to exist, and then died
+out. The development has been, not in the descending, but in the
+ascending order; the Amphitheria, Spalacotheria, Triconodon of the
+Mesozoic times were substituted by higher tertiary forms. Nor have these
+mutations been abrupt. If mammals are the chief characteristic of the
+Tertiary ages, their first beginnings are seen far earlier; in the
+triassic and oolitic formations there are a few of the lower orders
+struggling, as it were, to emerge. The aspect of animated nature has
+altogether changed. No longer does the camelopard wander over Europe as
+he did in the Miocene and Pliocene times; no longer are great elephants
+seen in the American forests, the hippopotamus in England, the
+Rhinoceros in Siberia. The hand of man has introduced in the New the
+horse of the Old World; but the American horse, that ran on the great
+plains contemporary with the megatherium and megalonyx, has for tens of
+thousands of years been extinct. Even the ocean and the rivers are no
+exception to these changes.
+
+[Sidenote: Creations and extinctions by law.] What, then, is the manner
+of origin of this infinite succession of forms? It is often sufficient
+to see clearly a portion of a plan to be able to determine with some
+degree of certainty the general arrangement of the whole; it is often
+sufficient to know with precision a part of the life of an individual to
+guess with probable accuracy his action in some forthcoming event, of to
+determine the share he has borne in affairs that are past. It is enough
+to appreciate thoroughly the style of a master to ascertain without
+doubt the authenticity of an imputed picture. And so, in the affairs of
+the universe, it is enough to ascertain the manner of operation of a
+part in order to settle the manner of operation of the whole. When,
+therefore, it was perceived how the disappearance of vanishing forms
+from the surface of the globe is accomplished--that it is not by a
+sudden and grand providential intervention--that there is no visible
+putting forth of the Omnipotent hand, but slowly and silently, yet
+surely, the ordinary laws of Nature are permitted to take their
+course--that heat, and cold, and want of food, and dryness, and
+moisture, in the end, as if by an irresistible destiny, accomplish the
+event, it seemed to indicate that, as regards the introduction of
+new-comers, a suitableness of external conditions had called them forth,
+as an unsuitableness could end them. Changes in the constitution of the
+air or its pressure, in the composition of the sea or its depth, in the
+brilliancy of light or the amount of heat, in the inorganic material of
+a medium, will modify old forms into new ones, or compel their
+extinction. Birth and death go hand in hand; creation and extinction are
+inseparable. The variation of organic form is continuous; it depends
+upon an orderly succession of material events; appearances and
+eliminations are managed upon a common principle; they stand connected
+with the irresistible course of great mundane changes. It was impossible
+that geologists could reach any other conclusion than that such
+phenomena are not the issue of direct providential interventions, but of
+physical influences. The procession of organic life is not a motley
+march; it follows the procession of physical events; and, since it is
+impossible to re-establish a sameness of physical conditions that have
+once come to an end, or reproduce the order in which they have occurred,
+it of necessity follows that no organic form can reappear after it has
+once died out--once dead, it is clean gone for ever.
+
+[Sidenote: Interstitial molecular creations.] In the course of the life
+of individual man, the parts that constitute his system are undergoing
+momentary changes; those of to-day are not the same as those of
+yesterday, and they will be replaced by others to-morrow. There have
+been, and are every instant, interstitial deaths of all the constituent
+particles, and an unceasing removal of those that have performed their
+duty. In the stead of departing portions, new ones have been introduced,
+interstitial births and organizations perpetually taking place. In
+physiology it became no longer a question that all this proceeds in a
+determinate way under the operation of principles that are fixed, of
+laws that are invariable. The alchemists introduced no poetical fiction
+when they spoke of the microcosm, asserting that the system of man is
+emblematical of the system of the world. The intercalation of a new
+organic molecule in a living being answers to the introduction of a new
+form in the universal organic series. It requires as much power to call
+into existence a living molecule as to produce a living being. Both are
+accomplished upon the same principle, and that principle is not an
+incessant intervention of a supernatural kind, but the operation of
+unvarying law. Physical agents, working through physical laws, remove in
+organisms such molecules as have accomplished their work and create new
+ones, and physical agents, working through physical laws, control the
+extinctions and creations of forms in the universe of life. The
+difference is only in the time. What is accomplished in the one case in
+the twinkling of an eye, in the other may demand the lapse of a thousand
+centuries.
+
+[Sidenote: Defence of the process of all things by law.] The variation
+of organic forms, under the force of external circumstances, is thus
+necessary to be understood in connexion with that countless succession
+of living beings demonstrated by geology. It carries us, in common with
+so much other evidence, to the lapse of a long time. Nor are such views
+as those to which we are thus constrained inconsistent with the
+admission of a Providential guidance of the world. Man, however learned
+and pious he may be, is not always a trustworthy interpreter of the ways
+of God. In deciding whether any philosophical doctrine is consistent or
+inconsistent with the Divine attributes, we are too prone to judge of
+those attributes by our own finite and imperfect standard, forgetting
+that the only test to which we ought to resort is the ascertainment if
+the doctrine be true. If it be true, it is in unison with God. Perhaps
+some who have rejected the conception of the variation of organic forms,
+with its postulate--limitless duration, may have failed to remember the
+grandeur of the universe and its relations to space and to time; perhaps
+they do not recall the system on which it is administered. Like the
+anthropomorphite monks of the Nile, they conceive of God as if he were
+only a very large man; else how could it for a moment have been doubted
+that it is far more--I use the expression reverently--in the style of
+the great Constructor to carry out his intentions by the summary
+operations of law? It might be consistent with the weakness and
+ignorance of man to be reduced to the necessity of personal intervention
+for the accomplishment of his plans, but would not that be the very
+result of such ignorance? Does not absolute knowledge actually imply
+procedure by preconceived and unvarying law? Is not momentary
+intervention altogether derogatory to the thorough and absolute
+sovereignty of God? The astronomical calculation of ancient events, as
+well as the prediction of those to come, is essentially founded on the
+principle that there has not in the times under consideration, and that
+there will never be in the future, any exercise of an arbitrary or
+overriding will. The corner-stone of astronomy is this, that the solar
+system--nay, even the universe, is ruled by necessity. To operate by
+expedients is for the creature, to operate by law for the Creator; and
+so far from the doctrine that creations and extinctions are carried on
+by a foreseen and predestined ordinance--a system which works of itself
+without need of any intermeddling--being an unworthy, an ignoble
+conception, it is completely in unison with the resistless movements of
+the mechanism of the universe, with whatever is orderly, symmetrical,
+and beautiful upon earth, and with all the dread magnificence of the
+heavens.
+
+[Sidenote: Historical sketch of early Palaeontology.] It was in Italy
+that particular attention was first given to organic remains. Leonardo
+da Vinci asserts that they are real shells, or the remains thereof, and
+hence that the land and sea must have changed their relative position.
+At this time fossils were looked upon as rare curiosities, no one
+supposing that they were at all numerous, and many were the fantastic
+hypotheses proposed to account for their occurrence. Some referred them
+to the general deluge mentioned in Scripture; some to a certain plastic
+power obscurely attributed to the earth; some thought that they were
+engendered by the sunlight, heat, and rain. To Da Vinci is due the first
+clear assertion of their true nature, that they are actually the remains
+of organic beings. Soon the subject was taken up by other eminent
+Italians. Fracaster wrote on the petrifactions of Verona; Scilla, a
+Sicilian, on marine bodies turned into stone, illustrating his work by
+engravings. Still later, Vallisneri, 1721, published letters on marine
+bodies found in rocks, attempting by their aid to determine the extent
+of the marine deposits of Italy. These early cultivators of geology soon
+perceived the advantage to be gained by the establishment of museums and
+the publication of catalogues. The first seems to have been that of John
+Kentman, an example that was followed by Calceolarius and Vallisneri.
+Subsequently Fontanelle proposed the construction of charts in
+accordance with fossil remains; but the principle involved was not
+applied on the great scale as a true geological test until introduced by
+Smith in connexion with the English strata.
+
+[Sidenote: The pre-organic time.] To Steno, a Dane, is due the
+recognition of pre-organic in contradistinction to organic rocks, a
+distinction the terms of which necessarily involve the idea of time.
+Soon it became generally recognized that the strata in which organic
+remains occur are of a later date than those devoid of them, the
+pre-organic rocks demonstrating a pre-organic time. Moreover, as facts
+were developed, it was plain that there are essential differences in the
+relations of fossils, and that, though in Italy the same species of
+shells may occur in the mountains that occur in the adjacent seas, this
+was very far from being the case uniformly elsewhere. At length the
+truth began to emerge, that in proportion as the strata under
+examination are of an older date, so are the differences between their
+organic remains and existing species more marked. It was also discovered
+that the same species often extends superficially over immense
+districts, but that in a vertical examination one species after another
+rapidly appears in a descending order--an order which could be verified
+in spite of the contortions, fractures, and displacements of the strata.
+A very important theoretical conclusion was here presented: for the
+rapid succession of essentially different organic forms, as the rocks
+were older, was clearly altogether inconsistent with one catastrophe, as
+the universal deluge, to which it had been generally referred. It was
+plain that the thickness of the strata in which they were enveloped, and
+the prodigious numbers in which they occurred, answered in some degree
+to the period of life of those fossils, since every one of them, large
+or small, must have had its time of birth, of maturity, and of death.
+[Sidenote: Insufficiency of a single catastrophe.] When, therefore, it
+could be no longer doubted that strata many hundreds of feet in
+thickness were crowded with such remains, it became altogether out of
+the question to refer their entombment to the confusion of a single
+catastrophe, for every thing indicated an orderly and deliberate
+proceeding. Still more cogent did this evidence become when, in a more
+critical manner, the fossils were studied, and some strata were
+demonstrated to be of a fresh-water and others of a marine origin, the
+one intercalated with the other like leaves in a book. To this fact may
+be imputed the final overthrow of the doctrine of a single catastrophe,
+and its replacement by a doctrine of periodical changes.
+
+[Sidenote: The orderly progression of organization.] From these
+statements it will therefore be understood that, commencing with the
+first appearance of organization, an orderly process was demonstrated
+from forms altogether unlike those with which we are familiar, up to
+those at present existing, a procedure conducted so slowly that it was
+impossible to assign for it a shorter duration than thousands of
+centuries. Moreover, it seemed that the guiding condition which had
+controlled this secular march of organization was the same which still
+determines the possibility of existence and the distribution of life.
+The succession of organic forms indicates a clear relation to a
+descending temperature. The plants of the earliest times are plants of
+an ultratropical climate, and that primitive vegetation seemed to
+demonstrate that there had been a uniform climate--a climate of high
+temperature--all over the globe. The coal-beds of Nova Scotia exhibited
+the same genera and species as those of Europe, and so well marked was
+the botanical connexion with the declining temperature in successive
+ages that attempts were made to express eras by their prevailing
+organisms; thus Brongniart's division is, for the Primary strata, the
+Age of Acrogens; the Secondary, exclusive of the Cretaceous, the Age of
+Gymnogens; the third, including the Cretaceous and Tertiary, the Age of
+Angiosperms. It is to be particularly remarked that the Cretaceous
+flora, in the aggregate, combines the antecedent and succeeding periods,
+proving that the change was not by crisis or sudden catastrophe, but
+that the new forms rose gently among the old ones. After the Eocene
+period, dicotyledonous angiosperms became the prevalent form, and from
+that date to the Pleistocene the evidences of a continued refrigeration
+are absolute.
+
+[Sidenote: Climates in time and in place.] As thus an examination was
+made from the most ancient to the later ages, indications were found of
+a climate arrangement more and more distinct--in the high latitudes,
+from the ultratropical through the tropical, the temperate, down to the
+present frigid state; in lower latitudes the declining process stopping
+short at an earlier point. It therefore appeared that there has been a
+production of climates both in an order of time and, in an order of
+locality, the greatest change having occurred in the frigid zone, which
+has passed through all mean temperatures, an intermediate change in the
+temperate, and a minimum in the torrid zone. The general effect has thus
+been to present a succession of surfaces on the same planet adapted to a
+varied organization, and offering a more magnificent spectacle than if
+we were permitted to inspect many different planets; for in them there
+might be no necessary connexion of their forms of life, but in this
+there is, so that, were our knowledge of Comparative Physiology more
+perfect, we might amuse ourselves with intercalating among the plant and
+animal organisms familiar to us hypothetical forms that would make the
+series complete, and verify our principles by their subsequent discovery
+in the deep strata of the earth.
+
+Does not this progression of life in our planet suggest a like
+progression for the solar system, which in its aggregate is passing in
+myriads of years through all organic phases? May we not also, from our
+solar system, rise to a similar conception for the universe?
+
+There are two very important considerations, on which we must dwell for
+the complete understanding of the consequences of these changes: 1st.
+The mechanism of the declining temperature; 2d. Its effect in the
+organic world.
+
+[Sidenote: The nature of terrestrial declining temperature.] 1st. A
+uniformly high temperature could never be manifested all over the
+surface of our planet through any heating influence of the sun. A high
+and uniform temperature unerringly points to an internal cause; and the
+gradual appearance of climates, manifesting a relatively increasing
+power of the sun, indicates the slow diminution of that internal heat.
+But this is precisely the conclusion which was come to from a
+contemplation of the earth from a purely physical point of view. So long
+as its intrinsic heat overpowered that derived from the sun, it was not
+possible that any thing answering to climates could be established; and,
+until a certain degree of cooling by radiation had been accomplished,
+the heat must have been comparatively uniform in all latitudes; but,
+that point gained, there necessarily ensued an arrangement of zones of
+different temperatures, or, in other words, climates appeared, the
+process being essentially slow, and becoming slower as the loss of heat
+went on. Finally, when loss of heat from the earth ceased, an
+equilibrium was reached in the climate arrangement as we now find it.
+Thus purely physical as well as geological considerations brought
+philosophers on this point to the same conclusion--that conclusion which
+has been so often repeated--very long periods of time.
+
+[Sidenote: Consequent effect on the Flora and Fauna.] 2nd. As to the
+effect on the organic world. Nothing can live at a temperature higher
+than the boiling-point of water, for the condition of life implies that
+there shall circulate from part to part of a living mechanism a watery
+liquid, sap, or blood. From this it necessarily follows that a planet,
+the temperature of which is above a certain limit, must necessarily have
+a lifeless surface; and this seemed to be the interpretation of that
+pre-organic time to which we have referred. Moreover, when the
+temperature suitably descends so as to come within the limit at which
+life is possible, its uniformity over the surface of a planet will
+produce a sameness in the organization. It would be an identity if heat
+were the only regulating condition of life. At this stage of things, the
+solar heat being overpowered, and a sensibly uniform temperature in all
+latitudes existing, still the only possible organic forms are those
+consistent with a high temperature, uniformity in the physical condition
+impressing a general uniformity in the aspect of life geographically.
+[Sidenote: Production and distribution of new organisms.] But the moment
+that climate arrangement has become possible, variety of organic form
+becomes possible. Now also ensues another all-important
+result--geographical distribution. Both of plants and animals, those
+whose vital conditions are inconsistent with the occurring change must
+retire from the affected locality. In plants this retrocession is
+brought to pass by the gradual sickening and death of individuals, or
+the impossibility of reproduction; in animals there is added thereto,
+because of their power of locomotion, voluntary retirement, at least in
+the case of individuals, and immobility in the species is corrected by
+locomotion in the individual. The affected region has become unsuitable,
+cheerless, uncomfortable; they abandon it; and as the boundary they
+thus, in the one case, can not, and in the other will not overpass,
+advances, so do they recede before it. If the change were abrupt, or
+took place by a sudden crisis, there would seem to be no other possible
+event than an overcrowding of the unaffected region and a desolation of
+the part that had varied. But, since a developing cell under a new
+condition produces a new form, and since the physical change is taking
+place with extreme slowness, the appearance of modified structures
+ensues. And thus, by decline of temperature, two distinct results are
+accomplished--first the production of organic forms in an order of
+succession, new ones replacing the old, as if they were transmutations
+of them, and, secondly, geographical distribution.
+
+[Sidenote: Delusive nature of organic equilibrium.] In my "Physiology" I
+have endeavoured to explain in detail the principles here set forth. I
+have endeavoured to show that the aspect of sameness presented by an
+animal or plant is no proof of unchangeability. Those forms retain in
+our times their special aspect because the conditions of the theatre in
+which they live do not change; but let the mean temperature rise, let
+the sun-rays become brighter, change the composition of the air, and
+forthwith the world of organization would show how profoundly it was
+affected. Nor need such changes, in one sense, be more than
+insignificant to produce prodigious results. Thus the air contains only
+1/2000 of its volume of carbonic acid gas. That apparently trifling
+quantity taken away, in an instant the whole surface of the earth would
+become a desolate waste, without the possibility of vegetable life.
+
+[Sidenote: The Coal period.] As physical geology advanced, the Coal
+period was perceived to be the chief epoch in the history of our planet.
+Through a slow decline of temperature, a possibility had gradually been
+attained, so far as the condition of heat was concerned, for a luxuriant
+vegetable growth. All that prodigious mass of carbon now found in the
+earth in the various forms of coal existed as carbonic acid in the
+atmosphere. The proportion of free oxygen was less than at present by a
+volume equal to the excess of carbonic acid. [Sidenote: Effects of light
+on the atmosphere,] A change in the constitution of this primaeval
+atmosphere was occasioned by the action of the light; for, under the
+influence of the sun-rays, plants decompose carbonic acid, appropriating
+its carbon, and, for the most part, setting the oxygen free. The
+quantity of carbon which can thus be condensed for the use of a plant,
+and, indeed, every such decomposing action by light, is directly
+proportionate to the quantity of light consumed, as experiments which I
+have personally made have proved. For the production of so great a
+weight of combustible matter a very long period of time was necessarily
+required, that the sun might supply the necessary luminous influence.
+
+Age after age the sunbeams continued their work, changing the mechanical
+relations and composition of the atmosphere, the constitution of the
+sea, and the appearance of the surface of the earth. There was a
+prodigious growth of ferns, lepidodendra, equisetaceae, coniferae. The
+percentage of oxygen in the air continually increased, that of carbonic
+acid continually declined; the pressure of the air correspondingly
+diminished, partly because of the replacement of a heavy gas by a
+lighter one, and partly because of the general decline of temperature
+slowly taking place, which diminished the absolute volume of vapour.
+[Sidenote: and also on the sea.] The sea, in its deepest abysses, was
+likewise affected by the sunlight; not directly, but in an indirect way;
+for, as the removal of carbonic acid from the atmosphere went on,
+portions of that gas were perpetually surrendered by the ocean in order
+to maintain a diffusion-equilibrium between its dissolved gas and the
+free gas of the air. And now no longer could be held in transparent
+solution by the water those great quantities of carbonate of lime which
+had once been concealed in it, the deposit of a given weight of coal in
+the earth being inevitably followed by the deposit of an equivalent
+weight of carbonate of lime in the sea. This might have taken place as
+an amorphous precipitate; but the probabilities were that it would
+occur, as in fact it did, under forms of organization in the great
+limestone strata coeval with and posterior to the coal. The air and the
+ocean were thus suffering an invisible change through the disturbing
+agency of the sun, and the surface of the solid earth was likewise
+undergoing a more manifest, and, it may be said, more glorious
+alteration. Plants, in wild luxuriance, were developing themselves in
+the hot and dank climate, and the possibility was now approaching for
+the appearance of animal types very much higher than any that had yet
+existed. [Sidenote: Cold-blooded animals succeeded by hot.] In the old
+heavy atmosphere, full of a noxious gas, none but slowly-respiring
+cold-blooded animals could maintain themselves; but after the great
+change in the constitution of the air had been accomplished, the
+quickly-respiring and hot-blooded forms might exist. Hitherto the
+highest advancement that animal life could reach was in batrachian and
+lizard-like organisms; yet even these were destined to participate in
+the change, increasing in magnitude and vital capacity. The pterodactyl
+of the chalk, a flying lizard, measures nearly seventeen feet from tip
+to tip of its wings. The air had now become suitable for mammals, both
+placental and implacental, and for birds. One after another, in their
+due order, appeared the highest vertebrates: marine, as the cetacean;
+aerial, as the bat; and in the terrestrial, reaching, in the Eocene,
+quadrumanous animals, but not, until after the Pliocene, man.
+
+[Sidenote: The date of organisms may change, but the order not.]
+Although the advance of geology may hereafter lead to a correction of
+some of the conclusions thus attained to respecting the first dates of
+different organic forms, and carry them back to more ancient times, it
+is scarcely likely that any material modification of their order of
+occurrence will ever be made. Birds, mammals, reptiles, fishes, and
+invertebrates may each be detected in earlier strata; even in some of
+those formations now regarded as non-fossiliferous, organisms may be
+found; but it is not at all probable that the preponderance of reptiles
+will ever cease to be the essential characteristic of the Secondary
+rocks, or that of mammals of the Tertiary, or that a preceding period of
+vast duration, in which the type of life had been the invertebrate, will
+ever be doubted. Nothing, probably, will ever be discovered to
+invalidate the physical conclusion that, while there was an excess of
+carbonic acid in the air, the Flora would tend to be Cryptogamic and
+Gymnospermic, and that there would be a scarcity of monocotyledons and
+dicotyledonous angiosperms in the coal; nothing to disprove the fact
+that the animals were slow-breathing and cold-blooded; and that it was
+not until after the oxygen of the air had increased and the mean
+temperature had declined that birds made their appearance. Though both
+placental and marsupial animals may hereafter be found earlier than in
+the Stonesfield slate; though wood and herb-eating beetles,
+grasshoppers, dragon-flies, and May-flies may be found beneath the lias,
+and scorpions and cockroaches beneath the coal, though, also beneath the
+coal, salamanders and Sauroid batrachians, of which the archegosaurus is
+an example, may occur; though reptiles, as the telerpeton, may be found
+deeper than the old red sandstone; yet the connexion between aerial
+constitution and form of life will never be shaken. Still will remain
+the facts that the geographical distribution of types was anterior to
+the appearance of existing species, that organisms first appeared in a
+liquid medium, primitively marine, then fluviatile, and at last
+terrestrial; that Radiates, Molluscs, Articulates, Vertebrates, were all
+at first aquatic, and that the Radiates have ever remained so; that the
+plane of greatest vital activity has ever been the sea-level, where the
+earth and air touch each other; that the order of individual development
+is the order of mundane development. Still will remain the important
+conclusions that the mammalian Fauna has diverged more rapidly than the
+testaceous; that hot-blooded animals have not had that longevity of
+species which has been displayed by the cold, just as we observe in the
+individual the possibility of muscular contraction by a given galvanic
+force lasts much longer in the latter than in the former; that if the
+hot-blooded tribes have thus a briefer duration, they enjoy a
+compensation in the greater energy of their life--perhaps this being the
+cause and that the effect; that, notwithstanding the countless forms
+exhibited by species, their duration is so great that they outlive vast
+changes in the topographical configuration of countries--the Fauna of
+some countries having been in existence before those countries
+themselves; that the plan of individual development has ever been as it
+is now, and that sameness of external influence produces similarity of
+organization.
+
+[Sidenote: The doctrine of catastrophes and uniformity.] In its early
+history theoretical geology presented two schools--one insisting on a
+doctrine of catastrophes, one on a doctrine of uniformity. The former
+regarded those changes which have manifestly taken place in the history
+of our planet as having occurred at epochs abruptly. To this doctrine
+the prevailing impression that there had been providential interventions
+lent much force. The other school, reposing on the great principle of
+the invariability of the laws of Nature, insisted that affairs had
+always gone on at the same rate and in the same way as they do now.
+Hence it maintained an opposition to the catastrophists, and in this, it
+may be said, was actually not true to its own principles. Any doctrine
+of uniformity, rightly considered from its most general point of view,
+includes an admission of catastrophes. Numerous illustrations of this
+truth spontaneously suggest themselves. A tower, the foundations of
+which are slowly yielding, may incline more and more for many centuries,
+but the day must come in which it will fall at last. In the uniformity
+of the disturbance a catastrophe was eventually involved. And thus, in
+what has been said respecting geological events, though they are spoken
+of as proceeding quietly and with uniformity, it may be understood that
+sudden crises are also contemplated. Moreover, those who adopt the
+doctrine of uniformity in an absolute sense must pay a due regard to the
+variations in intensity of physical acts which their own principles
+imply. The uniform cooling of a hot body actually means a cooling at
+first fast, and then slower and slower; and invariability of chemical
+change actually implies more violent and summary modifications at a high
+temperature than at one which is low.
+
+But, though it may at first sight have appeared that an admission of the
+doctrine of catastrophes is in harmony with a providential government of
+the world, and that the emergence of different organic forms in
+successive ages is a manifestation of creative intervention, of which it
+was admitted that as many as from twelve to twenty, if no more,
+successive instances might be recognized, we may well congratulate
+ourselves that those important doctrines rest upon a far more
+substantial basis. Rightly considered, the facts lead to a very
+different conclusion. [Sidenote: Successive forms assumed by man.]
+Physiological investigations have proved that all animals, even man,
+during the process of development, pass in succession through a definite
+cycle of forms. Starting from a simple cell, form after form, in a
+definite order is assumed. In this long line of advance the steps are
+ever, in all individuals, the same. But no one would surely suppose that
+the changed aspect at any moment presented is due to a providential
+interposition. [Sidenote: But they are rigidly determined by law.] On
+the contrary, it is the inevitable result of what has been taking place
+under the law of development, and the sure precursor of what is about to
+follow. In the organic world, the successive orders, and genera, and
+species are the counterparts of these temporary embryonic forms of the
+individual. Indeed, we may say of those successive geological beings
+that they are mere embryos of the latest--embryos that had gained a
+power of reproduction. How shall we separate the history of the
+individual from the history of the whole? Do not the fortunes and way of
+progress of the one follow the fortunes and way of progress of the
+other? If, in a transitory manner, these forms are assumed by the
+individual, equally in a transitory manner are they assumed by the race.
+Nor would it be philosophical to suppose that the management in the one
+instance differs from the management in the other. If the one is
+demonstrably the issue of a law in action, so must the other be too. It
+does not matter that the entire cycle is passed through by the
+individual in the course of a few months, while in the race it demands
+ages. [Sidenote: Individual and race development conducted in the same
+way.] The standard of time that ought to be applied is the respective
+duration of life. In man it is much if he attains to threescore years
+and ten; but the entire period of human record, embracing several
+thousand years, offers not a single instance of the birth, maturity, and
+death of a species. They, therefore, who think they find, in the
+successive species that have in an orderly manner replaced each other in
+the life of the earth, the sure proof of Divine intervention, would do
+well to determine at what point the production of such forms by law
+ceases, and at what point their production by the immediate act of God
+begins. Their task will be as hard to tell where one colour in the
+rainbow ends and where the next commences. They will also do well to
+remember that, in great mundane events, the scale of time is ample, and
+that there may be no essential difference between a course that is run
+over in a few days and one that requires for its completion thousands of
+centuries.
+
+[Sidenote: Catastrophes disproved by the co-existence of types.] The
+co-existence of different types in the organic series was the
+incontrovertible fact by which was demonstrated the gradual passage from
+form to form without catastrophes, the argument relied upon gathering
+strength from such circumstances as these, that even the fossil shells
+of the modern Italian tuffs which are not extinct exhibit a slight want
+of correspondence when compared with those now inhabiting the
+Mediterranean, some of the old ones being twice and a half as large as
+the present, and that there is a numerical passage from strata
+containing seventy per cent. of recent shells to those that are
+altogether recent, or contain one hundred per cent. This is manifestly
+indicative of a continually changing impression bringing on a
+corresponding modelling. It is the proof of a slow merging into, or of a
+measured assumption of, the new form--a transition, for the completion
+of which probably a very long time is required. That the existing
+reindeer is found in the same fluviatile deposits with an extinct
+hippopotamus seemed certainly to prove that there was a condition of
+things in which the co-life of those animals was possible in the same
+locality, and that, as the physical causes slowly changed, the one might
+be eliminated and the other might be left. That the regulating
+conditions were altogether physical was obvious from such facts as that
+in the bone-caves of Australia all the mammals are marsupial, and in the
+pampas of South America they are allied to such forms as are indigenous,
+armadilloes, sloths, etc., showing the tokens of lineage or hereditary
+transmission. For still more remote times numerous instances of a
+similar nature were detected; thus, throughout the whole Secondary
+period, the essential characteristic was the wonderful development of
+reptile life, while in the Tertiary it was the development of mammals.
+But the appearance of mammals had commenced long before that of reptiles
+had ceased. Indeed, the latter event is incomplete in our times; for,
+though the marine Saurians have been almost entirely removed, the
+fluviatile and terrestrial ones maintain themselves, though diminished
+both in species and individuals. Now such an overlapping of reptiles and
+mammals was altogether irreconcilable with the doctrine of a crisis or
+catastrophe, and, in fact, it demonstrated the changing of organisms in
+the changing of physical states.
+
+[Sidenote: Cuvier's doctrine of permanence of species.] Cuvier
+maintained the doctrine of the permanence of animal species from the
+facts that the oldest known do not appear to have undergone any
+modification, and that every existing one shows a resistance to change.
+If his observations are restricted to periods not exceeding human
+history, they may perhaps be maintained, but that duration cannot be
+looked upon as more than a moment in the limitless progress we are
+considering, and it was in this view that Cuvier's doctrine proved to be
+incapable of defence. [Sidenote: Imperfection of evidence in its
+support.] What does it signify if our domestic animals show no
+variations when compared with the corresponding images depicted on the
+hieroglyphic monuments of Egypt, or with the descriptions left by
+ancient authors? Evidence of that kind is valueless. Does the geologist
+ask of the architect his opinion whether there have ever been upliftings
+and down-sinkings of the earth? If he did, would not every structure in
+Europe be brought forward as an evidence that nothing of the kind had
+ever occurred? A leaning tower, or a church with inclining walls in
+Italy, might pass for nothing; the Pyramids would testify that Egypt
+itself had never undergone any disturbance--they remain solid on their
+bases, undisturbed. But what is the weight of all this when placed in
+opposition with the mass of evidence offered by inclined and fractured
+strata? And yet such is precisely the proof offered in behalf of the
+permanence of animals. The facts with which the zoologist deals, like
+those on which the architect depends, are insufficient for the
+purpose--they are wanting in extent of time. There have been movements
+in the crust of the earth, though every building in the world may be
+perpendicular; there have been transformations of organisms, though for
+four thousand years there may have been no perceptible change.
+
+[Sidenote: Control of organisms by physical conditions.] If ever there
+had been a universal creation of all possible organic forms or
+combinations, forthwith vast numbers of them must have disappeared,
+every type being eliminated which was not in correspondence with the
+external conditions or with the medium in which it was placed. If the
+environment or the physical conditions underwent a variation, a
+corresponding variation in the forms that could by possibility exist
+must ensue, and, from a thorough study of those not eliminated, the
+physical conditions might be ascertained; and conversely, from a
+thorough knowledge of the physical conditions, the forms that could
+escape elimination might be designated. The facts on which Cuvier rested
+did not demonstrate what he supposed. His immobility of species was no
+consequence of an innate or intrinsic resistance possessed by them, but
+merely an illustration that external physical agents had not undergone
+any well-marked variation in the time with which he was concerned.
+
+[Sidenote: Nature of variation of physical conditions.] What is here
+meant by variation in physical forces or condition is not any intrinsic
+change in their nature, but the varied manner in which they may work by
+interfering with one another, or experiencing declines of intensity.
+From the fact that we may read in the fixed stars, through the
+progressive motion of light, the history of a million of past years, we
+may be sure that the forces of nature have undergone no intrinsic
+change; that light was propagated at the same rate, was capable of
+producing the same optical and chemical effects, and varied in its
+intensity by distance as it does now; that heat determined corporeal
+magnitudes. These are things that in their nature are absolutely
+unchangeable. Always, as now, the freezing of water, and its boiling
+under a given pressure, must have been the same; there must have been a
+thermometric zero of life and an upward limit, no animal process ever
+going on below 32 deg. Fahrenheit or above 212 deg. Fahrenheit.
+
+[Sidenote: Effect thereof on organisms.] But out of this invariability
+of natural causes variations in their condition of action arise, and it
+is these that affect organic forms. Of such forms, some become at length
+incapable of maintaining themselves in the slow progress of change;
+others acclimatize, or accommodate, or suit themselves thereto by
+undergoing modifications, and this was at last discerned to be the true
+explanation of extinctions and appearances, events taking place very
+slowly in untold periods of time, and rather by imperceptible degrees
+than by a sudden catastrophe or crisis.
+
+[Sidenote: Transmutation of species.] The doctrine of the transmutation
+of species has met with no little resistance. They who have refused to
+receive it as one of the truths of Nature have perhaps not given full
+weight to physiological evidence. When they ask, Has any one ever
+witnessed such an event as the transmutation of one species into
+another? has any experimenter ever accomplished it by artificial means?
+they do not take a due account of time. In the Fables it is related that
+when the flowers were one evening conversing, "Our gardener," said the
+rose to the lily, "will live for ever. I have not seen any change in
+him. The tulip, who died yesterday, told me that she had remarked the
+same thing; she believed that he must be immortal. I am sure that he
+never was born."
+
+[Sidenote: Two modes of action.] Two modes have been presented by which
+we may conceive of the influence of physical agents upon organic forms.
+Their long persistent action upon the individual may give rise to
+modifications, developing one part, stunting another; and such
+variations, being transmitted in an hereditary way, may become firmly
+fixed at last. Thus a given plant may, in the course of ages, under the
+influence of unremittingly acting physical conditions, undergo a
+permanent change, and a really new plant arise as soon as, through the
+repetitions of successive generations, the modifications have become so
+thorough, so profound, as to be capable of transmission with certainty.
+Perhaps this is what has taken place with many of our kitchen-garden
+plants, of which the special varieties may be propagated by seeds. But
+there is another mode by which that result may be reached, even if we
+decline the doctrine of St. Augustine, who, in his work "De Civitate
+Dei," shows how islands may be peopled with animals by "spontaneous
+generation." All organic forms originally spring from a simple cell, the
+development of which, as indicated by the final form attained, is
+manifestly dependent on the physical conditions it has been exposed to
+during its course. If those conditions change, that final form must
+change correspondingly; and in this manner, since all organic beings
+come from the same starting-point--the same cell, as has been said,
+which helplessly submits to whatever impression may be put upon it--the
+issue is the same as though a transformation or transmutation had
+occurred, since the descendant is not like its ancestors. Such a manner
+of considering these changes is in harmony with our best physiological
+knowledge, since it does not limit itself to a small portion of the life
+of an individual, but embraces its whole cycle or career. For the more
+complete examination of this view I may refer to the second chapter of
+the second book of my "Physiology."
+
+[Sidenote: Problem of the modification of forms.] But here has arisen
+the inquiry, Does the modification of organic forms depend exclusively
+on the impressions of external influences, or is it due to a nisus or
+force of development residing in the forms themselves?
+
+Whether we consider the entire organic series in its succession, or the
+progress of an individual in his development, the orderly course
+presented might seem to indicate that the operation is taking place
+under a law--an orderly progression being always suggestive of the
+operation of law. But a philosophical caution must, however, be here
+exercised; for deceptive appearances may lead us into the error of
+imputing to such a law, impressed by the Creator on the developing
+organism, that which really belongs to external physical conditions,
+which, on their part, are following a law of their own. What is here
+meant may be illustrated by the facts that occur on the habitable
+surface of a planet suffering a gradual decline of heat. [Sidenote:
+Three solutions of it.] On such a surface a succession of vegetable
+types might make its appearance, and, as these different types emerged
+or were eliminated, we might speak of the events as creations and
+extinctions, and therefore as the acts of God. Or, in the second place,
+we might refer them to an intrinsic force of development imparted to
+each germ, which reached in due season its maximum, and then declined
+and died out; and, comparing each type with its preceding and succeeding
+ones, the interrelation might be suggested to us of the operation of a
+controlling law. Or, in the third place, we might look to the external
+physical condition--the decline of heat--itself taking place at a
+determinate rate under a mathematical law, and drawing in its
+consequences the organic variations observed.
