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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/33935-0.txt b/33935-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7b1a3b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/33935-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1958 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United +States, by F. E. L. Beal + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States + USDA Bulletin 280 + +Author: F. E. L. Beal + +Release Date: October 11, 2010 [EBook #33935] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas, Joseph Cooper and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.ne + + + + + + + + + + + UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE + + BULLETIN No. 280 + + Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey + + HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief + + ----------------------------------------------------------------- + Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 27, 1915 + ----------------------------------------------------------------- + + + FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES + OF THE UNITED STATES + + By F. E. L. Beal, _Assistant Biologist_. + + + + + + CONTENTS. + + + + Page. + + Introduction 1 + + Townsend's solitaire 3 + + Wood thrush 5 + + Veery and willow thrush 9 + + Gray-cheeked and Bicknell's thrushes 11 + + Olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes 13 + + Hermit thrushes 18 + + + [Illustration: logo] + + + WASHINGTON + GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE + 1915 + + + + + + UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE + +[Illustration: shield] BULLETIN No. 280 [Illustration: shield] + + Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey + + HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief + + ------------------------------------------------------------------ + Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 27, 1915 + ------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + + FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES OF THE + UNITED STATES. + + By F. E. L. Beal, _Assistant Biologist_. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + +North American thrushes (Turdidæ) constitute a small but interesting +group of birds, most of which are of retiring habits but noted as +songsters. They consist of the birds commonly known as thrushes, +robins, bluebirds, Townsend's solitaire, and the wheatears. The +red-winged thrush of Europe (_Turdus musicus_) is accidental in +Greenland, and the wheatears (_Saxicola Å“nanthe_ subspp.) are rarely +found in the Western Hemisphere except in Arctic America. Within the +limits of the United States are 11 species of thrushes, of which the +following 6 are discussed in this bulletin: Townsend's solitaire +(_Myadestes townsendi_), the wood thrush (_Hylocichla mustelina_), the +veery and willow thrush (_Hylocichla fuscescens_ subspp.), the +gray-cheeked and Bicknell's thrushes (_Hylocichla aliciæ_ subspp.), +the olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes (_Hylocichla ustulata_ +subspp.), and the hermit thrushes (_Hylocichla guttata_ subspp.). An +account of the food habits of the 5 species of robins and bluebirds +appeared in Department Bulletin No. 171. + +As a group thrushes are plainly colored and seem to be especially +adapted to thickly settled rural districts, as the shyest of them, with +the exception of the solitaire, do not require any greater seclusion +than that afforded by an acre or two of woodland or swamp. + +The thrushes are largely insectivorous, and also are fond of spiders, +myriapods, sowbugs, snails, and angleworms. The vegetable portion of +their diet consists mostly of berries and other small fruits. As a +family thrushes can not be called clean feeders, for the food eaten +often contains a considerable proportion of such matter as dead +leaves, stems, and other parts of more or less decayed vegetation. It +might be supposed that this was gathered from the ground with insects +and other food, but investigation shows that much of it has a +different origin. It was noticed that the setæ or spines of earthworms +were a very common accompaniment of this decayed vegetation. +Earthworms themselves are rather rarely found in stomachs, although +some birds, as the robin, eat them freely. It is well known that the +food of earthworms consists largely of partially decayed vegetable +matter found in the soil. Hence it is probable that decayed vegetation +found in the stomachs of thrushes is the food contained in the +earthworms when they were swallowed. The tissues of worms are quickly +digested, leaving the contents of their alimentary canals mixed with +the hard indigestible setæ or spines. + +Thrushes of the genus _Hylocichla_ show a very pronounced taste for +ants, and the average consumption of these insects by the five species +is 12.65 per cent. Few birds other than woodpeckers show so strong a +liking for this highly flavored food. Hymenoptera in general, +including ants, bees, and wasps, are the second largest item of insect +food. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next as an article of thrush +diet, while Orthoptera (grasshoppers), which are a favorite food with +most birds, do not seem to appeal much to the thrushes. + +The thrushes are pronounced ground feeders, and may often be seen +picking small fruit that has fallen to the ground. The vegetable +portion of their food (40.72 per cent) is largely composed of fruit, +which constitutes over 34 per cent of the total food. Of this 30.88 +per cent is made up of wild berries, which outweigh the domestic +varieties with every species. In all, 94 species of wild fruits or +berries were identified in the stomachs of these birds, although it is +not always practicable to identify such material unless seeds or some +other characteristic parts are present. As this is not often the case, +a considerable portion of the stomach contents must be pronounced +"fruit pulp" without further identification; thus probably many more +species are eaten than are recorded. Moreover, in the case of some +fruits, it is not possible to distinguish species by the seeds, so +that many species go unrecognized except as to genus. Domestic fruits +are eaten so sparingly by the thrushes here considered as to be of no +economic importance. + + Note.--This bulletin treats of the economic relations + and value to agriculture of the thrushes of the United States + other than robins and bluebirds. These two forms were discussed + in Department Bulletin No. 171, issued February 5, 1915. + + + + + +TOWNSEND'S SOLITAIRE + +(_Myadestes townsendi._) + + +Townsend's solitaire, a bird of the far West, is a resident of high +mountains and lonely gorges. It is partial to running streams and +often builds its nest just above a rushing mountain torrent. It ranges +from Alaska through the Sierras south to San Bernardino, Cal., and +through the Rockies to Arizona and New Mexico, and occasionally +farther east. The species is not evenly distributed over this region, +but is restricted to such high mountainous portions as afford its +favorite surroundings. As long as it retains these habits the bird +will have little or no effect upon the products of husbandry, and its +food can have only a scientific interest. The song of this species is +said to be at times the finest of any of the thrush family. + +As this bird is comparatively rare in settled regions only 41 stomachs +are available for determining the character of its food. The most +southerly and easterly one was taken in Texas, the most westerly in +California, and the most northerly in Wyoming. They are distributed +through all the months of the year, although April and May are +represented by but one each and December by but two. Every other month +has three or more. An investigation based upon such limited material +can be considered only as preliminary, but will serve to show some of +the more important elements of the food. This was made up of 35.90 per +cent of animal matter to 64.10 of vegetable. + +_Animal food._--The animal food consists of insects and spiders, with +a few hair worms (_Gordius_) found in one stomach. These last may have +been contained in the insects eaten. Among insects, beetles constitute +the second largest item (10.74 per cent), but 5.89 per cent of these +were the useful predatory ground beetles (Carabidæ). This is not a +good showing, but too few stomachs have been examined to allow +sweeping conclusions. As evidence that this can not be taken as a fair +sample of the bird's food habits it may be stated that all of these +beetles were taken in January and October. The one stomach collected +in January contained 95 per cent of Carabidæ--the only animal food in +it--and 93 per cent of the contents of one October stomach was made up +of the same material. Evidently in these cases the bird had found a +colony of the beetles and filled up with them. Had they constituted +the usual diet of the species they would have appeared in other months +and in more stomachs, but in smaller quantities. Other families of +beetles are eaten so sparingly as to be of little importance. +Scarabæidæ stand the next highest, but they amount to less than 2 per +cent of the food. + +Lepidoptera (caterpillars) make the largest item in the food of +_Myadestes_. Eaten much more regularly than beetles, they probably are +a standard article of diet. They were found in the stomachs collected +in every month of the year but four, and a greater number of stomachs +would probably show them in every month. The one stomach taken in May +contained the maximum (72 per cent). The total for the year is 12.95 +per cent. Ants are eaten to the extent of 4.71 per cent, while other +Hymenoptera, as bees and wasps, make up less than half of 1 per cent. +Diptera (flies) are represented by a mere trace in the stomachs. +Observers who have seen this bird in its native haunts testify that it +takes a considerable portion of its food on the wing. In view of this +fact it seems curious that the two orders of insects most active on +the wing (Hymenoptera and Diptera) should be so scantily represented +in the food. Hymenoptera are a standard diet with flycatchers and +would seem to be the natural food of any bird that feeds upon the +wing. + +Hemiptera (bugs) were found to the extent of 3.51 per cent of the +total food. All were contained in three stomachs taken in March, June, +and July. In the July stomach four cicadas, or dog-day flies, +constituted the whole contents. Grasshoppers amount to less than 1 per +cent and all other insects to but a trifle. Spiders were eaten to the +extent of 2.94 per cent of the food and were found in the stomachs +taken in seven of the twelve months, and judging from their +distribution they are eaten whenever available. A hair snake +(_Gordius_) was found in one stomach. Following is a list of insects +identified and the number of stomachs in which found: + + + COLEOPTERA. + + _Amara erratica_ 1 + _Aphodius_ sp 1 + _Balaninus_ sp 1 + + HEMIPTERA. + + _Platypedia putnami_ 1 + + +_Vegetable food._--The vegetable portion of the food of _Myadestes_ is +64.10 per cent of the whole, and 58.70 per cent of this, or more than +half the whole food, is classified as wild fruit or berries. These +were found in stomachs collected in every month. From the even +distribution of this food through the year and from the quantity eaten +it is evidently a favorite article of diet. Nothing was found in any +of the stomachs that could be identified as cultivated fruit, with the +possible exception of a mass of fruit pulp found in one. A few seeds +of poison ivy and sumac, with fragments of flowers and a few weed +seeds, complete the vegetable food. Following is a list of fruits, +seeds, etc., identified, and the number of stomachs in which found: + + + Rocky Mountain cedar (_Juniperus scopulorum_) 3 + Western cedar (_Juniperus monospermum_) 1 + Other cedars (_Juniperus_ sp.) 2 + Hackberries (_Celtis occidentalis_) 1 + Douglas hackberries (_Celtis douglasii_) 1 + Service berries (_Amelanchier_ sp.) 1 + Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 2 + Wild cherries (_Prunus_ sp.) 1 + Sumac berries (_Rhus_ sp.) 1 + Poison ivy (_Rhus toxicodendron_) 1 + Waxwork (_Celastrus_ sp.) 1 + Madrona berries (_Arbutus menziesii_) 5 + Honeysuckle berries (_Lonicera_ sp.) 1 + Elderberries (_Sambucus_ sp.) 1 + Fruit not further identified 3 + + +_Summary._--With so small an amount of material it is not safe to draw +general conclusions, but in the case of _Myadestes_ one point seems +clear--the bird's favorite food is small wild fruit, and as long as +this is abundant the bird will probably not attack cultivated +varieties; but should any portion of the region occupied by the +solitaire be cleared of its wild fruit and cultivated species be +introduced these would likely be preyed upon. Under such conditions +this bird, now perfectly harmless, might inflict considerable damage. + + + + +WOOD THRUSH. + +(_Hylocichla mustelina._) + + +The wood thrush is distributed over the eastern part of the United +States wherever suitable conditions are found. It is a lover of open +groves and bushy pastures, and may be found along little-traveled +roads and near low bushy swamps. The bird is noted for its sweet song, +and many country people who are well acquainted with its notes know +little or nothing of the bird itself. Its favorite time for singing is +in the early evening at the close of a sultry afternoon when a shower +has cooled the air. As a rule, it does not nest in gardens or orchards +and is seldom seen about farm buildings. It is strictly migratory, and +the greater number pass out of the United States in winter, though a +few remain in the Southern States. It usually migrates north in April +or early May. + +For the investigation of the food habits of the wood thrush 171 +stomachs were available. One of these was collected in Florida in +January and another in Alabama in February, and these two will be +treated separately. The remaining 169 were collected from April to +October, and are fairly well distributed over that time. The food +consisted of 59.59 per cent of animal matter to 40.41 per cent of +vegetable. The greatest quantity of animal food was eaten in April, +the month of arrival from the south, and the least in October, the +month of the return migration. + +_Animal food._--Beetles, collectively (20.40 per cent), constitute the +largest item of animal food. Of these, 2.23 per cent are the +predacious ground beetles (Carabidæ), generally considered useful. The +remainder belong to several more or less harmful families, of which +the May-beetle family (Scarabæidæ) amount to 10.17 per cent. Snout +beetles, or weevils (Rhynchophora), are eaten to the extent of 2.16 +per cent only, and the wood-boring chick-beetles (Elateridæ) to 2.13 +per cent. + +Among the various species of these insects were noted the remains of +the well-known Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_), +in two stomachs, and _Coptocycla signifera_, also injurious to the +potato, in one stomach. Remains of _Otiorhynchus ovatus_, a weevil +destructive to strawberry plants, were found in two stomachs, and in +one other a weevil, _Sphenophorus parvulus_, that injures the roots of +grass. The well-known white grubs that attack grass roots and a host +of other plants are the immature forms of many species of +_Lachnosterna_, of several species of _Euphoria_ and of _Allorhina +nitida_. Of these, remains of _Lachnosterna_ were found in 27 stomachs +and of _Allorhina_ and _Euphoria_ in one each. + + + [Illustration: + B2084-73 + + Fig. 1.--Wood thrush (_Hylocichla mustelina_).] + + +Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next to Coleoptera (beetles) in the +animal diet of the wood thrush. Although eaten with a fair degree of +regularity during every month of the bird's stay in the north, the +most were taken in July (16.32 per cent). The average for the season +is 9.42 per cent. Ants as an item of food are third in importance, +though if other Hymenoptera were included the order would rank next to +beetles. They seem to be a rather favorite food with all birds of the +genus _Hylocichla_. With the wood thrush they begin with 18.12 per +cent in April and gradually decrease through the summer and disappear +in October. The total for the season is 8.89 per cent. Hymenoptera +other than ants were eaten with great regularity (3.86 per cent) +throughout the season, but not in large quantities. Diptera (flies) +are eaten in small quantities and rather irregularly. Most of them +were the long-legged crane flies (Tipulidæ), both in the adult and +larval form. The total for the season is 2.70 per cent. Hemiptera +(bugs) do not appear to be a favorite food, though a few were taken in +all of the seven months except October. The average for the season is +only 1.33 per cent. Orthoptera (grasshoppers) are eaten in small +quantities until July, after which they form a fair percentage till +September. The total consumption amounts to 2.28 per cent of the food. +A few other insects make up a fraction of 1 per cent. Spiders and +myriapods (thousand-legs) appear to be a favorite food with the wood +thrush, constituting in April 20.94 per cent of the food, but +gradually decreasing in quantity until September. The aggregate for +the year is 8.49 per cent. A few sowbugs (isopods), snails, and +earthworms (1.83 per cent) close the account of animal food. + +Following is a list of the insects identified in the stomachs of the +wood thrush and the number of stomachs in which each was found: + + + HYMENOPTERA. + + _Tiphia inornata_ 1 + + COLEOPTERA. + + _Harpalus herbivagus_ 1 + _Necrophorus tomentosus_ 1 + _Philonthus lomatus_ 1 + _Hister abbreviatus_ 1 + _Hister depurator_ 1 + _Hister americanus_ 2 + _Ips quadriguttatus_ 1 + _Melanotus americanus_ 1 + _Corymbites cylindriformis_ 1 + _Agrilus bilineatus_ 1 + _Telephorus carolinus_ 1 + _Onthophagus striatulus_ 1 + _Onthophagus tuberculifrons_ 1 + _Onthophagus_ sp 3 + _Atænius_ sp 2 + _Aphodius granarius_ 1 + _Aphodius_ sp 1 + _Dichelonycha testacea_ 1 + _Dichelonycha_ sp 1 + _Lachnosterna_ sp 27 + _Ligyrus_ sp 1 + _Allorhina nitida_ 1 + _Euphoria fulgida_ 1 + _Euphoria_ sp 2 + _Chrysomela pulchra_ 1 + _Leptinotarsa decemlineata_ 2 + _Odontota_ sp 1 + _Coptocycla signifera_ 1 + _Coptocycla_ sp 1 + _Anametus griseus_ 1 + _Phyxelis rigidus_ 1 + _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 2 + _Tanymecus confertus_ 1 + _Pandeletejus hilaris_ 1 + _Barypithes pellucidus_ 1 + _Listronotus latiusculus_ 1 + _Macrops_ sp 1 + _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 2 + _Acalles carinatus_ 1 + _Balaninus_ sp 2 + _Eupsalis minuta_ 1 + _Sphenophorus parvulus_ 1 + + HEMIPTERA. + + _Nezara hilaris_ 2 + + ORTHOPTERA. + + _Diapheromera femorata_ 1 + + ISOPTERA. + + _Termes flavipes_ 1 + + +_Vegetable food._--More than nine-tenths of the vegetable food of the +wood thrush can be included in a single item--fruit. Cultivated fruit, +or what was thought to be such, was found in stomachs taken from June +to September, inclusive. It was eaten regularly and moderately, and +the total for the season was 3.74 per cent of the whole food. Wild +fruits or berries of 22 species were found in 72 stomachs, distributed +through every month of the bird's stay at the north. Beginning with +1.18 per cent in April, the quantity gradually increases to 87.17 per +cent in October, when it makes more than five-sixths of the whole +food. The average for the season is 33.51 per cent. In this +investigation _Rubus_ seeds (blackberries or raspberries) are always +reckoned as cultivated fruit, though probably most often wild. Besides +fruit, a few seeds and rose haws were found, which with a little +rubbish complete the vegetable food (40.41 per cent). + +Following is a list of fruits, seeds, etc., identified and the number +of stomachs in which found: + + + Yew berries (_Taxus minor_) 1 + False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina racemosa_) 1 + Bayberries (_Myrica carolinensis_) 1 + Mulberries (_Morus_ sp.) 10 + Spiceberries (_Benzoin æstivale_) 5 + Currants (_Ribes_ sp.) 1 + Mountain ash (_Pyrus americanus_) 2 + Service berries (_Amelanchier canadensis_) 2 + Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 17 + Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 + Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 1 + Chokecherries (_Prunus virginiana_) 7 + Domestic cherries (_Prunus cerasus_) 4 + Croton (_Croton_ sp.) 1 + American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 2 + Woodbine berries (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 1 + Frost grapes (_Vitis cordifolia_) 4 + Wild sarsaparilla (_Aralia nudicaulis_) 1 + Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 3 + Rough-leaved cornel (_Cornus asperifolia_) 4 + Dogwood (_Cornus_ sp.) 1 + Black gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 1 + Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 + Blueberries (_Vaccinium_ sp.) 6 + French mulberry (_Callicarpa americana_) 1 + Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 1 + Other elderberries (_Sambucus_ sp.) 3 + Fruit pulp not further identified 12 + + +Of the two stomachs not included in the foregoing discussion, the one +taken in Florida in January contained 93 per cent of wild fruit and 7 +per cent of weevils, wasps, and spiders; the one collected in Alabama +in February was entirely filled with animal food, of which 88 per cent +was caterpillars, 5 per cent May beetles, 6 per cent bugs, and 1 per +cent spiders. + +_Summary._--The animal food of the wood thrush includes remarkably few +useful insects and contains some very harmful ones, as the Colorado +potato beetle and many of the Scarabæidæ, the larval forms of which +are the well-known white grubs which are a pest to agriculture in +preying upon roots of plants. The vegetable portion of the food +contains a small quantity of cultivated fruit, but observation shows +that the thrush is in the habit of picking up fallen fruit instead of +taking it fresh from the tree. The eating of wild fruit has no +economic interest except that it serves to distribute the seeds of +many shrubs and trees. There is no occasion to discriminate against +this bird in any way. It should be rigidly protected. + + + + +VEERY AND WILLOW THRUSH. + +(_Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens_ and _Hylocichla fuscescens +salicicola_.) + + +The veery is distributed over the eastern portion of the United +States during migration and breeds in the Northern States as far +south as Pennsylvania, and in New England and Canada. In winter +it disappears almost entirely from the country, only a few remaining +in Florida and perhaps in other Southern States. Its +western representative is the willow thrush. Like other thrushes, +birds of this species are shy and retiring in disposition, keeping for +the most part in the shade of woods or bushy swamps, or building +nests in a damp ravine with a brook gurgling past. They have been +known, however, to visit orchards and sometimes gardens which are +not kept too trim. It is thus evident that the food has little direct +economic interest, as this bird does not come in contact with the +farmer's crops. + +For investigating the food of the species 176 stomachs were available. +They were collected during the seven months from April to +October, and represent 18 States, the District of Columbia, and +Canada. The food separates into 57.27 per cent of animal matter +and 42.73 per cent of vegetable. The former consists mostly of +remains of insects, and the latter of fruit. + +_Animal food._--Predacious ground beetles (Carabidæ) amount to +0.82 per cent. They are evidently not a preferred food. Beetles in +general comprise 14.67 per cent of the food, but no family or other +group appears to be distinguished except the Carabidæ, which are +conspicuous by their absence. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount +to 2.49 per cent, and one stomach contained a specimen of the notorious +plum curculio (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_). A number of other +harmful beetles were noted, but none are so well known as the plum +destroyer. Ants make up 10.35 per cent and are eaten with great +regularity. Hymenoptera other than ants amount to only 3.26 per +cent, but are eaten regularly throughout the season. Hemiptera +(bugs) were eaten to a small extent (1.30 per cent) in the first four +months, but they are not seen after July. Exactly the same may be +said of Diptera, which total only 0.85 per cent. + +Lepidoptera (caterpillars) are, next to Hymenoptera, the favorite +insect food. They were eaten in goodly quantities in every month +except October. The average for the season is 11.91 per cent. +Grasshoppers appear to some extent in every month except April, the +greatest consumption taking place in October (24 per cent), but as +only small numbers are eaten in the earlier months the aggregate for +the year is only 4.91 per cent. A few other insects of various orders +amount to 0.98 per cent. Spiders (6.34 per cent) are eaten regularly +and constantly through the season, except that none were taken in +October. A few sowbugs, snails, etc. (2.70 per cent), complete the +quota of animal food. Following is a list of insects identified and +the number of stomachs in which found: + + + HYMENOPTERA. + + _Tiphia inornata_ 1 + + COLEOPTERA + + _Elaphrus ruscarius_ 1 + _Anisodactylus harrisi_ 1 + _Anisodactylus_ sp 1 + _Pterostichus lucublandus_ 1 + _Hydrobius fuscipes_ 1 + _Ips fasciata_ 1 + _Byrrhus murinus_ 1 + _Dolopius lateralis_ 2 + _Limonius æger_ 1 + _Corymbites cylindriformis_ 1 + _Corymbites spinosus_ 1 + _Corymbites tarsalis_ 1 + _Corymbites hieroglyphicus_ 1 + _Podabrus flavicollis_ 1 + _Telephorus bilineatus_ 2 + _Telephorus_ sp 1 + _Onthophagus_ sp 2 + _Atænius cognatus_ 1 + _Aphodius_ sp 3 + _Dichelonycha_ sp 2 + _Serica sericea_ 1 + _Lachnosterna hirticula_ 1 + _Lachnosterna_ sp 13 + _Chrysomela pulchra_ 3 + _Chlamys plicata_ 1 + _Typophorus canellus_ 1 + _Graphops simplex_ 1 + _Graphops_ sp 1 + _Calligrapha philadelphica_ 1 + _Å’dionychis quercata_ 1 + _Microrhopala vittata_ 1 + _Hormorus undulatus_ 1 + _Phyxelis rigidus_ 1 + _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 1 + _Neoptochus adspersus_ 1 + _Cercopeus chrysorrhÅ“us_ 2 + _Barypithes pellucidus_ 2 + _Sitones_ sp 2 + _Phytonomus nigrirostris_ 2 + _Conotrachelus nenuphar_ 1 + _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 1 + _Tyloderma_ sp 1 + _Monarthrum mali_ 1 + _Xyloteres politus_ 1 + + DIPTERA. + + _Bibio_ sp 1 + + +_Vegetable food._--The vegetable portion of the food of the species is +made up of fruit, with a few seeds and a little miscellaneous matter +more or less accidental. Fruit collectively amounts to 35.30 per cent, +of which 12.14 per cent was thought to be of cultivated varieties and +so recorded, while the remainder, 23.16 per cent, was quite certainly +of wild species. This percentage of cultivated fruit is more than +three times the record of the wood thrush, while the wild fruit eaten +is correspondingly less, as the sum total of the fruit consumed is +very nearly the same with both birds. From this percentage of domestic +fruit one might infer that the veery was, or might be, a serious +menace to fruit growing, but no such complaints have been heard, and +it is probable that the species is not numerous enough to damage +cultivated crops. A close inspection, however, of the fruit eating of +the veery removes all doubts. The cultivated fruit, so called, was in +every case either strawberries or _Rubus_ fruits, i. e., blackberries +or raspberries, and as both of these grow wild and in abundance +wherever the veery spends its summer, it is probable that all of the +fruit eaten was taken from wild plants, though 12.14 per cent has been +conventionally recorded as cultivated. + +Besides fruit, the veery eats a few seeds of grasses and weeds and a +few of sumac, but none of the poisonous species were found in the +stomachs. These seeds (7.25 per cent of the food) were eaten so +irregularly as to suggest that they are merely a makeshift taken for +want of something better. Rubbish (0.18 per cent), consisting of +decayed wood, bits of leaves, plant stems, etc., completes the +vegetable food. + +Following is a list of the items of vegetable food and the number of +stomachs in which found: + + + Yew berries (_Taxus minor_) 1 + Pigeon grass seed (_Chætochloa_ sp.) 1 + Rush grass seed (_Sporobolus minor_) 1 + False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina_ sp.) 1 + Greenbrier berries (_Smilax_ sp.) 2 + Hackberries (_Celtis occidentalis_) 1 + Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 3 + Spice berries (_Benzoin æstivale_) 2 + Service berries (_Amelanchier canadensis_) 3 + June berries (_Amelanchier_ sp.) 9 + Mountain ash (_Pyrus americana_) 1 + Crab apples (_Pyrus_ sp.) 1 + Strawberries (_Fragaria_ sp.) 3 + Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 8 + Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 1 + Bird cherries (_Prunus pennsylvanica_) 1 + Chokecherries (_Prunus virginiana_) 1 + Staghorn sumac (_Rhus hirta_) 2 + Dwarf sumac (_Rhus copallina_) 1 + Three-leaved sumac (_Rhus trilobata_) 1 + Other sumac (_Rhus_ sp.) 1 + American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 1 + Woodbine berries (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 1 + White cornel (_Cornus candidissima_) 2 + Alternate-leaved cornel (_Cornus alternifolia_) 3 + Rough-leaved cornel (_Cornus asperifolia_) 1 + Dogwood berries (_Cornus_ sp.) 2 + Sour gum berries (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 1 + Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 + Blueberries (_Vaccinium_ sp.) 4 + Snowberries (_Symphoricarpos racemosus_) 2 + Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 2 + Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 4 + Other elderberries (_Sambucus_ sp.) 3 + Fruit pulp not further identified 4 + + +_Summary._--It is hardly necessary to make a summary of the +food of this bird in order to bring out its good points, for it seems +to have no others. The animal food includes less than 1 per cent of +useful beetles, and the remainder is either harmful or neutral. +In the matter of vegetable food there seems to be no chance for +criticism, as nature evidently supplies all it needs. The bird has +never been harmed, but has been held in high esteem for sentimental +reasons; let it also be valued and protected for its economic worth. + + + + +GRAY-CHEEKED AND BICKNELL'S THRUSHES. + +(_Hylocichla aliciæ aliciæ_ and _Hylocichla aliciæ bicknelli_.) + + +The gray-cheeked thrush (_H. a. aliciæ_) is found in migration over +all the Eastern States, but breeds farther north, beyond our limits. +Bicknell's thrush (_H. a. bicknelli_), a closely related form, while +having somewhat the same general range, breeds farther south and nests +in the mountains of northern New York and New England. Both subspecies +have the same general habits as other forms of the genus so far as +haunts and choice of residence are concerned, but their far-northern +range excludes them from coming into contact with cultivated crops. +The species does not seem to be very abundant anywhere, and +consequently only a few stomachs have been received for examination. +In all they number but 111 and are very irregularly distributed in +time. None were taken in August and only one in July and two in June. +From so scanty and unevenly distributed material it is impossible to +draw final conclusions, but we can get some idea as to the nature of +the bird's food and its economic importance. + +The first analysis of the food gives 74.86 per cent of animal matter +to 25.14 per cent of vegetable. This is the most animal food found in +the stomachs of any bird of the genus _Hylocichla_ and the largest but +two of any of the thrushes. + +_Animal food._--Beetles collectively amount to about one-third of all +the food (33.32 per cent). Of these, 2.83 per cent are the useful +Carabidæ. The rest belong to harmful families, such as the Scarabæidæ, +Elateridæ, and the weevils, or snout beetles. Ants amount to 16.34 per +cent and are eaten very regularly--the most in the early part of the +season. Hymenoptera other than ants, as wasps and bees, were eaten to +the extent of 5.60 per cent, and with the ants make 21.94 per cent, +placing this food next in rank to beetles. As in the case of ants, +most of the bees and wasps were eaten in the first three months of the +season. No honey bees were found. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) were +third in order of abundance (8.81 per cent). No special pest was +discovered, but all caterpillars may be considered as harmful. A few +grasshoppers were found in the stomachs taken in April and May, and +more in those collected in September and October. They do not appear +to be a favorite food and amount to only 1.72 per cent. Other insects, +as flies, bugs, and a few others, collectively amount to 2.89 per +cent. Among these, it is of interest to note in one stomach the +remains of the famous seventeen-year locust (_Tibicen septemdecem_), +rather large game for so small a bird. Spiders are freely eaten by the +gray-cheeked thrush in spring, and sparingly in fall. For the season +they constitute 5.77 per cent of the food. A few other animals, as +crawfish, sowbugs, and angleworms (0.41 per cent), complete the animal +food. + +Following is a list of the insects identified and the number of +stomachs in which found: + + + HYMENOPTERA. + + _Lophyrus_ sp 1 + _Aphænogaster tennesseense_ 1 + + COLEOPTERA. + + _Cychrus andrewsi_ 2 + _Cychrus_ sp 2 + _Dyschirius hispidus_ 1 + _Hister sedecimstriatus_ 1 + _Phelister vernus_ 1 + _Epuræa rufa_ 3 + _Stelidota 8-maculata_ 1 + _Byrrhus murinus_ 1 + _Eucinetus morio_ 1 + _Monocrepidius vespertinus_ 1 + _Agriotes limosus_ 1 + _Corymbites signaticollis_ 1 + _Podabrus flavicollis_ 1 + _Telephorus bilineatus_ 1 + _Onthophagus_ sp 1 + _Atænius strigatus_ 1 + _Atænius ovatulus_ 1 + _Atænius_ sp 3 + _Aphodius ruricola_ 1 + _Aphodius inquinatus_ 3 + _Aphodius_ sp 1 + _Serica_ sp 1 + _Lachnosterna_ sp 10 + _Anomala_ sp 1 + _Leptura sphæricollis_ 1 + _Leptura mutabilis_ 1 + _Chrysomela pulchra_ 4 + _Blapstinus metallicus_ 1 + _Helops micans_ 1 + _Hormorus undulatus_ 1 + _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 1 + _Cercopeus chrysorrhÅ“us_ 2 + _Pandeletejus hilaris_ 1 + _Sitones_ sp 1 + _Hylobius pales_ 1 + _Desmoris constrictus_ 1 + _Bagous sellatus_ 1 + _Anthonomus sycophanta_ 1 + _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 2 + _Acalles clavatus_ 1 + _Acalles_ sp 1 + _Cryptorhynchus ferratus_ 1 + _Sphenophorus melanocephalus_ 1 + + HEMIPTERA. + + _Tibicen septendecem_ 1 + _Nezara hilaris_ 1 + + +_Vegetable food._--A few _Rubus_ seeds were recorded as cultivated +fruit, but they were found in only two stomachs and probably were +wild, as the gray-cheeked thrush does not live where it is likely to +come in contact with cultivated blackberries or raspberries. In any +case they amount to only 0.15 per cent. Wild fruits of 18 different +species (23.98 per cent) make up nearly one-fourth of the whole +food--in fact, the vegetable food, other than wild fruit, is +insignificant. Wild berries supplement the regular food, which +consists of insects and spiders. + +The following list shows the fruits and seeds identified and the +number of stomachs in which found: + + + False spikenard (_Smilacina racemosa_) 1 + Greenbrier berries (_Smilax_ sp.) 2 + Bayberries (_Myrica carolinensis_) 1 + Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 2 + Crab apples (_Pyrus_ sp.) 1 + Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 5 + Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 2 + Sumac berries (_Rhus_ sp.) 1 + Black-alder berries (_Ilex verticillata_) 1 + Wild grapes (_Vitis_ sp.) 5 + Wild sarsaparilla (_Aralia_ sp.) 1 + Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 5 + Rough-leaved dogwood (_Cornus asperifolia_) 2 + White cornel (_Cornus candidissima_) 1 + Dogwood (_Cornus_ sp.) 1 + Sour gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 2 + Black nightshade (_Solanum nigrum_) 1 + Dockmackie (_Viburnum acerifolium_) 1 + Arrowwood (_Viburnum_ sp.) 1 + Elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 3 + Fruit not further identified 6 + + +_Summary._--In the food of the gray-cheeked thrush the only useful +element is a small percentage (2.83) of useful beetles. The remainder +of the animal food is composed of either harmful or neutral elements. +The vegetable food, drawn entirely from nature's great storehouse, +contains no product of human industry, either of grain or fruit. +Whatever the sentimental reasons for protecting this bird, the +economic ones are equally valid. + + + + +OLIVE-BACKED AND RUSSET-BACKED THRUSHES. + +(_Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni_ and _Hylocichla ustulata ustulata_.) + + +The olive-backed thrush and its relative, the russet-backed, occupy +the whole of the United States at some time during the year. The +olive-back breeds north of our northern border, except in the higher +mountains, and the russet-back on the Pacific coast nests as far south +as southern California. The habits of birds of this species resemble +those of others of the genus in living in swamps and woodlands rather +than in gardens and orchards. The russet-back on the Pacific coast, +however, seems to have become quite domestic, and wherever a stream +runs through or past an orchard or garden, or the orchard is near +thick chaparral, this bird is sure to be found taking its toll of the +fruit and rearing its young in the thicket beside the stream. During +the cherry season it takes a liberal share of the fruit, but its +young, then in the nest, are fed almost entirely on insects. The +eastern subspecies, on the contrary, does not come in contact with +domestic fruit or any other product of husbandry. A great number of +the subspecies nest far north of the region of fruit raising. + +For this investigation 403 stomachs of the olive-backed thrush were +available, collected in 25 States, the District of Columbia, and +Canada. Florida, Louisiana, and Texas represent the most southern +collections and New Brunswick, Ontario, and Northwest Territory the +most northern. In California 157 stomachs were obtained, which, with +those taken in Oregon and Washington, fairly represent the Pacific +coast region. The whole collection was fairly well distributed over +the nine months from March to November. The food consisted of 63.52 +per cent of animal matter to 36.48 per cent of vegetable. + +_Animal food._--Beetles of all kinds amount to 16.29 per cent. Of +these 3.14 per cent are the useful Carabidæ. The others belong to +harmful or neutral families. Weevils or snout-beetles (Rhynchophora) +amount to 5.29 per cent, a high percentage for such insects. One +Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_) was found in a +stomach taken on Long Island. Hymenoptera collectively aggregate 21.50 +per cent. Of these, 15.20 per cent are ants--a favorite food of +_Hylocichla_. The remainder (6.30 per cent) were wild bees and wasps. +No honeybees were found. Caterpillars, which rank next in importance +in the food of the olive-back, form a good percentage of the food of +every month represented and aggregate 10.30 per cent for the season. + +Grasshoppers are not an important element in the food of thrushes, as +they chiefly inhabit open areas, while _Hylocichla_ prefers thick damp +cover, where grasshoppers are not found. An inspection of the record +shows that most of the orthopterous food taken by the olive-back +consists of crickets, whose habits are widely different from those of +grasshoppers, and which are found under stones, old logs, or dead +herbage. The greatest quantity is taken in August and September. The +average for the season is 2.42 per cent. + +Diptera (flies) reach the rather surprisingly large figure of 6.23 per +cent. These insects are usually not eaten to any great extent except +by flycatchers and swallows, which take their food upon the wing. The +flies eaten by the olive-back are mostly crane flies (Tipulidæ) or +March flies (_Bibio_), both in the adult and larval state. Crane flies +are slow of wing and frequent shady places. The larvæ of both groups +are developed in moist ground, and often in colonies of several +hundred. With these habits it is not surprising that they fall an easy +prey to the thrushes. + +Hemiptera (bugs), a small but rather constant element of the food, +were found in the stomachs collected every month, and in July reach +11.11 per cent. They were of the families of stinkbugs (Pentatomidæ), +shield bugs (Scutelleridæ), tree hoppers (Membracidæ), leaf hoppers +(Jassidæ), and cicadas. Some scales were found in one stomach. The +total for the season is 3.76 per cent. A few insects not included in +any of the foregoing categories make up 0.48 per cent of the food. +Spiders, with a few millipeds, amount to 2.22 per cent, the lowest +figure for this item of any bird of the genus _Hylocichla_. Snails, +sowbugs, angleworms, etc. (0.32 per cent), complete the animal food. + +Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs +in which found: + + + HYMENOPTERA. + + _Camponotus pennsylvanicus_ 1 + _Tiphia inornata_ 1 + + COLEOPTERA. + + _Cychrus nitidicollis_ 1 + _Cychrus stenostomus_ 1 + _Notiophilus æneus_ 1 + _Pterostichus sayi_ 1 + _Pterotichus lustrans_ 1 + _Amara interstitialis_ 1 + _Triæna longula_ 1 + _Agonoderus pallipes_ 1 + _Silpha ramosa_ 1 + _Staphylinus cinnamopterus_ 1 + _Tachyporus californicus_ 1 + _Chilocorus orbus_ 1 + _Scymnus_ sp 1 + _Hister americanus_ 1 + _Ips quadriguttatus_ 4 + _Cytilus sericeus_ 1 + _Agriotes stabilis_ 1 + _Podabrus flavicollis_ 2 + _Podabrus modestus_ 2 + _Silis lutea_ 1 + _Telephorus carolinus_ 1 + _Telephorus bilineatus_ 5 + _Telephorus divisus_ 2 + _Onthophagus hecate_ 1 + _Onthophagus striatulus_ 1 + _Onthophagus tuberculifrons_ 2 + _Onthophagus_ sp 4 + _Atænius abditus_ 1 + _Aphodius hamatus_ 1 + _Aphodius fimetarius_ 6 + _Aphodius inquinatus_ 7 + _Aphodius_ sp 6 + _Geotrupes_ sp 1 + _Dichelonycha elongata_ 2 + _Lachnosterna hirticula_ 