diff options
Diffstat (limited to '33935-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 33935-0.txt | 1958 |
1 files changed, 1958 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/33935-0.txt b/33935-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7b1a3b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/33935-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1958 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United +States, by F. E. L. Beal + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States + USDA Bulletin 280 + +Author: F. E. L. Beal + +Release Date: October 11, 2010 [EBook #33935] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas, Joseph Cooper and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.ne + + + + + + + + + + + UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE + + BULLETIN No. 280 + + Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey + + HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief + + ----------------------------------------------------------------- + Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 27, 1915 + ----------------------------------------------------------------- + + + FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES + OF THE UNITED STATES + + By F. E. L. Beal, _Assistant Biologist_. + + + + + + CONTENTS. + + + + Page. + + Introduction 1 + + Townsend's solitaire 3 + + Wood thrush 5 + + Veery and willow thrush 9 + + Gray-cheeked and Bicknell's thrushes 11 + + Olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes 13 + + Hermit thrushes 18 + + + [Illustration: logo] + + + WASHINGTON + GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE + 1915 + + + + + + UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE + +[Illustration: shield] BULLETIN No. 280 [Illustration: shield] + + Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey + + HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief + + ------------------------------------------------------------------ + Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 27, 1915 + ------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + + FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES OF THE + UNITED STATES. + + By F. E. L. Beal, _Assistant Biologist_. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + +North American thrushes (Turdidæ) constitute a small but interesting +group of birds, most of which are of retiring habits but noted as +songsters. They consist of the birds commonly known as thrushes, +robins, bluebirds, Townsend's solitaire, and the wheatears. The +red-winged thrush of Europe (_Turdus musicus_) is accidental in +Greenland, and the wheatears (_Saxicola œnanthe_ subspp.) are rarely +found in the Western Hemisphere except in Arctic America. Within the +limits of the United States are 11 species of thrushes, of which the +following 6 are discussed in this bulletin: Townsend's solitaire +(_Myadestes townsendi_), the wood thrush (_Hylocichla mustelina_), the +veery and willow thrush (_Hylocichla fuscescens_ subspp.), the +gray-cheeked and Bicknell's thrushes (_Hylocichla aliciæ_ subspp.), +the olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes (_Hylocichla ustulata_ +subspp.), and the hermit thrushes (_Hylocichla guttata_ subspp.). An +account of the food habits of the 5 species of robins and bluebirds +appeared in Department Bulletin No. 171. + +As a group thrushes are plainly colored and seem to be especially +adapted to thickly settled rural districts, as the shyest of them, with +the exception of the solitaire, do not require any greater seclusion +than that afforded by an acre or two of woodland or swamp. + +The thrushes are largely insectivorous, and also are fond of spiders, +myriapods, sowbugs, snails, and angleworms. The vegetable portion of +their diet consists mostly of berries and other small fruits. As a +family thrushes can not be called clean feeders, for the food eaten +often contains a considerable proportion of such matter as dead +leaves, stems, and other parts of more or less decayed vegetation. It +might be supposed that this was gathered from the ground with insects +and other food, but investigation shows that much of it has a +different origin. It was noticed that the setæ or spines of earthworms +were a very common accompaniment of this decayed vegetation. +Earthworms themselves are rather rarely found in stomachs, although +some birds, as the robin, eat them freely. It is well known that the +food of earthworms consists largely of partially decayed vegetable +matter found in the soil. Hence it is probable that decayed vegetation +found in the stomachs of thrushes is the food contained in the +earthworms when they were swallowed. The tissues of worms are quickly +digested, leaving the contents of their alimentary canals mixed with +the hard indigestible setæ or spines. + +Thrushes of the genus _Hylocichla_ show a very pronounced taste for +ants, and the average consumption of these insects by the five species +is 12.65 per cent. Few birds other than woodpeckers show so strong a +liking for this highly flavored food. Hymenoptera in general, +including ants, bees, and wasps, are the second largest item of insect +food. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next as an article of thrush +diet, while Orthoptera (grasshoppers), which are a favorite food with +most birds, do not seem to appeal much to the thrushes. + +The thrushes are pronounced ground feeders, and may often be seen +picking small fruit that has fallen to the ground. The vegetable +portion of their food (40.72 per cent) is largely composed of fruit, +which constitutes over 34 per cent of the total food. Of this 30.88 +per cent is made up of wild berries, which outweigh the domestic +varieties with every species. In all, 94 species of wild fruits or +berries were identified in the stomachs of these birds, although it is +not always practicable to identify such material unless seeds or some +other characteristic parts are present. As this is not often the case, +a considerable portion of the stomach contents must be pronounced +"fruit pulp" without further identification; thus probably many more +species are eaten than are recorded. Moreover, in the case of some +fruits, it is not possible to distinguish species by the seeds, so +that many species go unrecognized except as to genus. Domestic fruits +are eaten so sparingly by the thrushes here considered as to be of no +economic importance. + + Note.--This bulletin treats of the economic relations + and value to agriculture of the thrushes of the United States + other than robins and bluebirds. These two forms were discussed + in Department Bulletin No. 171, issued February 5, 1915. + + + + + +TOWNSEND'S SOLITAIRE + +(_Myadestes townsendi._) + + +Townsend's solitaire, a bird of the far West, is a resident of high +mountains and lonely gorges. It is partial to running streams and +often builds its nest just above a rushing mountain torrent. It ranges +from Alaska through the Sierras south to San Bernardino, Cal., and +through the Rockies to Arizona and New Mexico, and occasionally +farther east. The species is not evenly distributed over this region, +but is restricted to such high mountainous portions as afford its +favorite surroundings. As long as it retains these habits the bird +will have little or no effect upon the products of husbandry, and its +food can have only a scientific interest. The song of this species is +said to be at times the finest of any of the thrush family. + +As this bird is comparatively rare in settled regions only 41 stomachs +are available for determining the character of its food. The most +southerly and easterly one was taken in Texas, the most westerly in +California, and the most northerly in Wyoming. They are distributed +through all the months of the year, although April and May are +represented by but one each and December by but two. Every other month +has three or more. An investigation based upon such limited material +can be considered only as preliminary, but will serve to show some of +the more important elements of the food. This was made up of 35.90 per +cent of animal matter to 64.10 of vegetable. + +_Animal food._--The animal food consists of insects and spiders, with +a few hair worms (_Gordius_) found in one stomach. These last may have +been contained in the insects eaten. Among insects, beetles constitute +the second largest item (10.74 per cent), but 5.89 per cent of these +were the useful predatory ground beetles (Carabidæ). This is not a +good showing, but too few stomachs have been examined to allow +sweeping conclusions. As evidence that this can not be taken as a fair +sample of the bird's food habits it may be stated that all of these +beetles were taken in January and October. The one stomach collected +in January contained 95 per cent of Carabidæ--the only animal food in +it--and 93 per cent of the contents of one October stomach was made up +of the same material. Evidently in these cases the bird had found a +colony of the beetles and filled up with them. Had they constituted +the usual diet of the species they would have appeared in other months +and in more stomachs, but in smaller quantities. Other families of +beetles are eaten so sparingly as to be of little importance. +Scarabæidæ stand the next highest, but they amount to less than 2 per +cent of the food. + +Lepidoptera (caterpillars) make the largest item in the food of +_Myadestes_. Eaten much more regularly than beetles, they probably are +a standard article of diet. They were found in the stomachs collected +in every month of the year but four, and a greater number of stomachs +would probably show them in every month. The one stomach taken in May +contained the maximum (72 per cent). The total for the year is 12.95 +per cent. Ants are eaten to the extent of 4.71 per cent, while other +Hymenoptera, as bees and wasps, make up less than half of 1 per cent. +Diptera (flies) are represented by a mere trace in the stomachs. +Observers who have seen this bird in its native haunts testify that it +takes a considerable portion of its food on the wing. In view of this +fact it seems curious that the two orders of insects most active on +the wing (Hymenoptera and Diptera) should be so scantily represented +in the food. Hymenoptera are a standard diet with flycatchers and +would seem to be the natural food of any bird that feeds upon the +wing. + +Hemiptera (bugs) were found to the extent of 3.51 per cent of the +total food. All were contained in three stomachs taken in March, June, +and July. In the July stomach four cicadas, or dog-day flies, +constituted the whole contents. Grasshoppers amount to less than 1 per +cent and all other insects to but a trifle. Spiders were eaten to the +extent of 2.94 per cent of the food and were found in the stomachs +taken in seven of the twelve months, and judging from their +distribution they are eaten whenever available. A hair snake +(_Gordius_) was found in one stomach. Following is a list of insects +identified and the number of stomachs in which found: + + + COLEOPTERA. + + _Amara erratica_ 1 + _Aphodius_ sp 1 + _Balaninus_ sp 1 + + HEMIPTERA. + + _Platypedia putnami_ 1 + + +_Vegetable food._--The vegetable portion of the food of _Myadestes_ is +64.10 per cent of the whole, and 58.70 per cent of this, or more than +half the whole food, is classified as wild fruit or berries. These +were found in stomachs collected in every month. From the even +distribution of this food through the year and from the quantity eaten +it is evidently a favorite article of diet. Nothing was found in any +of the stomachs that could be identified as cultivated fruit, with the +possible exception of a mass of fruit pulp found in one. A few seeds +of poison ivy and sumac, with fragments of flowers and a few weed +seeds, complete the vegetable food. Following is a list of fruits, +seeds, etc., identified, and the number of stomachs in which found: + + + Rocky Mountain cedar (_Juniperus scopulorum_) 3 + Western cedar (_Juniperus monospermum_) 1 + Other cedars (_Juniperus_ sp.) 2 + Hackberries (_Celtis occidentalis_) 1 + Douglas hackberries (_Celtis douglasii_) 1 + Service berries (_Amelanchier_ sp.) 1 + Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 2 + Wild cherries (_Prunus_ sp.) 1 + Sumac berries (_Rhus_ sp.) 1 + Poison ivy (_Rhus toxicodendron_) 1 + Waxwork (_Celastrus_ sp.) 1 + Madrona berries (_Arbutus menziesii_) 5 + Honeysuckle berries (_Lonicera_ sp.) 1 + Elderberries (_Sambucus_ sp.) 1 + Fruit not further identified 3 + + +_Summary._--With so small an amount of material it is not safe to draw +general conclusions, but in the case of _Myadestes_ one point seems +clear--the bird's favorite food is small wild fruit, and as long as +this is abundant the bird will probably not attack cultivated +varieties; but should any portion of the region occupied by the +solitaire be cleared of its wild fruit and cultivated species be +introduced these would likely be preyed upon. Under such conditions +this bird, now perfectly harmless, might inflict considerable damage. + + + + +WOOD THRUSH. + +(_Hylocichla mustelina._) + + +The wood thrush is distributed over the eastern part of the United +States wherever suitable conditions are found. It is a lover of open +groves and bushy pastures, and may be found along little-traveled +roads and near low bushy swamps. The bird is noted for its sweet song, +and many country people who are well acquainted with its notes know +little or nothing of the bird itself. Its favorite time for singing is +in the early evening at the close of a sultry afternoon when a shower +has cooled the air. As a rule, it does not nest in gardens or orchards +and is seldom seen about farm buildings. It is strictly migratory, and +the greater number pass out of the United States in winter, though a +few remain in the Southern States. It usually migrates north in April +or early May. + +For the investigation of the food habits of the wood thrush 171 +stomachs were available. One of these was collected in Florida in +January and another in Alabama in February, and these two will be +treated separately. The remaining 169 were collected from April to +October, and are fairly well distributed over that time. The food +consisted of 59.59 per cent of animal matter to 40.41 per cent of +vegetable. The greatest quantity of animal food was eaten in April, +the month of arrival from the south, and the least in October, the +month of the return migration. + +_Animal food._--Beetles, collectively (20.40 per cent), constitute the +largest item of animal food. Of these, 2.23 per cent are the +predacious ground beetles (Carabidæ), generally considered useful. The +remainder belong to several more or less harmful families, of which +the May-beetle family (Scarabæidæ) amount to 10.17 per cent. Snout +beetles, or weevils (Rhynchophora), are eaten to the extent of 2.16 +per cent only, and the wood-boring chick-beetles (Elateridæ) to 2.13 +per cent. + +Among the various species of these insects were noted the remains of +the well-known Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_), +in two stomachs, and _Coptocycla signifera_, also injurious to the +potato, in one stomach. Remains of _Otiorhynchus ovatus_, a weevil +destructive to strawberry plants, were found in two stomachs, and in +one other a weevil, _Sphenophorus parvulus_, that injures the roots of +grass. The well-known white grubs that attack grass roots and a host +of other plants are the immature forms of many species of +_Lachnosterna_, of several species of _Euphoria_ and of _Allorhina +nitida_. Of these, remains of _Lachnosterna_ were found in 27 stomachs +and of _Allorhina_ and _Euphoria_ in one each. + + + [Illustration: + B2084-73 + + Fig. 1.