+
+Now the first of these explanations in reality means the arbitrary and
+unchallengeable will of God, who calls into existence, and extinguishes
+according to his sovereign pleasure, whatever he pleases; the orderly
+progression we notice becoming an evidence that his volitions are not
+erratic, but are according to pure reason. The second implies that there
+has been impressed upon every germ a law of continuous organic
+variation--it might have been through the arbitrary fiat of God. The
+third implies that the successive types owe their appearance and
+elimination to a physical influence, which is itself varying under a
+strict mathematical necessity; for the law of cooling, which the
+circumstances force on our attention, is such a strict mathematical
+necessity.
+
+[Sidenote: Their relative probability.] If at this point we balance the
+probabilities of these three explanations, we shall perhaps find
+ourselves biassed toward the last, as physiologists have been, because
+of its rigorous scientific aspect, and should not be surprised to find
+it supported by an array of facts depending on the principle that the
+appearance of new forms does not observe a certain inevitable order, or
+stand in a certain relation to time. From individual development it
+might seem as if the advancing procession of an organism is such that
+specific forms ever appear in a certain order one after another, and at
+certain intervals; but the fallacy of such a conclusion is apparent when
+we attend to the orderly procedure of the physical conditions to which
+the developing organism is exposed. [Sidenote: Development is in place,
+not in time.] The passing through a given form at a given epoch is due
+to the relation being to space and its conditions, not to time. And so
+in the life of the earth, if development were according to time, we
+should have an orderly succession of grades as the earth grew older, and
+in all localities, at a given moment, the contemporary organisms would
+be similar; but if it were according to space, that rigorous procedure
+would not occur; in its stead we should have a broken series, the
+affiliation being dependent on the secularly continuous variation of the
+physical condition.
+
+Now this was discovered to be the case. For instance, throughout the
+northern hemisphere, during the Tertiary period, an extinct placental
+Fauna was contemporaneous with an extinct marsupial Fauna in Australia.
+If the development was proceeding according to time, by an innate nisus,
+and not according to external influences, the types for the same epoch
+in the two hemispheres should be the same; if under external influences,
+irrespective of time, they should be, as they were found to be,
+different.
+
+If true-going clocks, which owe their motion to their own internal
+mechanism, were started in all countries of the earth at the same
+instant, they would strike their successive hours simultaneously. But
+sun-dials, which owe their indications to an exterior cause, would in
+different longitudes tell different times, or, when the needful light
+was absent, their shadows would altogether fail.
+
+As to the vegetable kingdom, the principles that hold for the animal
+again apply. At a very early period, even before the deposit of the
+coal, all the distinct forms of vegetable tissue were in existence, and
+nothing to prevent, so far as time was concerned, their being united
+together all over the world into similar structural combinations. And,
+in truth, as the botany of the Coal period proves, there was a far more
+extensive sameness than we see at present, simply because the
+distribution of heat was more uniform and climates were less marked. But
+from this point the diversity of form in climate distribution becomes
+more and more conspicuous, though we must descend, perhaps, as late as
+the Wealden before we discover any flowering plants, except Gymnosperms,
+as Conifers and Cycads. All this is what might be expected on the
+doctrine of external influence, but not on the doctrine of an innate and
+interior developmental force.
+
+If, at this stage, attention is once again turned to the animal
+kingdom, we find our opinion confirmed. The diminution of carbonic
+acid in the atmosphere, the deposit of coal in the earth, the
+precipitation of carbonate of lime in the sea, the disengagement of an
+increased quantity of oxygen in the air, and the reduction of
+atmospheric pressure--different effects contemporaneously
+occurring--were soon followed by the consequence which they made
+possible--the appearance of hot-blooded mammals. [Sidenote: Cold and
+hot-blooded animals.] Perhaps those first arising might, like our
+hibernates, lead a sluggish existence, with imperfect respiration;
+but, as the media improved and the temperature declined, more vigorous
+forms of life emerged, though we have probably to descend to the
+Tertiary epoch before we meet with birds, which of all animals have
+the most energetic respiration, and possess the highest heat.
+
+[Sidenote: The organisms of the sea.] As with the atmosphere, so with
+the sea. Variations in its composition must control the organisms it
+contains. With its saline constituents its life must change. Before the
+sunlight had removed from the atmosphere so much of its carbonic acid,
+decomposing it through the agency of plants, the weight of carbonate of
+lime held in solution by the highly carbonated water was far greater
+than was subsequently possible, and the occurrence of limestone became a
+necessary event. With such a disturbance in the composition of the
+sea-water, its inhabiting organisms were necessarily disturbed. And so
+again, subsequently, when the solar heat began to preponderate on the
+surface over the subsiding interior heat, the constitution of the
+sea-water, as respects its salinity, was altered through difference of
+evaporation in different latitudes, an effect inevitably making a
+profound impression on marine animal life.
+
+[Sidenote: Nature of hereditary transmission.] Supported by the facts
+that have been mentioned respecting the later fossils of Australia and
+Brazil, and their analogy to forms now existing in those countries, much
+stress was laid on the hereditary transmission of structure, and hence
+the inference was drawn that such examples are of a mixed nature,
+depending in part on external agency, in part on an interior
+developmental force. From marsupial animals, marsupials will issue; from
+placental ones, those that are placental. But here, perhaps, an
+illustration drawn from the inorganic kingdom may not be without
+interest and use. Two pieces of carbonate of lime may be rolling among
+the pebbles at the bottom of a brook, one perpetually splitting into
+rhomboids, the other into arragonitic prisms. The fragments differ from
+one another not only thus in their crystalline form, but in their
+physical qualities, as density and hardness, and in their optical
+qualities also. We might say that the calc-spar crystals gave birth to
+calc-spar crystals, and the arragonitic to arragonite; we might admit
+that there is an interior propensity, an intrinsic tendency to produce
+that result, just as we say that there is a tendency in the marsupial to
+engender a marsupial; but if, in our illustration, we look for the cause
+of that cause, we find it in a physical impression long antecedently
+made, that the carbonate of lime, crystallizing at 212 deg. Fahr.,
+produces arragonite, and, at a lower temperature, calc-spar; and that the
+physical impression thus accomplished, though it may have been thousands
+of years ago, was never cast off, but perpetually manifested itself in
+all the future history of the two samples. That which we sometimes speak
+of as hereditary transmission, and refer to an interior property,
+peculiarity, or force, may be nothing more than the manifestation of a
+physical impression long antecedently made.
+
+In the last place, the idea of an intrinsic force of development is in
+connexion with time and a progression, and only comes into prominence
+when we examine a limited portion or number of the things under
+consideration. The earth, though very beautiful, is very far from being
+perfect. [Sidenote: The broken organic chain.] The plants and animals we
+see are only the wrecks of a broken series, an incomplete, and,
+therefore, unworthy testimonial of the Almighty power. We should judge
+very inadequately of some great author if only here and there a
+fragmentary paragraph of his work remained; and so, in the book of
+organization, we must combine what is left with what we can recover from
+past ages and buried strata before we can rise to a comprehension of the
+grand argument, and intelligibly grasp the whole work.
+
+[Sidenote: Enormous age of the earth.] Of that book it is immaterial to
+what page we turn. It tells us of effects of such magnitude as imply
+prodigiously long periods of time for their accomplishment. Its moments
+look to us as if they were eternities. What shall we say when we read in
+it that there are fossiliferous rocks which have been slowly raised ten
+thousand feet above the level of the sea so lately as since the
+commencement of the Tertiary times; that the Purbeck beds of the upper
+oolite are in themselves the memorials of an enormous lapse of time;
+that, since a forest in a thousand years can scarce produce more than
+two or three feet of vegetable soil, each dirt-bed is the work of
+hundreds of centuries. What shall we say when it tells us that the delta
+of the Mississippi could only be formed in many tens of thousands of
+years, and yet that is only as yesterday when compared with the date of
+the inland terraces; that the recession of the Falls of Niagara from
+Queenstown to the present site consumed thirty thousand years; that if
+the depression of the carboniferous strata of Nova Scotia took place at
+the rate of four feet in a century, there were demanded 375,000 years
+for its completion--such a movement in the upward direction would have
+raised Mont Blanc; that it would take as great a river as the
+Mississippi two millions of years to convey into the Gulf of Mexico as
+much sediment as is found in those strata. Such statements may appear to
+us, who with difficulty shake off the absurdities of the patristic
+chronology, wild and impossible to be maintained, and yet they are the
+conclusions that the most learned and profound geologists draw from
+their reading of the Book of Nature.
+
+[Sidenote: Summary as respects the world in time.] Thus, as respects the
+age of the earth and her relations in time, we approach the doctrine of
+Orientals, who long ago ascertained that the scales of time and of space
+correspond to each other. More fortunate than we, they had but one point
+of resistance to encounter, but that resistance they met with
+dissimulation, and not in an open way. They attempted to conceal the
+tendency of their doctrine by allying or affiliating it with detected
+errors. According to their national superstition, the earth is supported
+on the back of an elephant, and this on a succession of animals, the
+last of which is a tortoise. It is not to be supposed that the Brahmans,
+who wrote commentaries on the Surya Siddhanta, should for a moment have
+accepted these preposterous delusions--that was impossible for such
+great geometers; yet led, perhaps, by a wish to do nothing that might
+disturb public feeling, they engaged in the hopeless task of showing
+that their profound philosophical discoveries were not inconsistent with
+the ancient traditions; that a globular and revolving earth might be
+sustained on a descending succession of supporting beasts. But they had
+the signal advantage over us that those popular traditions conceded to
+them that limitless time for which we have had to struggle.
+
+[Sidenote: The life of the universe.] The progression of life on the
+surface of our planet is under the guidance of pre-ordained and
+resistless law--it is affiliated with material and correspondingly
+changing conditions. It suggests that the succession of organic forms
+which, in a due series, the earth's surface in the long lapse of time
+has presented, is the counterpart of a like progress which other planets
+in the solar system exhibit in myriads of years, and leads us to the
+conception of the rise, development, and extinction of a multiplicity of
+such living forms in other systems--a march of life through the
+universe, and its passing away.
+
+[Sidenote: Multiplicity of worlds implies succession of worlds.]
+Magnitudes and times, therefore, go parallel with one another. With the
+abandonment of the geocentric theory, and of the doctrine of the human
+destiny of the universe, have vanished the unworthy hypotheses of the
+recent date of creation and the approaching end of all things. In their
+stead are substituted more noble ideas. The multiplicity of worlds in
+infinite space leads to the conception of a succession of worlds in
+infinite time. This existing universe, with all its splendours, had a
+beginning, and will have an end; it had its predecessors, and will have
+its successors; but its march through all its transformations is under
+the control of laws as unchangeable as destiny. As a cloud, which is
+composed of myriads of separate and isolated spherules of water, so
+minute as to be individually invisible, on a summer's afternoon changes
+its aspect and form, disappearing from the sky, and being replaced in
+succeeding hours by other clouds of a different aspect and shape, so the
+universe, which is a cloud of suns and worlds, changes in the immensity
+of time its form and fashion, and that which is contemporary with us is
+only an example of countless combinations of a like kind, which in
+ancient times have one after another vanished away. In periods yet to
+come the endless succession of metamorphoses will still go on, a series
+of universes to which there is no end.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON--(_Continued_).
+
+THE NATURE AND RELATIONS OF MAN.
+
+_Position of Man according to the Heliocentric and Geocentric Theories._
+
+OF ANIMAL LIFE.--_The transitory Nature of living Forms.--Relations of
+Plants and Animals.--Animals are Aggregates of Matter expending Force
+originally derived from the Sun._
+
+THE ORGANIC SERIES.--_Man a Member of it.--His Position determined by
+Anatomical and Physiological Investigation of his Nervous System.--Its
+triple Forms: Automatic, Instinctive, Intellectual._
+
+_The same progressive Development is seen in individual Man, in the
+entire animal Series, and in the Life of the Globe.--They are all under
+the Control of an eternal, universal, irresistible Law._
+
+_The Aim of Nature is intellectual Development, and human Institutions
+must conform thereto._
+
+_Summary of the Investigation of the Position of Man.--Production of
+Inorganic and Organic Forms by the Sun.--Nature of Animals and their
+Series.--Analogies and Differences between them and Man.--The Soul.--The
+World._
+
+
+[Sidenote: The apparent position of man on the heliocentric theory.]
+When the ancient doctrine of the plurality of worlds was restored by
+Bruno, Galileo, and other modern astronomers, the resistance it
+encountered was mainly owing to its anticipated bearing on the nature
+and relations of man. It was said, if round our sun, as a centre, there
+revolve so many planetary bodies, experiencing the changes of summer and
+winter, day and night--bodies illuminated by satellites, and perhaps
+enjoying twilight and other benefits such as have been conferred on the
+earth--shall we not consider them the abodes of accountable, perhaps of
+sinful, beings like ourselves? Nay, more; if each of the innumerable
+fixed stars is, as our sun, a central focus of light, attended by dark
+and revolving globes, is it not necessary to admit that they also have
+their inhabitants? But among so many families of intelligent beings, how
+is it that we, the denizens of an insignificant speck, have alone been
+found worthy of God's regard?
+
+It was this reasoning that sustained the geocentric theory, and made the
+earth the centre of the universe, the most noble of created things; the
+sun, the moon, the stars, being only ministers for the service of man.
+
+[Sidenote: The fallacy of objections to that theory.] But, like many
+other objections urged in that memorable conflict, this was founded on a
+misconception, or, rather, on imperfect knowledge. There may be an
+infinity of worlds placed under the mechanical relations alluded to, but
+there may not be one among them that can be the abode of life. The
+physical conditions under which organization is possible are so numerous
+and so strictly limited that the chances are millions to one against
+their conjoint occurrence.
+
+[Sidenote: Evidence furnished by Geology.] In a religious point of view,
+we are greatly indebted to Geology for the light it has cast on this
+objection. It has taught us that during inconceivable lapses of time our
+earth itself contained no living thing. These were those pre-organic
+ages to which reference was made in the last chapter. Then by slow
+degrees, as a possibility for existence occurred, there gradually
+emerged one type after another. It is but as yesterday that the life of
+man could be maintained.
+
+[Sidenote: The transitory nature of living forms.] Only in the presence
+of special physical conditions can an animal exist. Even then it is
+essentially ephemeral. The life of it, as a whole, depends on the death
+of its integrant parts. In a waterfall, which maintains its place and
+appearance unchanged for many years, the constituent portions that have
+been precipitated headlong glide finally and for ever away. For the
+transitory matter to exhibit a permanent form, it is necessary that
+there should be a perpetual supply and also a perpetual removal. So long
+as the jutting ledge over which the waters rush, and the broken gulf
+below that receives them, remain unchanged, the cataract presents the
+same appearance. But variations in them mould it into a new shape; its
+colour changes with a clear or cloudy sky; the rainbow seen in its spray
+disappears when the beams of the sun are withdrawn.
+
+So in that collection of substance which constitutes an animal; whatever
+may be its position, high or low, in the realm of life, there is a
+perpetual introduction of new material and a perpetual departure of the
+old. It is a form, rather than an individual, that we see. Its
+permanence altogether depends on the permanence of the external
+conditions. If they change, it also changes, and a new form is the
+result.
+
+[Sidenote: Characteristics of animal life.] An animal is therefore a
+form through which material substance is visibly passing and suffering
+transmutation into new products. In that act of transmutation force is
+disengaged. That which we call its life is the display of the manner in
+which the force thus disengaged is expended.
+
+[Sidenote: Matter and force.] A scientific examination of animal life
+must include two primary facts. It must consider whence and in what
+manner the stream of material substance has been derived, in what manner
+and whither it passes away. And, since force can not be created from
+nothing, and is in its very nature indestructible, it must determine
+from what source that which is displayed by animals has been obtained,
+in what manner it is employed, and what disposal is made of it
+eventually.
+
+[Sidenote: Force is derived from the sun.] The force thus expended is
+originally derived from the sun. Plants are the intermedium for its
+conveyance. The inorganic material of a saline nature entering into
+their constitution is obtained from the soil in which they grow, as is
+also, for the most part, the water they require; but their organic
+substance is derived from the surrounding atmosphere, and hence it is
+strictly true that they are condensations from the air.
+
+[Sidenote: Mode in which plants obtain material substance.] These
+statements may be sufficiently illustrated, and the relation between
+plants and animals shown, by tracing the course of any one of the
+ingredients entering into the vegetable composition, and derived, as has
+been said, from the air. For this purpose, if we select their chief
+solid element, carbon, the remarks applicable to the course it follows
+will hold good for other accompanying elements. It is scarcely necessary
+to embarrass the brief exposition of vegetable life now to be given by
+any historical details, since these will come with more propriety
+subsequently. It is sufficient to mention that the chemical explanations
+of vegetable physiology rest essentially on the discovery of oxygen gas
+by Priestley, of the constitution of carbonic acid by Lavoisier, and of
+water by Cavendish and Watt.
+
+[Sidenote: Action of a plant on the air.] While the sun is shining, the
+green parts of plants, especially the leaves, decompose carbonic acid,
+one of the ingredients of the atmospheric air. This substance is
+composed of two elements, carbon and oxygen; the former is appropriated
+by the plant, and enters into the composition of elaborated or
+descending sap, from which forthwith organic products, such as starch,
+sugar, wood fibre, acids, and bases are made. The other element, the
+oxygen, is for the most part refused by the plant, and returns to the
+air. As the process of decomposition goes on, new portions of carbonic
+acid are presented through mechanical movements, the trembling of the
+leaf, breezes, and currents rising from the foliage warmed by the solar
+beams giving place to other cool currents that set in below.
+
+The action of a plant upon the air is therefore the separation of
+combustible material from that medium. Carbon is thus obtained from
+carbonic acid; from water, hydrogen. Plant life is chemically an
+operation of reduction, for in like manner ammonia is decomposed into
+its constituents, which are nitrogen and hydrogen; and sulphuric and
+phosphoric acids, which like ammonia, may have been brought into the
+plant through its roots in the form of salt bodies, are made to yield up
+the oxygen with which they had been combined, and their sulphur and
+phosphorus, combustible elements, are appropriated.
+
+[Sidenote: Composition and resolution of matter and force.] Every plant,
+from the humblest moss to the oak of a thousand years, is thus formed by
+the sun from material obtained from the air--combustible material once
+united with oxygen, but now separated from that body. It is of especial
+importance to remark that in this act of decomposition, force, under the
+form of light, has disappeared, and become incorporated with the
+combustible, the organizing material. This force is surrendered again,
+or reappears whenever the converse operation, combination with oxygen,
+occurs.
+
+Vegetable products thus constitute a magazine in which force is stored
+up and preserved for any assignable time. Hence they are adapted for
+animal food and for the procuring of warmth. The heat evolved in the
+combustion of coal in domestic economy was originally light from the sun
+appropriated by plants in the Secondary geological times, and locked up
+for untold ages. The sun is also the source from which was derived the
+light obtained in all our artificial operations of burning gas, oil,
+fat, wax, for the purposes of illumination.
+
+[Sidenote: Correlation of physical forces.] My own experiments have
+proved that it is the light of the sun, in contradistinction to the
+heat, which occasions the decomposition of carbonic acid, furnishing
+carbon to plants and oxygen to the atmosphere. But such is the relation
+of the so-called imponderable principles of chemistry to each other, and
+their mutual convertibility, that that which has disappeared in
+performing its function as light may reappear as heat or electricity, or
+in the production of some mechanical effect.
+
+[Sidenote: The nature of food.] Food is used by all animals for the sake
+of the force it thus contains, the remark applying to the carnivora as
+well as the herbivora. In both cases the source of supply is the
+vegetable kingdom, indirectly or directly. The plant is thus
+indispensable to the animal. It is the collector and preserver of that
+force the expenditure of which constitutes the special display of animal
+life.
+
+From this point of view, animals must therefore be considered as
+machines, in which force obtained as has been described, is utilized.
+The food they take, or the tissue that has been formed from it, is acted
+upon by the air they breathe, and undergoes partial or total oxydation,
+and now emerges again, in part as heat in part as nerve-force, in some
+few instances in part as light or electricity, the force that originally
+came from the sun.
+
+[Sidenote: Cycle through which matter and force pass.] There is,
+therefore, a cycle or revolution through which material particles
+suitable for organization incessantly run. At one moment they exist as
+inorganic combinations in the air or the soil, then as portions of
+plants, then as portions of animals, then they return to the air or soil
+again to renew their cycle of movement. The metamorphoses feigned by the
+poets of antiquity have hence a foundation in fact, and the vegetable
+and animal, the organic and inorganic worlds are indissolubly bound
+together. Plants are reducing, animals oxydizing, machines. Plants form,
+animals destroy.
+
+Thus, by the light of the sun, the carbonic acid of the atmosphere is
+decomposed--its oxygen is set free, its carbon furnished to plants. The
+products obtained serve for the food of animals, and in their systems
+the carbon is re-oxydized by the air they respire, and, resuming the
+condition of carbonic acid, is thrown back into the atmosphere in the
+breath, ready to be decomposed by the sunlight once more, and run
+through the same cycle of changes again. The growth of a plant and the
+respiration of an animal are dependent on each other.
+
+[Sidenote: The duration of matter and imperishability of force.]
+Material particles are thus the vehicles of force. They undergo no
+destruction. Chemically speaking, they are eternal. And so, likewise,
+force never deteriorates or becomes lessened. It may assume new phases,
+but it is always intrinsically unimpaired. The only changes it can
+exhibit are those of aspect and of distribution; of aspect, as
+electricity, affinity, light, heat; of distribution, as when the
+diffused aggregate of many sunbeams is concentrated in one animal form.
+
+It is but little that we know respecting the mutations and distribution
+of force in the universe. We cannot tell what becomes of that which has
+characterized animal life, though of its perpetuity we may be assured.
+It has no more been destroyed than the material particles of which such
+animals consist. They have been transmuted into new forms--it has taken
+on a new aspect. The sum total of matter in the world is invariable; so,
+likewise, is the sum total of force.
+
+[Sidenote: Theory of Averroes.] These conclusions resemble in many
+respects those of the philosophy of Averroes, but they are free from the
+heresy which led the Lateran Council, under Leo X., to condemn the
+doctrines of the great Spanish Mohammedan. The error of Averroes
+consisted in this, that he confounded what is here spoken of under the
+designation of force with the psychical principle, and erroneously
+applied that which is true for animals to the case of man, who is to be
+considered as consisting of three essentially distinct parts--a material
+body, upon which operate various physical forces, guided and controlled
+by an intelligent soul.
+
+In the following paragraphs the distinction here made is brought into
+more striking relief.
+
+[Sidenote: Anatomical mode of determining position in the animal
+series.] The station of any animal in the organic series may be
+determined from the condition of its nervous system. To this observation
+man himself is not an exception. Indeed, just views of his position in
+the world, of the nature of his intellect and mental operations, can not
+be obtained except from the solid support afforded by Anatomy.
+[Sidenote: The uselessness of the metaphysical sciences.] The reader has
+doubtless remarked that, in the historical sketch of the later progress
+of Europe given in this book, I have not referred to metaphysics, or
+psychology, or mental philosophy. Cultivated as they have been, it was
+not possible for them to yield any other result than they did among the
+Greeks. A lever is no mechanical power unless it has a material point of
+support. It is only through the physical that the metaphysical can be
+discovered.
+
+[Sidenote: Necessity of resorting to Anatomy and Physiology.] An
+exposition of the structure, the physical forces, and the intellectual
+operations of man must be founded on anatomy. We can only determine the
+methods of action from the study of the mechanism, and the right
+interpretation of that mechanism can only be ascertained from the
+construction of its parts, from observations of the manner in which they
+are developed, from comparisons with similar structures in other
+animals, not rejecting even the lowest, and from an investigation of
+their habits and peculiarities. Believing that, in the present state of
+science, doctrines in psychology, unless they are sustained by evidence
+derived from anatomy and physiology, are not to be relied on, I have not
+thought it necessary to devote much space to their introduction. They
+have not taken a part in the recent advances of humanity. They belong to
+an earlier social period, and are an anachronism in ours. I have
+referred to these points heretofore in my work on Physiology, and
+perhaps shall be excused the following extract:
+
+"The study of this portion of the mechanism of man brings us therefore
+in contact with metaphysical science, and some of its fundamental dogmas
+we have to consider. Nearly all philosophers who have cultivated in
+recent times that branch of knowledge, have viewed with apprehension the
+rapid advances of physiology, foreseeing that it would attempt the final
+solution of problems which have exercised the ingenuity of the last
+twenty centuries. [Sidenote: Solution of psychological questions.] In
+this they are not mistaken. Certainly it is desirable that some new
+method should be introduced, which may give point and precision to
+whatever metaphysical truths exist, and enable us to distinguish,
+separate, and dismiss what are only vain and empty speculations.
+
+[Sidenote: Uncertainty of metaphysics.] "So far from philosophy being a
+forbidden domain to the physiologist, it may be asserted that the time
+has now come when no one is entitled to express an opinion in philosophy
+unless he has first studied physiology. It has hitherto been to the
+detriment of truth that these processes of positive investigation have
+been repudiated. If from the construction of the human brain we may
+demonstrate the existence of a soul, is not that a gain? for there are
+many who are open to arguments of this class on whom speculative
+reasoning or a mere dictum falls without any weight. Why should we cast
+aside the solid facts presented to us by material objects? In his
+communications throughout the universe with us, God ever materializes.
+He equally speaks to us through the thousand graceful organic forms
+scattered in profusion over the surface of the earth, and through the
+motions and appearances presented by the celestial orbs. Our noblest and
+clearest conceptions of his attributes have been obtained from these
+material things. I am persuaded that the only possible route to truth in
+mental philosophy is through a study of the nervous mechanism. The
+experience of 2500 years, and the writings of the great metaphysicians
+attest, with a melancholy emphasis, the vanity of all other means.
+
+"Whatever may be said by speculative philosophers to the contrary, the
+advancement of metaphysics is through the study of physiology. What sort
+of a science would optics have been among men who had purposely put out
+their own eyes? What would have been the progress of astronomy among
+those who disdained to look at the heavens? Yet such is the preposterous
+course followed by the so-called philosophers. They have given us
+imposing doctrines of the nature and attributes of the mind in absolute
+ignorance of its material substratum. [Sidenote: Necessity of the
+interpretation of structure.] Of the great authors who have thus
+succeeded one another in ephemeral celebrity, how many made themselves
+acquainted with the structure of the human brain? Doubtless some had
+been so unfortunate as never to see one! Yet that wonderful organ was
+the basis of all their speculations. In voluntarily isolating themselves
+from every solid fact which might serve to be a landmark to them, they
+may be truly said to have sailed upon a shoreless sea from which the fog
+never lifts. The only fact they teach us with certainty is, that they
+know nothing with certainty. It is the inherent difficulty of their
+method that it must lead to unsubstantial results. What is not founded
+on a material substratum is necessarily a castle in the air."
+
+[Sidenote: Intellectual relations of man depend on his nervous system.]
+Considering thus that scientific views of the nature of man can only be
+obtained from an examination of his nervous system, and that the right
+interpretation of the manner of action of that system depends on the
+guiding light of comparative anatomy and physiology, I shall, in the
+following exposition, present the progress of discovery on those
+principles.
+
+[Sidenote: The rudimentary nervous system is automatic.] In those low
+tribes of life which show the first indications of a nervous system, its
+operation is purely mechanical. An external impression, as a touch, made
+upon animals of that kind, is instantly answered to by a motion which
+they execute, and this without any manifestation of will or
+consciousness. The phenomenon is exactly of the same kind as in a
+machine of which, if a given lever is touched, a motion is instantly
+produced.
+
+[Sidenote: Two elementary forms of nerve structure.] In any nervous
+system there are two portions anatomically distinct. They are, 1st, the
+fibrous; 2d, the vesicular. It may be desirable to describe briefly the
+construction and functions of each of these portions. Their conjoint
+action will then be intelligible.
+
+[Sidenote: Structure of a nerve fibre.] 1st. A nerve fibre consists
+essentially of a delicate thread--the axis filament, as it is
+called--enveloped in an oil-like substance, which coagulates or congeals
+after death. This, in its turn, is inclosed in a thin investing sheath
+or membranous tube. Many such fibres bound together constitute a nerve.
+
+[Sidenote: Function of a nerve fibre is conduction.] The function of
+such a nerve fibre is indisputably altogether of a physical kind, being
+the conveyance of influences from part to part. The axis filament is the
+line along which the translation occurs, the investing material being
+for the purpose of confining or insulating it, so as to prevent any
+lateral escape. Such a construction is the exact counterpart of many
+electrical contrivances, in which a metallic wire is coated over with
+sealing-wax or wrapped round with silk, the current being thus compelled
+to move in the wire without any lateral escape. Of such fibres, some
+convey their influences to the interior, and hence are called
+centripetal; some convey them to the exterior, and hence are called
+centrifugal. No anatomical difference in the structure of the two has,
+however, thus far been discovered. As in a conducting wire the
+electrical current moves in a progressive manner with a definite
+velocity, so in a nerve filament the influence advances progressively at
+a rate said to be dependent on the temperature of the animal examined.
+It seems in the cold-blooded to be much slower than in the hot. It has
+been estimated in the frog at eighty-five feet per second; in man at two
+hundred feet--an estimate probably too low.
+
+The fibres thus described are of the kind designated by physiologists as
+the cerebro-spinal; there are others, passing under the name of the
+sympathetic, characterized by not possessing the investing medullary
+substance. In colour they are yellowish-gray; but it is not necessary
+here to consider them further.
+
+[Sidenote: Structure of a nerve vesicle.] 2nd. The other portion of the
+nervous structure is the vesicular. As its name imports, it consists of
+vesicles filled with a gray granular material. Each vesicle has a
+thickened spot or nucleus upon it, and appears to be connected with one
+or more fibres. If the connexion is only with one, the vesicle is called
+unipolar; if with two, bipolar; if with many, multipolar or stellate.
+Every vesicle is abundantly supplied with blood.
+
+[Sidenote: Function of a nerve vesicle.] As might be inferred from its
+structure, the vesicle differs altogether from the fibre in function. I
+may refer to my "Physiology" for the reasons which have led to the
+inference that these are contrivances for the purposes of permitting
+influences that have been translated along or confined within the fibre
+to escape and diffuse themselves in the gray granular material. They
+also permit influences that are coming through many different channels
+into a multipolar vesicle to communicate or mix with one another, and
+combine to produce new results. Moreover, in them influences may be long
+preserved, and thus they become magazines of force. Combined together,
+they constitute ganglia or nerve centres, on which, if impressions be
+made, they do not necessarily forthwith die out, but may remain
+gradually declining away for a long time. Thus is introduced into the
+nervous mechanism the element of time, and this important function of
+the nerve vesicle lies at the basis of memory.
+
+It has been said that the vesicular portion of the nerve mechanism is
+copiously supplied with blood. Indeed, the condition indispensably
+necessary for its functional activity is waste by oxydation. Arterial
+vessels are abundantly furnished to insure the necessary supply of
+aerated blood, and veins to carry away the wasted products of decay.
+Also, through the former, the necessary materials for repair and
+renovation are brought. [Sidenote: Physiological condition of nerve
+action is nerve waste.] There is a definite waste of nervous substance
+in the production of a definite mechanical or intellectual result--a
+material connexion and condition that must never be overlooked. Hence it
+is plain that unless the repair and the waste are synchronously equal to
+one another, periodicities in the action of the nervous system will
+arise, this being the fundamental condition connected with the physical
+theories of sleep and fatigue.
+
+The statements here made rest upon two distinct forms of evidence. In
+part they are derived from an interpretation of anatomical structure,
+and in part from direct experiment, chiefly by the aid of feeble
+electrical currents. The registering or preserving action displayed by a
+ganglion may be considered as an effect, resembling that of the
+construction known as Ritter's secondary piles.
+
+It will not suit my purpose to offer more than the simplest illustration
+of the application of the foregoing facts. When an impression, either by
+pressure or in any other way, is made on the exterior termination of a
+centripetal fibre, the influence is conveyed with a velocity such as has
+been mentioned into the vesicle to which that fibre is attached, and
+thence, going forth along the centrifugal fibre, may give rise to motion
+through contraction of the muscle to which that fibre is distributed.
+[Sidenote: Reflex action of the nervous system.] An impression has thus
+produced a motion, and to the operation the designation of reflexion is
+commonly given. This reflexion takes place without consciousness. The
+three parts--the centripetal fibre, the vesicle, and the centrifugal
+fibre--conjointly constitute a simple nervous arc.
+
+[Sidenote: Gradual complexity of the nervous system.] A repetition of
+these arcs, each precisely like all the others, constitutes the first
+step toward a complex nervous system. Their manner of arrangement is
+necessarily subordinated to the general plan of construction of the
+animals in which they occur. Thus, in the Radiates it is circular; in
+the Articulates, linear, or upon an axis. But, as the conditions of life
+require consentaneousness of motion in the different parts, these nerve
+arcs are not left isolated or without connexion with each other. As it
+is anatomically termed, they are commissured, nerve fibres passing from
+each to its neighbours, and each is thus brought into sympathy or
+connexion with all the others.
+
+[Sidenote: First appearance of special ganglia.] The next advance is a
+very important one, for it indicates the general plan on which the
+nervous system is to be developed: it is the dedication of special nerve
+arcs to special duties. Thus, in the higher articulates and molluscs,
+there are such combinations expressly for the purpose of respiration and
+deglutition. Their action is altogether of the reflex kind; it takes
+place without consciousness. These ganglia are commissured for the sake
+of sympathetic action, and frequently several of them are coalesced for
+the sake of package.
+
+This principle of dedication to special uses is carried out in the
+introduction of ganglia intended to be affected by light, or sounds, or
+odours. The impressions of those agencies are carried to the ganglion by
+its centripetal fibres. Such ganglia of special action are most commonly
+coalesced together, forming nervous masses of conspicuous size; they are
+always commissured with those for ordinary motions, the action being
+reflex, as in the preceding case, though of a higher order, since it is
+attended with consciousness.
+
+[Sidenote: They are automatic mechanisms.] Such being the elementary
+construction of a nervous system, it is plain that animal tribes in
+which it exists in no higher degree of complexity must be merely
+automata. In this remark many insects must be included, for the instinct
+they display is altogether of a mechanical kind, and, so far as they are
+concerned, without design. Their actions are uniformly alike; what one
+does under given circumstances, under the same circumstances another
+will certainly do. They are incapable of education, they learn nothing
+by experience, and the acts they are engaged in they accomplish as well
+at the first trial as ever after.