1 + _Lachnosterna_ sp 12 + _Anomala undulata_ 1 + _Anomala_ sp 1 + _Euphoria fulgida_ 1 + _Donacia emarginata_ 1 + _Hæmonia nigricornis_ 1 + _Syneta pallida_ 1 + _Leptinotarsa decemlineata_ 1 + _Gastroidea_ sp 1 + _Galerucella decora_ 1 + _Diabrotica soror_ 1 + _Diabrotica_ sp 1 + _Gonioctena pallida_ 1 + _Luperodes bivittatus_ 1 + _Opatrinus notus_ 1 + _Blapstinus metallicus_ 1 + _Blapstinus mæstus_ 1 + _Blapstinus_ sp 1 + _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 1 + _Thinoxenus_ sp 1 + _Cercopeus chrysorrhæus_ 1 + _Barypithes pellucidus_ 1 + _Sitones flavescens_ 1 + _Sitones_ sp 1 + _Phytonomus punctatus_ 2 + _Pachylobius picivorus_ 1 + _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 1 + _Micromastus elegans_ 1 + _Acalles clavatus_ 1 + _Cryptorhynchus bisignatus_ 1 + _Rhinoncus pyrrhopus_ 1 + _Balaninus_ sp 3 + _Sphenophorus parvulus_ 1 + _Sphenophorus_ sp 1 + _Scolytus muticus_ 1 + + LEPIDOPTERA. + + _Edema albifrons_ 1 + + TRICHOPTERA. + + _Phryganea californica_ 1 + + HEMIPTERA. + + _Myodocha serripes_ 1 + _Sinea diadema_ 1 + + +This list of insects contains a considerable number of injurious +species and some that at various times and places have become decided +pests. Such are the Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa +decemlineata_), the spotted squash beetle (_Diabrotica soror_), the +cloverleaf weevil (_Phytonomus punctatus_), and the various species of +_Lachnosterna_, the parent of the destructive white grubs. Many others +are plant feeders and may increase to such an extent as to inflict +great damage upon agriculture. + +_Vegetable food._--The vegetable food of the olive-backed thrush +consists of small fruit. The bird has a weak bill and can not break +through the tough skin of the larger kinds. In the cherry orchards of +California the writer many times observed the western subspecies of +this bird, the russet-back, on the ground pecking at cherries that had +been bitten open and dropped by linnets and grosbeaks. Blackberries +and raspberries have a very delicate skin and are successfully managed +by weak-billed birds, so that all the records of domestic fruit eaten +by the eastern form relate to these berries, and it is probable that +in most cases the fruit was not cultivated. The total of cultivated +fruit for the season is 12.63 per cent of the whole food, but if we +consider the eastern subspecies alone this item would practically +disappear. Wild fruit (19.73 per cent) is eaten regularly and in a +goodly quantity in every month after April. Weed seeds and a few +miscellaneous items of vegetable food (4.04 per cent) close the +account. + +Following is a list of vegetable foods so far as identified and the +number of stomachs in which found. + + + White cedar seeds (_Thuja occidentalis_) 1 + Red cedar berries (_Juniperus communis_) 2 + False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina trifolia_) 3 + Greenbrier (_Smilax tamnifolia_) 1 + Cat brier (_Smilax_ sp.) 1 + Hackberry (_Celtis occidentalis_) 3 + Mulberry (_Morus_ sp.) 2 + Fig (_Ficus_ sp.) 3 + Pale persicaria (_Polygonum lapathifolium_) 1 + Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 9 + Mountain ash (_Pyrus americana_) 1 + Service berries (_Amelanchier_ sp.) 1 + Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 67 + Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 + Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 15 + Bird cherries (_Prunus Pennsylvanica_) 2 + Domestic cherries (_Prunus cerasus_) 29 + Domestic plum (_Prunus domestica_) 2 + Apricot (_Prunus armeniaca_) 3 + Filaree (_Erodium_ sp.) 1 + Poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_) 4 + Staghorn sumac (_Rhus hirta_) 2 + Dwarf sumac (_Rhus copallina_) 3 + Other sumac (_Rhus_ sp.) 4 + Pepper tree (_Schinus molle_) 1 + American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 1 + Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_) 1 + Coffee berries (_Rhamnus californicus_) 3 + Woodbine (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 10 + Frost grape (_Vitis cordifolia_) 6 + Spikenard (_Aralia racemosa_) 2 + Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 7 + Kinnikinnik (_Cornus amomum_) 2 + Red osier (_Cornus stolonifera_) 1 + Panicled cornel (_Cornus paniculata_) 3 + Dogwood unidentified (_Cornus_ sp.) 6 + Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 + Three-flowered nightshade (_Solanum triflorum_) 1 + Nightshade unidentified (_Solanum_ sp.) 8 + Black twinberries (_Lonicera involucrata_) 2 + Honeysuckle berries (_Lonicera_ sp.) 2 + Snowberries (_Symphoricarpos racemosus_) 2 + Dockmackie (_Viburnum acerifolium_) 1 + Arrowwood (_Viburnum_ sp.) 1 + Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 6 + Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 5 + Blue elderberries (_Sambucus glauca_) 15 + Tarweed (_Madia_ sp.) 1 + Fruit pulp not further identified 17 + + +_Food of young of russet-backed thrush._--Before concluding the +discussion of this species it will be of interest to note the results +obtained from an investigation of stomachs of 25 nestlings of the +russet-back taken in June and July when the birds were from two to +eleven days old. These were from eight broods, ranging from three to +five nestlings to the brood. The percentage of animal food of the +young (92.60 per cent) is considerably higher than that of the parent +birds. + +The distribution of the animal food is as follows: Caterpillars were +found in every stomach but seven and aggregated nearly 27 per cent; +beetles, including the useful Carabidæ (7.7 per cent), are irregularly +distributed to the extent of 22 per cent; other more or less harmful +species included five families of (Hemiptera) bugs, 13.8 per cent, +viz, stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, shield bugs, and cicadas; +ants and a few other Hymenoptera amount to 12 per cent, and spiders +the same. These latter were mostly harvestmen or daddy longlegs +(Phalangidæ). The remainder (6 per cent) included a few miscellaneous +insects. Only three stomachs contained remains of grasshoppers. +Carabid beetles were eaten by the young birds to the extent of 7.7 per +cent, which is more than three times the amount eaten by the adults, a +remarkable fact when is considered that these insects are very hard +shelled, thus seemingly unsuited for young birds. + +The vegetable food consisted of fruit (6.8 per cent), mainly +blackberries or raspberries, found in 11 stomachs, and twinberries in +1, and two or three other items, including a seed of filaree and some +rubbish. From the irregular variety of food in the different stomachs, +it would seem that the parents make little selection, but fill the +gaping mouths of their young with the nearest obtainable supply. + +In addition to the examination of stomach contents of nestlings two +nests were carefully and regularly watched, and from these it was +determined that the parent birds fed each nestling 48 times in 14 +hours of daylight. This means 144 feedings as a day's work for the +parents for a brood of three nestlings, and that each stomach was +filled to its full capacity several times daily, an illustration that +the digestion and assimilation of birds, especially the young, are +constant and very rapid. Experiments in raising young birds have +proved that they thrive best when fed small quantities at short +intervals rather than greater quantities at longer periods. Aside from +the insects consumed by the parents, a brood of three young birds will +thus each require the destruction of at least 144 insects in a day and +probably a very much greater number. + +_Summary._--In a résumé of the food of the olive-backed and +russet-backed thrushes one is impressed with the fact that they come +in contact with the products of industry but rarely. The olive-back's +food habits infringe upon the dominion of man but little. The bird +lives among men, but not with them. The western form, the russet-back, +comes more into relations with the cultivated products because it +visits orchards and partakes freely of the fruit. Even then the damage +is slight, as much of the fruit eaten is that fallen to the ground. +Moreover, while the adult bird is feeding upon fruit a nestful of +young are being reared upon insects which must be largely taken from +the orchard, thus not only squaring the account but probably +overbalancing it in favor of the farmer. + + + + +HERMIT THRUSHES. + +(_Hylocichla guttata_ subspp.) + + +The hermit thrush of the subspecies _H. g. pallasi_ inhabits the +Eastern States in winter as far north as Massachusetts and breeds from +the mountains of Maryland and Pennsylvania and from northern Michigan +and central Minnesota northward to Alaska. Several other subspecies +occupy the Pacific coast region in suitable localities--that is, in +the higher and more wooded sections, as this bird, like all of the +genus _Hylocichla_, does not live in treeless or arid regions. In the +East the bird is a late fall migrant and may often be seen sitting +silent and alone on a branch in the forest in late October or even in +November, when the great army of migrants have passed on to the South. +While a beautiful songster, the species is so quiet and unobtrusive +that by sight it is entirely unknown to many. + +Inquiry into the food habits of this bird covered 551 stomachs, +collected in 29 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and +representing every month of the year, though all the stomachs taken in +winter were collected in the Southern States, the District of +Columbia, and California. In the primary analysis the food was found +to consist of 64.51 per cent of animal matter to 35.49 per cent of +vegetable. The former is mostly composed of insects with some spiders, +while the latter is largely fruit, chiefly wild species. + +_Animal food._--Beetles constitute 15.13 per cent of the food. Of +these 2.98 per cent are of the useful family, Carabidæ. The remainder +are mostly harmful. Scarabæidæ, the larvæ of which are the white grubs +that destroy the roots of so many plants, were eaten to the extent of +3.44 per cent. Snout beetles, among the most harmful of insects, were +taken to the extent of 3.13 per cent. Among these was the notorious +plum curculio (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_) found in two stomachs taken +in the District of Columbia in April of different years. Two other +species of the same genus also were found, as well as the clover +weevil (_Epicærus imbricatus_). The Colorado potato beetle +(_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_) and the striped squash beetle +(_Diabrotica vittata_), with a number of other species of less +notoriety, were found in several stomachs. Thus, in spite of the +bird's retiring habits, it comes in contact with some of the pests of +cultivation. + + + [Illustration: + B2085-73 + + Fig. 2.--Hermit thrush (_Hylocichla guttata_).] + + +The ants destroyed--12.46 per cent of the food--keep up the reputation +of thrushes as ant eaters. They were taken constantly every month, +with the greatest number from May to September; a falling off in July +is partly accounted for by the fact that more fruit is taken in that +month. Other Hymenoptera (bees and wasps) were eaten to the extent of +5.41 per cent, a surprising amount for a bird that feeds so largely +upon the ground, as these insects are usually of fleet wing and live +in sunshine and open air. + +Caterpillars, eaten in every month and mostly in goodly quantities, +appear to be a favorite food of the hermit thrush. December is the +month of least consumption (2.75 per cent), while the most were eaten +in June (17.08 per cent). The average for the year is 9.54 per cent. +Hemiptera (bugs) seem to be eaten whenever found, as they appear in +the food of every month, but rather irregularly and not in large +quantities. The greatest consumption was in June (9.17 per cent), but +July, September, and December show the least (less than 1 per cent). +The total for the year is 3.63 per cent. Of the six families +represented, the Pentatomidæ, or stink bugs, predominate. These highly +flavored insects are eaten by most insectivorous birds often, but +usually in small quantities. + +Diptera (flies) comprise 3.02 per cent of the food of the hermit +thrush. The record shows, however, that nearly all of them are either +crane flies (Tipulidæ) and their eggs and larvæ, or March flies +(_Bibio_) and their larvæ. Over 150 of the latter were found in one +stomach. Both of these families of flies lay their eggs in the ground, +which accounts for their consumption by ground-feeding birds. +Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are eaten by the hermit thrush +to the extent of 6.32 per cent of its food. While this figure is not +remarkable, it is the highest for any of the genus. These birds are +fond of dark moist nooks among trees and bushes and do not feed +extensively in those dry sunshiny places so much frequented by +grasshoppers. A close inspection of the food record shows that the +Orthoptera eaten by the thrushes are mostly crickets, which live in +shadier and moister places than those where grasshoppers abound. A few +miscellaneous insects (0.27 per cent) close the insect account. +Spiders and myriapods (7.47 per cent) seem to constitute a very +acceptable article of diet, as they amount to a considerable +percentage in nearly every month, and in May rise to 20.79 per cent. A +few miscellaneous animals, as sowbugs, snails, and angleworms, make up +the balance of the animal food (1.26 per cent). + +Following is a list of insects so far as identified and the number of +stomachs in which found: + + + HYMENOPTERA. + + _Tiphia inornata_ 2 + + COLEOPTERA. + + _Elaphrus_ sp 1 + _Notiophilus semistriatus_ 1 + _Scarites subterraneus_ 1 + _Dyschirius pumilis_ 1 + _Pterostichus patruelis_ 1 + _Pterostichus_ sp 1 + _Amara_ sp 1 + _Chlænius pennsylvanicus_ 2 + _Stenolophus_ sp 1 + _Anisodactylus agilis_ 1 + _Tropisternus limbalis_ 2 + _Hydrocharis obtusatus_ 1 + _Sphæridium lecontei_ 1 + _Ptomaphagus consobrinus_ 1 + _Anisotoma valida_ 1 + _Megilla maculata_ 1 + _Anatis 15-maculata_ 1 + _Psyllobora tædata_ 1 + _Brachycantha ursina_ 1 + _Endomychus biguttatus_ 1 + _Cryptophagus_ sp 1 + _Hister marginicollis_ 1 + _Hister americanus_ 1 + _Saprinus fimbriatus_ 1 + _Carpophilus hemipterus_ 1 + _Perthalycra murrayi_ 1 + _Ips quadriguttatus_ 3 + _Cytilus sericeus_ 2 + _Cytilus_ sp 1 + _Byrrhus kirbyi_ 1 + _Byrrhus cyclophorus_ 1 + _Cryptohypnus bicolor_ 2 + _Drasterius dorsalis_ 1 + _Dolopius lateralis_ 1 + _Melanotus_ sp 2 + _Podabrus tomentosus_ 1 + _Canthon_ sp 1 + _Onthophagus tuberculifrons_ 1 + _Onthophagus_ sp 3 + _Ægialia lacustris_ 1 + _Rhyssemus scaber_ 1 + _Atænius abditus_ 1 + _Atænius cognatus_ 1 + _Atænius_ sp 1 + _Aphodius fimetarius_ 11 + _Aphodius granarius_ 1 + _Aphodius rugifrons_ 1 + _Aphodius inquinatus_ 9 + _Aphodius pardalis_ 1 + _Aphodius prodromus_ 4 + _Aphodius crassiusculus_ 1 + _Aphodius_ sp 11 + _Geotrupes semipunctata_ 1 + _Dichelonycha_ sp 1 + _Lachnosterna_ sp 17 + _Chrysomela pulchra_ 3 + _Lema nigrovittata_ 1 + _Chlamys plicata_ 1 + _Myochrous denticollis_ 2 + _Xanthonia 10-notata_ 1 + _Calligrapha scalaris_ 1 + _Leptinotarsa decemlineata_ 1 + _Phædon viridis_ 1 + _Diabrotica vittata_ 1 + _Odontota rubra_ 1 + _Odontota_ sp 1 + _Haltica torquata_ 1 + _Crepidodera helxines_ 1 + _Syneta ferruginea_ 1 + _Systena elongata_ 1 + _Chætocnema pulicaria_ 1 + _Psylliodes punctulata_ 1 + _Chelymorpha cribraria_ 1 + _Opatrinus notus_ 1 + _Opatrinus aciculatus_ 1 + _Blapstinus metallicus_ 1 + _Blapstinus rufipes_ 1 + _Salpingus virescens_ 1 + _Anthicus pubescens_ 1 + _Notoxus monodon_ 1 + _Notoxus denudatum_ 1 + _Notoxus_ sp 1 + _Attelabus rhois_ 1 + _Rhigopsis effracta_ 1 + _Cercopeus chrysorrhÅ“us_ 4 + _Pandetetejus hilaris_ 1 + _Barypithes pellucidus_ 1 + _Sitones hispidulus_ 4 + _Sitones flavescens_ 1 + _Trichalophus alternatus_ 1 + _Apion_ sp 1 + _Listronotus latiusculus_ 1 + _Listronotus inæqualipennis_ 1 + _Listronotus_ sp 1 + _Macrops_ sp 2 + _Smicronyx corniculatus_ 1 + _Trachodes ptinoides_ 1 + _Conotrachelus nenuphar_ 2 + _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 5 + _Conotrachelus erinaceus_ 1 + _Rhinoncus pyrrhopus_ 1 + _Onychobaris insidiosus_ 1 + _Balaninus nasicus_ 1 + _Balaninus_ sp 1 + _Sphenophorus parvulus_ 1 + _Sphenophorus_ sp 1 + _Dendroctonus terebrans_ 1 + + HEMIPTERA. + + _Podops cinctipes_ 1 + _Nezara hilaris_ 6 + _Arhaphe cicindeloides_ 1 + _Corimelæna denudata_ 1 + _Myodocha serripes_ 2 + + ORTHOPTERA. + + _Amblycorypha rotundifolia_ 1 + _Å’canthus niveus_ 1 + + +_Vegetable food._--The vegetable diet of the hermit thrush consists +largely of fruit, as with most birds of this group. As might be +expected of a bird of such retiring habits, but little of the fruit +eaten can be classed as cultivated. In September 5.45 per cent was so +considered, but in most months the quantity was small, and in March, +April, and May was completely wanting. The total for the year as found +in 17 stomachs is 1.20 per cent. One stomach contained strawberries, +one grapes, one figs, one currants, two apples, and the rest _Rubus_ +fruit, i. e., blackberries or raspberries. These last as well as the +strawberries were probably wild. Of the wild fruit (26.19 per cent) 46 +species were identified with a reasonable degree of certainty in 243 +stomachs. A few seeds, ground-up vegetable matter not further +identified, and rubbish make up the rest of the vegetable food (8.10 +per cent). Among the seeds were some of the various species of +poisonous _Rhus_. These were found in 18 stomachs, mostly from +California. The dissemination of these seeds is unfortunate from the +standpoint of husbandry, but many birds engage in it, as the waxy +coating of the seeds is nutritious, especially in winter, when fruit +and insects are not easily obtainable. + +Following is a list of the components of the vegetable food so far as +identified, and the number of stomachs in which found: + + + Cedar berries (_Juniperus virginiana_) 2 + False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina racemosa_) 4 + False spikenard (_Smilacina_ sp.) 1 + Greenbrier (_Smilax walteri_) 2 + Cat brier (_Smilax bona-nox_) 2 + Laurel-leaved greenbrier (_Smilax laurifolia_) 1 + Other greenbriers (_Smilax_ sp.) 11 + Wax myrtle (_Myrica cerifera_) 1 + Bayberries (_Myrica carolinensis_) 7 + Chinquapin (_Castanea pumila_) 1 + Western hackberries (_Celtis occidentalis_) 5 + Other hackberries (_Celtis_ sp.) 3 + Figs (_Ficus_ sp.) 1 + Mulberries (_Morus_ sp.) 1 + Mistletoe berries (_Phoradendron villosum_) 2 + Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 16 + Miner's lettuce (_Montia perfoliata_) 1 + Sassafras berries (_Sassafras varifolium_) 2 + Spice berries (_Benzoin æstivale_) 1 + Currants (_Ribes_ sp.) 3 + Sweet gum (_Liquidambar styraciflua_) 2 + Chokeberries (_Pyrus arbutifolia_) 1 + Service berries (_Amelanchier canadensis_) 9 + Hawthorn (_Cratægus_ sp.) 1 + Strawberries (_Fragaria_ sp.) 1 + Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 5 + Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 + Wild black cherries (_Prunus scrotina_) 3 + Three-seeded mercury (_Acalypha virginica_) 1 + Staghorn sumach (_Rhus typhina_) 5 + Smooth sumach (_Rhus glabra_) 5 + Dwarf sumach (_Rhus copallina_) 7 + Poison ivy (_Rhus radicans_) 3 + Poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_) 15 + Laurel-leaved sumach (_Rhus laurina_) 2 + Other sumachs (_Rhus_ sp.) 12 + Pepper berries (_Schinus molle_) 15 + American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 9 + Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_) 12 + Ink berries (_Ilex glabra_) 9 + Other hollies (_Ilex_ sp.) 7 + Strawberry bush (_Euonymus americanus_) 1 + Roxbury waxwork (_Celastrus scandens_) 1 + Supple-Jack (_Berchemia volubilis_) 2 + Coffee berries (_Rhamnus californicus_) 1 + Woodbine (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 10 + Frost grapes (_Vitis cordifolia_) 2 + Wild grapes (_Vitis_ sp.) 1 + Wild sarsaparilla (_Aralia nudicaulis_) 1 + Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 32 + Rough-leaved dogwood (_Cornus asperifolia_) 2 + Black gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 2 + Checkerberry (_Gaultheria procumbens_) 1 + Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 + Blueberries (_Vaccinium_ sp.) 12 + Black nightshade (_Solanum nigrum_) 4 + Bittersweet (_Solanum_ sp.) 4 + Goose grass (_Galium aparine_) 1 + Honeysuckle (_Lonicera_ sp.) 2 + Indian currant (_Symphoricarpos orbiculatus_) 1 + Downy arrowwood (_Viburnum pubescens_) 1 + Nanny berries (_Viburnum lentago_) 2 + Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 4 + Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 3 + Fruit not further identified 60 + + +In looking over this list one is impressed with the fact that the +taste of human beings for fruit differs markedly from that of birds. +For example, _Rhus_ seeds are hard and have little pulp to render them +palatable or nutritious. They are usually passed through the +alimentary canal of birds or regurgitated unharmed, and the slight +outer coating alone is digested. In the case of the poisonous species, +this outer coating is a white wax or tallow which appears to be very +nutritious, for these species are eaten much more extensively than the +nonpoisonous ones. The seed itself is rarely broken in the stomach to +get any nutriment it may contain. But in spite of these facts _Rhus_ +seeds were found in 49 stomachs, while fruits of huckleberries and +blueberries, which are delicious to the human taste, were found in +only 13 stomachs; and blackberries and raspberries, highly esteemed by +man, were found in only 5 stomachs. Next to _Rhus_ the fruit most +eaten was the dogwood berry, found in 34 stomachs, yet from a human +estimate these berries are distasteful and contain such large seeds +that they afford but very little actual food. + +_Summary._--The hermit thrush, as it name indicates, is of solitary +habits and neither seeks human companionship nor molests cultivated +products. It destroys nothing indirectly helpful to man, as beneficial +insects, but aids in the destruction of the myriad hosts of insect +life which at all times threaten vegetation. While it is not easy to +point out any especially useful function of the hermit thrush, it +fills its place in the economy of nature, from which it should not be +removed. + + + + + ADDITIONAL COPIES + OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM + THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS + GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE + WASHINGTON, D. C. + AT + 5 CENTS PER COPY + + + + + * * * * * * * + + + Transcriber's Notes + + The text presented is essentially that in the original printed + document with the exception of some minor punctuation changes and + the three typographical corrections detailed below. The original + version also had two copies of the Table of Contents. The second + copy which appeared on Page 1 was removed. Many of the tables + which were presented in a two-column format and sometimes split + between two pages were reformatted into one long table. + + + Typographical Corrections + + Page 1 : thrust => thrush + Page 10 : COLEOFTERA => COLEOPTERA + " : Cormybites => Corymbites + + + * * * * * * * + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Food Habits of the Thrushes of the +United States, by F. E. L. 