--Wood thrush (_Hylocichla mustelina_).] + + +Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next to Coleoptera (beetles) in the +animal diet of the wood thrush. Although eaten with a fair degree of +regularity during every month of the bird's stay in the north, the +most were taken in July (16.32 per cent). The average for the season +is 9.42 per cent. Ants as an item of food are third in importance, +though if other Hymenoptera were included the order would rank next to +beetles. They seem to be a rather favorite food with all birds of the +genus _Hylocichla_. With the wood thrush they begin with 18.12 per +cent in April and gradually decrease through the summer and disappear +in October. The total for the season is 8.89 per cent. Hymenoptera +other than ants were eaten with great regularity (3.86 per cent) +throughout the season, but not in large quantities. Diptera (flies) +are eaten in small quantities and rather irregularly. Most of them +were the long-legged crane flies (Tipulidæ), both in the adult and +larval form. The total for the season is 2.70 per cent. Hemiptera +(bugs) do not appear to be a favorite food, though a few were taken in +all of the seven months except October. The average for the season is +only 1.33 per cent. Orthoptera (grasshoppers) are eaten in small +quantities until July, after which they form a fair percentage till +September. The total consumption amounts to 2.28 per cent of the food. +A few other insects make up a fraction of 1 per cent. Spiders and +myriapods (thousand-legs) appear to be a favorite food with the wood +thrush, constituting in April 20.94 per cent of the food, but +gradually decreasing in quantity until September. The aggregate for +the year is 8.49 per cent. A few sowbugs (isopods), snails, and +earthworms (1.83 per cent) close the account of animal food. + +Following is a list of the insects identified in the stomachs of the +wood thrush and the number of stomachs in which each was found: + + + HYMENOPTERA. + + _Tiphia inornata_ 1 + + COLEOPTERA. + + _Harpalus herbivagus_ 1 + _Necrophorus tomentosus_ 1 + _Philonthus lomatus_ 1 + _Hister abbreviatus_ 1 + _Hister depurator_ 1 + _Hister americanus_ 2 + _Ips quadriguttatus_ 1 + _Melanotus americanus_ 1 + _Corymbites cylindriformis_ 1 + _Agrilus bilineatus_ 1 + _Telephorus carolinus_ 1 + _Onthophagus striatulus_ 1 + _Onthophagus tuberculifrons_ 1 + _Onthophagus_ sp 3 + _Atænius_ sp 2 + _Aphodius granarius_ 1 + _Aphodius_ sp 1 + _Dichelonycha testacea_ 1 + _Dichelonycha_ sp 1 + _Lachnosterna_ sp 27 + _Ligyrus_ sp 1 + _Allorhina nitida_ 1 + _Euphoria fulgida_ 1 + _Euphoria_ sp 2 + _Chrysomela pulchra_ 1 + _Leptinotarsa decemlineata_ 2 + _Odontota_ sp 1 + _Coptocycla signifera_ 1 + _Coptocycla_ sp 1 + _Anametus griseus_ 1 + _Phyxelis rigidus_ 1 + _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 2 + _Tanymecus confertus_ 1 + _Pandeletejus hilaris_ 1 + _Barypithes pellucidus_ 1 + _Listronotus latiusculus_ 1 + _Macrops_ sp 1 + _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 2 + _Acalles carinatus_ 1 + _Balaninus_ sp 2 + _Eupsalis minuta_ 1 + _Sphenophorus parvulus_ 1 + + HEMIPTERA. + + _Nezara hilaris_ 2 + + ORTHOPTERA. + + _Diapheromera femorata_ 1 + + ISOPTERA. + + _Termes flavipes_ 1 + + +_Vegetable food._--More than nine-tenths of the vegetable food of the +wood thrush can be included in a single item--fruit. Cultivated fruit, +or what was thought to be such, was found in stomachs taken from June +to September, inclusive. It was eaten regularly and moderately, and +the total for the season was 3.74 per cent of the whole food. Wild +fruits or berries of 22 species were found in 72 stomachs, distributed +through every month of the bird's stay at the north. Beginning with +1.18 per cent in April, the quantity gradually increases to 87.17 per +cent in October, when it makes more than five-sixths of the whole +food. The average for the season is 33.51 per cent. In this +investigation _Rubus_ seeds (blackberries or raspberries) are always +reckoned as cultivated fruit, though probably most often wild. Besides +fruit, a few seeds and rose haws were found, which with a little +rubbish complete the vegetable food (40.41 per cent). + +Following is a list of fruits, seeds, etc., identified and the number +of stomachs in which found: + + + Yew berries (_Taxus minor_) 1 + False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina racemosa_) 1 + Bayberries (_Myrica carolinensis_) 1 + Mulberries (_Morus_ sp.) 10 + Spiceberries (_Benzoin æstivale_) 5 + Currants (_Ribes_ sp.) 1 + Mountain ash (_Pyrus americanus_) 2 + Service berries (_Amelanchier canadensis_) 2 + Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 17 + Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 + Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 1 + Chokecherries (_Prunus virginiana_) 7 + Domestic cherries (_Prunus cerasus_) 4 + Croton (_Croton_ sp.) 1 + American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 2 + Woodbine berries (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 1 + Frost grapes (_Vitis cordifolia_) 4 + Wild sarsaparilla (_Aralia nudicaulis_) 1 + Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 3 + Rough-leaved cornel (_Cornus asperifolia_) 4 + Dogwood (_Cornus_ sp.) 1 + Black gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 1 + Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 + Blueberries (_Vaccinium_ sp.) 6 + French mulberry (_Callicarpa americana_) 1 + Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 1 + Other elderberries (_Sambucus_ sp.) 3 + Fruit pulp not further identified 12 + + +Of the two stomachs not included in the foregoing discussion, the one +taken in Florida in January contained 93 per cent of wild fruit and 7 +per cent of weevils, wasps, and spiders; the one collected in Alabama +in February was entirely filled with animal food, of which 88 per cent +was caterpillars, 5 per cent May beetles, 6 per cent bugs, and 1 per +cent spiders. + +_Summary._--The animal food of the wood thrush includes remarkably few +useful insects and contains some very harmful ones, as the Colorado +potato beetle and many of the Scarabæidæ, the larval forms of which +are the well-known white grubs which are a pest to agriculture in +preying upon roots of plants. The vegetable portion of the food +contains a small quantity of cultivated fruit, but observation shows +that the thrush is in the habit of picking up fallen fruit instead of +taking it fresh from the tree. The eating of wild fruit has no +economic interest except that it serves to distribute the seeds of +many shrubs and trees. There is no occasion to discriminate against +this bird in any way. It should be rigidly protected. + + + + +VEERY AND WILLOW THRUSH. + +(_Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens_ and _Hylocichla fuscescens +salicicola_.) + + +The veery is distributed over the eastern portion of the United +States during migration and breeds in the Northern States as far +south as Pennsylvania, and in New England and Canada. In winter +it disappears almost entirely from the country, only a few remaining +in Florida and perhaps in other Southern States. Its +western representative is the willow thrush. Like other thrushes, +birds of this species are shy and retiring in disposition, keeping for +the most part in the shade of woods or bushy swamps, or building +nests in a damp ravine with a brook gurgling past. They have been +known, however, to visit orchards and sometimes gardens which are +not kept too trim. It is thus evident that the food has little direct +economic interest, as this bird does not come in contact with the +farmer's crops. + +For investigating the food of the species 176 stomachs were available. +They were collected during the seven months from April to +October, and represent 18 States, the District of Columbia, and +Canada. The food separates into 57.27 per cent of animal matter +and 42.73 per cent of vegetable. The former consists mostly of +remains of insects, and the latter of fruit. + +_Animal food._--Predacious ground beetles (Carabidæ) amount to +0.82 per cent. They are evidently not a preferred food. Beetles in +general comprise 14.67 per cent of the food, but no family or other +group appears to be distinguished except the Carabidæ, which are +conspicuous by their absence. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount +to 2.49 per cent, and one stomach contained a specimen of the notorious +plum curculio (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_). A number of other +harmful beetles were noted, but none are so well known as the plum +destroyer. Ants make up 10.35 per cent and are eaten with great +regularity. Hymenoptera other than ants amount to only 3.26 per +cent, but are eaten regularly throughout the season. Hemiptera +(bugs) were eaten to a small extent (1.30 per cent) in the first four +months, but they are not seen after July. Exactly the same may be +said of Diptera, which total only 0.85 per cent. + +Lepidoptera (caterpillars) are, next to Hymenoptera, the favorite +insect food. They were eaten in goodly quantities in every month +except October. The average for the season is 11.91 per cent. +Grasshoppers appear to some extent in every month except April, the +greatest consumption taking place in October (24 per cent), but as +only small numbers are eaten in the earlier months the aggregate for +the year is only 4.91 per cent. A few other insects of various orders +amount to 0.98 per cent. Spiders (6.34 per cent) are eaten regularly +and constantly through the season, except that none were taken in +October. A few sowbugs, snails, etc. (2.70 per cent), complete the +quota of animal food. Following is a list of insects identified and +the number of stomachs in which found: + + + HYMENOPTERA. + + _Tiphia inornata_ 1 + + COLEOPTERA + + _Elaphrus ruscarius_ 1 + _Anisodactylus harrisi_ 1 + _Anisodactylus_ sp 1 + _Pterostichus lucublandus_ 1 + _Hydrobius fuscipes_ 1 + _Ips fasciata_ 1 + _Byrrhus murinus_ 1 + _Dolopius lateralis_ 2 + _Limonius æger_ 1 + _Corymbites cylindriformis_ 1 + _Corymbites spinosus_ 1 + _Corymbites tarsalis_ 1 + _Corymbites hieroglyphicus_ 1 + _Podabrus flavicollis_ 1 + _Telephorus bilineatus_ 2 + _Telephorus_ sp 1 + _Onthophagus_ sp 2 + _Atænius cognatus_ 1 + _Aphodius_ sp 3 + _Dichelonycha_ sp 2 + _Serica sericea_ 1 + _Lachnosterna hirticula_ 1 + _Lachnosterna_ sp 13 + _Chrysomela pulchra_ 3 + _Chlamys plicata_ 1 + _Typophorus canellus_ 1 + _Graphops simplex_ 1 + _Graphops_ sp 1 + _Calligrapha philadelphica_ 1 + _Œdionychis quercata_ 1 + _Microrhopala vittata_ 1 + _Hormorus undulatus_ 1 + _Phyxelis rigidus_ 1 + _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 1 + _Neoptochus adspersus_ 1 + _Cercopeus chrysorrhœus_ 2 + _Barypithes pellucidus_ 2 + _Sitones_ sp 2 + _Phytonomus nigrirostris_ 2 + _Conotrachelus nenuphar_ 1 + _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 1 + _Tyloderma_ sp 1 + _Monarthrum mali_ 1 + _Xyloteres politus_ 1 + + DIPTERA. + + _Bibio_ sp 1 + + +_Vegetable food._--The vegetable portion of the food of the species is +made up of fruit, with a few seeds and a little miscellaneous matter +more or less accidental. Fruit collectively amounts to 35.30 per cent, +of which 12.14 per cent was thought to be of cultivated varieties and +so recorded, while the remainder, 23.16 per cent, was quite certainly +of wild species. This percentage of cultivated fruit is more than +three times the record of the wood thrush, while the wild fruit eaten +is correspondingly less, as the sum total of the fruit consumed is +very nearly the same with both birds. From this percentage of domestic +fruit one might infer that the veery was, or might be, a serious +menace to fruit growing, but no such complaints have been heard, and +it is probable that the species is not numerous enough to damage +cultivated crops. A close inspection, however, of the fruit eating of +the veery removes all doubts. The cultivated fruit, so called, was in +every case either strawberries or _Rubus_ fruits, i. e., blackberries +or raspberries, and as both of these grow wild and in abundance +wherever the veery spends its summer, it is probable that all of the +fruit eaten was taken from wild plants, though 12.14 per cent has been +conventionally recorded as cultivated. + +Besides fruit, the veery eats a few seeds of grasses and weeds and a +few of sumac, but none of the poisonous species were found in the +stomachs. These seeds (7.25 per cent of the food) were eaten so +irregularly as to suggest that they are merely a makeshift taken for +want of something better. Rubbish (0.18 per cent), consisting of +decayed wood, bits of leaves, plant stems, etc., completes the +vegetable food. + +Following is a list of the items of vegetable food and the number of +stomachs in which found: + + + Yew berries (_Taxus minor_) 1 + Pigeon grass seed (_Chætochloa_ sp.) 1 + Rush grass seed (_Sporobolus minor_) 1 + False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina_ sp.) 1 + Greenbrier berries (_Smilax_ sp.) 2 + Hackberries (_Celtis occidentalis_) 1 + Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 3 + Spice berries (_Benzoin æstivale_) 2 + Service berries (_Amelanchier canadensis_) 3 + June berries (_Amelanchier_ sp.) 9 + Mountain ash (_Pyrus americana_) 1 + Crab apples (_Pyrus_ sp.) 1 + Strawberries (_Fragaria_ sp.) 3 + Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 8 + Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 1 + Bird cherries (_Prunus pennsylvanica_) 1 + Chokecherries (_Prunus virginiana_) 1 + Staghorn sumac (_Rhus hirta_) 2 + Dwarf sumac (_Rhus copallina_) 1 + Three-leaved sumac (_Rhus trilobata_) 1 + Other sumac (_Rhus_ sp.) 1 + American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 1 + Woodbine berries (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 1 + White cornel (_Cornus candidissima_) 2 + Alternate-leaved cornel (_Cornus alternifolia_) 3 + Rough-leaved cornel (_Cornus asperifolia_) 1 + Dogwood berries (_Cornus_ sp.) 2 + Sour gum berries (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 1 + Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 + Blueberries (_Vaccinium_ sp.) 4 + Snowberries (_Symphoricarpos racemosus_) 2 + Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 2 + Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 4 + Other elderberries (_Sambucus_ sp.) 3 + Fruit pulp not further identified 4 + + +_Summary._--It is hardly necessary to make a summary of the +food of this bird in order to bring out its good points, for it seems +to have no others. The animal food includes less than 1 per cent of +useful beetles, and the remainder is either harmful or neutral. +In the matter of vegetable food there seems to be no chance for +criticism, as nature evidently supplies all it needs. The bird has +never been harmed, but has been held in high esteem for sentimental +reasons; let it also be valued and protected for its economic worth. + + + + +GRAY-CHEEKED AND BICKNELL'S THRUSHES. + +(_Hylocichla aliciæ aliciæ_ and _Hylocichla aliciæ bicknelli_.) + + +The gray-cheeked thrush (_H. a. aliciæ_) is found in migration over +all the Eastern States, but breeds farther north, beyond our limits. +Bicknell's thrush (_H. a. bicknelli_), a closely related form, while +having somewhat the same general range, breeds farther south and nests +in the mountains of northern New York and New England. Both subspecies +have the same general habits as other forms of the genus so far as +haunts and choice of residence are concerned, but their far-northern +range excludes them from coming into contact with cultivated crops. +The species does not seem to be very abundant anywhere, and +consequently only a few stomachs have been received for examination. +In all they number but 111 and are very irregularly distributed in +time. None were taken in August and only one in July and two in June. +From so scanty and unevenly distributed material it is impossible to +draw final conclusions, but we can get some idea as to the nature of +the bird's food and its economic importance. + +The first analysis of the food gives 74.86 per cent of animal matter +to 25.14 per cent of vegetable. This is the most animal food found in +the stomachs of any bird of the genus _Hylocichla_ and the largest but +two of any of the thrushes. + +_Animal food._--Beetles collectively amount to about one-third of all +the food (33.32 per cent). Of these, 2.83 per cent are the useful +Carabidæ. The rest belong to harmful families, such as the Scarabæidæ, +Elateridæ, and the weevils, or snout beetles. Ants amount to 16.34 per +cent and are eaten very regularly--the most in the early part of the +season. Hymenoptera other than ants, as wasps and bees, were eaten to +the extent of 5.60 per cent, and with the ants make 21.94 per cent, +placing this food next in rank to beetles. As in the case of ants, +most of the bees and wasps were eaten in the first three months of the +season. No honey bees were found. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) were +third in order of abundance (8.81 per cent). No special pest was +discovered, but all caterpillars may be considered as harmful. A few +grasshoppers were found in the stomachs taken in April and May, and +more in those collected in September and October. They do not appear +to be a favorite food and amount to only 1.72 per cent. Other insects, +as flies, bugs, and a few others, collectively amount to 2.89 per +cent. Among these, it is of interest to note in one stomach the +remains of the famous seventeen-year locust (_Tibicen septemdecem_), +rather large game for so small a bird. Spiders are freely eaten by the +gray-cheeked thrush in spring, and sparingly in fall. For the season +they constitute 5.77 per cent of the food. A few other animals, as +crawfish, sowbugs, and angleworms (0.41 per cent), complete the animal +food. + +Following is a list of the insects identified and the number of +stomachs in which found: + + + HYMENOPTERA. + + _Lophyrus_ sp 1 + _Aphænogaster tennesseense_ 1 + + COLEOPTERA. + + _Cychrus andrewsi_ 2 + _Cychrus_ sp 2 + _Dyschirius hispidus_ 1 + _Hister sedecimstriatus_ 1 + _Phelister vernus_ 1 + _Epuræa rufa_ 3 + _Stelidota 8-maculata_ 1 + _Byrrhus murinus_ 1 + _Eucinetus morio_ 1 + _Monocrepidius vespertinus_ 1 + _Agriotes limosus_ 1 + _Corymbites signaticollis_ 1 + _Podabrus flavicollis_ 1 + _Telephorus bilineatus_ 1 + _Onthophagus_ sp 1 + _Atænius strigatus_ 1 + _Atænius ovatulus_ 1 + _Atænius_ sp 3 + _Aphodius ruricola_ 1 + _Aphodius inquinatus_ 3 + _Aphodius_ sp 1 + _Serica_ sp 1 + _Lachnosterna_ sp 10 + _Anomala_ sp 1 + _Leptura sphæricollis_ 1 + _Leptura mutabilis_ 1 + _Chrysomela pulchra_ 4 + _Blapstinus metallicus_ 1 + _Helops micans_ 1 + _Hormorus undulatus_ 1 + _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 1 + _Cercopeus chrysorrhœus_ 2 + _Pandeletejus hilaris_ 1 + _Sitones_ sp 1 + _Hylobius pales_ 1 + _Desmoris constrictus_ 1 + _Bagous sellatus_ 1 + _Anthonomus sycophanta_ 1 + _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 2 + _Acalles clavatus_ 1 + _Acalles_ sp 1 + _Cryptorhynchus ferratus_ 1 + _Sphenophorus melanocephalus_ 1 + + HEMIPTERA. + + _Tibicen septendecem_ 1 + _Nezara hilaris_ 1 + + +_Vegetable food._--A few _Rubus_ seeds were recorded as cultivated +fruit, but they were found in only two stomachs and probably were +wild, as the gray-cheeked thrush does not live where it is likely to +come in contact with cultivated blackberries or raspberries. In any +case they amount to only 0.15 per cent. Wild fruits of 18 different +species (23.98 per cent) make up nearly one-fourth of the whole +food--in fact, the vegetable food, other than wild fruit, is +insignificant. Wild berries supplement the regular food, which +consists of insects and spiders. + +The following list shows the fruits and seeds identified and the +number of stomachs in which found: + + + False spikenard (_Smilacina racemosa_) 1 + Greenbrier berries (_Smilax_ sp.) 2 + Bayberries (_Myrica carolinensis_) 1 + Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 2 + Crab apples (_Pyrus_ sp.) 1 + Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 5 + Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 2 + Sumac berries (_Rhus_ sp.) 1 + Black-alder berries (_Ilex verticillata_) 1 + Wild grapes (_Vitis_ sp.) 5 + Wild sarsaparilla (_Aralia_ sp.) 1 + Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 5 + Rough-leaved dogwood (_Cornus asperifolia_) 2 + White cornel (_Cornus candidissima_) 1 + Dogwood (_Cornus_ sp.) 1 + Sour gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 2 + Black nightshade (_Solanum nigrum_) 1 + Dockmackie (_Viburnum acerifolium_) 1 + Arrowwood (_Viburnum_ sp.) 1 + Elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 3 + Fruit not further identified 6 + + +_Summary._--In the food of the gray-cheeked thrush the only useful +element is a small percentage (2.83) of useful beetles. The remainder +of the animal food is composed of either harmful or neutral elements. +The vegetable food, drawn entirely from nature's great storehouse, +contains no product of human industry, either of grain or fruit. +Whatever the sentimental reasons for protecting this bird, the +economic ones are equally valid. + + + + +OLIVE-BACKED AND RUSSET-BACKED THRUSHES. + +(_Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni_ and _Hylocichla ustulata ustulata_.) + + +The olive-backed thrush and its relative, the russet-backed, occupy +the whole of the United States at some time during the year. The +olive-back breeds north of our northern border, except in the higher +mountains, and the russet-back on the Pacific coast nests as far south +as southern California. The habits of birds of this species resemble +those of others of the genus in living in swamps and woodlands rather +than in gardens and orchards. The russet-back on the Pacific coast, +however, seems to have become quite domestic, and wherever a stream +runs through or past an orchard or garden, or the orchard is near +thick chaparral, this bird is sure to be found taking its toll of the +fruit and rearing its young in the thicket beside the stream. During +the cherry season it takes a liberal share of the fruit, but its +young, then in the nest, are fed almost entirely on insects. The +eastern subspecies, on the contrary, does not come in contact with +domestic fruit or any other product of husbandry. A great number of +the subspecies nest far north of the region of fruit raising. + +For this investigation 403 stomachs of the olive-backed thrush were +available, collected in 25 States, the District of Columbia, and +Canada. Florida, Louisiana, and Texas represent the most southern +collections and New Brunswick, Ontario, and Northwest Territory the +most northern. In California 157 stomachs were obtained, which, with +those taken in Oregon and Washington, fairly represent the Pacific +coast region. The whole collection was fairly well distributed over +the nine months from March to November. The food consisted of 63.52 +per cent of animal matter to 36.48 per cent of vegetable. + +_Animal food._--Beetles of all kinds amount to 16.29 per cent. Of +these 3.14 per cent are the useful Carabidæ. The others belong to +harmful or neutral families. Weevils or snout-beetles (Rhynchophora) +amount to 5.29 per cent, a high percentage for such insects. One +Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_) was found in a +stomach taken on Long Island. Hymenoptera collectively aggregate 21.50 +per cent. Of these, 15.20 per cent are ants--a favorite food of +_Hylocichla_. The remainder (6.30 per cent) were wild bees and wasps. +No honeybees were found. Caterpillars, which rank next in importance +in the food of the olive-back, form a good percentage of the food of +every month represented and aggregate 10.30 per cent for the season. + +Grasshoppers are not an important element in the food of thrushes, as +they chiefly inhabit open areas, while _Hylocichla_ prefers thick damp +cover, where grasshoppers are not found. An inspection of the record +shows that most of the orthopterous food taken by the olive-back +consists of crickets, whose habits are widely different from those of +grasshoppers, and which are found under stones, old logs, or dead +herbage. The greatest quantity is taken in August and September. The +average for the season is 2.42 per cent. + +Diptera (flies) reach the rather surprisingly large figure of 6.23 per +cent. These insects are usually not eaten to any great extent except +by flycatchers and swallows, which take their food upon the wing. The +flies eaten by the olive-back are mostly crane flies (Tipulidæ) or +March flies (_Bibio_), both in the adult and larval state. Crane flies +are slow of wing and frequent shady places. The larvæ of both groups +are developed in moist ground, and often in colonies of several +hundred. With these habits it is not surprising that they fall an easy +prey to the thrushes. + +Hemiptera (bugs), a small but rather constant element of the food, +were found in the stomachs collected every month, and in July reach +11.11 per cent. They were of the families of stinkbugs (Pentatomidæ), +shield bugs (Scutelleridæ), tree hoppers (Membracidæ), leaf hoppers +(Jassidæ), and cicadas. Some scales were found in one stomach. The +total for the season is 3.76 per cent. A few insects not included in +any of the foregoing categories make up 0.48 per cent of the food. +Spiders, with a few millipeds, amount to 2.22 per cent, the lowest +figure for this item of any bird of the genus _Hylocichla_. Snails, +sowbugs, angleworms, etc. (0.32 per cent), complete the