+
+Of parts like those described, and of others of a higher order, as will
+be presently seen, the most complex nervous system, even that of man, is
+composed. [Sidenote: Evidence to be used in these investigations.] It
+might, perhaps, be expected that for the determination of the duty of
+each part of such complex system the physiologist must necessarily
+resort to experiment, observing what functions have been injured or
+destroyed when given portions have been removed by his knife. At the
+best, however, evidence of that kind must be very unsatisfactory on
+account of the shock the entire system receives in vivisections, and
+accordingly, artificial evidence can, for the most part, be used only in
+a corroborative way. But, as Cuvier observed, the hand of Nature has
+prepared for us these very experiments without that drawback. The animal
+series, as we advance upward from its lowest members, proves to us what
+is the effect of the addition of new parts in succession to a nervous
+system, as also does any individual thereof in its successive periods of
+development. It is one of the most important discoveries of modern
+physiology that, as respects their nervous system, we can safely
+transfer our reasonings and conclusions from the case of the lowest to
+that of the highest animal tribes.
+
+The articulata present structures and a mode of action illustrating in a
+striking manner the nervous system of man. Lengthwise upon their ventral
+region is laid a double cord, with ganglia, like a string of beads;
+sometimes the cords are a little distance apart, but more generally they
+are coalesced, each pair of ganglia being fused into one. [Sidenote:
+First introduction of governing ganglia.] To every segment of the body a
+pair is supplied, each pair controlling its own segment, and acting
+toward it automatically, each also acting like any of the others. But in
+the region of the head there is a special pair, the cephalic ganglia,
+receiving fibres from the eyes and other organs of sense. From them
+proceed filaments to the ventral cord, establishing communications with
+every segment. So every part has two connexions, one with its own
+ventral ganglia, and one with the cephalic.
+
+It is not difficult to determine experimentally the functions of the
+ventral ganglia and those of the cephalic. If a centipede be
+decapitated, its body is still capable of moving, the motion being
+evidently of a reflex kind, originating in the pressure of the legs
+against the surface on which they rest. [Sidenote: But thus far actions
+are only instinctive.] The ventral cord, with its ganglia, is hence
+purely an automatic mechanism. But if, in making the decapitation, we
+leave a portion of the body in connexion with the head, we recognize
+very plainly that the cephalic ganglia are exercising a governing power.
+In the part from which they have been cut off the movement is forward,
+regardless of any obstacle; in that to which they are attached there are
+modifications in the motions, depending on sight or other special
+senses; obstacles are avoided, and a variety of directions pursued. Yet
+still the actions are not intelligent, only instinctive. The general
+conclusion therefore is, that the cephalic ganglia are of a higher order
+than the ventral, the latter being simply mechanical, the former
+instinctive; but thus far there is no trace of intelligence.
+
+[Sidenote: Nervous anatomy of vertebrates, as man.] In man these typical
+parts are all present, and discharge the functions specified. His spinal
+cord answers to the ventral cord of the articulates. It has its lateral
+communications in the same way, and each segmental portion presents the
+same reflex action. Toward its upper part it dilates to form the medulla
+oblongata, sending forth nerves for respiration and deglutition.
+[Sidenote: Their automatic apparatus.] Of these the action is still
+reflex, as is proved by the involuntary movements of respiration and
+deglutition. A portion of food being placed in the pharynx, contraction
+instantly occurs, the will having no kind of control over the act of
+swallowing. [Sidenote: Their instinctive apparatus.] Above or in front
+of this enlargement is a series of ganglia, to which converge the nerves
+of special sense--of hearing, sight, smell; these are, therefore, the
+equivalents of the cephalic ganglia of insects, their function being
+also the same. In the lowest vertebrates, as in the amphioxus, the
+nervous system consists of nothing more. It may therefore be said to
+have only two parts--the cord and the sensory ganglia, and to have two
+functions--the automatic, attributable to the former, and the
+instinctive, attributable to the latter.
+
+[Sidenote: Their intellectual apparatus.] But as we advance from the low
+vertebrates upward in the animal scale, we begin to detect new organs;
+on the medulla oblongata a cerebellum, and on the sensory ganglia a
+cerebrum. From this moment the animal displays reasoning powers, its
+intelligence becoming more strikingly marked as the development of the
+new organs is greater.
+
+[Sidenote: Functions of the brain.] It remains to determine with
+exactness the function of one of these new parts, the cerebrum; the
+other portion, the cerebellum, being of minor interest, and connected,
+probably, with the locomotive apparatus. For the same reason it is
+unnecessary to speak of the sympathetic nerve, since it belongs to the
+apparatus of organic life. Confining our attention, therefore, to the
+true brain, or cerebrum, we soon recognize that the intelligence of an
+animal is, in a general manner, proportional to the relative size of
+this organ as compared with the sensory ganglia. We are also struck with
+the fact that the cerebrum does not send forth to other portions any
+independent fibres of its own, nor does it receive any from them, its
+only means of communication being through the parts that have been
+described--that is to say, through the sensory and automatic apparatus.
+[Sidenote: Its relations to the instinctive and automatic portions.] The
+cerebrum is therefore a mechanism of a higher order, and its
+relationship with the thalami optici and corpora striata indicate the
+conditions of its functions. It can only receive impressions which have
+come through them, and only act upon the body through their intermedium.
+[Sidenote: Its secondary and tertiary lobes.] Moreover, as we ascend the
+animal scale, we find that these cerebral parts not only increase in
+size, but likewise, in their turn, give rise to offshoots; secondary
+lobes emerging posteriorly on the primary ones, and, in due season,
+tertiary lobes posteriorly on the secondary. To these, in human anatomy,
+the designations of anterior, middle, and posterior lobes have been
+respectively given. In proportion, as this development has proceeded,
+the intellectual qualities have become more varied and more profound.
+
+[Sidenote: Action of the spinal cord alone.] The relation of the
+cerebrum to the cranio-spinal axis is manifested by the circumstance
+that the latter can act without the former. In sleep the cerebrum is, as
+it were, torpid, but respiration, deglutition, and other reflex actions
+go on. If we touch the palm of a sleeping infant our finger is instantly
+grasped. [Sidenote: Conjoint action of the brain and cord.] But, though
+the axis can work without the cerebrum, the cerebrum can not work
+without the axis. Illustrations of these truths may be experimentally
+obtained. An animal from which the cerebrum has been purposely removed
+may be observed to perform actions automatic and instinctive, but never
+intelligent; and that there is no difference between animals and man in
+this respect is demonstrated by the numerous instances recorded in the
+works of medicine and surgery of injuries by accident or disease to the
+human nervous system, the effects corresponding to those artificially
+produced in experiments on animals. This important observation,
+moreover, shows that we may with correctness use the observations made
+on animals in our investigations of the human system.
+
+[Sidenote: Three distinct parts of the nervous system of man.] In the
+nervous system of man our attention is therefore especially demanded by
+three essentially distinct parts--the spinal cord, the sensory ganglia,
+and the cerebrum. [Sidenote: They are the automatic, the instinctive,
+the intellectual.] Of the first, the spinal cord, the action is
+automatic; by its aid we can walk, from place to place, without
+bestowing a thought on our movements; by it we swallow involuntarily; by
+it we respire unconsciously. The second portion, the sensory ganglia,
+is, as we have seen, the counterpart of the cephalic ganglia of
+invertebrates; it is the place of reception of sensuous impressions and
+the seat of consciousness. To these ganglia instinct is to be referred.
+Their function is not at all impaired by the cerebrum superposed upon
+them. The third portion, the cerebrum, is anatomically distinct. It is
+the seat of ideas. It does not directly give rise to motions, being
+obliged to employ for that purpose its intermediate automatic associated
+apparatus. [Sidenote: Dominating control of the latter.] In this realm
+of ideas thoughts spring forth suggestively from one another in a
+perpetual train or flux, and yet the highest branch of the nervous
+mechanism still retains traces of the modes of operation of the parts
+from which it was developed. Its action is still often reflex. Reason is
+not always able to control our emotions, as when we laugh or weep in
+spite of ourselves, under the impression of some external incident. Nay,
+more; the inciting cause may be, as we very well know, nothing
+material--nothing but a recollection, an idea--and yet it is enough. But
+these phenomena are perhaps restricted to the first or anterior lobes of
+the brain, and, accordingly, we remark them most distinctly in children
+and in animals. As the second and third lobes begin to exercise their
+power, such effects are brought under control.
+
+[Sidenote: Progressive nervous development in the animal series.] There
+is, therefore, a regular progression, a definite improvement in the
+nervous system of the animal series, the plan never varying, but being
+persistently carried out, and thus offering a powerful argument for
+relationship among all those successively improving forms, an
+observation which becomes of the utmost interest to us in its
+application to the vertebrates. In the amphioxus, as has been said, the
+cranio-spinal axis alone exists; the Cyclostome fishes are but a step
+higher. In fishes the true cerebrum appears at first in an insignificant
+manner, a condition repeated in the early embryonic state both of birds
+and mammals. An improvement is made in reptiles, whose cerebral
+hemispheres are larger than their optic lobes. As we advance to birds, a
+further increase occurs; the hemispheres are now of nearly sufficient
+dimensions to cover over those ganglia. In the lower mammals there is
+another step, yet not a very great one. But from the anterior lobes,
+which thus far have constituted the entire brain, there are next to be
+developed the middle lobes. In the Rodents the progress is still
+continued, and in the Ruminants and Pachyderms the convolutions have
+become well marked. [Sidenote: It attains its maximum in man.] In the
+higher carnivora and quadrumana the posterior or tertiary lobes appear.
+The passage from the anthropoid apes to man brings us to the utmost
+development thus far attained by the nervous system. The cerebrum has
+reached its maximum organization by a continued and unbroken process of
+development.
+
+[Sidenote: The same progressive development occurs in each individual
+man.] This orderly development of the nervous system in the animal
+series is recognized again in the gradual development of the individual
+man. The primitive trace, as it faintly appears in the germinal
+membrane, marks out the place presently to be occupied by the
+cranio-spinal axis, and, that point of development gained, man answers
+to the amphioxus. Not until the twelfth week of embryonic life does he
+reach the state permanently presented by birds; at this time the
+anterior lobes are only perceptible. In four or six weeks more the
+middle lobes are evolved posteriorly on the anterior, and, finally, in a
+similar manner, the tertiary or posterior ones are formed. And thus it
+appears that, compared with the nervous system of other animals, that of
+man proceeds through the same predetermined succession of forms. Theirs
+suffers an arrest, in some instances at a lower, in some at a higher
+point, but his passes onward to completion.
+
+[Sidenote: It occurs again in the entire life of the globe.] But that is
+not all. The biography of the earth, the life of the entire globe,
+corresponds to this progress of the individual, to this orderly relation
+of the animal series. Commencing with the oldest rocks that furnish
+animal remains, and advancing to the most recent, we recognize a
+continual improvement in construction, indicated by the degree of
+advancement of the nervous system. The earliest fishes did not proceed
+beyond that condition of the spinal column which is to be considered as
+embryonic. The Silurian and Devonian rocks do not present it in an
+ossified state. Fishes, up to the Carboniferous epoch, had a
+heterocercal tail, just as the embryos of osseous fishes of the present
+time have up to a certain period of their life. There was, therefore, an
+arrest in the old extinct forms, and an advance to a higher point in the
+more modern. The buckler-headed fishes of the Devonian rocks had their
+respiratory organs and much of their digestive apparatus in the head,
+and showed an approximation to the tadpoles or embryos of the frog. The
+crocodiles of the oolite had biconcave vertebrae, like the embryos of the
+recent ones which have gained the capability of making an advance to a
+higher point. In the geological order, reptiles make their appearance
+next after fishes, and this is what we should expect on the principle of
+an ascending nervous development. Not until long after come birds, later
+in date and higher in nervous advancement, capable not only of instinct,
+but also of intelligence. Of mammals, the first that appear are what we
+should have expected--the marsupials; but among the tertiary rocks, very
+many other forms are presented, the earlier ones, whether herbivorous or
+carnivorous, having a closer correspondence to the archetype than the
+existing ones, save in their embryonic states, the analogies occurring
+in such minor details as the possession of forty-four teeth. [Sidenote:
+Absolute necessity of admitting transmutation of forms.] The biography
+of the earth is thus, on the great scale, typical of individual life,
+even that of man, and the succession of species in the progress of
+numberless ages is the counterpart of the transmutation of an individual
+from form to form. As in a dissolving view, new objects emerge from old
+ones, and new forms spontaneously appear without the exercise of any
+periodical creative act.
+
+[Sidenote: Life of man from infancy to maturity in accordance with his
+anatomy.] For some days after birth the actions of the human being are
+merely reflex. Its cranio-spinal axis alone is in operation, and thus
+far it is only an automaton. But soon the impressions of external
+objects begin to be registered or preserved in the sensory ganglia, and
+the evidences of memory appear. The first token of this is perhaps the
+display of an attachment to persons, not through any intelligent
+recognition of relationship, but merely because of familiarity. This is
+followed by the manifestation of a liking to accustomed places and a
+dread of strange ones. At this stage the infant is leading an
+instinctive life, and has made no greater advance than many of the lower
+mammals; but they linger here, while he proceeds onward. He soon shows
+high powers of memory, the exercise of reason in the determinations of
+judgment, and in the adaptation of varied means to varied ends.
+
+Such is therefore the process of development of the nervous system of
+man; such are the powers which consequently he successively displays.
+His reason at last is paramount. No longer are his actions exclusively
+prompted by sensations; they are determined much more by ideas that have
+resulted from his former experiences. While animals which approach him
+most closely in construction require an external stimulus to commence a
+train of thought, he can direct his mental operations, and in this
+respect is parted from them by a vast interval. The states through which
+he has passed are the automatic, the instinctive, the intellectual; each
+has its own apparatus, and all at last work harmoniously together.
+
+[Sidenote: Every person consists of two lateral individuals.] But
+besides this superposition of an instinctive apparatus upon an automatic
+one, and an intellectual upon an instinctive, the nervous system
+consists of two equal and symmetrical lateral portions, a right half and
+a left. Each person may be considered as consisting in reality of two
+individuals. The right half may be stricken with palsy, the left be
+unimpaired; one may lose its sight or hearing, the other may retain
+them. These lateral halves lead independent lives. Yet, though
+independent in this sense, they are closely connected in another. The
+brain of the right side rules over the left half of the body, that of
+the left side rules over the right of the body. [Sidenote: Consequences
+of this doubleness of construction.] On the relationships and
+antagonisms of the two halves of the cerebro-spinal system must be
+founded our explanations of the otherwise mysterious phenomena of double
+and alternate life; of the sentiment of pre-existence; of trains of
+thought, often double, but never triple; of the wilful delusions of
+castle-building, in which one hemisphere of the brain listens to the
+romance suggestions of the other, though both well know that the subject
+they are entertaining themselves with is a mere fiction. The strength
+and precision of mental operations depend as much upon the complete
+equivalency of the two lateral halves as upon their absolute
+development. It is scarcely to be expected that great intellectual
+indications will be given by him, one of whose cerebral hemispheres is
+unequal to the other. But for the detailed consideration of these topics
+I may refer the reader to my work on Physiology. He will there find the
+explanation of the nature of registering ganglia; the physical theory of
+memory; the causes of our variable psychical powers at different times;
+the description of the ear as the organ of time; the eye as the organ of
+space; the touch as that of pressures and temperatures; the smell and
+taste as those for the chemical determination of gases and liquids.
+
+[Sidenote: Conclusions from the foregoing anatomical facts.] From a
+consideration of the construction, development, and action of the
+nervous system of man, we may gain correct views of his relations to
+other organic beings, and obtain true psychical and metaphysical
+theories. There is not that homogeneousness in his intellectual
+structure which writers on those topics so long supposed. It is a triple
+mechanism. [Sidenote: Man a member of the animal series.] A gentle, a
+gradual, a definite development reaches its maximum in him without a
+breach of continuity. Parts which, because of their completion, are
+capable of yielding in him such splendid results, are seen in a
+rudimentary and useless condition in organisms very far down below. On
+the clear recognition of this rudimentary, this useless state, very much
+depends. It indicates the master-fact of psychology--the fact that
+Averroes overlooked--that, while man agrees with inferior beings in the
+type of his construction, and passes in his development through
+transformations analogous to theirs, he differs from them all in this,
+that he alone possesses an accountable, an immortal soul. It is true
+that there are some which closely approach him in structure, but the
+existence of structure by no means implies the exercise of functions. In
+the still-born infant, the mechanism for respiration, the lungs, is
+completed; but the air may never enter, and the intention for which they
+were formed never be carried out.
+
+[Sidenote: His life and that of the planet alike.] Moreover, it appears
+that the order of development in the life of individual man and the
+order of development in the life of the earth are the same, their common
+features indicating a common plan. The one is the movement of a few
+hours, the other of myriads of ages. This sameness of manner in their
+progression points out their dependence on a law immutable and
+universal. The successive appearance of the animal series in the endless
+course of time has not, therefore, been accidental, but as predetermined
+and as certain as the successive forms of the individual. In the latter
+we do not find any cause of surprise in the assumption of states ever
+increasing in improvement, ever rising higher and higher toward the
+perfection destined to be attained. We look upon it as the course of
+nature. Why, then, should we consider the extinctions and creations of
+the former as offering any thing unaccountable, as connected with a
+sudden creative fiat or with an arbitrary sentence of destruction?
+
+[Sidenote: Progress of humanity is according to law.] In this book I
+have endeavoured to investigate the progress of humanity, and found that
+it shows all the phases of individual movement, the evidence employed
+being historical, and, therefore, of a nature altogether different from
+that on which our conclusions in the collateral instances rest. It may
+serve to assure us that the ideas here presented are true when we
+encounter, at the close of our investigation, this harmony between the
+life of the individual, the life of society, and the life of the earth.
+
+Is it probable that the individual proceeds in his movement of
+development under law, that the planet also proceeds in its movements
+under law, but that society does not proceed under law?
+
+[Sidenote: Eternity and universality of that law.] Man, thus, is the
+last term of an innumerable series of organisms, which, under the
+domination of law, has, in the lapse of time, been evolving. Law has
+controlled the inorganic world, and caused the earth to pass through
+various physical conditions, gently and continuously succeeding one
+another. The plastic forms of organic beings have been modelled to suit
+those changing conditions. The invariability of that law is indicated by
+the numberless ages through which it has been maintained, its
+universality by its holding good in the life of the meanest individual.
+
+But it is only a part of sociology that we have considered, and of which
+we have investigated the development. [Sidenote: Comparative sociology.]
+In the most philosophical aspect the subject includes comparative as
+well as human sociology. For, though there may not be society where
+actions are simply reflex, there is a possibility of it where they are
+instinctive, as well as where they are intellectual. Its essential
+condition being intercommunication, there are necessarily modifications
+depending respectively on touch or upon the higher and more delicate
+senses. That is none the less society which, among insects, depends upon
+antennal contacts. Human society, founded on speech, sight, hearing, has
+its indistinct beginnings, its rudiments, very low down in the animal
+scale, as in the bell-like note which some of the nudibranchiate
+gasteropods emit, or the solitary midnight tapping with which the
+death-watch salutes his mate. Society resting on instinct is
+characterised by immobility; it is necessarily unprogressive. Society
+resting on intellect is always advancing.
+
+But, for the present, declining this general examination of sociology,
+and limiting our attention strictly to that of humanity, we can not fail
+to be struck with the fact that in us the direction of evolution is
+altogether toward the intellectual, a conclusion equally impressed upon
+us whether our mode of examination be anatomical or historical.
+[Sidenote: The aim of Nature is not at moral, but intellectual
+development.] Anatomically we find no provision in the nervous system
+for the improvement of the moral, save indirectly through the
+intellectual, the whole aim of development being for the sake of
+intelligence. Historically, in the same manner, we find that the
+intellectual has always led the way in social advancement, the moral
+having been subordinate thereto. The former hay been the mainspring of
+the movement, the latter passively affected. It is a mistake to make the
+progress of society depend on that which is itself controlled by a
+higher power. In the earlier and inferior stages of individual life we
+may govern through the moral alone. In that way we may guide children,
+but it is to the understanding of the adult that we must appeal.
+[Sidenote: Systems of policy must be in accordance therewith.] A system
+working only through the moral must sooner or later come into an
+antagonism with the intellectual, and, if it do not contain within
+itself a means of adaptation to the changing circumstances, it must in
+the end be overthrown. This was the grand error of that Roman system
+which presided while European civilization was developing. It assumed as
+its basis a uniform, a stationary psychological condition in man.
+Forgetting that the powers of the mind grow with the possessions of the
+mind, it considered those who lived in past generations as being in no
+respect mentally inferior to those who are living now, though our
+children at sixteen may have a wider range of knowledge than our
+ancestors at sixty. That such an imperfect system could exist for so
+many ages is a proof of a contemporary condition of undeveloped
+intellect, just as we see that the understanding of a child does not
+revolt against the moral suasion, often intrinsically feeble, through
+which we attempt to influence him. But it would be as unphilosophical to
+treat with disdain the ideas that have served for a guide in the earlier
+ages of European life, as to look with contempt on the motives that have
+guided us in youth. Their feebleness and incompetency are excused by
+their suitability to the period of life to which they are applied.
+
+But whoever considers these things will see that there is a term beyond
+which the application of such methods cannot be extended. [Sidenote: The
+Age of Reason demands intellectual incentives for the individual.] The
+head of a family would act unwisely if he attempted to apply to his son
+at twenty-one the methods he had successfully used at ten; such methods
+could be only rendered effective by a resort to physical compulsion. A
+great change in the intervening years has taken place, and ideas once
+intrinsically powerful can exert their influence no more. The moral may
+have remained unchanged; it may be precisely as it was--no better, no
+worse; but that which has changed is the understanding. Reasoning and
+inducements of an intellectual kind are now needful. An attempt to
+persist in an absolute system by constraint would only meet with
+remonstrance and derision.
+
+[Sidenote: And the same holds good for humanity.] If it is thus with the
+individual, so it is likewise with humanity. For centuries nations may
+live under forms that meet their requirements, forms suitable to a
+feeble state; but it is altogether illusory to suppose that such an
+adaptedness can continue for ever. A critical eye discerns that the
+mental features of a given generation have become different from those
+of its ancestors. New ideas and a new manner of action are the tokens
+that a modification has silently taken place. Though after a short
+interval the change might not amount to much, in the course of time
+there must inevitably be exhibited the spectacle of a society that had
+outgrown its forms, its rules of life.
+
+Wherever, then, such a want of harmony becomes perceptible, where the
+social system is incompatible with the social state, and is, in effect,
+an obsolete anachronism, it is plainly unphilosophical and unwise to
+resort to means of compulsion. No matter what the power of governments
+or of human authorities may be, it is impossible for them to stop the
+intellectual advancement, for it forces its way by an organic law over
+which they have no kind of control.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Sidenote: Summary of the investigation of the position of man.]
+Astronomers sometimes affirm that the sun is the cause, directly or
+indirectly, of all the mechanical movements that take place upon the
+earth. Physiologists say that he is the generator of the countless
+living forms with which her surface is adorned.
+
+[Sidenote: Influence of the sun on inorganic nature, and on organic
+nature.] If the light, the warmth, and other physical influences of the
+sun could be excluded, there would be a stagnant and icy sea encircling
+silent and solitary shores. But the veil once withdrawn, or the
+influences permitted to take effect, this night and stillness would give
+place to activity and change. In the morning beams of the day, the
+tropical waters, expanding, would follow from east to west the course of
+the sun, each renewed dawn renewing the impulse, and adding force to the
+gentle but resistless current. At one place the flowing mass would move
+compactly; at another, caught by accidentally projecting rocks, it would
+give off little eddies, expending their share of its force; or,
+compressed in narrow passages, it would rush impetuously along. Upon its
+surface myriads of momentary ripples would play, or opposing winds,
+called into existence by similar disturbances in the air, would force it
+into waves, making the shores resound with their breaking surge. Twice
+every day, under the conjoint influences of the sun and moon, as if the
+inanimate globe itself were breathing, the tide would rise and fall
+again upon the bosom of the deep.
+
+The eddy, the ripple, the wave, the current, are accidental forms
+through which the originally imparted force is displayed. They are all
+expending power. Their life, if such a term can be used, is not the
+property of themselves, but of the ocean to which they belong.
+
+Influences which thus metaphorically give life to the sea, in reality
+give life to the land. Under their genial operation a wave of verdure
+spreads over the earth, and countless myriads of animated things attend
+it, each like the eddies and ripples of the sea, expending its share of
+the imparted force. The life of these accidental forms, through which
+power is being transposed, belongs, not to itself, but to the universe
+of which it is a part.
+
+[Sidenote: Nature of animals.] Of the waves upon the ocean there may not
+be two alike. The winds, the shores, their mutual interferences, a
+hundred extraneous influences, mould them into their ephemeral shapes.
+So those collections of matter of which animated things consist offer a
+plastic substance to be modified. The number of individuals counts like
+the ripples of the sea.
+
+[Sidenote: They constitute a series.] As external circumstances change,
+animated forms change with them, and thus arises a series of which the
+members stand in a connected relation. The affiliated sequence of the
+external circumstances is represented in the affiliated succession of
+living types. From parts, or from things already existing, new parts and
+new things emerge, the new not being added or juxtaposed to the old, but
+evolved or developed from it. From the homogeneous or general, the
+heterogeneous or special is brought forth. A new member, fashioned in
+secrecy and apart, is never abruptly ingrafted on any living thing. New
+animal types have never been suddenly located among old ones, but have
+emerged from them by process of transmutation. As certainly as that
+every living thing must die, so must it reach perfection by passing
+through a succession of subordinate forms. An individual, or even a
+species, is only a zoological phase in a passage to something beyond. An
+instantaneous adult, like an immortal animal, is a physiological
+impossibility.
+
+[Sidenote: The doctrine of progressive improvement.] This bringing forth
+of structure from structure, of function from function, incidentally
+presents, upon the whole, an appearance of progressive improvement, and
+for such it has been not unfrequently mistaken. Thus if the lowest
+animals, which move by reflex action instantly but unconsciously, when
+an impression is made upon them, be compared with the higher ones, whose
+motions are executed under the influence of antecedent impressions, and
+are therefore controlled by ideas, there seems to have been such an
+improvement. Still, however, it is altogether of a physical kind. Every
+impression of which the dog or elephant is conscious implies change in
+the nerve centres, and these changes are at the basis of the memory
+displayed by those animals. Our own experience furnishes many
+illustrations. When we gaze steadfastly on some brightly-illuminated
+object, and then close or turn aside our eyes, a fading impression of
+the object at which we have been looking still remains; or, when a spark
+is made to revolve rapidly, we think we see a circle of fire, the
+impression upon the retina lasting until the spark has completed its
+revolution. In like manner, though far more perfectly, are impressions
+registered or stored up in the sensory ganglia, the phantoms of
+realities that have once been seen. In those organs countless images may
+thus be superposed.
+
+[Sidenote: Analogies between animals and man.] Man agrees with animals
+thus approaching him in anatomical construction in many important
+respects. He, too, represents a continuous succession of matter, a
+continuous expenditure of power. Impressions of external things are
+concealed in his sensory ganglia, to be presented for inspection in
+subsequent times, and to constitute motives of action. But he differs
+from them in this, that what was preparatory and rudimentary in them is
+complete and perfect in him. From the instrument of instinct there has
+been developed an instrument of intellection. In the most perfect
+quadrupeds, an external stimulus is required to start a train of
+thought, which then moves on in a determinate way, their actions
+indicating that, under the circumstances, they reason according to the
+same rules as man, drawing conclusions more or less correct from the
+facts offered to their notice. But, the instrument of intellection
+completed, it is quickly brought into use, and now results of the
+highest order appear. The succession of ideas is under control; new
+trains can be originated not only by external causes, but also by an
+interior, a spontaneous influence. The passive has become active.
+Animals remember, man alone recollects. Every thing demonstrates that
+the development and completion of this instrument of intellection has
+been followed by the super-addition of an agent or principle that can
+use it.
+
+[Sidenote: Points of distinction between them.] There is, then, a
+difference between the brutes and man, not only as respects
+constitution, but also as respects destiny. Their active force merges
+into other mundane forces and disappears, but the special principle
+given to him endures. We willingly persuade ourselves that this
+principle is actually personified, and that the shades of the dead
+resemble their living forms. To Eastern Asia, where philosophy has been
+accustomed to the abstract idea of force, the pleasures we derive from
+this contemplation are denied, the cheerless doctrine of Buddhism
+likening the life of man to the burning of a lamp, and death to its
+extinction. Perceiving in the mutation of things, as seen in the narrow
+range of human vision, a suggestion of the variations and distribution
+of power throughout nature, it rises to a grand, and, it must be added,
+an awful conception of the universe.
+
+But Europe, and also the Mohammedan nations of Asia, have not received
+with approbation that view. [Sidenote: The human soul.] To them there is
+an individualized impersonation of the soul, and an expectation of its
+life hereafter. The animal fabric is only an instrument for its use. The
+eye is the window through which that mysterious principle perceives:
+through the ear are brought to its attention articulate sounds and
+harmonies; by the other organs the sensible qualities of bodies are made
+known. From the silent chambers and winding labyrinths of the brain the
+veiled enchantress looks forth on the outer world, and holds the
+subservient body in an irresistible spell.
+
+[Sidenote: Extension of these views to the nature of the world.] This
+difference between the Oriental and European ideas respecting the nature
+of man reappears in their ideas respecting the nature of the world. The
+one sees in it only a gigantic engine, in which stars and orbs are
+diffusing power and running through predestined mutations. The other,
+with better philosophy and a higher science, asserts a personal God, who
+considers and orders events in a vast panorama before him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON--(_Continued_).
+
+THE UNION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.
+
+_European Progress in the Acquisition of exact Knowledge.--Its
+Resemblance to that of Greece._
+
+_Discoveries respecting the Air.--Its mechanical and chemical
+Properties.--Its Relation to Animals and Plants.--The Winds.
+--Meteorology.--Sounds.--Acoustic Phenomena._
+
+_Discoveries respecting the Ocean.--Physical and chemical
+Phenomena.--Tides and Currents.--Clouds.--Decomposition of Water._
+
+_Discoveries respecting other material Substances.--Progress of
+Chemistry._
+
+_Discoveries respecting Electricity. Magnetism, Light, Heat._
+
+_Mechanical Philosophy and Inventions.--Physical Instruments.--The
+Result illustrated by the Cotton Manufacture.--Steam-engine.--Bleaching.
+--Canals.--Railways.--Improvements in the Construction of
+Machinery.--Social Changes produced.--Its Effect on intellectual
+Activity._
+
+_The scientific Contributions of various Nations, and especially of
+Italy._
+
+
+The Age of Reason in Europe presents all the peculiarities of the Age of
+Reason in Greece. There are modern representatives of King Ptolemy
+Philadelphus among his furnaces and crucibles; of Hipparchus cataloguing
+the stars; of Aristyllus and Timochares, with their stone quadrants and
+armils, ascertaining the planetary motions; of Eratosthenes measuring
+the size of the earth; of Herophilus dissecting the human body; of
+Archimedes settling the laws of mechanics and hydrostatics; of Manetho
+collating the annals of the old dynasties of Egypt; of Euclid and
+Apollonius improving mathematics. [Sidenote: Analogies between the Age
+of Reason in Europe and in Greece.] There are botanical gardens and
+zoological menageries like those of Alexandria, and expeditions to the
+sources of the Nile. The direction of thought is the same; but the
+progress is on a greater scale, and illustrated by more imposing
+results. The exploring voyages to Madagascar are replaced by
+circumnavigations of the world; the revolving steam-engine of Hero by
+the double-acting engine of Watt; the great galley of Ptolemy, with its
+many banks of rowers, by the ocean steam-ship; the solitary watch-fire
+on the Pharos by a thousand light-houses, with their fixed and revolving
+lights; the courier on his Arab horse by the locomotive and electric
+telegraph; the scriptorium in the Serapion, with its shelves of papyrus,
+by countless printing-presses; the "Almagest" of Ptolemy by the
+"Principia" of Newton; and the Museum itself by English, French,
+Italian, German, Dutch, and Russian philosophical societies,
+universities, colleges, and other institutions of learning.
+
+[Sidenote: European progress in the acquisition of knowledge.] So grand
+is the scale on which this cultivation of science has been resumed, so
+many are those engaged in it, so rapid is the advance, and so great are
+the material advantages, that there is no difficulty in appreciating the
+age of which it is the characteristic. The most superficial outline
+enables us to recognize at once its resemblance to that period of Greek
+life to which I have referred. To bring its features into relief, I
+shall devote a few pages to a cursory review of the progress of some of
+the departments of science, selecting for the purpose topics of general
+interest.
+
+First, then, as respects the atmosphere, and the phenomena connected
+with it.
+
+[Sidenote: The atmosphere.] From observations on the twilight, the
+elasticity of aerial bodies, and the condensing action of cold, the
+conclusion previously arrived at by Alhazen was established, that the
+atmosphere does not extend unlimitedly into space. Its height is
+considered to be about forty-five miles. From its compressibility, the
+greater part of it is within a much smaller limit; were it of uniform
+density, it would not extend more than 29,000 feet. Hence, comparing it
+with the dimensions of the earth, it is an insignificant aerial shell,
+in thickness not the eightieth part of the distance to the earth's
+centre, and its immensity altogether an illusion. It bears about the
+same proportion to the earth, that the down upon a peach bears to the
+peach itself.
+
+A foundation for the mechanical theory of the atmosphere was laid as
+soon as just ideas respecting liquid pressures, as formerly taught by
+Archimedes, were restored, the conditions of vertical and oblique
+pressures investigated, the demonstration of equality of pressures in
+all directions given, and the proof furnished that the force of a liquid
+on the bottom of a vessel may be very much greater than its weight.
+
+[Sidenote: Its mechanical relations.] Such of these conclusions as were
+applicable were soon transferred to the case of aerial bodies. The
+weight of the atmosphere was demonstrated, its pressure illustrated and
+measured; then came the dispute about the action of pumps, and the
+overthrow of the Aristotelian doctrine of the horror of a vacuum.
+Coincidently occurred the invention of the barometer, and the proof of
+its true theory, both on a steeple in Paris and on a mountain in
+Auvergne. The invention of the air-pump, and its beautiful illustrations
+of the properties of the atmosphere, extended in a singular manner the
+taste for natural philosophy.
+
+[Sidenote: Its chemical relations.] The mechanics of the air was soon
+followed by its chemistry. From remote ages it had been numbered among
+the elements, though considered liable to vitiation or foulness. The
+great discovery of oxygen gas placed its chemical relations in their
+proper position. One after another, other gases, both simple and
+compound, were discovered. Then it was recognized that the atmosphere is
+the common receptacle for all gases and vapours, and the problem
+whether, in the course of ages, it has ever undergone change in its
+constitution arose for solution.
+
+[Sidenote: The antagonism of animals and plants.] The negative
+determination of that problem, so far as a few thousand years are
+concerned, was necessarily followed by a recognition of the antagonism
+of animals and plants, and their mutually balancing each other, the
+latter accomplishing their duty under the influence of the sun, though
+he is a hundred millions of miles distant. From this it appeared that it
+is not by incessant interventions that the sum total of animal life is
+adjusted to that of vegetable, but that, in this respect, the system of
+government of the world is by the operation of natural causes and law, a
+conclusion the more imposing since it contemplates all living things,
+and includes even man himself. The detail of these investigations proved
+that the organic substance of plants is condensed from the inorganic air
+to which that of all animals returns, the particles running in
+ever-repeating cycles, now in the air, now in plants, now in animals,
+now in the air again, the impulse of movement being in the sun, from
+whom has come the force incorporated in plant tissues, and eventually
+disengaged in our fires, shining in our flames, oppressing us in fevers,
+and surprising us in blushes.