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E. L. Beal. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + p {text-indent: 2em; text-align: justify;} + hr {width: 95%; color: #000; text-align: center;} + .hr30 {width: 30%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; text-indent: 0; left: 92%; font-size: .86em; color: #808080;} + .bb {border-bottom: solid #000 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid #000 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid #000 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid #000 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid #000 2px;} + .collapse {border-collapse: collapse;} + .list td {padding-left: 1.5em; text-indent: -1.5em;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .text_in {margin-left:5%; margin-right:5%; text-align: justify;} + .vtop {vertical-align: top;} + .descrp2 {text-align: right; float:right;} + .center {text-align: center;} + .text_lf {text-align: left;} + .text_rt {text-align: right;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .smaller {font-size:0.85em;} + .caption2 {font-weight: bold; font-size:1.50em; text-align: center;} + .caption3 {font-weight: bold; font-size:1.15em; text-align: center;} + .caption4 {font-weight: bold; font-size:0.75em; text-align: center;} + .trans_notes {background:#d0d0d0; padding: 7px; border:solid black 1px;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United +States, by F. E. L. Beal + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States + USDA Bulletin 280 + +Author: F. E. L. Beal + +Release Date: October 11, 2010 [EBook #33935] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas, Joseph Cooper and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.ne + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<div class="trans_notes"> +<div class="caption2">Transcriber's Notes</div> +<br /> +<div class="text_in"> +The text presented is essentially that in the original printed +document with the exception of some minor punctuation changes and +the three typographical corrections detailed below. The original +version also had two copies of the Table of Contents. The +second copy which appeared on Page 1 was removed. Many of the +tables which were presented in a two-column format and sometimes +split between two pages were reformatted into one long table. +The page markers were placed so that they matched up with whichever +original item would place the page number in about the same relative +position as the printed version. +</div> +<br /> +<a name="typos"></a> +<div class="caption2">Typos</div> +<br> +<div class="center"> +<table width="80%" summary="Typo List"> +<tr><td>Page 1</td><td>:</td><td>Veery And Willow thrust</td><td>=> </td><td><a href="#thrush">Veery And Willow thrush</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Page 10</td><td>:</td><td>COLEOFTERA</td><td>=> </td><td><a href="#COLEOPTERA">COLEOPTERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> "</td><td>:</td><td>Cormybites</td><td>=> </td><td><a href="#Corymbites">Corymbites</a></td></tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Cover" id="Cover">[Cover]</a></span> + +<div class="bbox" style="padding:2px;"> +<div class="bbox"> +<div class="caption3"> +UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE<br /> +BULLETIN No. 280 +</div> +<br /> +<div class="caption4"> +Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey<br /> +HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief<br /> +</div> +<br /> +<div class="center"> + +<table width="100%" class="smaller bt bb" summary="Cover Page Banner"> +<tr><td class="text_lf">Washington, D. C.</td><td class="center">PROFESSIONAL PAPER</td><td class="text_rt">September 27, 1915</td></tr> +</table> +<p> </p> + +<div class="caption2"> +FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES<br /> +OF THE UNITED STATES<br /> +</div> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center">By <span class="smcap">F. E. L. Beal</span>, <i>Assistant Biologist</i>.</div> +</div> +<p> </p> + +<hr /> +<p> </p> + +<a name="toc" id="toc"></a> +<div class="caption2">CONTENTS.</div> +<p> </p> + +<table width="100%" class="smaller" summary="Table of Contents"> +<tr><td width="50%" class="vtop list"> +<table width="100%" summary="TOC List 1"> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="text_rt">Page.<td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#INTRODUCTION"><b>Introduction.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt"> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#TOWNSENDS_SOLITAIRE"><b>Townsend's Solitaire</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">3</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#WOOD_THRUSH"><b>Wood Thrush.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">5</td></tr> +<tr><td><a name="thrush"></a><a href="#VEERY_AND_WILLOW_THRUSH"><b>Veery And Willow Thrush.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">9</td></tr> +</table> +</td><td width="50%" class="vtop bl list"> +<table width="100%" summary="TOC List 2"> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="text_rt">Page.<td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td><a href="#GRAY-CHEEKED_AND_BICKNELLS_THRUSHES"><b>Gray-Cheeked And Bicknell's Thrushes.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt vbot">11</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td><a href="#OLIVE-BACKED_AND_RUSSET-BACKED_THRUSHES"><b>Olive-Backed And Russet-Backed Thrushes.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt vbot">13</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td><a href="#HERMIT_THRUSHES"><b>Hermit Thrushes.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt vbot">18</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> +<img src="images/crest.png" width="110" height="158" title="crest" alt="crest" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +WASHINGTON<br /> +GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br /> +1915<br /> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +</div> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span> + +<table width="100%" summary="Top Frame"> +<tr><td> +<table width="100%" class="bbox center" summary="DOA Header"> +<tr><td colspan=3 class="caption3">UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE</td></tr> + <tr> + <td><img src="images/agr_crest.png" width="107" height="90" title="" alt="crest" /></td> + <td><div class="caption2">BULLETIN No. 280</div> + <div class="caption4">Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey<br /> + HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief</div></td> + <td><img src="images/agr_crest.png" width="107" height="90" title="" alt="crest" /></td> + </tr> +</table></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bb smaller center" colspan=3> +<table width="100%" summary="Cover Page Banner"> +<tr><td class="text_lf">Washington, D. C.</td><td class="center">PROFESSIONAL PAPER</td><td class="text_rt">September 27, 1915</td></tr> +</table> +</table> +<p> </p> +<div class="caption2">FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES OF THE<br /> +UNITED STATES.</div> +<br /> +<div class="center">By <span class="smcap">F. E. L. Beal</span>, <i>Assistant Biologist</i>.</div> +<p> </p> + +<br> +<br> +<hr class="hr30"> +<br> + +<a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a> +<span class="pagenum"><a href="#toc">[↑ TOC]</a></span><br /> +<div class="caption3">INTRODUCTION.</div> +<p> </p> + +<p>North American thrushes (Turdidæ) constitute a small but interesting +group of birds, most of which are of retiring habits but noted as +songsters. They consist of the birds commonly known as thrushes, +robins, bluebirds, Townsend's solitaire, and the wheatears. The +red-winged thrush of Europe (<i>Turdus musicus</i>) is accidental in +Greenland, and the wheatears (<i>Saxicola œnanthe</i> subspp.) are +rarely found in the Western Hemisphere except in Arctic America. +Within the limits of the United States are 11 species of thrushes, of +which the following 6 are discussed in this bulletin: Townsend's +solitaire (<i>Myadestes townsendi</i>), the wood thrush (<i>Hylocichla +mustelina</i>), the veery and willow thrush (<i>Hylocichla fuscescens</i> +subspp.), the gray-cheeked and Bicknell's thrushes (<i>Hylocichla +aliciæ</i> subspp.), the olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes +(<i>Hylocichla ustulata</i> subspp.), and the hermit thrushes (<i>Hylocichla +guttata</i> subspp.). An account of the food habits of the 5 species of +robins and bluebirds appeared in Department Bulletin No. 171.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> +<p>As a group thrushes are plainly colored and seem to be especially +adapted to thickly settled rural districts, as the shyest of them, with +the exception of the solitaire, do not require any greater seclusion +than that afforded by an acre or two of woodland or swamp.</p> + +<p>The thrushes are largely insectivorous, and also are fond of spiders, +myriapods, sowbugs, snails, and angleworms. The vegetable portion of +their diet consists mostly of berries and other small fruits. As a +family thrushes can not be called clean feeders, for the food eaten +often contains a considerable proportion of such matter as dead +leaves, stems, and other parts of more or less decayed vegetation. It +might be supposed that this was gathered from the ground with insects +and other food, but investigation shows that much of it has a +different origin. It was noticed that the setæ or spines of earthworms +were a very common accompaniment of this decayed vegetation. +Earthworms themselves are rather rarely found in stomachs, although +some birds, as the robin, eat them freely. It is well known that the +food of earthworms consists largely of partially decayed vegetable +matter found in the soil. Hence it is probable that decayed vegetation +found in the stomachs of thrushes is the food contained in the +earthworms when they were swallowed. The tissues of worms are quickly +digested, leaving the contents of their alimentary canals mixed with +the hard indigestible setæ or spines.</p> + +<p>Thrushes of the genus <i>Hylocichla</i> show a very pronounced taste for +ants, and the average consumption of these insects by the five species +is 12.65 per cent. Few birds other than woodpeckers show so strong a +liking for this highly flavored food. Hymenoptera in general, +including ants, bees, and wasps, are the second largest item of insect +food. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next as an article of thrush +diet, while Orthoptera (grasshoppers), which are a favorite food with +most birds, do not seem to appeal much to the thrushes.</p> + +<p>The thrushes are pronounced ground feeders, and may often be seen +picking small fruit that has fallen to the ground. The vegetable +portion of their food (40.72 per cent) is largely composed of fruit, +which constitutes over 34 per cent of the total food. Of this 30.88 +per cent is made up of wild berries, which outweigh the domestic +varieties with every species. In all, 94 species of wild fruits or +berries were identified in the stomachs of these birds, although it is +not always practicable to identify such material unless seeds or some +other characteristic parts are present. As this is not often the case, +a considerable portion of the stomach contents must be pronounced +"fruit pulp" without further identification; thus probably many more +species are eaten than are recorded. Moreover, in the case of some +fruits, it is not possible to distinguish species by the seeds, so +that many species go unrecognized except as to genus. Domestic fruits +are eaten so sparingly by the thrushes here considered as to be of no +economic importance.</p> + +<span class="smcap">Note.</span>—This bulletin treats of the economic relations +and value to agriculture of the thrushes of the United States other +than robins and bluebirds. These two forms were discussed in +Department Bulletin No. 171, issued February 5, 1915.<br /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<a name="TOWNSENDS_SOLITAIRE" id="TOWNSENDS_SOLITAIRE"></a> +<span class="pagenum"><a href="#toc">[↑ TOC]</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +<div class="caption3">TOWNSEND'S SOLITAIRE</div> +<br /> +<div class="center">(<i>Myadestes townsendi.</i>)</div> +<p> </p> + +<p>Townsend's solitaire, a bird of the far West, is a resident of high +mountains and lonely gorges. It is partial to running streams and +often builds its nest just above a rushing mountain torrent. It ranges +from Alaska through the Sierras south to San Bernardino, Cal., and +through the Rockies to Arizona and New Mexico, and occasionally +farther east. The species is not evenly distributed over this region, +but is restricted to such high mountainous portions as afford its +favorite surroundings. As long as it retains these habits the bird +will have little or no effect upon the products of husbandry, and its +food can have only a scientific interest. The song of this species is +said to be at times the finest of any of the thrush family.</p> + +<p>As this bird is comparatively rare in settled regions only 41 stomachs +are available for determining the character of its food. The most +southerly and easterly one was taken in Texas, the most westerly in +California, and the most northerly in Wyoming. They are distributed +through all the months of the year, although April and May are +represented by but one each and December by but two. Every other month +has three or more. An investigation based upon such limited material +can be considered only as preliminary, but will serve to show some of +the more important elements of the food. This was made up of 35.90 per +cent of animal matter to 64.10 of vegetable.</p> + +<p><i>Animal food.</i>—The animal food consists of insects and spiders, with +a few hair worms (<i>Gordius</i>) found in one stomach. These last may have +been contained in the insects eaten. Among insects, beetles constitute +the second largest item (10.74 per cent), but 5.89 per cent of these +were the useful predatory ground beetles (Carabidæ). This is not a +good showing, but too few stomachs have been examined to allow +sweeping conclusions. As evidence that this can not be taken as a fair +sample of the bird's food habits it may be stated that all of these +beetles were taken in January and October. The one stomach collected +in January contained 95 per cent of Carabidæ—the only animal food in +it—and 93 per cent of the contents of one October stomach was made up +of the same material. Evidently in these cases the bird had found a +colony of the beetles and filled up with them. Had they constituted +the usual diet of the species they would have appeared in other months +and in more stomachs, but in smaller quantities. Other families of +beetles are eaten so sparingly as to be of little importance. +Scarabæidæ stand the next highest, but they amount to less than 2 per +cent of the food.</p> + +<p>Lepidoptera (caterpillars) make the largest item in the food of +<i>Myadestes</i>. Eaten much more regularly than beetles, they probably +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +are a standard article of diet. They were found in the stomachs +collected in every month of the year but four, and a greater number +of stomachs would probably show them in every month. The one +stomach taken in May contained the maximum (72 per cent). The +total for the year is 12.95 per cent. Ants are eaten to the extent of +4.71 per cent, while other Hymenoptera, as bees and wasps, make +up less than half of 1 per cent. Diptera (flies) are represented +by a mere trace in the stomachs. Observers who have seen this bird +in its native haunts testify that it takes a considerable portion of its +food on the wing. In view of this fact it seems curious that the two +orders of insects most active on the wing (Hymenoptera and Diptera) +should be so scantily represented in the food. Hymenoptera +are a standard diet with flycatchers and would seem to be the natural +food of any bird that feeds upon the wing.</p> + +<p>Hemiptera (bugs) were found to the extent of 3.51 per cent of the +total food. All were contained in three stomachs taken in March, +June, and July. In the July stomach four cicadas, or dog-day flies, +constituted the whole contents. Grasshoppers amount to less than 1 +per cent and all other insects to but a trifle. Spiders were eaten to +the extent of 2.94 per cent of the food and were found in the stomachs +taken in seven of the twelve months, and judging from their distribution +they are eaten whenever available. A hair snake (<i>Gordius</i>) +was found in one stomach. Following is a list of insects identified +and the number of stomachs in which found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> +<table width="80%" summary="List of insects"> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br">COLEOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Amara erratica</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Balaninus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">HEMIPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Platypedia putnami</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Vegetable food.</i>—The vegetable portion of the food of <i>Myadestes</i> +is 64.10 per cent of the whole, and 58.70 per cent of this, or more than +half the whole food, is classified as wild fruit or berries. These +were found in stomachs collected in every month. From the even distribution +of this food through the year and from the quantity eaten +it is evidently a favorite article of diet. Nothing was found in any +of the stomachs that could be identified as cultivated fruit, with the +possible exception of a mass of fruit pulp found in one. A few +seeds of poison ivy and sumac, with fragments of flowers and a few +weed seeds, complete the vegetable food. Following is a list of fruits, +seeds, etc., identified, and the number of stomachs in which found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> +<table width="100%" class="list" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>Rocky Mountain cedar (<i>Juniperus scopulorum</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Western cedar (<i>Juniperus monospermum</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Other cedars (<i>Juniperus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Hackberries (<i>Celtis occidentalis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Douglas hackberries (<i>Celtis douglasii</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Service berries (<i>Amelanchier</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Rose haws (<i>Rosa</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>Wild cherries (<i>Prunus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Sumac berries (<i>Rhus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Poison ivy (<i>Rhus toxicodendron</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Waxwork (<i>Celastrus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Madrona berries (<i>Arbutus menziesii</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Honeysuckle berries (<i>Lonicera</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Elderberries (<i>Sambucus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Fruit not further identified</td><td class="text_rt">3 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +<i>Summary.</i>—With so small an amount of material it is not safe to draw +general conclusions, but in the case of <i>Myadestes</i> one point seems +clear—the bird's favorite food is small wild fruit, and as long as +this is abundant the bird will probably not attack cultivated +varieties; but should any portion of the region occupied by the +solitaire be cleared of its wild fruit and cultivated species be +introduced these would likely be preyed upon. Under such conditions +this bird, now perfectly harmless, might inflict considerable damage.</p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<a name="WOOD_THRUSH" id="WOOD_THRUSH"></a> +<span class="pagenum"><a href="#toc">[↑ TOC]</a></span><br /> +<div class="caption3">WOOD THRUSH.</div> +<br /> +<div class="center">(<i>Hylocichla mustelina.</i>)</div> +<p> </p> + +<p>The wood thrush is distributed over the eastern part of the United +States wherever suitable conditions are found. It is a lover of open +groves and bushy pastures, and may be found along little-traveled +roads and near low bushy swamps. The bird is noted for its sweet song, +and many country people who are well acquainted with its notes know +little or nothing of the bird itself. Its favorite time for singing is +in the early evening at the close of a sultry afternoon when a shower +has cooled the air. As a rule, it does not nest in gardens or orchards +and is seldom seen about farm buildings. It is strictly migratory, and +the greater number pass out of the United States in winter, though a +few remain in the Southern States. It usually migrates north in April +or early May.</p> + +<p>For the investigation of the food habits of the wood thrush 171 +stomachs were available. One of these was collected in Florida in +January and another in Alabama in February, and these two will be +treated separately. The remaining 169 were collected from April to +October, and are fairly well distributed over that time. The food +consisted of 59.59 per cent of animal matter to 40.41 per cent of +vegetable. The greatest quantity of animal food was eaten in April, +the month of arrival from the south, and the least in October, the +month of the return migration.</p> + +<p><i>Animal food.</i>—Beetles, collectively (20.40 per cent), constitute the +largest item of animal food. Of these, 2.23 per cent are the +predacious ground beetles (Carabidæ), generally considered useful. The +remainder belong to several more or less harmful families, of which +the May-beetle family (Scarabæidæ) amount to 10.17 per cent. Snout +beetles, or weevils (Rhynchophora), are eaten to the extent of 2.16 +per cent only, and the wood-boring chick-beetles (Elateridæ) to 2.13 +per cent.</p> + +<p>Among the various species of these insects were noted the remains of +the well-known Colorado potato beetle (<i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i>), +in two stomachs, and <i>Coptocycla signifera</i>, also injurious to the +potato, in one stomach. Remains of <i>Otiorhynchus ovatus</i>, a weevil +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +destructive to strawberry plants, were found in two stomachs, and in +one other a weevil, <i>Sphenophorus parvulus</i>, that injures the roots of +grass. The well-known white grubs that attack grass roots and a host +of other plants are the immature forms of many species of +<i>Lachnosterna</i>, of several species of <i>Euphoria</i> and of <i>Allorhina +nitida</i>. Of these, remains of <i>Lachnosterna</i> were found in 27 stomachs +and of <i>Allorhina</i> and <i>Euphoria</i> in one each.</p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> + <table summary="Wood Thrush"> + <tr><td> + <img src="images/fig_1.png" width="399" height="690" title="Wood thrush" alt="Wood thrush" /><br /> + <div class="smaller text_rt">B2084-73</div> + <br /> + <span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Wood thrush (<i>Hylocichla mustelina</i>). + </td></tr> + </table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next to Coleoptera (beetles) in the +animal diet of the wood thrush. Although eaten with a fair degree of +regularity during every month of the bird's stay in the north, the +most were taken in July (16.32 per cent). The average for the season +is 9.42 per cent. Ants as an item of food are third in importance, +though if other Hymenoptera were included the order would rank next to +beetles. They seem to be a rather favorite food with all birds of the +genus <i>Hylocichla</i>. With the wood thrush they begin with 18.12 per +cent in April and gradually decrease through the summer and disappear +in October. The total for the season is 8.89 per cent. Hymenoptera +other than ants were eaten with great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +regularity (3.86 per cent) throughout the season, but not in large +quantities. Diptera (flies) are eaten in small quantities and rather +irregularly. Most of them were the long-legged crane flies (Tipulidæ), +both in the adult and larval form. The total for the season is 2.70 +per cent. Hemiptera (bugs) do not appear to be a favorite food, though +a few were taken in all of the seven months except October. The +average for the season is only 1.33 per cent. Orthoptera +(grasshoppers) are eaten in small quantities until July, after which +they form a fair percentage till September. The total consumption +amounts to 2.28 per cent of the food. A few other insects make up a +fraction of 1 per cent. Spiders and myriapods (thousand-legs) appear +to be a favorite food with the wood thrush, constituting in April +20.94 per cent of the food, but gradually decreasing in quantity until +September. The aggregate for the year is 8.49 per cent. A few sowbugs +(isopods), snails, and earthworms (1.83 per cent) close the account of +animal food.</p> + +<p>Following is a list of the insects identified in the stomachs of the +wood thrush and the number of stomachs in which each was found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> +<table width="80%" class="list" summary="List of insects"> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br">HYMENOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Tiphia inornata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br">COLEOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Harpalus herbivagus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Necrophorus tomentosus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Philonthus lomatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hister abbreviatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hister depurator</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hister americanus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Ips quadriguttatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Melanotus americanus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Corymbites cylindriformis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Agrilus bilineatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Telephorus carolinus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus striatulus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus tuberculifrons</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Atænius</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius granarius</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Dichelonycha testacea</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Dichelonycha</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Lachnosterna</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">27 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Ligyrus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Allorhina nitida</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Euphoria fulgida</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Euphoria</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td><i>Chrysomela pulchra</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Odontota</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Coptocycla signifera</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Coptocycla</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anametus griseus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Phyxelis rigidus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Otiorhynchus ovatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Tanymecus confertus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Pandeletejus hilaris</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Barypithes pellucidus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Listronotus latiusculus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Macrops</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Conotrachelus posticatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Acalles carinatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Balaninus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Eupsalis minuta</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sphenophorus parvulus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">HEMIPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Nezara hilaris</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">ORTHOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Diapheromera femorata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">ISOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Termes flavipes</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Vegetable food.</i>—More than nine-tenths of the vegetable food of the +wood thrush can be included in a single item—fruit. Cultivated fruit, +or what was thought to be such, was found in stomachs taken from June +to September, inclusive. It was eaten regularly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +and moderately, and the total for the season was 3.74 per cent of the +whole food. Wild fruits or berries of 22 species were found in 72 +stomachs, distributed through every month of the bird's stay at the +north. Beginning with 1.18 per cent in April, the quantity gradually +increases to 87.17 per cent in October, when it makes more than +five-sixths of the whole food. The average for the season is 33.51 per +cent. In this investigation <i>Rubus</i> seeds (blackberries or +raspberries) are always reckoned as cultivated fruit, though probably +most often wild. Besides fruit, a few seeds and rose haws were found, +which with a little rubbish complete the vegetable food (40.41 per +cent).</p> + +<p>Following is a list of fruits, seeds, etc., identified and the number +of stomachs in which found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> +<table width="100%" class="list" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>Yew berries (<i>Taxus minor</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>False Solomon's seal (<i>Smilacina racemosa</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Bayberries (<i>Myrica carolinensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Mulberries (<i>Morus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">10 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Spiceberries (<i>Benzoin æstivale</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Currants (<i>Ribes</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Mountain ash (<i>Pyrus americanus</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Service berries (<i>Amelanchier canadensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Blackberries or raspberries (<i>Rubus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">17 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Rose haws (<i>Rosa</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wild black cherries (<i>Prunus serotina</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Chokecherries (<i>Prunus virginiana</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">7 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Domestic cherries (<i>Prunus cerasus</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Croton (<i>Croton</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>American holly (<i>Ilex opaca</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Woodbine berries (<i>Psedera quinquefolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Frost grapes (<i>Vitis cordifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wild sarsaparilla (<i>Aralia nudicaulis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Flowering dogwood (<i>Cornus florida</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Rough-leaved cornel (<i>Cornus asperifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Dogwood (<i>Cornus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black gum (<i>Nyssa sylvatica</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Huckleberries (<i>Gaylussacia</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Blueberries (<i>Vaccinium</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">6 </td></tr> + <tr><td>French mulberry (<i>Callicarpa americana</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black elderberries (<i>Sambucus canadensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Other elderberries (<i>Sambucus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Fruit pulp not further identified</td><td class="text_rt">12 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Of the two stomachs not included in the foregoing discussion, the one +taken in Florida in January contained 93 per cent of wild fruit and 7 +per cent of weevils, wasps, and spiders; the one collected in Alabama +in February was entirely filled with animal food, of which 88 per cent +was caterpillars, 5 per cent May beetles, 6 per cent bugs, and 1 per +cent spiders.</p> + +<p><i>Summary.</i>—The animal food of the wood thrush includes remarkably few +useful insects and contains some very harmful ones, as the Colorado +potato beetle and many of the Scarabæidæ, the larval forms of which +are the well-known white grubs which are a pest to agriculture in +preying upon roots of plants. The vegetable portion of the food +contains a small quantity of cultivated fruit, but observation shows +that the thrush is in the habit of picking up fallen fruit instead of +taking it fresh from the tree. The eating of wild fruit has no +economic interest except that it serves to distribute the seeds of +many shrubs and trees. There is no occasion to discriminate against +this bird in any way. It should be rigidly protected.</p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<a name="VEERY_AND_WILLOW_THRUSH" id="VEERY_AND_WILLOW_THRUSH"></a> +<span class="pagenum"><a href="#toc">[↑ TOC]</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +<div class="caption3">VEERY AND WILLOW THRUSH.</div> +<br /> +<div class="center">(<i>Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens</i> and <i>Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola</i>.)</div> +<p> </p> + + +<p>The veery is distributed over the eastern portion of the United +States during migration and breeds in the Northern States as far +south as Pennsylvania, and in New England and Canada. In winter +it disappears almost entirely from the country, only a few remaining +in Florida and perhaps in other Southern States. Its +western representative is the willow thrush. Like other thrushes, +birds of this species are shy and retiring in disposition, keeping for +the most part in the shade of woods or bushy swamps, or building +nests in a damp ravine with a brook gurgling past. They have been +known, however, to visit orchards and sometimes gardens which are +not kept too trim. It is thus evident that the food has little direct +economic interest, as this bird does not come in contact with the +farmer's crops.</p> + +<p>For investigating the food of the species 176 stomachs were available. +They were collected during the seven months from April to +October, and represent 18 States, the District of Columbia, and +Canada. The food separates into 57.27 per cent of animal matter +and 42.73 per cent of vegetable. The former consists mostly of +remains of insects, and the latter of fruit.</p> + +<p><i>Animal food.</i>—Predacious ground beetles (Carabidæ) amount to +0.82 per cent. They are evidently not a preferred food. Beetles in +general comprise 14.67 per cent of the food, but no family or other +group appears to be distinguished except the Carabidæ, which are +conspicuous by their absence. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount +to 2.49 per cent, and one stomach contained a specimen of the notorious +plum curculio (<i>Conotrachelus nenuphar</i>). A number of other +harmful beetles were noted, but none are so well known as the plum +destroyer. Ants make up 10.35 per cent and are eaten with great +regularity. Hymenoptera other than ants amount to only 3.26 per +cent, but are eaten regularly throughout the season. Hemiptera +(bugs) were eaten to a small extent (1.30 per cent) in the first four +months, but they are not seen after July. Exactly the same may be +said of Diptera, which total only 0.85 per cent.</p> + +<p>Lepidoptera (caterpillars) are, next to Hymenoptera, the favorite +insect food. They were eaten in goodly quantities in every month +except October. The average for the season is 11.91 per cent. Grasshoppers +appear to some extent in every month except April, the +greatest consumption taking place in October (24 per cent), but as +only small numbers are eaten in the earlier months the aggregate for +the year is only 4.91 per cent. A few other insects of various orders +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +amount to 0.98 per cent. Spiders (6.34 per cent) are eaten regularly +and constantly through the season, except that none were taken in +October. A few sowbugs, snails, etc. (2.70 per cent), complete the +quota of animal food. Following is a list of insects identified and +the number of stomachs in which found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> +<table width="80%" summary="List of insects"> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br">HYMENOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Tiphia inornata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br"><a name="COLEOPTERA"></a><a href="#typos">COLEOPTERA</a></td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Elaphrus ruscarius</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anisodactylus harrisi</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anisodactylus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Pterostichus lucublandus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hydrobius fuscipes</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Ips fasciata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Byrrhus murinus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Dolopius lateralis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Limonius æger</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Corymbites cylindriformis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Corymbites spinosus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i><a name="Corymbites"></a><a href="#typos">Corymbites</a> tarsalis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Corymbites hieroglyphicus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Podabrus flavicollis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Telephorus bilineatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Telephorus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Atænius cognatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Dichelonycha</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Serica sericea</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td><i>Lachnosterna hirticula</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Lachnosterna</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">13 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Chrysomela pulchra</i></td><td class="text_rt">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Chlamys plicata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Typophorus canellus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Graphops simplex</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Graphops</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Calligrapha philadelphica</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Œdionychis quercata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Microrhopala vittata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hormorus undulatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Phyxelis rigidus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Otiorhynchus ovatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Neoptochus adspersus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cercopeus chrysorrhœus</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Barypithes pellucidus</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sitones</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Phytonomus nigrirostris</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Conotrachelus nenuphar</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Conotrachelus posticatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Tyloderma</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Monarthrum mali</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Xyloteres politus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">DIPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Bibio</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Vegetable food.</i>—The vegetable portion of the food of the species +is made up of fruit, with a few seeds and a little miscellaneous matter +more or less accidental. Fruit collectively amounts to 35.30 per +cent, of which 12.14 per cent was thought to be of cultivated varieties +and so recorded, while the remainder, 23.16 per cent, was quite +certainly of wild species. This percentage of cultivated fruit is +more than three times the record of the wood thrush, while the wild +fruit eaten is correspondingly less, as the sum total of the fruit consumed +is very nearly the same with both birds. From this percentage +of domestic fruit one might infer that the veery was, or +might be, a serious menace to fruit growing, but no such complaints +have been heard, and it is probable that the species is not numerous +enough to damage cultivated crops. A close inspection, however, of +the fruit eating of the veery removes all doubts. The cultivated +fruit, so called, was in every case either strawberries or <i>Rubus</i> fruits, +i. e., blackberries or raspberries, and as both of these grow wild and +in abundance wherever the veery spends its summer, it is probable +that all of the fruit eaten was taken from wild plants, though 12.14 +per cent has been conventionally recorded as cultivated.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +Besides fruit, the veery eats a few seeds of grasses and weeds and +a few of sumac, but none of the poisonous species were found in the +stomachs. These seeds (7.25 per cent of the food) were eaten so +irregularly as to suggest that they are merely a makeshift taken for +want of something better. Rubbish (0.18 per cent), consisting of +decayed wood, bits of leaves, plant stems, etc., completes the vegetable +food.</p> + +<p>Following is a list of the items of vegetable food and the number +of stomachs in which found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center list"> +<table width="100%" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>Yew berries (<i>Taxus minor</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Pigeon grass seed (<i>Chætochloa</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Rush grass seed (<i>Sporobolus minor</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>False Solomon's seal (<i>Smilacina</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Greenbrier berries (<i>Smilax</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Hackberries (<i>Celtis occidentalis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Poke berries (<i>Phytolacca decandra</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Spice berries (<i>Benzoin æstivale</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Service berries (<i>Amelanchier canadensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>June berries (<i>Amelanchier</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">9 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Mountain ash (<i>Pyrus americana</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Crab apples (<i>Pyrus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Strawberries (<i>Fragaria</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Blackberries or raspberries (<i>Rubus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">8 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wild black cherries (<i>Prunus serotina</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Bird cherries (<i>Prunus pennsylvanica</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Chokecherries (<i>Prunus virginiana</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Staghorn sumac (<i>Rhus hirta</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Dwarf sumac (<i>Rhus copallina</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Three-leaved sumac (<i>Rhus trilobata</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>Other sumac (<i>Rhus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>American holly (<i>Ilex opaca</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Woodbine berries (<i>Psedera quinquefolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>White cornel (<i>Cornus candidissima</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Alternate-leaved cornel (<i>Cornus alternifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Rough-leaved cornel (<i>Cornus asperifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Dogwood berries (<i>Cornus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Sour gum berries (<i>Nyssa sylvatica</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Huckleberries (<i>Gaylussacia</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Blueberries (<i>Vaccinium</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Snowberries (<i>Symphoricarpos racemosus</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black elderberries (<i>Sambucus canadensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Red elderberries (<i>Sambucus pubens</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Other elderberries (<i>Sambucus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Fruit pulp not further identified</td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Summary.</i>—It is hardly necessary to make a summary of the +food of this bird in order to bring out its good points, for it seems +to have no others. The animal food includes less than 1 per cent of +useful beetles, and the remainder is either harmful or neutral. +In the matter of vegetable food there seems to be no chance for +criticism, as nature evidently supplies all it needs. The bird has +never been harmed, but has been held in high esteem for sentimental +reasons; let it also be valued and protected for its economic worth.</p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<a name="GRAY-CHEEKED_AND_BICKNELLS_THRUSHES" id="GRAY-CHEEKED_AND_BICKNELLS_THRUSHES"></a> +<span class="pagenum"><a href="#toc">[↑ TOC]</a></span><br /> +<div class="caption3">GRAY-CHEEKED AND BICKNELL'S THRUSHES.</div> +<br /> +<div class="center">(<i>Hylocichla aliciæ aliciæ</i> and <i>Hylocichla aliciæ bicknelli</i>.)</div> +<p> </p> + +<p>The gray-cheeked thrush (<i>H. a. aliciæ</i>) is found in migration +over all the Eastern States, but breeds farther north, beyond our +limits. Bicknell's thrush (<i>H. a. bicknelli</i>), a closely related form, +while having somewhat the same general range, breeds farther south +and nests in the mountains of northern New York and New England. +Both subspecies have the same general habits as other forms +of the genus so far as haunts and choice of residence are concerned, +but their far-northern range excludes them from coming into contact +with cultivated crops. The species does not seem to be very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +abundant anywhere, and consequently only a few stomachs have been +received for examination. In all they number but 111 and are very +irregularly distributed in time. None were taken in August and +only one in July and two in June. From so scanty and unevenly +distributed material it is impossible to draw final conclusions, but +we can get some idea as to the nature of the bird's food and its +economic importance.</p> + +<p>The first analysis of the food gives 74.86 per cent of animal matter +to 25.14 per cent of vegetable. This is the most animal food found +in the stomachs of any bird of the genus <i>Hylocichla</i> and the largest +but two of any of the thrushes.</p> + +<p><i>Animal food.</i>—Beetles collectively amount to about one-third of +all the food (33.32 per cent). Of these, 2.83 per cent are the useful +Carabidæ. The rest belong to harmful families, such as the Scarabæidæ, +Elateridæ, and the weevils, or snout beetles. Ants amount +to 16.34 per cent and are eaten very regularly—the most in the early +part of the season. Hymenoptera other than ants, as wasps and +bees, were eaten to the extent of 5.60 per cent, and with the ants make +21.94 per cent, placing this food next in rank to beetles. As in the +case of ants, most of the bees and wasps were eaten in the first three +months of the season. No honey bees were found. Lepidoptera +(caterpillars) were third in order of abundance (8.81 per cent). +No special pest was discovered, but all caterpillars may be considered +as harmful. A few grasshoppers were found in the stomachs taken +in April and May, and more in those collected in September and +October. They do not appear to be a favorite food and amount to +only 1.72 per cent. Other insects, as flies, bugs, and a few others, +collectively amount to 2.89 per cent. Among these, it is of interest +to note in one stomach the remains of the famous seventeen-year +locust (<i>Tibicen septemdecem</i>), rather large game for so small +a bird. Spiders are freely eaten by the gray-cheeked thrush in +spring, and sparingly in fall. For the season they constitute 5.77 +per cent of the food. A few other animals, as crawfish, sowbugs, +and angleworms (0.41 per cent), complete the animal food.</p> + +<p>Following is a list of the insects identified and the number of +stomachs in which found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> +<table width="80%" summary="List of insects"> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br">HYMENOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Lophyrus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphænogaster tennesseense</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br">COLEOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cychrus andrewsi</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cychrus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Dyschirius hispidus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hister sedecimstriatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Phelister vernus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Epuræa rufa</i></td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Stelidota 8-maculata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Byrrhus murinus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Eucinetus morio</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Monocrepidius vespertinus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Agriotes limosus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Corymbites signaticollis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Podabrus flavicollis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Telephorus bilineatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Atænius strigatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Atænius ovatulus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Atænius</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius ruricola</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius inquinatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td><i>Serica</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Lachnosterna</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">10 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anomala</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Leptura sphæricollis</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Leptura mutabilis</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Chrysomela pulchra</i></td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Blapstinus metallicus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Helops micans</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hormorus undulatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Otiorhynchus ovatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cercopeus chrysorrhœus</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Pandeletejus hilaris</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sitones</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hylobius pales</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Desmoris constrictus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Bagous sellatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anthonomus sycophanta</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Conotrachelus posticatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Acalles clavatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Acalles</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cryptorhynchus ferratus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sphenophorus melanocephalus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">HEMIPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Tibicen septendecem</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Nezara hilaris</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Vegetable food.</i>—A few <i>Rubus</i> seeds were recorded as cultivated +fruit, but they were found in only two stomachs and probably were +wild, as the gray-cheeked thrush does not live where it is likely to +come in contact with cultivated blackberries or raspberries. In +any case they amount to only 0.15 per cent. Wild fruits of 18 different +species (23.98 per cent) make up nearly one-fourth of the +whole food—in fact, the vegetable food, other than wild fruit, is +insignificant. Wild berries supplement the regular food, which consists +of insects and spiders.</p> + +<p>The following list shows the fruits and seeds identified and the +number of stomachs in which found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center list"> +<table width="100%" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>False spikenard (<i>Smilacina racemosa</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Greenbrier berries (<i>Smilax</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Bayberries (<i>Myrica carolinensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Poke berries (<i>Phytolacca decandra</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Crab apples (<i>Pyrus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wild black cherries (<i>Prunus serotina</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Blackberries or raspberries (<i>Rubus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Sumac berries (<i>Rhus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black-alder berries (<i>Ilex verticillata</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wild grapes (<i>Vitis</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wild sarsaparilla (<i>Aralia</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>Flowering dogwood (<i>Cornus florida</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Rough-leaved dogwood (<i>Cornus asperifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>White cornel (<i>Cornus candidissima</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Dogwood (<i>Cornus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Sour gum (<i>Nyssa sylvatica</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black nightshade (<i>Solanum nigrum</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Dockmackie (<i>Viburnum acerifolium</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Arrowwood (<i>Viburnum</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Elderberries (<i>Sambucus canadensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Fruit not further identified</td><td class="text_rt">6 </td></tr> +</table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Summary.</i>—In the food of the gray-cheeked thrush the only +useful element is a small percentage (2.83) of useful beetles. The +remainder of the animal food is composed of either harmful or +neutral elements. The vegetable food, drawn entirely from nature's +great storehouse, contains no product of human industry, either of +grain or fruit. Whatever the sentimental reasons for protecting +this bird, the economic ones are equally valid.</p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<a name="OLIVE-BACKED_AND_RUSSET-BACKED_THRUSHES" id="OLIVE-BACKED_AND_RUSSET-BACKED_THRUSHES"></a> +<span class="pagenum"><a href="#toc">[↑ TOC]</a></span><br /> +<div class="caption3">OLIVE-BACKED AND RUSSET-BACKED THRUSHES.</div> +<br /> +<div class="center">(<i>Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni</i> and <i>Hylocichla ustulata ustulata</i>.)</div> +<p> </p> + +<p>The olive-backed thrush and its relative, the russet-backed, occupy +the whole of the United States at some time during the year. The +olive-back breeds north of our northern border, except in the higher +mountains, and the russet-back on the Pacific coast nests as far +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +south as southern California. The habits of birds of this species +resemble those of others of the genus in living in swamps and +woodlands rather than in gardens and orchards. The russet-back on the +Pacific coast, however, seems to have become quite domestic, and +wherever a stream runs through or past an orchard or garden, or the +orchard is near thick chaparral, this bird is sure to be found taking +its toll of the fruit and rearing its young in the thicket beside the +stream. During the cherry season it takes a liberal share of the +fruit, but its young, then in the nest, are fed almost entirely on +insects. The eastern subspecies, on the contrary, does not come in +contact with domestic fruit or any other product of husbandry. A great +number of the subspecies nest far north of the region of fruit +raising.</p> + +<p>For this investigation 403 stomachs of the olive-backed thrush were +available, collected in 25 States, the District of Columbia, and +Canada. Florida, Louisiana, and Texas represent the most southern +collections and New Brunswick, Ontario, and Northwest Territory the +most northern. In California 157 stomachs were obtained, which, with +those taken in Oregon and Washington, fairly represent the Pacific +coast region. The whole collection was fairly well distributed over +the nine months from March to November. The food consisted of 63.52 +per cent of animal matter to 36.48 per cent of vegetable.</p> + +<p><i>Animal food.</i>—Beetles of all kinds amount to 16.29 per cent. Of +these 3.14 per cent are the useful Carabidæ. The others belong to +harmful or neutral families. Weevils or snout-beetles (Rhynchophora) +amount to 5.29 per cent, a high percentage for such insects. One +Colorado potato beetle (<i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i>) was found in a +stomach taken on Long Island. Hymenoptera collectively aggregate 21.50 +per cent. Of these, 15.20 per cent are ants—a favorite food of +<i>Hylocichla</i>. The remainder (6.30 per cent) were wild bees and wasps. +No honeybees were found. Caterpillars, which rank next in importance +in the food of the olive-back, form a good percentage of the food of +every month represented and aggregate 10.30 per cent for the season.</p> + +<p>Grasshoppers are not an important element in the food of thrushes, as +they chiefly inhabit open areas, while <i>Hylocichla</i> prefers thick damp +cover, where grasshoppers are not found. An inspection of the record +shows that most of the orthopterous food taken by the olive-back +consists of crickets, whose habits are widely different from those of +grasshoppers, and which are found under stones, old logs, or dead +herbage. The greatest quantity is taken in August and September. The +average for the season is 2.42 per cent.</p> + +<p>Diptera (flies) reach the rather surprisingly large figure of 6.23 per +cent. These insects are usually not eaten to any great extent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +except by flycatchers and swallows, which take their food upon the +wing. The flies eaten by the olive-back are mostly crane flies +(Tipulidæ) or March flies (<i>Bibio</i>), both in the adult and larval +state. Crane flies are slow of wing and frequent shady places. The +larvæ of both groups are developed in moist ground, and often in +colonies of several hundred. With these habits it is not surprising +that they fall an easy prey to the thrushes.</p> + +<p>Hemiptera (bugs), a small but rather constant element of the food, +were found in the stomachs collected every month, and in July reach +11.11 per cent. They were of the families of stinkbugs (Pentatomidæ), +shield bugs (Scutelleridæ), tree hoppers (Membracidæ), leaf hoppers +(Jassidæ), and cicadas. Some scales were found in one stomach. The +total for the season is 3.76 per cent. A few insects not included in +any of the foregoing categories make up 0.48 per cent of the food. +Spiders, with a few millipeds, amount to 2.22 per cent, the lowest +figure for this item of any bird of the genus <i>Hylocichla</i>. Snails, +sowbugs, angleworms, etc. (0.32 per cent), complete the animal food.</p> + +<p>Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs +in which found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> +<table width="80%" summary="List of insects"> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br">HYMENOPTERA.<br /> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Camponotus pennsylvanicus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Tiphia inornata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br">COLEOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cychrus nitidicollis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cychrus stenostomus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Notiophilus æneus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Pterostichus sayi</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Pterotichus lustrans</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Amara interstitialis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Triæna longula</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Agonoderus pallipes</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Silpha ramosa</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Staphylinus cinnamopterus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Tachyporus californicus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Chilocorus orbus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Scymnus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hister americanus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Ips quadriguttatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cytilus sericeus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Agriotes stabilis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Podabrus flavicollis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Podabrus modestus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Silis lutea</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Telephorus carolinus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Telephorus bilineatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Telephorus divisus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus hecate</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus striatulus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus tuberculifrons</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Atænius abditus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius hamatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius fimetarius</i></td><td class="text_rt br">6 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius inquinatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">7 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">6 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Geotrupes</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Dichelonycha elongata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Lachnosterna hirticula</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Lachnosterna</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">12 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anomala undulata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anomala</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td><i>Euphoria fulgida</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Donacia emarginata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hæmonia nigricornis</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Syneta pallida</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Gastroidea</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Galerucella decora</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Diabrotica soror</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Diabrotica</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Gonioctena pallida</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Luperodes bivittatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Opatrinus notus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Blapstinus metallicus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Blapstinus mæstus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Blapstinus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Otiorhynchus ovatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Thinoxenus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cercopeus chrysorrhæus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Barypithes pellucidus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sitones flavescens</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sitones</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Phytonomus punctatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Pachylobius picivorus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Conotrachelus posticatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Micromastus elegans</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Acalles clavatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cryptorhynchus bisignatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Rhinoncus pyrrhopus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Balaninus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">3 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sphenophorus parvulus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sphenophorus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Scolytus muticus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">LEPIDOPTERA.<br /> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Edema albifrons</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">TRICHOPTERA.<br /> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Phryganea californica</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">HEMIPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Myodocha serripes</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sinea diadema</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p>This list of insects contains a considerable number of injurious +species and some that at various times and places have become decided +pests. Such are the Colorado potato beetle (<i>Leptinotarsa +decemlineata</i>), the spotted squash beetle (<i>Diabrotica soror</i>), the +cloverleaf weevil (<i>Phytonomus punctatus</i>), and the various species of +<i>Lachnosterna</i>, the parent of the destructive white grubs. Many others +are plant feeders and may increase to such an extent as to inflict +great damage upon agriculture.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable food.</i>—The vegetable food of the olive-backed thrush +consists of small fruit. The bird has a weak bill and can not break +through the tough skin of the larger kinds. In the cherry orchards of +California the writer many times observed the western subspecies of +this bird, the russet-back, on the ground pecking at cherries that had +been bitten open and dropped by linnets and grosbeaks. Blackberries +and raspberries have a very delicate skin and are successfully managed +by weak-billed birds, so that all the records of domestic fruit eaten +by the eastern form relate to these berries, and it is probable that +in most cases the fruit was not cultivated. The total of cultivated +fruit for the season is 12.63 per cent of the whole food, but if we +consider the eastern subspecies alone this item would practically +disappear. Wild fruit (19.73 per cent) is eaten regularly and in a +goodly quantity in every month after April. Weed seeds and a few +miscellaneous items of vegetable food (4.04 per cent) close the +account.</p> + +<p>Following is a list of vegetable foods so far as identified and the +number of stomachs in which found.</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center list"> +<table width="100%" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>White cedar seeds (<i>Thuja occidentalis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Red cedar berries (<i>Juniperus communis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>False Solomon's seal (<i>Smilacina trifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Greenbrier (<i>Smilax tamnifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Cat brier (<i>Smilax</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Hackberry (<i>Celtis occidentalis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Mulberry (<i>Morus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Fig (<i>Ficus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Pale persicaria (<i>Polygonum lapathifolium</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Poke berries (<i>Phytolacca decandra</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">9 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Mountain ash (<i>Pyrus americana</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Service berries (<i>Amelanchier</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Blackberries or raspberries (<i>Rubus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">67 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Rose haws (<i>Rosa</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wild black cherries (<i>Prunus serotina</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">15 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Bird cherries (<i>Prunus Pennsylvanica</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Domestic cherries (<i>Prunus cerasus</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">29 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Domestic plum (<i>Prunus domestica</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Apricot (<i>Prunus armeniaca</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Filaree (<i>Erodium</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Poison oak (<i>Rhus diversiloba</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Staghorn sumac (<i>Rhus hirta</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Dwarf sumac (<i>Rhus copallina</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Other sumac (<i>Rhus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Pepper tree (<i>Schinus molle</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>American holly (<i>Ilex opaca</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>Black alder (<i>Ilex verticillata</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Coffee berries (<i>Rhamnus californicus</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Woodbine (<i>Psedera quinquefolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">10 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Frost grape (<i>Vitis cordifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">6 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Spikenard (<i>Aralia racemosa</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Flowering dogwood (<i>Cornus florida</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">7 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Kinnikinnik (<i>Cornus amomum</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Red osier (<i>Cornus stolonifera</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"> [Pg 17]</a></span></td></tr> + <tr><td>Panicled cornel (<i>Cornus paniculata</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Dogwood unidentified (<i>Cornus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">6 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Huckleberries (<i>Gaylussacia</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Three-flowered nightshade (<i>Solanum triflorum</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Nightshade unidentified (<i>Solanum</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">8 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black twinberries (<i>Lonicera involucrata</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Honeysuckle berries (<i>Lonicera</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Snowberries (<i>Symphoricarpos racemosus</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Dockmackie (<i>Viburnum acerifolium</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Arrowwood (<i>Viburnum</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black elderberries (<i>Sambucus canadensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">6 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Red elderberries (<i>Sambucus pubens</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Blue elderberries (<i>Sambucus glauca</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">15 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Tarweed (<i>Madia</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Fruit pulp not further identified</td><td class="text_rt">17 </td></tr> +</table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Food of young of russet-backed thrush.</i>—Before concluding the +discussion of this species it will be of interest to note the results +obtained from an investigation of stomachs of 25 nestlings of the +russet-back taken in June and July when the birds were from two to +eleven days old. These were from eight broods, ranging from three to +five nestlings to the brood. The percentage of animal food of the +young (92.60 per cent) is considerably higher than that of the parent +birds.</p> + +<p>The distribution of the animal food is as follows: Caterpillars were +found in every stomach but seven and aggregated nearly 27 per cent; +beetles, including the useful Carabidæ (7.7 per cent), are irregularly +distributed to the extent of 22 per cent; other more or less harmful +species included five families of (Hemiptera) bugs, 13.8 per cent, +viz, stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, shield bugs, and cicadas; +ants and a few other Hymenoptera amount to 12 per cent, and spiders +the same. These latter were mostly harvestmen or daddy longlegs +(Phalangidæ). The remainder (6 per cent) included a few miscellaneous +insects. Only three stomachs contained remains of grasshoppers. +Carabid beetles were eaten by the young birds to the extent of 7.7 per +cent, which is more than three times the amount eaten by the adults, a +remarkable fact when is considered that these insects are very hard +shelled, thus seemingly unsuited for young birds.</p> + +<p>The vegetable food consisted of fruit (6.8 per cent), mainly +blackberries or raspberries, found in 11 stomachs, and twinberries in +1, and two or three other items, including a seed of filaree and some +rubbish. From the irregular variety of food in the different stomachs, +it would seem that the parents make little selection, but fill the +gaping mouths of their young with the nearest obtainable supply.</p> + +<p>In addition to the examination of stomach contents of nestlings two +nests were carefully and regularly watched, and from these it was +determined that the parent birds fed each nestling 48 times in 14 +hours of daylight. This means 144 feedings as a day's work for the +parents for a brood of three nestlings, and that each stomach was +filled to its full capacity several times daily, an illustration that +the digestion and assimilation of birds, especially the young, are +constant and very rapid. Experiments in raising young birds have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +proved that they thrive best when fed small quantities at short +intervals rather than greater quantities at longer periods. Aside from +the insects consumed by the parents, a brood of three young birds will +thus each require the destruction of at least 144 insects in a day and +probably a very much greater number.</p> + +<p><i>Summary.</i>—In a résumé of the food of the olive-backed and +russet-backed thrushes one is impressed with the fact that they come +in contact with the products of industry but rarely. The olive-back's +food habits infringe upon the dominion of man but little. The bird +lives among men, but not with them. The western form, the russet-back, +comes more into relations with the cultivated products because it +visits orchards and partakes freely of the fruit. Even then the damage +is slight, as much of the fruit eaten is that fallen to the ground. +Moreover, while the adult bird is feeding upon fruit a nestful of +young are being reared upon insects which must be largely taken from +the orchard, thus not only squaring the account but probably +overbalancing it in favor of the farmer.</p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<a name="HERMIT_THRUSHES" id="HERMIT_THRUSHES"></a> +<span class="pagenum"><a href="#toc">[↑ TOC]</a></span><br /> +<div class="caption3">HERMIT THRUSHES.</div> +<br /> +<div class="center">(<i>Hylocichla guttata</i> subspp.)</div> +<p> </p> + +<p>The hermit thrush of the subspecies <i>H. g. pallasi</i> inhabits the +Eastern States in winter as far north as Massachusetts and breeds from +the mountains of Maryland and Pennsylvania and from northern Michigan +and central Minnesota northward to Alaska. Several other subspecies +occupy the Pacific coast region in suitable localities—that is, in +the higher and more wooded sections, as this bird, like all of the +genus <i>Hylocichla</i>, does not live in treeless or arid regions. In the +East the bird is a late fall migrant and may often be seen sitting +silent and alone on a branch in the forest in late October or even in +November, when the great army of migrants have passed on to the South. +While a beautiful songster, the species is so quiet and unobtrusive +that by sight it is entirely unknown to many.</p> + +<p>Inquiry into the food habits of this bird covered 551 stomachs, +collected in 29 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and +representing every month of the year, though all the stomachs taken in +winter were collected in the Southern States, the District of +Columbia, and California. In the primary analysis the food was found +to consist of 64.51 per cent of animal matter to 35.49 per cent of +vegetable. The former is mostly composed of insects with some spiders, +while the latter is largely fruit, chiefly wild species.</p> + +<p><i>Animal food.</i>—Beetles constitute 15.13 per cent of the food. Of +these 2.98 per cent are of the useful family, Carabidæ. The remainder +are mostly harmful. Scarabæidæ, the larvæ of which are the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +white grubs that destroy the roots of so many plants, were eaten to +the extent of 3.44 per cent. Snout beetles, among the most harmful of +insects, were taken to the extent of 3.13 per cent. Among these was +the notorious plum curculio (<i>Conotrachelus nenuphar</i>) found in two +stomachs taken in the District of Columbia in April of different +years. Two other species of the same genus also were found, as well as +the clover weevil (<i>Epicærus imbricatus</i>). The Colorado potato beetle +(<i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i>) and the striped squash beetle +(<i>Diabrotica vittata</i>), with a number of other species of less +notoriety, were found in several stomachs. Thus, in spite of the +bird's retiring habits, it comes in contact with some of the pests of +cultivation.</p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> + <table summary="Hermit Thrush"> + <tr><td> + <img src="images/fig_2.png" width="441" height="769" title="Hermit Thrush" alt="Hermit Thrush" /><br /> + <div class="smaller text_rt">B2085-73</div> + <br /> + <span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Hermit thrush (<i>Hylocichla guttata</i>). + </td></tr> + </table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p>The ants destroyed—12.46 per cent of the food—keep up the reputation +of thrushes as ant eaters. They were taken constantly every month, +with the greatest number from May to September; a falling off in July +is partly accounted for by the fact that more fruit is taken in that +month. Other Hymenoptera (bees and wasps) were eaten to the extent of +5.41 per cent, a surprising amount for a bird that feeds so largely +upon the ground, as these insects are usually of fleet wing and live +in sunshine and open air.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +Caterpillars, eaten in every month and mostly in goodly quantities, +appear to be a favorite food of the hermit thrush. December is the +month of least consumption (2.75 per cent), while the most were eaten +in June (17.08 per cent). The average for the year is 9.54 per cent. +Hemiptera (bugs) seem to be eaten whenever found, as they appear in +the food of every month, but rather irregularly and not in large +quantities. The greatest consumption was in June (9.17 per cent), but +July, September, and December show the least (less than 1 per cent). +The total for the year is 3.63 per cent. Of the six families +represented, the Pentatomidæ, or stink bugs, predominate. These highly +flavored insects are eaten by most insectivorous birds often, but +usually in small quantities.</p> + +<p>Diptera (flies) comprise 3.02 per cent of the food of the hermit +thrush. The record shows, however, that nearly all of them are either +crane flies (Tipulidæ) and their eggs and larvæ, or March flies +(<i>Bibio</i>) and their larvæ. Over 150 of the latter were found in one +stomach. Both of these families of flies lay their eggs in the ground, +which accounts for their consumption by ground-feeding birds. +Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are eaten by the hermit thrush +to the extent of 6.32 per cent of its food. While this figure is not +remarkable, it is the highest for any of the genus. These birds are +fond of dark moist nooks among trees and bushes and do not feed +extensively in those dry sunshiny places so much frequented by +grasshoppers. A close inspection of the food record shows that the +Orthoptera eaten by the thrushes are mostly crickets, which live in +shadier and moister places than those where grasshoppers abound. A few +miscellaneous insects (0.27 per cent) close the insect account. +Spiders and myriapods (7.47 per cent) seem to constitute a very +acceptable article of diet, as they amount to a considerable +percentage in nearly every month, and in May rise to 20.79 per cent. A +few miscellaneous animals, as sowbugs, snails, and angleworms, make up +the balance of the animal food (1.26 per cent).</p> + +<p>Following is a list of insects so far as identified and the number of +stomachs in which found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center list"> +<table width="80%" summary="List of insects"> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br">HYMENOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Tiphia inornata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center br">COLEOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="br"> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Elaphrus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Notiophilus semistriatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Scarites subterraneus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Dyschirius pumilis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Pterostichus patruelis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Pterostichus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Amara</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Chlænius pennsylvanicus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Stenolophus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anisodactylus agilis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Tropisternus limbalis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hydrocharis obtusatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sphæridium lecontei</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Ptomaphagus consobrinus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anisotoma valida</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Megilla maculata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anatis 15-maculata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Psyllobora tædata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Brachycantha ursina</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Endomychus biguttatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cryptophagus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hister marginicollis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Hister americanus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Saprinus fimbriatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Carpophilus hemipterus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Perthalycra murrayi</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Ips quadriguttatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cytilus sericeus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cytilus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Byrrhus kirbyi</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Byrrhus cyclophorus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cryptohypnus bicolor</i></td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Drasterius dorsalis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Dolopius lateralis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Melanotus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Podabrus tomentosus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Canthon</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus tuberculifrons</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onthophagus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Ægialia lacustris</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Rhyssemus scaber</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Atænius abditus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Atænius cognatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Atænius</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius fimetarius</i></td><td class="text_rt br">11 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius granarius</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius rugifrons</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius inquinatus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">9 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius pardalis</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius prodromus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius crassiusculus</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Aphodius</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">11 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Geotrupes semipunctata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Dichelonycha</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Lachnosterna</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt br">17 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Chrysomela pulchra</i></td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Lema nigrovittata</i></td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of insects"> + <tr><td><i>Chlamys plicata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Myochrous denticollis</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Xanthonia 10-notata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Calligrapha scalaris</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Phædon viridis</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Diabrotica vittata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Odontota rubra</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Odontota</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Haltica torquata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Crepidodera helxines</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Syneta ferruginea</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Systena elongata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Chætocnema pulicaria</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Psylliodes punctulata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Chelymorpha cribraria</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Opatrinus notus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Opatrinus aciculatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Blapstinus metallicus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Blapstinus rufipes</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Salpingus virescens</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Anthicus pubescens</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Notoxus monodon</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Notoxus denudatum</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Notoxus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Attelabus rhois</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Rhigopsis effracta</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Cercopeus chrysorrhœus</i></td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Pandetetejus hilaris</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Barypithes pellucidus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sitones hispidulus</i></td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sitones flavescens</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Trichalophus alternatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Apion</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Listronotus latiusculus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Listronotus inæqualipennis</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Listronotus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Macrops</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Smicronyx corniculatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Trachodes ptinoides</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Conotrachelus nenuphar</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Conotrachelus posticatus</i></td><td class="text_rt">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Conotrachelus erinaceus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Rhinoncus pyrrhopus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Onychobaris insidiosus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Balaninus nasicus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Balaninus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sphenophorus parvulus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Sphenophorus</i> sp</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Dendroctonus terebrans</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">HEMIPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Podops cinctipes</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Nezara hilaris</i></td><td class="text_rt">6 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Arhaphe cicindeloides</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Corimelæna denudata</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Myodocha serripes</i></td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2 class="center">ORTHOPTERA.</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan=2> </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Amblycorypha rotundifolia</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Œcanthus niveus</i></td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p><i>Vegetable food.</i>—The vegetable diet of the hermit thrush consists +largely of fruit, as with most birds of this group. As might be +expected of a bird of such retiring habits, but little of the fruit +eaten can be classed as cultivated. In September 5.45 per cent was so +considered, but in most months the quantity was small, and in March, +April, and May was completely wanting. The total for the year as found +in 17 stomachs is 1.20 per cent. One stomach contained strawberries, +one grapes, one figs, one currants, two apples, and the rest <i>Rubus</i> +fruit, i. e., blackberries or raspberries. These last as well as the +strawberries were probably wild. Of the wild fruit (26.19 per cent) 46 +species were identified with a reasonable degree of certainty in 243 +stomachs. A few seeds, ground-up vegetable matter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +not further identified, and rubbish make up the rest of the vegetable +food (8.10 per cent). Among the seeds were some of the various species +of poisonous <i>Rhus</i>. These were found in 18 stomachs, mostly from +California. The dissemination of these seeds is unfortunate from the +standpoint of husbandry, but many birds engage in it, as the waxy +coating of the seeds is nutritious, especially in winter, when fruit +and insects are not easily obtainable.</p> + +<p>Following is a list of the components of the vegetable food so far as +identified, and the number of stomachs in which found:</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center list"> +<table width="100%" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> +<tr> +<td width="50%"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>Cedar berries (<i>Juniperus virginiana</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>False Solomon's seal (<i>Smilacina racemosa</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>False spikenard (<i>Smilacina</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Greenbrier (<i>Smilax walteri</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Cat brier (<i>Smilax bona-nox</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Laurel-leaved greenbrier (<i>Smilax laurifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Other greenbriers (<i>Smilax</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">11 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wax myrtle (<i>Myrica cerifera</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Bayberries (<i>Myrica carolinensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">7 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Chinquapin (<i>Castanea pumila</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Western hackberries (<i>Celtis occidentalis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Other hackberries (<i>Celtis</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Figs (<i>Ficus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Mulberries (<i>Morus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Mistletoe berries (<i>Phoradendron villosum</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Poke berries (<i>Phytolacca decandra</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">16 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Miner's lettuce (<i>Montia perfoliata</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Sassafras berries (<i>Sassafras varifolium</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Spice berries (<i>Benzoin æstivale</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Currants (<i>Ribes</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Sweet gum (<i>Liquidambar styraciflua</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Chokeberries (<i>Pyrus arbutifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Service berries (<i>Amelanchier canadensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">9 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Hawthorn (<i>Cratægus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Strawberries (<i>Fragaria</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Blackberries or raspberries (<i>Rubus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Rose haws (<i>Rosa</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wild black cherries (<i>Prunus scrotina</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Three-seeded mercury (<i>Acalypha virginica</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Staghorn sumach (<i>Rhus typhina</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Smooth sumach (<i>Rhus glabra</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">5 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Dwarf sumach (<i>Rhus copallina</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">7 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Poison ivy (<i>Rhus radicans</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Poison oak (<i>Rhus diversiloba</i>)</td><td class="text_rt br">15 </td></tr> + </table> +</td> +<td class="vtop"> + <table width="100%" class="collapse" summary="List of fruits, seeds, etc."> + <tr><td>Laurel-leaved sumach (<i>Rhus laurina</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Other sumachs (<i>Rhus</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">12 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Pepper berries (<i>Schinus molle</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">15 </td></tr> + <tr><td>American holly (<i>Ilex opaca</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">9 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black alder (<i>Ilex verticillata</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">12 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Ink berries (<i>Ilex glabra</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">9 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Other hollies (<i>Ilex</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">7 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Strawberry bush (<i>Euonymus americanus</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Roxbury waxwork (<i>Celastrus scandens</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Supple-Jack (<i>Berchemia volubilis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Coffee berries (<i>Rhamnus californicus</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Woodbine (<i>Psedera quinquefolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">10 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Frost grapes (<i>Vitis cordifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wild grapes (<i>Vitis</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Wild sarsaparilla (<i>Aralia nudicaulis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Flowering dogwood (<i>Cornus florida</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">32 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Rough-leaved dogwood (<i>Cornus asperifolia</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black gum (<i>Nyssa sylvatica</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Checkerberry (<i>Gaultheria procumbens</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Huckleberries (<i>Gaylussacia</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Blueberries (<i>Vaccinium</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">12 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black nightshade (<i>Solanum nigrum</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Bittersweet (<i>Solanum</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Goose grass (<i>Galium aparine</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Honeysuckle (<i>Lonicera</i> sp.)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Indian currant (<i>Symphoricarpos orbiculatus</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Downy arrowwood (<i>Viburnum pubescens</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">1 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Nanny berries (<i>Viburnum lentago</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">2 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Black elderberries (<i>Sambucus canadensis</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">4 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Red elderberries (<i>Sambucus pubens</i>)</td><td class="text_rt">3 </td></tr> + <tr><td>Fruit not further identifiedv60 </td></tr> +</table> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + +<p>In looking over this list one is impressed with the fact that the +taste of human beings for fruit differs markedly from that of birds. +For example, <i>Rhus</i> seeds are hard and have little pulp to render them +palatable or nutritious. They are usually passed through the +alimentary canal of birds or regurgitated unharmed, and the slight +outer coating alone is digested. In the case of the poisonous species, +this outer coating is a white wax or tallow which appears to be very +nutritious, for these species are eaten much more extensively than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +the nonpoisonous ones. The seed itself is rarely broken in the stomach +to get any nutriment it may contain. But in spite of these facts +<i>Rhus</i> seeds were found in 49 stomachs, while fruits of huckleberries +and blueberries, which are delicious to the human taste, were found in +only 13 stomachs; and blackberries and raspberries, highly esteemed by +man, were found in only 5 stomachs. Next to <i>Rhus</i> the fruit most +eaten was the dogwood berry, found in 34 stomachs, yet from a human +estimate these berries are distasteful and contain such large seeds +that they afford but very little actual food.</p> + +<p><i>Summary.</i>—The hermit thrush, as it name indicates, is of solitary +habits and neither seeks human companionship nor molests cultivated +products. It destroys nothing indirectly helpful to man, as beneficial +insects, but aids in the destruction of the myriad hosts of insect +life which at all times threaten vegetation. While it is not easy to +point out any especially useful function of the hermit thrush, it +fills its place in the economy of nature, from which it should not be +removed.</p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="center"> +<img src="images/bar_double.png" width="400" height="15" border="0" alt="bar double" title="bar double" /><br> +ADDITIONAL COPIES<br /> +<div class="caption4"> +OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM<br /> +THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS<br /> +GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br /> +WASHINGTON, D. C.<br /> +</div> +AT<br /> +5 CENTS PER COPY<br /> +<img src="images/triangle.png" width="24" height="24" border="0" alt="triangle" title="triangle" /> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Food Habits of the Thrushes of the +United States, by F. E. L. 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