animal food. + +Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs +in which found: + + + HYMENOPTERA. + + _Camponotus pennsylvanicus_ 1 + _Tiphia inornata_ 1 + + COLEOPTERA. + + _Cychrus nitidicollis_ 1 + _Cychrus stenostomus_ 1 + _Notiophilus æneus_ 1 + _Pterostichus sayi_ 1 + _Pterotichus lustrans_ 1 + _Amara interstitialis_ 1 + _Triæna longula_ 1 + _Agonoderus pallipes_ 1 + _Silpha ramosa_ 1 + _Staphylinus cinnamopterus_ 1 + _Tachyporus californicus_ 1 + _Chilocorus orbus_ 1 + _Scymnus_ sp 1 + _Hister americanus_ 1 + _Ips quadriguttatus_ 4 + _Cytilus sericeus_ 1 + _Agriotes stabilis_ 1 + _Podabrus flavicollis_ 2 + _Podabrus modestus_ 2 + _Silis lutea_ 1 + _Telephorus carolinus_ 1 + _Telephorus bilineatus_ 5 + _Telephorus divisus_ 2 + _Onthophagus hecate_ 1 + _Onthophagus striatulus_ 1 + _Onthophagus tuberculifrons_ 2 + _Onthophagus_ sp 4 + _Atænius abditus_ 1 + _Aphodius hamatus_ 1 + _Aphodius fimetarius_ 6 + _Aphodius inquinatus_ 7 + _Aphodius_ sp 6 + _Geotrupes_ sp 1 + _Dichelonycha elongata_ 2 + _Lachnosterna hirticula_ 1 + _Lachnosterna_ sp 12 + _Anomala undulata_ 1 + _Anomala_ sp 1 + _Euphoria fulgida_ 1 + _Donacia emarginata_ 1 + _Hæmonia nigricornis_ 1 + _Syneta pallida_ 1 + _Leptinotarsa decemlineata_ 1 + _Gastroidea_ sp 1 + _Galerucella decora_ 1 + _Diabrotica soror_ 1 + _Diabrotica_ sp 1 + _Gonioctena pallida_ 1 + _Luperodes bivittatus_ 1 + _Opatrinus notus_ 1 + _Blapstinus metallicus_ 1 + _Blapstinus mæstus_ 1 + _Blapstinus_ sp 1 + _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 1 + _Thinoxenus_ sp 1 + _Cercopeus chrysorrhæus_ 1 + _Barypithes pellucidus_ 1 + _Sitones flavescens_ 1 + _Sitones_ sp 1 + _Phytonomus punctatus_ 2 + _Pachylobius picivorus_ 1 + _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 1 + _Micromastus elegans_ 1 + _Acalles clavatus_ 1 + _Cryptorhynchus bisignatus_ 1 + _Rhinoncus pyrrhopus_ 1 + _Balaninus_ sp 3 + _Sphenophorus parvulus_ 1 + _Sphenophorus_ sp 1 + _Scolytus muticus_ 1 + + LEPIDOPTERA. + + _Edema albifrons_ 1 + + TRICHOPTERA. + + _Phryganea californica_ 1 + + HEMIPTERA. + + _Myodocha serripes_ 1 + _Sinea diadema_ 1 + + +This list of insects contains a considerable number of injurious +species and some that at various times and places have become decided +pests. Such are the Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa +decemlineata_), the spotted squash beetle (_Diabrotica soror_), the +cloverleaf weevil (_Phytonomus punctatus_), and the various species of +_Lachnosterna_, the parent of the destructive white grubs. Many others +are plant feeders and may increase to such an extent as to inflict +great damage upon agriculture. + +_Vegetable food._--The vegetable food of the olive-backed thrush +consists of small fruit. The bird has a weak bill and can not break +through the tough skin of the larger kinds. In the cherry orchards of +California the writer many times observed the western subspecies of +this bird, the russet-back, on the ground pecking at cherries that had +been bitten open and dropped by linnets and grosbeaks. Blackberries +and raspberries have a very delicate skin and are successfully managed +by weak-billed birds, so that all the records of domestic fruit eaten +by the eastern form relate to these berries, and it is probable that +in most cases the fruit was not cultivated. The total of cultivated +fruit for the season is 12.63 per cent of the whole food, but if we +consider the eastern subspecies alone this item would practically +disappear. Wild fruit (19.73 per cent) is eaten regularly and in a +goodly quantity in every month after April. Weed seeds and a few +miscellaneous items of vegetable food (4.04 per cent) close the +account. + +Following is a list of vegetable foods so far as identified and the +number of stomachs in which found. + + + White cedar seeds (_Thuja occidentalis_) 1 + Red cedar berries (_Juniperus communis_) 2 + False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina trifolia_) 3 + Greenbrier (_Smilax tamnifolia_) 1 + Cat brier (_Smilax_ sp.) 1 + Hackberry (_Celtis occidentalis_) 3 + Mulberry (_Morus_ sp.) 2 + Fig (_Ficus_ sp.) 3 + Pale persicaria (_Polygonum lapathifolium_) 1 + Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 9 + Mountain ash (_Pyrus americana_) 1 + Service berries (_Amelanchier_ sp.) 1 + Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 67 + Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 + Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 15 + Bird cherries (_Prunus Pennsylvanica_) 2 + Domestic cherries (_Prunus cerasus_) 29 + Domestic plum (_Prunus domestica_) 2 + Apricot (_Prunus armeniaca_) 3 + Filaree (_Erodium_ sp.) 1 + Poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_) 4 + Staghorn sumac (_Rhus hirta_) 2 + Dwarf sumac (_Rhus copallina_) 3 + Other sumac (_Rhus_ sp.) 4 + Pepper tree (_Schinus molle_) 1 + American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 1 + Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_) 1 + Coffee berries (_Rhamnus californicus_) 3 + Woodbine (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 10 + Frost grape (_Vitis cordifolia_) 6 + Spikenard (_Aralia racemosa_) 2 + Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 7 + Kinnikinnik (_Cornus amomum_) 2 + Red osier (_Cornus stolonifera_) 1 + Panicled cornel (_Cornus paniculata_) 3 + Dogwood unidentified (_Cornus_ sp.) 6 + Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 + Three-flowered nightshade (_Solanum triflorum_) 1 + Nightshade unidentified (_Solanum_ sp.) 8 + Black twinberries (_Lonicera involucrata_) 2 + Honeysuckle berries (_Lonicera_ sp.) 2 + Snowberries (_Symphoricarpos racemosus_) 2 + Dockmackie (_Viburnum acerifolium_) 1 + Arrowwood (_Viburnum_ sp.) 1 + Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 6 + Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 5 + Blue elderberries (_Sambucus glauca_) 15 + Tarweed (_Madia_ sp.) 1 + Fruit pulp not further identified 17 + + +_Food of young of russet-backed thrush._--Before concluding the +discussion of this species it will be of interest to note the results +obtained from an investigation of stomachs of 25 nestlings of the +russet-back taken in June and July when the birds were from two to +eleven days old. These were from eight broods, ranging from three to +five nestlings to the brood. The percentage of animal food of the +young (92.60 per cent) is considerably higher than that of the parent +birds. + +The distribution of the animal food is as follows: Caterpillars were +found in every stomach but seven and aggregated nearly 27 per cent; +beetles, including the useful Carabidæ (7.7 per cent), are irregularly +distributed to the extent of 22 per cent; other more or less harmful +species included five families of (Hemiptera) bugs, 13.8 per cent, +viz, stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, shield bugs, and cicadas; +ants and a few other Hymenoptera amount to 12 per cent, and spiders +the same. These latter were mostly harvestmen or daddy longlegs +(Phalangidæ). The remainder (6 per cent) included a few miscellaneous +insects. Only three stomachs contained remains of grasshoppers. +Carabid beetles were eaten by the young birds to the extent of 7.7 per +cent, which is more than three times the amount eaten by the adults, a +remarkable fact when is considered that these insects are very hard +shelled, thus seemingly unsuited for young birds. + +The vegetable food consisted of fruit (6.8 per cent), mainly +blackberries or raspberries, found in 11 stomachs, and twinberries in +1, and two or three other items, including a seed of filaree and some +rubbish. From the irregular variety of food in the different stomachs, +it would seem that the parents make little selection, but fill the +gaping mouths of their young with the nearest obtainable supply. + +In addition to the examination of stomach contents of nestlings two +nests were carefully and regularly watched, and from these it was +determined that the parent birds fed each nestling 48 times in 14 +hours of daylight. This means 144 feedings as a day's work for the +parents for a brood of three nestlings, and that each stomach was +filled to its full capacity several times daily, an illustration that +the digestion and assimilation of birds, especially the young, are +constant and very rapid. Experiments