+
+[Sidenote: The winds; their origin and nature.] Organic disturbances by
+respiration and the growth of plants being in the lowest stratum of the
+air, its uniformity of composition would be impossible were it not for
+the agency of the winds and the diffusion of gases, which it was found
+would take place under any pressure. The winds were at length properly
+referred to the influence of the sun, whose heat warms the air, causing
+it to ascend, while other portions flow in below. The explanation of
+land and sea breezes was given, and in the trade-wind was found a proof
+of the rotation of the earth. At a later period followed the explanation
+of monsoons in the alternate heating and cooling of Asia and Africa on
+opposite sides of the line, and of tornadoes, which are disks of air
+rotating round a translated axis with a diameter of one hundred or one
+hundred and fifty miles, the axis moving in a curvilinear track with a
+progressive advance of twenty or twenty-five miles an hour, and the
+motions being in opposite directions in opposite hemispheres of the
+globe.
+
+The equatorial calms and trade-winds accounted for on physical
+principles, it was admitted that the winds of high latitudes,
+proverbially uncertain as they are, depend in like manner on physical
+causes.
+
+With these palpable movements there are others of a less obvious kind.
+Through the air, and by reason of motions in it, sounds are transmitted
+to us.
+
+[Sidenote: Of sounds; their velocity.] The Alexandrian mathematicians
+made sound a favourite study. Modern acoustics arose from the
+recognition that there is nothing issuing from the sounding body, but
+that its parts are vibrating and affecting the medium between it and the
+ear. Not only by the air-pump, but also by observations in the rare
+atmosphere of the upper regions, it was shown that the intensity of
+sound depends upon the density. On the top of a mountain the report of a
+pistol is no louder than that of a cracker in the valley. As to the
+gradual propagation of sounds, it was impossible to observe fire-arms
+discharged at a distance without noticing that the flash appears longer
+before the report in proportion as the distance is greater. The
+Florentine academicians attempted a determination of the velocity, and
+found it to be 1148 feet in a second. More accurate and recent
+experiments made it 1089.42 feet at the freezing-point of water; but the
+velocity, though independent of the density, increases with the
+temperature at the rate of 1.14 foot for each degree. For other media
+the rate is different; for water, about 4687 feet in a second, and in
+cast iron about 10-1/2 times greater than in air. All sounds,
+irrespective of their note or intensity, move at the same velocity, the
+medium itself being motionless in the mass. No sound can pass through a
+vacuum. The sudden aerial condensation attending the propagation of a
+sound gives rise to a momentary evolution of heat, which increases the
+elasticity of the air, and hence the velocity is higher than 916 feet in
+a second, otherwise the theoretical rate.
+
+[Sidenote: Acoustic phenomena.] Turning from soniferous media to
+sounding bodies, it was shown that the difference between acute and
+grave sounds depends on the frequency of vibration. The ear can not
+perceive a sound originating in less than thirty-two vibrations in a
+second, nor one of more than 24,000. The actual number of vibrations in
+a given note was counted by means of revolving wheels and other
+contrivances. I have not space to relate the investigation of many other
+acoustic facts, the reference of sounds to phases of condensation, and
+rarefaction in the elastic medium taking place in a normal direction;
+the affections of note, intensity, quality; the passage in curved lines
+and around obstacles; the production of sympathetic sounds; nodal
+points; the effect of reeds; the phenomena of pipes and flutes, and
+other wind instruments; the various vibrations of solids, as bells; or
+of membranes, as drums; visible acoustic lines; the reflexion of
+undulations by surfaces of various forms; their interferences, so that,
+no matter how intense they may be individually, they can be caused to
+produce silence; nor of whispering galleries, echoes, the nature of
+articulate sounds, the physiology of the vocal and auditory organs of
+man, and the construction of speaking machines.
+
+[Sidenote: The ocean; its size.] Like the air, the ocean, which covers
+three-fourths of the earth's surface, when reduced to a proper standard
+of measure, loses very much of its imposing aspect. The varnish that
+covers a twelve-inch globe represents its relative dimension not
+inadequately.
+
+[Sidenote: Tides and currents.] On the theory of gravitation, the tides
+of the ocean were explained as depending on the attractive force of the
+sun and moon. Its currents, in a general manner, are analogous to those
+of the air. They originate in the disturbing action of solar heat, the
+temperature of the sea varying from 85 deg. in the torrid zone to the
+freezing-point as the poles are approached. Its specific gravity at the
+equator is estimated at 1.028; but this density necessarily varies with
+the rate at which superficial evaporation takes place; the pure vapour
+rising, leaves a more concentrated salt solution. The effect is
+therefore, in some degree, to counteract the expansion of the water by
+warmth, for the sun-rays, being able to penetrate several feet below the
+surface, correspondingly raise the temperature of that portion, which
+expands and becomes lighter; but, simultaneously, surface evaporation
+tends to make the water heavier. Notwithstanding this, currents are
+established through the preponderance of the dilatation, and of them the
+Gulf Stream is to us the most striking example.
+
+[Sidenote: Effects of ocean streams.] The physical action of the
+sun-rays in occasioning currents operates through the expansion of
+water, of which warm portions ascend to the surface, colder portions
+from beneath setting in to supply their place. These currents, both hot
+and cold, are affected by the diurnal rotation of the earth, the action
+being essentially the same as that for the winds. They exert so great an
+influence as conveyers of heat that they disturb the ordinary climate
+relation depending on the sun's position. In this way the Gulf Stream, a
+river of hot water in a sea of cold, as soon as it spreads out on the
+surface of the Atlantic in higher latitudes, liberates into the air the
+heat it has brought from the torrid zone; and this, being borne by the
+south-west wind, which blows in those localities for the greater part of
+the year, to the westerly part of the European continent, raises by many
+degrees the mean annual temperature, thus not only regulating the
+distribution of animals and plants, but also influencing human life and
+its pursuits, making places pleasant that would otherwise be inclement,
+and even facilitating the progress of civilization. Whatever, therefore,
+can affect the heat, the volume, the velocity, the direction of such a
+stream, at once produces important consequences in the organic world.
+
+[Sidenote: Physical and chemical relations of water.] The Alexandrian
+school had attained correct ideas respecting the mechanical properties
+of water as the type of liquids. This knowledge was, however, altogether
+lost in Europe for many ages, and not regained until the time of
+Stevinus and Galileo, who recovered correct views of the nature of
+pressure, both vertical and oblique, and placed the sciences of
+hydrostatics and hydrodynamics on exact foundations. The Florentine
+academicians, from their experiments on water inclosed in a globe of
+gold, concluded that it is incompressible, an error subsequently
+corrected, and its compressibility measured. The different states in
+which it occurs, as ice, water, steam, were shown to depend altogether
+on the amount of latent heat it contains. Out of these investigations
+originated the invention of the steam-engine, of which it may be said
+that it has revolutionized the industry of the world. Soon after the
+explanation of the cause of its three states followed the great
+discovery that the opinion of past ages respecting its elementary nature
+is altogether erroneous. It is not a simple element, but is composed of
+two ingredients, oxygen and hydrogen, as was rigorously proved by
+decomposing and forming it. By degrees, more correct views of the nature
+of evaporation were introduced; gases and vapours were found to coexist
+in the same space, not because of their mutual solvent power, but
+because of their individual and independent elasticity. The
+instantaneous formation of vapours in a vacuum showed that the
+determining condition is heat, the weight of vapour capable of existing
+in a given space being proportional to the temperature. More scientific
+views of the nature of maximum density were obtained, and on these
+principles was effected the essential improvement of the low pressure
+steam-engine--the apparent paradox of condensing the steam without
+cooling the cylinder.
+
+In like manner much light was cast on the meteorological functions of
+water. It was seen that the diurnal vaporization from the earth depends
+on the amount of heat received, the vapour rising invisibly in the air
+till it reaches a region where the temperature is sufficiently low.
+There condensation into vesicles of perhaps 1/50000 of an inch in
+diameter ensues, and of myriads of such globules a cloud is composed.
+[Sidenote: Clouds and their nomenclature.] Of clouds, notwithstanding
+their many forms and aspects, a classification was given--cirrus,
+cumulus, stratus, etc. It was obvious why some dissolve away and
+disappear when they encounter warmer or drier spaces, and why others
+descend as rain. It was shown that the drops can not be pure, since they
+come in contact with dust, soluble gases, and organic matter in the air.
+[Sidenote: The return of water to the sea.] Sinking into the ground, the
+water issues forth as springs, contaminated with whatever is in the
+soil, and finds its way, through streamlets and rivers, back to the sea,
+and thus the drainage of countries is accomplished. Through such a
+returning path it comes to the receptacle from which it set out; the
+heat of the sun raised it from the ocean, the attraction of the earth
+returns it thereto; and, since the heat-supply is invariable from year
+to year, the quantity set in motion must be the same. Collateral results
+of no little importance attend these movements. Every drop of rain
+falling on the earth disintegrates and disturbs portions of the soil;
+every stream carries solid matter into the sea. It is the province of
+geology to estimate the enormous aggregate of detritus, continents
+washed away and new continents formed, and the face of the earth
+remodelled and renewed.
+
+[Sidenote: Progress of chemistry.] The artificial decomposition of water
+constitutes an epoch in chemistry. The European form of this science, in
+contradistinction to the Arabian, arose from the doctrine of acids and
+alkalies, and their neutralization. This was about A.D. 1614. It was
+perceived that the union of bodies is connected with the possession of
+opposite qualities, and hence was introduced the idea of an attraction
+of affinity. On this the discovery of elective attraction followed. Then
+came the recognition that this attraction is connected with opposite
+electrical states, chemistry and electricity approaching each other. A
+train of splendid discoveries followed; metals were obtained light
+enough to float on water, and even apparently to accomplish the
+proverbial impossibility of setting it on fire. In the end it was shown
+that the chemical force of electricity is directly proportional to its
+absolute quantity. [Sidenote: Attraction. The elements.] Better views of
+the nature of chemical attraction were attained, better views of the
+intrinsic nature of bodies. The old idea of four elements was discarded,
+as also the Saracenic doctrine of salt, sulphur, and mercury. The
+elements were multiplied until at length they numbered more than sixty.
+[Sidenote: Theory of phlogiston.] Alchemy merged into chemistry through
+the theory of phlogiston, which accounted for the change that metals
+undergo when exposed to the fire on the principle that something was
+driven off from them--a something that might be restored again by the
+action of combustible bodies. It is remarkable how adaptive this theory
+was. It was found to include the cases of combustive operations, the
+production of acids, the breathing of animals. It maintained its ground
+even long after the discovery of oxygen gas, of which one of the first
+names was dephlogisticated air.
+
+But a false theory always contains within itself the germ of its own
+destruction. The weak point of this was, that when a metal is burnt the
+product ought to be lighter than the metal, whereas it proves heavier.
+[Sidenote: Introduction of the balance into chemistry.] At length it was
+detected that what the metal had gained the surrounding air had lost.
+This discovery implied that the balance had been resorted to for the
+determination of weights and for the decision of physical questions. The
+reintroduction of that instrument--for, as we have seen, it had ages
+before been employed by the Saracen philosophers, who used several
+different forms of it--marked the epoch when chemistry ceased to be
+exclusively a science of quality and became one of quantity.
+
+[Sidenote: Theory of oxygen, and the nomenclature.] On the ruins of the
+phlogistic theory arose the theory of oxygen, which was sustained with
+singular ability. Its progress was greatly facilitated by the
+promulgation of a new nomenclature in conformity to its principles, and
+of remarkable elegance and power. In the course of time it became
+necessary, however, to modify the theory, especially by deposing oxygen
+from the attitude of sovereignty to which it had been elevated, and
+assigning to it several colleagues, such as chlorine, iodine, etc. The
+introduction of the balance was also followed by important consequences
+in theoretical chemistry, among which pre-eminently was the
+establishment of the laws of combinations of bodies.
+
+[Sidenote: Present state of chemistry.] Extensive and imposing as is the
+structure of chemistry, it is very far from its completion. It is so
+surrounded by the scaffolding its builders are using, it is so deformed
+with the materials of their work, that its true plan can not yet be made
+out. In this respect it is far more backward than astronomy. It has,
+however, disposed of the idea of the destruction and creation of matter.
+[Sidenote: Indestructibility of matter.] It accepts without hesitation
+the doctrine of the imperishability of substance; for, though the aspect
+of a thing may change through decompositions and recombinations, in
+which its constituent parts are concerned, every atom continues to
+exist, and may be recovered by suitable processes, though the entire
+thing may have seemingly disappeared. A particle of water raised from
+the sea may ascend invisibly through the air, it may float above us in
+the cloud, it may fall in the rain-drop, sink into the earth, gush forth
+again in the fountain, enter the rootlets of a plant, rise up with the
+sap to the leaves, be there decomposed by the sunlight into its
+constituent elements, its oxygen and hydrogen; of these and other
+elements, acids and oils, and various organic compounds may be made: in
+these or in its undecomposed state it may be received in the food of
+animals, circulate in their blood, be essentially concerned in acts of
+intellection executed by the brain, it may be expired in the breath.
+Though shed in the tear in moments of despair, it may give birth to the
+rainbow, the emblem of hope. Whatever the course through which it has
+passed, whatever mutations it has undergone, whatever the force it has
+submitted to, its elementary constituents endure. Not only have they not
+been annihilated, they have not even been changed; and in a period of
+time, long or short, they find their way as water back again to the sea
+from which they came.
+
+[Sidenote: Electrical discoveries.] Discoveries in electricity not only
+made a profound impression on chemistry, they have taken no
+insignificant share in modifying human opinion on other very interesting
+subjects. In all ages the lightning had been looked upon with
+superstitious dread. The thunderbolt had long been feigned to be the
+especial weapon of Divinity. A like superstitious sentiment had
+prevailed respecting the northern lights universally regarded in those
+countries in which they display themselves as glimpses of the movements
+of the angelic host, the banners and weapons of the armies of heaven. A
+great blow against superstition was struck when the physical nature of
+these phenomena was determined. As to the connexion of electrical
+science with the progress of civilization, what more needs to be said
+than to allude to the telegraph?
+
+[Sidenote: Theories of electricity.] It is an illustration of the
+excellence and fertility of modern methods that the phenomena of the
+attraction displayed by amber, which had been known and neglected for
+two thousand years, in one-tenth of that time led to surprising results.
+[Sidenote: Electrical phenomena.] First it was shown that there are many
+other bodies which will act in like manner; then came the invention of
+the electrical machine, the discovery of electrical repulsion, and the
+spark; the differences of conductibility in bodies; the apparently two
+species of electricity, vitreous and resinous; the general law of
+attraction and repulsion; the wonderful phenomena of the Leyden phial
+and the electric shock; the demonstration of the identity of lightning
+and electricity; the means of protecting buildings and ships by rods;
+the velocity of electric movement--that immense distances can be passed
+through in an inappreciable time; the theory of one fluid and that of
+two; the mathematical discussion of all the phenomena, first on one and
+then on the other of these doctrines; the invention of the torsion
+balance; the determination that the attractive and repulsive forces
+follow the law of the inverse squares; the conditions of distribution on
+conductors; the elucidation of the phenomena of induction. [Sidenote:
+Voltaic electricity.] At length, when discovery seemed to be pausing,
+the facts of galvanism were announced in Italy. Up to this time it was
+thought that the most certain sign of the death of an animal was its
+inability to exhibit muscular contraction: but now it was shown that
+muscular movements could be excited in those that are dead and even
+mutilated. Then followed quickly the invention of the Voltaic pile.
+[Sidenote: Results of the discovery of Galvani.] Who could have foreseen
+that the twitching of a frog's leg in the Italian experiments would
+establish beyond all question the compound nature of water, separating
+its constituents from one another? would lead to the deflagration and
+dissipation in a vapour of metals that could hardly be melted in a
+furnace? would show that the solid earth we tread upon is an oxide?
+yield new metals light enough to swim upon water, and even seem to set
+it on fire? produce the most brilliant of all artificial lights,
+rivalling if not excelling, in its intolerable splendour the noontide
+sun? would occasion a complete revolution in chemistry, compelling that
+science to accept new ideas, and even a new nomenclature? that it would
+give us the power of making magnets capable of lifting more than a ton,
+and cast a light on that riddle of ages, the pointing of the mariner's
+compass north and south, explain the mutual attraction or repulsion of
+magnetic needles? that it would enable us to form exquisitely in metal
+casts of all kinds of objects of art, and give workmen a means of
+gilding and silvering without risk to their health? that it would
+suggest to the evil disposed the forging of bank notes, the
+sophisticating of jewelry, and be invaluable in the uttering of false
+coinage? that it would carry the messages of commerce and friendship
+instantaneously across continents or under oceans, and "waft a sigh from
+Indus to the pole?"
+
+Yet this is only a part of what the Italian experiment, carried out by
+modern methods, has actually done. Could there be a more brilliant
+exhibition of their power, a brighter earnest of the future of material
+philosophy?
+
+[Sidenote: Discoveries in magnetism.] As it had been with amber, so with
+the magnet. Its properties had lain uninvestigated for two thousand
+years, except in China, where the observation had been made that its
+qualities may be imparted to steel, and that a little bar or needle so
+prepared, if floated on the surface of water or otherwise suspended,
+will point north and south. In that manner the magnet had been applied
+in the navigation of ships, and in journeys across trackless deserts.
+The first European magnetical discovery was that of Columbus, who
+observed a line of no variation west of the Azores. Then followed the
+detection of the dip, the demonstration of poles in the needle, and of
+the law of attraction and repulsion; the magnetic voyage undertaken by
+the English government; the construction of general variation charts;
+the observation of diurnal variation; local perturbations; the influence
+of the Aurora, which affects all the three expressions of magnetical
+power; the disturbance of the horary motion simultaneously over
+thousands of miles, as from Kasan to Paris. In the meantime, the theory
+of magnetism improved as the facts came out. Its germ was the Cartesian
+vortices, suggested by the curvilinear forms of iron filings in the
+vicinity of magnetic poles. The subsequent mathematical discussion was
+conducted upon the same principles as in the case of electricity.
+
+[Sidenote: Electro-magnetism.] Then came the Danish discovery of the
+relations of electricity and magnetism, illustrated in England by
+rotatory motions, and in France adorned by the electrodynamic theory,
+embracing the action of currents and magnets, magnets and magnets,
+currents and currents. The generation of magnetism by electricity was
+after a little delay followed by its converse, the production of
+electricity by magnetism; and thermoelectric currents, arising from the
+unequal application or propagation of heat, were rendered serviceable in
+producing the most sensitive of all thermometers.
+
+[Sidenote: Of light and optics.] The investigation of the nature and
+properties of light rivals in interest and value that of electricity.
+What is this agent, light, which clothes the earth with verdure, making
+animal life possible, extending man's intellectual sphere, bringing to
+his knowledge the forms and colours of things, and giving him
+information of the existence of countless myriads of worlds? What is
+this light which, in the midst of so many realities, presents him with
+so many delusive fictions, which rests the coloured bow against the
+cloud--the bow once said, when men transferred their own motives and
+actions to the Divinity, to be the weapon of God?
+
+[Sidenote: Optical discoveries.] The first ascertained optical fact was
+probably the propagation of light in straight lines. The theory of
+perspective, on which the Alexandrian mathematicians voluminously wrote,
+implies as much; but agreeably to the early methods of philosophy, which
+were inclined to make man the centre of all things, it was supposed that
+rays are emitted from the eye and proceed outwardly, not that they come
+from exterior objects and pass through the organ of vision inwardly.
+Even the great geometer Euclid treated the subject on that erroneous
+principle, an error corrected by the Arabians. In the meantime the law
+of reflexion had been discovered; that for refraction foiled Alhazen,
+and was reserved for a European. Among natural optical phenomena the
+form of the rainbow was accounted for, notwithstanding a general belief
+in its supernatural origin. Its colours, however, could not be explained
+until exact ideas of refrangibility, dispersion, and the composition of
+white light were attained. The reflecting telescope was invented; the
+recognized possibility of achromatism led to an improvement in the
+refractor. A little previously the progressive motion of light had been
+proved, first for reflected light by the eclipses of Jupiter's
+satellites, then for the direct light of the stars. A true theory of
+colours originated with the formation of the solar spectrum; that
+beautiful experiment led to the discovery of irrationality of dispersion
+and the fixed lines. The phenomena of refraction in the case of Iceland
+spar were examined, and the law for the ordinary and extraordinary rays
+given. At the same time the polarization of light by double refraction
+was discovered. A century later it was followed by polarisation by
+reflexion and single refraction, depolarization, irised rings, bright
+and black crosses in crystals, and unannealed or compressed glass, the
+connexion between optical phenomena and crystalline form, uniaxial
+crystals giving circular rings and biaxial oval ones, and circular and
+elliptical polarization.
+
+The beautiful colours of soap-bubbles, at first mixed up with those of
+striated and dotted surfaces, were traced to their true
+condition--thickness. The determination of thickness of a film necessary
+to give a certain colour was the first instance of exceedingly minute
+measures beautifully executed. These soon became connected with fringes
+in shadows, and led to ascertaining the length of waves of light.
+
+[Sidenote: Vision; the functions of the eye.] Meantime more correct
+ideas respecting vision were obtained. Alhazen's explanation of the use
+of the retina and lens was adopted. This had been the first truly
+scientific investigation in physiology. The action of the eye was
+reduced to that of the camera-obscura described by Da Vinci, and the old
+notion of rays issuing therefrom finally abandoned. It had held its
+ground through the deceptive illustration of the magic-lantern. Of this
+instrument the name indicates the popular opinion of its nature. In the
+stories of necromancers and magicians of the time are to be found traces
+of applications to which it was insidiously devoted--the raising of the
+dead, spectres skipping along the ground or dancing on the walls and
+chimneys, pendulous images, apparitions in volumes of smoke. [Sidenote:
+Optical instruments.] These early instruments were the forerunners of
+many beautiful inventions of later times--the kaleidoscope, producing
+its forms of marvellous symmetry: the stereoscope, aided by photography,
+offering the very embodiment of external scenery; the achromatic and
+reflecting telescope, to which physical astronomy is so greatly
+indebted; and the achromatic microscope, now working a revolution in
+anatomy and physiology.
+
+[Sidenote: The undulatory theory.] In its theory optics has presented a
+striking contrast to acoustics. Almost from the very beginning it was
+recognized that sound is not a material substance emitted from the
+sounding body, but only undulations occurring in the air. For long,
+optics failed to reach an analogous conclusion. The advancement of the
+former science has been from the general principle down to the details,
+that of the latter from the details up to the general principle.
+
+That light consists of undulations in an elastic medium was first
+inferred in 1664. Soon after, reflexion, refraction, and double
+refraction were accounted for on that principle. The slow progress of
+this theory was doubtless owing to Newton's supremacy. He gave a
+demonstration in the second book of the "Principia" (Prop. 42) that wave
+motions must diverge into the unmoved spaces, and carried popular
+comprehension with him by such illustrations as that we hear sounds
+though a mountain interpose. It was thought that the undulatory theory
+was disposed of by the impossibility of seeing through a crooked pipe,
+though we can hear through it; or that we cannot look round a corner,
+though we can listen round one.
+
+The present century finally established it through the discovery of
+interference, the destruction of the emission theory being inevitable
+when it was shown that light, interfering under certain circumstances
+with light, may produce darkness, as sound added to sound may produce
+silence--results arising from the action of undulating motion. The
+difficulties presented by polarization were not only removed, but that
+class of phenomena was actually made a strong support of the theory. The
+discovery that two pencils of oppositely polarized light would not
+interfere, led at once to the theory of transverse vibrations. Great
+mathematical ability was now required for the treatment of the subject,
+and the special consideration of many optical problems from this new
+point of view, as, for example, determining the result of transverse
+vibrations coming into a medium of different density in different
+directions. As the theory of universal gravitation had formerly done, so
+now the undulatory theory began to display its power as a physical
+truth, enabling geometers to foresee results, and to precede the
+experimenter in conclusions. Among earlier results of the kind was the
+prediction that both the rays in the biaxial crystal topaz are
+extraordinary, and that circular polarization may be produced by
+reflexion in a rhomb of glass. The phenomena of depolarization offered
+no special difficulty; and many new facts, as those of elliptic
+polarization and conical refraction, have since illustrated the power of
+the theory.
+
+[Sidenote: The ether and its movements.] Light, then, is the result of
+ethereal undulations impinging on the eye. There exists throughout the
+universe and among the particles of all bodies an elastic medium, ether.
+By reason of the repulsion of its own parts it is uniformly diffused in
+a vacuum. In the interior of refracting media it exists in a state of
+less elasticity compared with its density than in vacuo. Vibrations
+communicated to it in free space are propagated through such media by
+the ether in their interior. The parts of shining bodies vibrate as
+those of sounding ones, communicating their movement to the ether, and
+giving rise to waves in it. They produce in us the sensation of light.
+The slower the vibration, the longer the wave; the more frequent, the
+shorter. On wave-length colour depends. In all cases the vibrations are
+transverse. The undulatory movement passes onward at the rate of 192,000
+miles in a second. The mean length of a wave of light is 0.0000219 of an
+inch; an extreme red wave is about twice as long as an extreme violet
+one. The yellow is intermediate. The vibrations which thus occasion
+light are, at a mean, 555 in the billionth of a second. As with the air,
+which is motionless when a sound passes through it, the ether is
+motionless, though traversed by waves of light. That which moves forward
+is no material substance, but only a form, as the waves seen running
+along a shaken cord, or the circles that rise and fall, and spread
+outwardly when a stone is thrown into water. The wave-like form passes
+onward to the outlying spaces, but the water does not rush forward. And
+as we may have on the surface of that liquid waves the height of which
+is insignificant, or those which, as sailors say, are mountains high in
+storms at sea, their amplitude thus differing, so in the midst of the
+ether difference of amplitude is manifested to us by difference in the
+intensity or brilliancy of light.
+
+[Sidenote: The human eye; its capabilities.] The human eye, exquisitely
+constructed as it is, is nevertheless an imperfect mechanism, being
+limited in its action. It can only perceive waves of a definite length,
+as its fellow organ, the ear, can only distinguish a limited range of
+sounds. It can only take note of vibrations that are transverse, as the
+ear can only take note of those that are normal. In optics there are two
+distinct orders of facts; the actual relations of light itself, and the
+physiological relations of our organ of vision, with all its limitations
+and imperfections. Light is altogether the creation of the mind. The
+ether is one thing, light is another, just as the air is one thing and
+sound another. The ether is not composed of the colours of light any
+more than the atmospheric air consists of musical notes.
+
+[Sidenote: Chemical influences of light.] To the chemical agency of
+light much attention has in recent times been devoted. Already in
+photography, it has furnished us an art which, though yet in its
+infancy, presents exquisite representations of scenery, past events, the
+countenances of our friends. In an almost magical way it evokes
+invisible impressions, and gives duration to fleeting shadows. Moreover,
+these chemical influences of light give birth to the whole vegetable
+world, with all its varied charms of colour, form, and property, and, as
+we have seen in the last chapter, on them animal life itself depends.
+
+[Sidenote: Of heat; reflexion; refraction.] The conclusions arrived at
+in optics necessarily entered as fundamental ideas in thermotics, or the
+science of heat; for radiant heat moves also in straight lines,
+undergoes reflexion, refraction, double refraction, polarization, and
+hence the theory of transverse vibrations applies to it. Heat is
+invisible light, as light is visible heat. Correct notions of radiation
+originated with the Florentine academicians, who used concave mirrors;
+and, in the cold-ray experiment, masses of ice of five hundred pounds
+weight. The refraction of invisible heat was ascertained in consequence
+of the invention of the thermoelectric pile. Its polarization and
+depolarization soon followed. Already had been demonstrated the
+influence of the physical state of radiant surfaces, and that the heat
+comes also from a little depth beneath them. [Sidenote: Exchanges of
+heat.] The felicitous doctrine of exchanges of heat imparted true ideas
+of the nature of calorific equilibrium and the heating and cooling of
+bodies, and offered an explanation of many phenomena, as, for instance,
+the formation of dew. [Sidenote: The dew, nature of.] This deposit of
+moisture occurs after sunset, the more copiously the clearer the sky; it
+never appears on a cloudy night; it neither ascends from the ground like
+an exhalation, nor descends like a rain. It shows preferences in its
+manner of settling, being found on some objects before it is on others.
+All these singular peculiarities were satisfactorily explained, and
+another of the mysteries, the unaccountable wonders of the Middle Ages,
+brought into the attitude of a simple physical fact.
+
+[Sidenote: Incandescence. Physical instruments.] It is impossible, in a
+limited space, to relate satisfactorily what has been done respecting
+ignition, the production of light by incandescence, the accurate
+measurement of the conductibility of bodies, the determination of the
+expansions of solids, liquids, gases, under increasing temperature, the
+variations of the same substance at different degrees, the heat of
+fluidity and elasticity, and specific heat, or to do justice to the
+great improvements made in all kinds of instruments--balances,
+thermometers, contrivances for linear and angular measures, telescopes,
+microscopes, spectroscopes, chronometers, aerostats, telegraphs, and
+machinery generally. [Sidenote: Effect of mechanical inventions.] The
+tendency in every direction has been to practical applications. More
+accurate knowledge implies increasing power, greater wealth, higher
+virtue. The morality of man is enhanced by the improvement of his
+intellect and by personal independence. Our age has become rational,
+industrial, progressive. In its great physical inventions Europe may
+securely trust. There is nothing more to fear from Arabian invasions or
+Tartar irruptions. The hordes of Asia could be swept away like chaff
+before the wind. Let him who would form a correct opinion of the
+position of man in the present and preceding phases of his progress
+reflect on the losses of Christendom in Asia and Africa, in spite of all
+the machinery of an Age of Faith, and the present security of Europe
+from every barbarian or foreign attack.
+
+From almost any of the branches of industry facts might be presented
+illustrating the benefits arising from the application of physical
+discoveries. As an example, I may refer to the cotton manufacture.
+
+[Sidenote: Illustration from the cotton manufacture.] In a very short
+time after the mechanical arts were applied to the manufacture of
+textile fabrics, so great was the improvement that a man could do more
+work in a day than he had previously done in a year. That manufacture
+was moreover accompanied by such collateral events as actually
+overturned the social condition throughout Europe. Among these were the
+invention of the steam-engine, the canal system, the prodigious
+development of the iron manufacture, the locomotive, and railroads;
+results not due to the placemen and officers to whom that continent had
+resigned its annals, whose effigies encumber the streets of its cities,
+but to men in the lower walks of life. The assertion is true that James
+Watt, the instrument maker, conferred on his native country more solid
+benefits than all the treaties she ever made and all the battles she
+ever won. Arkwright was a barber, Harrison a carpenter, Brindley a
+millwright's apprentice.
+
+[Sidenote: Development of the cotton manufacture in England.] By the
+labours of Paul or of Wyatt, who introduced the operation of spinning by
+rollers, a principle perfected by Arkwright; by the rotating
+carding-engine, first devised by Paul; by the jenny of Highs or
+Hargreaves; the water-frame; the mule, invented by Crompton, so greatly
+was the cotton manufacture developed as to demand an entire change in
+the life of operatives, and hence arose the factory system. [Sidenote:
+The steam-engine of Watt.] At a critical moment was introduced Watt's
+invention, the steam-engine. His first patent was taken out in 1769, the
+same year that Arkwright patented spinning by rollers. Watt's
+improvement chiefly consisted in the use of a separate condenser, and
+the replacement of atmospheric pressure by that of steam. Still, it was
+not until more than twenty years after that this engine was introduced
+into factories, and hence it was not, as is sometimes supposed, the
+cause of their wonderful increase. It came, however, at a fortunate
+time, nearly coincident with the invention of the dressing-machine by
+Radcliffe and the power-loom by Cartwright.
+
+[Sidenote: Bleaching by chlorine.] If the production of textile fabrics
+received such advantages from mechanics, equally was it favoured by
+chemistry in the discovery of bleaching by chlorine. To bleach a piece
+of cotton by the action of the air and the sun required from six to
+eight months, and a large surface of land must be used as a
+bleach-field. The value of land in the vicinity of great towns presented
+an insuperable obstacle to such uses. By chlorine the operation could be
+completed in the course of a few hours, and in a comparatively small
+building, the fibre being beautifully and permanently whitened.
+[Sidenote: Calico-printing by cylinders.] Nor were the chemical
+improvements restricted to this. Calico-printing, an art practised many
+thousand years ago among the Egyptians, was perfected by the operation
+of printing from cylinders.
+
+It deserves to be remarked that the cotton manufacture was first
+introduced into Europe by the Arabs. Abderrahman III., A.D. 930, caused
+it to be commenced in Spain; he also had extensive manufactures of silk
+and leather, and interested himself much in the culture of the sugar
+cane, rice, the mulberry. One of the most valuable Spanish applications
+of cotton was in the invention of cotton paper. The Arabs were also the
+authors of the printing of calicoes by wooden blocks, a great
+improvement on the old Indian operation of painting by hand.
+
+[Sidenote: Extent of the cotton manufacture.] We may excuse the
+enthusiastic literature of the cotton manufacture its boasting, for men
+had accomplished works that were nearly God-like. Mr. Baines, writing in
+1833, states that the length of yarn spun in one year was nearly five
+thousand millions of miles, sufficient to pass round the earth's
+circumference more than two hundred thousand times--sufficient to reach
+fifty-one times from the earth to the sun. It would encircle the earth's
+orbit eight and a half times. The wrought fabrics of cotton exported in
+one year would form a girdle for the globe passing eleven times round
+the equator, more than sufficient to form a continuous sheet from the
+earth to the moon. And, if this was the case thirty years ago, by what
+illustrations would it be possible to depict it now (1859), when the
+quantity of cotton imported by England alone is more than twelve hundred
+millions of pounds?
+
+[Sidenote: Improvements in locomotion.] But such a vast development in
+that particular manufacture necessarily implied other improvements,
+especially in locomotion and the transmission of intelligence. The
+pedlar's pack, the pack-horse, and the cart became altogether
+inadequate, and, in succession, were replaced by the canal system of the
+last century, and by the steam-boats and railroads of this. [Sidenote:
+Brindley's canals.] The engineering triumphs of Brindley, whose canals
+were carried across valleys, over or through mountains, above rivers,
+excited unbounded admiration in his own times, and yet they were only
+the precursors of the railway engineering of ours. As it was, the canal
+system proved to be inadequate to the want, and oaken railways, which
+had long been used in quarries and coal-pits, with the locomotive
+invented by Murdoch in 1784, were destined to supplant them. [Sidenote:
+Stephenson's locomotives.] It does not fall within my present purpose to
+relate how the locomotion of the whole civilized world was
+revolutionized, not by the act of some mighty sovereign or soldier, but
+by George Stephenson, once a steam-engine stoker, who, by the invention
+of the tubular boiler and the ingenious device of blowing the chimney
+instead of the fire, converted the locomotive of the last century,
+which, at its utmost speed, could only travel seven miles an hour, into
+the locomotive of this, which can accomplish seventy. [Sidenote: The
+railway system.] I need not dwell on the collateral improvements, the
+introduction of iron for rails, metallic bridges, tubular bridges,
+viaducts, and all the prodigies of the existing system of railway
+engineering.
+
+[Sidenote: Improvement in the construction of machinery.] It is not only
+on account of the gigantic nature of the work it has to execute that the
+machinery employed in the great manufactures, such as those of cotton
+and iron, is so worthy of our admiration; improvements as respects the
+correctness, and even the elegance of its own construction, attract our
+attention. It has been truly said of steam-engines that they were never
+properly made until they made themselves. In any machine, the excellence
+of its performance depends on the accuracy of its construction. Its
+parts must be made perfectly true, and, to work smoothly, must work
+without error. To accomplish such conditions taxed to its utmost the
+mechanical ingenuity of the last century; and, indeed, it was not
+possible to reach perfect success so long as the hand alone was resorted
+to. Work executed by the most skilful mechanic could be no more than
+approximately correct. Not until such machines as the sliding rest and
+planing engine were introduced could any approach to perfection be made.