in raising young birds have +proved that they thrive best when fed small quantities at short +intervals rather than greater quantities at longer periods. Aside from +the insects consumed by the parents, a brood of three young birds will +thus each require the destruction of at least 144 insects in a day and +probably a very much greater number. + +_Summary._--In a résumé of the food of the olive-backed and +russet-backed thrushes one is impressed with the fact that they come +in contact with the products of industry but rarely. The olive-back's +food habits infringe upon the dominion of man but little. The bird +lives among men, but not with them. The western form, the russet-back, +comes more into relations with the cultivated products because it +visits orchards and partakes freely of the fruit. Even then the damage +is slight, as much of the fruit eaten is that fallen to the ground. +Moreover, while the adult bird is feeding upon fruit a nestful of +young are being reared upon insects which must be largely taken from +the orchard, thus not only squaring the account but probably +overbalancing it in favor of the farmer. + + + + +HERMIT THRUSHES. + +(_Hylocichla guttata_ subspp.) + + +The hermit thrush of the subspecies _H. g. pallasi_ inhabits the +Eastern States in winter as far north as Massachusetts and breeds from +the mountains of Maryland and Pennsylvania and from northern Michigan +and central Minnesota northward to Alaska. Several other subspecies +occupy the Pacific coast region in suitable localities--that is, in +the higher and more wooded sections, as this bird, like all of the +genus _Hylocichla_, does not live in treeless or arid regions. In the +East the bird is a late fall migrant and may often be seen sitting +silent and alone on a branch in the forest in late October or even in +November, when the great army of migrants have passed on to the South. +While a beautiful songster, the species is so quiet and unobtrusive +that by sight it is entirely unknown to many. + +Inquiry into the food habits of this bird covered 551 stomachs, +collected in 29 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and +representing every month of the year, though all the stomachs taken in +winter were collected in the Southern States, the District of +Columbia, and California. In the primary analysis the food was found +to consist of 64.51 per cent of animal matter to 35.49 per cent of +vegetable. The former is mostly composed of insects with some spiders, +while the latter is largely fruit, chiefly wild species. + +_Animal food._--Beetles constitute 15.13 per cent of the food. Of +these 2.98 per cent are of the useful family, Carabidæ. The remainder +are mostly harmful. Scarabæidæ, the larvæ of which are the white grubs +that destroy the roots of so many plants, were eaten to the extent of +3.44 per cent. Snout beetles, among the most harmful of insects, were +taken to the extent of 3.13 per cent. Among these was the notorious +plum curculio (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_) found in two stomachs taken +in the District of Columbia in April of different years. Two other +species of the same genus also were found, as well as the clover +weevil (_Epicærus imbricatus_). The Colorado potato beetle +(_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_) and the striped squash beetle +(_Diabrotica vittata_), with a number of other species of less +notoriety, were found in several stomachs. Thus, in spite of the +bird's retiring habits, it comes in contact with some of the pests of +cultivation. + + + [Illustration: + B2085-73 + + Fig. 2.--Hermit thrush (_Hylocichla guttata_).] + + +The ants destroyed--12.46 per cent of the food--keep up the reputation +of thrushes as ant eaters. They were taken constantly every month, +with the greatest number from May to September; a falling off in July +is partly accounted for by the fact that more fruit is taken in that +month. Other Hymenoptera (bees and wasps) were eaten to the extent of +5.41 per cent, a surprising amount for a bird that feeds so largely +upon the ground, as these insects are usually of fleet wing and live +in sunshine and open air. + +Caterpillars, eaten in every month and mostly in goodly quantities, +appear to be a favorite food of the hermit thrush. December is the +month of least consumption (2.75 per cent), while the most were eaten +in June (17.08 per cent). The average for the year is 9.54 per cent. +Hemiptera (bugs) seem to be eaten whenever found, as they appear in +the food of every month, but rather irregularly and not in large +quantities. The greatest consumption was in June (9.17 per cent), but +July, September, and December show the least (less than 1 per cent). +The total for the year is 3.63 per cent. Of the six families +represented, the Pentatomidæ, or stink bugs, predominate. These highly +flavored insects are eaten by most insectivorous birds often, but +usually in small quantities. + +Diptera (flies) comprise 3.02 per cent of the food of the hermit +thrush. The record shows, however, that nearly all of them are either +crane flies (Tipulidæ) and their eggs and larvæ, or March flies +(_Bibio_) and their larvæ. Over 150 of the latter were found in one +stomach. Both of these families of flies lay their eggs in the ground, +which accounts for their consumption by ground-feeding birds. +Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are eaten by the hermit thrush +to the extent of 6.32 per cent of its food. While this figure is not +remarkable, it is the highest for any of the genus. These birds are +fond of dark moist nooks among trees and bushes and do not feed +extensively in those dry sunshiny places so much frequented by +grasshoppers. A close inspection of the food record shows that the +Orthoptera eaten by the thrushes are mostly crickets, which live in +shadier and moister places than those where grasshoppers abound. A few +miscellaneous insects (0.27 per cent) close the insect account. +Spiders and myriapods (7.47 per cent) seem to constitute a very +acceptable article of diet, as they amount to a considerable +percentage in nearly every month, and in May rise to 20.79 per cent. A +few miscellaneous animals, as sowbugs, snails, and angleworms, make up +the balance of the animal food (1.26 per cent). + +Following is a list of insects so far as identified and the number of +stomachs in which found: + + + HYMENOPTERA. + + _Tiphia inornata_ 2 + + COLEOPTERA. + + _Elaphrus_ sp 1 + _Notiophilus semistriatus_ 1 + _Scarites subterraneus_ 1 + _Dyschirius pumilis_ 1 + _Pterostichus patruelis_ 1 + _Pterostichus_ sp 1 + _Amara_ sp 1 + _Chlænius pennsylvanicus_ 2 + _Stenolophus_ sp 1 + _Anisodactylus agilis_ 1 + _Tropisternus limbalis_ 2 + _Hydrocharis obtusatus_ 1 + _Sphæridium lecontei_ 1 + _Ptomaphagus consobrinus_ 1 + _Anisotoma valida_ 1 + _Megilla maculata_ 1 + _Anatis 15-maculata_ 1 + _Psyllobora tædata_ 1 + _Brachycantha ursina_ 1 + _Endomychus biguttatus_ 1 + _Cryptophagus_ sp 1 + _Hister marginicollis_ 1 + _Hister americanus_ 1 + _Saprinus fimbriatus_ 1 + _Carpophilus hemipterus_ 1 + _Perthalycra murrayi_ 1 + _Ips quadriguttatus_ 3 + _Cytilus sericeus_ 2 + _Cytilus_ sp 1 + _Byrrhus kirbyi_ 1 + _Byrrhus cyclophorus_ 1 + _Cryptohypnus bicolor_ 2 + _Drasterius dorsalis_ 1 + _Dolopius lateralis_ 1 + _Melanotus_ sp 2 + _Podabrus tomentosus_ 1 + _Canthon_ sp 1 + _Onthophagus tuberculifrons_ 1 + _Onthophagus_ sp 3 + _Ægialia lacustris_ 1 + _Rhyssemus scaber_ 1 + _Atænius abditus_ 1 + _Atænius cognatus_ 1 + _Atænius_ sp 1 + _Aphodius fimetarius_ 11 + _Aphodius granarius_ 1 + _Aphodius rugifrons_ 1 + _Aphodius inquinatus_ 9 + _Aphodius pardalis_ 1 + _Aphodius prodromus_ 4 + _Aphodius crassiusculus_ 1 + _Aphodius_ sp 11 + _Geotrupes semipunctata_ 1 + _Dichelonycha_ sp 1 + _Lachnosterna_ sp 17 + _Chrysomela pulchra_ 3 + _Lema nigrovittata_ 1 + _Chlamys plicata_ 1 + _Myochrous denticollis_ 2 + _Xanthonia 10-notata_ 1 + _Calligrapha scalaris_ 1 + _Leptinotarsa decemlineata_ 1 + _Phædon viridis_ 1 + _Diabrotica vittata_ 1 + _Odontota rubra_ 1 + _Odontota_ sp 1 + _Haltica torquata_ 1 + _Crepidodera helxines_ 1 + _Syneta ferruginea_ 1 + _Systena elongata_ 1 + _Chætocnema pulicaria_ 1 + _Psylliodes punctulata_ 1 + _Chelymorpha cribraria_ 1 + _Opatrinus notus_ 1 + _Opatrinus