+Improvements of this nature reacted at once on the primary construction
+of machinery, making it more powerful, more accurate, more durable, and
+also led to the introduction of greater elegance in its planning or
+conception, as any one may see who will compare the clumsy half wooden,
+half metal machinery of the last century with the light and tasteful
+constructions of this.
+
+[Sidenote: Social changes effected by machinery.] While thus the
+inventive class of men were gratifying their mental activity, and
+following that pursuit which has ever engrossed the energetic in all
+ages of the world--the pursuit of riches; for it was quickly perceived
+that success in this direction was the high road to wealth, public
+consideration, and honour--the realization of riches greater than the
+wildest expectations of the alchemists; there were silently and in an
+unobserved manner great social and national results arising. The
+operative was correct enough in his conclusion that machinery was
+throwing him out of work, and reflecting persons were right enough in
+their belief that this extensive introduction of machines was in some
+way accomplishing a disorganization of the social economy. Doubtless,
+for the time being, the distress and misery were very severe; men were
+compelled to starve or to turn to new avocations; families were deprived
+of their long-accustomed means of support; such must necessarily be the
+incidents of every great social change, even though it be a change of
+improvement. Nor was it until the new condition of things had passed
+through a considerable advance that its political tendency began to be
+plainly discerned. It was relieving the labourer from the burden of his
+toil, supplanting manual by mechanical action. [Sidenote: Life in the
+mill.] In the cotton-mill, which may be looked upon as the embodiment of
+the new system and its tendencies, the steam-engine down below was doing
+the drudgery, turning the wheels and executing the labour, while the
+operatives above--men, women, and children--were engaged in those things
+which the engine could not accomplish--things requiring observation and
+intelligent action. Under such a state it was not possible but that a
+social change should ensue, for relief from corporeal labour is always
+followed by a disposition for mental activity; and it was not without a
+certain degree of plausibility that the philanthropist, whose attention
+was directed to this subject, asserted that the lot of the labouring man
+was no better than it had been before: he had changed the tyrant, but
+had not got rid of the tyranny; for the demands of the insatiate,
+inexorable, untiring steam-engine must be without delay satisfied; the
+broken thread must be instantly pieced; the iron fingers must receive
+their new supply; the finished work must be forthwith taken away.
+
+[Sidenote: Intellectual activity.] What was thus going on in the mill
+was a miniature picture of what was going on in the state. Labour was
+comparatively diminishing, mental activity increasing. Throughout the
+last century the intellectual advance is most significantly marked, and
+surprising is the contrast between the beginning and the close. Ideas
+that once had a living force altogether died away, the whole community
+offering an exemplification of the fact that the more opportunity men
+have for reflection the more they will think. Well, then, might those
+whose interests lay in the perpetuation of former ideas and the ancient
+order of things look with intolerable apprehension on what was taking
+place. They saw plainly that this intellectual activity would at last
+find a political expression, and that a power, daily increasing in
+intensity, would not fail to make itself felt in the end.
+
+[Sidenote: Difference between past and present ages.] In such things are
+manifested the essential differences between the Age of Faith and the
+Age of Reason. In the former, if life was enjoyed in calmness it was
+enjoyed in stagnation, in unproductiveness, and in a worthless way. But
+how different in the latter! Every thing is in movement. So many are the
+changes we witness, even in the course of a very brief period, that no
+one, though of the largest intellect, or in the most favourable
+position, can predict the future of only a few years hence. We see that
+ideas which yesterday served us as a guide die to-day, and will be
+replaced by others, we know not what, to-morrow.
+
+[Sidenote: Scientific contributions of various nations,] In this
+scientific advancement, among the triumphs of which we are living, all
+the nations of Europe have been engaged. Some, with a venial pride,
+claim for themselves the glory of having taken the lead. But perhaps
+each of them, if it might designate the country--alas! not yet a
+nation--that should occupy the succeeding post of honour, would inscribe
+Italy on its ballot. It was in Italy that Columbus was born; in Venice,
+destined one day to be restored to Italy, newspapers were first issued.
+It was in Italy that the laws of the descent of bodies to the earth and
+of the equilibrium of fluids were first determined by Galileo. In the
+Cathedral of Pisa that illustrious philosopher watched the swinging of
+the chandelier, and, observing that its vibrations, large and small,
+were made in equal times, left the house of God, his prayers unsaid, but
+the pendulum clock invented. To the Venetian senators he first showed
+the satellites of Jupiter, the crescent form of Venus, and, in the
+garden of Cardinal Bandini, the spots upon the sun. [Sidenote:
+especially of Italy.] It was in Italy that Sanctorio invented the
+thermometer; that Torricelli constructed the barometer and demonstrated
+the pressure of the air. It was there that Castelli laid the foundation
+of hydraulics and discovered the laws of the flowing of water. There,
+too, the first Christian astronomical observatory was established, and
+there Stancari counted the number of vibrations of a string emitting
+musical notes. There Grimaldi discovered the diffraction of light, and
+the Florentine academicians showed that dark heat may be reflected by
+mirrors across space. In our own times Melloni furnished the means of
+proving that it may be polarized. The first philosophical societies were
+the Italian; the first botanical garden was established at Pisa; the
+first classification of plants given by Caesalpinus. The first geological
+museum was founded at Verona; the first who cultivated the study of
+fossil remains were Leonardo da Vinci and Fracasta. The great chemical
+discoveries of this century were made by instruments which bear the
+names of Galvani and Volta. Why need I speak of science alone? Who will
+dispute with that illustrious people the palm of music and painting, of
+statuary and architecture? The dark cloud which for a thousand years has
+hung over that beautiful peninsula is fringed with irradiations of
+light. There is not a department of human knowledge from which Italy has
+not extracted glory, no art that she has not adorned.
+
+[Sidenote: Causes of her depression.] Notwithstanding the adverse
+circumstances in which she has been placed, Italy has thus taken no
+insignificant part in the advancement of science. I may at the close of
+a work of which so large a portion has been devoted to the relation of
+her influences, political and religious, on the rest of Europe, be
+perhaps excused the expression of a hope that the day is approaching in
+which she will, with Rome as her capital, take that place in the modern
+system to which she is entitled. The course of centuries has proved that
+her ecclesiastical relation with foreign countries is incompatible with
+her national life. It is that, and that alone, which has been the cause
+of all her ills. She has asserted a jurisdiction in every other
+government; the price she has paid is her own unity. The first, the
+all-important step in her restitution is the reduction of the papacy to
+a purely religious element. Her great bishop must no longer be an
+earthly prince. Rome, in her outcry for the preservation of her temporal
+possessions, forgets that Christian Europe has made a far greater
+sacrifice. It has yielded Bethlehem, Gethsemane, Calvary, the Sepulchre,
+the Mount of the Ascension. That is a sacrifice to which the surrender
+of the fictitious donations of barbarian kings is not to be compared.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The foregoing paragraphs were written in 1859. Since that time Italy
+has become a nation, Rome is its capital, Venice belongs to it. In
+1870-71 I was an eye-witness of the presence of Italian troops in the
+Eternal City.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+CONCLUSION.--THE FUTURE OF EUROPE.
+
+_Summary of the Argument presented in this Book respecting the mental
+Progress of Europe._
+
+_Intellectual Development is the Object of Individual Life.--It is also
+the Result of social Progress._
+
+_Nations arriving at Maturity instinctively attempt their own
+intellectual Organization.--Example of the Manner in which this has
+been done in China.--Its Imperfection.--What it has accomplished._
+
+_The Organization of public Intellect is the End to which European
+Civilization is tending._
+
+
+A Philosophical principle becomes valuable if it can be used as a guide
+in the practical purposes of life.
+
+[Sidenote: General summary of the work.] The object of this book is to
+impress upon its reader a conviction that civilization does not proceed
+in an arbitrary manner or by chance, but that it passes through a
+determinate succession of stages, and is a development according to law.
+
+[Sidenote: Individual and social life have been considered;] For this
+purpose we considered the relations between individual and social life,
+and showed that they are physiologically inseparable, and that the
+course of communities bears an unmistakable resemblance to the progress
+of an individual, and that man is the archetype or exemplar of society.
+
+[Sidenote: in the intellectual history of Greece;] We then examined the
+intellectual history of Greece--a nation offering the best and most
+complete illustration of the life of humanity. From the beginnings of
+its mythology in old Indian legends and of its philosophy in Ionia, we
+saw that it passed through phases like those of the individual to its
+decrepitude and death in Alexandria.
+
+[Sidenote: and the history of Europe.] Then, addressing ourselves to the
+history of Europe, we found that, if suitably divided into groups of
+ages, these groups, compared with each other in chronological
+succession, present a striking resemblance to the successive phases of
+Greek life, and therefore to that which Greek life resembles--that is to
+say, individual life.
+
+For the sake of convenience in these descriptions we have assumed
+arbitrary epochs, answering to the periods from infancy to maturity.
+History justifies the assumption of such periods. [Sidenote: The
+contrasts its ages display.] There is a well-marked difference between
+the aspect of Europe during its savage and mythologic ages; its
+changing, and growing, and doubting condition during the Roman republic
+and the Caesars; its submissive contentment under the Byzantine and
+Italian control; the assertion of its manhood, and right of thought, and
+freedom of action which characterize its present state--a state adorned
+by great discoveries in science, great inventions in art, additions to
+the comforts of life, improvements in locomotion, and the communication
+of intelligence. Science, capital, and machinery conjoined are producing
+industrial miracles. Colossal projects are undertaken and executed, and
+the whole globe is literally made the theatre of action of every
+individual.
+
+Nations, like individuals, are born, pass through a predestined growth,
+and die. One comes to its end at an early period and in an untimely way;
+another, not until it has gained maturity. One is cut off by feebleness
+in its infancy, another is destroyed by civil disease, another commits
+political suicide, another lingers in old age. But for every one there
+is an orderly way of progress to its final term, whatever that term may
+be.
+
+[Sidenote: The object of development is intellect.] Now, when we look at
+the successive phases of individual life, what is it that we find to be
+their chief characteristic? Intellectual advancement. And we consider
+that maturity is reached when intellect is at its maximum. The earlier
+stages are preparatory; they are wholly subordinate to this.
+
+[Sidenote: It is the same in individual life,] If the anatomist be asked
+how the human form advances to its highest perfection, he at once
+disregards all the inferior organs of which it is composed, and answers
+that it is through provisions in its nervous structure for intellectual
+improvement; that in succession it passes through stages analogous to
+those observed in other animals in the ascending scale, but in the end
+it leaves them far behind, reaching a point to which they never attain.
+The rise in organic development measures intellectual dignity.
+
+[Sidenote: and in the animal series,] In like manner, the physiologist
+considering the vast series of animals now inhabiting the earth with us,
+ranks them in the order of their intelligence. He shows that their
+nervous mechanism unfolds itself upon the same plan as that of man, and
+that, as its advancement in this uniform and predetermined direction is
+greater, so is the position attained to higher.
+
+[Sidenote: and in the general life of the globe.] The geologist declares
+that these conclusions hold good in the history of the earth, and that
+there has been an orderly improvement in intellectual power of the
+beings that have inhabited it successively. It is manifested by their
+nervous systems. He affirms that the cycle of transformation through
+which every man must pass is a miniature representation of the progress
+of life on the planet. The intention in both cases is the same.
+
+[Sidenote: Succession of automatism, instinct, and intelligence.]
+The sciences, therefore, join with history in affirming that the great
+aim of nature is intellectual improvement. They proclaim that the
+successive stages of every individual, from its earliest rudiment to
+maturity--the numberless organic beings now living contemporaneously
+with us, and constituting the animal series--the orderly appearance of
+that grand succession which, in the slow lapse of time, has emerged--all
+these three great lines of the manifestation of life furnish not only
+evidences, but also proofs of the dominion of law. In all the general
+principle is to differentiate instinct from automatism, and then to
+differentiate intelligence from instinct. In man himself the three
+distinct modes of life occur in an epochal order through childhood to
+the most perfect state. And this holding good for the individual, since
+it is physiologically impossible to separate him from the race, what
+holds good for the one must also hold good for the other. Hence man is
+truly the archetype of society. His development is the model of social
+progress.
+
+[Sidenote: The object of social development.] What, then, is
+the conclusion inculcated by these doctrines as regards the
+social progress of great communities? It is that all political
+institutions--imperceptibly or visibly, spontaneously or
+purposely--should tend to the improvement and organization of
+national intellect.
+
+The expectation of life in a community, as in an individual, increases
+in proportion as the artificial condition or laws under which it is
+living agree with the natural tendency. Existence may be maintained
+under very adverse circumstances for a season; but, for stability and
+duration, and prosperity, there must be a correspondence between the
+artificial conditions and the natural tendency.
+
+[Sidenote: Application of these principles to Europe.] Europe is now
+entering on its mature phase of life. Each of its nations will attempt
+its own intellectual organization, and will accomplish it more or less
+perfectly, as certainly as that bees build combs and fill them with
+honey. The excellence of the result will altogether turn on the
+suitability and perfection of the means.
+
+[Sidenote: Example offered by China.] There are historical illustrations
+which throw light upon the working of these principles. Thus, centuries
+ago, China entered on her Age of Reason, and instinctively commenced the
+operation of mental organization. What is it that has given to her her
+wonderful longevity? What is it that insures the well-being, the
+prosperity of a population of three hundred and sixty millions--more
+than one fourth of the human race--on a surface not by any means as
+large as Europe? Not geographical position; for, though the country may
+in former ages have been safe on the East by reason of the sea, it has
+been invaded and conquered from the West. Not a docility, want of
+spirit, or submissiveness of the people, for there have been bloody
+insurrections. The Chinese empire extends through twenty degrees of
+latitude; the mean annual temperature of its northern provinces differs
+from that of the southern by twenty-five Fahrenheit degrees. Hence, with
+a wonderful variety in its vegetation, there must be great differences
+in the types of men inhabiting it. But the principle that lies at the
+basis of its political system has confronted successfully all these
+human varieties, and has outlived all revolutions.
+
+[Sidenote: She has organized her public intellect,] The organization of
+the national intellect is that principle. A broad foundation is laid in
+universal education. It is intended that every Chinese shall know how to
+read and write. The special plan then adopted is that of competitive
+examinations. The way to public advancement is open to all. Merit, real
+or supposed, is the only passport to office. Its degree determines
+exclusively social rank. The government is organized on mental
+qualifications. The imperial constitution is imitated in those of the
+provinces. Once in three years public examinations are held in each
+district or county, with a view of ascertaining those who are fit for
+office. The bachelors, or those who are successful, are triennially sent
+for renewed examination in the provincial capital before two examiners
+deputed from the general board of public education. The licentiates thus
+sifted out now offer themselves for final examination before the
+imperial board at Pekin. Suitable candidates for vacant posts are thus
+selected. There is no one who is not liable to such an inquisition. When
+vacancies occur they are filled from the list of approved men, who are
+gradually elevated to the highest honours.
+
+[Sidenote: and obtains stability for her institutions.] It is not
+because the talented, who, when disappointed constitute in other
+countries the most dangerous of all classes, are here provided for, that
+stability of institutions has been attained, but because the political
+system approaches to an agreement with that physiological condition
+which guides all social development. The intention is to give a
+dominating control to intellect.
+
+[Sidenote: Imperfection of the method she employs.] The method through
+which that result is aimed at is imperfect, and, consequently, an
+absolute coincidence between the system and the tendency is not
+attained, but the stability secured by their approximation is very
+striking. The method itself is the issue of political forms through
+which the nation for ages has been passing. Their insufficiency and
+imperfections are incorporated with and reappear in it.
+
+[Sidenote: Its literary basis inadequate.] To the practical eye of
+Europe a political system thus founded on a literary basis appears to be
+an absurdity. But we must look with respect on anything that one-fourth
+of mankind have concluded it best to do, especially since they have
+consistently adhered to their determination for several thousand years.
+Forgetting that herein they satisfy an instinct of humanity which every
+nation, if it lives long enough, must feel, Europe often asserts that it
+is the competitive system which has brought the Chinese to their present
+state, and made them a people without any sense of patriotism or honour,
+without any faith or vigour. These are the results, not of their system,
+but of old age. There are octogenarians among us as morose, selfish, and
+conceited as China.
+
+[Sidenote: Relative position of Europe and China.] The want of a clear
+understanding of our relative position vitiates all our dealings with
+that ancient empire. The Chinese has heard of our discordant opinions,
+of our intolerance toward those who differ in ideas from us, of our
+worship of wealth, and the honour we pay to birth; he has heard that we
+sometimes commit political power to men who are so little above the
+animals that they can neither read nor write; that we hold military
+success in esteem, and regard the profession of arms as the only
+suitable occupation for a gentleman. It is so long since his ancestors
+thought and acted in that manner that he justifies himself in regarding
+us as having scarcely yet emerged from the barbarian stage. On our side,
+we cherish the delusion that we shall, by precept or by force, convert
+him to our modes of thought, religious or political, and that we can
+infuse into his stagnating veins a portion of our enterprise.
+
+[Sidenote: What China has really accomplished.] A trustworthy account of
+the present condition of China would be a valuable gift to philosophy,
+and also to statesmanship. On a former page I have remarked (Chap. I.
+Vol. I.) that it demands the highest policy to govern populations living
+in great differences of latitude. Yet China has not only controlled her
+climatic strands of people, she has even made them, if not homogeneous,
+yet so fitted to each other that they all think and labour alike. Europe
+is inevitably hastening to become what China is. In her we may see what
+we shall be like when we are old.
+
+A great community, aiming to govern itself by intellect rather than by
+coercion, is a spectacle worthy of admiration, even though the mode by
+which it endeavours to accomplish its object is plainly inadequate.
+[Sidenote: Difference in government by force and intelligence.] Brute
+force holds communities together as an iron nail binds pieces of wood by
+the compression it makes--a compression depending on the force with
+which it has been hammered in. It also holds more tenaciously if a
+little rusted with age. But intelligence binds like a screw. The things
+it has to unite must be carefully adjusted to its thread. It must be
+gently turned, not driven and so it retains the consenting parts firmly
+together.
+
+Notwithstanding the imperfections of a system founded on such a faulty
+basis, that great community has accomplished what many consider to be
+the object of statesmanship. They think that it should be permanence in
+Institutions. But permanence is only, in an apparent sense, the object
+of good statesmanship; progression, in accordance with the natural
+tendency, is the real one. The successive steps of such a progression
+follow one another so imperceptibly that there is a delusive appearance
+of permanence. Man is so constituted that he is never aware of
+continuous motion. Abrupt variations alone impress his attention.
+
+Forms of government, therefore, are of moment, though not in the manner
+commonly supposed. Their value increases in proportion as they permit or
+encourage the natural tendency for development to be satisfied.
+
+While Asia has thus furnished an example of the effects of a national
+organization of intellect, Europe, on a smaller scale, has presented an
+illustration of the same kind. [Sidenote: A similar example in the case
+of Italy.] The papal system opened, in its special circumstances, a way
+for talent. It maintained an intellectual organization for those who
+were within its pale, irrespective of wealth or birth. It was no
+objection that the greatest churchman frequently came from the lowest
+walks of life. And that organization sustained it in spite of the
+opposition of external circumstances for several centuries after its
+supernatural and ostensible basis had completely decayed away.
+
+[Sidenote: Approach of Europe to universal education.] Whatever may be
+the facts under which, in the different countries of Europe, such an
+organization takes place, or the political forms guiding it, the basis
+it must rest upon is universal, and, if necessary, compulsory education.
+In the more enlightened places the movement has already nearly reached
+that point. Already it is an accepted doctrine that the state, as well
+as the parent, has rights in a child and that it may insist on
+education: conversely also, that every child has a claim upon the
+government for good instruction. After providing in the most liberal
+manner for that, free countries have but one thing more to do for the
+accomplishment of the rest.
+
+[Sidenote: Necessity of intellectual freedom.] That one thing is to
+secure intellectual freedom as completely as the rights of property and
+personal liberty have been already secured. Philosophical opinions and
+scientific discoveries are entitled to be judged of by their truth, not
+by their relation to existing interests. The motion of the earth round
+the sun, the antiquity of the globe, the origin of species, are
+doctrines which have had to force their way in the manner described in
+this book, not against philosophical opposition, but opposition of a
+totally different nature. And yet the interests which resisted them so
+strenuously have received no damage from their establishment beyond that
+consequent on the discredit of having so resisted them.
+
+There is no literary crime greater than that of exciting a social, and
+especially a theological odium against ideas that are purely scientific,
+none against which the disapproval of every educated man ought to be
+more strongly expressed. The republic of letters owes it to its own
+dignity to tolerate no longer offences of that kind.
+
+[Sidenote: The future course of Europe.] To such an organization of
+their national intellect, and to giving it a political control, the
+countries of Europe are thus rapidly advancing. They are hastening to
+satisfy their instinctive tendency. The special form in which they will
+embody their intentions must, of course, depend to a great degree on the
+political forms under which they have passed their lives, modified by
+that approach to homogeneousness which arises from increased
+intercommunication. The canal system, so wonderfully developed in China,
+exerted no little influence in that respect--an influence, however, not
+to be compared with that which must be the result of the railway system
+of Europe.
+
+[Sidenote: Its hopefulness compared with that of China.] In an
+all-important particular the prospect of Europe is bright. China is
+passing through the last stage of civil life in the cheerlessness of
+Buddhism; Europe approaches it through Christianity. Universal
+benevolence cannot fail to yield a better fruit than unsocial pride.
+There is a fairer hope for nations animated by a sincere religious
+sentiment, who, whatever their political history may have been, have
+always agreed in this, that they were devout, than for a people who
+dedicate themselves to a selfish pursuit of material advantages, who
+have lost all belief in a future, and are living without any God.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have now come to the end of a work which has occupied me for many
+years, and which I submit, with many misgivings as to its execution, to
+the indulgent consideration of the public. These pages will not have
+been written in vain if the facts they present impress the reader, as
+they have impressed the author, with a conviction that the civilization
+of Europe has not taken place fortuitously, but in a definite mariner,
+and under the control of natural law; that the procession of nations
+does not move forward like a dream, without reason or order, but that
+there is a predetermined, a solemn march, in which all must join, ever
+moving, ever resistlessly advancing, encountering and enduring an
+inevitable succession of events; that individual life and its
+advancement through successive stages is the model of social life and
+its secular variations.
+
+I have asserted the control of natural law in the shaping of human
+affairs--a control not inconsistent with free-will any more than the
+unavoidable passage of an individual as he advances to maturity and
+declines in old age is inconsistent with his voluntary actions; that
+higher law limits our movements to a certain direction, and guides them
+in a certain way. As the Stoics of old used to say, an acorn may lie
+torpid in the ground, unable to exert its living force, until it
+receives warmth, and moisture, and other things needful for its
+germination; when it grows, it may put forth one bud here and another
+bud there; the wind may bend one branch, the frost blight another; the
+innate vitality of the tree may struggle against adverse conditions or
+luxuriate in those that are congenial; but, whatever the circumstances
+may be, there is an overruling power for ever constraining and modelling
+it. The acorn can only produce an oak.
+
+The application of this principle to human societies is completely
+established by a scientific study of their history; and the more
+extensive and profound that study, the better shall we be able to
+distinguish the invariable law in the midst of the varying events. But
+that once thoroughly appreciated, we have gained a philosophical guide
+for the interpretation of the past acts of nations, and a prophetic
+monitor of their future, so far as prophecy is possible in human
+affairs.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abba Oumna, a distinguished Jewish physician, i. 401.
+
+  Abbot Arnold, his sanguinary order at the capture of Beziers, ii. 62.
+
+  Abdallah penetrates Africa as far as Tripoli, i. 334.
+
+  Abdalmalek invades Africa, i. 334.
+
+  Abderrahman slain at the battle of Tours, ii. 30.
+
+  Abderrahman III., description of the Court of, ii. 32.
+    Introduces cotton manufacture into Spain, ii. 386.
+
+  Abderrahman Sufi improves the photometry of the stars, ii. 42.
+
+  Abdulmalek, his scrupulous integrity in regard to the church of
+      Damascus, i. 338.
+
+  Abelard, Peter, his character and doctrines, ii. 11.
+
+  Abkah, his temporary success in subjugating Africa, i. 334.
+
+  Aboul Wefa discovers the variation of the moon, i. 325.
+
+  Abraham Ibn Sahal, obscene character of the songs of, ii. 35.
+
+  Absorption of the soul of man, the Veda doctrine of, i. 60.
+
+  Abu-Bekr, the successor of Mohammed and first Khalif, i. 334.
+
+  Abul Cassem, a Moorish writer of the tenth century, on trade
+      and commerce, ii. 44.
+
+  Abul Hassan, an Arab astronomer, ii. 42.
+
+  Abu Othman, a Moorish writer on zoology, ii. 39.
+
+  Acacius, Bishop of Constantinople, excommunicated by Felix, the
+      Bishop of Rome, i. 352.
+
+  Academies, accusation of heresy against the Italian, ii. 213.
+    Foundation of modern learned, ii. 287.
+
+  Academy, Old, founded by Plato, i. 169.
+    Middle, founded by Arcesilaus, i. 169.
+    New, founded by Carneades, i. 169.
+    Fourth, founded by Philo of Larissa, i. 170.
+    Fifth, founded by Antiochus of Ascalon, i. 170.
+
+  Acherusian Cave, superstitiously believed to lead to hell, i. 36.
+
+  Achilles, spear of, preserved as a relic, i. 51.
+    Puzzle, advanced by Zeno the Eleatic as one of four arguments
+      against the possibility of motion, i. 122.
+
+  Acoustics, discoveries in, and phenomena of, ii. 370.
+
+  Adrian, Pope, incurs the displeasure of Charlemagne in
+      consequence of selling his vassals as slaves, i. 373.
+
+  Adriatic Sea, North, change of depth in, i. 30.
+
+  Aeneas Sylvius becomes Pope Pius II., i. 299.
+    His remark on the Council of Basle, ii. 100.
+    On the state of faith, ii. 103.
+    On Christendom, ii. 109.
+
+  Aerial martyrs, account of, i. 426.
+
+  Aeschylus condemned to death for blasphemy, but saved by his
+      brother Aminias, i. 50.
+
+  Aesculapius, the father of Greek medicine, i. 393.
+
+  Affinity, first employed in its modern acceptation by Albertus
+      Magnus, ii. 153.
+
+  Africa, circumnavigation of, by the ships of Pharaoh Necho, i. 78.
+    Conquered by the Arabs, i. 333.
+    Effects of the loss of, on Italy, i. 350.
+    Circumnavigation of, by Vasco de Gama, ii. 168.
+
+  Age of the earth, problem of, ii. 294.
+    Proofs of, ii. 334.
+
+  Age of Faith, Greek, i. 143.
+    Its problems, i. 217.
+    European, i. 308.
+    In the East, end of, i. 326.
+    In the West, i. 349; ii. 1, 27, 77, 105.
+    Its literary condition, ii. 128.
+    Results of, in England, ii. 229.
+    Contrast of, and age of Reason, ii. 389.
+
+  Age of Greek decrepitude, i. 207.
+
+  Age of Inquiry, Greek, its solutions, i. 217.
+    History of, European, i. 239, 265.
+
+  Age of Reason, Greek, i. 171.
+    Greek, its problems, i. 221.
+    Approach of, ii. 151, 190.
+    History of, ii. 252, 294.
+
+  Ages, duration of Greek, i. 222.
+
+  Ages of life of man, i. 14.
+    Of intellectual progress of Europe, i. 19.
+    Algazzali's, of life of man, ii. 52.
+    Each has its own logic, ii. 192.
+    Agriculture in a rainless country, i. 85.
+
+  Air, modern discoveries of the relations of, i. 102.
+
+  Aix-la-Chapelle, adorned by Charlemagne, i. 373.
+
+  Aiznadin, battle of, i. 335.
+
+  Al Abbas, a Moorish writer on botany, ii. 39.
+
+  Alaric, capture of Rome by, i. 300.
+
+  Albategnius discovers the motion of the sun's apogee, i. 325.
+    Determines the length of the year, ii. 41.
+
+  Al Beithar, a Moorish writer on botany, ii. 39.
+
+  Albertus Magnus constructs a brazen man, ii. 116.
+    His extensive acquirements, ii. 153.
+
+  Alberuni, a Moorish writer on gems, ii. 39.
+
+  Albigensian revolt, ii. 147.
+
+  Albucasis, a skilful surgeon of Cordova, ii. 39.
+
+  Alby, edict of Council of, against the Jewish physicians, ii. 125.
+
+  Al-Cawthor, river of, mentioned in the Koran, i. 346.
+
+  Alchemists, Saracenic, i. 409.
+
+  Alchemists, minor, of England, France, and Germany, ii. 155.
+
+  Alchemy, theory and object of, i. 406.
+
+  Alcuin, a Benedictine monk, founded the University of Paris, i. 437.
+
+  Alemanni, Christianized at the beginning of the sixth century, i. 365.
+
+  Alexander, Bishop of Constantinople, his controversy with Arius, i. 285.
+
+  Alexander II. excommunicates the Bishop of Milan, ii. 17.
+
+  Alexander IV., Pope, he endeavours to destroy the "Everlasting
+      Gospel," ii. 78.
+
+  Alexander of Aphrodisais, his principles and tendencies, i. 259.
+
+  Alexander the Great, his invasion of Persia, i. 171.
+    His character, i. 174.
+
+  Alexandria, foundation of, i. 173.
+    Political state of, i. 200.
+    Decline of the school of, i. 204.
+    Description of, i. 323.
+    Its capture, i. 334.
+
+  "Alexiad" of Anna Comnena, ii. 59.
+
+  Algazzali, his writings and doctrines, ii. 50.
+
+  Alhakem, Khalif, his extensive library, ii. 32.
+
+  Alhazen discovers atmospheric refraction, ii. 42.
+    Review of, ii. 45.
+    His conclusions on the extent of the atmosphere confirmed, ii. 367.
+
+  Ali, believed by the Shiites to be an incarnation of God, i. 347.
+    His patronage of literature carried out by his successors, ii. 36.
+
+  Alineations, employed by Hipparchus in making a register of the
+      stars, i. 202.
+
+  Alliacus, Cardinal, the five memoirs of, ii. 254.
+
+  Almagest, of Ptolemy, description of, i. 203.
+    Translated by Averroes, ii. 67.
+
+  Almaimon, his letter to the Emperor Theophilus, ii. 40.
+    Determines the obliquity of the ecliptic, ii. 41.
+    Also the size of the earth, ii. 41.
+    His accuracy confirmed by the measurements of Fernel, ii. 255.
+
+  Almansor patronizes learned men irrespective of their religious
+      opinions, i. 336.
+
+  Alps, upheaval of, i. 31.
+
+  Al-Sirat bridge, spoken of in the Koran, i. 346.
+
+  Alwalid I., Khalif, prohibits the use of Greek, i. 339.
+
+  Amadeus, elected "Pope Felix V.," ii. 103.
+
+  Amber brought from the Baltic, i. 46.
+    Supposed by Thales to possess a living soul, i. 97.
+    Its electrical power imputed to a soul residing in it, i. 100.
+    Study of its phenomena has led to important results, ii. 376.
+
+  Ambrose of Milan converts St. Augustine, i. 304.
+    Apology for the impostures practised by, i. 313.
+
+  Ambrose Pare lays the foundation of modern surgery, ii. 285.
+
+  America, persecutions practised in, ii. 117.
+    Discovery of, ii. 163.
+    Where name first occurs, ii. 163.
+    Crime of Spain in, ii. 188.
+    Antiquity of its civilization, ii. 189.
+
+  America, United States of, separation of Church and State in,
+      ii. 143, 227.
+    Opportune occurrence of the Revolution, ii. 150.
+    Culmination of the Reformation in, ii. 226.
+
+  American tragedy, ii. 166.
+
+  Ammon, St., wonder related of, i. 427.
+
+  Ammonius Saccas, reputed author of the doctrines of
+      Neo-Platonism, i. 211.
+
+  Amrou, the Mohammedan general, takes Alexandria, i. 333.
+
+  Amulets, whence their supposed power derived, i. 403.
+
+  Anabaptists, number of, put to death, ii. 226.
+
+  Analogy of Greek and Indian Philosophy, i. 210.
+
+  Analysis, higher, commencement of the, i. 134.
+    Political dangers of, i. 139.
+
+  Anaxagoras condemned to death for impiety, i. 50.
+    His doctrines, i. 106.
+    Persecution and death of, i. 110.
+
+  Anaximander of Miletus, his doctrines, i. 106.
+    Originates cosmogony and biology, i. 107.
+    Holds the doctrine that air is the first principle, i. 98.
+
+  Anchorets, number of, i. 432.
+
+  Animals, Veda doctrine of use of, i. 61.
+    Are localized as well as plants, ii. 309.
+    Order of succession of, ii. 321.
+
+  Animals, cold and hot-blooded, ii. 332.
+    Characteristics of, ii. 339.
+    In lower tribes of, movements are automatic, ii. 349.
+    Their instinctive and intellectual apparatus, ii. 351.
+    Their nature, ii. 363.
+    Analogy between, and Man, ii. 364.
+
+  Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, takes part in the dispute
+      between the realists and nominalists, ii. 12.
+
+  Anthony, St., a grazing hermit, i. 427.
+    Delusions of, i. 429.
+
+  Anthropocentric stage of thought, i. 36.
+    Ideas, prominence of, i. 64.
+    Ruin of, ii. 279.
+    Philosophy, review of, ii. 287.
+
+  Antimony, its uses, and origin of its name, ii. 156.
+
+  Antiochus of Ascalon, founder of the fourth Academy, i. 170.
+
+  Antiochus, King of Syria, cedes his European possessions to
+      Rome, i. 246.
+
+  Antisthenes, founder of the Cynical School, i. 149.
+
+  Antonina, wife of Belisarius, her cruel treatment of Sylverius, i. 354.
+
+  Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, Emperor, his acknowledgments to
+      Epictetus, i. 259.
+
+  Antonio de Dominis, outrage on the body of, ii. 225.
+
+  Apennines, upheaval of, i. 31.
+
+  Apocalypse, comments on, ii. 78.
+
+  Apollonius Pergaeus, the writings of, i. 201.
+    His geometry underrated by Patristicism, i. 316.
+
+  Apollonius of Tyana aids in the introduction of Orientalism, i. 210.
+    Wonders related of, ii. 115.
+
+  Aquinas, Thomas, a Dominican, the rival of Duns Scotus, ii. 14.
+    Sojourns with Albertus Magnus, ii. 116.
+
+  Arabian influence, importance of, i. 383.
+    Sorcery, i. 390.
+    School system, ii. 36.
+    Practical science, ii. 38.
+    Medicine and surgery, ii. 39.
+    Astronomy, ii. 41.
+    Practical art, ii. 43.
+    Commerce, ii. 43.
+    Numerals, ii. 49.
+
+  Arabs cultivate learning, i. 335.
+    Rapidity of their intellectual development, i. 336.
+    Invade Spain, ii. 28.
+
+  Arabs, civilization and refinement of Spanish, ii. 30.
+    Introduce the manufacture of cotton into Europe, ii. 386.
+    Invent cotton paper, and the printing of calico by wooden
+        blocks, ii. 386.
+
+  Arantius, a distinguished anatomist, ii. 284.
+
+  Arcesilaus, founder of the Middle Academy, i. 169.
+
+  Archimedes, the writings of, i. 194.
+    His mechanical inventions held in contempt by Patristicism, i. 316.
+
+  Arctinus, his poems held in veneration, i. 51.
+
+  Arddha Chiddi, the founder of Buddhism, life of, i. 66.
+
+  Argonautic voyage, object of, i. 41.
+    Its real nature, i. 45.
+
+  Ariminium, Council of, i. 289.
+
+  Aristarchus attempts to ascertain the sun's distance, i. 199.
+
+  Aristippus, the founder of the Cyrenaic School, i. 149.
+
+  Aristotle keeps a druggist's shop in Athens, i. 129, 397.
+    Biography of, i. 176.
+    His works translated into Arabic, i. 402.
+
+  Aristotelism compared with Platonism i. 177.
+
+  Arithmetic, Indian, ii. 40.
+
+  Arius, his heresy, i. 285.
+    His death, i. 288.
+    Political results of his heresy, i. 326.
+
+  Arnold of Brescia, murder of, ii. 25.
+
+  Arnold de Villa Nova, biographical sketch of, ii. 130.
+
+  Art, Black, i. 404.
+
+  Artesian Wells, ii. 301.
+
+  Articulata, anatomy of, ii. 350.
+
+  Asclepions, effect of the destruction of, i. 387.
+    Nature and organization of, i. 396.
+
+  Asellius discovers the lacteals, ii. 285.
+
+  Asoka, King, patronizes Buddhism, i. 67.
+
+  Aspasia, history of, significant, i. 132.
+
+  Astrolabe, known to the Saracens, ii. 42.
+
+  Astronomical refraction, understood by Alhazen, ii. 46.
+
+  Astronomy, primitive, i. 39.
+    Passes beyond the fetich stage, i. 100.
+    Of Eratosthenes, i. 199.
+    How she takes her revenge on the Church, i. 360.
+    The intellectual impulse makes its attack through, ii. 133.
+    Affords illustration of the magnitude and age of the world, ii. 278.
+
+  Athanasius rebels against the Emperor Constantine, i. 289.
+    First introduces monasticism into Italy, i. 433.
+
+  Athene, statues of, i. 51.
+
+  Athens, her progress in art, i. 132,
+    her philosophy, i. 133.
+    Her fall, ii. 109.
+
+  Atlantic, first voyage across, ii. 162.
+
+  Atmosphere, height of, determined by Alhazen, ii. 47.
+    Effects of light on, ii. 320.
+    The phenomena and properties of, ii. 367.
+
+  Atomic theory, suggested by Democritus, i. 125.
+
+  Attalus, King of Pergamus, effect of his bequests to Rome, i. 247.
+
+  Attila, King of the Huns, "the scourge of God," invades Africa, i. 350.
+
+  Augsburg, Diet of, ii. 211.
+
+  Augustine, St., causes Pelagius to be expelled from Africa, i. 294.
+    Writes the "City of God," i. 301.
+    Character of that work, i. 304.
+    Denies the possibility of the Antipodes, i. 315.
+    His notion of the Virgin, i. 361.
+    On spontaneous generation, ii. 329.
+
+  Auricular confession, introduction of, ii. 65.
+
+  "Ausculta Fili," Papal bull of, ii. 83.
+
+  Australian, how affected by physical circumstances, i. 26.
+
+  Avenzoar, a Moorish writer on pharmacy, ii. 39.
+
+  Averroes, of Cordova, the chief commentator on Aristotle, ii. 39.
+    His theory of the soul, ii. 193.
+    Confounded force with the psychical principle, ii. 343.
+    His erroneous view of man, ii. 357.
+
+  Avicenna, the geological views of, i. 411.
+    A physician and philosopher, ii. 39.
+
+  Avignon, Papacy removed to, ii. 86.
+    Voluptuousness of, ii. 95.
+    Papacy leaves, ii. 96.
+
+  Azof, Sea of, dependency of the Mediterranean, i. 28.
+
+
+  Babylonian, extent of astronomical observations, i. 192.
+
+  Bacon, Lord, nature of his philosophy, ii. 258.
+
+  Bacon, Roger, titles of his works, ii. 120.
+    Is the friend of the Pope, ii. 132.
+    His history and his discoveries, ii. 153.
+
+  Baconian philosophy, its principles understood and carried into
+      practice eighteen hundred years before Bacon was born, ii. 175.
+
+  Bactrian empire, European ideas transmitted through, i. 45.
+
+  Badbee, John, the second English martyr, denies
+      transubstantiation, ii. 99.
+
+  Bagdad, Khalifs of, patronize learning, i. 335.
+    Its university founded by the Khalif al Raschid, i. 402.
+
+  Baghavat Gita, i. 65.
+
+  Baines on the extent of the cotton manufacture, ii. 386.
+
+  Bajazet, defeats Sigismund, King of Hungary, at the battle of
+      Nicopolis, ii. 106.
+
+  "Balance of Wisdom," probably written by Alhazen, ii. 47.
+
+  Balboa discovers the Great South Sea, ii. 174.
+
+  Ball, John, his preaching an index of the state of the times, ii. 148.
+
+  Balthazar Cossa, Pope John XXIII., ii. 98.
+
+  Barbarians, Northern, their influence on civilization in Italy, i. 416.
+
+  Barbarossa, Frederick, surrenders Arnold of Brescia to the
+      Church, ii. 25.
+
+  Barsumas assists in the murder of the Bishop of Constantinople, i. 297.
+
+  Basil Valentine introduces antimony, ii. 156.
+
+  Basil, St., Bishop of Caesarea, founder of the Basilean order of
+      monks, i. 436.
+
+  Basle, Council of, ii. 102.
+
+  Bavarians, Christianized, i. 365.
+
+  "Beatific Vision," questioned by John XXII., ii. 94.
+
+  Beccher introduced the phlogistic theory, ii. 286.
+
+  Bechil, the discoverer of phosphorus, i. 410.
+
+  Belgrade, taken by Soliman the Magnificent, ii. 109.
+
+  Belisarius reconquers Africa, i. 327. Captures Rome, i. 350.
+
+  Benedetto Gaetani, Cardinal, his participation in causing the
+      abdication of Peter Morrone, Celestine V., ii. 80.
+
+  Benedict, St., miracles related of, i. 435.
+
+  Benedictines, their numbers, i. 436.
+
+  Ben Ezra, his numerous acquirements, ii. 123.
+
+  Berengar of Tours, opinions of, ii. 10.
+    Many of his doctrines embraced by Wickliffe, ii. 98.
+
+  Berkeley, his doctrine on the existence of matter, i. 231.
+
+  Bernard of Clairvaux stimulates the second Crusade, ii. 24.
+
+  Bernard, St., attacks Abelard, ii. 11.
+
+  Bernardini, Peter, the father of St. Francis, ii. 64.
+
+  Bertha, Queen of Kent, assists in the conversion of England to
+      Christianity, i. 366.
+
+  Beziers, the capture of, by Abbot Arnold, ii. 62.
+    Council of, opposes the Jewish physicians, ii. 125.
+
+  Bible, translated into Latin by Jerome, i. 306.
+    Its superiority to the Koran, i. 343.
+    Translated into English by Wickliffe, ii. 99.
+    Its character and general circulation, ii. 224.
+
+  Biology originates with Anaximander, i. 107.
+
+  Birds, migration of, i. 6.
+
+  Bishops, rivalries of the three, i. 298.
+    Their fate, i. 306.
+    Accusation of House of Commons against the English, ii. 235.
+    Their reply, ii. 236.
+
+  Black Art sprang from Chaldee notions, i. 404.
+
+  Black Sea, a dependency of the Mediterranean, i. 28.
+
+  Bleaching by chlorine, ii. 386.
+
+  Blood admixture, effect of, i. 15.
+    Degeneration, its effect, ii. 144.
+
+  Boccaccio obtains a professorship for Leontius Pilatus, ii. 194.
+
+  Bodin's, "De Republica," i. 6.
+
+  Boethius falls a victim to the wrath of Theodoric, i. 353.
+    His character, i. 358.
+
+  Boilman, Tom, origin of the nickname, ii. 244.
+
+  Boniface VIII., Pope, "Benedetto Gaetani," his quarrel with the
+      Colonnas, ii. 80.
+
+  Boniface of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury, his rapacity, ii. 75.
+
+  Boniface, an English missionary of the seventh century, i. 366.
+
+  Books, longevity of, ii. 201.
+
+  Borelli on circular motion, ii. 272.
+    Applies mathematics to muscular movement, ii. 286.
+
+  Boyle improves the air-pump, ii. 286.
+
+  Bradley determines the velocity of direct stellar light, ii. 299.
+
+  Brahman, how regarded according to the Institutes of Menu, i. 63.
+    Attempted to reconcile ancient traditions with modern
+        philosophical discoveries, ii. 335.
+
+  Brain, functions, ii. 351.
+
+  Breakspear, Nicholas, afterwards Pope Adrian IV., ii. 25.
+
+  Brown, discoverer of the quinary arrangement of flowers, ii. 286.
+
+  Brindley, a millwright's apprentice, ii. 385.
+    His engineering triumph in the construction of canals, ii. 387.
+
+  Bruchion, the library in, i. 318.
+
+  Bruno, Giordano, teaches the heliocentric theory, ii. 257.
+    Is burnt as a heretic, ii. 258.
+
+  Brutes, why supposed by Diogenes to be incapable of thought, i. 102.
+
+  Buddhism, its rise, i. 65.
+    The organisation of, i. 67.
+    Its fundamental principle, i. 68.
+    Its views of the nature of man, i. 70.
+    Philosophical estimate of, i. 72.
+
+  Bulgarians converted by a picture, i. 367.
+
+  Bunsen, his estimate of Eusebius's chronology, i. 198.
+
+  Bunyan, John, his writings surpass those of St. Augustine, i. 305.
+    His twelve years' imprisonment for preaching, ii. 242.
+    Probable source of much of the machinery of the Pilgrim's
+    Progress, ii. 248.
+
+  Burnet's "Sacred Theory of the Earth," ii. 286.
+
+  Byzantine system adopted in Italy, i. 349.
+    Government persecutes the Nestorians and Jews, i. 385.
+    Suppression of medicine, i. 386.
+
+
+  Cabanis, quoted on the influence of the Jews, ii. 120.
+
+  Cabot, Sebastian, rediscovers Newfoundland, and attempts to
+      find a north-west passage to China, ii. 174.
+
+  Cabral discovers Brazil, ii. 174.
+
+  Cadesia, effect of the battle of, i. 335.
+
+  Caesalpinus first gives a classification of plants, ii. 390.
+
+  Caesar becomes master of the world, i. 248.
+
+  Calico printing, antiquity of the art, and how improved, ii. 386.
+
+  Caligula, Emperor, an adept in alchemy, i. 407.
+
+  Calixtus III., Pope, issues his fulminations against Halley's
+      comet, ii. 253.
+
+  Callimachus, author of a treatise on birds, and a poet, i. 201.
+
+  Callisthenes accompanies Alexander the Great in his campaigns, i. 172.
+    Is hanged by his orders, i. 174.
+    Transmits to Aristotle records of astronomical observations, i. 192.
+
+  Calvin establishes a new religious sect, ii. 211.
+    Causes Servetus to be burnt as a heretic, ii. 225.
+
+  Calydonian boar, hide of, preserved as a relic, i. 51.
+
+  Cambyses conquers Egypt, i. 79, 186.
+
+  Canal of Egypt, reopened by Necho, i. 78.
+    A warning from the oracle of Amun causes Necho to stop the
+        construction of, i. 93.
+    Cleared again from sand, i. 325.
+
+  Canals the precursors of railways, ii. 387.
+    Of China, their influence, ii. 400.
+
+  Cannibalism of Europe, i. 32.
+
+  Canonic of Epicurus, imperfection of, i. 167.
+
+  Canosa, scene at, the King of Germany seeking pardon of the
+      Pope, ii. 19.
+
+  Cape of Good Hope, doubled by Vasco de Gama, ii. 168.
+    First made known in Europe by the Jews, ii. 175.
+
+  Caracalla, alluded to in the reply of the Christians to the
+      Pagans, i. 302.
+
+  Carat, its derivation and signification, ii. 44.
+
+  Carneades, the founder of the New Academy, his doctrines, i. 169.
+
+  Carthage, description of, i. 129.
+    Its conquest contemplated by Alexander the Great, i. 174.
+    Most effectually controlled by invading Africa, i. 245.
+    Heraclius contemplates making it the metropolis of the Eastern
+        empire, i. 329.
+    Stormed and destroyed by Hassan, i. 334.
+
+  Carthaginian commerce, nature, and extent of, i. 130.
+
+  "Carolinian Books" published by Charlemagne, against image
+      worship, i. 372.
+
+  Caspian and Dead Seas, level of, ii. 305.
+
+  Castelli assists in the verification of the laws of motion, ii. 271.
+    Creates hydraulics, ii. 285.
+    Lays the foundation of hydraulics, ii. 390.
+
+  Casuistry, development of, ii. 66.
+
+  Catalogue of stars contained in the Almagest of Ptolemy, i. 203.
+
+  Catasterisims of Eratosthenes, i. 196.
+
+  Catastrophe, insufficiency of a single, ii. 316.
+    Doctrine of, ii. 323.
+
+  Cato causes Carneades to be expelled from Rome, i. 164.
+
+  Celibacy of clergy insisted on by the monks, i. 426.
+    Necessity of, ii. 16.
+
+  Celt, sorcery of the, i. 34.
+
+  Cerebral sight, important religious result of, i. 430.
+
+  Cerinthus, his opinion of the nature of Christ, i. 270.
+
+  Chadizah, the wife of Mohammed, i. 330, 337.
+
+  Chakia Mouni, meaning of the name, i. 67.
+    The founder of Buddhism, i. 342.
+
+  Chalcedon, Council of, i. 297.
+    It determines the relation of the two natures of Christ, i. 299.
+
+  Chaldee notions give rise to the black art, i. 404.
+
+  Chalons, battle of, i. 350.
+
+  Charlemagne, his influence in the conversion of Europe, i. 364.
+    Disapproves of idolatry, i. 368.
+    Developes the policy of his father Pepin, i. 371.
+    Is crowned Emperor of the West, i. 371.
+    The immorality of his private life, i. 374.
+
+  Charles Martel gains the battle of Tours, i. 368.
+    His relations to the Church, i. 369.
+    Pope Gregory III. seeks his aid, i. 423.
+
+  Charms, the source of their supposed power, i. 403.
+
+  Chemistry, fetichism of, i. 101.
+    Pythagorean, i. 116.
+    Scientific, cultivated by the Arabs, i. 408.
+    Progress of, ii. 374.
+
+  Chilperic II. permitted to retain his title, i. 369.
+
+  Chilperic III. deposed and shut up in the convent of St. Omer, i. 370.
+
+  China, her policy, ii. 395.
+
+  Chinese Buddhism, i. 72, 74.
+
+  Chosroes II., his successes, i. 328.
+    The effect of his wars on commerce, i. 337.
+
+  Christian reply to the accusation of the Pagans, i. 301.
+
+  Christianity, influence of Roman, i. 241.
+    Debased in Rome, i. 264.
+    Distinction between, and ecclesiastical organizations, i. 267.
+    Its first organization, i. 269.
+    Three modifications of, i. 271.
+      Judaic, i. 271.
+      Gnostic, i. 273.
+      Platonic, i. 273.
+    Spreads from Syria, i. 274.
+    Antagonizes imperialism, i. 275.
+    Its persecutions, i. 277.
+    Hellenized, i. 290.
+    Paganization of, i. 309.
+    Expelled from Palestine, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Carthage, i. 332.
+    Paganisms of, i. 359.
+    Allied to art, i. 359.
+
+  Chronology of Eratosthenes, i. 197.
+
+  Church, Greek and Latin, i. 291.
+    Effects of union of, and State, i. 377.
+    What she had done, ii. 145.
+    Services, their influence on the people, ii. 202.
+    Separation of, and State, ii. 227.
+
+  Cicero, his opinions and principles, i. 258.
+
+  Cimbri, cause of their invasion, i. 30.
+
+  Cipher, its derivation and meaning, ii. 40.
+    Alluded to by Pope Sylvester, ii. 49.
+
+  Circle, the quadrature of, treated by Archimedes, i. 194.
+
+  Circumnavigation of Africa, why undertaken by the Egyptian Kings, i. 78.
+    Its repetition contemplated by Alexander, i. 173.
+    Of the earth, ii. 172.
+    Results of, ii. 173.
+
+  Circumstances, how far man is the creature of, i. 389.
+
+  Clement V., Pope, takes up his residence at Avignon, ii. 86.
+
+  Clement of Alexandria, his invective against the corruptions of
+      Christianity, i. 358.
+
+  Cleomedes, an astronomer of Alexandria, i. 202.
+
+  Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, i. 200.
+    Is presented with one of the Alexandrian libraries, i. 318.
+
+  Clergy, responsible for the massacre at Thessalonica, i. 313.
+    Support the delusion of supernaturalism, ii. 113.
+    American, ii. 227.
+    English accused by the Commons, ii. 235.
+    Discipline Act, ii. 237.
+    Degraded condition of the lower, in England, ii. 242.
+
+  "Clericis Laicos," bull issued by Pope Boniface, ii. 82.
+
+  Clermont, Council of, authorizes the First Crusade, ii. 21.
+
+  Climacus, John, author of "Ladder of Paradise," ii. 59.
+
+  Climates, in time and place, ii. 317.
+
+  Clotilda, Queen of the Franks, counsels her husband Clovis, i. 365.
+
+  Clouds and their nomenclature, ii. 373.
+
+  Cnidos, medical school of, i. 396.
+
+  Cnudesuya, aqueduct of, ii. 186.
+
+  Coal period, ii. 320.
+    Its botany, ii. 332.
+
+  Cobham, Lord, hanged for heresy and treason, ii. 99.
+
+  Cochlea, its function, i. 5.
+
+  Coenobitism succeeds Eremitism, i. 432.
+
+  Coffee-houses, their political and social importance, ii. 249.
+
+  Coinage, its adulteration, i. 251.
+
+  Coiter creates pathological anatomy, ii. 285.
+
+  Cold, influence of, on man, i. 28.
+
+  Colleges founded by the Jews, i. 402, ii. 121.
+
+  Colonial system, origin of Greek, i. 128.
+
+  Colonies, Greek, essentially weak, i. 113.
+    Philosophical influence of, i. 128.
+
+  Colonnas, their quarrel with Pope Boniface, ii. 80.
+
+  Colossus of Rameses II., its great antiquity, i. 87.
+
+  Colours of rainbow, ii. 379.
+
+  Columban, a missionary of the sixth century, i. 366.
+
+  Columbus, his early life, ii. 159.
+    Is confuted by the Council of Salamanca, ii. 161.
+    His voyage across the Atlantic, ii. 162.
+    Discovery of America, ii. 163.
+
+  Commerce, development of Mediterranean, i. 45.
+    Favourable to the spread of new ideas, i. 127,
+    many of the devices of modern, known to the Carthaginians, i. 130.
+
+  Communities, nature of progress of, i. 12.
+
+  Comnena, Anna, "Alexiad" of, ii. 59.
+
+  Condillac, his theory of memory and comparison, i. 232.
+
+  Conon of Alexandria, i. 194.
+
+  Constance, Council of, ii. 99.
+
+  Constantine the Great, the success of his policy, i. 277.
+    Influence of the reign of, i. 278.
+    Removes the metropolis, i. 279.
+    His tendencies to Paganism, i. 280.
+    His relations to the Church, i. 281.
+    His policy, i. 282.
+    Conversion and death, i. 283.
+    Attempts to check the Arian controversy, i. 286.
+    Denounces Arius as a heretic, i. 287.
+
+  Constantine, Pope, an usurper, his cruel treatment, i. 378.
+
+  Constantine Copronymus, his iconoclastic policy, i. 418.
+
+  Constantine Palaeologus, the last of the Roman Emperors, ii. 108.
+
+  Constantinople, Council of, i. 419.
+    Determines that Son and Holy Spirit are equal to the Father, i. 299.
+    The seventh general, held at, i. 419.
+    Sack of, ii. 56.
+    Its literature, ii. 58.
+    Siege of, by the Turks, ii. 107.
+    Fall of, ii. 108.
+
+  Convocation, charges against, ii. 235.
+
+  Copais, tunnel of, i. 32.
+
+  Copernican system, condemned by the Inquisition, ii. 263.
+    Theory of, rectified, ii. 268.
+
+  Copernicus, the works of, ii. 255.
+    His doctrine, ii. 256.
+
+  Copronymus the Iconoclast, i. 418.
+
+  Cordova, description of, ii. 30.
+
+  Corinth, mechanical art reached its perfection in, i. 132.
+    Her fall, ii. 109.
+
+  Cosmas Indicopleustes, his argument against the sphericity of
+      the earth, ii. 159.
+
+  Cosmo de' Medici, ii. 192.
+
+  Cosmogony, originates with Anaximander, i. 107.
+    Of Anaxagoras, i. 109.
+    Of Pythagoras, i. 115.
+
+  Cotton manufacture, ii. 385.
+
+  Councils, their object and nature, i. 236.
+    Are not infallible, i. 297.
+
+  Creations and extinctions, cause of, ii. 311.
+
+  Criterion of truth, existence of, doubted by Anaxagoras, i. 110.
+    One of the problems of Greek philosophy, i. 230.
+    Remarks on, i. 232.
+    A practical one exists, i. 235.
+
+  Criticism, effect of philosophical, i. 46.
+    Rise of, ii. 190.
+    Effect of, on literature and religion, ii. 224.
+
+  Cross, the true, discovered, i. 309.
+
+  Crotona, a Greek colonial city, i. 111.
+    Its extent, i. 128.
+
+  Crusades, origin of, ii. 20.
+    The first, ii. 22.
+    Political result of, ii. 23.
+    Atrocities in the South of France, ii. 62.
+    Effect of, ii. 135.
+
+  Ctesiphon, the metropolis of Persia, sack of, i. 335.
+
+  Cuvier, his doctrine of the permanence of species, ii. 326.
+    His remark on vivisection, ii. 349.
+
+  Cuzco, the metropolis of Peru, description of, ii. 181.
+
+  Cycle of life, i. 233.
+
+  Cyclopean structures, i. 32.
+
+  Cynical school, i. 149.
+
+  Cyprian, his complaints against the clergy and confessors, i. 358.
+
+  Cyprian, St., his remarks at the Council of Carthage, i. 291.
+
+  Cyprus taken by the Saracens, i. 335.
+
+  Cyrenaic school, i. 149.
+
+  Cyril, St., his acts, i. 321.
+    An ecclesiastical demagogue, i. 391.
+
+
+  Daille, his estimate of the Fathers, ii. 225.
+
+  Damascus taken, i. 334.
+
+  Damasus, riots at the election of, i. 292.
+
+  Damiani, Peter, his charges against the priests of Milan, ii. 7.
+
+  Death, interstitial, i. 14.
+
+  "Defender of Peace," nature of the work, ii. 93.
+
+  Deification, John Erigena on, ii. 9.
+
+  Deity, anthropomorphic ideas of, in the Koran, i. 342.
+
+  Delos, a slave market, i. 246.
+
+  Deluges, ancient, i. 30.
+
+  Delusions, of the sense, i. 230.
+    Created by the mind, i. 429.
+
+  Demetrius Phalereus, his instructions to collect books, i. 188.
+
+  Demetrius Poliorcetes quoted, i. 166.
+
+  Democritus asserts the unreliability of knowledge, i. 124.
+
+  Descartes, his theory of clear ideas, i. 231.
+    Introduces the theory of an ether and vortices, ii. 285.
+
+  Desert, influences of the, i. 6.
+
+  Destiny, Democritus's opinion of, i. 125.
+    Stoical doctrine of, i. 185.
+
+  Deucalion, deluge of, i. 51.
+
+  Development of organisms, Alhazen's theory of, ii. 48.
+
+  Dew, the nature of, ii. 384.
+
+  Diaphragm of Dicaearchus, i. 196.
+
+  Didymus, wonderful taciturnity related of, i. 427.
+
+  Diocles, a writer on hygiene and gymnastics, i. 397.
+
+  Diocletian, state of things under, i. 276.
+
+  Diogenes of Apollonia developes the doctrines of Anaximenes, i. 99.
+
+  Diogenes of Sinope extends the doctrines of Cynicism, i. 149.
+
+  Dioscorus, Bishop of Alexandria, deposed by the Council of
+      Chalcedon, i. 297.
+
+  Djafar, or Geber, an Arabian chemist, describes nitric acid and
+      aqua regia, i. 410.
+
+  Djondesabour, medical college of, founded by the Nestorians and
+      Jews, i. 391.
+    Patronized by the Khalif al Raschid, i. 402.
+
+  Docetes, their ideas of the nature of Christ, i. 270.
+
+  Dogmatists, their theory of the treatment of disease, i. 399.
+
+  Dominic, St., wonders related of, ii. 63.
+
+  Dominicans, they oppose Galileo, ii. 262.
+
+  Donatists recalled from banishment by Constantine, i. 281.
+
+  Drama, an index of national mental condition, ii. 249.
+
+  Draper's Physiology quoted on cerebral sight, i. 430.
+    On the benefits conferred by the Church, ii. 145.
+    On the necessity of resorting to anatomy and physiology, ii. 343.
+
+  Dreams, Algazzali's view of their nature, ii. 51.
+
+  Druids, i. 241.
+
+  Du Molay, burnt at the stake, ii. 92.
+
+  Duns Scotus, John, a Franciscan monk, the rival of Thomas
+      Aquinas, ii. 14.
+
+  Duverney on the sense of hearing, ii. 286.
+
+
+  Ear, i. 5.
+
+  Earth, globular form of, implied by the voyage of Columbus, ii. 164,
+    proved by its shadow in eclipses of the moon, ii. 171.
+    Is not the immovable centre of the universe, ii. 254.
+    Age of, ii. 278.
+    Its slow cooling, ii. 301.
+    Mean density of, ii. 302.
+    Movement of the crust of, ii. 306.
+    Development of life on, ii. 355.
+
+  Earthquakes, ii. 302.
+
+  Easter, dispute respecting, i. 291.
+
+  Ebionites, their doctrine of our Saviour's lineage, i. 272.
+
+  Ebn Djani, physician to the Sultan Saladin, and author of a
+      work on the medical topography of Alexandria, ii. 124.
+
+  Ebn Junis, a Moorish astronomer, ii. 41.
+    Astronomical table of, ii. 42
+
+  Ebn Zohr, competitor of Raschi, ii. 123.
+
+  Ecclesiasticism, its decline, ii. 143.
+    Its downfall, ii. 284.
+
+  Eclipse, solar, predicted by Thales, i. 97.
+
+  Ecliptic, discovery of obliquity of, falsely imputed to
+      Anaximenes, i. 99.
+    Determined with accuracy by Almaimon, ii. 41.
+    Slow process of its secular variation, ii. 304.
+
+  Ecstasy, i. 213.
+
+  Edessa, church of, re-built by Moawiyah for his Christian
+    subjects, i. 338.
+
+  Edward I. of England compels the clergy to pay taxes, ii. 81.
+
+  Egypt, conquest of, by Cambyses, i. 79.
+    Antiquity of civilization in, i. 81.
+    Pre-historic Life of, i. 81.
+    Influence of, on Europe, i. 82.
+    Antiquity of its monarchy, i. 84.
+    Geological age of, i. 87.
+    Geography and topography of, i. 87.
+    Roman annexation of, i. 248.
+
+  Egyptian ports opened, i. 77.
+    Theology i. 91.
+
+  Elcano, Sebastian de, the Lieutenant of Magellan, ii. 173.
+
+  Eleatic philosophy, i. 118.
+    Influence of the school, i. 220.
+
+  Electricity, discoveries in, ii. 377.
+
+  Electro-magnetism, ii. 378.
+
+  Elixir of Life, i. 407.
+    Effect of the search for, on medicine, i. 411.
+    Eloquence, Parliamentary, decline of its power, ii. 204.
+
+  Elphinstone, quotation from, i. 64.
+
+  Elysium, i. 36.
+
+  Emanation, doctrine of, i. 225.
+
+  Empedocles, biography of, i. 123.
+
+  Empirics, their doctrine, i. 399.
+
+  England, conversion of, i. 366.
+    Policy of an Italian town gave an impress to its history, ii. 17.
+    Its social condition, ii. 229.
+    Condition of, at the suppression of the monasteries, ii. 230.
+    Backward condition of, ii. 233.
+    State of, at the close of the seventeenth century, ii. 238.
+
+  Ephesus, Council of, called "Robber Synod," i. 297.
+    Determines that the two natures of Christ make but one person, i. 299.
+
+  Epictetus, his doctrines, i. 259.
+
+  Epicureans, modern, i. 168.
+
+  Epicurus, the doctrine of, i. 165.
+    His irreligion, i. 168.
+
+  Epicycles and eccentrics, Hipparchus's theory of, i. 202.
+
+  Epochs of individual life, i. 14.
+    Of national life, i. 19.
+
+  Erasmus becomes alienated from the Reformers, ii. 225.
+    Wonderful popularity of his "Colloquies," ii. 238.
+
+  Eratosthenes, the writings and works of, i. 196.
+    Astronomy of, i. 199.
+
+  Eremitism, its modifications, i. 432.
+
+  Erigena, John, a Pantheist employed by the Archbishop of Rheims, ii. 9.
+
+  Essenes, a species of the first hermits among the Jews, i. 425.
+
+  Ether, movements of, ii. 382.
+
+  Ethical philosophy, i. 143.
+    Its secondary analysis, i. 164.
+
+  Ethics of Plato, i. 158.
+
+  Ethnical element, definition of, and conditions of change in, i. 12.
+
+  Eucharist, difference of opinion about, ii. 210.
+
+  Euclid of Alexandria, his various works, i. 193.
+    His reply to Ptolemy Philadelphus, i. 398.
+
+  Euclid of Megara, an imitator of Socrates, i. 148.
+
+  Eugenius IV., Pope, dethroned by the Council of Basle, ii. 102.
+
+  Eumenes, King of Pergamus, establishes a second library in
+      Alexandria, i. 318.
+
+  Eunapius, his opinion of Plotinus, i. 212.
+
+  Eunostos, harbour of, connected by a canal with lake Mareotis, i. 323.
+
+  Euripides tainted with heresy, i. 50.
+
+  Europe, description of, i. 23.
+    Greatest elevation of, above the sea, i. 23.
+    Vertical displacement of, i. 29.
+    Conversion of, i. 365.
+    Psychical change in, i. 364.
+    Social condition of, after Charlemagne, i. 376.
+    Barbarism of, ii. 27.
+    Future of, ii. 392.
+
+  European climate, modification of Asiatic intruders by, i. 34.
+    Old religion, i. 240.
+    Priesthood, i. 240.
+    Slave-trade, i. 373.
+
+  Eusebius, his contempt of philosophy, i. 314.
+    Perverts chronology, i. 197.
+    Is deposed, i. 297.
+    His apology for the Fathers, i. 314.
+    His chronology subverts that of Manetho and Eratosthenes, i. 316.
+    His admission of his own want of truthfulness, i. 360.
+
+  Eustachius distinguished by his dissections, ii. 284.
+
+  Eutychianism, i. 296.
+
+  "Everlasting Gospel," ii. 75.
+
+  Existence depends on physical conditions, i. 7.
+
+  Extinction of species, cause of, i. 8.
+
+  Extinctions and creations, law of, ii. 311.
+
+  Eye, arranged on refined principles of optics, i. 5.
+    Functions of, ii. 380.
+    Capabilities of the human, ii. 383.
+
+
+  Fabricius ab Aquapendente discovers the valves in the veins, ii. 285.
+
+  Fairies destroyed by tobacco, ii. 126.
+
+  Faith, two kinds of, ii. 192.
+
+  Fallopius distinguished by his dissections, ii. 284.
+
+  Fasting, continued, its effect on the mind, i. 429.
+
+  Faustus, his accusation to Augustine, i. 310.
+
+  Felix V., Pope, abdicates, ii. 103.
+
+  Felix, Bishop of Rome, excommunicated by Acacius, Bishop of
+      Constantinople, i. 352.
+
+  Fernel establishes the true nature of syphilis, ii. 232.
+    Measures the size of the earth, ii. 255.
+
+  Fetiches supposed a panacea, i. 386.
+
+  Fetichism displaced by star worship, i. 3.
+    Difficulty of early cultivators of philosophy to emerge from, i. 100.
+
+  Feudal system, how it originated, i. 376.
+
+  Fire, asserted by Heraclitus to be the first principle, i. 104.
+
+  Fire, liquid or Greek, used by the Arabs, i. 408.
+
+  Fireworks used by the Arabs, i. 408.
+
+  Flagellants, their origin, ii. 76.
+
+  Flavianus, Bishop of Constantinople, deposed, i. 297.
+
+  Florence, the Academy of Athens revived in the Medicean gardens
+      of, ii. 193.
+
+  Florentine Academicians erroneously suppose water to be
+      incompressible, ii. 372.
+    Originate correct notions of the radiation of heat, ii. 383.
+    Show that dark heat may be reflected by mirrors, ii. 390.
+
+  Florentius, a priest, attempts to poison St. Benedict, i. 435.
+
+  Food, location of animals controlled by, ii. 310.
+    Its nature, ii. 341.
+
+  Force, animal, its source, ii. 339.
+
+  Formosus, Pope, converted the Bulgarians, i. 367.
+
+  Forms contrasted with law, i. 22.
+    Introduction of, personified, i. 37.
+    Fictitious permanence of, successive, i. 104.
+
+  Fracasta, an early cultivator of fossil remains, ii. 391.
+
+  Francis, St., his early life, ii. 64.
+    Placed by the lowest of his order in the stead of our Saviour, ii. 83.
+
+  Franciscans, higher English, their opposition to Pope Boniface, ii. 83.
+
+  Franks Christianized at the end of the fifth century, i. 365.
+
+  Fratricelli, their affirmation, i. 283.
+    Burned by the inquisition for heresy, ii. 79.
+
+  Frederick II., Emperor of Germany, birth of ii. 25.
+    His Mohammedan tendencies, ii. 66.
+
+  Free trade, its effects, i. 254.
+
+  Freewill not inconsistent with the doctrine of law, i. 21.
+
+
+  Galen, his opinions, i. 259.
+    His division of physicians into two classes, i. 399.
+
+  Galileo, the historical representative of the intellectual
+      impulse, ii. 134.
+    Invents the telescope, ii. 261.
+    Astronomical discoveries of, ii. 261.
+    Is condemned by the Inquisition, ii. 263.
+    Publishes "The System of the World," ii. 263.
+    His degradation and punishment, ii. 264.
+    His death, ii. 265.
+    His three laws of motion, ii. 269.
+    Re-discovers the mechanical properties of fluids, ii. 372, 390.
+
+  Geber, or Djafar, the alchemist, discovers nitric acid and aqua
+      regia, i. 409.
+
+  Gelasius, his fearless address to the Emperor, i. 353.
+
+  Geminus, an Alexandrian astronomer, i. 202.
+
+  Genoa, her commerce, ii. 158.
+
+  Genseric, King of the Vandals, invited by Count Boniface into
+      Africa, i. 327.
+    Invited to Rome, i. 350.
+
+  Geocentric theory, its adoption by the Church, ii. 254.
+    Important result of its abandonment, ii. 335.
+
+  Geographical discovery, effects of, i. 44.
+
+  Geography, primitive, i. 39.
+    Its union with the marvellous, i. 42.
+    Of Ptolemy, i. 204.
+    End of Patristic, ii. 164.
+
+  Geological movements of Asia, i. 29.
+
+  Geology, ii. 294.
+    Evidence furnished by, as to the position of man, ii. 338.
+
+  Gepidae, converted in the fourth century, i. 365.
+
+  Gerbert, life of, ii. 4.
+    His Saracen education, ii. 4.
+    His ecclesiastical advancement, ii. 5.
+    Becomes Pope Sylvester II., ii. 6.
+    Is the first to conceive of a European crusade, ii. 21.
+    Said to have introduced a knowledge of the Arabic numerals into
+        Europe, ii. 49.
+
+  Germans not prone to idolatry, i. 415.
+    Insist on a reform in the Papacy, ii. 2.
+
+  Gesner, Luther's opinion of the manner of his death, ii. 117.
+    Leads the way to zoology, ii. 284.
+
+  Gilbert proposed to determine the longitude by magnetic
+      observations, ii. 167.
+    Adopts the views of Copernicus, ii. 260.
+    Publishes his book on the magnet, ii. 284.
+
+  Gilbert of Ravenna elected antipope, ii. 20.
+
+  Gisella, Queen of Hungary, assists in the conversion of her
+      subjects to Christianity, i. 365.
+
+  Glass, its rate of dilatation by heat, ii. 300.
+
+  Globes, used by the Saracens, ii. 41.
+
+  Gobi, dry climate of, i. 25.
+    Character of its botany, i. 25.
+    Was once the bed of a sea, i. 29.
+
+  Gold, Ancient value of, i. 251.
+    Potable, attempts to make, i. 407.
+    Problem of, solved by Djafar, i. 409.
+
+  Gotama, the founder of Buddhism, life of, i. 67.
+
+  Goths become permanently settled in the Eastern empire, i. 300.
+    Adopt the Byzantine system, i. 349.
+    Have possession of Italy, i. 350.
+    Date of their conversion, i. 365.
+
+  Gotschalk, his persecution, ii. 8.
+
+  Graaf, a physiologist, ii. 286.
+
+  Greece, Roman invasion of, i. 247.
+
+  Greek mythology, i. 38.
+    Transformations of, i. 43.
+    Cause of its destruction, i. 44.
+    Secession of literary men and philosophers, i. 47.
+    Movements repeated in Europe, i. 53.
+    Philosophy, origin of, i. 94.
+    Summary of, i. 141.
+    Its four grand topics, i. 223.
+    Fire, i. 408.
+    Learning, revival of, ii. 193.
+    Cause of dislike of, ii. 195.
+
+  Gregory II., Pope, defends image-worship, i. 421.
+
+  Gregory III., Pope, defies the emperor, i. 423.
+
+  Gregory VI., Pope, purchases the Papacy, i. 381.
+
+  Gregory VII., his policy, ii. 15.
+
+  Gregory IX., Pope, excommunicates Frederick II., ii. 67.
+
+  Gregory XI., Pope, restores the Papacy to Rome, ii. 96.
+
+  Gregory XII., Pope, deposed by the Council of Pisa, ii. 97.
+
+  Gregory the Great, his history, i. 355.
+    Burns the Palatine Library, i. 357.
+    Attempts to reconvert England, i. 366.
+
+  Gregory of Nazianzum, his opinion of Councils, i. 299.
+
+  Grew discovers the sexes of plants, ii. 286.
+
+  Grimaldi discovers the diffraction of light, ii. 390.
+
+  Grostete, Robert, Bishop of Lincoln, the result of his inquiry
+      into the emoluments of foreign ecclesiastics, ii. 55.
+    Makes a speaking head, ii. 116.
+
+  Grotius, his opinion of the Reformation, ii. 225.
+
+  Guericke, Otto invented the air-pump ii. 286.
+
+  Guido, a Benedictine monk, the inventor of the scale of music, i. 437.
+
+  Gulf Stream, its influence on the western countries of Europe,
+      i. 24; ii. 371.
+
+  Gunpowder, its composition given by Marcus Graecus, i. 408.
+
+
+  Hades, i. 39. Origin of the Greek, i. 92.
+
+  Hadrian IV., Nicholas Breakspear, ii. 25.
+
+  Hallam, his opinion of Leonardo da Vinci quoted, ii. 268.
+
+  Halley's comet, how described and regarded, ii. 253.
+
+  Hallucination, fasting a frequent cause of, i. 428.
+
+  Hannina, the earliest Jewish physician, i. 400.
+
+  Haroun, a physician of Alexandria, the first to describe the
+      small-pox, i. 401.
+
+  Haroun al Raschid, Khalif, sends Charlemagne the keys of our
+      Saviour's sepulchre, i. 374.
+    Places all his public schools under John Masue, i. 392.
+    Patronizes a medical college and founds a university, i. 402.
+    Causes Homer to be translated into Syriac, ii. 34.
+
+  Harpalus, employed by Alexander in his scientific undertakings, i. 173.
+
+  Harvey discovers the circulation of the blood, ii. 285.
+
+  Hassan takes Carthage by storm, i. 334.
+
+  Heart constructed upon the principles of hydraulics, i. 5.
+
+  Heat, control of, over life, i. 8.
+    Distribution of, in Europe, i. 26.
+    Sources of, i. 103.
+    Boundary of organisms by, ii. 309.
+    Decline of, in the earth, ii. 318.
+    Properties of, ii. 383.
+
+  Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, superintends the
+      building of monumental churches, i. 309.
+    The influence she exercised in the religion of the world, i. 366.
+    Her benevolence in founding hospitals, i. 386.
+    Adopts image-worship, i. 414.
+
+  Heliocentric theory, its meaning, ii. 254.
+    Resistless spread of, ii. 274.
+
+  Heming introduced street-lamps in England, ii. 241.
+
+  Henry V., Emperor of Germany, his resistance to the Popes, ii. 24.
+
+  Henry VIII., King of England, had personal reasons for
+      discontent, ii. 216.
+    The instrument, not the author, of the revolution, ii. 238.
+
+  Henry the Fowler asserts the power of the monarchical principle, i. 376.
+
+  Heraclitus, his philosophical system, i. 104.
+
+  Heraclius, Emperor, resists the second Persian attack, i. 326.
+    His contemplated abandonment of Constantinople, i. 329.
+    Defeated at the battle of Aiznadin, i. 335.
+    The effect on commerce of his long wars, i. 337.
+
+  Hercules, legend of, i. 37.
+
+  Heresy, Pelagian, i. 293.
+    Nestorian, i. 295.
+    Eutychian, i. 296.
+    Followed the spread of literature, ii. 60.
+
+  Heretics, burning of, by the Inquisition, ii. 75.
+
+  Hermits, their origin, i. 424.
+    Aerial, i. 426.
+    Grazing, i. 427.
+    Their numbers, i. 432.
+
+  Hero, the inventor of the first steam-engine, i. 205, 387.
+
+  Herodotus, i. 49.
+
+  Herschels, their discoveries, ii. 276.
+
+  Hesiod extends the theogony of Homer, i. 43.
+
+  Hessians, period of their conversion, i. 365.
+
+  Hiero's crown gives origin to hydrostatics, i. 195.
+
+  Hieroglyphics, their origin and value, i. 83.
+
+  Hilarion, a hermit of the fourth century, i. 425.
+    Said to be the first to establish a monastery, i. 432.
+
+  Hilary, Bishop of Arles, his contumacy denounced, i. 300.
+
+  Hildebrand brought on an ecclesiastical reform, ii. 3.
+    His difficulty in reconciling the dogmas of the Church with the
+      suggestions of reason, ii. 12.
+    Becomes Pope Gregory VII., ii. 15.
+
+  Hindu polytheism, i. 34.
+    Philosophy, i. 56.
+
+  Hipparchus, the writings of, i. 202.
+
+  Hippocrates, his opinion of Democritus, i. 126.
+    Review of, i. 393.
+
+  Historians, secession of, from the public faith, i. 49.
+
+  Hobbes, his philosophical opinions, i. 231.
+
+  Holy places, loss of, ii. 134.
+
+  Homer, theogony of, extended by Hesiod, i. 43.
+
+  Homoeomeriae, i. 109.
+
+  Honorius passes a law against concubinage among the clergy, i. 359.
+
+  Honorius III. compels Frederick II. to marry Yolinda de
+      Lusignan, ii. 67.
+
+  Hooke, his paper to the Royal Society on circular motion, ii. 272.
+    Determines the essential conditions of combustion, ii. 286.
+
+  Hormisdas, Pope, policy pursued by, i. 353.
+
+  Horner's observation on the rate of the mud deposit of the Nile, i. 87.
+
+  Hosius of Cordova sent to Alexandria, i. 286.
+
+  Houris of Paradise, i. 346.
+
+  Humboldt pays tribute to Eratosthenes, i. 196.
+    His remarks on the movement of Jupiter's satellites, ii. 267.
+
+  Hume, his doctrine of mind and matter, i. 231.
+
+  Huss, John, martyrdom of, ii. 100.
+    Adopts the theological views of Wickliffe, ii. 148.
+
+  Hydrometer improved by Alhazen, ii. 48.
+
+  Hyksos, old empire of Egypt invaded and overthrown by the, i. 76.
+
+  Hypatia lectures on philosophy in Alexandria, i. 322.
+    Murdered by Cyril, i. 324.
+
+  Hypocrisy, organization of, i. 54.
+
+
+  Iamblicus, a wonder-worker, i. 215.
+
+  Iconoclasm, i. 416.
+
+  Ideal theory, Plato's, i. 153.
+    Criticism on, i. 161.
+
+  Illiberis, Council of, condemns the worship of images, i. 414.
+
+  Images, bleeding and winking, i. 415.
+
+  Image-worship resisted by Charlemagne, i. 372.
+    Fostered by the Empress Helena, i. 414.
+    In the West, i. 415.
+
+  "Imitation of Christ," tendency of, ii. 196.
+
+  Immortality, double, implied by Plato's doctrine, i. 161.
+
+  Impulses, two, against the Church, ii. 131.
+
+  Incandescence, the production of light by, ii. 384.
+
+  Incarnations, divine, necessary consequence of the belief of, i. 91.
+
+  Incas, the ancestors of one of the orders of nobility among the
+      Peruvians, ii. 183.
+
+  Incombustible men, i. 409.
+
+  Index Expurgatorius, promulgated by Paul IV., ii. 214.
+
+  Indian, American, i. 27.
+
+  Indo-Germanic invasion, i. 32.
+
+  Inductive philosophy founded by Aristotle, i. 76.
+
+  Indulgences, nature of, ii. 207.
+
+  Innocent I., Pope, settles the Pelagian controversy in favour
+      of the African bishops, i. 294.
+
+  Innocent III., Pope, his interference in behalf of temporary
+      political interests, ii. 53.
+    His death, ii. 62.
+    Prohibits the study of science in the schools of Paris, ii. 76.
+
+  Innocent IV., Pope, excommunicates Frederick, ii. 72.
+
+  Innocent VIII., Pope, his bull against witchcraft, ii. 116.
+
+  Inquisition, its origin, ii. 62.
+    Attempts to arrest the intellectual revolt, ii. 74.
+    Its sacrifices, ii. 188.
+    Its effect on Protestantism in Spain and Italy, ii. 220.
+
+  Insane, Diogenes' view of the, i. 102.
+
+  Insect an automatic mechanism, ii. 349.
+
+  Institutes of Menu, i. 63.
+
+  Intellect, the primal, Anaxagoras's view of, i. 108.
+
+  Intellectual class, the true representation of a community, i. 13.
+    Despair, ii. 52.
+
+  Intellectual impulse makes its attack through astronomy, ii. 133.
+    Development the aim of nature, ii. 359.
+
+  Interstitial death, i. 14.
+    Creations, ii. 312.
+
+  Investitures, the conflict on, ii. 17.
+
+  Invisible, localization of the, i. 36.
+
+  Ionian philosophy, puerilities of, i. 106.
+
+  Irene, the Empress, puts out her son's eyes, i. 374.
+    Her superstitious cruelty, i. 420.
+
+  Iris, its function, i. 5.
+
+  Isis, her worship, i. 187.
+
+  Isothermal lines, i. 24, 26.
+
+  Israfil, the angel, i. 345.
+
+  Italian Christianity, boundaries of, ii. 1.
+    System, its movements, ii. 150.
+
+  Italy, relations of, ii. 127.
+    Degraded state of, ii. 127.
+    Immorality of, ii. 136.
+    Cause of her degradation, ii. 143.
+    Scientific contributions of, ii. 390.
+    Causes of her depression, ii. 391.
+
+
+  James I., his proceedings against witchcraft, ii. 117.
+
+  Jason, the voyage of, i. 41.
+
+  Jaxartes, its drying up, i. 29.
+
+  Jerome of Prague, his martyrdom, ii. 101.
+
+  Jerome, St., denounces Pelagius, i. 294.
+    Translates the Bible into Latin, i. 306.
+    His equivocal encomiums on marriage, i. 359, 427.
+
+  Jerusalem, position of, i. 77.
+    Bishops of, i. 272.
+    Church of, i. 291.
+    Fall and pillage of, i. 328, 335.
+    Capture of, ii. 22.
+    Surrender of, to Frederick II., ii. 68.
+
+  Jesuits, the Order of, instituted, ii. 220.
+    The extent of their influence, ii. 221.
+    Causes of their suppression, ii. 222.
+
+  Jewish physicians, their writings, ii. 120.
+
+  Jewish-Spanish physicians, writings of, ii. 123.
+
+  Jews, conversion of, i. 270.
+    Are the teachers of the Saracens, i. 384.
+    Their influence on supernaturalism, ii. 119.
+    Medical studies among, ii. 121.
+    Expulsion of, from France, ii. 126.
+    Their geographical knowledge and its results, ii. 175.
+
+  John, King of England, is excommunicated by Pope Innocent III., ii. 54.
+
+  John, Pope, died in prison, i. 353.
+
+  John VIII., Pope, pays tribute to the Mohammedans, i. 379.
+
+  John XVI., Antipope, cruel and ignominious treatment of, i. 381.
+
+  John XXII., Pope, the practical character of his policy, ii. 93.
+
+  John of Damascus takes part in the Iconoclastic dispute, ii. 59.
+
+  Joshua ben Nun, a professor at Bagdad, i. 402.
+
+  Journalism is gradually supplanting oratory, ii. 204.
+
+  Judgment, future, according to the Egyptian theology, i. 92.
+    According to the Koran, i. 345.
+    Right of individual, asserted by Luther, ii. 209.
+
+  Jugurthine War, i. 247.
+
+  Julian, Emperor, attempts the restoration of paganism, i. 311.
+
+  Justinian closes the philosophical schools in Athens, i. 216.
+    His re-conquest of Africa, i. 327.
+    Effect of his wars, i. 351.
+    Conquers Italy, i. 354.
+
+  Justin Martyr, his illustrations of his idea of the divine ray, i. 274.
+
+
+  Kaleidoscope, an optical instrument, ii. 380.
+
+  Kalid, the "Sword of God," defeats Heraclius at the battle of
+      Aiznadin, i. 335.
+
+  Kant, his philosophical doctrines, i. 232.
+
+  Kempis, Thomas a, author of the "Imitation of Christ," ii. 106.
+
+  Kepler, the effect of the discovery of his laws, i. 4.
+    His work prohibited by the Inquisition, ii. 263.
+    His mode of inquiry, ii. 266.
+    Discovery of his laws, ii. 267.
+    Cause of his laws, ii. 274.
+
+  Kiersi, Council of, quotation from, i. 369.
+
+  Kirk's lambs, ferocity of, ii. 244.
+
+  Koran, passages from the, i. 331. Review of the, i. 340.
+
+
+  Labarum, story of, believed, i. 309.
+
+  Lactantius, his argument against the globular form of the earth, i. 315.
+
+  "Ladder of Paradise," ii. 59.
+
+  Langton, Stephen, Magna Charta originates from his suggestion, ii. 54.
+
+  Languages, modern, their effects, ii. 192.
+
+  Languedoc, light literature of, ii. 35.
+
+  Laplace discovers the cause of the irregularity of the moon's
+      motion, ii. 278.
+    On some of the phenomena of the solar system, ii. 280.
+
+  Lapland, cause of the contentment and inferiority of, i. 13.
+
+  Lateran Council, second, vests the elective power to the Papacy
+      in the Cardinals, ii. 15.
+    Third, defines the new basis of the Papal system, ii. 18.
+    Fourth, establishes the necessity of auricular confession, ii. 65.
+
+  Latin, the use of, as a sacred language, required by the
+      Church, ii. 191.
+
+  Lavaur, massacre of, ii. 62.
+
+  Law, the world ruled by, i. 20.
+    Succession of affairs determined by, i. 389.
+    Eternity and universality of, ii. 359.
+
+  Lawyers, their agency first recognized, ii. 81.
+    Their power antagonistic to the ecclesiastical, ii. 82.
+    Their opposition to supernaturalism, ii. 113.
+
+  Leaning towers, i. 30.
+
+  Leaves of plants, their action, ii. 339.
+
+  Legends of Western Saints, i. 435.
+
+  Legion, Roman, how constructed, i. 251.
+
+  Leibnitz, his doctrine of the mind, i. 231.
+    His contribution to geology, ii. 286.
+
+  Leif, the first discoverer of America, ii. 164.
+
+  Lentulus, spurious letter of, to the Roman senate, i. 361.
+
+  Leo III., Pope, crowns Charlemagne in St. Peter's, i. 371.
+    Assaulted by the nephews of Adrian, i. 378.
+
+  Leo the Chazar continues an iconoclastic policy, i. 419.
+
+  Leo the Great, i. 352.
+
+  Leo the Isaurian, the founder of a new dynasty at
+      Constantinople, i. 416.
+    Publishes an edict prohibiting the worship of images, i. 417.
+
+  Leo X., Pope, exposed to obloquy, ii. 213.
+    His character, ii. 215.
+    Is reported to have contracted syphilis, ii. 232.
+
+  Leontius Pilatus, description of, by Boccaccio, ii. 194.
+
+  Lesches, poems of, i. 51.
+
+  Levites, their manner of healing, i. 400.
+
+  Lewenhoeck discovers spermatozoa, ii. 286.
+
+  Liberty not appreciated in India, i. 62.
+    Mental when maintained, ii. 227.
+
+  Libraries, Alexandrian, size of, i. 188.
+    Establishment of, i. 317.
+
+  Licinius neutralizes the policy of Constantine, i. 278.
+
+  Life, individual, is of a mixed kind, i. 2.
+    Social, its nature, i. 2.
+    First opinion of savage, i. 3.
+    Variable rapidity of, i. 18.
+
+  Light, velocity of motion of, ii. 279, 298.
+    Proves the age of the world, ii. 298.
+    White, ii. 379.
+    Chemical influences of, ii. 383.
+
+  Limestone deposited from the sea, ii. 321.
+
+  Lipari, the crater of, supposed to be the opening into hell,
+      i. 354, 357.
+
+  Lippershey first constructs a telescope, ii. 261.
+
+  Lisbon, the great earthquake of, ii. 302.
+
+  Listening contrasted with reading, ii. 203.
+
+  Lister, author of a synopsis of shells, ii. 286.
+    Ascertains the continuity of strata, ii. 286.
+
+  Literary men, their influence, ii. 150.
+
+  Literature, spread of gay, from Spain, ii. 60.
+    Profligate character of, in England, ii. 244.
+
+  Lithotomy, new operations for, by the Alexandrian surgeons, i. 399.
+
+  Livy, writings of, vindictively pursued by Gregory the Great, i. 357.
+
+  Locke, his theory of the sources of ideas, i. 231.
+
+  Locomotion, followed by mental development, ii. 119, 136.
+    Provisions for, show the social condition of a nation, ii. 239.
+
+  Locomotives, invented by Murdoch, ii. 387.
+
+  Logic, Aristotle's, i. 177.
+    Character of mediaeval, ii. 111.
+    Each age of life has its own, ii. 192.
+
+  "Logos," Philo's idea of the, i. 210.
+    Justin Martyr's idea of the, i. 274.
+
+  Lombards, converted at the beginning of the sixth century, i. 365.
+
+  London, condition of, towards the close of the seventeenth
+      century, ii. 238.
+
+  Lorenzo de' Medici, his patronage of literature and philosophy, ii. 195.
+
+  Loretto, miracle of, ii. 80.
+
+  Louis XIV., his order in council punishing sorcery, ii. 118.
+
+  Louis, St., his character, ii. 73.
+
+  Lucius Apuleius, i. 211.
+
+  Lucretius, the irreligious nature of his poem, i. 257.
+
+  Luitprand captures Ravenna, i. 422.
+
+  Luitprand quoted on Constantinople, ii. 58.
+
+  Luther, experiences of, ii. 117.
+    The revolt of, ii. 149.
+    History of, ii. 208.
+    Excommunication of, ii. 211.
+    Looked upon with contempt by the Italians, ii. 215.
+
+  Lyceum, Aristotle founds a school in, i. 176.
+
+  Lyons, Council of, ii. 71.
+
+
+  Macaulay, Lord, has taken too limited a view of the
+      Reformation, ii. 227.
+
+  Macedonian campaign opens a new world to the Greeks, i. 45.
+    Its ruinous effects on Greece, i. 172.
+    Its effect on intellectual progress, i. 186.
+
+  Macedonius, Bishop of Constantinople, his heresy, i. 289.
+
+  Machiavelli, the principles of, ii. 137.
+    His "History of Florence," ii. 143.
+
+  Machinery, social changes effected by, ii. 388.
+
+  Magellan, his great voyage, ii. 169.
+
+  Magic and necromancy, Plotinus resorts to, i. 214.
+
+  Magic lantern, ii. 380.
+
+  Magna Charta originates from a suggestion of Stephen Langton, ii. 54.
+
+  Magnet supposed by Thales to have a living soul, i. 97.
+
+  Magnetic variation, discovery of the line of, ii. 163.
+    Erroneously supposed by Columbus to be immovable, ii. 165.
+
+  Magnetism, discoveries in, ii. 378.
+
+  Maimonides, his life and writings, ii. 124.
+
+  Malpighi devotes himself to botany, ii. 286.
+    Applies the microscope to anatomy, ii. 286.
+
+  Man the archetype of society, i. 2.
+    Controlled by physical agents, i. 10.
+    Variations of, i. 11.
+    First form of, according to Anaximander, i. 107.
+    Nature and development of, i. 233.
+    His race connections, i. 234.
+    Apparent position of, on the heliocentric theory, ii. 337.
+
+  Marco Polo, ii. 174.
+
+  Marcus Graecus gives the composition of gunpowder, i. 408.
+
+  Mareotis, Lake, i. 323.
+
+  Mariner's compass introduced by the Arabs, ii. 43.
+
+  Marozia, her infamy and cruelty, i. 380.
+
+  Marriage, compulsory in the time of Augustus, i. 253.
+    Sinfulness of, according to the principles of the monks, i. 426.
+
+  Marsilio, his work "The Defender of Peace," ii. 93.
+
+  Marsilius Ficinus, the Platonist, ii. 193.
+
+  Masue, John, the Nestorian, superintendence of schools
+      entrusted to, by Haroun al Raschid, i. 392, ii. 36.
+
+  Matilda, Countess, aids Gregory VII., ii. 16.
+    Calumniated by the married clergy, ii. 17.
+
+  Matter, its indestructibility, ii. 375.
+
+  Maximum of certainty, i. 236.
+
+  Maximus Tyrius, i. 259.
+
+  Max Mueller on language, i. 33.
+
+  Mayow on respiration, ii. 286.
+
+  Mechanical invention, effect of, ii. 384.
+
+  Medicine, Byzantine, suppression of, i. 386.
+    Origin of Greek, i. 393.
+    Egyptian, i. 397.
+    Alexandrian, i. 398.
+
+  Mediterranean Sea, its dependencies and extent, i. 28.
+    Propriety of its name, i. 39.
+    Wonders of, i. 41.
+    Trade of, ii. 158.
+
+  Megaric school, i. 148.
+
+  Melanchthon, ii. 211.
+
+  Melissus of Samos, an Eleatic, i. 123.
+
+  Melloni first polarizes light, ii. 390.
+
+  Mendicant Orders, establishment of, ii. 62.
+
+  Menu, institutes of, i. 63.
+    Extract from, i. 224.
+
+  Metaphysics, Aristotle's, i. 178.
+    Uncertainty of, ii. 344.
+
+  Meteoric stone, boasted prediction of fall of, i. 111.
+
+  Mexico, social condition of, ii. 175.
+
+  Michael the Stammerer, his incredulity and profanity, i. 420.
+
+  Middle Ages, their condition, i. 139.
+
+  Migration of birds, i. 6.
+
+  Milan, Bishop of, excommunicated, ii. 17.
+
+  Milky way, as explained by the Pythagoreans, i. 117.
+
+  Mill life, ii. 388.
+
+  Milton, his "Paradise Lost" a Manichean composition, ii. 245.
+    In favour of the Copernican system, ii. 260.
+
+  Miracle cure, i. 386.
+    Plays, ii. 246.
+
+  Missionaries, Irish and British, i. 366.
+
+  Mithridates, King of Pontus, studies poisons and antidotes, i. 400.
+
+  Moawiyah, Khalif, sends his lieutenant against Africa, i. 334.
+    Rebuilds the church of Edessa, i. 338.
+
+  Moestlin quoted in favour of the Copernican system, ii. 266.
+
+  Mohammed subject to delusions, i. 148, 330. History of, i. 329.
+
+  Mohammed II., ii. 107.
+
+  Mohammedanism, causes of the spread of, i. 337.
+    Popular, i. 345.
+    Sects of, i. 347.
+    Arrest of, in Western Europe, ii. 30.
+    Literature of, ii. 34.
+    Uniformly patronized physical science, ii. 121.
+
+  Monasteries, condition of Europe at the suppression of, ii. 230.
+
+  Monasticism, amelioration of, i. 431.
+    Spread of, from Egypt, i. 433.
+
+  Monks, African and European, i. 237.
+    Labours and successes of, i. 365.
+    Their origin and history, i. 424.
+    Differences of Eastern and Western, i. 434.
+    Their intellectual influence, i. 438.
+
+  Monotheism preceded by imperialism, i. 256.
+    Roman, its boundaries, i. 261.
+
+  Montanus, the pretended Paraclete, i. 291.
+
+  Moon, variations of, discovered by Aboul Wefa, i. 325.
+    Volcanic action in, ii. 304.
+
+  Moors boast of an Arab descent, i. 337.
+
+  Moral plays, ii. 248.
+
+  Moris, Lake, i. 96.
+
+  Moslems, their creed, ii. 37.
+
+  Motion, the three laws of, ii. 269.
+
+  Muggleton, Lewis, his doctrines, ii. 239.
+
+  Murdoch invents the locomotive, ii. 387.
+
+  Musa completes the conquest of Africa, i. 333.
+    Arrested at the head of his army, i. 369.
+
+  Museum of Alexandria, i. 187.
+    Its studies arranged in four faculties, i. 397.
+
+  Music, scale of, invented by Guido, i. 437.
+
+  Mycene, gate of, i. 32.
+
+  Mythology, Greek, origin of, i. 37.
+
+
+  Napier invents and perfects logarithms, ii. 285.
+
+  Narses, the eunuch, sent by Justinian against Rome, i. 351.
+
+  Nations, progress of, like that of individuals, i. 12.
+    Secular variations of, i. 16.
+    Death of, i. 17.
+    Are only transitional forms, i. 17.
+
+  Nearchus, an intimate friend of Alexander the Great, i. 173.
+
+  Nebulae, existence of, ii. 282.
+
+  Nebular hypothesis, ii. 281.
+
+  Necromancy, Alexandrian, i. 404.
+
+  Neo-Platonism, its origin imputed to Ammonius Saccas, i. 211.
+
+  Nervous system, general view of, ii. 346.
+
+  Three distinct parts of human, ii. 353.
+
+  Nestorians, their origin, i. 295.
+    Early cultivate medicine, i. 385.
+    Their history and progress, i. 391.
+
+  New academy founded by Carneades, i. 169.
+
+  Newspapers, their origin, ii. 204.
+    When first regularly issued in England, ii. 249.
+    Were first issued in Italy, ii. 390.
+
+  Newton, quotation from "Principia" of, i. 120.
+    Availed himself of the doctrines of Hipparchus, i. 202.
+    Under no obligation to Bacon, ii. 259.
+    Publication of the "Principia" of, ii. 272.
+    His mathematical learning and experimental skill, ii. 286.
+
+  Niagara Falls furnish proof of time from effect produced, ii. 305.
+    Prove the enormous age of the earth, ii. 334.
+
+  Nicaea, Council of, summoned by Constantine, i. 286.
+    Second council of, summoned by Irene, i. 420.
+
+  Nicene Creed, i. 287.
+
+  Nicholas V. a patron of art, ii. 110.
+
+  Nicomedia, church of, destroyed, i. 277.
+
+  Niebuhr, his opinion of the Greek account of the Persian war, i. 131.
+
+  Nile, inundations of, i. 86.
+
+  Nirwana, the end of successive existences in the Buddhist
+      doctrine, i. 71, 230.
+
+  Nitria, why well adapted for monks, i. 432.
+
+  Nogaret, William de, the legal adviser of Boniface, ii. 84.
+    Advises King Philip the Fair, ii. 91.
+
+  Nomades, Asiatic, i. 29.
+
+  Nominalism, doctrine of, sprang from scholastic philosophy, ii. 11.
+
+  Norman invasion of England favoured by Pope Gregory VII., ii. 16.
+
+  Norway, depth of rain in, i. 25.
+    Elevation and depression in level of, ii. 307.
+
+  Norwegians, diet of, accounted for, i. 27.
+
+  Novatus the heretic, i. 284.
+
+  Number the first principle according to the Pythagorean
+      philosophy, i. 113.
+
+  Numenius, a Trinitarian, i. 211.
+
+  Numerals, Arabic, derived from the Hindus, ii. 40.
+    Introduced into different countries, ii. 49.
+
+
+  Oaks, objects of adoration among the German nations, i. 241.
+
+  Obelisks, Egyptian, prodigious height of, i. 76.
+
+  Observatories first introduced into Europe by the Arabs, ii. 42.
+
+  Ocean, its size, ii. 371.
+
+  Octave, the grand standard of harmonical relation among the
+      Pythagoreans, i. 116.
+
+  Oliva, John Peter, his comment on the Apocalypse, ii. 78.
+
+  Olympian deities, their nature, i. 50.
+
+  Omar, Khalif, takes Jerusalem, i. 335.
+    His behaviour contrasted with that of the Crusaders, ii. 22.
+
+  Opinion and Reason, Parmenides's work on, i. 121.
+
+  Optics, discoveries in, ii. 379.
+
+  Oratory supplanted by journalism, ii. 204.
+
+  Orchomenos, ruins of, i. 32.
+
+  Orders, monastic, rise and progress of, i. 433.
+
+  Orestes compelled to interfere to stop a riot in Alexandria, i. 322.
+
+  Organ, the, invented by Sylvester, a Benedictine monk, i. 437.
+
+  Organisms, permanence of, due to external conditions, i. 8.
+    Control of physical agents over, i. 9.
+    Dates of various, ii. 321.
+
+  Orpheus, legend of, i. 37.
+
+  Osiris, daily ceremony before tomb of, i. 89.
+    One of the divinities of the Egyptian theology, i. 91.
+    Site of temple of, given to the church, i. 319.
+
+  Osporco changes his unseemly name into Sergius, ii. 143.
+
+  Ostrogoth monarchy overthrown, i. 351.
+
+  Otho III., Emperor, contemplates a reform in the Church, and is
+      poisoned by Stephania, ii. 6.
+
+  Otranto taken by the Mohammedans, ii. 109.
+
+  Oxus, its drying up, i. 29.
+
+
+  Pacific Ocean crossed, ii. 171.
+
+  Paganism, attitude of, i. 268.
+    Death-blow given to, by Theodosius, i. 312.
+
+  Pagans, accusation of, against the Christians, i. 301.
+
+  Painting and sculpture, relation of the Church to, i. 360.
+
+  Palaeontology, historical sketch of early, ii. 314.
+
+  Palatine library burnt by Gregory the Great, i. 357.
+
+  Pandataria, Sylverius banished to, i. 354.
+
+  Pantheism, theology of India underlaid with, i. 59.
+    Adopted by Parmenides, i. 121.
+    Greek, i. 223.
+
+  Papacy, history of, i. 290.
+    Consolidation of its power in the West, i. 362.
+    Signal peculiarity of, i. 378.
+    Human origin of, i. 382.
+
+  Paper, invention of, ii. 200.
+
+  Pappus, an Alexandrian geometrician, i. 204.
+
+  Parabolani diverted from their original intent by Cyril, i. 321, 386.
+
+  "Paraclete," doctrines of faith discussed in the, ii. 10.
+
+  Paradise spoken of with clearness by Mohammed, i. 345.
+
+  Parliament, its accusation against the clergy, ii. 235.
+
+  Parma, John of, the General of the Franciscans, ii. 77.
+
+  Parmenides, doctrines of, i. 121.
+
+  Pascal, his views of humanity, i. 18.
+    The influence of his writings, ii. 285.
+
+  Path-zone, i. 24.
+
+  Patristicism, introduction of, i. 314.
+    Doctrines of, i. 315.
+    Conflict of, with philosophy, i. 316.
+    Decline of, ii. 129.
+    End of geography of, ii. 164.
+    Ethnical ideas of, ii. 165.
+    End of, ii. 225.
+
+  Paulus Aemilius, his severity, i. 249.
+
+  Pausanias, i. 131.
+
+  Pelagian controversy, its effect on Papal superiority, i. 293.
+
+  Pelagius, his doctrines, i. 293, 366.
+
+  Penances, the Veda doctrine of, i. 61.
+
+  Pendulum first applied to clocks by the Moors, ii. 42.
+
+  Pepin, the son of Charles Martel, i. 370.
+
+  Pergamus, library of, transferred to Egypt, i. 318.
+
+  Pericles embraces obnoxious opinions, i. 50.
+    His the age of improvement in architecture and oratory, i. 132.
+
+  Perictione, the reputed mother of Plato, i. 151.
+
+  Periodicities, human cause of, i. 7.
+
+  Peripatetics, their philosophy, i. 178.
+
+  Persecutions, moral effects of, ii. 225.
+
+  Persepolis, burning of by Alexander the Great, i. 174.
+
+  Perses, revolt of, i. 246.
+
+  Persia, Greek invasion of, i. 171.
+    Subdued by Othman III., i. 335.
+
+  Persian invasion of Europe, i. 130.
+    Attack on the Byzantine system, i. 326.
+
+  Personified forms introduced, i. 37.
+
+  Perturbations, astronomical, accounted for, ii. 274.
+
+  Peru, its coast, a rainless district, i. 86.
+    A description of, ii. 179.
+
+  Peter d'Apono, the alchemist, the wonders imputed to him, ii. 116.
+
+  Peter de Brueys, his martyrdom, ii. 60.
+
+  Peter Morrone becomes Celestine V., i. 79.
+
+  Peter the Hermit, ii. 22, 135.
+
+  Peter the Venerable, his acquirements, ii. 12.
+
+  Peter's pence, ii. 54.
+
+  Petrarch, his opinion of Avignon, ii. 95.
+    His zeal for learning, ii. 194.
+
+  Pharaoh Necho, his ships first double the Cape of Good Hope, ii. 167.
+
+  Philadelphus Ptolemy, i. 189.
+
+  Philae, mysterious temple of, i. 89.
+
+  Philip the Fair protects the Colonnas, ii. 81.
+
+  Philiston, a writer on regimen, i. 397.
+
+  Philo of Larissa, founder of the fifth academy, i. 170.
+
+  Philo the Jew thinks he is inspired, i. 209.
+    Compares the mind to the eye, i. 234.
+
+  Philosopher's stone, i. 407.
+
+  Philosophers, persecution of, i. 311.
+    The revolt of, ii. 149.
+
+  Philosophical criticism, effect of, i. 46.
+    Schools, Indian, i. 65.
+
+  Philosophical principles, application of, i. 237.
+
+  Philosophy, peripatetic, i. 178.
+    Greek, end and summary of, i. 217.
+    Greek and Indian, the analogy between, i. 236.
+    Reappearance of, ii. 3.
+
+  Phlogiston, theory of, ii. 374.
+
+  Phocaeans built Marseilles, i. 46.
+
+  Phoenicians, enterprise of, i. 45.
+
+  Phosphorus discovered by Achild Bechil, i. 410.
+
+  Photius, his two works, ii. 59.
+
+  Photography, ii. 383.
+
+  Physical instruments, improvements in, ii. 384.
+
+  Physicians, classes of, i. 397.
+    Jewish, i. 400.
+    Oppose supernaturalism, ii. 113.
+    Are disliked by the Church, ii. 121.
+
+  Physics of Zeno, i. 183.
+
+  Physiology, its phases the same as those of physics, i. 5.
+    Of Plato, i. 156.
+    Of Aristotle, i. 180.
+
+  Piccolomini lays the foundation of general anatomy, ii. 285.
+
+  Pietro de Vinea undertakes to poison Frederick II., ii. 72.
+
+  Pinzons of Palos assist Columbus, ii. 161.
+
+  Pisa, Council of, deposes the rival Popes, ii. 97.
+    The first botanical gardens established at, ii. 390.
+
+  Plagues, mortality of ancient, i. 250.
+
+  Plants, effect of seasons on, i. 6.
+    Their dependence on the air, i. 102, ii. 339.
+
+  Plataea, fabulous number slain at battle of, i. 130.
+
+  Plater first classified diseases, ii. 285.
+
+  Plato, his profound knowledge of human nature, i. 53.
+    His doctrines, i. 152.
+
+  Platonism, Plutarch leans to, i. 210.
+    Reappearance of, in Europe, ii. 193.
+
+  Plays, miracle, moral, real, ii. 246.
+
+  Pleiades, a nickname given to seven Alexandrian poets, i. 201.
+
+  Plotinus, writings of, i. 212, 404.
+
+  Plutarch leans to platonizing Orientalism, i. 210.
+
+  Poggio Bracciolini quoted, ii. 101.
+
+  Polarization of light lends support to the undulatory theory, ii. 382.
+
+  Pole star, ii. 305.
+
+  Polycrates, Bishop of Ephesus, opposes Victor, Bishop of Rome, i. 291.
+
+  Polygamy, institution of, i. 331.
+    Secured the conquest of Africa, i. 334.
+    Its influence in consolidating the conquests of Mohammedanism, i. 338.
+
+  Polytheism, its antagonism to science, i. 49.
+    Slowness of its decline, i. 52.
+
+  Pontifical power sustained by physical force, i. 300.
+
+  Popes, biography of, from A.D. 757, i. 378.
+    Had no faith in the result of the Crusades, ii. 23.
+
+  Porphyry, his writings, i. 214, 404.
+
+  Porsenna takes Rome, i. 244.
+
+  Posidonius, i. 232.
+
+  Praxagoras wrote on the pulse, i. 397.
+
+  Pre-existence, Plato's notion of, i. 160.
+
+  Press, liberty of, secured, ii. 250.
+
+  "Principia," Newton's, quotation from, i. 120.
+    Publication of, ii. 272.
+    Its incomparable merit, ii. 275.
+
+  Printing, invention of, ii. 198.
+    Effects of, ii. 200.
+
+  Problems of Greek philosophy, i. 217.
+
+  Proclus burns Vitalian's ships, i. 215.
+    His theology, i. 215.
+
+  Procopius, the historian, secretary to Belisarius, ii. 58.
+
+  Profatius, a Jew, appointed regent of the faculty of
+      Montpellier, ii. 125.
+
+  Prosper Alpinus writes on diagnosis, ii. 285.
+
+  Protestant, origin of the name, ii. 211.
+
+  Provincial letters of Pascal, influence of, ii. 286.
+
+  Psammetichus overthrows the ancient policy of Egypt, i. 75.
+
+  "Psammites," a work of Archimedes, i. 195.
+
+  Psychology, origin of, i. 101.
+    Solution of questions of, ii. 344.
+
+  Ptolemies, political position of, i. 186.
+    Biography of, i. 200.
+
+  Ptolemy, his "Syntaxis," i. 203.
+
+  Puffendorf, author of the "Law of Nature and Nations," ii. 286.
+
+  Pulpit, influence of, affected by the press, ii. 201.
+    Decline of eloquence of, ii. 203.
+    Its relation to the drama, ii. 249.
+    State of, an index of the mental condition of a nation, ii. 249.
+
+  Punic wars, results of, i. 245.
+
+  Puranas, i. 65.
+
+  Pyramids of Egypt, size of, i. 75.
+    The Great, its antiquity and wonders, i. 81.
+    What they have witnessed, i. 84.
+    Their testimony unreliable as to the age of the world, ii. 327.
+
+  Pyrrho, the founder of the Sceptics, i. 164.
+
+  Pyrrhus, the Epirot, i. 244.
+
+  Pythagoras, biography of, i. 111.
+    The service he rendered us, i. 230.
+
+
+  Quintus Sextius, i. 258.
+
+  Quipus, a Peruvian instrument for enumeration, ii. 185.
+
+  Quito, why it was regarded as a holy place, ii. 185.
+
+
+  Rab, a Jewish anatomist, i. 400.
+
+  Rabanus, a Benedictine monk, sets up a school in Germany, i. 437.
+
+  Rabbis cultivate medicine, ii. 122.
+
+  Radbert, his views on transubstantiation, ii. 10.
+
+  Railways, ii. 387.
+
+  Rain, quantity of in Europe, i. 25.
+    Maximum points of, i. 25.
+
+  Rainless countries, agriculture in, i. 85.
+    Of the West, i. 86.
+    Peru one, ii. 180.
+
+  Rainy days, number of, i. 26.
+    Influence of, i. 27.
+
+  Rameses II., his policy, i. 78.
+
+  Raschi, his varied acquirements, ii. 123.
+
+  Ravenna, Gerbert appointed Archbishop of, ii. 6.
+
+  Ray leads the way to comparative anatomy, ii. 286.
+
+  Raymond Lully, said to have been compelled to make gold for
+      Edward II., ii. 155.
+
+  Raymond de Pennaforte compiles a list of decretals, ii. 70.
+
+  Reading, its advantage over listening, ii. 203.
+
+  Realism, its origin, ii. 11.
+
+  Reason, Algazzali's doctrine of the fallibility of, ii. 51.
+
+  Reductio ad absurdum introduced by Zeno, i. 122.
+
+  Reflection, Democritus's view of, i. 125.
+
+  Reflex action, ii. 348.
+
+  Reformation attempted in Greece, i. 50.
+    Influences leading to, ii. 190.
+    Dawn of the, ii. 204.
+    In Switzerland, ii. 210.
+    Organization of, ii. 211.
+    In Italy, ii. 212.
+    Arrest of, ii. 214.
+    Counter, ii. 219.
+    Culmination of, in America, ii. 226.
+
+  Relics, age of, i. 51.
+    Worship of, i. 414.
+
+  Reminiscence, Plato's doctrine of, i. 153.
+
+  Republic of Plato, i. 159.
+
+  Revolution, French, ii. 150.
+
+  Rhacotis, Alexandria erected on the site of, i. 192.
+
+  Rhazes discovers sulphuric acid, i. 410.
+
+  Rhazes, a Moorish writer on botany, ii. 39.
+
+  Rheims, Gerbert appointed Archbishop of, ii. 5.
+
+  Rhodes raised from the sea, i. 30.
+
+  Rhodians, maritime code of, i. 45.
+
+  Richard I. of England treacherously imprisoned, ii. 25.
+    His treatment by Saladin contrasted with that he received from
+        a Christian prince, ii. 136.
+
+  Rienzi, a demagogue, ii. 95.
+
+  Rig Veda, asserted to have been revealed by Brahma, i. 58.
+
+  "Robber Synod," the council of Ephesus, i. 297.
+
+  Roderic, King of the Goths, ii. 28.
+
+  Roderigo de Triana, the first of Columbus's crew to descry
+      land, ii. 163.
+
+  Roman power, influence of, i. 52.
+    Christianity, influence of, on the people, i. 241.
+    History, importance of, i. 242.
+    Power, triple form of, i. 243.
+    First theocracy and legends, i. 243.
+    History, early, i. 243.
+    Slave laws, atrocity of, i. 249.
+    Slave system, social effects of, i. 249.
+    Depravity, i. 252.
+    Women, their dissoluteness, i. 253.
+    Ethnical element disappears, i. 255.
+    Conquest, effects of, i. 256.
+
+  Rome, cause of permanence of, i. 11.
+    Unpitying tyranny of, i. 267.
+    Fall and sack of, by Alaric, i. 300.
+    Fall and pillage of, by the Vandals, i. 350.
+    Progress of, to Papal supremacy, i. 352.
+    Relations of, to Constantinople, i. 353.
+    Three pressures upon, ii. 1.
+    Pillaged, sacked, and fired by Henry, ii. 20.
+    Immoralities of, brought to light by the Crusades, ii. 136.
+    Its geological peculiarities, ii. 307.
+
+  Roemer, his estimate of the velocity of light confirmed, ii. 299.
+
+  Roscelin of Compiegne, an early advocate of Nominalism, ii. 11.
+
+  Ruysch improves minute anatomy, ii. 286.
+
+
+  Sacramentarians, separate from the Lutherans, ii. 211.
+
+  Sahara Desert affects the distribution of heat in Europe, i. 24.
+
+  Saladin retakes Jerusalem, ii. 25.
+    His noble behaviour to Richard I., ii. 136.
+
+  Salamanca, Columbus confuted by the Council of, ii. 161.
+    Council of, its reply when urged to teach physical science, ii. 278.
+
+  Sampson, Agnes, burnt for witchcraft, ii. 117.
+
+  Samuel, an accomplished Jewish physician, i. 400.
+
+  Sanctorio lays the foundation of modern physiology, ii. 285.
+    Invents the thermometer, ii. 390.
+
+  Sanscrit vocabulary, i. 33.
+
+  Saracens, their policy, i. 336.
+    Cause of their check in the conquest of France, i. 369.
+    Are taught by the Nestorians and Jews, i. 384.
+    They dominate in the Mediterranean, i. 422.
+    Their chemistry, medicine, and surgery, ii. 39.
+    Their philosophy, ii. 49.
+    Early cultivators of astronomy, ii. 133.
+
+  Sardica, Council of, i. 292.
+
+  Satan, notion of, had become debased, i. 414.
+
+  Sautree, William, the first English martyr, ii. 99.
+
+  Saviour, in Koran never called Son of God, i. 342.
+    Model of, eventually received, i. 361.
+
+  Scandinavian geological motion, i. 30.
+    Discovery of America, ii. 164, 175.
+
+  Sceptics, rise of, i. 163.
+
+  Schism, causes of the great, ii. 96.
+
+  Scholastic philosophy, rise of, ii. 11.
+    Theology, rise of, ii. 12.
+
+  Schools, philosophical Greek, merely points of reunion, i. 112.
+    The Megaric, Cyrenaic, and Cynical, i. 148.
+
+  Science, Alexandrian, suppressed, i. 325.
+
+  Sculpture, relation of Church to, i. 360.
+
+  Sea of Azof, a dependency of the Mediterranean, i. 28.
+
+  Seasons, effect of, on animals and plants, i. 6.
+
+  Sebastian de Elcano, the Lieutenant of Magellan, ii. 173.
+
+  Secular geological movement of Europe and Asia, i. 29.
+    Inequalities of satellites, ii. 277.
+
+  Semicircular canals, their function, i. 5.
+
+  Seneca, the influence of his writings accounted for, i. 258.
+
+  Sens, Council of, report of, to Rome, ii. 11.
+
+  Sensation, Democritus confounds it with thought, i. 125.
+
+  Senses, Algazzali's doctrine of the fallibility of, ii. 50.
+
+  Septuagint Bible, the translators of, entertained by Ptolemy
+      Philadelphus, i. 190.
+
+  Serapion, causes of its umbrage to Archbishop Theophilus, i. 318.
+    Destruction of, i. 319.
+
+  Serapis, establishment of the worship of, i. 187.
+    Description of the temple of, i. 318.
+    Statue of, destroyed, i. 319.
+    Temple of, used for a hospital, i. 399.
+
+  Servetus, the burning of, by Calvin, ii. 226.
+    Almost detected the circulation of the blood, ii. 285.
+
+  Servile rebellion in Sicily, i. 247.
+
+  Seville, tower of, an observatory built by the Arabs, ii. 42.
+
+  Shakespeare, quotation from, i. 207.
+    His position with regard to English literature, ii. 249.
+
+  Shepherds, the, their exertions in behalf of King Louis, ii. 76.
+
+  Shiites, one of the seventy-three Mohammedan sects, i. 347.
+
+  Sigismund, Emperor, his treacherous conduct to John Huss, ii. 101.
+
+  Silver, its comparative value in Rome, i. 251.
+
+  Simon Magus, an Oriental magician, wonders related of, ii. 114.
+
+  Simony, organization of, ii. 97.
+
+  Sirius, its supposed influence on the waters of the Nile, i. 90.
+
+  Slave system, Roman, i. 249.
+
+  Slavery under Charlemagne, i. 373.
+    Recognized in certain cases in Mexico, ii. 176.
+
+  Slavians converted by Greek missionaries, i. 367.
+
+  Smyrna, Erasistratus established a school there, i. 399.
+
+  Snow, distribution of, in Europe, i. 26.
+
+  Snowy days, number of, at various places, i. 26.
+
+  Social war, important results of, i. 247.
+    Eminence, no preservative from social delusion, ii. 117.
+
+  Society, the intellectual class the true representative of a
+      community, i. 13.
+
+  Sociology, comparative, ii. 359.
+
+  Socrates, Aristophanes excites the people against, i. 47.
+    His mode of teaching, and his doctrines, i. 143.
+    Character of, in Athens, i. 146.
+    "The Mad," i. 150.
+
+  Solar system proves the existence of law, i. 4.
+
+  Soliman the Magnificent takes Belgrade, ii. 109.
+
+  Sonnites, one of the seventy-three Mohammedan sects, i. 347.
+
+  Sopater accused of magic, and decapitated, i. 310.
+
+  Sophists, their doctrines, i. 135. Their influence, i. 220.
+
+  Sorcery, intermingling of magic and, i. 402.
+    Introduction of European, ii. 115.
+
+  Soul, Indian ideas of the, i. 60.
+    Purification of, i. 61.
+    Diogenes' opinion of that of the world, i. 99.
+    Plato's doctrine of the triple constitution of, i. 156.
+    Greek problem as to the nature of, i. 218.
+    As to the immortality and absorption of, i. 228.
+    The human, ii. 365.
+
+  Sound, nature and properties of, ii. 369.
+
+  Spain, Roman annexation of, i. 247.
+    Arab invasion of, ii. 28.
+    Literature of, ii. 35.
+    Crime of, ii. 166.
+
+  Sparta, Lycurgus abolished private property in, i. 129.
+
+  Spartacus, the gladiator, i. 248.
+
+  Species, Cuvier's doctrine of the permanence of, ii. 326.
+    Opposition to the doctrine of transmutation of, ii. 328.
+
+  Specific gravity, Alhazen's tables of, clearly approach our own, ii. 48.
+
+  Sphaerus, the Stoic, fraud practised on, i. 189.
+
+  Spheres, music of, a belief entertained by the Pythagoreans, i. 116.
+
+  Sphinxes, one of the wonders of ancient Egypt, i. 76.
+
+  Spinal cord, its separate and conjoint action, ii. 352.
+
+  Spires, first Diet of, ii. 210.
+
+  Spirit, in chemistry, had at first a literal meaning, i. 405.
+
+  Spiritualists, their devout regard for the "Everlasting Gospel," ii. 78.
+
+  Spontaneous generation, Anaximander's doctrine of, i. 107.
+    Anaxagoras's doctrine of, i. 109.
+
+  Stage, state of, an index of the mental condition of a nation, ii. 249.
+
+  Stancari first counted the vibrations of a string emitting
+      musical notes, ii. 390.
+
+  Stars, multiple, i. 4.
+    Coloured light of double, ii. 277.
+    Our cluster of, how divided, ii. 280.
+
+  Star-worship, fetichism displaced by, i. 3.
+    The philosophy of, i. 90.
+
+  Steam-engine first invented by Hero, i. 205, 387.
+    The nature of Watt's improvement in, ii. 385.
+
+  Steno first recognizes the twofold division of rocks, ii. 315.
+
+  Stephania, wife of Crescentius, poisons Otho III., ii. 7.
+
+  Stephanus, a grammarian of Constantinople, ii. 58.
+
+  Stephen II., Pope, consecrates Pepin and his family, i. 370.
+
+  Stephen III., Pope, urges Charlemagne against the Lombards, i. 371.
+
+  Stephenson, George, his improvement in the locomotive, and its
+      results, ii. 387.
+
+  Stercorists, their doctrines, ii. 10.
+
+  Stereoscope, an optical instrument, ii. 380.
+
+  Stevinus, his mechanical works, ii. 269.
+    Revives correct views of the mechanical properties of water, ii. 372.
+
+  Stigmata, marks miraculously impressed on the body of St.
+      Francis, ii. 64.
+
+  Stilicho, a Goth, compels Alaric to retreat, and Rhadogast to
+      surrender, i. 300.
+    Is murdered by the Emperor, his master, i. 300.
+
+  Stoicism, its intention, i. 183.
+
+  Stoics, exoteric philosophy of, i. 184.
+
+  Struve, his estimate of the velocity of light, ii. 299.
+
+  Stylites, St. Simeon, an aerial martyr of the fifth century, i. 426.
+
+  Success too often the criterion of right, i. 332.
+
+  Sun, agency of, i. 103.
+    Aristarchus's attempts to ascertain the distance of, i. 199.
+    The source of force, ii. 339.
+    Influence of, on organic and inorganic nature, ii. 362.
+
+  Sun-dials, invention of, wrongfully ascribed to Anaximander, i. 107.
+
+  Supererogation, the theory of, ii. 207.
+
+  Supernatural appearances, cause of, i. 428.
+
+  Supernaturalism, its adoption by the age of faith, ii. 112.
+    Overthrow of, in France, ii. 126.
+
+  Superstitions, disappearance of, i. 255.
+
+  Swammerdam section to the natural history of insects, ii. 286.
+
+  Sweden, change of level in, ii. 307.
+
+  Sybaris, a luxurious Italiot city, i. 128.
+
+  Sylverius, Pope, deposed by the Emperor's wife, Theodora, i. 354.
+
+  Sylvester, a Benedictine monk, invents the organ, i. 437.
+
+  Sylvester II., Pope, is believed to have made a speaking head, ii. 115.
+
+  Symmachus, Senator, falls a victim to the wrath of Theodoric,
+      the Gothic king, i. 353.
+
+  "Syntaxis," the great work of Ptolemy, i. 203.
+
+  Syphilis, moral state of Europe indicated by the spread of, ii. 231.
+
+  Syria, importance of conquest of, to the Arabs, i. 335.
+
+
+  Tacitus, his testimony to the depraved state of Roman morality, i. 254.
+
+  Tarasius created Patriarch by Irene, i. 420.
+
+  Tarik lands at Gibraltar, so called in memory of his name, ii. 29.
+
+  Tartars, why they prefer a milk diet, i. 27.
+
+  Tartarus, one of the two divisions of hell, according to
+      Anaximenes, i. 36.
+
+  Taxation, amount of Roman, i. 251.
+
+  Taylor, Jeremy, his testimony as to the authority of the
+      Fathers, ii. 225.
+
+  Telescope, invention of, ii. 261, 380.
+
+  Temperature, life can only be maintained within a narrow range,
+      i. 7.
+
+  Templars, apostasy, arrest, and punishment of, ii. 90, 91, 92.
+
+  Tensons, or poetic disputations, originated among the Arabs, ii. 34.
+
+  Tertullian, his letter to Scapula, i. 275.
+    Denounces the Bishop of Rome as a heretic, i. 291.
+    Denies the Scripture authority for certain observances, i. 358.
+    His impression of the personal appearance of the Saviour, i. 361.
+
+  Testimony, human, value of, ii. 119.
+
+  Tetractys, the number "ten," why so called, i. 114.
+
+  Tezcuco, description of, ii. 178.
+
+  Thabor, mysterious light of, ii. 59.
+
+  Thales, philosophy of, i. 95.
+
+  Thaumasius, the name of Ammonius changed to, i. 322.
+
+  Theatre, the English, ii. 245.
+
+  Thebit Ben Corrah determines the length of the year, ii. 41.
+
+  Theodora, Empress, restores image-worship, i. 421.
+
+  Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, effect of the conquest of Italy by, i. 353.
+    The change in his policy, i. 353.
+
+  Theodorus, Bishop his tongue cut out, i. 378.
+
+  Theodosius, Emperor, fanaticism of, i. 312.
+    His cruel vengeance at Thessalonica, i. 313.
+    His acts, i. 317.
+    Orders the Serapion to be torn down, i. 319.
+
+  Theodosius, an Alexandrian geometrician, i. 204.
+
+  Theon, an Alexandrian geometrician, and father of Hypatia, i. 204, 322.
+
+  Theophilus, Archbishop of Alexandria, his character, i. 317.
+    Cause of his umbrage at the Serapion, i. 318.
+    Persecutions of, i. 319.
+
+  Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, first introduced the word
+      "Trinity," i. 273.
+
+  Theophilus, Emperor, image-worship restored at his death, i. 421.
+    His surly and insolent reply to Almaimon, ii. 40.
+
+  Theosis, its meaning as employed by John Erigena, ii. 9.
+
+  Therapeutae, early Egyptian hermits, i. 424.
+
+  Thermotics, science of heat, ii. 383.
+
+  Thessalonica, massacre at, i. 313.
+
+  Thomas a Kempis, the reputed author of "The Imitation of
+      Christ," ii. 196.
+
+  Thought, confounded with sensation by Democritus, i. 125.
+    Variation of human, ii. 205.
+
+  Thucydides, his secret disbelief of the Trojan war, i. 49.
+
+  Thuringians converted in the seventh and eighth centuries, i. 365.
+
+  Tides and currents explained on the theory of gravitation, ii. 371.
+
+  Time, nothing absolute in, i. 17.
+
+  Torricelli, weight of atmosphere understood before, ii. 47.
+    Hydrostatics created by, ii. 285.
+    Constructs the barometer, and demonstrates the pressure of
+        the air, ii. 390.
+
+  Toscanelli, a Florentine astronomer, and friend of Columbus, ii. 160.
+    Constructs his gnomon in the Cathedral of Florence, ii. 255.
+
+  Tours, battle of, i. 368.
+
+  Trade-wind, under the dominion of law, i. 4.
+
+  Transformation, the world is undergoing unceasing, i. 59.
+
+  Transitional forms, nature of, i. 12.
+
+  Transmigration of souls, the Veda doctrine of, i. 61.
+    The Buddhist doctrine of, i. 71.
+    The Pythagorean doctrine of, does not imply the absolute
+        immortality of the soul, i. 117.
+    Plato's doctrine of, i. 156.
+
+  Transmission, hereditary, nature of, ii. 333.
+
+  Transmutation of metals, i. 406.
+    Of species, doctrine of, has met with opposition, ii. 328.
+
+  Transubstantiation, a twin-sister of transmutation, i. 407.
+    The doctrine of, first attacked by the new philosophers, ii. 9.
+  The Italian doctrine of, rejected by the German and Swiss
+      reformers, ii. 210.
+
+  Tribonian suspected of being an atheist, i. 359.
+
+  Trinitarian disputes had their starting point in Alexandria, i. 191.
+
+  Trinity, the Indian doctrine of, i. 64.
+    The Egyptian doctrine of, i. 91.
+    Is assumed in the doctrine of Numenius, i. 211.
+    The word does not occur in the Scriptures, i. 273.
+
+  Triumvirate, the First, usurps the power of the senate and
+      people, i. 248.
+
+  Trojan war, various views entertained about, i. 50.
+    Horse, superstitious notions of the tools with which it was
+        made, i. 51.
+
+  Troubadours use the Langue d'Oc in the north of France, ii. 60.
+
+  Trouveres use the Langue d'Oil in the south of France, ii. 60.
+
+  Tupac Yupanqui, Inca, quoted, ii. 183.
+
+  Turkish invasion, effect of, ii. 110.
+
+  Turks, their origin and progress, ii. 105.
+
+  Tutching, his severe and prolonged punishment, ii. 244.
+
+  Tycho makes a new catalogue of the stars, ii. 284.
+
+  Tympanum, its function, i. 5.
+
+  Types, Platonic, i. 152.
+
+  Tyre, fall of, i. 80.
+
+  Tyrians, their enterprise, i. 45.
+
+
+  Ulphilas invents an alphabet for the Goths, i. 307.
+
+  "Unam Sanctam," the bull of, issued by Pope Boniface, ii. 83.
+
+  Under-world, primitive notions respecting, i. 39.
+
+  Undulatory theory of light, ii. 381.
+
+  Uniformity, doctrine of, ii. 323.
+
+  Unity of mankind, i. 10.
+    Religious, implies tyranny to the individual, ii. 227.
+
+  Universe, unchangeability of, taught by Anaxagoras, i. 108.
+    Its magnitude, ii. 292, 335.
+
+  Unreliability of sense, Zeno's illustration of, i. 123.
+
+  Urban II. institutes the Crusades, ii. 20.
+
+  Urban VI., his cruelty to his cardinals and bishops, ii. 96.
+
+
+  Valentinian issues an edict denouncing the contumacy of Hilary, i. 300.
+    Is a Nicenist, i. 311.
+
+  Valerius, Count, the Pelagian question settled through his
+      influence, i. 294.
+
+  Vallisneri, an Italian geologist of the eighteenth century, ii. 315.
+
+  Vandal attack, i. 327.
+
+  Vandals converted in the fourth century, i. 365.
+
+  Van Helmont introduced the theory of vitality into medicine, ii. 285.
+
+  Variation of organic forms, i. 8.
+    Man not exempt from law of, i. 10.
+    Human, best seen when examined on a line of the meridian, i. 11.
+    The political result of human, i. 11.
+
+  Varolius, a distinguished anatomist, ii. 284.
+
+  Varro, Terentius, his scepticism, i. 257.
+
+  Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape of Good Hope, ii. 167.
+
+  Vatican library founded by Nicholas V., ii. 111.
+
+  Vedaism, the adoration of nature, its doctrines, i. 58.
+    Its changes, i. 64.
+
+  Vedic doctrines, minor, i. 62.
+
+  Venice, commercial rivalry between Genoa and, ii. 158.
+    Takes the lead in the publication of books, ii. 199.
+
+  Venus, light of the planet, ii. 304.
+
+  Verona, Fracaster wrote on the petrifactions found at, ii. 315.
+    The first geological museum established at, ii. 390.
+
+  Vesicles, nerve, structure and functions of, ii. 347.
+
+  Victor, Bishop of Rome, requires the Asiatic bishops to conform
+      to his view respecting Easter, i. 291.
+
+  Victor III. denounces the life of Pope Benedict IX. as foul and
+      execrable, i. 381.
+
+  Vienne, Council of, ii. 89.
+
+  Vieta improves algebra, and applies it to geometry, ii. 284.
+
+  Vigilius purchases the Papacy for two hundred pounds of gold, i. 354.
+
+  Vinci, Leonardo da, his contributions to science, ii. 268.
+    First asserts the true nature of fossil remains, ii. 314, 390.
+    Compares the action of the eye to that of a camera obscura, ii. 380.
+
+  Virgin Mary, worship of, i. 296.
+    Various art types of the, i. 361.
+
+  Visconti, Barnabas, irreverence of, ii. 95.
+
+  Visigoths, spread of, through Greece, Spain, Italy, i. 300.
+
+  Vision, correct ideas respecting, ii. 380.
+
+  Vitello publishes a treatise on optics in the sixteenth
+      century, ii. 255.
+
+  Vocabulary, Indo-Germanic, i. 32.
+
+  Volcanoes, ii. 301.
+
+  Volta, indebtedness of chemistry to, ii. 391.
+
+  Voltaic electricity, ii. 377.
+
+  Voyages, minor, ii. 174.
+
+  Vulgate becomes the ecclesiastical authority of the West, i. 306.
+    Jealous fears of Rome respecting depreciation of the authority
+        of, ii. 195.
+
+
+  Wales, South, thickness of coal-bearing strata in, ii. 308.
+
+  Walter the Penniless, one of the first Crusaders, ii. 22.
+
+  War, effect of, on the low Arab class, i. 339.
+    Moral state of Europe indicated by the usages of war, ii. 232.
+
+  War system, Roman, i. 250.
+
+  Water, importance of, in Egypt, i. 96.
+    The curious treatise of Zosimus on the virtues and composition
+        of, i. 408.
+
+    Physical and chemical relation of, ii. 372.
+
+  Watt, James, has revolutionized the industry of the world, i. 387.
+    His discovery of the constitution of water, ii. 340.
+    His invention of the steam-engine, ii. 385.
+
+  Week, origin of the, i. 403.
+
+  Weeping statues, held in superstitious veneration by the vulgar, i. 51.
+
+  Western Empire becomes extinct, i. 351.
+
+  Westphalia, Peace of, the culmination of the Reformation, ii. 212.
+
+  Whewell, his testimony to the incomparable merit of Newton's
+      "Principia," ii. 275.
+
+  Wickliffe translates the Bible, ii. 99. The revolt of, ii. 148.
+
+  William of Champeaux opens a school of logic in Paris, ii. 14.
+
+  William, Lord of Montpellier, his edict respecting the practice
+      of medicine, ii. 123.
+
+  William de Nogaret assists King Philip against Pope Boniface
+      II., ii. 84.
+    Also against the Templars, ii. 91.
+
+  William de Plaisian prefers a long list of charges against Pope
+      Boniface, ii. 84.
+
+  Willis, his researches on the brain and nervous system, ii. 286.
+
+  Winking pictures held in superstitious veneration by the vulgar, i. 51
+
+  Witchcraft, introduction of European, ii. 115.
+
+  Women, condition of, in India, i. 63.
+    "Sub-introduced," i. 359.
+    Exerted extraordinary influence in the conversion of Europe, i. 365.
+
+  Woodward improves mineralogy, ii. 286.
+
+  World, to determine the origin and manner of production of, the
+      first object of Greek philosophy, i. 217.
+    Hindu doctrine of the absorption of, i. 226.
+    Moral, is governed by principles analogous to those which
+        obtain in the physical, i. 348.
+    Expected end of, i. 377.
+    Anthropocentric ideas of the beginning of, ii. 297.
+
+  Worlds, infinity of; ii. 292. Succession of, ii. 336.
+
+  Worms, synod of, ii. 18.
+
+
+  Xantippe, the wife of Socrates, her character unfairly judged
+      of, i. 147.
+
+  Xenophanes, the representative of a great philosophical advance, i. 118.
+
+  Xerxes, his exploits exaggerated, i. 130.
+
+  Ximenes, Cardinal, burns Arabic manuscripts, ii. 177.
+
+
+  Year, length of, determined by Albategnius and Thebit Ben
+      Corrah, ii. 41.
+
+  Yezed, Khalif, origin of Iconoclasm imputed to, i. 417.
+
+  Yolinda de Lusignan, Frederick compelled to marry her by
+      Honorius III., ii. 67.
+
+  York, Archbishop of, excommunicated, ii. 75.
+
+  Yucay, the site of the national palace of Peru, ii. 182.
+
+
+  Zachary, Pope, enters into an alliance with King Pepin, i. 370.
+
+  Zaryab, the musician, honour paid him by the Khalif Abderrahman, ii. 34.
+
+  Zedekias, physician to Charles the Bald, fabulous story of, ii. 120.
+
+  Zehra, splendour and magnificence of the palace and gardens of, ii. 32.
+
+  Zemzen, a well, one of the fictions of popular Mohammedanism, i. 345.
+
+  Zeno the Eleatic, the doctrines of Parmenides carried out by, i. 122.
+
+  Zeno the Stoic, rival of Epicurus, i. 182.
+
+  Ziska, John, desecration of the body of, ii. 149.
+
+  Zosimus, Pope, annuls the decision of Innocent I., and declares
+      the opinion of Pelagius to be orthodox, i. 294.
+
+  Zosmus the Panopolitan, describes the process of distillation, i. 408.
+
+  Zuinglius, the leader of the Swiss Reformation, ii. 210.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
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+Edited by Professor W. G. T. SHEDD. With Steel Portrait, and an Index. 7
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+REBER'S MEDIAEVAL ART. History of Mediaeval Art. By Dr. FRANZ VON REBER.
+Translated and Augmented by Joseph Thacher Clarke. With 422
+Illustrations, and a Glossary of Technical Terms. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.
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+REBER'S HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. History of Ancient Art. By Dr. FRANZ VON
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+Cloth, $3 50.
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+NEWCOMB'S ASTRONOMY. Popular Astronomy. By SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D. With 112
+Engravings, and 5 Maps of the Stars. 8vo, Cloth, $2 50; School Edition,
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+VAN-LENNEP'S BIBLE LANDS. Bible Lands: their Modern Customs and Manners
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+Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, Extra, Uncut Edges and Gilt Tops, $7 50.
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+SHORT'S NORTH AMERICANS OF ANTIQUITY. The North Americans of Antiquity.
+Their Origin, Migrations, and Type of Civilization Considered. By JOHN
+T. SHORT. Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $3 00.
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+FLAMMARION'S ATMOSPHERE. Translated from the French of CAMILLE
+FLAMMARION. With 10 Chromo-Lithographs and 86 Wood-cuts. 8vo, Cloth, $6
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+GROTE'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 12 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $18 00; Sheep, $22 80;
+Half Calf, $39 00.
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+"THE FRIENDLY EDITION" of Shakespeare's Works. Edited by W. J. ROLFE. In
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+HORACE WALLER. With Portrait, Maps, and Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $5
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+BLAIKIE'S LIFE OF DAVID LIVINGSTONE. Memoir of his Personal Life, from
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+THE POETS AND POETRY OF SCOTLAND: From the Earliest to the Present Time.
+Comprising Characteristic Selections from the Works of the more
+Noteworthy Scottish Poets, with Biographical and Critical Notices. By
+JAMES GRANT WILSON. With Portraits on Steel. 2 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $10
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+SCHLIEMANN'S ILIOS. Ilios, the City and Country of the Trojans. A
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+Troad in 1881. By Dr. HENRY SCHLIEMANN. Preface by Professor A. H.
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+SCHWEINFURTH'S HEART OF AFRICA. Three Years' Travels and Adventures in
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+SMILES'S HISTORY OF THE HUGUENOTS. The Huguenots: their Settlements,
+Churches, and Industries in England and Ireland. By SAMUEL SMILES. With
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+00.
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+SMILES'S HUGUENOTS AFTER THE REVOCATION. The Huguenots in France after
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+SMILES'S LIFE OF THE STEPHENSONS. The Life of George Stephenson, and of
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