aciculatus_ 1 + _Blapstinus metallicus_ 1 + _Blapstinus rufipes_ 1 + _Salpingus virescens_ 1 + _Anthicus pubescens_ 1 + _Notoxus monodon_ 1 + _Notoxus denudatum_ 1 + _Notoxus_ sp 1 + _Attelabus rhois_ 1 + _Rhigopsis effracta_ 1 + _Cercopeus chrysorrhœus_ 4 + _Pandetetejus hilaris_ 1 + _Barypithes pellucidus_ 1 + _Sitones hispidulus_ 4 + _Sitones flavescens_ 1 + _Trichalophus alternatus_ 1 + _Apion_ sp 1 + _Listronotus latiusculus_ 1 + _Listronotus inæqualipennis_ 1 + _Listronotus_ sp 1 + _Macrops_ sp 2 + _Smicronyx corniculatus_ 1 + _Trachodes ptinoides_ 1 + _Conotrachelus nenuphar_ 2 + _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 5 + _Conotrachelus erinaceus_ 1 + _Rhinoncus pyrrhopus_ 1 + _Onychobaris insidiosus_ 1 + _Balaninus nasicus_ 1 + _Balaninus_ sp 1 + _Sphenophorus parvulus_ 1 + _Sphenophorus_ sp 1 + _Dendroctonus terebrans_ 1 + + HEMIPTERA. + + _Podops cinctipes_ 1 + _Nezara hilaris_ 6 + _Arhaphe cicindeloides_ 1 + _Corimelæna denudata_ 1 + _Myodocha serripes_ 2 + + ORTHOPTERA. + + _Amblycorypha rotundifolia_ 1 + _Œcanthus niveus_ 1 + + +_Vegetable food._--The vegetable diet of the hermit thrush consists +largely of fruit, as with most birds of this group. As might be +expected of a bird of such retiring habits, but little of the fruit +eaten can be classed as cultivated. In September 5.45 per cent was so +considered, but in most months the quantity was small, and in March, +April, and May was completely wanting. The total for the year as found +in 17 stomachs is 1.20 per cent. One stomach contained strawberries, +one grapes, one figs, one currants, two apples, and the rest _Rubus_ +fruit, i. e., blackberries or raspberries. These last as well as the +strawberries were probably wild. Of the wild fruit (26.19 per cent) 46 +species were identified with a reasonable degree of certainty in 243 +stomachs. A few seeds, ground-up vegetable matter not further +identified, and rubbish make up the rest of the vegetable food (8.10 +per cent). Among the seeds were some of the various species of +poisonous _Rhus_. These were found in 18 stomachs, mostly from +California. The dissemination of these seeds is unfortunate from the +standpoint of husbandry, but many birds engage in it, as the waxy +coating of the seeds is nutritious, especially in winter, when fruit +and insects are not easily obtainable. + +Following is a list of the components of the vegetable food so far as +identified, and the number of stomachs in which found: + + + Cedar berries (_Juniperus virginiana_) 2 + False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina racemosa_) 4 + False spikenard (_Smilacina_ sp.) 1 + Greenbrier (_Smilax walteri_) 2 + Cat brier (_Smilax bona-nox_) 2 + Laurel-leaved greenbrier (_Smilax laurifolia_) 1 + Other greenbriers (_Smilax_ sp.) 11 + Wax myrtle (_Myrica cerifera_) 1 + Bayberries (_Myrica carolinensis_) 7 + Chinquapin (_Castanea pumila_) 1 + Western hackberries (_Celtis occidentalis_) 5 + Other hackberries (_Celtis_ sp.) 3 + Figs (_Ficus_ sp.) 1 + Mulberries (_Morus_ sp.) 1 + Mistletoe berries (_Phoradendron villosum_) 2 + Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 16 + Miner's lettuce (_Montia perfoliata_) 1 + Sassafras berries (_Sassafras varifolium_) 2 + Spice berries (_Benzoin æstivale_) 1 + Currants (_Ribes_ sp.) 3 + Sweet gum (_Liquidambar styraciflua_) 2 + Chokeberries (_Pyrus arbutifolia_) 1 + Service berries (_Amelanchier canadensis_) 9 + Hawthorn (_Cratægus_ sp.) 1 + Strawberries (_Fragaria_ sp.) 1 + Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 5 + Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 + Wild black cherries (_Prunus scrotina_) 3 + Three-seeded mercury (_Acalypha virginica_) 1 + Staghorn sumach (_Rhus typhina_) 5 + Smooth sumach (_Rhus glabra_) 5 + Dwarf sumach (_Rhus copallina_) 7 + Poison ivy (_Rhus radicans_) 3 + Poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_) 15 + Laurel-leaved sumach (_Rhus laurina_) 2 + Other sumachs (_Rhus_ sp.) 12 + Pepper berries (_Schinus molle_) 15 + American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 9 + Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_) 12 + Ink berries (_Ilex glabra_) 9 + Other hollies (_Ilex_ sp.) 7 + Strawberry bush (_Euonymus americanus_) 1 + Roxbury waxwork (_Celastrus scandens_) 1 + Supple-Jack (_Berchemia volubilis_) 2 + Coffee berries (_Rhamnus californicus_) 1 + Woodbine (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 10 + Frost grapes (_Vitis cordifolia_) 2 + Wild grapes (_Vitis_ sp.) 1 + Wild sarsaparilla (_Aralia nudicaulis_) 1 + Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 32 + Rough-leaved dogwood (_Cornus asperifolia_) 2 + Black gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 2 + Checkerberry (_Gaultheria procumbens_) 1 + Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 + Blueberries (_Vaccinium_ sp.) 12 + Black nightshade (_Solanum nigrum_) 4 + Bittersweet (_Solanum_ sp.) 4 + Goose grass (_Galium aparine_) 1 + Honeysuckle (_Lonicera_ sp.) 2 + Indian currant (_Symphoricarpos orbiculatus_) 1 + Downy arrowwood (_Viburnum pubescens_) 1 + Nanny berries (_Viburnum lentago_) 2 + Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 4 + Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 3 + Fruit not further identified 60 + + +In looking over this list one is impressed with the fact that the +taste of human beings for fruit differs markedly from that of birds. +For example, _Rhus_ seeds are hard and have little pulp to render them +palatable or nutritious. They are usually passed through the +alimentary canal of birds or regurgitated unharmed, and the slight +outer coating alone is digested. In the case of the poisonous species, +this outer coating is a white wax or tallow which appears to be very +nutritious, for these species are eaten much more extensively than the +nonpoisonous ones. The seed itself is rarely broken in the stomach to +get any nutriment it may contain. But in spite of these facts _Rhus_ +seeds were found in 49 stomachs, while fruits of huckleberries and +blueberries, which are delicious to the human taste, were found in +only 13 stomachs; and blackberries and raspberries, highly esteemed by +man, were found in only 5 stomachs. Next to _Rhus_ the fruit most +eaten was the dogwood berry, found in 34 stomachs, yet from a human +estimate these berries are distasteful and contain such large seeds +that they afford but very little actual food. + +_Summary._--The hermit thrush, as it name indicates, is of solitary +habits and neither seeks human companionship nor molests cultivated +products. It destroys nothing indirectly helpful to man, as beneficial +insects, but aids in the destruction of the myriad hosts of insect +life which at all times threaten vegetation. While it is not easy to +point out any especially useful function of the hermit thrush, it +fills its place in the economy of nature, from which it should not be +removed. + + + + + ADDITIONAL COPIES + OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM + THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS + GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE + WASHINGTON, D. C. + AT + 5 CENTS PER COPY + + + + + * * * * * * * + + + Transcriber's Notes + + The text presented is essentially that in the original printed + document with the exception of some minor punctuation changes and + the three typographical corrections detailed below. The original + version also had two copies of the Table of Contents. The second + copy which appeared on Page 1 was removed. Many of the tables + which were presented in a two-column format and sometimes split + between two pages were reformatted into one long table. + + + Typographical Corrections + + Page 1 : thrust => thrush + Page 10 : COLEOFTERA => COLEOPTERA + " : Cormybites => Corymbites + + + * * * * * * * + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Food Habits of the Thrushes of the +United States, by F. E. L. Beal + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES *** + +***** This file should be named 33935-0.txt or 33935-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/9/3/33935/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas, Joseph Cooper and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.ne + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |