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diff --git a/33923.txt b/33923.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c1b2a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/33923.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6116 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Special Method in Primary Reading and Oral +Work with Stories, by Charles Alexander McMurry + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Special Method in Primary Reading and Oral Work with Stories + +Author: Charles Alexander McMurry + +Release Date: October 14, 2010 [EBook #33923] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPECIAL METHOD IN PRIMARY *** + + + + +Produced by David Edwards and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + + SPECIAL METHOD + IN PRIMARY READING + + + + SPECIAL METHOD + IN + PRIMARY READING AND ORAL + WORK WITH STORIES + + + BY + + CHARLES A. MCMURRY, PH.D. + + DIRECTOR OF PRACTICE DEPARTMENT, NORTHERN ILLINOIS + STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, DE KALB, ILLINOIS + + + New York + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. + 1905 + + _All rights reserved_ + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1903. + BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. + + Set up and electrotyped July, 1903; reprinted + April, 1905. + + + + +PREFACE + + +This book attempts the discussion of two very important problems in +primary education. First, the oral work in the handling of stories, and +second, the introduction to the art of reading in the earliest school +work. The very close relation between the oral work in stories and the +exercises in reading in the first three years in school is quite fully +explained. The oral work in story-telling has gained a great importance +in recent years, but has not received much discussion from writers of +books on method. + +Following this "Special Method in Primary Reading," a second volume, +called the "Special Method in the Reading of Complete English Classics +in the Grades of the Common School," completes the discussion of reading +and literature in the intermediate and grammar grades. + +Both of the books of Special Method are an application of the ideas +discussed in "The Principles of General Method" and "The Method of the +Recitation." + +Still other volumes of Special Method in Geography, History, and Natural +Science furnish the outlines of the courses of study in these subjects, +and also a full discussion of the value of the material selected and of +the method of treatment. + +At the close of each chapter and at the end of the book a somewhat +complete graded list of books, for the use of both pupils and teachers, +is given. The same plan is followed in all the books of this series, so +that teachers may be able to supply themselves with the best helps with +as little trouble as possible. + + CHARLES A. McMURRY. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER I PAGE + THE REASON FOR ORAL WORK IN STORIES 1 + + CHAPTER II + THE BASIS OF SKILL IN ORAL WORK 16 + + CHAPTER III + FIRST GRADE STORIES 47 + + CHAPTER IV + SECOND GRADE STORIES 75 + + CHAPTER V + THIRD GRADE STORIES 103 + + CHAPTER VI + PRIMARY READING THROUGH INCIDENTAL EXERCISES AND GAMES 137 + + CHAPTER VII + METHOD IN PRIMARY READING 173 + + CHAPTER VIII + LIST OF BOOKS FOR PRIMARY GRADES 190 + + + + +SPECIAL METHOD IN PRIMARY READING + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE REASON FOR ORAL WORK IN STORIES + + +The telling and reading of stories to children in early years, before +they have mastered the art of reading, is of such importance as to +awaken the serious thought of parents and teachers. To older people it +is a source of constant surprise--the attentive interest which children +bestow upon stories. Almost any kind of a story will command their +wide-awake thought. But the tale which they can fully understand and +enjoy has a unique power to concentrate their mental energy. There is an +undivided, unalloyed absorption of mind in good stories which augurs +well for all phases of later effort. To get children into this habit of +undivided mental energy, of singleness of purpose in study, is most +promising. In primary grades, the fluttering, scatter-brained truancy of +thought is the chronic obstacle to success in study. + +The telling or reading of stories to children naturally begins at home, +before the little ones are old enough for school. The mother and father, +the aunts and uncles, and any older person who delights in children, +find true comfort and entertainment in rehearsing the famous stories to +children. The Mother Goose, the fables, the fairy tales, the "Arabian +Nights," Eugene Field's and Stevenson's poems of child life, the Bible +stories, the myths, and some of the old ballads have untold treasures +for children. If one has a voice for singing the old melodies, the charm +of music intensifies the effect. Little ones quickly memorize what +delights them, and not seldom, after two or three readings, children of +three and four years will be heard repeating whole poems or large parts +of them. The repetition of the songs and stories till they become +thoroughly familiar gives them their full educative effect. They become +a part of the permanent furniture of the mind. If the things which the +children learn in early years have been well selected from the real +treasures of the past (of which there is a goodly store), the seeds of +true culture have been deeply sown in their affections. + +The opportunities of the home for good story-telling are almost +boundless. Parents who perceive its worth and are willing to take time +for it, find in this early period greater opportunity to mould the lives +of children and put them into sympathetic touch with things of beauty +and value than at any other time. At this age children are well-nigh +wholly at the mercy of their elders. They will take what we give them +and take it at its full worth or worthlessness. They absorb these things +as the tender plant absorbs rain and sunshine. + +The kindergarten has naturally found in the story one of its chief means +of effectiveness. Stories, songs, and occupations are its staples. +Dealing with this same period of early childhood, before the more taxing +work of the school begins, it finds that the children's minds move with +that same freedom and spontaneity in these stories with which their +bodies and physical energies disport themselves in games and +occupations. + +It is fortunate for childhood that we have such wholesome and healthful +material, which is fitted to give a child's mental action a well-rounded +completeness. His will, his sensibility, and his knowing faculty, all in +one harmonious whole, are brought into full action. In short, not a +fragment but the whole child is focussed and concentrated upon one +absorbing object of thought. + +The value of the oral treatment of stories is found in the greater +clearness and interest with which they can be presented orally. There is +a keener realism, a closer approximation to experimental facts, to the +situations, the hardships, to the sorrows and triumphs of persons. The +feelings and impulses of the actors in the story are felt more sharply. +The reality of the surrounding conditions and difficulties is presented +so that a child transports himself by the power of sympathy and +imagination into the scenes described. + +There is no way by which this result can be accomplished in early years +except by the oral presentation of stories. Until the children have +learned to read and have acquired sufficient mastery of the art of +reading so that it is easy and fluent, there is no way by which they can +get at good stories for themselves. Average children require about three +years to acquire this mastery of the reading art. Not many children read +stories from books, with enjoyment and appreciation, till they are nine +or ten years old; but from the age of four to ten they are capable of +receiving an infinite amount of instruction and mental stimulus from +hearing good stories. In fact, many of the best stories ever produced in +the history of the world can be thoroughly enjoyed by children before +they have learned to read. This is true of Grimm's and Andersen's +stories, of the myths of Hiawatha and Norseland, and of the early +Greeks, of the Bible stories, the "Arabian Nights," "Robin Hood," +besides many other stories, poems, ballads, and biographies which are +among the best things in our literature. + +In these early years the minds of children may be enriched with a +furnishment of ideas of much value for all their future use, a sort of +capital well invested, which will bring rich returns. Minds early +fertilized with this variety of thought material become more flexible, +productive, and acquisitive. + +For many years, and even centuries, it was supposed that early education +could furnish children with little except the forms and instruments of +knowledge, the tools of acquisition, such as ability to read, spell, and +write, and to use simple numbers. But the susceptibility of younger +children to the powerful culture influence of story, poem, and nature +study, was overlooked. + +We now have good reason to believe that there is no period when the +educative and refining influences of good literature in the form of +poems and story can be made so effective as in this early period from +four to ten years. That period which has been long almost wholly devoted +to the dry formalities and mechanics of knowledge, to the dull and +oftentimes benumbing drills of alphabets, spelling, and arithmetical +tables, is found to be capable of a fruitful study of stories, fables, +and myths, and an indefinite extension of ideas and experiences in +nature observation. + +But the approach to these sunny fields of varied and vivid experience is +not through books, except as the teacher's mind has assimilated their +materials and prepared them for lively presentation. + +The oral speech through which the stories are given to children is +completely familiar to them, so that they, unencumbered by the forms of +language, can give their undivided thought to the story. Oral speech is, +therefore, the natural channel through which stories should come in +early years. The book is at first wholly foreign to them, and it takes +them three years or more of greater or less painful effort to get such +easy mastery of printed forms as to gain ready access to thought in +books. A book, when first put into the hands of a child, is a complete +obstruction to thought. The oral story, on the contrary, is a perfectly +transparent medium of thought. A child can see the meaning of a story +through oral speech as one sees a landscape through a clear window-pane. +If a child, therefore, up to the age of ten, is to get many and +delightsome views into the fruitful fields of story-land, this miniature +world of all realities, this repository of race ideas, it must be +through oral speech which he has already acquired in the years of +babyhood. + +It is an interesting blunder of teachers, and one that shows their +unreflecting acceptance of traditional customs, to assume that the +all-absorbing problem of primary instruction is the acquisition of a new +book language (the learning to read), and to ignore that rich mother +tongue, already abundantly familiar, as an avenue of acquisition and +culture. But we are now well convinced that the ability to read is an +instrument of culture, not culture itself, and primarily the great +object of education is to inoculate the children with the ideas of our +civilization. The forms of expression are also of great value, but they +are secondary and incidental as compared with the world of ideas. + +There is an intimate connection between learning to read and the oral +treatment of stories in primary schools which is very interesting and +suggestive to the teacher. Routine teachers may think it a waste of time +to stop for the oral presentation of stories. But the more thoughtful +and sympathetic teacher will think it better to stimulate the child's +mind than to cram his memory. The young mind fertilized by ideas is +quicker to learn the printed forms than a mind barren of thought. Yet +this proposition needs to be seen and illustrated in many forms. + +Children should doubtless make much progress in learning to read in the +first year of school. But coincident with these exercises in primary +reading, and, as a general thing, preliminary to them, is a lively and +interested acquaintance with the best stories. It is a fine piece of +educative work to cultivate in children, at the beginning of school +life, a real appreciation and enjoyment of a few good stories. These +stories, thus rendered familiar, and others of similar tone and quality, +may serve well as a part of the reading lessons. It is hardly possible +to cultivate this literary taste in the reading books alone, unrelieved +by oral work. The primers and first readers, when examined, will give +ample proof of this statement. In spite of the utmost effort of skilled +primary teachers to make attractive books for primary children, our +primers and first readers show unmistakable signs of their formal and +mechanical character. They are essentially drill books. + +It seems well, therefore, to have in primary schools two kinds of work +in connection with story and reading, the oral work in story-telling, +reproduction, expression, etc., and the drill exercises in learning to +read. The former will keep up a wide-awake interest in the best thought +materials suitable for children, the latter will gradually acquaint them +with the necessary forms of written and printed language. Moreover, the +interest aroused in the stories is constantly transferring itself to the +reading lessons and giving greater spirit and vitality even to the +primary efforts at learning to read. In discussing the method of primary +reading we shall have occasion to mention the varied devices of games, +activities, drawings, dramatic action, blackboard exercises, and picture +work, by which an alert primary teacher puts life and motive into early +reading work, but fully as important as all these things put together is +the growing insight and appreciation for good stories. When a child +makes the discovery, as Hugh Miller said, "that learning to read is +learning to get stories out of books" he has struck the chord that +should vibrate through all his future life. The real motive for reading +is to get something worth the effort of reading. Even if it takes longer +to accomplish the result in this way, the result when accomplished is in +all respects more valuable. But it is probable that children will learn +to read fully as soon who spend a good share of their time in oral story +work. + +In discussing the literary materials used in the first four grades, we +suggest the following grading of certain large groups of literary +matter, and the relation of oral work to the reading in each subsequent +grade is clearly marked. + + ORAL WORK. READING. + + _1st Grade._ Games, Mother Goose. Lessons based on Games, etc. + Fables, Fairy Tales. Board Exercises. + Nature Myths, Child Poems. Primers, First Readers. + Simple Myths, Stories, etc. + + _2d Grade._ Robinson Crusoe. Fables, Fairy Tales. + Hiawatha. Myths and Poems. + Seven Little Sisters. Second Readers. + Hiawatha Primer. + + _3d Grade._ Greek and Norse Myths. Robinson Crusoe. + Ballads and Legendary Andersen's & Grimm's Tales. + Stories. Child's Garden of Verses. + Ulysses, Jason, Siegfried. Third Readers. + Old Testament Stories. + + _4th Grade._ American Pioneer History Greek and Norse Myths. + Stories. Historical Ballads. + Early Biographical Stories Ulysses, Arabian Nights. + of Europe, as Alfred, Hiawatha, Wonder Book. + Solon, Arminius, etc. + +This close dependence of reading proper, in earlier years, upon the oral +treatment of stories as a preliminary, is based fundamentally upon the +idea that suitable and interesting thought matter is the true basis of +progress in reading, and that the strengthening of the taste for good +books is a much greater thing than the mere acquisition of the art of +reading. The motive with which children read or try to learn to read is, +after all, of the greatest consequence. + +The old notion that children must first learn to read and then find, +through the mastery of this art, the entrance to literature is exactly +reversed. First awaken a desire for things worth reading, and then +incorporate these and similar stories into the regular reading exercises +as far as possible. + +In accordance with this plan, children, by the time they are nine or ten +years old, will become heartily acquainted with three or four of the +great classes of literature, the fables, fairy tales, myths, and such +world stories as Crusoe, Aladdin, Hiawatha, and Ulysses. Moreover, the +oral treatment will bring these persons and actions closer to their +thought and experience than the later reading alone could do. In fact, +if children have reached their tenth year without enjoying those great +forms of literature that are appropriate to childhood, there is small +prospect that they will ever acquire a taste for them. They have passed +beyond the age where a liking for such literature is most easily and +naturally cultivated. They move on to other things. They have passed +through one great stage of education and have emerged with a meagre and +barren outfit. + +The importance of oral work as a lively means of entrance to studies is +seen also in other branches besides literature. + +In geography and history the first year or two of introductory study is +planned for the best schools in the form of oral narrative and +discussion. Home geography in the third or fourth year, and history +stories in the fourth and fifth years of school, are best presented +without a text book by the teacher. Although the children have already +overcome, to some extent, the difficulty of reading, so great is the +power of oral presentation and discussion to vivify and realize +geographical and historical scenes that the book is discarded at first +for the oral treatment. + +In natural science also, from the first year on the teacher must employ +an oral method of treatment. The use of books is not only impossible, +but even after the children have learned to read, it would defeat the +main purpose of instruction to make books the chief means of study. The +ability to observe and discern things, to use their own senses in +discriminating and comparing objects, in experiments and investigations, +is the fundamental purpose. + +In language lessons, again, it is much better to use a book only as a +guide and to handle the lessons orally, collecting examples and stories +from other studies as the basis for language discussions. + +It is apparent from this brief survey that an oral method is appropriate +to the early treatment of all the common school studies, that it gives +greater vivacity, intensity, simplicity, and clearness to all such +introductory studies. + +The importance of story-telling and the initiation of children into the +delightful fields of literature through the teacher rather than through +the book are found to harmonize with a mode of treatment common to all +the studies in early years. + +In this connection it is interesting to observe that the early +literature of the European nations was developed and communicated to the +people by word of mouth. The Homeric songs were chanted or sung at the +courts of princes. At Athens, in her palmy days, the great dramatists +and poets either recited their productions to the people or had them +presented to thousands of citizens in the open-air theatres. Even +historians like Thucidides read or recited their great histories before +the assembled people. In the early history of England, Scotland, and +other countries, the minstrels sang their ballads and epic poems in the +baronial halls and thus developed the early forms of music and poetry. +Shakespeare wrote his dramas for the theatre, and he seems to have paid +no attention at all to their appearance in book form, never revising +them or putting them into shape for the press. + +This practice of all the early races of putting their great literature +before the people by song, dramatic action, and word of mouth is very +suggestive to the teacher. The power and effectiveness of this mode of +presentation, not only in early times but even in the highly civilized +cities of London and Athens, is unmistakable proof of the educative +value of such modes of teaching. This is only another indication of the +kinship of child life with race life, which has been emphasized by many +great thinkers. + +The oral method offers a better avenue for all vigorous modes of +expression than the reading book. It can be observed that the general +tendency of the book is toward a formal, expressionless style in young +readers. Go into a class where the teacher is handling a story orally +and you will see her falling naturally into all forms of vivid narrative +and presentation, gesture, facial expression, versatile intonation, +blackboard sketching and picture work, the impersonation of characters +in dialogue, dramatic action, and general liveliness of manner. The +children naturally take up these same activities and modes of uttering +themselves. Even without the suggestion of teachers, little children +express themselves in such actions, attitudes, and impersonations. This +may be often observed in little boys and girls of kindergarten age, when +telling their experiences to older persons, or when playing among +themselves. The freedom, activity, and vivacity of children is, indeed, +in strong contrast to the apathetic, expressionless, monotonous style of +many grown people, including teachers. + +But the oral treatment of stories has a tendency to work out into modes +of activity even more effective than those just described. + +In recent years, since so much oral work has been done in elementary +schools, children have been encouraged also to express themselves freely +in blackboard drawings and in pencil work at their desks by way of +illustrating the stories told. Moreover, in paper cutting, to represent +persons and scenes, in clay modelling, to mould objects presented, and +in constructive and building efforts, in making forts, tents, houses, +tools, dress, and in showing up modes of life, the children have found +free scope for their physical and mental activities. These have not only +led to greater clearness and vividness in their mental conceptions, but +have opened out new fields of self-activity and inventiveness. + +So long as work in reading and literature was confined to the book +exercises, nearly all these modes of expression were little employed and +even tabooed. + +Finally, the free use of oral narrative in the literature of early +years, in story-telling and its attendant modes of expression, opens up +to primary teachers a rare opportunity of becoming genuine educators. +There was a time, and it still continues with many primary teachers, +when teaching children to read was a matter of pure routine, of formal +verbal drills and repetitions, as tiresome to the teacher, if possible, +as to the little ones. But now that literature, with its treasures of +thought and feeling, of culture and refinement, has become the staple of +the primary school, teachers have a wide and rich field of inspiring +study. The mastery and use of much of the preferred literature which has +dropped down to us out of the past is the peculiar function of the +primary teacher. Contact with great minds, like those of Kingsley, +Ruskin, Andersen, the Grimm brothers, Stevenson, Dickens, Hawthorne, De +Foe, Browning, AEsop, Homer, and the unknown authors of many of the best +ballads, epics, and stories, is enough to give the primary teacher a +sense of the dignity of her work. On the other hand, the opportunity to +give to children the free and versatile development of their active +powers is an equal encouragement. + +Teachers who have taken up with zeal this great problem of introducing +children to their full birthright, the choice literature of the world +suited to their years, and of linking this story work with primary +reading so as to give it vitality,--such teachers have found school life +assuming new and unwonted charms; the great problems of the educator +have become theirs; the broadened opportunity for the acquisition of +varied skill and professional efficiency has given a strong ambitious +tone to their work. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE BASIS OF SKILL IN ORAL WORK + + +Accepting the statement that skill in oral presentation of a story is a +prime demand in early education, the important question for teachers is +how to cultivate their resources in this phase of teaching, how to +become good story-tellers. + +It may be remarked that, for the great majority of people, story-telling +is not a gift but an acquisition. There are, of course, occasional +geniuses, but they may be left out of consideration. They are not often +found in the schoolroom any more than in other walks of life. What we +need is a practical, sensible development of a power which we all +possess in varying degrees. Nor is it the fluent, volatile, verbose +talker who makes a good oral teacher, but rather one who can see and +think clearly: one who knows how to combine his ideas and experiences +into clear and connected series of thought. + +We may proceed, therefore, to a discussion of the needs and resources of +a good story-teller. + +1. Without much precaution it may be stated that he should have a rich +experience in all the essential realities of human life. This covers a +large field of common things and refers rather to contact with life +than to mere book knowledge. Yet it is the depth, heartiness, and +variety of knowledge rather than the source from which it springs that +concerns us. Books often give us just this deep penetrating experience, +as soon as we learn how to select and use them. We need to know human +life directly and in all sorts of acts, habits, feelings, motives, and +conditions,--something as Shakespeare knew it, only within the compass +of our narrower possibilities. Likewise the physical world with its +visible and invisible forces and objects besetting us on every side. +These things must impress themselves upon us vividly in detail as well +as in the bulk. The hand that has been calloused by skill-producing +labor, the back that aches with burdens bravely borne, the brain that +has sweat with strong effort, are expressions of this kind of knowledge +of the world. Clear-grained perceptions are acquired from many sources: +from travel, labor, books, reflection, sickness, observation. I go +to-day into a small shop where heavy oak beer-kegs are made, and watch +the man working this refractory material into water-tight kegs that will +stand hard usage at the hands of hard drinkers for twenty years. If my +mind has been at work as I watch this man for an hour, with his heavy +rough staves made by hand, his tools and machines, his skill and strong +muscular action, the amount and profit of his labor, that man's work has +gone deep into my whole being. I can almost live his life in an hour's +time, and feel its contact with the acute problems of our modern +industrial life. That is a kind of knowledge and experience worth fully +as much as a sermon in Trinity Church or a University lecture. + +The teacher needs a great store of these concrete facts and +illustrations. Without them he is a carpenter without tools or boards. +He needs to know industries, occupations, good novels, typical life +scenes, sunsets, sorrows, joys, inventions, poets, farmers--all such +common, tangible things. Even from fools and blackguards he can get +experiences that will last him a lifetime if they only strike in and do +not flare off into nothingness. + +Social experience in all sorts of human natures, disposition, and +environing circumstance is immediately valuable to the teacher. + +Close acquaintance with children, with their early feelings and +experiences, with their timidity or boldness, with their whims or +conceits, their dislikes and preferences, their enthusiasms and +interests, with their peculiar home and neighborhood experiences and +surroundings, with their games and entertainments, with the books and +papers they read, with their dolls and playthings, their vacations and +outings, with their pets and playhouses, with their tools and mechanical +contrivances--all these and other like realities of child life put the +teacher on a footing of possible appreciation and sympathy with +children. These are the materials and facts which a good teacher knows +how to work up in oral recitations. + +Of course the kindly, sympathetic social mood which is not fretted by +others' frailties and perversities, but, like Irving or Addison, +exhibits a liberal charity or humorous affection for all things human, +is a fortunate possession or acquisition for the teacher. + +2. It may be said also, without fear of violent contradiction, that a +teacher needs to be a master of the story he is about to tell. It may be +well to spread out to view the important things necessary to such a +mastery. The reading over of the story till its facts and episodes have +become familiar and can be reproduced in easy narrative is at least a +minimum requirement. Even this moderate demand is much more serious than +the old text-book routine in history or reading, where the teacher, with +one eye on the book, the other on the class, and his finger at the +place, managed to get the questions before the class in a fixed order. + +Let us look a little beneath the surface of the story. What is its +central idea, the author's aim or motive in producing it? Not a little +effort and reflection may be necessary to get at the bottom of this +question. Some of the most famous stories, like "Aladdin," "Gulliver's +Travels," and the "City Musicians," may be so wild and wayward as to +elude or blunt the point of this question. The story may have a hard +shell, but the sharp teeth of reflection will get at the sweet kernel +within, else the story is not worth while. In some of the stories, like +"Baucis and Philemon," "The Great Stone Face," "The Pied Piper of +Hamelin," "The Discontented Pine Tree," and "Hiawatha's Fasting," the +main truth is easily reflected from the story and caught up even by the +children. + +This need for getting at the heart of the story is clearly seen in all +the subsequent work. It is the exercise of such a critical judgment +which qualifies the teacher to discriminate between good and poor +stories. In the treatment of the story the essential topics are laid out +upon the basis of this controlling idea or motive. The leading aims and +carefully worded questions point toward this central truth. The side +lights and attendant episodes are arranged with reference to it like the +scenes in a drama. The effort to get at the central truth and the +related ideas is a sifting-out process, a mode of assimilating and +mastering the story more thorough-going than the mere memorizing of the +facts and words for the purpose of narration. The thought-getting +self-activity and common-sense logic which are involved in this mode of +assimilating a story are good for both pupils and teacher. + +The mastery of a story needed by an oral teacher implies abundance of +resource in illustrative device and explanation. When children fail to +grasp an idea, it is necessary to fall back upon some familiar object +or experience not mentioned in the book. Emergencies arise which tax the +teacher's ingenuity to the utmost. Even the children will raise queries +that baffle his wit. In preparing a story for the classroom it is +necessary to see it from many sides, to foresee these problems and +difficulties. Oftentimes the collateral knowledge derived from history +or geography or from similar episodes in other stories will suggest the +solution. + +It is a favorite maxim of college teachers and of those who deal mostly +with adults or older pupils, that if a person knows a thing he can teach +it. Leaving out of account the numerous cases of those who are well +posted in their subjects, but cannot teach, it is well to note the +scope, variety, and thoroughness of knowledge necessary to a good +teacher to handle it skilfully with younger children. Besides the +thorough knowledge of the subject which scholars have demanded, it +requires an equally clear knowledge of the mental resources of children, +the language which they can understand, the things which attract their +interest and attention, and the ways of holding the attention of a group +of children of different capacities, temper, and disposition. Any +dogmatic professor who thinks he can teach the story of "Cinderella" or +Andersen's "Five Peas in the Pod," because he has a full knowledge of +the facts of the story, should make trial of his skill upon a class of +twenty children in the first grade. We suggest, however, that he do it +quietly, without inviting in his friends to witness his triumph. + +No, the mastery of the subject needed for an effective handling of it in +oral work is different and is greater than they have yet dreamed of who +think that mere objective knowledge is all that is needed by a teacher. +The application of knowledge to life is generally difficult, more taxing +by far than the mere acquisition of facts and principles. But the use of +one's knowledge in the work of instructing young children, in getting +them to acquire and assimilate it, is perhaps the most difficult of all +forms of the application of knowledge. It is difficult because it is so +complex. To think clearly and accurately on some topic for one's single +self is not easy, but to get twenty children of varying capacities and +weaknesses, with their stumbling, acquisitive, flaring minds, to keep +step along one clear line of thought is a piece of daring enterprise. + +The mastery of the story, therefore, for successful oral work, must be +detailed, comprehensive, many-sided, and adapted to the fluttering +thoughts of childhood. + +3. The chief instrument through which the teacher communicates the story +is oral speech, and this he needs to wield with discriminating skill and +power. Preachers and lecturers, when called upon to talk to children, +nearly always talk over their heads, using language not appropriate and +comprehensible to children. Those accustomed to deal with little folks +are quickly sensitive to this amateur awkwardness. Young teachers just +out of the higher schools make the same blunder. They are also inclined +to think that fluency and verbosity are a sign of power. But such false +tinsel makes no impression upon children except confusion of thought. +Children require simple, direct words, clearly defined in thought and +grounded upon common experience and conviction. Facts and realities +should stand behind the words of a teacher. What he seeks to marshal +before children is people and things. Words should serve as photographs +of objects; instantaneous views of experiences. In some social and +diplomatic circles words are said to conceal thought, but this kind of +verbal diplomacy has no place in schools. + +It is an interesting question how far the language and style of the +authors should be preserved by the narrator. It would be an error to +forbid the exact use of the author's words and an equal error to require +it. It seems reasonable to say that the teacher should become absorbed +in the author's style and mode of presenting the story. This will lead +to a close approximation to the author's words, without any slavish +imitation. In the midst of oral presentation and discussion it would be +impossible to hold strictly to the original. The teacher's own language +and conception of the story will press in to simplify and clarify the +meaning. No one holds strictly to a literary style in telling a story. +Conversational ideas and original momentary impulses of thought demand +their own forms of utterance. And yet it is well to appropriate the +style and expression of the writer so as to accustom the children to the +best forms. A few very apt and forcible sentences will be found in any +good author which the teacher will naturally employ. + +But the teacher must have freedom. When he has once thoroughly +appropriated the story he must give vent to his own spontaneity and +power. Later, when the children come to read these stories, they will +enjoy them in their full literary form. + +4. The power of clear and interesting presentation of a story is one of +the chief professional acquisitions of a good primary teacher. It +involves many things besides language, including liveliness of manner, +gesture, facial expression, action, dramatic impersonation, skill in +blackboard illustration, good humor and tact in working with children, a +strong imagination, and a real appreciation for the literature adapted +to children. + +Perhaps the fundamental need is simplicity and clearness of thought and +language combined with a pleasing and attractive manner. Vague and +incomprehensible thoughts and ideas are all out of place. The teacher +should be strict with himself in this matter, and while reading and +mastering the story, should use compulsion upon himself to arrive at an +unmistakable clearness of thought. The objects, buildings, palaces, +woods, caves, animals, persons, and places should be sharply imaged by +the imagination; the feelings and passions of the actors should be +keenly realized. Often a vague and uncertain conception needs to be +scanned, the passage reread, and the notion framed into clearness. In +describing the palace of the sleeping beauty, begirt with woods, the +sentinels standing statuelike at the portal, the lords and ladies at +their employments, the teacher should think out the entrance way, hall, +rooms, and persons of the palace so clearly that his thought and +language will not stumble over uncertainties. Transparent clearness and +directness of thought are the result of effort and circumspection. They +are well worth the pains required to gain them. A teacher who thinks +clearly will generate clear habits of thought in children. + +The power of interesting narrative and description is not easily +explained. It is a thing not readily analyzed into its elements. Perhaps +the best way to find out what it is may be discovered by reading the +great story-tellers, such as Macaulay, Irving, Kingsley, De Foe, +Hawthorne, Homer, Plutarch, Scott, and Dickens. Novelists like George +Eliot, Victor Hugo, Cooper, Scott, and Dickens, possess this secret +also, and even some of the historians, as Herodotus, Fiske, Green, +Parkman, Motley, and others. It is not so important that a teacher +should give a cold analysis of their qualities as that he should fall +insensibly into the vivid and realistic style of the best story-tellers. +One who has read Pyle's Robin Hood stories until they are familiar will, +to a considerable extent, appropriate his fertile and happy Old-English +style, the sturdy English spirit of bold Robin, his playful humor, and +his apt utterance of homely truths. + +There are certain qualities that stand out prominently in the good +story-tellers. They are simple and concrete in their descriptions, they +deal very little in general, vague statements or abstractions, they hold +closely to the persons of the story in the midst of interesting +surroundings, they are profuse in the use of distinct figures of speech, +appealing to the fancy or imagination. They often have a humorous vein +which gives infinite enjoyment and spreads a happy charity throughout +the world. + +The art of graphic illustration on the blackboard is in almost constant +demand in oral work. Even rude and untechnical sketches by teachers who +have no acquired skill in artistic drawing are of the greatest value in +giving a quick and accurate perception of places, buildings, persons, +and surrounding conditions of a story or action. The map of Crusoe's +island, the drawings to represent his tent, cave, boat, country +residence, fortifications, dress, utensils, and battles are natural and +simple modes of realizing clearly his labors and adventures. They save +much verbal description and circumlocution. The teacher needs to +acquire absolute boldness and freedom in using such illustrative +devices. The children will, of course, catch this spirit, as they are by +nature inclined to use drawing as a mode of expression. + +A similar freedom in the teacher is necessary in the use of bodily +action, gesture, and facial expression in story-telling. The teacher +needs to become natural, childlike, and mobile in these things; for +children are naturally much given to such demonstrations in the +expression of their thought. Little girls of three and four years in the +home, when free from self-consciousness, are marvellously and +delightfully expressive by means of eyes, gestures, hands, and arms and +whole bodily attitudes. Why should not this naive expressiveness be +gently fostered in the school? Indeed it is, and in many schools the +little ones are as happy and whole-souled and spontaneous in their modes +of expression as we have suggested. + +Dramatization, if cultivated, extends a teacher's gamut of +expressiveness. Our inability or slowness to respond to this suggestion +is a sign of a certain narrowness or cramp in our culture and training. +In Normal schools where young teachers are trained in the art of +reading, the dramatic instinct should be strongly developed. The power +to other one's self in dramatic action, to assume and impersonate a +variety of characters, is a real expression and enlargement of the +personality. It demands sympathy and feeling as well as intellectual +insight. The study and reading of the great dramatists, the seeing of +good plays, amateur efforts in this direction, the frequent oral reading +of Shakespeare, Dickens, and other dramatists and novelists will +cultivate and enlarge the teacher's power in this worthy and wholesome +art. + +The use of good pictures is also an important means of adding to the +beauty and clearness of stories. The pictures of Indian life in +"Hiawatha," the illustrated editions of "Robinson Crusoe," the copies of +ancient works of art in some editions of the Greek myths, Howard Pyle's +illustrated "Robin Hood," and other books of this character add greatly +to the vividness of ideas. Such pictures should be handled with care, +not distributed promiscuously among the children while the lesson is +going on. The teacher needs to study a picture, and discuss it +intelligently with the children, asking questions which bring out its +representative qualities. + +It is evident the skilful oral presentation of a story calls out no +small degree of clear knowledge, force of language, illustrative device, +dramatic instinct, and a freedom and versatility of action both mental +and physical. + +5. A clear outline of leading points in a story is a source of strength +to the teacher and the basis later of good reproductive work by the +children. The short stories in the first grade hardly need a formal +outline, and even in second grade the sequence of ideas in a story is +often so simple and easy that outlines of leading topics may not be +needed. But in third and fourth grade it is well in the preliminary +study and mastery of a story to divide it up into clearly marked +segments, with a distinctive title for each division. It is difficult to +get teachers to do this kind of close logical work, and still more +difficult to have them remember it in the midst of oral presentation and +discussion. If the main points of the story as thus outlined are placed +upon the blackboard as the narrative advances, it keeps in mind a clear +survey of the whole and serves as the best basis for the children's +reproduction of the story. It compels both teacher and pupils to keep to +a close logical connection of ideas and a sifting out of the story to +get at the main points. Without these well-constructed outlines the +memory of the story is apt to fall into uncertainty and confusion, and +the children's reproduction becomes fragmentary and disorderly. +Experience shows that teachers are prone to be loose and careless in +bringing their stories into such a well-ordered series of distinct +topics. It is really a sign of a thoughtful, logical, and judicious +mastery of a subject to have thrown it thus into its prominent points of +narration. Oral work often fails of effectiveness and thoroughness, +because of these careless habits of teachers. Such an outline, when put +into the children's regular note-books, serves as the best basis for +later surveys and reviews. + +6. The oral narration and presentation of stories has a curious way of +being turned into _development lessons_, in which the teacher deals in +questions and problematic situations and the children work out many of +the facts and incidents of the story by a series of guesses and +inferences. These are well known as development lessons, and they are +capable of exhibiting the highest forms of excellence in teaching or the +most drivelling waste of time. The subject is a hard one to handle, but +it needs a clear and simple elucidation as much as any problem in the +teaching profession. Generally speaking it is better for young teachers +not to launch out recklessly upon the full tide of development +instruction. It is better to learn the handling of the craft on quieter +waters. Development work needs to be well charted. The varying winds and +currents, storms and calms, need to be studied and experienced before +one may become a good ship's master. Let young teachers first acquire +power in clear, simple, direct narration and description, using apt and +forcible language and holding to a clear-cut line of thought. This is no +slight task, and when once mastered and fixed in habit becomes the +foundation of a wider freedom and skill in development exercises. The +works of the great story-tellers furnish excellent models of this sort +of skill, and teachers may follow closely in the lines struck out by +Scott or Hawthorne in narrating a story. + +A book story cannot do otherwise than simply narrate; it cannot develop, +set problems and questions and have children to find solutions and +answers. It must tell the facts and answer the questions. But in oral +narration there is room not only for all the skill of the story-writer, +but also the added force of voice, personality, lively manner, gesture, +action, and close adaptation to the immediate needs of children and +subject. This is enough to command the undivided effort of the young +teacher at first, without entering the stormy waters and shifting +currents of pure development work. + +Yet the spirited teacher will not go far in narrating a story without a +tendency to ask questions to intensify the children's thought, or to +quicken the discussion of interesting points. Even if the teachers or +parents are but reading a good story from a book, it is most natural, at +times, to ask questions about the meaning of certain new words, or +geographical locations, or probabilities in the working out of the +story. These are the simple beginnings of development work, and produce +greater thoughtfulness, keener perceptions of the facts, and a better +absorption of the story into a child's previous knowledge. + +A sharp limitation of development work is also found in the circumstance +that a large share of the facts in a story cannot by any sort of +ingenuity be developed. They form the necessary basis for later +development questions. Even many of the facts which might be developed +by a skilful teacher are better told directly, because of the difficulty +and time-devouring nature of the process. There may be a few central +problems in every story, which, after the necessary facts and conditions +have been plainly told, can be thoroughly sifted out by questions, +answers, and discussions. But to work out all the little details of a +story by question and surmise, to get the crude, unbaked opinions of all +the members of a class upon every episode and fact in a story, is a +pitiful caricature of good instruction. + +The purpose of good development work is to get children to go deeper +into the meaning of a story, to realize its situations more keenly, and +to acquire habits of thoughtfulness, self-reliant judgment, and +inventiveness in solving difficulties. These results, and they are among +the chiefest set for the educator, cannot be accomplished by mere +narration and description. Their superior excellence and worth are the +prize of that superior skill which first-class development work demands. + +With these preliminary remarks, criticisms, and limitations in mind, we +may inquire what are the essentials of good development work in oral +lessons. + +(1) Determine what parts of a story are capable of development; what +facts must be clearly present to the mind before questions can be put +and inferences derived. In a problem in arithmetic we first state the +known facts, the conditions upon which a solution can be based, and +then put a question whose answer is to be gained by a proper conjunction +and inference from these facts. The same thing is true in reasoning upon +the facts in a story. + +(2) In placing a topic before children it is always advisable to touch +up the knowledge already possessed by the children, or any parts of +their previous experience which have strong interpretative ideas for the +new lesson. At this point apt questions which probe quickly into their +_previous knowledge and experience_ are at a premium. The teacher needs +to have considered beforehand in what particulars the children's home +surroundings and peculiar circumstances may furnish the desired +knowledge. The form of the questions may also receive close attention. +For these words must provoke definite thought. They should have hooks on +them which quickly drag experience into light. + +(3) In order to give direction to the children's thoughts on the story's +line of progress, _interesting aims_ should be set up. These aims, +without anticipating precise results, must guide the children towards +the desired ends and turning-points in the story. The mind should be +kept in suspense as to the outcome, and the thoughts should centre and +play about these clearly projected aims. Such aims, floating constantly +in the van, are the objective points, towards which the energy of +thought is directed. Every good story-teller keeps such aims expressly +or tacitly in view. Novelists and dramatists hinge the interest of +readers or spectators upon this curiosity which is kept acutely +sensitive about results. Such an aim should be simple and concrete, not +vague or abstract, or general. It may be put in the form of a question +or statement or suggestion. It will be a good share of the teacher's +work in the preparation of the lesson to pick out and word these aims +which centre upon the leading topics of the lesson. For it is not enough +to have an aim at the beginning of a story, every chapter or separate +part of the story should have its aim. For aims are what stimulate +effort and keep up an attentive interest. + +(4) Self-activity and thoughtfulness in working out problems find their +best opportunity in development work. The book, in narrating a story, +cannot set problems, or, if it does, it forthwith assumes the task of +solving them. But in the oral development of a story the essential facts +and conditions may be clearly presented and the solution of the +difficulties, as in arithmetic, left largely to the ingenuity and +reasoning power of the children. In the story of Hiawatha's +boat-building the problem may be set to the children as to what +materials he will use in the construction of the canoe, how the parts +were put together, and how he might decorate it. Not that the children +will give the whole solution, but they can contribute much to it. In +"Robinson Crusoe" many such problems arise. How shall he conceal his +cave and house from possible enemies? Where can he store his powder to +keep it from the lightning and from dampness? In fact, nearly every step +in Crusoe's interesting career is such a problem or difficulty to battle +with. In Kingsley's "Greek Heroes" and other renderings of the Greek +myths, the heroes are young men who have shrewdness, courage, and +strength to overcome difficulties. To put these difficulties before +children in such a way that they by their own thinking may anticipate, +in part at least, the proper solutions, is one of the chief merits of +development work. The story of Ulysses is a series of shrewd +contrivances to master difficulties or to avoid misfortunes, so that his +name has become a synonym for shrewdness. The story itself, therefore, +furnishes prime opportunities to develop resourcefulness. How shall he +escape from the enraged Polyphemos in the cave? His invention of the +wooden horse before Troy; his escape from the sirens; his battle with +the suitors and others. The story of Aladdin has such interesting +inventions, and even the fairy tales and fables have many turns of +shrewdness and device where the children's wits may be stimulated. The +turning-points and centres of interest in all such stories are the true +wrestling-grounds of thought. To put them point-blank before children in +continuous narrative, without question or discussion, is not the way to +produce thoughtfulness and inventive power. Merely reading or telling +stories to children without comment is entertaining, but not educative +in the better sense. Children will have plenty of chances at home and in +the school library to read and hear stories, but it is the business of +the school to teach them how to think as they read, to produce a habit +of foreseeing, reviewing, comparing, and judging. The serious defect of +much of young people's reading, from ten years on, is its superficial, +transitory character. It lacks depth, strength, and permanency. It is +not many stories that can be orally treated in this thorough-going way, +but enough to give the right idea, and to cultivate habit and taste for +more thoughtful study. + +For skilled teachers, therefore, development lessons, within certain +limits, constitute a most important phase of oral instruction. It has +been sometimes assumed that a child acquires greater self-reliance and a +stronger exercise in self-activity by learning his lesson by himself +from a book. This is probably true in much of the arithmetic, where he +works out the solution of problems unaided; but in history and +literature the book work is chiefly memory work, and oftentimes becomes +of such parrot-like character as to be almost destitute of higher +educative qualities. It is advisable, therefore, to strengthen the +educative value of story work by giving it, through oral instruction, +this problem-solving character, this thought-stimulating, self-reliant +attitude of mind. + +7. When the teacher has shown his best skill in presenting and +discussing a section of a story, it then devolves upon the children to +show their knowledge and grasp of the subject by reproducing it. The +task of getting this well done requires, perhaps, as much skill and +force of character as all previous work of oral instruction. Obstacles +are met with at once. It is dull work to go back over the same thing +again, and the children soon get tired of it. They want something new +and more exciting, and press for the rest of the story. Many children +are at first deficient in power of attention and in language, so that +their efforts at reproduction are clumsy and poor. The interest is weak, +the attention of the children scattering, and the class is apt to go to +pieces under the strain of such dull work. This is an emergency where a +teacher needs both skill and force of character. (What a comfort it is +to a writer to have such a platitude as this to fall back upon, when he +gets a teacher into a place where nothing but his own devices can save +him.) + +There are, however, some hopeful considerations which may encourage a +teacher whose feet are not already too deep in the bog of +discouragement. + +Children enjoy the retelling of good stories with which they are +familiar. They will do it at home, even if they are not very proficient +at it in school. In every class there are some talkative children who +are always willing to make an effort. Again, it is not always difficult +to interest boys and girls in doing a thing that requires skill and +power, such as memory, attentiveness, and mastery of correct language. +The force of the teacher's influence and authority is worth something in +setting up high standards of proficiency. Indeed, children respect a +teacher who makes rigorous demands upon them. The retelling of stories +is, after all, no harder nor duller than the reciting of a lesson +learned out of a book. + +On the other hand, the whole effectiveness of oral work depends upon the +success of these oral reproductions. If children know that the teacher +is in earnest they will be more attentive, so as to be able to fulfil +the requirement. Such a reproduction reveals at once a child's correct +or incorrect grasp of the subject, and in either case the teacher knows +what to do next. Errors and misconceptions can be corrected and such +explanations or additional facts given as will clarify the subject. + +In such reproductions it is praiseworthy to help the children as little +as possible, to throw them back upon their own power as much as +possible. If the teacher constantly relieves them with suggestive +questions, they lean more and more upon her direction and lose all +self-reliant power of continuous narrative. No, let the teacher keep a +prudent silence, let her seal her lips, if necessary, in order to teach +boys and girls to stand on their own power of thought. + +Under this sort of discipline, kindly but rigorous, children will +gradually acquire confidence in manner, variety and choice of language, +in short, the ability to grasp clearly, hold firmly, and express +accurately the ideas which are presented to them. + +The whole purpose of this sort of instruction is not so much to see how +skilfully a teacher can present a lesson (though that is a fine art) as +to determine how well a boy or girl can master or express knowledge, can +learn to think and speak for himself. + +8. Some teachers despair of treating stories orally in large classes of +primary children. The task of holding together such wriggling varieties +of mental force and mental inertia is great. Some children are quick and +excitable, others are unresponsive and dull. Some are timid and +sensitive, others bold and demonstrative. Some are talkative and +irrepressible, others silent or listless. + +It is interesting to consider the function and value of a good child's +story to fit in to such varying needs and personalities. If the purpose +of the primary school is simply to keep children busy at some kind of +orderly work, there are other tamer employments than stories. But if the +idea is to put children's minds and bodies into healthy, vigorous +action, it would be difficult to find a more suitable instrument than a +fitting story. + +But a good primary teacher knows better than to establish brusque and +fixed standards of uniform success for all children. It will take much +time and patience to get anything like good oral responses from some +children. Like budding flowers some unfold their leaves and petals much +quicker at the touch of sunshine than others. But the sun does not stop +shining because all do not come out at once. The crudest efforts of +little children must be received with kindness and encouragement. The +power of reproducing thought and language is very slowly acquired by +many children. They are timidly self-conscious, distrustful of their own +powers, and have not learned to throw themselves with confidence upon +the good-will of their teachers. It may take months with some children +to overcome these obstacles, and to bring them to a confident use of +their powers, but it is the highest delight of a teacher to reach this +result. + +Some children, on the other hand, are so talkative and impulsive that +they will monopolize the time of the class to no good purpose. Their +enthusiasm requires tempering and their soberer thought strengthening. + +Another difficulty lies in the necessary effort to get correct English, +to gradually mould the language of children into correct forms. The +perverse habits of children, the influence of home and playground, the +inveterate preference for slang and crude, crass expressions, and their +sensitive pride against unusual refinements of speech, make the +cultivation of good English an uphill task. But roads must be laid out +through this wilderness of hills and valleys, stumps and brush. And +these roads must be gradually worked down into smooth highways of +travel. It is pioneer toil, requiring the steady use of axe and mattock +and spade. + +There is no kind of school training where good English can be cultivated +to better advantage, where the power of correct, independent, +well-articulated speech can be so well strengthened as in oral story. It +is in the close contact of this work that the teacher is dealing +directly with the original stock of experiences, ideas, and words of +every child, and with these as instruments of acquisition, helping him +to get a spirited introduction to the world of ideas in books and +literature. + +It is here that we can get a glimpse of that vast work which the +elementary schools of the country are doing in the way of Americanizing +the children of various nationalities and in giving them not only a +common language, but a common body of ideas rooted in the earliest +experiences of childhood and already laying hold of many of the richest +treasures of American history and of the world's literature. + +9. As children advance from the first year into the second and third +years the character of the oral story-telling gradually changes. +Children should acquire more power of attention, greater command of +language and ability to grasp and hold at one telling a larger section +of a story. The stories themselves become more complex, the questions +and problems set by the teacher more difficult. The necessity for sharp, +logical outlines of leading topics increases as one advances in the +grades. Older children can be held more rigidly to common standards of +excellence in thought and language. In this, however, the teacher should +always remember that children differ greatly in their natural powers of +expression, and that a forcing process will not be so successful as a +stimulating and encouraging attitude in the teacher. + +10. The good oral treatment of most stories leads the children to much +activity in material constructions. Where the minds of children are +brought to a healthy activity their bodies and physical energies are +pretty sure to be called into play to work out the suggested lines of +thought. "Robinson Crusoe" invariably leads the children to a multitude +of building and making enterprises, such as moulding vessels in clay, +constructing the barricade around his tent and cave, the making of +chairs and tables, etc. + +We have already noticed the readiness of children to make blackboard or +other drawings of interesting objects in a story, or to cut them out +with scissors from paper. This effort to experience the realities of +life more directly by making objects of common utility and necessity is +a characteristic and powerful tendency of childhood. It is commonly seen +in children about the house, when, for example, they must have wagons, +wheelbarrows, tools, or a set of garden implements with which to imitate +the employments of their elders. Parkman and others often speak of the +constant practice of little Indian boys with bow and arrows. + +Our purpose here is not to discuss this matter at length, but simply to +notice its prominent place in connection with the oral lesson in story. +The intense interest awakened in stories leads quickly to these efforts +at construction. What shall the teacher do with this powerful tendency +of children to carry over these ideas into the field of practical +constructive labor? To the thinker this tendency is perhaps the surest +proof of the value of the story. It does not stop with words nor ideas. +It pushes far into the region of voluntary, physical, and mental labor +and application of knowledge. + +The teacher who will make good use of this enterprising constructive +desire of children must know definitely about tools, boards, shops, +various industries, and technical trades, the special materials, +inventions, and devices of artisans in the common occupations, such as +farming, gardening, blacksmithing, the carpenter shop, the baker, the +quarry, the brick kiln, etc. + +It will not be strange if many teachers recoil, at first glance, from +this leap into industrial life. It suggests that the schoolhouse must +become a big machine shop, agricultural station, etc. The trouble is, of +course, that teachers do not feel themselves qualified in these things. +They know almost as little as the children about such matters, and have +much less inclination to know more. + +But our modern education is taking a decided turn in this direction, and +with good reason. The close acquaintance of our teachers with the common +occupations of life, with their materials, tools, machines, +constructions, and skill would supply them with a rich collection of +practical, concrete, illustrative knowledge of the greatest use in +instructing children. It is impossible to mention anything which would +be of more service to them in the details of instruction. The advantages +to the children of such teaching, re-enforced by this concrete detail of +common life, are so numerous and important as to deserve a special +effort. The benefit to teachers would quickly more than recompense them +for the labor involved. By occasional visits of observation in shops, +fields, stores, and factories, by assisting children in their +constructive efforts, the teacher will acquire knowledge, strength, and +confidence for such work. The unfamiliarity of teachers with these +everyday industrial matters, and their feeling of helplessness as +regards things not in the usual routine of school, are the real +hindrances to be overcome. + +There are other subjects in the school course, like home geography and +the early lessons in nature study, which deal more directly than stories +with these practical forms of industrial life and constructive +activity. They will also demand and cultivate an increasing knowledge of +this practical phase of life and education. The lessons in oral +story-telling stand thus closely linked with progressive experimental +knowledge in other studies. + +A brief retrospect and summary of the requirements necessary as a basis +of good oral treatment of stories will impress us with the skill and +resourcefulness needed by the teacher. + +1. First-hand experience with the realities of life. + +2. Intimate knowledge and sympathy with child life. + +3. The many-sided mastery of the story for teaching purposes. + +4. Skill in the use of simple, apt, and forcible language. + +5. Power of narrative and description, together with various forms of +graphic illustration, dramatic action, etc. + +6. Clear and simple outline of leading topics. + +7. Acquired power in the use of development methods, including question, +problem, discussion, aims, and the training of children to self-activity +and thoughtfulness. + +8. The successful oral reproduction of stories by the children. + +9. Tact in the handling of large classes, with children of differing +temperament and capacity, and the encouragement of timid children. + +10. Changing character of oral work in advancing grades. + +11. The need of insight and ability to supervise constructive +activities. + +These things include a wide range of clear knowledge and confident skill +and resource. Teachers need first of all to cultivate resourcefulness in +the use of their own knowledge and experience, and to add to both of +these as rapidly as circumstances permit. + +The mere reading of stories to children by the teacher, at odd times, on +Friday afternoons or on special occasions, is also of much value as a +means of interesting children in a wide range of good books. It is a +source of entertainment and culture, which, when judiciously and +skilfully employed, adds much to the educative power of the school. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +FIRST GRADE STORIES + + +FAIRY TALES + +Young children, as we all know, are delighted with stories, and in the +first grade they are still in this story-loving period. A good story is +the best medium through which to convey ideas and also to approach the +difficulties of learning to read. Such a story, Wilmann says, is a +pedagogical treasure. By many thinkers and primary teachers the fairy +stories have been adopted as best suited to the wants of the little folk +just emerging from the home. A series of fairy tales was selected by +Ziller, one of the leading Herbartians, as a centre for the school work +of the first year. These stories have long held a large place in the +home culture of children, especially of the more cultivated class. Now +it is claimed that what is good for the few whose parents may be +cultured and sympathetic, may be good enough for the children of the +common people and of the poor. Moreover, stories that have made the +fireside more joyous and blessed may perchance bring vivacity and +happiness into schoolrooms. The home and the school are coming closer +together. It is even said that well-trained, sympathetic primary +teachers may better tell and impress these stories than overworked +mothers and busy fathers. If these literary treasures are left for the +homes to discover and use, the majority of children will know little or +nothing of them. Many schools in this country have been using them in +the first grade in recent years with a pleasing effect. + +But what virtue lies concealed in these fairy myths for the children of +our practical and sensible age? Why should we draw from fountains whose +sources are back in the prehistoric and even barbarous past? To many +people it appears as a curious anachronism to nourish little children in +the first decade of this new century upon food that was prepared in the +tents of wandering tribes in early European history. What are the merits +of these stories for children just entering upon scholastic pursuits? +They are known to be generally attractive to children of this age, but +many sober-minded people distrust them. Are they really meat and drink +for the little ones? And not only so, but the choicest meat and drink, +the best food upon which to nourish their unfolding minds? + +Fairy tales are charged with misleading children by falsifying the truth +of things. And, indeed, they pay little heed to certain natural laws +that practical people of good sense always respect. A child, however, is +not so humdrum practical as these serious truth-lovers. A little girl +talks to her doll as if it had real ears. She and her little brother +make teacups and saucers out of acorns with no apparent compunctions of +conscience. They follow Cinderella to the ball in a pumpkin chariot, +transformed by magic wand, with even greater interest than we read of a +presidential ball. A child may turn the common laws of physical nature +inside out and not be a whit the worse for it. Its imagination can +people a pea-pod with little heroes aching for a chance in the big +world, or it can put tender personality into the trunk and branches of +the little pine tree in the forest. There are no space limits that a +child's fancy will not spring over in a twinkling. It can ride from star +to star on a broomstick, or glide over peaceful waters in a fairy boat +drawn by graceful swans. Without suggestion from mother or teacher, +children put life and personality into their playthings. Their +spontaneous delights are in this playful exercise of the fancy, in +masquerading under the guise of a soldier, bear, horse, or bird. The +fairy tale is the poetry of children's inner impulse and feeling; their +sparkling eyes and absorbed interest show how fitting is the contact +between these childlike creations of the poet and their own budding +thoughts. + +In discussing the qualities requisite in a fairy story to make it a +pedagogical treasure, Wilmann says:[1] "When it is laid down as a first +and indispensable requirement that a story be genuinely childlike, the +demand sounds less rigorous than it really is. It is easier to feel +than to describe the qualities which lend to a story the true childlike +spirit. It is not simplicity alone. A simple story that can be +understood by a child is not on that account childlike. The simplicity +must be the ingenuousness of the child. Close to this lies the abyss of +silliness into which so many children's stories tumble. A simple story +may be manufactured, but the quality of true simplicity will not be +breathed into it unless one can draw from the deeper springs of poetic +invention. It is not enough that the externals of the story, such as +situation and action, have this character, but the sensibilities and +motives of the actors must be ingenuous and childlike; they should +reflect the child's own feeling, wish, and effort. But it is not +necessary on this account that the persons of the story be children. +Indeed the king, prince, and princess, if they only speak and act like +children, are much nearer the child's comprehension than any of the +children paraded in a manufactured story, designed for the 'industrious +youth.' For just as real poetry so the real child's story lies beyond +reality in the field of fancy. With all its plainness of thought and +action, the genuine child's story knows how to take hold of the child's +fancy and set its wings in motion. And what a meaning has fancy for the +soul of the child as compared with that of the adult. For us the +activity of fancy only sketches arabesques, as it were, around the +sharply defined pictures of reality. The child thinks and lives in such +arabesques, and it is only gradually that increasing experience writes +among these arabesques the firmer outlines of things. The child's +thoughts float about playfully and unsteadily, but the fairy tale is +even lighter winged than they. It overtakes these fleeting summer birds +and wafts them together without brushing the dust from their wings. + + [1] Wilmann, _Paedagogische Vortraege_. + +"But fostering the activity of fancy in children is a means, not an end. +It is necessary to enter the field of fancy because the way to the +child's heart leads through the fancy. The effect upon the heart of the +child is the second mark and proof of the genuine child's story. We are +not advocates of the so-called moral stories which are so short-winded +as to stop frequently and rest upon some moral commonplace. Platitudes +and moral maxims are not designed to develop a moral taste in the minds +of young children, for they appeal to the understanding and will of the +pupil and presuppose what must be first built up and established. True +moral training is rather calculated to awaken in the child judgments of +right and wrong, of good and evil (on simple illustrative examples). Not +the impression left by a moralizing discourse is the germ of a love of +the good and right, but rather the child's judgment springing from its +own conviction. 'That was good.' 'What a mean thing!' + +"Those narratives have a moral force which introduce persons and acts +that are simple and transparent enough to let the moral light shine +through, that possess sufficient life to lend warmth and vigor to moral +judgments. No attempt to cover up or pass over what is bad, nor to paint +it in extravagant colors. For the bad develops the judgment no less than +the good. It remains only to have a care that a child's interest +inclines toward the good, the just, and the right." + +Wilmann summarizes the essentials of a good story, and then discusses +the fairy tales as follows:-- + +"There are then five requirements to be made of a real child's story: +Let it be truly childlike, that is, both simple and full of fancy; let +it form morals in the sense that it introduces persons and matters +which, while simple and lively, call out a moral judgment of approval or +disapproval; let it be instructive and lead to thoughtful discussions of +society and nature; let it be of permanent value, inviting perpetually +to a reperusal; let it be a connected whole, so as to work a deeper +influence and become the source of a many-sided interest. + +"The child's story which, on the basis of the aforenamed principles, can +be made the starting-point for all others, is Grimm's fairy tale of folk +lore. We are now called upon to show that the folk-lore fairy tale +answers to the foregoing requirements, and in this we shall see many a +ray of light cast back upon these requirements themselves. + +"Is the German fairy tale childlike? full of simplicity as well as of +fancy? A deeply poetic saying of Jacob Grimm may teach us the answer. +'There runs through these poetic fairy tales the same deep vein of +purity by reason of which children seem to us so wonderful and blessed. +They have, as it were, the same pale-blue, clear, and lustrous eyes +which can grow no more although the other members are still delicate and +weak and unserviceable to the uses of earth.' Klaiber quotes this +passage in his 'Das Maerchen und die Kindliche Phantasie,' and says with +truth and beauty, 'Yes; when we look into the trusting eyes of a child, +in which none of the world's deceit is to be read as yet, when we see +how these eyes brighten and gleam at a beautiful fairy tale, as if they +were looking out into a great, wide, beautiful wonder-world, then we +feel something of the deep connection of the fairy story with the +childish soul.' We will bring forward one more passage from a little +treatise, showing depth and warmth of feeling, which stealthily takes +away from the doubters their scruples about the justification of the +fairy tale. 'It is strange how well the fairy tale and the child's soul +mutually understand each other. It is as if they had been together from +the very beginning and had grown up together. As a rule the child only +deals with that part of real life which concerns itself and children of +its age. Whatever lies beyond this is distant, strange, unintelligible. +Under the leading of the fairy tale, however, it permits itself to be +borne over hill and valley, over land and sea, through sun and moon and +stars, even to the end of the world, and everything is so near, so +familiar, so close to its reach, as if they had been everywhere before, +just as if obscure pictures within had all at once become wonderfully +distinct. And the fairies all, and the king's sons, and the other +distinguished personages, whom it learns to know through the fairy +tale,--they are as natural and intelligible as if the child had moved +its life long in the highest circles, and had had princes and princesses +for its daily playmates. In a word, the world of the fairy tale is the +child's world, for it is the world of fancy.' + +"For this reason children live and move in fairyland, whether the +story be told by the mother or by the teacher in the primary school. +What attention as the story proceeds! What anxiousness when any +danger threatens the hero, be he king's son or a wheat-straw! What +grief, even to tears, when a wrong is practised upon some innocent +creature! And far from it that the joy in the fairy tale decrease +when it is told or discussed over again. Then comes the pleasure of +representation--bringing the story upon the stage. Though a child has +but to represent a flower in the meadow, the little face is transfigured +with the highest joy. + +"But the childish joy of fairy tales passes away; not so the inner +experiences which it has brought with it. I am not affirming too much +when I say that he who, as a child, has never listened with joy to the +murmuring and rustling of the fresh fountain of fairyland, will have no +ear and no understanding for many a deep stream of German poetry. It is, +after all, the modest fountain of fairy song which, flowing and uniting +with the now noisy, now soft and gently flowing, current of folk song, +and with the deep and earnest stream of tradition, which has poured such +a refreshing current over German poetry, out of which our most excellent +Uhland has drawn so many a heart-strengthening draught. + +"The spirit of the people finds expression in fairy tale as in tradition +and song, and if we were only working to lift and strengthen the +national impulse, a moral-educative instruction would have to turn again +and again to these creations of the people. What was asserted as a +general truth in regard to classical products, that they are a bond +between large and small, old and young, is true of national stories and +songs more than of anything else. They are at once a bond between the +different classes, a national treasure, which belongs alike to rich and +poor, high and low. The common school then has the least right of all to +put the fairy tale aside, now that few women versed in fairy lore, such +as those to whom Grimm listened, are left. + +"But does the fairy tale come of noble blood? Does it possess what we +called in the case of classics an old title of nobility? If we keep to +this figure of speech, we shall find that the fairy tale is not only +noble, but a very royal child among stories. It has ruled from olden +times, far and wide, over many a land. Hundreds of years gone, Grimm's +fairy stories lived in the people's heart, and not in Germany alone. If +our little ones listen intently to Aschenputtel, French children +delighted in Cindrillon, the Italian in Cenerentola, the Polish in +Kopcinszic. The fact that mediaeval story-books contain Grimm's tales is +not remarkable, when we reflect that traits and characteristics of the +fairy tale reach back beyond the Christian period; that Frau Holle is +Hulda, or Frigg, the heathen goddess; that 'Wishing-cap,' 'Little +Lame-leg,' and 'Table Cover Thyself,' etc., are made up out of the +attributes of German gods. Finally, such things as 'The Sleeping +Beauty,' which is the earth in winter sleep, that the prince of summer +wakes with kisses in springtime, point back to the period of primitive +Indo-German myth. + +"But in addition to the requirement of classical nobility, has the fairy +story also the moral tone which we required of the genuine child's +story? Does the fairy story make for morals? To be sure it introduces to +an ideal realm of simple moral relations. The good and bad are sharply +separated. The wrong holds for a time its supremacy, but the final +victory is with the good. And with what vigor the judgment of good and +evil, of right and wrong, is produced. We meet touching pictures, +especially of good-will, of faithfulness, characteristic and full of +life. Think only of the typical interchange of words between Lenchen and +Fundevogel. Said Lenchen, 'Leave me not and I will never leave thee.' +Said Fundevogel, 'Now and nevermore.' We are reminded of the Bible words +of the faithful Ruth, 'Whither thou goest I will go; where thou lodgest +I will lodge; where thou diest I will die and there will I be buried.' + +"Important for the life of children is the rigor with which the fairy +tale punishes disobedience and falsehood. Think of the suggestive +legendary story of the child which was visited again and again with +misfortune because of its obstinacy, till its final confession of guilt +brings full pardon. It is everywhere a Christian thread which runs +through so many fairy stories. It is love for the rejected, oppressed, +and abandoned. Whatever is loaded with burdens and troubles receives the +palm, and the first becomes the last. + +"The fairy story fulfils the first three requirements for a true child's +story. It is childlike, of lasting value, and fosters moral ideas. As to +unity it will suffice for children of six years (for this is, in our +opinion, the age at which it exerts its moral force) that the stories be +told in the same spirit, although they do not form one connected +narrative. If a good selection of fairy tales according to their inner +connection is made, so that frequent references and connections can be +found, the requirement of unity will be satisfied. + +"The fairy tale seems to satisfy least of all the demand that the true +child's story must be instructive, and serve as a starting-point for +interesting practical discussion. The fairy story seems too airy and +dreamy for this, and it might appear pedantry to load it with +instruction. But one will not be guilty of this mistake if one simply +follows up the ideas which the story suggests. When the story of a +chicken, a fox, or a swan is told it is fully in harmony with the +childish thought to inquire into the habits of these animals. When the +king is mentioned it is natural to say that we have a king, to ask where +he lives, etc. Just because the fairy tale sinks deep and holds a firm +and undivided attention, it is possible to direct the suggested thoughts +hither or thither without losing the pleasure they create. If one keeps +this aim in mind, instructive material is abundant. The fairy tale +introduces various employments and callings, from the king to the +farmer, tailor, and shoemaker. Many passages in life, such as betrothal, +marriage, and burial, are presented. Labors in the house, yard, and +field, and numerous animals, plants, and inanimate things are touched +upon. For the observation of animals and for the relation between them +and children, it is fortunate that the fairy tale presents them as +talking and feeling. Thereby the interest in real animals is increased +and heartlessness banished. How could a child put to the torture an +animal which is an old friend in fairy story? + +"I need only suggest in this place how the fairy story furnishes +material for exercises in oral language, for the division of words into +syllables and letters, and how the beginnings of writing, drawing, +number, and manual exercises may be drawn from the same source. + +"From the suggestions just made the following conclusions at least may +be reasonably drawn. A sufficient counterpoise to the fantastical nature +of the fairy tale can be given in a manner simple and childlike, if the +objects and relations involved in the narratives are brought clearly +before the senses and discussed so that instruction about common objects +and home surroundings is begun." + +In speaking of Shakespeare's early training in literature, Charles +Kingsley says:-- + +"I said there was a literary art before Shakespeare--an art more simple, +more childlike, more girlish, as it were, and therefore all the more +adapted for young minds, but also an art most vigorous and pure in point +of style: thoroughly fitted to give its readers the first elements of +taste, which must lie at the root of even the most complex aesthetics. + +"The old fairy superstition, the old legends and ballads, the old +chronicles of feudal war and chivalry, the earlier moralities and +mysteries and tragicomic attempts--these were the roots of his poetic +tree--they must be the roots of any literary education which can teach +us to appreciate him. These fed Shakespeare's youth; why should they not +feed our children's? Why indeed? That inborn delight of the young in all +that is marvellous and fantastic--has that a merely evil root? No +surely! It is a most pure part of their spiritual nature; a part of 'the +heaven which lies about us in our infancy'; angel-wings with which the +free child leaps the prison-walls of sense and custom, and the drudgery +of earthly life." + +Felix Adler says:[2] "But how shall we handle these _Maerchen_ and what +method shall we employ in putting them to account for our special +purpose? I have a few thoughts on this subject, which I shall venture to +submit in the form of counsels. + + [2] _Moral Instruction of Children._ D. Appleton & Co. + +"My _first counsel_ is: Tell the story; do not give it to the child to +read. There is an obvious practical reason for this. Children are able +to benefit by hearing fairy tales before they can read. But that is not +the only reason. It is the childhood of the race, as we have seen, that +speaks in the fairy story of the child of to-day. It is the voice of an +ancient far-off past that echoes from the lips of the storyteller. The +words 'once upon a time' open up a vague retrospect into the past, and +the child gets its first indistinct notions of history in this way. The +stories embody the tradition of the childhood of mankind. They have on +this account an authority all their own, not, indeed, that of literal +truth, but one derived from their being types of certain feelings and +longings which belong to childhood as such. The child, as it listens to +the _Maerchen_, looks up with wide-opened eyes to the face of the person +who tells the story, and thrills responsive as the touch of the earlier +life of the race thus falls upon its own. Such an effect, of course, +cannot be produced by cold type. Tradition is a living thing and should +use the living voice for its vehicle. + +"My _second counsel_ is also of a practical nature, and I make bold to +say quite essential to the successful use of the stories. Do not take +the moral plum out of the fairy-tale pudding, but let the child enjoy it +as a whole. Do not make the story taper toward a single point, the moral +point. You will squeeze all the juice out of it if you try. Do not +subordinate the purely fanciful and naturalistic elements of the story, +such as the love of mystery, the passion for roving, the sense of +fellowship with the animal world, in order to fix attention solely on +the moral element. On the contrary, you will gain the best moral effect +by proceeding in exactly the opposite way. Treat the moral element as an +incident, emphasize it indeed, but incidentally. Pluck it as a wayside +flower. How often does it happen that, having set out on a journey with +a distinct object in mind, something occurs on the way which we had not +foreseen, but which in the end leaves the deepest impression on the +mind.... + +"The value of the fairy tales is that they stimulate the imagination; +that they reflect the unbroken communion of human life with the life +universal, as in beasts, fishes, trees, flowers, and stars; and that +incidentally, but all the more powerfully on that account, they quicken +the moral sentiments. + +"Let us avail ourselves freely of the treasures which are thus placed at +our disposal. Let us welcome _das Maerchen_ into our primary course of +moral training, that with its gentle bands, woven of 'morning mist and +morning glory,' it may help to lead our children into bright realms of +the ideal." + +A selection of fairy stories suited to our first grade will differ from +a similar selection for foreign schools. There has been a disposition +among American teachers for several years to appropriate the best of +these stories for use in the primary schools. In different parts of the +country skilful primary teachers have been experimenting successfully +with these materials. There are many schools in which both teachers and +pupils have taken great delight in them. The effort has been made more +particularly with first grade children, the aim of teachers being to +lead captive the spontaneous interest of children from their first +entrance upon school tasks. Some of the stories used at the first may +seem light and farcical, but experiments with children are a better +test than the preconceived notions of adults who may have forgotten +their early childhood. The story of the "Four Musicians," for example, +is a favorite with the children. + +At the risk of repetition, and to emphasize some points of special +importance, we will review briefly the method of oral treatment and the +use of the stories in early primary reading. + +The children have no knowledge of reading or perhaps of letters. The +story is told with spirit by the teacher, no book being used in the +class. Question and interchange of thought between pupil and teacher +will become more frequent and suggestive as the teacher becomes more +skilled and sympathetic in her treatment of the story. In the early +months of school life the aim is to gain the attention and cooeperation +of children by furnishing abundant food for thought. Children are +required or at least encouraged to narrate the story or a part of it in +the class. They tell it at school and probably at home, till they become +more and more absorbed in it. Even the backward or timid child gradually +acquires courage and enjoys narrating the adventures of the peas in the +pod or those of the animals in the "Four Musicians." + +The teacher should acquire a vivid and picturesque style of narrating, +persistently weaving into the story, by query and suggestion, the +previous home experiences of the children. They are only too ready to +bring out these treasures at the call of the teacher. Often it is +necessary to check their enthusiasm. There is a need not simply for +narrative power, but for quick insight and judgment, so as to bring +their thoughts into close relation to the incidents. Nowhere in all the +schools is there such a call for close and motherly sympathy. The gentle +compulsion of kindness is required to inspire the timid ones with +confidence. For some of them are slow to open their delicate thought and +sensibility, even to the sunny atmosphere of a pleasant school. + +A certain amount of drill in reproduction is necessary, but fortunately +the stories have something that bears repetition with a growing +interest. Added to this is the desire for perfect mastery, and thus the +stories become more dear with familiarity. + +Incidentally, there should be emphasis of the instructive information +gathered concerning animals and plants that are actors in the scenes. +The commonest things of the house, field, and garden acquire a new and +lasting interest. Sometimes the teacher makes provision in advance of +the story for a deeper interest in the plants and animals that are to +appear. In natural science lessons she may take occasion to examine the +pea blossom, or the animals of the barnyard, or the squirrel or birds in +their cages. When, a few days later, the story touches one of these +animals, there is a quick response from the children. This relation +between history and natural science strengthens both. + +Many an opportunity should be given for the pupils to express a warm +sympathy for gentle acts of kindness or unselfishness. The happiness +that even a simple flower may bring to a home is a contagious example. +Kindly treatment of the old and feeble, and sympathy for the innocent +and helpless, spring into the child's own thought. The fancy, sympathy, +and interest awakened by a good fairy tale make it a vehicle by which, +consciously and unconsciously, many advantages are borne home to pupils. + +Among other things, it opens the door to the reading lesson; that is, to +the beginning efforts in mastering and using the symbols of written +language. The same story which all have learned to tell, they are now +about to learn to read from the board. One or two sentences are taken +directly from the lips of the pupils as they recall the story, and the +work of mastering symbols is begun at once with zest. First is the clear +statement of some vivid thought by a child, then a quick association of +this thought with its written symbols on the board. There is no readier +way of bringing thought and form into firm connection, that is, of +learning to read. Keep the child's fresh mental judgment and the written +form clearly before his mind till the two are wedded. Let the thought +run back and forth between them till they are one. + +After fixing two or three sentences on the board, attention is directed +more closely to the single words, and a rapid drill upon those in the +sentence is followed by a discovery and naming of them in miscellaneous +order. Afterward new sentences are formed by the teacher out of the same +words, written on the board, and read by the children. They express +different, and perhaps opposite forms of thought, and should exercise +the child's sense and judgment as well as his memory of words. An +energetic, lively, and successful drill of this kind upon sentences +drawn from stories has been so often witnessed, that its excellence is +no longer a matter of question. These exercises are a form of mental +activity in which children delight if the teacher's manner is vigorous +and pleasant. + +When the mastery of new word-forms as wholes is fairly complete, the +analysis may go a step farther. Some new word in the lesson may be taken +and separated into its phonic elements, as the word _hill_, and new +words formed by dropping a letter and prefixing letters or syllables, as +_ill_, _till_, _until_, _mill_, _rill_, etc. The power to construct new +words out of old materials should be cultivated all along the process of +learning to read. + +Still other school activities of children stand in close relation to the +fairy tales. They are encouraged to draw the objects and incidents in +which the story abounds. Though rude and uncouth, the drawings still +often surprise us with their truth and suggestiveness. The sketches +reveal the content of a child's mind as almost nothing else--his +misconceptions, his vague or clearly defined notions. They also furnish +his mental and physical activities an employment exactly suited to his +needs and wishes. + +The power to use good English and to express himself clearly and +fittingly is cultivated from the very first. While this merit is purely +incidental, it is none the less valuable. The persistence with which bad +and uncouth words and phrases are employed by children in our common +school, both in oral work and in composition, admonishes us to begin +early to eradicate these faults. It seems often as if intermediate and +grammar grades were more faulty and wretched in their use of English +than primary grades. But there can be no doubt that early and persistent +practice in the best forms of expression, especially in connection with +interesting and appropriate thought matter, will greatly aid +correctness, fluency, and confidence in speech. There is also a +convincing pedagogical reason why children in the first primary should +be held to the best models of spoken language. They enter the school +better furnished with oral speech than with a knowledge of any school +study. Their home experiences have wrought into close association and +unity, word and thing. So intimate and living is the relation between +word and thought or object, that a child really does not distinguish +between them. This is the treasure with which he enters school, and it +should not be wrapped up in a napkin. It should be unrolled at once and +put to service. Oral speech is the capital with which a child enters the +business of education; let him employ it. + +A retrospect upon the various forms of school activity which spring, in +practical work, from the use of a good fairy story, reveals how +many-sided and inspiriting are its influences. Starting out with a rich +content of thought peculiarly germane to childish interests, it calls +for a full employment of the language resources already possessed by the +children. In the effort to picture out, with pencil or chalk, his +conceptions of the story, a child exercises his fanciful and creative +wit, as well as the muscles of arms and eyes. A good story always finds +its setting in the midst of nature or society, and touches up with a +simple, homely, but poetic charm the commonest verities of human +experience. The appeal to the sensibility and moral judgment of pupils +is direct and spontaneous, because of the interests and sympathies that +are inherent in persons, and touch directly the childish fancy. And, +lastly, the irrepressible traditional demand that children shall learn +to read, is fairly and honestly met and satisfied. + +It is not claimed that fairy tales involve the sum total of primary +instruction, but they are an illustration of how rich will be the +fruitage of our educational effort if we consider first the highest +needs and interests of children, and allow the formal arts to drop into +their proper subordination. "The best is good enough for children," and +when we select the best, the wide-reaching connections which are +established between studies carry us a long step toward the now +much-bruited correlation and concentration of studies. + + +BOOKS OF MATERIALS FOR TEACHERS + + Classic Stories for the Little Ones. Public School Publishing Co., + Bloomington, Ill. + Grimm's Fairy Tales (Wiltse). Ginn & Co. + German Fairy Tales (Grimm). Maynard, Merrill, & Co. + Grimm's German Household Tales. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Stories from Hans Andersen. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Andersen's Fairy Tales, two volumes. Part I and Part II. Ginn & Co. + Fairy Stories and Fables. American Book Co. + Fables and Folk Stories (Scudder). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Rhymes and Jingles (Dodge). Scribner's Sons. + Fairy Stories for Children (Baldwin). American Book Co. + Songs and Stories. University Publishing Co. + Fairy Life. University Publishing Co. + Six Nursery Classics (O'Shea). D. C. Heath & Co. + Grimm's Fairy Tales. Educational Publishing Co. + A Book of Nursery Rhymes (Welch). D. C. Heath & Co. + Verse and Prose for Beginners in Reading. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Heart of Oak, No. I. D. C. Heath & Co. + Heart of Oak, No. II. D. C. Heath & Co. + The Eugene Field Book. Scribner's Sons. + Moral Education of Children (Adler). D. Appleton & Co. Chapter VI. + on Fairy Tales. + Literature in Schools (Scudder). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. Chapter + on Nursery Classics. + + +THE FABLES + +No group of stories has a more assured place in the literature for +children than the AEsop's "Fables." Some of the commonest have been +expanded into little stories which are presented orally to children in +the first school year, as "The Lion and the Mouse," "The Ants and the +Grasshoppers," "The Dog and his Shadow," and others. They are so simple +and direct that they are used alongside the fairy tales for the earliest +instruction of children. + +As soon as children have acquired the rudiments of reading the AEsop's +"Fables" are commonly used in the second and third school year as a +reading book, and all the early reading books are partly made up from +this material. + +If we inquire into the qualities of these stories which have given them +such a universal acceptance, we shall find that they contain in a +simple, transparent form a good share of the world's wisdom. More recent +researches indicate that they originated in India, and reached Europe +through Persia and Arabia, being ascribed to AEsop. This indicates that +like most early literature of lasting worth, they are products of the +folk-mind rather than of a single writer, and it is the opinion of Adler +that they express the ripened wisdom of the people under the forms of +Oriental despotism. The sad and hopeless submission to a stronger power +expressed by some of the fables, it is claimed, unfits them for use in +our freer life to-day. + +There are certain points in which their attractiveness to children is +clearly manifest. The actors in the stories are usually animals, and the +ready interest and sympathy of children for talking animals are at once +appealed to. In all the early myths and fairy tales, human life seems to +merge into that of the animals, as in "Hiawatha," and the fables +likewise are a marked expression of this childlike tendency. + +Adler says: "The question may be asked why fables are so popular with +boys. I should say because schoolboy society reproduces in miniature, to +a certain extent, the social conditions which are reflected in the +fables. Among unregenerate schoolboys there often exists a kind of +despotism, not the less degrading because petty. The strong are pitted +against the weak--witness the fagging system in English schools--and +their mutual antagonism produces in both the characteristic vices which +we have noted above." A literature which clearly pictures these +relations so that they can be seen objectively by the children may be of +the greatest social service in education. + +Adler says further: "The psychological study of schoolboy society has +been only begun, but even what lies on the surface will, I think, bear +out this remark. Now it has become one of the commonplaces of +educational literature that the individual of to-day must pass through +the same stages of evolution as the human race as a whole. But it should +not be forgotten that the advance of civilization depends on two +conditions: first, that the course of evolution be accelerated, that the +time allowed to the successive stages be shortened; and, secondly, that +the unworthy and degrading elements which entered into the process of +evolution in the past, and at the time were inseparable from it, be now +eliminated. Thus the fairy tales which correspond to the myth-making +epoch in human history must be purged of the dross of superstition which +still adheres to them, and the fables which correspond to the age of +primitive despotisms must be cleansed of the immoral elements they still +embody."[3] + + [3] Adler, _Moral Instruction of Children_, pp. 88-89. + +The peculiar form of moral teaching in the "Fables" suits them +especially to children. A single trait of conduct, like greediness or +selfishness, is sharply outlined in the story and its results made +plain. "We have seen nothing finer in teaching than the building up of +these little stories in conversational lessons--first to illustrate some +mental or moral trait; then to detach the idea from its story picture, +and find illustrations for it in some other act or incident. And nothing +can be more gratifying as a result, than, through the transparency of +childish hearts, to watch the growth of right conduct from the impulses +derived from the teaching; and so laying the foundations of future +rightness of character."[4] + + [4] Introduction to Stickney's _AEsop's Fables_. Ginn & Co. + +The moral ideas inculcated by the fables are usually of a practical, +worldly-wisdom sort, not high ideals of moral quality, not virtue for +its own sake, but varied examples of the results of rashness and folly. +This is, perhaps, one reason why they are so well suited to the immature +moral judgments of children. + +Adler says: "Often when a child has committed some fault, it is useful +to refer by name to the fable that fits it. As, when a boy has made room +in his seat for another, and the other crowds him out, the mere mention +of the fable of the porcupine is a telling rebuke; or the fable of the +hawk and the pigeons may be called to mind when a boy has been guilty of +mean excuses. On the same principle that angry children are sometimes +taken before a mirror to show them how ugly they look, the fable is a +kind of mirror for the vices of the young." Again: "The peculiar value +of the fables is that they are instantaneous photographs which +reproduce, as it were, in a single flash of light, some one aspect of +human nature, and which, excluding everything else, permit the attention +to be entirely fixed on that one." + +But the value of the fable reaches far beyond childhood. The frequency +with which it is cited in nearly all the forms of literature, and its +aptness to express the real meaning of many episodes in real life, in +politics and social events, in peace and war, show the universality of +the truth it embodies. A story which engraves a truth, as it were with a +diamond point, upon a child's mind, a truth which will swiftly interpret +many events in his later life, deserves to take a high place among +educative influences. + + +FABLES AND NATURE MYTHS + + Scudder's Fables and Folk Stories. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + AEsop's Fables (Stickney). Ginn & Co. + Book of Legends (Scudder). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Stories for Children (Lane). The American Book Co. + A Child's Garden of Verses (Stevenson). Scribner's Sons. + AEsop's Fables. Educational Publishing Co. + The Book of Nature Myths (Holbrook). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + The Moral Instruction of Children (Adler), Chapters VII and VIII. + D. Appleton & Co. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +SECOND GRADE STORIES + + +"ROBINSON CRUSOE" + +In selecting suitable literature for children of the second grade, we +follow in the steps of a number of distinguished writers and teachers +and choose an English classic--"Robinson Crusoe." Rousseau gave this +book his unqualified approval, and said that it would be the first, and, +for a time, the only book that Emile should read. The Herbartians have +been using it a number of years, while many American teachers have +employed it for oral work in second grade, in a short school edition. In +one sense, the book needs no introduction, as it has found its way into +every nook and corner of the world. Originally a story for adults, it +has reached all, and illustrated Christmas editions, designed even for +children from three years and upward, are abundant. To the youth of all +lands, it has been, to say the least, a source of delight, but it has +been regarded as a book for the family and home. What would happen +should the schoolmaster lay his hand on this treasure and desecrate it +to school purposes! We desire to test this classic work on the side of +its pedagogical value and its adaptation to the uses of regular +instruction. If it is really unrivalled as a piece of children's +literature, perhaps it has also no equal for school purposes. + +In making the transition from the fairy tale to "Robinson Crusoe," an +interesting difference or contrast may be noticed. Wilmann says:[5] +"'Crusoe' is at once simple, and plain, and fanciful; to be sure, in the +latter case, entirely different from the fairy tale. In the fairy story +the fancy seldom pushes rudely against the boundaries of the real world. +But otherwise in 'Crusoe.' Here it is the practical fancy that is +aroused, if this expression appear not contradictory. What is Crusoe to +do now? How can he help himself? What means can he invent? Many of the +proposals of the children will have to be rejected. The inexorable 'not +possible' shoves a bolt before the door. The imagination is compelled to +limit itself to the task of combining and adjusting real things. The +compulsion of things conditions the progress of the story. 'Thoughts +dwell together easily, but things jostle each other roughly in space.'" + + [5] Wilmann, _Paedagogische Vortraege_. + +There are other striking differences between "Crusoe" and the folk-lore +stories, but in this contrast we are now chiefly concerned. After +reaching the island, he is checked and limited at every step by the +physical laws imposed by nature. Struggle and fret as he may against +these limits, he becomes at last a philosopher, and quietly takes up the +struggle for existence under those inexorable conditions. The child of +seven or eight is vaguely acquainted with many of the simple employments +of the household and of the neighborhood. Crusoe also had a vague memory +of how people in society in different trades and occupations supply the +necessaries and comforts of life. Even the fairy stories give many hints +of this kind of knowledge, but Robinson Crusoe is face to face with the +sour facts. He is cut off from help and left to his own resources. The +interest in the story is in seeing how he will shift for himself and +exercise his wits to insure plenty and comfort. With few tools and on a +barbarous coast, he undertakes what men in society, by mutual exchange +and by division of labor, have much difficulty in performing. Crusoe +becomes a carpenter, a baker and cook, a hunter, a potter, a fisher, a +farmer, a tailor, a boatman, a stock-raiser, a basket-maker, a +shoemaker, a tanner, a fruit-grower, a mason, a physician. And not only +so, but he grapples with the difficulties of each trade or occupation in +a bungling manner because of inexperience and lack of skill and exact +knowledge. He is an experimenter and tester along many lines. The entire +absence of helpers centres the whole interest of this varied struggle in +one person. It is to be remembered that Crusoe is no genius, but the +ordinary boy or man. He has abundant variety of needs such as a child +reared under civilized conditions has learned to feel. The whole range +of activities, usually distributed to various classes and persons in +society, rests now upon his single shoulders. If he were an expert in +all directions, the task would be easier, but he has only vague +knowledge and scarcely any skill. The child, therefore, who reads this +story, by reason of the slow, toilsome, and bungling processes of Crusoe +in meeting his needs, becomes aware how difficult and laborious are the +efforts by which the simple, common needs of all children are supplied. + +A reference to the different trades and callings that Crusoe assumes +will show us that he is not dealing with rare and unusual events, but +with the common, simple employments that lie at the basis of society in +all parts of the world. The carpenter, the baker, the farmer, the +shoemaker, etc., are at work in every village in every land. Doubtless +this is one reason why the story acquires such a hold in the most +diverse countries. The Arab or the Chinese boy, the German or American +child, finds the story touching the ordinary facts of his own +surroundings. Though the story finds its setting in a far-away, lonely +island in tropical seas, Crusoe is daily trying to create the objects +and conditions of his old home in England. But these are the same +objects that surround every child; and therefore, in reading "Robinson +Crusoe," the pupil is making an exhaustive and interesting study of his +own home. The presence of a tropical vegetation and of a strange climate +does not seriously impair this fact. The skill of a great literary +artist appears in his power to create a situation almost devoid of +common comforts and blessings and then in setting his hero to work to +create them by single-handed effort. + +It will hardly be questioned that the study of the home and home +neighborhood by children is one of the large and prominent problems in +education. Out of their social, economic, and physical environment +children get the most important lessons of life. Not only does the home +furnish a varied fund of information that enables them to interpret +books, and people, and institutions, as they sooner or later go out into +the world, but all the facts gathered by experience and reading in +distant fields must flow back again to give deeper meaning to the labors +and duties which surround each citizen in his own home. But society with +its commerce, education, and industries, is an exceedingly complex +affair. The child knows not where to begin to unravel this endless +machinery of forms and institutions. In a sense he must get away from or +disentangle himself from his surroundings in order to understand them. +There are no complex conditions surrounding Crusoe, and he takes up the +labors of the common trades in a simple and primitive manner. Physical +and mental effort are demanded at every step, from Crusoe and from the +children. Many of his efforts involve repeated failure, as in making +pottery, in building a boat, while some things that he undertakes with +painful toil never attain success. The lesson of toil and hardship +connected with the simple industries is one of great moment to children. +Our whole social fabric is based on these toils, and it is one of the +best results of a sound education to realize the place and importance of +hard work. + +It scarcely needs to be pointed out that Crusoe typifies a long period +of man's early history, the age when men were learning the rudiments of +civilization by taking up the toils of the blacksmith, the +agriculturist, the builder, the domesticator of animals and plants. Men +emerged from barbarism as they slowly and painfully gained the mastery +over the resources of nature. Crusoe is a sort of universal man, +embodying in his single effort that upward movement of men which has +steadily carried them to the higher levels of progress. It has been said +with some truth that Robinson Crusoe is a philosophy of history. But we +scarcely need such a high-sounding name. To the child he is a very +concrete, individual man, with very simple and interesting duties. + +In a second point the author of "Robinson Crusoe" shows himself a +literary master. There is an intense and naive realism in his story. +Even if one were so disposed, it would require a strong effort to break +loose from the feeling that we are in the presence of real experiences. +There is a quiet but irresistible assumption of unvarnished and even +disagreeable fact in the narrative. But it is useless to describe the +style of a book so familiar. Its power over youthful fancy and feeling +has been too often experienced to be doubted. The vivid interest which +the book awakens is certain to carry home whatever lessons it may teach +with added force. So great is this influence that boys sometimes imitate +the efforts of Crusoe by making caves, building ovens, and assuming a +style of dress and living that approximates Crusoe's state. This +supplies to teachers a hint of some value. The story of Crusoe should +lead to excursions into the home neighborhood for the purpose of a +closer examination of the trades and occupations there represented. An +imitation of his labors may also be encouraged. The effort to mould and +bake vessels from potter's clay, the platting of baskets from willow +withes, the use of tools in making boxes or tables may be attempted far +enough to discover how lacking in practical ability the children are. +This will certainly teach them greater respect for manual skill. + +From the previous discussion it might appear that we regard the story of +Crusoe as technological and industrial rather than moral. But it would +be a mistake to suppose that a book is not moral because it is not +perpetually dispensing moral platitudes. Most men's lives are mainly +industrial. The display of moral qualities is only occasional and +incidental. The development of moral character is coincident with the +labors and experiences of life and springs out of them, being manifested +by the spirit with which one acts toward his fellow-men. But Crusoe was +alone on his island, and there might seem to be no opportunity to be +moral in relation to others. Society, to be sure, was conspicuous by its +absence. But the intense longing with which he thought of the home and +companionships lost is perhaps the strongest sentiment in the book. His +loneliness brings out most vividly his true relation to home and +friends. + +His early life, till the shipwreck, was that of a wayward and reckless +youth, disobedient to parents and seemingly without moral scruples. Even +during the first months upon the island there appears little moral +change or betterment. But slowly the bitter experiences of his lonely +life sober him. He finds a Bible, and a fit of sickness reveals the +distresses that may lie before him. When once the change has set in, it +is rapid and thorough. He becomes devout, he longs to return to his +parents and atone for his faults. A complete reformation of his moral +disposition is effected. If one will take the pains to read the original +"Robinson Crusoe" he will find it surprisingly serious and moral in its +tone. He devotes much time to soliloquizing on the distresses of his +condition and upon the causes which have brought him to misery. He +diagnoses his case with an amount of detail that must be tedious to +children. The fact that these parts of the book often leave little +direct impression upon children is proof that they are chiefly engaged +with the adventure and physical embarrassments of Crusoe. For the +present it is sufficient to observe that the story is deeply and +intensely moral both in its spirit and in the changes described in +"Crusoe." + +We are next led to inquire whether the industrial and moral lessons +contained in this story are likely to be extracted from it by a boy or +girl who reads it alone, without the aid of a teacher. Most young +readers of "Crusoe" are carried along by the interesting adventure. It +is a very surprising and entertaining story. But children even less than +adults are inclined to go deeper than the surface and draw up hidden +treasures. De Foe's work is a piece of classic literature. But few +people are inclined to get at the deeper meaning and spirit of a +classical masterpiece unless they go through it in companionship with a +teacher who is gifted to disclose its better meaning. This is true of +any classical product we might mention. It should be the peculiar +function of the school to cultivate a taste, and an appreciative taste, +for the best literature; not by leaving it to the haphazard home reading +of pupils, but by selecting the best things adapted to the minds of +children and then employing true teaching skill to bring these +treasures close to the hearts and sympathies of children. Many young +people do not read "Robinson Crusoe" at all; many others do not +appreciate its better phases. The school will much improve its work by +taking for its own this best of children's stories, and by extending and +deepening the children's appreciation of a classic. + +The story of Robinson Crusoe is made by the Herbartians the nucleus for +the concentration of studies in the second year. This importance is +given to it on account of its strong moral tone and because of its +universal typical character in man's development. Without attempting a +solution of the problem of concentration at this juncture, we should at +least observe the relations of this story to the other studies. Wilmann +says: "The everywhere and nowhere of the fairy tale gives place to the +first geographical limitations. The continents, the chief countries of +Europe, come up, besides a series of geographical concepts such as +island, coast, bay, river, hill, mountain, sea, etc. The difference in +climate is surprising. Crusoe fears the winter and prepares for it, but +his fear is needless, for no winter reaches his island." We have already +observed its instructive treatment of the common occupations which +prepare for later geographical study, as well as for natural science. + +Many plants and animals are brought to notice which would furnish a good +beginning for natural science lessons. It is advisable, however, to +study rather those home animals and plants which correspond best to the +tropical products or animals in the lessons. Tropical fruits, the +parrot, and the goat we often meet at home, but in addition, the sheep, +the ox, the mocking-bird, the woodpecker, our native fruits and grains, +and the fish, turtles, and minerals of the home, may well be suggested +and studied in science lessons parallel with the life of Crusoe. + +Following upon the oral treatment and discussion of "Robinson Crusoe" +the children are easily led to like efforts at construction, as, for +instance, the making of a raft, the building of the cave and stockade, +the making of chairs and tables, the moulding of jars and kettles out of +clay, the weaving of baskets, the preparation and cooking of foods, the +planting of grains, the construction of an oven or house, boat building, +and other labors of Crusoe in providing for his wants. + +It is quite customary now in second grade to set the children to work in +these efforts to solve Crusoe's problems, so that they, by working with +actual materials, may realize more fully the difficulties and trials to +which he was subjected. In close connection with these constructive +efforts are the drawings of the scenes of the story, such as the +shipwreck, the stockade, the boat, the map of the island, and some of +the later events of the story. A still further means of giving reality +to the events is to dramatize some of the scenes between Friday and +Crusoe, and to dress and equip these and other persons in the story in +fitting manner. The children gladly enter into such dramatic action. +These various forms of drawing, action, and constructive work are in +close connection with the home studies of industries and +occupations,--farming, gardening, carpenter and blacksmith shops, +weaving, cooking, bakeries, and excursions to shops--which follow the +Crusoe story in the study of home geography in the third grade. + +Although the story should be given and discussed orally, the children +should also read it later as a part of the regular reading exercise of +the course. Instead of suffering from this repetition, their interest +will only be increased. Classical products usually gain by repetition. +The facts are brought out more clearly and the deeper meaning is +perceived. To have the oral treatment of a story precede its reading by +some weeks or months produces an excellent effect upon the style of the +reading. The thought being familiar, and the interest strong, the +expression will be vigorous and natural. Children take a pride in +reading a story which they at first must receive orally for lack of +reading power. + +The same advantageous drill in the use of good English accrues to the +Crusoe story that was observed in the fairy tales. There is abundant +opportunity for oral narrative and description. + +The use of the pencil and chalk in graphic representation should be +encouraged both in teacher and in pupils. Thus the eye becomes more +accurate in observation and the hand more free and facile in tracing the +outlines of the interesting forms studied. The use of tools and +materials in construction gives ideas an anchorage, not only in the +brain, but even in the nerves and muscles. + +In thus glancing over the field we discover the same many-sided and +intimate relation with other school studies, as in the previous grade. +In fact, "Crusoe" is the first extended classical masterpiece which is +presented to the children as a whole. Such parts of the story as are of +most pedagogical value should be simplified and woven together into a +continuous narrative. That part of the story which precedes the +shipwreck may be reduced to a few paragraphs which bring out clearly his +early home surroundings, his disobedience and the desertion of his +parents, and the voyage which led to his lonely life upon the island. +The period embraced in his companionless labors and experiences +constitutes the important part for school uses. A few of the more +important episodes following the capture of Friday and his return home +may be briefly told. We deem it a long step forward to get some of our +great classical masterpieces firmly embedded in the early years of our +school course. It will contribute almost as much to the culture and +stimulation of teachers as of pupils. + +The method of handling this narrative before the class will be similar +to that of the fairy tales. A simple and vivid recital of the facts, +with frequent questions and discussions, so as to draw the story closer +to the child's own thought and experience, should be made by the +teacher. Much skill in illustrative device, in graphic description, in +diagram or drawing, in the appeal to the sense experiences of the +pupils, is in demand. The excursion to places of interest in the +neighborhood suggested by the story begins to be an important factor of +the school exercises. As children grow older they acquire skill and +confidence in oral narrative, and should be held to greater independence +in oral reproductions. + +One of the best school editions of "Robinson Crusoe" is published by +Ginn & Co. + +A simple edition for second grade is published by the Public School +Publishing Co. + +The teacher should be supplied with one of the larger, fuller editions +of "Robinson Crusoe," like that of Houghton, Mifflin, & Co., in the +Riverside Literature Series. It furnishes a much fuller detail of +knowledge for the teacher's use. It will also be of great advantage for +classroom use to possess an illustrated edition like that of George +Routledge & Sons. + +The full treatment of this story, first in simple, oral narrative, later +by its use as a reading book, and later still by the child reading the +complete edition for himself in private, illustrates the intensive +concentration of thought and constructive activity upon a great piece +of literature as opposed to a loose and superficial treatment. Such a +piece of work should remain for life a source of deeper thought, +feeling, and experience. + + +OTHER EDITIONS + + Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. American Book Co. + Robinson Crusoe. Lee and Shepard. + Robinson Crusoe for Youngest Readers. Educational Pub. Co. + Robinson Crusoe. University Publishing Co. + De Foe's Robinson Crusoe (Hale). Ginn & Co. + De Foe's Robinson Crusoe. Maynard, Merrill, & Co. + + +"HIAWATHA" + +The story of Hiawatha has been much used for oral treatment in primary +grades, and as a basis for exercises in learning to read. Later the +complete poem has been much read in third, fourth, or fifth grade as a +piece of choice literature. + +A story which is growing so rapidly in favor with primary teachers may +explain our effort to determine its educational value. + +That the story begins with the early childhood of Hiawatha and describes +his home and early training at the feet of Nokomis, is at least one +point in its favor. + + By the shores of Gitche Gumee, + By the shining Big-Sea-Water, + Stood the wigwam of Nokomis, + Daughter of the Moon, Nokomis. + Dark behind it rose the forest, + Rose the black and gloomy pine-trees, + Rose the firs with cones upon them; + Bright before it beat the water, + Beat the clear and sunny water, + Beat the shining Big-Sea-Water. + There the wrinkled, old Nokomis + Nursed the little Hiawatha, + Rocked him in his linden cradle, + Bedded soft in moss and rushes, + Safely bound with reindeer sinews. + +The traditions and stories he learned from the lips of Nokomis will +remind children of their own home life, while his companionship with +birds and animals will touch them in a sympathetic place. + + Then the little Hiawatha + Learned of every bird its language, + Learned their names and all their secrets, + How they built their nests in Summer, + Where they hid themselves in Winter, + Talked with them whene'er he met them, + Called them "Hiawatha's Chickens." + +The games and exercises of his youth will remind them of their own +sports and introduce them to Indian life. This home of Hiawatha, and the +description of his childhood, are a happy introduction to the simple +surroundings of Indian life on the shores of the northern sea. + +Primitive Indian modes of life, traditions and myths, appeal naturally +to children, and the whole story has this setting of early simplicity +which adapts it in many ways to child study. The Indian nature myths, +which in themselves are attractive, are here woven into a connected +series by their relation to Hiawatha in the training of his childhood +and in the exploits of his manhood. + +The number of pure fairy tales scattered through the story adapts it +especially for young children, while the descriptions of home customs, +feasts, weddings, merrymaking, and games, show the happier side of their +life. + + Ye who love a nation's legends, + Love the ballads of a people, + That like voices from afar off + Call to us to pause and listen, + Speak in tones so plain and childlike, + Scarcely can the ear distinguish + Whether they are sung or spoken;-- + Listen to this Indian Legend, + To this song of Hiawatha! + Ye whose hearts are fresh and simple, + Who have faith in God and Nature, + Who believe, that in all ages + Every human heart is human, + That in even savage bosoms + There are longings, yearnings, strivings + For the good they comprehend not, + That the feeble hands and helpless, + Groping blindly in the darkness, + Touch God's right hand in that darkness, + And are lifted up and strengthened;-- + Listen to this simple story, + To this Song of Hiawatha! + +The description of husking time is such a pleasing scene, while the +picture writing of the Indians, their totems and rude drawings, are in +harmony with their traditions and religion. + + On the border of the forest, + Underneath the fragrant pine-trees, + Sat the old men and the warriors + Smoking in the pleasant shadow. + In uninterrupted silence + Looked they at the gamesome labor + Of the young men and the women; + Listened to their noisy talking, + To their laughter and their singing, + Heard them chattering like the magpies, + Heard them laughing like the blue jays, + Heard them singing like the robins. + And whene'er some lucky maiden + Found a red ear in the husking, + Found a maize-ear red as blood is, + "Nushka!" cried they all together, + "Nushka! you shall have a sweetheart, + You shall have a handsome husband!" + "Ugh!" the old men all responded + From their seats beneath the pine-trees. + + And the Jossakeeds, the Prophets, + The Wabenos, the Magicians, + And the Medicine-men, the Medas, + Painted upon bark and deer-skin + Figures for the songs they chanted, + For each song a separate symbol, + Figures mystical and awful, + Figures strange and brightly colored; + And each figure had its meaning, + Each some magic song suggested. + +One of the most striking features of this story is its setting in +nature. More than any other piece of literature now used in the school, +it is redolent of fields and forest. + + Should you ask me, whence these stories, + Whence these legends and traditions, + With the odors of the forest, + With the dew and damp of meadows, + With the curling smoke of wigwams, + With the rushing of great rivers, + With their frequent repetitions, + And their wild reverberations, + As of thunder in the mountains? + I should answer, I should tell you, + "From the forests and the prairies, + From the great lakes of the Northland, + From the land of the Ojibways, + From the land of the Dacotahs, + From the mountains, moors, and fenlands, + Where the heron, the Shuh-shuh-gah, + Feeds among the reeds and rushes." + + Should you ask where Nawadaha + Found these songs, so wild and wayward, + Found these legends and traditions, + I should answer, I should tell you, + "In the birds'-nests of the forest, + In the lodges of the beaver, + In the hoof-prints of the bison, + In the eyry of the eagle! + All the wild-fowl sang them to him, + In the moorlands and the fenlands, + In the melancholy marshes; + Chetowaik, the plover, sang them, + Mahng, the loon, the wild-goose, Wawa, + The blue heron, the Shuh-shuh-gah, + And the grouse, the Mushkodasa!" + +This description of primitive man is as complete an absorption into his +natural surroundings as is possible. His food and clothing, his tents +and boats, his weapons and war gear, are drawn directly from nature's +first supplies, and man, in this case, seems almost a part of nature, so +completely are his thoughts and activities determined and colored by his +environment. Like the animals, in their protective coloring, he becomes +an undistinguishable part of his surroundings. His nature myths and +superstitions are but phases and expressions of the contact of his crude +mind with forces and objects in nature. In this respect there are many +interesting suggestions of similar interpretations among the Norse and +Greek mythologies. + +The close and friendly contact of Hiawatha with trees and animals, his +companionship with the squirrel, the woodpecker, and the beaver, his +talking acquaintance with trees of the forest, with the fishes in the +Big-Sea-Water, and with the masters of the winds, the storm, and the +thunder, make him an interesting guide for the children among the realms +of nature. + + Ye who love the haunts of nature, + Love the sunshine of the meadow, + Love the shadow of the forest, + Love the wind among the branches, + And the rain-shower and the snow-storm, + And the rushing of great rivers + Through their palisades of pine-trees, + And the thunder in the mountains, + Whose innumerable echoes + Flap like eagles in their eyries;-- + Listen to these wild traditions, + To this Song of Hiawatha! + +A happy, sympathetic love for the sights and sounds in nature is a +fortunate beginning of nature lore. The imaginative interpretations are +common to all the early races and in full harmony with the temper of +childhood. Even from the standpoint of nature study, this early poetic +joy in nature descriptions is profitable. The matter-of-fact, analytic +study of natural science in succeeding years need not begrudge the +children this happiness, this interpretative play of the imagination, +this music of field and forest. In early childhood, nature and poetry +are one, and as Lowell says, "Let us not go about to make life duller +than it is." + +The simplicity and beauty of the language and figure of speech make many +parts of this poem especially appropriate for children. + + Young and beautiful was Wabun; + He it was who brought the morning, + He it was whose silver arrows + Chased the dark o'er hill and valley; + He it was whose cheeks were painted + With the brightest streaks of crimson, + And whose voice awoke the village, + Called the deer, and called the hunter. + + He meanwhile sat weary waiting + For the coming of Mondamin, + Till the shadows, pointing eastward, + Lengthened over field and forest, + Till the sun dropped from the heaven, + Floating on the waters westward, + As a red leaf in the Autumn + Falls and floats upon the water, + Falls and sinks into its bosom. + + And the pleasant water-courses, + You could trace them through the valley, + By the rushing in the Spring-time, + By the alders in the Summer. + By the white fog in the Autumn, + By the black line in the Winter. + +The simple music and rhythm of the poetic form is so delightful to +children that they absorb whole passages into their memory without +conscious effort. The mere re-reading of parts of the poem to little +children under six years will often produce this happy result. A little +girl of three years picked up, among others, this passage:-- + + Dark behind it rose the forest, + Rose the black and gloomy pine-trees, + Rose the firs with cones upon them; + Bright before it beat the water, + Beat the clear and sunny water, + Beat the shining Big-Sea-Water. + +The repetitions of the same or similar passages, so common throughout +the poem, is a successful appeal to children's favor. It gives the story +a sort of Mother Goose flavor which is delightful. + +While the story centres in Hiawatha, it has a variety of interesting +personalities, giving expression to the striking features of this +primitive society. Hiawatha's loved ones, Minnehaha and old Nokomis, +stand first, and his chosen friends are next. + + Two good friends had Hiawatha, + Singled out from all the others, + Bound to him in closest union, + And to whom he gave the right hand + Of his heart in joy and sorrow; + Chibiabos, the musician, + And the very strong man, Kwasind. + + And these two, as I have told you, + Were the friends of Hiawatha, + Chibiabos, the musician, + And the very strong man, Kwasind. + Long they lived in peace together, + Spake with naked hearts together, + Pondering much and much contriving + How the tribes of men might prosper. + +In connection with these persons is a most pleasing series of +adventures, bringing to notice those heroic qualities which children +love to witness. The very strong man, Kwasind, is a fitting companion +in their thoughts to Samson and Hercules; and Chibiabos, + + He the best of all musicians, + He the sweetest of all singers, + +has had many a prototype since the days of Orpheus. + +Pau-Puk-Keewis, with his dancing and tricks, will also prove a curious +character, something like Proteus of old. + + You shall hear how Pau-Puk-Keewis + He, the handsome Yenadizze, + Whom the people called the Storm Fool, + Vexed the village with disturbance; + You shall hear of all his mischief, + And his flight from Hiawatha, + And his wondrous transmigrations, + And the end of his adventures. + +The character of Hiawatha, as of the benefactor, of one devoted, with +high purpose, to the welfare of his people, may be regarded as the +deeper motive of the author. It is the thought of ideal good in Hiawatha +which gives tone and meaning to the whole poem. + + You shall hear how Hiawatha + Prayed and fasted in the forest, + Not for greater skill in hunting, + Not for greater craft in fishing, + Not for triumphs in the battle, + And renown among the warriors, + But for profit of the people, + For advantage of the nations. + +The views of geography and history at the beginning and close of the +poem not only give a broad scope to the story, but have an interesting +bearing upon the study of geography and history in those years of school +which immediately follow. The narrative reaches from the Vale of +Tawasentha in New York, across the great lakes and shining Big-Sea-Water +to Minnehaha and the Upper Mississippi, and even to the prairies and the +distant Rocky Mountains beyond. In the summoning of the tribes at the +Great Pipe Stone Quarry there is a broad survey of the Indian tribes of +the United States. + + From the vale of Tawasentha, + From the Valley of Wyoming, + From the groves of Tuscaloosa, + From the far-off Rocky Mountains, + From the Northern lakes and rivers + All the tribes beheld the signal, + Saw the distant smoke ascending, + The Pukwana of the Peace-Pipe. + + Down the rivers, o'er the prairies, + Came the warriors of the nations. + +A map of North America is necessary for showing the meaning of this +description to the children. + +In the last part the coming of the white man and the prophecy of his +spreading over the land, and the dwindling of the native tribes to the +westward, are given. + +Iagoo's description of the white men, their ships and appearance, to his +people on the return from his travels, will greatly please the children. + + He had seen, he said, a water + Bigger than the Big-Sea-Water, + Broader than the Gitche Gumee, + Bitter so that none could drink it! + At each other looked the warriors, + Looked the women at each other, + Smiled, and said, "It cannot be so! + Kaw!" they said, "It cannot be so;" + + "O'er it," said he, "o'er this water + Came a great canoe with pinions, + A canoe with wings came flying, + Bigger than a grove of pine-trees, + Taller than the tallest tree-tops!" + And the old men and the women + Looked and tittered at each other; + "Kaw!" they said, "we don't believe it!" + +The story of Hiawatha has been used sufficiently in primary grades to +show how many are its suggestions for drawing and constructive work. +Little children take delight in drawing the Indian tents, bows and +arrows, pine forests, Indian warriors and dress, the canoe, the +tomahawk, the birds and animals. The cutting of these forms in paper +they have fully enjoyed. + +Pictures of Indian life, collections of arrow-heads, the peace-pipes, +articles of dress, cooking utensils, wampum, stone hatchets, red +pipe-stone ornaments, or a visit to any collection of Indian relics are +desirable as a part of this instruction. The museums in cities and +expositions are rich in these materials, and in many private collections +are just the desired objects of study. + +It is well known that children love to construct tents, dress in Indian +style, and imitate the mode of life, the hunting, dancing, and sports +of Indians. Teachers have taken advantage of this instinct to allow them +to construct an Indian village on a small scale, and assume the dress +and action of Hiawatha and his friends, and even to dramatize parts of +the story. + +It is only certain selected parts of the "Hiawatha" that lend themselves +best to the oral treatment with children, and that, at first, not in the +poetic form. In fact, the oral treatment of a story in beautiful poetic +form demands a peculiar method. + +For example, in treating the childhood of Hiawatha as he dwelt with old +Nokomis in the tent beside the sea, the main facts of this episode, or a +part of it, may be talked over by means of description, partly also by +development, question, and answer, and when these things are clear, let +this passage of the poem be read to the children. The preliminary +treatment and discussion will put the children in possession of the +ideas and pictures by which they can better appreciate and assimilate +the poem. This mode of introducing children to a poem or literary +masterpiece is not uncommon with children in later years, at least in +the middle grades. + +It has been customary to use nearly the whole poem in fourth or fifth +school year for regular reading, and it is well suited to this purpose. +Its use in primary grades for such oral treatment as we have described +will not interfere with its employment as reading matter later on, but +rather increase its value for that purpose. + +The method of handling such a poem as reading has been discussed in the +Special Method in the Reading of Complete English Classics. + +A number of books have been written by practical teachers on the use of +"Hiawatha" in primary grades:-- + + "The Hiawatha Primer." Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + "Hints on the Study of Hiawatha" (Alice M. Krackowizer). A. Flanagan, + publisher. + +The best edition of the "Hiawatha" is "Longfellow's Song of Hiawatha," +which is well illustrated. Published by Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + +Other editions are "The Song of Hiawatha." The Educational Publishing +Co. + + "Longfellow's Hiawatha." The Macmillan Co. + "Song of Hiawatha." University Publishing Co. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THIRD GRADE STORIES + + +THE MYTHICAL STORIES + +In the third grade we wish to bring a number of the mythical stories +vividly before the children. The classical myths which belong to the +literature of Europe are the fund from which to select the best. Not +all, but only a few of the simple and appropriate stories can be chosen. +Only two recitation periods a week are usually set apart for the oral +treatment of these old myths. But later in the progress of the reading +lessons other similar stories should be treated. The few recitation +periods used for oral work are rather designed to introduce children to +the spirit of this literature, to get them into the appreciative mind. + +This body of ancient myths comes down to us, sifted out of the early +literature of the active-minded Greeks. They have found their way as a +simple and charming poetry into the national literature of all the +European countries. Is this the material suited to nine- and +ten-year-old children? It will not be questioned that these myths belong +to the best literary products of Europe, but are they suited to +children? + +It is evident that some of our best literary judges have deemed them +appropriate. Hawthorne has put them into a form designed especially for +the young folk. Charles Kingsley wrote of the Greek myths for his +children: "Now I love these old Hellens heartily, and they seem to me +like brothers, though they have all been dead and gone many a hundred +years. They are come to tell you some of their old fairy tales, which +they loved when they were young like you. For nations begin at first by +being children like you, though they are made up of grown men. They are +children at first like you--men and women with children's hearts; frank, +and affectionate, and full of trust, and teachable, loving to see and +learn all the wonders around them; and greedy also, too often, and +passionate and silly, as children are." + +Not a few other authors of less note have tried to turn the classical +myths of the old Greek poets into simple English for the entertainment +and instruction of children. Scarcely any of these stories that have not +appeared in various children's books in recent years. Taken as a whole, +they are a storehouse of children's literature. The philosopher, +Herbart, looked upon poems of Homer as giving ideal expression to the +boyhood of the race, and the story of Ulysses was regarded by him as the +boy's book,--the Greek Robinson Crusoe. For the child of nine years he +thought it the most suitable story. + +Kingsley says in his Introduction: "Now you must not think of the Greeks +in this book as learned men, living in great cities, such as they were +afterwards, when they wrought all their beautiful works, but as country +people, living on farms and in walled villages, in a simple, +hard-working way; so that the greatest kings and heroes cooked their own +meals and thought it no shame, and made their own ships and weapons, and +fed and harnessed their own horses. So that a man was honored among +them, not because he happened to be rich, but according to his skill and +his strength and courage and the number of things he could do. For they +were but grown-up children, though they were right noble children too, +and it was with them as it is now at school, the strongest and cleverest +boy, though he be poor, leads all the rest." + +In the introduction to the "Wonder Book" we find the following: +"Hawthorne took a vital interest in child life. He was accustomed to +observe his own children very closely. There are private manuscripts +extant which present exact records of what his young son and elder +daughter said or did from hour to hour, the father seating himself in +their playroom and patiently noting all that passed. To this habit of +watchful and sympathetic scrutiny we may attribute in part the +remarkable felicity, the fortunate ease of adaptation to the immature +understanding, and the skilful appeal to the fresh imaginations which +characterize his stories for the young." Hawthorne himself says: "The +author has long been of the opinion that many of the classical myths +were capable of being rendered into very capital reading for +children.... No epoch of time can claim a copyright on these immortal +fables. They seem never to have been made, and so long as man exists +they can never perish; but by their indestructibility itself they are +legitimate subjects, for every age to clothe with its own garniture of +manners and sentiment, and to imbue with its own morality.... The author +has not always thought it necessary to write downward in order to meet +the comprehension of children. He has generally suffered the theme to +soar, whenever such was its tendency. Children possess an unestimated +sensibility to whatever is deep or high in imagination or feeling so +long as it is simple likewise. It is only the artificial and the complex +that bewilder them." + +A brief analysis of the qualities which render these myths so attractive +will help us to see their value in the education of children. + +The astonishing brightness of fanciful episode and of pure and clear-cut +imagery has an indestructible charm for children. They can soar into and +above the clouds on the shining wings of Pegasus. With Eolus they shut +up the contrary winds in an ox-hide, and later let them out to plague +the much-suffering Ulysses. They watch with astonishment as Jason yokes +the fire-breathing oxen and strews the field with uprooted stumps and +stones as he prepares the soil for the seed of dragon's teeth. Each +child becomes a poet as he recreates the sparkling brightness of these +simple pictures. And when a child has once suffered his fancy to soar +to these mountain heights and ocean depths, it will no longer be +possible to make his life entirely dull and prosaic. He has caught +glimpses of a bright world that will linger unfading in the uplands of +his memory. And while they are so deep and lofty they are still, as +Hawthorne says, very simple. Some of the most classic of the old stories +are indeed too long for third grade children; too many persons and too +much complexity, as in the "Tales of Troy." But on the other hand, many +of the most beautiful of the old myths are as plain and simple to a +child as a floating summer cloud. High in the sky they may be or deep in +the reflection of some lake or spring, but clear and plain to the +thought of a little child. These stories in their naive simplicity +reflect the wonder and surprise with which a person first beholds grand +and touching scenery, whether it be the oppressive grandeur of some +beetling mountain crag, or the placid quiet of a moonlit stream. The +stories selected for this grade should be the simplest and best: "The +Golden Touch," "Perseus," "The Chimaera," of Hawthorne, the episodes of +the "Golden Fleece," with others similar. + +In one form or another they introduce us to the company of heroes, or, +at least, of great and simple characters. Deeds of enterprise and +manliness or of unselfishness and generosity are the climax of the +story. To meet danger and hardship or ridicule for the sake of a high +purpose is their underlying thought. Perseus and Jason and Ulysses are +all ambitious to prove their title to superior shrewdness and courage +and self-control. When we get fairly into the mythical age, we find +ourselves among the heroes, among those striving for mastery and +leadership in great undertakings. Physical prowess and manly spirit are +its chief virtues. And can there be any question that there is a time in +the lives of children when these ideas fill the horizon of their +thought? Samson and David and Hercules, Bellerophon and Jason, are a +child's natural thoughts or, at least, they fit the frame of his mind so +exactly that one may say the picture and the frame were made for each +other. The history of most countries contains such an age of heroes. +Tell in Switzerland, Siegfried in Germany, Bruce in Scotland, Romulus +and Horatius at Rome, Alfred in England, are all national heroes of the +mythical age, whose deeds are heroic and of public good. The Greek +stories are only a more classic edition of this historical epoch, and +should lead up to a study of these later products of European +literature. + +Several forms of moral excellence are objectively realized or +personified in these stories. + +As the wise Centaur, after teaching Jason to be skilful and brave, sent +him out into the world, he said: "Well, go, my son; the throne belongs +to thy father and the gods love justice. But remember, wherever thou +dost wander, to observe these three things: + + "Relieve the distressed. + "Respect the aged. + "Be true to thy word."[6] + + [6] _Jason's Quest_ (Lowell), p. 55. + +And many events in Jason's life illustrate the wisdom of these words. +The miraculous pitcher is one whose fountain of refreshing milk bubbled +always because of a gentle deed of hospitality to strangers. King Midas, +on the other hand, experiences in most graphic form the punishment which +ought to follow miserly greed, while his humble penitence brought back +his daughter and the homely comforts of life. Bellerophon is filled with +a desire to perform a noble deed that will relieve the distress of a +whole people. After the exercise of much patience and self-control he +succeeds in his generous enterprise. Many a lesson of worldly wisdom and +homely virtue is brought out in the story of Ulysses' varied and +adventuresome career. + +These myths bring children into lively contact with European history and +geography, as well as with its modes of life and thought. The early +history of Europe is in all cases shrouded in mist and legend. But even +from this historically impenetrable past has sprung a literature that +has exercised a profound influence upon the life and growth of the +people. Not that children are conscious of the significance of these +ideas, but being placed in an atmosphere which is full of them, their +deeper meaning gradually unfolds itself. The early myths afford an +interesting approach for children to the history and geography of +important countries. Those countries they must, sooner or later, make +the acquaintance of both geographically and historically, and could +anything be designed to take stronger hold upon their imagination and +memory than these charming myths, which were the poetry and religion of +the people once living there? + +It is a very simple and primitive state of culture, whose ships, arms, +agriculture, and domestic life are given us in clear and pleasing +pictures. Our own country is largely lacking in a mythical age. Our +culture sprang, more than half-grown, from the midst of Europe's +choicest nations, and out of institutions that had been centuries in +forming. The myths of Europe are therefore as truly ours as they are the +treasure of Englishmen, of Germans, or of Greeks. Again, our own +literature, as well as that of European states, is full of the spirit +and suggestion of the mythical age. Our poets and writers have drawn +much of their imagery from this old storehouse of thought, and a child +will better understand the works of the present through this contact +with mythical ages. + +In method of treatment with school classes, these stories will admit of +a variation from the plan used with "Robinson Crusoe." One unaccustomed +to the reading of such stories would be at a loss for a method of +treatment with children. There is a charm and literary art in the +presentation that may make the teacher feel unqualified to present them. +The children are not yet sufficiently masters of the printed symbols of +speech to read for themselves. Shall the teacher simply read the stories +to children? We would suggest first of all, that the teacher, who would +expect to make use of these materials, steep himself fully in literature +of this class, and bring his mind into familiar acquaintance and +sympathy with its characters. In interpreting classical authors to +pupils, we are justified in requiring of the teacher intimate knowledge +and appreciative sympathy with his author. Certainly no one will teach +these stories well whose fancy was never touched into airy flights--who +cannot become a child again and partake of his pleasures. No +condescension is needed, but ascension to a free and ready flight of +fancy. By learning to drink at these ancient fountains of song and +poetry, the teacher might learn to tell a fairy story for himself. But +doubtless it will be well to mingle oral narrative and description on +the part of the teacher with the fit reading of choice parts so as to +better preserve the classic beauty and suggestion of the author. +Children are quite old enough now to appreciate beauty of language and +expressive, happy turns of speech. In the midst of question, suggestion, +and discussion between pupil and teacher, the story should be carried +forward, never forgetting to stop at suitable intervals and get such a +reproduction of the story as the little children are capable of. And +indeed they are capable of much in this direction, for their thoughts +are more nimble, and their power of expression more apt, oftentimes, +than the teacher's own. + +We would not favor a simple reading of these stories for the +entertainment of pupils. It should take more the form of a school +exercise, requiring not only interest and attention, but vigorous effort +to grasp and reproduce the thought. The result should be a much livelier +and deeper insight into the story than would be secured by a simple +reading for amusement or variety. They should prepare also for an +appreciative reading of other myths in the following grades. + +After all, in two or three recitation periods a week, extending through +a year, it cannot be expected that children will make the acquaintance +of all the literature that could be properly called the myth of the +heroic age in different countries. All that we may expect is to enter +this paradise of children, to pluck a few of its choicest flowers, and +get such a breath of their fragrance that there will be a child's desire +to return again and again. The school also should provide in the +succeeding year for an abundance of reading of myths. The same old +stories which they first learned to enjoy in oral recitations should be +read in books, and still others should be utilized in the regular +reading classes of the fourth and fifth grades. In this way the myths of +other countries may be brought in, the story of Tell, of Siegfried, of +Alfred, and of others. + +In summarizing the advantages of a systematic attempt to get this simple +classic lore into our schools, we recall the interest and mental +activity which it arouses, its power to please and satisfy the creative +fancy in children, its fundamental feeling and instincts, the virtues of +bravery, manliness, and unselfishness, and all this in a form that still +further increases its culture effect upon teacher and pupil. It should +never be forgotten that teacher and pupil alike are here imbibing +lessons and inspirations that draw them into closer sympathy because the +subject is worthy of both old and young. + +In addition to the earlier Greek myths we may mention the following +subjects as suitable for oral treatment: + +The story of Ulysses has been much used in schools with oral +presentation, and is one of the best tales for this purpose in all +literature. A somewhat full discussion of the value of this story for +schools is found in the Special Method in Reading of Complete English +Classics. + +The Norse mythology has also received much attention from teachers who +have used the oral mode of treatment. Several of the best books of Norse +mythology are mentioned in the appended list. Also the great story of +Siegfried. + +Some of the old traditional stories in the early history of Rome, of +France, Germany, and England, have been used for oral narration and +reading to children. + +The "Seven Little Sisters" and its companion book "Each and All," and +the "Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago to Now," by Jane Andrews, +published by Ginn & Co., have been employed extensively for oral and +reading work in the third and fourth years of school. The "Seven Little +Sisters" is valuable in connection with the beginnings of geography. + + +BOOKS FOR THIRD YEAR OF SCHOOL + +The Wonder Book of Nathaniel Hawthorne. + + The following stories are especially recommended: The Gorgon's + Head, The Golden Touch, The Miraculous Pitcher, and The Chimaera. + + One should preserve as much as possible of the spirit and + language of the author. Perhaps in classes with children the + other stories will be found equally attractive: The Paradise of + Children and the Three Golden Apples. Published by Houghton, + Mifflin, & Co., Boston. + +Kingsley's Greek Heroes. + + The stories of Perseus, the Argonauts, and Theseus, especially + adapted to children. It may be advisable for the teacher to + abbreviate the stories, leaving out unimportant parts, but + giving the best portions in the fullest detail. Published by + Ginn & Co.; The Macmillan Co. + +Story of the Iliad and Story of the Odyssey (Church). + + Simple and interesting narrative of the Homeric stories. The + Macmillan Co. + +Jason's Quest (Lowell). + + The story of the Argonauts with many other Greek myths woven + into the narrative. This book is a store of excellent material. + The teacher should select from it those parts specially suited + to the grade. Published by Sibley & Ducker, Chicago. + +Adventures of Ulysses (Lamb). + + A small book from which the chief episodes of Ulysses' career + can be obtained. Published by Ginn & Co., Boston. + +The Story of Siegfried (Baldwin). Published by Scribner's Sons. + +Peabody's Old Greek Folk Stories. + + Simple and well written. A supplement to the Wonder Book. + Published by Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + +Tales of Troy (De Garmo). + + The story of the siege of Troy and of the great events of + Homer's Iliad. This story, on account of its complexity, we deem + better adapted to the fourth grade. Published by the Public + School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. + +Stories of the Old World (Church). + + Stories of the Argo, of Thebes, of Troy, of Ulysses, and of + AEneas. Stories are simply and well told. It is a book of 350 + pages, and would serve well as a supplementary reader in fourth + grade. Published by Ginn & Co. + +Gods and Heroes (Francillon). + + A successful effort to cover the whole field of Greek mythology + in the story form. Ginn & Co. + +The Tanglewood Tales (Nathaniel Hawthorne). + + A continuation of the Wonder Book. + +Heroes of Asgard. + + Stories of Norse mythology; simple and attractive. + Macmillan & Co. + +The Story of Ulysses (Agnes S. Cook). + + An account of the adventures of Ulysses, told in connected + narrative, in language easily comprehended by children in the + third and fourth grades. Public School Publishing Co., + Bloomington, Ill. + +Old Norse Stories (Bradish). + + Stories for reference and sight reading. American Book Co. + +Norse Stories (Mabie). + + An excellent rendering of the old stories. Dodd, Mead, & Co. + +Myths of Northern Lands (Guerber). American Book Co. + +The Age of Fable (Bulfinch). Lee and Shepard. + +Readings in Folk Lore (Skinner). American Book Co. + +National Epics (Rabb). A. C. McClurg & Co. + +Classic Myths (Gayley). Ginn & Co. + +Bryant's Odyssey. Complete poetic translation. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + +Bryant's Iliad. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + +Butcher and Lang's prose translation of the Odyssey. The Macmillan Co. + +The Odyssey of Homer (Palmer). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + + A prose translation. + +Myths and Myth Makers (Fiske). + +Moral Instruction of Children (Felix Adler). + + Chapter X. D. Appleton & Co. + + +THE BIBLE STORIES + +The stories of early Bible history have been much used in all European +lands, and in America, for the instruction of children. Among Jews and +Christians everywhere, and even among Mohammedans, these stories have +been extensively used. They include the simple accounts of the +patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph and his brethren, Moses, +Joshua, Samson, Samuel, and David. It may be seen at a glance that no +more famous stories than these could be selected from the history of any +country in the world. They stand preeminent as graphic descriptions of +the modes of life which prevailed in the early period of civilized +races. The old patriarchs lived in what is usually called the pastoral +age, when men dwelt in tents and moved about from place to place with +their flocks in search of pasture. The patriarch at the head of the +family, and even of a whole tribe, is the father, ruler, priest, and +judge for the little community over which he presides. In his person +there is a simple union of all the important powers of the later Hebrew +state. The dignity and authority which centre in the person of Abraham, +together with a marked gravity and strength of character, lend a +distinct grandeur to his personality, so that he has been recognized in +all ages as one of the great figures in the history of the world; the +foremost of the old patriarchs,--the father of the faithful. A similar +respect and dignity attaches to all these old Bible characters, and in +the case of Moses, rises to a supreme height, while in David the +warrior, statesman, and poet are united in one of the most pronounced +and pleasing characters in the world's history. These old stories are +also unparalleled in the simplicity and transparent clearness with which +the life of the pastoral age is depicted. Human nature comes out in a +series of pictures most striking and individual, and yet unmistakably +true to life and reality. And yet while this life was so small in its +compass, it is almost wholly free from narrowness and provincialism. The +universal qualities of human nature, common to men in all ages and +countries, stand out with a clearness which even little children can +grasp. The story of Joseph and his brethren is probably the finest story +that was ever written for children from eight to ten years of age. The +characters involved in this family history are striking and impressive, +and the strength of the family virtues and affections has never been set +forth with greater simplicity and power. + +The heroic qualities which appear in the old Bible stories, especially +in Moses, Samson, and David, would bear a favorable comparison with the +men of the heroic age in all countries. Strength of character combined +with faith in high ideals, pursued with unwavering resolution, is a +peculiar merit of these narratives. The heroes of the Hebrew race should +be compared, later on, with the most renowned heroes of England, +Scotland, Germany, and Greece, and even of America, for they have common +qualities which have like merit as educative materials for the young. + +This early literature of the Bible stories will be found to contain a +large part of the universal thought of the world, that is, of the +masterly ideas which, because of their superior truth and excellence, +have gradually worked their way as controlling principles into the life +of all modern nations. It need hardly be said that these stories have a +peculiar charm and attractiveness for children. The simplicity of a +patriarchal age, the strong interest in persons of heroic quality, the +descriptions of early childhood, the heroic deeds of bold and +high-spirited youth,--these things command the unfaltering interest of +children, and at the same time give their lives a touch of moral +strength and idealism which is of the highest promise. + +The oral treatment of these stories in the third or fourth year of +school is the only mode of bringing them before the children in their +full power, and they are well adapted to easy oral narrative and +discussion. The language is the genuine, simple, powerful old English, +and the teacher should become thoroughly saturated with these simple +words and modes of thought. The dramatic element is also not lacking in +many parts, and can be well executed in the classroom. Many +opportunities will be furnished to the children for drawing pictures +illustrating the stories. Many of the most famous masterpieces of +painting and sculpture represent the persons and scenes of these tales. +The great heroes of Christian art have exhausted their skill in these +representations, which are now being furnished to the schools by the +large publishing houses. Even the costumes and modes of life are thus +brought home to the children in the most realistic yet artistic way. + +An acquaintance with such early stories of Hebrew history is an +introduction to some of the finest literature of the English language. +First, that dealing with the Hebrew scriptures themselves, as the books +of Moses, the psalms of David, and second, a number of the great poems +of English masters, as the "Burial of Moses" and Milton's "Samson +Agonistes." In short, we may say that these stories are the key to a +large part of our best English thought. + +Adler, in his "Moral Instruction of Children," says: "The narrative of +the Bible is fairly saturated with the moral spirit; the moral issues +are everywhere in the forefront. Duty, guilt, and its punishment, the +conflict of conscience with inclination, are the leading themes. The +Hebrew people seem to have been endowed with what may be called 'a moral +genius,' and especially did they emphasize the filial and fraternal +duties to an extent hardly equalled elsewhere. Now it is precisely these +duties that must be impressed upon young children, and hence the +biblical stories present us with the very material we require. They +cannot, in this respect, be replaced; there is no other literature in +the world that offers what is equal to them in value for the particular +object we now have in view." + +If we could only contemplate the patriarchal stories as a part of the +great literature of the world, on account of its typical yet realistic +portraiture of men and women, we might use this material as we use the +very best derived from other sources. Mr. Adler remarks that "this +typical quality in Homer's portraiture has been one secret of its +universal impressiveness. The Homeric outlines are in each case +brilliantly distinct, while they leave to the reader a certain liberty +of private conception, and he can fill them in to satisfy his own ideal. +We may add that this is just as true of the Bible as of Homer. The +biblical narrative, too, depicts a few essential traits of human nature, +and refrains from multiplying minor traits which might interfere with +the main effect. The Bible, too, draws its figures in outline, and +leaves every age free to fill them in so as to satisfy its own ideal." + +Moreover, their use is not a matter of experiment. For hundreds of years +they have held the first place in the best homes and schools of Germany, +England, and America, and their educative influence has been profoundly +felt in all Christian nations. + +We have several editions of the stories adapted from the Bible for +school use. In the Bible itself they are not found in the simple, +connected form that makes them available for school use. One of the best +editions for school is that published by Houghton, Mifflin, & Co., +called, "Old Testament Stories in Scriptural Language." A free and +somewhat original rendering of the stories is given by Baldwin in his +"Old Stories of the East," published by the American Book Co. Both of +these books have been extensively used in the schools of this country. +The oral treatment of the Bible stories in the schools has not been +common in this country, but it has all the merits described by us in the +chapter on oral instruction. In fourth and fifth grades these books may +serve well for exercises in reading. + +In a great many schools of this country they can be used and are used +without giving offence to anybody, and where this is true, they well +deserve recognition in our school course because of their superior +presentation of some of the great universal ideas of our civilization. + + +BOOKS FOR TEACHERS OF BIBLE LITERATURE + + The Modern Reader's Bible, twenty-one volumes (Richard Moulton). + The Macmillan Co. + Children's Series. Old Testament and New Testament Stories. + In two volumes. The Macmillan Co. + Stories from the Bible (Church). The Macmillan Co. + Story of the Chosen People (Guerber). The American Book Co. + The Literary Study of the Bible (Moulton). D. C. Heath & Co. + + +STORIES OF ROBIN HOOD + +In the latter part of third grade or beginning of fourth, the stories of +Robin Hood are likely to prove exhilarating to children. + +These stories of the bold, manly, good-natured outlaw, with his band of +trusty men in Sherwood Forest, have been famous throughout England these +five hundred years, and the stories themselves, and the ballads +accompanying them, are a genuine part of the treasures of the older +English literature. They have been worked by Howard Pyle into the stout, +hearty English style which is so appropriate to the rendering of the +deeds of this sturdy English yeoman and his band. + +Their careless life and woodland sports under the Greenwood Tree, and +their merry adventures and shooting matches, have been the delight of +many a generation of English children. But even their woodland sports +were a severe and rugged training in hardy endurance and manly spirit. +Pyle says well in his preface: "For honest purposes manfully followed +and hard knocks courageously endured must always interest the wholesome +boy; while nature is so closely akin to man in the golden days of his +green youth that tales of the Greenwood, where the leaves rustle and the +birds sing, and all the air is full of sweet savors of growing things, +must ever have a potent charm for the fresh imagination of childhood." + +One phase of this training, as manifested in the stories, is not only +the ability to take hard knocks and keep a stiff upper lip, as the old +saying goes, but to master chagrin and anger and endure fun and gibes at +one's own expense; indeed, even with aching bones and buzzing ears, to +join in the merriment over one's own discomfiture. This is an unusual +accompaniment of even good stories, which makes them truly wholesome. +The fun of the stories also is of a light and rollicking sort which +children should have a chance to thoroughly enjoy. In fact it is +excellent material upon which to cultivate their early sense of the +comic and humorous. The literature used in early school years has, +unfortunately, too little of the sportive and laughable, and the Robin +Hood adventures will help in no small degree to remedy this defect. + +It is interesting to note, also, that brute strength is not at a +premium, but skill and quick-wittedness. Not the least attractive and +forcible part of Robin Hood's character is the shrewd-witted versatility +and boldness with which he plays any part which circumstances require +him to assume. His foes are circumvented by his shrewdness and keen wit +even as much as by his unfailing skill in archery or dexterous strength +in personal contest. + +Robin Hood's relation to the British government was known as that of the +outlaw, although the visit of King Richard to him in Sherwood Forest and +his service under that prince and others gave him a certain legal +status. He has always been regarded as a popular hero representing the +rights of the common people. + +After describing Robin Hood's first adventure with the foresters and his +outlawry, Howard Pyle says: "But Robin Hood lay hidden in Sherwood +Forest for one year, and in that time there gathered around him many +others like himself, outlawed for this cause and for that. + +"So, in all that year, five score or more good, stout yeomen joined +themselves to him, and chose him to be their leader and chief. Then they +vowed that even as they themselves had been despoiled they would despoil +their oppressors, whether baron, abbot, knight, or squire, and that +from each they would take that which had been wrung from the poor by +unjust taxes, or land rents, or in wrongful fines; but to the poor folk +they would give a helping hand in need and trouble, and would return to +them that which had been unjustly taken from them. Besides this, they +swore never to harm a child, nor to wrong a woman, be she maid, wife, or +widow; so that, after a while, when the people began to find that no +harm was meant to them, but that money or food came in time of want to +many a poor family, they came to praise Robin and his merry men, and to +tell many tales of him and of his doings in Sherwood Forest, for they +felt him to be one of themselves." + +When we consider the stories which tradition has handed down relative to +the exploits of Robin Hood, the Old-English ballads which celebrate them +in song, the stories of King Richard's visit to him in Sherwood, and +Robin's visit to the court of Eleanor and King Henry at London town, to +share in the great shooting-match, and the story of Locksley in Scott's +"Ivanhoe"--we might almost say that Robin Hood would bear favorable +comparison with any Englishman of his time. At any rate it would be +difficult to find among the kings and great lords of that age one who +had so much regard for justice and fair dealing among men, to say +nothing of his kindness to the poor and needy. + +He stands distinctly for those rights of the common people which were +constantly violated by the powerful and influential in that +half-barbarous age of feudalism. It is from this instinct for popular +rights that the body of English liberties has gradually developed, and +it is not strange that Robin Hood has always been regarded as a hero +among a people who have preserved this instinct for liberty and justice. + +The foresters of Robin Hood's band were lovers of forest and glade; the +song of the bird and fragrance of wild flowers were sweet to them. In +Pyle's introductory chapter is this description of their retreat under +the Greenwood. "So turning their backs upon the stream, they plunged +into the forest once more, through which they traced their steps till +they reached the spot where they dwelt in the depths of the woodland. +There had they built huts of bark and branches of trees, and made +couches of sweet rushes spread over with skins of fallow deer. Here +stood a great oak tree with branches spreading broadly around, beneath +which was a seat of green moss where Robin Hood was wont to sit at feast +and at merrymaking, with his stout men about him. Here they found the +rest of the band, some of whom had come in with a brace of fat does. +Then they built great fires, and after the feast was ready they all sat +down, but Robin Hood placed Little John at his right hand, for he was +henceforth to be the second in the band." + +Little John's bout with the tanner of Blyth is introduced thus:-- + +"One fine day, not long after Little John had left abiding with the +Sheriff and had come back to the merry Greenwood, Robin Hood and a few +chosen fellows of his band lay upon the soft sward beneath the Greenwood +Tree where they dwelt. The day was warm and sultry, so that whilst most +of the band were scattered through the forest upon this mission and upon +that, these few stout fellows lay lazily beneath the shade of the tree, +in the soft afternoon, passing jests among themselves and telling merry +stories, with laughter and mirth. + +"All the air was laden with the bitter fragrance of the May, and all the +bosky shades of the woodlands beyond rang with the sweet song of +birds,--the throstle-cock, the cuckoo, and the wood-pigeon,--and with +the song of birds mingled the cool sound of the gurgling brook that +leaped out of the forest shades, and ran fretting amid its rough gray +stones across the sunlit open glade before the trysting-tree." + +This delight in the beauty and music of all nature about them is a sort +of atmosphere which gives tone to all the stories of this group. + +The language in which the stories are narrated is rich in the quaint and +vigorous phrases of Old English, reminding one of the times of +Shakespeare and before. One could hardly give the children a better +introduction to the riches of our mother tongue. + +The description of English customs, the popular festivities, the booths +of the market town, the parade of feudal lords and retainers, the +constraints placed upon hunting by kings and lords, and the hardships of +the poor are touched upon in significant ways. The stories give an +insight into the English character, their love of rude sports, their +ballad literature, and their respect for honesty and courage and +shrewdness. + +The ballads associated with the Robin Hood legends are often beautiful +and striking expressions of the English spirit, and have a special charm +for children. They should be read in connection with the later reading +of the stories in the third and fourth school years. + +The bearing of these tales upon early feudal history and the general +literature of that age is of importance. This is well illustrated in +"Ivanhoe" in the use by Richard of Robin Hood and his archers in the +attack upon Torquilstone, and in various exploits of the men of the +Greenwood when brought in contact with knights on horseback. There is +also a kinship in these narratives with some of the best stories and +novels of early English history, as Scott's "Tales of a Grandfather," +Kingsley's "Hereward the Wake," Jane Andrew's "Gilbert the Page," and a +number of Scott's novels. + +In the oral treatment of the stories in the third or fourth school year, +the teacher will find her powers of presentation taxed in a peculiar +way. The quaint language and humorous tone, the occasional witty +conceits, will need to be appreciated and enjoyed, and the mode of +presentation suited to the thought. Let the teacher first of all +thoroughly enjoy the stories and in rendering them to children in the +classroom lose herself in the tone and spirit of the account. It +requires great freedom and flexibility of body and mind to do this well, +but that is what a teacher most of all needs. The humorous part, +especially, will require a certain unbending of the stiff manners of a +teacher, but no harm is done in this. + +The large volume of Robin Hood stories by Pyle should be in the hands of +the teacher, if possible, although it is an expensive book. It is much +fuller in the special details of the stories needed by the teacher, +though the smaller book is far better adapted as a reading book for +schools. + +To illustrate the place which the Robin Hood legends hold in English +history and literature, the following selections, quoted from Tennyson's +"The Foresters" and one of the old ballads, are given. They are taken +from "English History told by English Poets," published by The Macmillan +Company, where the passage from "The Foresters" is given at greater +length. + + +KING RICHARD IN SHERWOOD FOREST + +LORD TENNYSON + +(From "The Foresters") + +Robin Hood and Maid Marian, Friar Tuck and George-a-Green, Will Scarlet, +Midge the Miller's Son, Little John, and the rest are legendary +characters loved and sung from the fourteenth century to modern times. +The charm of these light-hearted highwaymen was felt by Shakespeare +himself: "They say he is already in the forest of Arden, and a many +merry men with him: and there they live like the old Robin Hood of +England; they say many young gentlemen flock to him every day, and fleet +the time carelessly, as they did in the golden world."--("As You Like +It," I, I.) Tennyson adopts the tradition that the generous outlaws +dwelt in Sherwood Forest in Cumberlandshire, and that their leader, +Robin Hood, was the banished Earl of Huntingdon. The plot of the "The +Foresters" turns upon the sudden return of Richard from his Austrian +captivity and the consequent collapse of the intrigues conducted by his +crafty and cruel brother John. + + _Robin Hood._ Am I worse or better? + I am outlaw'd. I am none the worse for that + I held for Richard and I hated John. + I am a thief, ay, and a king of thieves. + Ay! but we rob the robber, wrong the wronger, + And what we wring from them we give the poor. + I am none the worse for that, and all the better + For this free forest-life, for while I sat + Among my thralls in my baronial hall + The groining hid the heavens; but since I breathed, + A houseless head beneath the sun and stars, + The soul of the woods hath stricken thro' my blood, + The love of freedom, the desire of God, + The hope of larger life hereafter, more + Tenfold than under roof. + + True, were I taken + They would prick out my sight. A price is set + On this poor head; but I believe there lives + No man who truly loves and truly rules + His following, but can keep his followers true. + I am one with mine. Traitors are rarely bred + Save under traitor kings. Our vice-king John, + True king of vice--true play on words--our John, + By his Norman arrogance and dissoluteness, + Hath made me king of all the discontent + Of England up thro' all the forest land + North to the Tyne: being outlaw'd in a land + Where law lies dead, we make ourselves the law. + + _King Richard_ (to _Robin_). My good friend Robin, Earl of Huntingdon, + For Earl thou art again, hast thou no fetters + For those of thine own band who would betray thee? + + _Robin._ I have; but these were never worn as yet, + I never found one traitor in my band. + + * * * * * + + Our forest games are ended, our free life, + And we must hence to the King's court. I trust + We shall return to the wood. Meanwhile, farewell + Old friends, old patriarch oaks. A thousand winters + Will strip you bare as death, a thousand summers + Robe you life-green again. You seem, as it were, + Immortal, and we mortal. How few Junes + Will heat our pulses quicker! How few frosts + Will chill the hearts that beat for Robin Hood! + + _Marian._ And yet I think these oaks at dawn and even, + Or in the balmy breathings of the night, + Will whisper evermore of Robin Hood. + We leave but happy memories to the forest. + We dealt in the wild justice of the woods. + All those poor serfs whom we have served will bless us, + All those pale mouths which we have fed will praise us-- + All widows we have holpen pray for us, + Our Lady's blessed shrines throughout the land + Be all the richer for us. You, good friar, + You Much, you Scarlet, you dear Little John, + Your names will cling like ivy to the wood. + And here perhaps a hundred years away + Some hunter in day-dreams or half asleep + Will hear our arrows whizzing overhead, + And catch the winding of a phantom horn. + + _Robin._ And surely these old oaks will murmur thee + Marian along with Robin. I am most happy-- + Art thou not mine?--and happy that our King + Is here again, never I trust to roam + So far again, but dwell among his own. + Strike up a stave, my masters, all is well. + + +HOW ROBIN HOOD RESCUED THE WIDOW'S THREE SONS + +Robin Hood and his followers were bandits and outlaws, but the people +loved them because they defied the hateful forest laws and made light of +the sheriff. The king's officers were responsible for the maintenance of +order, but in these lawless times they often used their power for their +own advantage, imposing heavy fines and penalties on the poor, and +extorting bribes from the rich. The following is one of the oldest and +rudest of the many Robin Hood ballads:-- + + There are twelve months in all the year, + As I hear many say, + But the merriest month in all the year + Is the merry month of May. + + Now Robin Hood is to Nottingham gone, + With a link a down and a day, + And there he met a silly[7] old woman, + Was weeping on the way. + + "What news? what news, thou silly old woman? + What news hast thou for me?" + Said she, "There's my three sons in Nottingham town + To-day condemned to die." + + "O, have they parishes burnt?" he said, + "Or have they ministers slain? + Or have they robbed any virgin? + Or other men's wives have ta'en?" + + "They have no parishes burnt, good sir, + Nor yet have ministers slain, + Nor have they robbed any virgin, + Nor other men's wives have ta'en." + + "O, what have they done?" said Robin Hood, + "I pray thee tell to me." + "It's for slaying of the king's fallow-deer, + Bearing their long bows with thee." + + "Dost thou not mind, old woman," he said, + "How thou madest me sup and dine? + By the truth of my body," quoth bold Robin Hood, + "You could not tell it in better time." + + Now Robin Hood is to Nottingham gone, + With a link a down and a day, + And there he met with a silly old palmer, + Was walking along the highway. + + "What news? what news, thou silly old man? + What news, I do thee pray?" + Said he, "Three squires in Nottingham town + Are condemned to die this day." + + "Come change thy apparel with me, old man, + Come change thy apparel for mine; + Here is forty shillings in good silver, + Go drink it in beer or wine." + + Now Robin Hood is to Nottingham gone, + With a link a down and a down. + And there he met with the proud sheriff, + Was walking along the town. + + "O Christ you save, O sheriff!" he said; + "O Christ you save and see; + And what will you give to a silly old man + To-day will your hangman be?" + + "Some suits, some suits," the sheriff he said, + "Some suits I'll give to thee; + Some suits, some suits, and pence thirteen, + To-day's a hangman's fee." + + Then Robin he turns him round about, + And jumps from stock to stone: + "By the truth of my body," the sheriff he said, + "That's well jumpt, thou nimble old man." + + "I was ne'er a hangman in all my life, + Nor yet intends to trade; + But curst be he," said bold Robin, + "That first a hangman was made! + + "I've a bag for meal, and a bag for malt, + And a bag for barley and corn; + A bag for bread, and a bag for beef, + And a bag for my little small horn. + + "I have a horn in my pocket, + I got it from Robin Hood, + And still when I set it to my mouth, + For thee it blows little good." + + "O, wind thy horn, thou proud fellow, + Of thee I have no doubt. + I wish that thou give such a blast, + Till both thy eyes fall out." + + The first loud blast that he did blow, + He blew both loud and shrill; + A hundred and fifty of Robin Hood's men + Came riding over the hill. + + The next loud blast that he did give, + He blew both loud and amain. + And quickly sixty of Robin Hood's men + Came shining over the plain. + + "O, who are these," the sheriff he said, + "Come tripping over the lea?" + "They're my attendants," brave Robin did say; + "They'll pay a visit to thee." + + They took the gallows from the slack, + They set it in the glen. + They hanged the proud sheriff on that, + Released their own three men. + + [7] simple + + +ROBIN HOOD BOOKS + + The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood (Howard Pyle). Finely + illustrated, $3.00. Scribner's Sons. + Some Adventures of Robin Hood (Pyle). Small school edition, + illustrated; Scribner's Sons. + Tennyson's The Foresters. + The Robin Hood ballads are found in many of the ballad books. + Ivanhoe contains several scenes from the life of Robin Hood + (Locksley). + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +PRIMARY READING THROUGH INCIDENTAL EXERCISES AND GAMES + + +BASED ON SCHOOL MOVEMENTS, STUDIES, AND GAMES + +Before entering upon the discussion of the usual methods of introducing +children to the art of reading we will give a treatment of the +incidental opportunities offered by the other studies, by school +movements and games in primary classes, for introducing children to the +written and printed forms. + +It is assumed that the more closely the written or printed words and +sentences are related to the children's activities, or the more +dependent these activities are made upon a knowledge of the word-forms, +the quicker and more natural will be their mastery. To put it briefly, +the teacher abstains from the use of oral speech to a considerable +extent and substitutes the written forms of the words on the blackboard +in giving directions, in games, and in treating topics in literature and +science. The following chapter is taken wholly from the lessons given by +Mrs. Lida B. McMurry in the first grade. Many other similar lessons were +worked out, but these are probably sufficient to fully illustrate the +plan. + +The teacher's aim in the beginning reading is to lead the child to look +to the lesson, either word or sentence or paragraph, to find what it has +to say to him--to present the lesson in such a way that the child shall +quicken into life in its presence--shall reach forward to grasp this +much-desired thing. The attention of the child is centred on the +thought; he grasps the symbols because he must reach, through them, the +thought. + +Much of the early reading can be taught in a purely incidental way--in +the general exercises of the school and in the literature and +nature-study recitations. + + +READING TAUGHT INCIDENTALLY + +(a) _In the General Management of the School._ The directions which are +at first given to children orally, _e.g._, _rise_, _turn_, _pass_, +_sit_, _skip_, _fly_, _march_, _run_, _walk_, _pass to the front_, _pass +to the back_, are later written upon the board. When the children seem +to have become familiar with the written direction, the order in which +the directions are given is sometimes changed, as a test, _e.g._, the +following directions are usually given in this order--_turn_, _rise_, +_pass_. Instead of writing _turn_ first, the teacher writes _pass_. If +the children understand, they will rise at once and pass without waiting +to turn. + +The names of the children, instead of being spoken, are often written; +in this way the children become familiar with the names of all the +children in the school. The teacher, writing _Clarence_ upon the board, +says, "I would like this boy to erase the boards to-night." The first +time it is written the teacher speaks the name as she writes it. It may +be necessary to do this several times. The teacher does not look at +Clarence as she writes his name. If he does not recognize his name after +it has appeared repeatedly, his eyesight may well be tested. If +heedlessness is the cause of the failure, another name is written at the +board, and Clarence loses the opportunity to do the service. No drill +should be given on these names. The repetition incident to the frequent +calling upon the child is all that is necessary to fix the name. + +The names of the songs and of the poems which the children are +memorizing are written upon the board as needed. The teacher says, "We +will sing this song this morning." If the children do not recognize its +title as the teacher points to it, she gives it. After a while the +children will recognize the names of all the songs and the poems which +are in use in the room. + +The children become familiar with the written form of the smaller +numbers in this way--the number of absent children is reported at each +session and written on the board. On Friday the teacher records upon the +board some facts of the week, or of the month, which the children +learned from their weather charts--viz., the number of sunny and the +number of cloudy days. The number of children in each row is ascertained +and written at the board that the monitors may know how many pairs of +scissors, pieces of clay, or pencils to select. + +The poems, after being partially committed to memory, are written upon +the board; when the pupils falter, reference is made to the line in +question as it appears upon the board. + +The teacher sometimes writes her morning greeting or evening farewell at +the board--thus: "Good morning, children," or, "Good-by for to-day." The +children read silently and respond with, "Good morning, Miss Eades," or, +"Good night, Miss Farr." + +Often she communicates facts of interest at the board. If the pupils are +unable to interpret what she has written, she reads for them, _e.g._, +the teacher writes, "We have vacation to-morrow." Quite likely some +child, unable to read at all, will say, "We have _something_, but I +can't tell what it is." (These same words will occur again, when needed +to express a thought, and it is a waste of energy to drill upon them.) +When the children have interpreted the above sentence at the board, the +teacher writes, "Do you know why?" The children read the question +silently and give the answer audibly, and say, "It is Decoration Day." +We too often allow children to treat a question in their reading as if +its end were reached in the asking. To lead the children to form a +habit of answering questions asked in writing or in print, such +questions as the following are, from time to time, written at the board: +"Did you see the rainbow last night?" "What color was it?" "Did you see +any birds on Saturday?" "What ones?" "Have you been to the woods?" "What +did you find there?" + +(b) _In Connection with the Literature._ The name of the story which the +teacher is about to tell is placed upon the board. At the first writing +the teacher tells the pupils what it is, if necessary, _e.g._, the +teacher says, "We shall have a story about '_The Three Bears_,'" +pointing to the title upon the board. The next day she says, "I would +like you to tell me all you can about this story"--writing its name upon +the board. + +In the final reproduction of the story the teacher assigns topics, +_e.g._: Chauncey may tell me about this (writing at the board): +_Silver-Hair going to the woods_. Eva may tell about this: _Silver-Hair +going into the kitchen_. Jennie may tell about this: _Silver-Hair going +into the sitting room_. Willie may tell about this: _Silver-Hair going +upstairs_. Should the child go beyond the limited topic, the teacher +points to the board and asks about what he was to tell. + +At the close of each story that can be dramatized, the teacher assigns +at the board the part which each is to take, thus: After the story of +"The Old Woman and the Pig" is learned, the teacher writes in a column +each child's name opposite the animal or thing which he is to represent, +in this way. + + _Agnes_--the old woman. + _Glenn_--the pig. + _Sadie_--the dog, etc. + +(c) _In Connection with the Nature Study._ In the spring the children +are looking for the return of the birds, the first spring blossoms, and +the opening of the tree buds. The teacher often makes her own +discoveries known through writing, upon the board, _e.g._, "I saw a +robin this morning," or "I found a blue violet yesterday," or "I saw +some elm blossoms last night." + +The class, by the aid of the teacher, make a bird, a flower, and a +tree-bud calendar, on which are recorded the name and date of the first +seen of each. These names are put on the calendars in the presence of +the children, and they frequently "name their treasures o'er." + +The mode of travelling is written beside the name of each familiar bird +as the children make the discoveries, thus:-- + + { hops. { walks. + Robin { runs. Crow { + { flies. { flies. + +Questions arise during the recitation which the children will answer +later from observation. That the children may not forget them they are +placed high up on the board where they can be preserved. Frequent +reference is made to them to see if the pupils are prepared to answer +them. When a question is answered it is erased, making room for another. + + +THE READING RECITATION + +For the early reading, Games, Literature, and Nature Study may form the +basis. + + * * * * * + +(I) _Games as a Basis for the Reading._ The child enters school from a +life of play. It is our purpose, so far as possible, to make use of this +natural bent of the child to insure interest in his reading, as well as +to give him the free exercise, which he needs, of his muscles. It may be +urged as an argument against the use of the games, that they are too +noisy and attract the attention of the children who are busy at their +seats. Often it would be a good thing for these children to watch the +younger ones at their games. It would rest them and put them into closer +sympathy with the little ones. In a short time they will not care so +much to watch them. The little children should be thoughtful of the +older ones and move about as quietly as is possible. + +The following are some of the games which we have used in our primary +school. They are given in the way of suggestion only. They are played at +first by following spoken directions. When the children are perfectly +familiar with the oral direction, the written direction is gradually +substituted. The children do not stay long enough on one game to become +tired of it. Two or three or even more are played at a single +recitation. It is not the plan to drill the pupils upon the written +directions, but by frequent repetitions to familiarize them with them. +The games are most suitable for the very earliest reading lessons. The +plan for teaching one of them, the first one given here, will be written +out quite fully. The others will be given with less detail. + + +THE RING GAME + +_Material._--Six celluloid rings, red, white, blue, yellow, green, and +black. Surcingle rings can be painted the colors desired. + + _Directions._--Take the red ring, Jennie. + Take the blue ring, Eva. + Take the yellow ring, Wallace. + Take the green ring, Chauncey. + Take the black ring, Gregory. + Take the white ring, Lloyd. + +When the children are ready to hide the rings this direction is given to +the remainder of the class:-- + + Close your eyes. + +This to the pupils who hold the rings:-- + + Hide the rings. + +When the children have all the rings hid they announce it by lightly +clapping their hands, upon which the children open their eyes. +Directions are then given to those who did not hide rings, for finding +the rings, _e.g._:-- + + Find the red ring. + Find the blue ring, etc. + +No notice is taken of any ring but the one called for. A limited time is +given for the finding of each. At the close of that time, if the ring is +not discovered, the one who hid it gets it. When the written directions +are first used the whole sentence need not be put upon the board, +_e.g._, the teacher need write only--_the red ring_. She says to the +child, "find _this_"--pointing to the board; or _red_, alone, may be +written, in which case the teacher points to the word, saying, "You may +find _this ring_." There is considerable rivalry to see who will find +the most rings. + +When the children seem to know the written directions perfectly, a test +is made of their ability, actually, to read them; thus, instead of +writing, "_Take_ the red ring," the teacher writes, "_Find_ the red +ring." She writes "Hide the rings," before she writes, "Close your +eyes." If the children recognize what is written they will set the +teacher right. + + +BALL AND CORD + +_Material._--Small, soft rubber balls with short rubber cords attached. +The cords have a loop for the finger. + + Ball in right hand. + Toss up. + Hold. + Toss down. + Hold. + Toss to the right. + Hold. + Toss to the left. + Hold. + Ball in left hand. + Toss up, etc. + +In this and succeeding games it is left to the discretion of the teacher +as to when the written directions shall be introduced. + + +BALL GAME + +_Material._--A soft rubber ball. + + Form a circle. + Take the ball, Roy. + Toss the ball. + Roll the ball. + Bounce the ball. + Throw the ball. + Give the ball to Sadie. + +In this game one of the children takes the ball to the circle. Each, as +the ball is tossed to him, tosses it to another. At the direction of the +teacher the game of _tossing the ball_ is changed to one of _rolling_ +_the ball_, the pupils squatting on the floor; this in turn is changed +later as the directions indicate. Care must be taken that all children +are treated alike in this game. The children themselves will look out +for this if properly directed at the outset of the game. + + +HUNTING THE VIOLET + +_Material._--Violets scattered about the room. + + Find a blue violet, Glenn. + Find a violet bud, Edith. + Find a yellow violet, Lloyd. + Find a violet leaf, Sadie. + Find a white violet, Jennie. + Find a purple violet, Rudolph. + Sing to the violets. + +Children sing softly:-- + + "Oh, violets, pretty violets, + I pray you tell to me + Why are you the first flowers + That bloom upon the lea?" etc. + + +A TREE GAME--(SPRING OR FALL) + +_Material._--Leaves of the different trees with which the children are +familiar. + + Glenn may be a maple tree. + Choose your leaf. + Wallace may be an elm tree. + Choose your leaf. + Chauncey may be a birch tree. + Choose your leaf, etc. + Make a little forest. + Toss in the wind. + +(The leaves are pinned upon the children as each chooses his leaf, and +they dance lightly about as if tossed by the wind.) + + +CARING FOR THE ANIMALS + +_Material._--Wooden or paper animals. A portion of the table is marked +off by a chalk line for the farmyard. + + Drive in a pig, Willie. + Lead in a horse, Gregory. + Drive in a sheep, Sadie. + Lead in a cow, Roy, etc. + +They are driven in at night, then driven out in the morning. Sometimes +they are hurried in because of the approach of a storm. + + +DOLL PLAY--(GENERAL) + +_Material._--Penny dolls or larger ones. + + Take a doll. + Rock the baby. + Pat the baby. + Sing the baby to sleep. + Put the baby to bed. + Take up the baby. + Wash its face. + Comb its hair. + Feed it bread and milk. + Take it for a walk. + +At the direction, "Sing the baby to sleep," the children sing very +softly:-- + + "Rock-a-bye Baby,"--or some other lullaby. + +The bed is the chair on which the child is sitting. All stand and turn +about together to put the babies to bed. They go through the movements +only of washing the face and hands and combing the hair, and of feeding +bread and milk. They perform these acts in unison. + + +THE RAINBOW FAIRIES--(SPRING) + +_Material._--Large bows of tissue paper with streamers, of the various +colors mentioned. + + Eva may be a yellow fairy. + Roy may be a blue fairy. + Edith may be a green fairy. + Louise may be a red fairy. + Lloyd may be an orange fairy. + Sadie may be a violet fairy. + The others may be trees. + Join hands, fairies. + Dance about the trees. + +As the first direction is given Eva steps to the table and takes a +yellow bow which is pinned to her left shoulder: the others follow as +called upon. + + +THE LEAVES + +_Material._--A leaf of one of several colors pinned on each child. The +wind calls:-- + + Come yellow leaf. + Come red leaf. + Come green leaves, etc. + Dance in the wind. + +At the last direction the children fly over a small area, hither and +thither; some one way, some another, passing and repassing one another, +simulating the leaves in a storm. + + +A FLOCK OF BIRDS + +All the children are little birds. + + Fly to the fields. + Pick up seeds. + Take a drink. + Bathe in the creek. + Preen your feathers. + Fly home. + Perch on a twig. + + _Sing._ + +They sing:-- + + "We are little birdies, + Happy we, happy we. + We are little birdies + Singing in a tree." + + +HUNTING BIRDS + +_Material._--Colored pictures of birds common to the locality in which +the game is used. + + Find a robin, Rudolph. + Find a bluebird, Gregory, etc. + +The child indicated finds the picture of the bird called for and places +it on the blackboard ledge which serves as a picture gallery. + + +HUNTING LEAVES + +is a game similar to the above. + + +MOVEMENT GAME + + Frederick may be a pony. + Louise may be a kitty, etc. + +(Of the other children--one may be a boy; another, a bird; another, a +horse; another, a fish; another, a girl, etc.) + + Trot, pony. + Run, dog. + Skip, boy, etc. + +They perform singly, and also in a body. + + +MAKING GARDEN + +_Material._--Trays or box-covers of sand, and a toy set of garden tools +for each pupil. + + Take the spade. + Spade the earth. + Take the hoe. + Hoe the ground. + Take the rake. + Smooth the ground. + Make holes (or rows). + Plant corn (or sow the seed). + Cover the seed. + Water the garden. + + +THE FARMER'S PETS + +For this game the children are all seated in chairs except one for whom +no chair is provided. Each child seated takes the name of some animal on +the farm, _e.g._, a dog, cat, horse, chicken, duck, or cow. The one +standing is the farm-hand and says, _e.g._, "My master wants his dog." +The dog must jump up and turn around. If he fails to do so, he steps to +one side taking his chair with him. If when he is again called upon he +answers correctly, he resumes his seat in the circle. Occasionally the +farm-hand says, "My master wants all of his pets." When all rise and +change seats quietly. The farm-hand tries to get a seat, leaving another +child to be the farm-hand. In changing seats they change names as a +single name belongs to each chair. + + * * * * * + +(II) _Literature as a Basis for the Reading._ The stories in the form +indicated below are given after the children have become thoroughly +familiar with them through oral presentation, after, too, the children +have gained some facility in reading, through the use of the games, and +the directions, etc., used in the general management of the school. +Before the board work is presented the children dramatize the story +which they are to read. They look to the board to find out what to say +that they may impersonate the character in the story. Each mimics in +tone and action the one whose part he takes. As no two mimic in the same +way there is no lack of variety and interest. If the children are +thoughtful they will know every time into whose mouth to put each +sentence. They need to be alert, however. The names of the speakers, +given in the margin, are for the benefit of the readers of this article. +They are not put on the board. The children do not need them. + + +THE OLD WOMAN AND THE PIG + +I + + _The old woman._ I was sweeping my house. + I found this dime. + What shall I buy? + I know; I will buy a pig. + Where is my sunbonnet? + Where is my cane? + Here I go. + Tramp! tramp! tramp! + +II. + + _Old woman._ Tap, tap, tap! + + _The farmer._ Come in. + Good morning, old woman. + + _Old woman._ Good morning, sir. + I want to buy a pig. + + _Farmer._ All right; I have some. + Will you look at them? + Here they are. + + _Old woman._ I like this one. + I will take it. + Good morning. + + _Farmer._ Good morning. + +III + + _Old woman._ Go on, pig. + That fence is low, + You can jump over. + + _Pig._ Grunt! grunt! + + _Old woman._ What shall I do? + I must have help. + I will go back. + +IV + + _Old woman._ Dog, dog, bite pig. + + _Dog._ No, no. (_Shaking his head._) + +V + + _Old woman._ Stick, stick, whip dog. + + _Stick._ No, no. (_Shaking head as before._) + +VI-XII. _Similar to two above._ + +XIII + + _Old woman._ Cat, cat, kill rat. + + _Cat._ I will if you will give me some milk. + + _Old woman._ I will go to the cow. + +XIV + + _Old woman._ Cow, cow, give me some milk. + + _Cow._ I will if you will give me some hay. + + _Old woman._ All right. + Tramp! tramp! tramp! + Here is the hay, cow. + + _Cow._ Chew, chew, chew, chew. + Now you may have some milk. + + _Old woman._ Thank you, cow. + +XV + + _Old woman._ Come, kitty, kitty, kitty. + Here is some milk for you. + + _Cat._ Lap, lap, lap, lap. + + _Old woman._ Now catch the rat. + + _Cat._ Patter, patter, patter. (_Given softly--it is the cat running + after the rat._) + + +THE THREE BEARS + +I + + _The papa bear._ That soup is hot. + It must cool. + We will take a walk. + +II + + _Silver-Hair._ Tap! tap! tap! + No one at home. + I will go in. + What is that on the table? + It is three bowls of soup. + I am hungry. + (_Tasting of the soup in the big bowl._) + That is too hot. + (_Tasting of soup in middle-sized bowl._) + That is too cold. + (_Tasting of soup in little bowl._) + That is just right. + It is good. + I will eat a little. + +III + + I am tired. + Here are three chairs. + That is too high. + That is too wide. + This is just right. + I will rest here. + Oh, it broke! + +IV + + I am sleepy. + I will go upstairs. + Here are three beds. + That is too hard. + That is too soft. + This is just right. + I will sleep here. + +V + + _Papa bear._ SOMEBODY HAS BEEN TASTING MY SOUP. + + _Mamma bear._ _Somebody has been tasting my soup._ + + _Baby bear._ Somebody has been tasting my soup. + It is all gone. + +VI + + _Papa bear._ SOMEBODY HAS BEEN SITTING IN MY CHAIR. + + _Mamma bear._ _Somebody has been sitting in my chair._ + + _Baby bear._ Somebody has been sitting in my chair. + It is all broken. + +VII + + _Papa bear._ SOMEBODY HAS BEEN LYING ON MY BED. + + _Mamma bear._ _Somebody has been lying on my bed._ + + _Baby bear._ Somebody has been lying on my bed. + Why, here she is! + + _Silver-Hair._ Oh, my! + I will jump. + Now I will run. + +THE FIR TREE + +I + + I am a little fir tree. + I want to be tall. + I hate rabbits. + They jump over me. + +II + + I am three years old. + The rabbit cannot jump over me now. + It runs around me. + I wish I were taller. + I hate to be so little. + +III + + Now I am six years old. + Here come the woodchoppers. + They will take me away. + Here I go. + Thump! thump! thump! + +IV + + What a fine house. + How beautiful this moss is. + What are these people going to give me? + I am so happy! + +V + + Here are the children. + How they like me! + See them dance about me. + _Everybody looks at me._ + Do not take away my beautiful dress. + Do not put out the lights. + +VI + + Here come the servants. + They will give me my beautiful dress. + Oh, oh, oh! + Don't put me up there. + It is dark. + I want to be planted. + +VII + + I wish I were at home. + I want to see the rabbit. + It may jump over me. + I will not care. + I want to see the other trees. + The rats come. I do not like rats. + +VIII + + Out again! + I like the air. + Now I shall be planted. + I am glad to see the flowers. + I am glad to hear the birds. + Now I shall live. + +IX + + That boy called me ugly. + He took my beautiful star. + I wish I were in the woods. + I shall never be happy again. + Pop! pop! pop! pop! + + +THE STREET MUSICIANS + +I + + _The donkey._ I am very old. + I am very weak. + I can work no more. + My master will not keep me. + I will run away. + I will go to the city. + I can make music. + I will join a band. + Trot! trot! trot! + +II + + What is that in the road? + It is an old dog. + What is the matter? + + _Dog._ I am very old. + I am very weak. + I cannot hunt. + My master will not keep me. + How can I live? + + _Donkey._ Come with me. + You can play the bass drum. + Join a band. + + _Dog._ Good! good! good! + I will go. + + _Dog and donkey._ Trot! trot! trot! + +III + + _Donkey._ What is that in the road? + It is an old cat. + What is the matter, old whiskers? + + _Cat._ I am very old. + I am very weak. + I cannot catch mice. + My mistress will not keep me. + How can I live? + + _Donkey._ Come with us. + You can sing. + Join a band. + + _Cat._ Good! good! good! + I will go. + + _All three._ Trot! trot! trot! + +IV + + _Donkey._ What is that on the gate? + It is a rooster. + What is the matter? + + _Rooster._ The cook will kill me. + + _Donkey._ Come with us. + You can sing. + Join a band. + + _Rooster._ Good! good! good! + I will go. + + _All four._ Trot! trot! trot! + + +THE UNHAPPY PINE TREE + + +I + + I am a little pine tree. + I do not like to be a pine tree. + My leaves are needles. + Needles are not pretty. + I wish I had gold leaves. + +II + + _In the morning._ Why do the trees look at me? + What has happened? + Gold leaves! Gold leaves! + Just what I wanted! + Good! good! good! + +III + + _To the robber._ Do not take my leaves. + I want them. + They are beautiful. + Give them back. + No leaves! No leaves! + I wish I had glass leaves. + +IV + + _In the morning._ Oh, how beautiful! + Glass leaves! Glass leaves! + No robber will take them. + I can keep them. + I am so happy! + +V + + Cloud, do not come. + Wind, do not blow. + Keep still, keep still. + A leaf is broken. + Another! Another! + All gone! All gone! + No beautiful leaves. + I wish I had bright green leaves. + +VI + + _In the morning._ Oh, my pretty green leaves! + No one will steal them. + Nothing will break them. + I shall not need to keep still. + I will dance. + Dance! dance! dance! + +VII + + Goat, do not come here. + These are my leaves. + I want them. + They are pretty. + Oh, oh, oh! + All my pretty leaves are gone. + What shall I do? + I wish I had my needles. + +VIII + + Oh, mother, mother, see! + I have my old leaves. + I like them. + They are best of all. + No one will steal them. + Nothing will break them. + Nothing will eat them. + I can keep them. + My dear old leaves! + + * * * * * + +(III) _Nature Study as a Basis for the Reading._ The subjects in which +the pupils are most interested are made the basis for the reading +lessons. + +Sometimes there is a guessing game like the following: The teacher, +holding a flower in her closed hand, writes:-- + + Guess what I have. + It is a flower. + It is white. + _It has a yellow centre._ + +(The children answer--a daisy.) Or-- + + Guess what I have. + It is a leaf. + It is yellow. + It is long. + It is narrow. + +(The children answer--the willow.) + +After the pupils have made a careful study of a few birds or flowers, +the reading lesson describes one of these, and the pupils are expected +to name it from the description. If a child gives the wrong name, one of +those who know better points out the line or lines barring out this +object, and reads to the one making the mistake as proof of his error. + + I live in the woods. + I am not a bird. + I am not a flower. + I am not a tree. + I run up trees. + I eat nuts. + I have a bushy tail. + What is my name? (_Squirrel._) + I am a little bird. + My back is brown. + My breast is white. + My bill is curved. + I go up a tree trunk. + I fly to another tree. + I like insects. + What is my name? (_The brown creeper._) + This is a big bird. + It is blue. + It has black bands on its tail and wings. + It has a crest. + Its bill is black. + It scolds. + What is its name? (_The blue jay._) + +The children sometimes play a game like the following: All but one +personify red-headed woodpeckers. The _one_ questions from the board. +If a red-headed woodpecker fails to answer the question put to him, he +takes the place of the interlocutor. It is an honor to be able to answer +all the questions put:-- + + What color is your head? + What color is your throat? + What color is your breast? + What colors on your wings? + What color is your bill? + What do you do? + Where do you make your nest? + +To a set of questions like the following, the children give the answers, +after reading the questions silently:-- + + What bird did you first see this spring? + What have you seen a robin do? + What flower did you see first? + What yellow flowers have you seen this spring? + What white flowers? + What blue flowers? + What bird builds a nest in a tree trunk? + What bird builds a nest on the ground? + + +THE BABY ROBIN + +I saw two robins on the ground. + +One was a mamma robin. + +The other was a baby robin. + +The baby robin was as big as its mother. + +Its breast was spotted. + +Its mother gave it an earthworm. + +At first it dropped it, but its mother picked it up and gave it to her +baby again. + +This time it got a better hold. By several gulps it swallowed the worm. + +The mother looked proud of her baby. (This is the teacher's experience +which she tells the children from the board. Sometimes she writes the +observations which one of the children have made.) + +As no two teachers will have the same material for Nature Study, the +reading material will not be multiplied here. + +Gradually, as the pupils can stand it, the sentences are lengthened a +little as necessary, and massed into paragraphs. + +The use of the "Mother Goose Rhymes" as a means of enlivening the first +year reading lessons is also treated as follows by Mrs. Lida McMurry. +(Taken from _School and Home Education_ for October, 1902.) + +Many of the children on entering school are well versed in Nursery +Rhymes. They enjoy repeating them. Other children may not know them so +well, but soon learn them from their classmates. Teachers and pupils may +have a happy time together with Mother Goose, and at the same time the +pupils are learning to read without realizing that what they are doing +is something that they are not accustomed to. + +I will suggest a few ways in which these rhymes may be made the basis +for reading lessons:-- + +Take this rhyme-- + + 1. Dance, Thumbkin, dance, + Dance, ye merrymen, every one; + For Thumbkin he can dance alone, + Thumbkin he can dance alone. + +The second, third, fourth, and fifth stanzas are like the first, only +Foreman, Longman, Ringman, and Littleman are in turn substituted for +Thumbkin. + +The children first learn to act out each stanza as they recite it +together. The thumb is held up and moved about as if dancing, as the +first line is given. All the fingers dance as the second line is +recited. The thumb dances alone as the third and fourth lines are +repeated. + +The teacher then repeats the stanza alone, and the children's fingers +accompany her. + +Later, when the children have learned to act out the story well, as the +teacher repeats it, the teacher writes the first line at the board, and, +pointing to it, asks the children to do what the board directs. They +cannot tell what it is, so the teacher says, "The board is talking to +_Thumbkin_," writing the name on the board as she says it. "What do you +think it wants Thumbkin to do?" pointing to _Dance_ in the line on the +board. The next line is written on the board. The children quite likely +will guess rightly what it says, because of its setting. If not, the +teacher will help them as at first. In the same way they connect the +third and fourth lines with the oral expression of the same, and act +them out accordingly. That the children respond readily to the +directions as written is no proof, at first, that they know even most of +the words in the lines. The teacher's test is a part of the play. +To-day, instead of writing the first line, she writes the second. Many +get caught. They will be more alert another time. As they can never tell +which line will appear first, they learn to discriminate by giving +closer attention to the form of the words. + +Sometimes the teacher writes the six names--Thumbkin, Foreman, etc., and +Merrymen, on the board. She points to the name or names of the one, or +ones, that should dance. The children do not like to make mistakes in +responding with the fingers. + +Sometimes the teacher points to a name on the board, as Foreman, and +writes "dance alone," or "dance every one." The alert children see that +the latter does not apply. + +The words are not drilled upon. The game, with variations sometimes, is +played quite frequently, but never so long at a time that the children +weary of it. Three or four plays or games are given at a single +recitation. The interests of the children are studied, and rhymes which +they do not enjoy as reading material are dropped, and others +substituted. The rhymes should often be repeated, just as they occur in +"Mother Goose," that the children may not forget them. + + 2. Eye winker. + Tom tinker. + Mouth eater. + Chin chopper. + Chin chopper. + +The children point to the parts of the face as they are named. They +first learn to give the rhyme with its accompanying motion orally, then +they respond to it as written on the board (Tom tinker is the other +eye). When they do this readily the directions are written out of their +order. This tests the children's ability to distinguish one form from +another. No child likes to give the wrong motion in response to a +direction, _e.g._, point to his mouth when Eye winker is called for. + + 3. The children, we will suppose, know a number of rhymes, as, _e.g._, + + A diller, a dollar, a ten o'clock scholar. + A little boy went into a barn. + Baa, baa, black sheep. + Rain, rain, go away, etc. + +The teacher writes the first line of one of these rhymes on the board +and asks a child to give the rhyme. He cannot at first. Later he will +learn to recognize it; so with all the rhymes he knows. When he can give +any rhyme called for in response to the first line as written at the +board, another line (not the first) is written, and the child asked to +give the rhyme of which it is a part. + + 4. Is John Smith within? + Yes, that he is. + Can he set a shoe? + Ay, marry, two. + Here a nail and there a nail, + Tick, tack, too. + +After the children have learned the above rhyme, acting it out, by +imitating the voices of the two speakers, and by driving the nails, the +two questions are asked at the board, and the children respond orally. +Sometimes the second question, slightly altered, is asked first, _e.g._, +"Can John Smith set a shoe?" Sometimes "Who is within?" appears on the +board. + + 5. Old Mother Hubbard. + +There are many stanzas to this poem, a few of which the teacher will +wish to omit, as those referring to the visits to the ale-house and the +tavern. The pupils become perfectly familiar with the jingle, so they +can with ease give it orally, then the teacher writes the first line of +a stanza at the board and pointing to it asks a pupil to give the +remainder of the stanza. The mistake is ludicrous if the wrong lines +follow the first, and the pupils wish to avoid such a mistake. + + 6. There were two birds sat on a stone, + Fa, la, la, la, lal, de. + One flew away and then there was one, + Fa, la, la, la, lal, de. + The other flew after and then there was none, + Fa, la, la, la, lal, de. + And so the poor stone was left all alone, + Fa, la, la, la, lal, de. + +The children act out this rhyme at first as they say it, later, +silently, as they see what is called for at the board. + +Any number may be substituted for _two_ in the first line, but when they +come to the third line the number substituted for one should be such +that only one will remain, _e.g._, There were _eight_ birds sat on a +stone, _Seven_ flew away, etc. The children are sometimes caught by the +wrong number being told to fly. The children should not fly until they +are sure that it is all right. + + 7. What are your eyes for? + What are your ears for? + What is your nose for? + What is your tongue for? + What is your mouth for? + What is your hand for? + What are your fingers for? + What are your teeth for? + What is your brain for? + What is your heart for? + +These questions are read silently by the children, then answered orally +in complete sentences, one child only answering at one time. The answers +are so absurd when wrong that each child is careful to know what is +asked. + +These are only a few of the ways in which "Mother Goose" may be used as +reading material. Each teacher will think out for herself ways in which +these rhymes may be profitably and happily employed. + + MRS. LIDA MCMURRY. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +METHOD IN PRIMARY READING + + +The problem of primary reading is one of the most complex and difficult +in the whole range of school instruction. A large proportion of the +finest skill and sympathy of teachers has been expended in efforts to +find the appropriate and natural method of teaching children to read. +All sorts of methods and devices have been employed, from the most +formal and mechanical to the most spirited and realistic. + +The first requisite to good reading is something worth reading, +something valuable and interesting to the children, and adapted to their +minds. We must take it for granted in this discussion that the best +literature and the best stories have been selected, and what the teacher +has to do is, first, to appreciate these masterpieces for herself, and +second, to bring the children in the reading lessons to appreciate and +enjoy them. In the primary grades we are not so richly supplied with +available materials from good literature as in intermediate and grammar +grades. This is due not to difficulty in thought, but to the unfamiliar +written and printed forms. The great problem in primary reading is to +master these strange forms as quickly as possible, and find entrance to +the story-land of books. For several years, however, primary teachers +have been selecting and adapting the best stories, and some of the +leading publishers have brought out in choice school-book form books +which are well adapted to the reading of primary grades. + +We should like to assume one other advantage. If the children have been +treated orally to "Robinson Crusoe" in the second grade, they will +appreciate and read the story much better in the third grade. If some of +Grimm's stories are told in first grade, they can be read with ease in +the second grade. The teacher's oral presentation of the stories is the +right way to bring them close to the life and interest of children. In +the first grade, as shown in the chapter on oral lessons, it is the only +way, because the children cannot yet read. But even if they could read, +the oral treatment is much better. The oral presentation is more lively, +natural, and realistic. The teacher can adapt the story and the language +to the immediate needs of the class as no author can. She can question, +or suggest lines of thought, or call up ideas from the children's +experience. The oral manner is the true way to let the children delve +into the rich culture-content of stories and to awaken a taste for their +beauty and truth. We could well wish that before children read mythical +stories in fourth grade, they had been stirred up to enjoy them by oral +narration and discussion in the preceding year. In the same way, if the +reading bears on interesting science topics previously studied, it will +be a distinct advantage to the reading lesson. Children like to read +about things that have previously excited their interest, whether in +story or science. The difficulties of formal reading will also be partly +overcome by familiarity with the harder names and words. Our conclusion +is that reading lessons, alone, cannot provide all the conditions +favorable to good reading. Some of these can be well supplied by other +studies or by preliminary lessons which pave the way for the reading +proper. This matter has been so fully discussed in the earlier chapters +on oral work that it requires no further treatment here. + + +FOLK-LORE STORIES AS READING EXERCISES FOR FIRST GRADE + +Let it be supposed that a class of first-grade children has learned to +tell a certain story orally. It has interested them and stirred up their +thought. + +Let them next learn to read the same story in a very simple form. This +will lead to a series of elementary reading lessons in connection with +the story, and the aim should be strictly that of mastering the early +difficulties of reading. The teacher recalls the story, and asks for a +statement from its beginning. If the sentence furnished by the child is +simple and suitable, the teacher writes it on the blackboard in plain +large script. Each child reads it through and points out the words. Let +there be a lively drill upon the sentence till the picture of each word +becomes clear and distinct. During the first lesson, two or three short +sentences can be handled with success. As new words are learned, they +should be mixed up on the board with those learned before, and a quick +and varied drill on the words in sentences or in columns be employed +to establish the forms in memory.[8] Speed, variety in device, and +watchfulness to keep all busy and attentive are necessary to secure good +results. + + [8] First-class primary teachers claim that drills are + unnecessary if the teacher is skilful in recombining the + old words in new sentences. + +After a few lessons one or two of the simpler words may be taken for +phonetic analysis. The simple sounds are associated with the letters +that represent them. These familiar letters are later met and identified +in new words, and, as soon as a number of sounds with their symbols have +been learned, new words can be constructed and pronounced from these +known elements. + +The self-activity of the children in recognizing the elementary sounds, +already met, in new words as fast as they come up, is one of the chief +merits of this early study of words. They thus early learn the power of +self-help and of confident reliance upon themselves in acquiring and +using knowledge. The chief difficulty is in telling which sound to use, +as a letter often has several sounds (as _a_, _e_, _s_, _c_, etc.). But +the children are capable of testing the known sounds of a letter upon a +new word, and in most cases, of deciding which to use. The thoughtless +habit of pronouncing every new word for a child, without effort on his +part, checks and spoils his interest and self-activity. It does not seem +necessary to use an extensive system of diacritical markings to guide +him in these efforts to discriminate sounds. It is better to use the +marks as little as possible and learn to interpret words as they usually +appear in print. Experience has shown decisively that a lively and +vigorous self-activity is manifested by such early efforts in learning +to read. It is one of the most encouraging signs in education to see +little children in their first efforts to master the formal art of +reading, showing this spirited self-reliant energy. + +In the same way, they recognize old words in sentences and new or +changed combinations of old forms, and begin to read new sentences which +combine old words in new relations. + +In short, the sentence, word, and phonic methods are all used in fitting +alternation, while originality and variety of device are necessary in +the best exercise of teaching power. + +The processes of learning to read by such board-script work are partly +analytic and partly synthetic. Children begin with sentences, analyze +them into words, and some of the words into their simple sounds. But +when these sounds begin to grow familiar, they are identified again in +other words, thus combining them into new forms. In the same way, words +once learned by the analytic study of sentences are recognized again in +new sentences, and thus interpreted in new relations. + +The short sentences, derived from a familiar story, when ranged together +supply a brief, simple outline of the story. If now this series of +sentences be written on the board or printed on slips of paper, the +whole story may be reviewed by the class from day to day till the word +and sentence forms are well mastered. For making these printed slips, +some teachers use a small printing-press, or a typewriter. Eventually +several stories may be collected and sewed together, so as to form a +little reading-book which is the result of the constructive work of +teacher and pupils. + +The reading lessons just described are entirely separate from the oral +treatment and reproduction of the stories; yet the thought and interest +awakened in the oral work are helpful in keeping up a lively effort in +the reading class. The thought material in a good story is itself a +mental stimulus, and produces a wakefulness which is favorable to +imprinting the forms as well as the content of thought. Expression, +also, that is, natural and vivid rendering of the thought, is always +aimed at in reading, and springs spontaneously from interesting thought +studies. + +Many teachers use the materials furnished by oral lessons in natural +science as a similar introduction to reading in first grade. The science +lessons furnish good thought matter for simple sentences, and there is +good reason why, in learning to read, children should use sentences +drawn both from literature and from natural science. + + +READING IN THE SECOND GRADE + +The oral lessons in good stories, and the later board-use of these +materials in learning the elements of formal reading, are an excellent +preparation for the fuller and more extended reading of similar matter +in the second and third grades. + +When the oral work of the first grade has thus kindled the fancy of a +child upon these charming pictures, and the later board-work has +acquainted him with letter and word symbols which express such thought, +the reading of the same and other stories of like character (a year +later) will follow as an easy and natural sequence. As a preliminary to +all good reading exercises, there should be rich and fruitful thought +adapted to the age of children. The realm of classic folk-lore contains +abundant thought material peculiar in its fitness to awaken the interest +and fancy of children in the first two grades. To bring these choice +stories close to the hearts of children should be the aim of much of the +work in both these grades. Such an aim, skilfully carried out, not only +conduces to the joy of children in first grade, but infuses the reading +lessons of second grade with thought and culture of the best quality. + +Interest and vigor of thought are certain to help right expression and +reading. Reading, like every other study, should be based upon +realities. When there is real thought and feeling in the children, a +correct expression of them is more easily secured than by formal demands +or by intimidation. + +The stories to be read in second or third grade may be fuller and longer +than the brief outline sentences used for board-work in the first grade. +Besides, these tales, being classic and of permanent value, do not lose +their charm by repetition. + + +METHOD + +By oral reading, we mean the giving of the thought obtained from a +printed page to others through the medium of the voice. + +There is first the training of the eye in taking in a number of words at +a glance--a mechanical process; then the interpretation of these groups +of words--a mental process; next the making known of the ideas thus +obtained to others, by means of the voice--also a mechanical process. + +The children need special help in each step. We are apt to overdo one at +the expense of the others. + +1. Eye-training is the foundation of all good reading. Various devices +are resorted to in obtaining it. We will suggest a few, not new at all, +but useful. + + (_a_) A strip of cardboard, on which is a clause or sentence, is + held before the class, for a moment only, and then removed. The + length of the task is increased as the eye becomes trained to + this kind of work. + + (_b_) The children open their books at a signal from the + teacher, glance through a line, or part of one, indicated by the + teacher, close book at once and give the line. + + (_c_) The teacher places on the board clauses or sentences + bearing on the lesson, and covers with a map. The map is rolled + up to show one of these, which is almost immediately erased. The + children are then asked to give it. The map is then rolled up + higher, exposing another, which also is speedily erased--and so + on until all have been given to the children and erased. + +2. The child needs not only to be able to recognize groups of words, but +he must be able to get thought from them. The following are some devices +to that end:-- + + (_a_) Suggestive pictures can be made use of to advantage all + through the primary grades. If the child reads part of the story + in the picture, and finds it interesting, he will want to read + from the printed page the part not given in the picture. + + (_b_) Where there is no picture--or even where there is one--an + aim may be useful to arouse interest in the thought, _i.e._ a + thoughtful question may be put by the teacher, which the + children can answer only by reading the story; _e.g._ in the + supplementary reader, "Easy Steps for Little Feet," is found the + story of "The Pin and Needle." There is no picture. The teacher + says, as the class are seated: "Now we have a story about a big + quarrel between a pin and a needle over the question, 'Which one + is the better fellow?' Of what could the needle boast? Of what + the pin? Let us see which won." + + (_c_) Let all the pupils look through one or more paragraphs, + reading silently, to get the thought, before any one is called + upon to read aloud. If a child comes to a word that he does not + know, during the silent reading, the teacher helps him to get + it--from the context if possible--if not, by the sounds of the + letters which compose it. + +As each child finishes the task assigned, he raises his eyes from the +book, showing by this act that he is ready to tell what he has just +read. The thought may be given by the child in his own language to +assure the teacher that he has it. Usually, however, in the lower +grades, this is unnecessary, the language of the book being nearly as +simple as his own. + +The advantage of having all the pupils kept busy, instead of one alone +who might be called upon to read the paragraph, is evident. Every child +reads silently all of the lesson. Time would not permit that this be +done orally, were it advisable to do so. When the child gets up to read, +he is not likely to stumble, for he has both the thought and the +expression for it, at the start. + +While aiming to have the children comprehend the thought, the teacher +should not forget, on the other hand, that this is the reading hour, and +not the time for much oral instruction and reproduction. There are other +recitations in which the child is trained to free oral expression of +thought, as in science and literature. Such offhand oral expression of +his own ideas is not the primary aim of the reading lesson. Its purpose +is to lend life to the recitation. + +3. Steps 1 and 2 deal with preparation for the reading. Up to this time, +no oral reading has been done. Now we are ready to begin. + +Children will generally express the thought with the proper emphasis if +they not only see its meaning but also feel it. Suppose the children are +interested in the thought of the piece, they still fail, sometimes, to +give the proper emphasis. How can the teacher, by questioning, get them +to realize the more important part of the thought? + + (_a_) The teacher has gone deeper into the meaning than have the + children. Her questions should be such as to make real to the + children the more emphatic part of the thought; _e.g._ in the + Riverside Primer we have, "Poor Bun, good dog, did you think I + meant to hit you?" John reads, "Do you think I meant to _hit_ + you?" The teacher says, "I will be Bun, John. What is it that + you do not want Bun to think?" ("That I _meant_ to hit him.") + "But you did mean to hit something. What was it you did not mean + to hit? Tell Bun." ("I did not _mean_ to hit _you_.") Now ask + him if he thought that you did. ("Did you think I _meant_ to hit + _you_?") + + (_b_) When the story is in the form of a dialogue, the children + may personate the characters in the story. Thus, getting into + the real spirit of the piece, their emphasis will naturally fall + where it properly belongs. + + (_c_) Sometimes the teacher will find it necessary to show the + child how to read a passage properly, by reading it himself. It + is seldom best to do this--certainly not if the correct + expression can be reached through questioning. + +Many a teacher makes a practice of giving the proper emphasis to the +child, he copying it from her voice. Frequently, children taught in this +way can read one piece after another in their readers with excellent +expression, but, when questioned, show that their minds are a blank as +to the meaning of what they are reading. + +In working for expression, a great many teachers waste the time and +energy of the pupils by indefinite directions. The emphasis is not +correctly placed, so the teacher says, "I do not like that; try it +again, May." Now, May has no idea in what particular she has failed, so +she gives it again, very likely as she gave it before, or she may put +the emphasis on some other word, hoping by so doing to please the +teacher. "Why, no, May, you surely can do better than that," says the +teacher. So May makes another fruitless attempt, when the teacher, +disgusted, calls on another pupil to show her how to read. May has +gained no clearer insight into the thought than she started out with, no +power to grapple more successfully with a similar difficulty another +time, and has lost, partly at least, her interest in the piece. She has +been bothered and discouraged, and the class wearied. + +Sometimes when the expression is otherwise good, the children pitch +their voices too high or too low. Natural tones must be insisted upon. A +good aid to the children in this respect is the habitual example of +quiet, clear tones in the teacher. + +Another fault of otherwise good reading is a failure to enunciate +distinctly. Children are inclined to slight many sounds, especially at +the end of the words, and the teacher is apt to think: "That doesn't +make so very much difference, since they are only children. When they +are older they will see that their pronunciation is babyish, and adopt a +correct form." This is unsound reasoning. Every time the child says +_las_ for _last_ he is establishing more firmly a habit, to overcome +which will give him much difficulty. + +In the pronunciation of words as well as in the reading of a sentence, +much time is wasted through failure to point out the exact word, and the +syllable in the word, in which the mistake has been made. The child +cannot improve unless he knows in what particular there is room for +improvement. + +Children in primary grades should be supplied with a good variety of +primers, readers, and simple story books. In the course of their work +they should read through a number of first, second, and third readers. +Much of this reading should be simple and easy, so that they can move +rapidly through a book, and gain confidence and satisfaction from it. In +each grade there should be several sets of readers, which can be turned +to as the occasion may demand. It is much better to read a new reader, +involving in the main the same vocabulary, than to reread an old book. +This use of several books in each grade adds to the interest and reduces +to a minimum the mere drills, which are to be avoided as much as +possible. + + +SUMMARY + +1. Let children read under the impulse of strong and interesting +thought. + + (_a_) The previous oral treatment of the stories now used as + reading lessons will help this thought impulse. + + (_b_) An aim concretely stated, and touching an interesting + thought in the lesson, will give impetus to the work. + + (_c_) Let children pass judgment on the truth, worth, or beauty + of what they read. + + (_d_) Clear mental pictures of people, actions, places, etc., + conduce to vigor of thought. To this end the teacher should use + good pictures, make sketches, and give descriptions or + explanations. Children should also be allowed to sketch freely + at the board. + +2. Children should be encouraged constantly to help themselves in +interpreting new words and sentences in reading. + + (_a_) By looking through the new sentence and making it out, if + possible, for themselves before any one reads it aloud. + + (_b_) By analyzing a new word into its sounds, and then + combining them to get its pronunciation. + + (_c_) By interpreting a new word from its context, or by the + first sound or syllable. + + (_d_) By using the new powers of the letters as fast as they are + learned in interpreting new words. + + (_e_) By trying the different sounds of a letter to a new word + to see which seems to fit best. + + (_f_) By recognizing familiar words in new sentences with a + different context. + + (_g_) See that every child reads the sentences in the new lesson + for himself. + +3. There should be a gradual introduction to the elementary sounds +(powers of the letters). + +The first words analyzed should be simple and phonetic in spelling, as +_dog_, _hen_, _cat_, etc. + +New sounds of letters are taught as the children need them in studying +out new words. + +Very little attention needs to be given to learning the names of the +letters. + +There need be little use of diacritical markings in early reading. + +4. Many of the new words will occur in connection with the picture at +the head of the lesson. Place these on the board as they come up. + +If the teacher will weave these words into her conversation, they will +give the children little future trouble. + +5. All the different phases of the phonic, word, and sentence method +should be woven together by a skilful teacher. + +6. The close attention of all the members of the class, so that each +reads through the whole lesson, should be an ever-present aim of the +teacher. + +7. Children should be trained to grasp several words at a glance:-- + + (_a_) By quick writing and erasure of words and sentences at the + board. + + (_b_) By exposing for an instant sentences covered by a screen. + + (_c_) By the use of phrases or short sentences on cardboard. + + (_d_) By questions for group thought. + +These tests should increase in difficulty with growing skill. + +8. Spend but little time in the oral reproduction of stories. Practice +in good reading and interpretation is the main thing. + +9. Children, from the first, should be encouraged to articulate +distinctly in oral reading. Let the teacher begin at home. + +10. Let the teacher cultivate a pleasing tone of voice, not loud or +harsh. This will help the children to the same. + +11. Vigorous and forcible expression is secured:-- + + (_a_) By having interesting stories. + + (_b_) By apt questions to bring out the emphatic thought. + + (_c_) By dramatizing the scenes of the story. + + (_d_) By occasional examples of lively reading by the teacher. + + (_e_) By definiteness in questioning. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +LIST OF BOOKS FOR PRIMARY GRADES + + +In selecting reading books for primary grades the purpose is to find +those which will give the readiest mastery of the printed forms of +speech. + +For this purpose books need to be well graded and interesting. Primary +teachers have expended their utmost skill upon such simple, attractive, +and interesting books for children. Pictorial illustration has added to +the clearness and beauty of the books, so that, with the rivalry of many +large publishing houses, we now have a great variety of good primary +books to select from. + +The earliest and simplest of these are the primers, which, followed by +the first readers, give the most necessary drills upon the forms of easy +words and sentences. Great care has been taken to give an easy regular +grading so as to let a child help himself as much as possible. But as +soon as children, by blackboard exercises and by means of primers, have +gained a mastery of the simpler words and the powers of the letters, the +Mother Goose rhymes, the fables and fairy tales (already familiar to the +children in oral work) are introduced into their reading books in the +simplest possible forms. + +The use of interesting rhymes and stories in this early reading is the +only means of giving it a lively content and of thus securing interest +and concentration of thought. Good primary teachers have been able in +this way to relieve the reading lessons of their tedium, and, what is +equally good, have strengthened the interest of the children in the best +literature of childhood. + +Besides the choicest fables and fairy tales, many of the simpler nature +myths and even such longer poems and stories as "Hiawatha," "Robinson +Crusoe," and "Ulysses" have been used with happy results as reading +books in the first three years. There are also certain collections of +children's poems, such as Stevenson's "Child's Garden of Verses," +Field's "Love-songs of Childhood," Sherman's "Little Folk Lyrics," "Old +Ballads in Prose," "The Listening Child," and others, which may suggest +the beauty and variety of choice literary materials which are now easily +within the reach of teachers and children in primary schools. + +There is no longer any doubt that little folk in primary classes may +reap the full benefit of a close acquaintance with these favorite songs, +stories, and poems, and that in the highest educative sense the effect +is admirable. + +In the following list the books for each grade are arranged into three +groups:-- + +_First._ A series of choicest books and those extensively used and well +adapted for the grade as regular reading exercises. + +_Second._ A supplementary list of similar quality and excellence, but +somewhat more difficult. + +They may, in some cases, serve as substitutes for those given in the +first group. + +_Third._ A collection of books for teachers, partly similar in character +to those mentioned in the two previous groups and partly of a much +wider, professional range in literature, history, and nature. Some books +of child-study, psychology, and pedagogy are also included. The problems +of the primary teacher are no longer limited to the small drills and +exercises in spelling and reading, but comprehend many of the most +interesting and far-reaching questions of education. It is well, +therefore, for the primary teacher to become acquainted not only with +the great works of literature but with the best professional books in +education. + + +LIST OF CHOICE READING MATTER FOR THE GRADES + + +FIRST GRADE--FIRST SERIES + + Cyr's Primer. Ginn & Co. + Cyr's First Reader. Ginn & Co. + Riverside Primer and First Reader. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Nature Stories for Young Readers (Plants), D. C. Heath & Co. + Hiawatha Primer. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Stepping Stones to Literature, Book I. Silver, Burdett, & Co. + Child Life Primer. The Macmillan Co. + Taylor's First Reader. Werner School Book Co. + Arnold's Primer. Silver, Burdett, & Co. + The Thought Reader. Ginn & Co. + Sunbonnet Babies. Rand, McNally, & Co. + Nature's By-ways. The Morse Co. + Graded Classics, No. I. B. F. Johnson Pub. Co. + Graded Literature, No. I. Maynard, Merrill, & Co. + First Reader (Hodskins). Ginn & Co. + Baldwin's Primer (Kirk). American Book Co. + + +FIRST GRADE--SECOND SERIES + + Six Nursery Classics (O'Shea). D. C. Heath & Co. + Verse and Prose for Beginners in Reading. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Stories for Children. American Book Co. + Rhymes and Fables. University Publishing Co. + The Finch First Reader. Ginn & Co. + Baldwin's First Reader. American Book Co. + Heart of Oak, No. 1. D. C. Heath & Co. + Choice Literature, Book I (Williams). Butler, Sheldon, & Co. + Child Life, First Book. The Macmillan Co. + Fables and Rhymes for Beginners. Ginn & Co. + + +FIRST GRADE--FOR TEACHERS--THIRD SERIES + + A Book of Nursery Rhymes (Mother Goose). D. C. Heath & Co. + The Adventures of a Brownie. Harper & Bros. + Kindergarten Stories and Morning Talks (Wiltse). Ginn & Co. + Talks for Kindergarten and Primary Schools (Wiltse). Ginn & Co. + Hall's How to Teach Reading. D. C. Heath & Co. + Place of the Story in Early Education (Wiltse). Ginn & Co. + Methods of Teaching Reading (Branson). D. C. Heath & Co. + Lowell's Books and Libraries. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Ruskin's Books and Reading. In Sesame and Lilies. + Lectures to Kindergartners (Peabody). D. C. Heath & Co. + Mother Goose (Denslow). McClure, Phillips, & Co. + Boston Collection of Kindergarten Stories. J. L. Hammett & Co. + The Study of Children and their School Training (Warner). + The Macmillan Co. + The Story Hour (Kate Douglas Wiggin). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Trumpet and Drum (Eugene Field). Scribner's Sons. + A Child's Garden of Verses (Robert Louis Stevenson). Scribner's Sons. + Treetops and Meadows. The Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, + Ill. + Songs from the Nest (Emily Huntington Miller). Kindergarten + Literature Co. + The Moral Instruction of Children (Felix Adler). D. Appleton & Co. + Children's Rights (Kate Douglas Wiggin). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + The Story of Patsy (Wiggin). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + First Book of Birds (Miller). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + + +SECOND GRADE--FIRST SERIES + + Nature Stories for Young Readers (continued). D. C. Heath & Co. + Easy Steps for Little Feet. American Book Co. + Classic Stories for Little Ones. Public School Publishing Co., + Bloomington, Ill. + Verse and Prose for Beginners. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Cyr's Second Reader. Ginn & Co. + Stepping Stones to Literature, Book II. + Pets and Companions (Stickney). Ginn & Co. + Child Life, Second Book. The Macmillan Co. + Nature Myths and Stories for Little Ones (Cooke). A. Flanagan & Co. + +The preceding books are for second and third grades. + + Around the World, Book I. The Morse Co. + Graded Classics, No. II. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co. + Graded Literature, No. II. Maynard, Merrill, & Co. + A Book of Nursery Rhymes (Welsh). D. C. Heath & Co. + Book of Nature Myths (Holbrook). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + + +SECOND GRADE--SECOND SERIES + + Heart of Oak, No. II. D. C. Heath & Co. + German Fairy Tales (Grimm). Maynard, Merrill, & Co. + Fables and Folk Lore (Scudder). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Nature Stories for Young Readers--Animals. D. C. Heath & Co. + Danish Fairy Tales (Andersen). Maynard, Merrill, & Co. + Baldwin's Second Reader. American Book Co. + Choice Literature, Book II (Williams). Butler, Sheldon, & Co. + Fairy Tale and Fable (Thompson). The Morse Co. + Fairy Stories and Fables (Baldwin). American Book Co. + Plant Babies and Their Cradles. Educational Publishing Co. + AEsop's Fables. Educational Publishing Co. + Story Reader. American Book Co. + Open Sesame, Part I. Ginn & Co. + +The above are excellent selections for second, third, and fourth grades. + + Songs and Stories. University Publishing Co. + Love Songs of Childhood (Field). Scribner's Sons. + + +SECOND GRADE--FOR TEACHERS + + Poetry for Children (Eliot). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + The Story Hour (Wiggin). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Story of Hiawatha. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Round the Year in Myth and Song (Holbrook). American Book Co. + Old Ballads in Prose (Tappan). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + St. Nicholas Christmas Book. Century Co., New York. + Asgard Stories (Foster-Cummings). Silver, Burdett, & Co. + Fairy Tale Plays and How to Act Them (Mrs. Bell). Longmans, Green, & + Co. + Little Folk Lyrics (Sherman). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Readings in Folk Lore (Skinner). American Book Co. + Nature Pictures by American Poets. The Macmillan Co. + Squirrels and Other Fur-bearers (Burroughs). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Seven Great American Poets (Hart). Silver, Burdett, & Co. + Early Training of Children (Malleson). D. C. Heath & Co. + Comenius's The School of Infancy. D. C. Heath & Co. + Kruesi's Life of Pestalozzi. American Book Co. + Development of the Child (Oppenheim). The Macmillan Co. + The Study of Child Nature (Elizabeth Harrison). Published by Chicago + Kindergarten College. + Listening Child (Thatcher). The Macmillan Co. + History and Literature (Rice). A. Flanagan & Co. + + +THIRD GRADE--FIRST SERIES + + Robinson Crusoe. Public School Publishing Co. + Golden Book of Choice Reading. American Book Co. + AEsop's Fables (Stickney). Ginn & Co. + Andersen's Fairy Tales, Part I. Ginn & Co. + Seven Little Sisters. Ginn & Co. + Heart of Oak, No. II. D. C. Heath & Co. + Fairy Stories and Fables. American Book Co. + Child Life, Third Reader. The Macmillan Co. + Grimm's German Household Tales. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Fables (published as leaflets). C. M. Parker, Taylorville, Ill. + Around the World, Book II. The Morse Co. + Graded Classics, No. III. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co. + Graded Literature, No. III. Maynard, Merrill, & Co. + Grimm's Fairy Tales. Educational Publishing Co. + Grimm's Fairy Tales (Wiltse). Ginn & Co. + Nature Myths and Stories for Little Ones (Cooke). A. Flanagan & Co. + Fairy Tales in Verse and Prose (Rolfe). American Book Co. + + +THIRD GRADE--SECOND SERIES + + Arabian Nights. Houghton, Mifflin. & Co. + Hans Andersen's Stories. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Fairy Tales in Verse and Prose (Rolfe). Harper & Bros. + Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children. Ginn & Co. + Andersen's Fairy Tales, Part II. Ginn & Co. + Open Sesame, Part I. Ginn & Co. + Judd's Classic Myths. + Grimm's Fairy Tales, Part II. Ginn & Co. + The Eugene Field Book (Burt). Scribner's Sons. + A Child's Garden of Verses. Rand, McNally, & Co. + Little Lame Prince (Craik). Maynard, Merrill, & Co. + Prose and Verse for Children (Pyle). American Book Co. + Book of Tales. American Book Co. + + +THIRD GRADE--FOR TEACHERS + + Stories from the History of Rome. The Macmillan Co. + Friends and Helpers (Eddy). Ginn & Co. + Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe (Yonge). The Macmillan Co. + Robinson Crusoe. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Arabian Nights, Aladdin, etc. Maynard, Merrill, & Co. + Bird's Christmas Carol (Wiggin). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Uncle Remus (Harris). D. Appleton & Co. + Fifty Famous Stories Retold (Baldwin). American Book Co. + Four Great Americans (Baldwin). Werner School Book Co. + Stories of Great Americans for Little Americans (Eggleston). + American Book Co. + The Story of Lincoln (Cavens). Public School Publishing Co. + Among the Farmyard People (Pierson). E. P. Dutton & Co. + The Howells Story Book (Burt). Scribner's Sons. + The Jungle Book (Kipling). Century Co., New York. + Old Norse Stories (Bradish). American Book Co. + Little Brothers of the Air (Miller). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Hans Brinker (Mary Mapes Dodge). Century Co. + Black Beauty. University Publishing Co. + Tanglewood Tales (Hawthorne). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Wonder Book (Hawthorne). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + The Story of the Wagner Opera. Scribner's Sons. + Thoughts on Education (Locke). The Macmillan Co. + The Education of Man (Froebel). D. Appleton & Co. + Childhood in Literature and Art (Scudder). Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. + Waymarks for Teachers (Arnold). Silver, Burdett, & Co. + Hailman's History of Pedagogy. American Book Co. + + +SERIES OF SELECT READERS FOR THE GRADES + + Child Life. The Macmillan Co. + Around the World. The Morse Co. + Baldwin's Readers. American Book Co. + Graded Classics. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co. + Graded Literature. Maynard, Merrill, & Co. + Stepping Stones to Literature. Silver, Burdett, & Co. + Lights to Literature. Rand, McNally, & Co. + The Heart of Oak Series. D. C. Heath & Co. + Choice Literature. Butler, Sheldon, & Co. + + + + +METHODS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION + + + A Series of Educational Books in Two Groups covering the General + Principles of Method and Its Special Applications to the Common + School + + BY + + CHARLES A. McMURRY, Ph.D. + _Northern Illinois State Normal School, DeKalb, Illinois_ + + WITH + + F. M. McMURRY + AS JOINT AUTHOR FOR METHOD OF RECITATION + + + I. BOOKS OF GENERAL METHOD IN EDUCATION + + The three books in this group deal with the fundamental, + comprehensive principles of Education for the school as a whole, + and include both instruction and management. + + + II. BOOKS OF SPECIAL METHOD IN COMMON SCHOOL STUDIES. + + Each school study is treated in a separate book, and the + selection and arrangement of material, and the method of + instruction appropriate to that study throughout its course, are + fully discussed. Illustrative lessons and extensive lists of + books of special value as helps to teachers and schools are + included. + + + + +GENERAL METHOD IN EDUCATION + + + THE ELEMENTS OF GENERAL METHOD + BASED ON THE IDEAS OF HERBART + + By CHARLES A. MCMURRY + + New edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth. 12mo. 331 pp. + + 90 cents net, postage 10 cents + + This volume discusses fully the controlling principles of our + progressive modern education, such as The Aim of Education; The + Materials and Sources of Moral Training; The Relative Value of + Studies in the School Course; The Nature and Value of Interest + as a Vital Element in Instruction; The Correlation of Studies; + Inductive and Deductive Processes as Fundamental to All + Thinking; Apperception, its Close and Constant Application to + the Process of Learning; The Will, its Training and Function and + its Close Relation to Other Forms of Mental Action. + + The book closes with an account of Herbart and his disciples in + Germany, and a summary of their pronounced ideas and influence + upon education. + + + THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION + + New edition, revised and enlarged + + By CHARLES A. MCMURRY and FRANK M. MCMURRY + + Cloth. 12mo. 339 pp. 90 cents net, postage 10 cents + + This book, as a whole, is designed to simplify, organize, and + illustrate the chief principles of class-room method in + elementary schools. A few important fundamental principles are + carefully worked out as a basis. The essential steps, in the + acquisition of knowledge in all studies, are worked out and + applied to different branches. The developing method of + instruction so much used in the oral treatment of lessons is + worked out, and the method of careful and suitable questioning + discussed. + + Two chapters are given, consisting of Illustrative Lessons + selected from the different studies and worked out in full, as + examples of a right method. In these examples, and also in the + discussions, the application of the principles of apperception, + interest, induction, and deduction to class-room work are shown. + The peculiar application of these various principles to + different studies is carefully discussed. + + + SCHOOL AND CLASS MANAGEMENT--In Preparation + + + + +SPECIAL METHOD IN COMMON SCHOOL STUDIES + + + SPECIAL METHOD IN THE READING OF COMPLETE ENGLISH CLASSICS IN + THE COMMON SCHOOLS + + By CHARLES A. MCMURRY + + Cloth. 12mo. 254 pp. 75 cents, postage 9 cents + + This discusses in a comprehensive way the regular reading + lessons, the choice of stories, poems, and longer masterpieces, + adapted to the needs of the various grades from the fourth to + the eighth school year inclusive; the value for school use of + the best literature, including complete masterpieces, both long + and short; method in reading; and principles of class-room work. + A descriptive list of more than four hundred books forms the + last chapter. The list has been carefully made, and is designed + to assist teachers and superintendents in selecting suitable + reading material for the successive grades. + + + SPECIAL METHOD IN PRIMARY READING AND ORAL WORK IN STORY TELLING + + By CHARLES A. MCMURRY + + Cloth. 12mo. 75 cents net, postage 8 cents + + The relation of oral story work to early exercises in primary + reading is explained at length. A full discussion of oral + methods in primary grades and a detailed account of primary + exercises in reading are given. The use of games for incidental + reading is also fully discussed and illustrated. + + + SPECIAL METHOD IN HISTORY + + By CHARLES A. MCMURRY + + NEW EDITION IN PREPARATION + + This book contains a course of study in history with a full + discussion of methods of treating topics. The value, selection, + and arrangement of historical materials for each grade are + discussed, and illustrative lessons given. The relation of + history to geography, literature, and other studies is treated, + and lists of books suitable for each year are supplied. + + + SPECIAL METHOD IN GEOGRAPHY + + By CHARLES A. MCMURRY + + NEW EDITION IN PREPARATION + + The entire course of study is laid out after a careful selection + of topics. Methods of class instruction are fully discussed, and + illustrations are given of geographical topics treated in + detail. The close relation of geography to other studies is + shown, and the best lists of books supplied. + + + SPECIAL METHOD IN NATURAL SCIENCE + + By CHARLES A. MCMURRY + + NEW EDITION IN PREPARATION + + The history of science teaching in elementary schools is given. + The basis for selecting the topics for a course of study, and + the method of class instruction suitable to object study, + experimentation, etc., are fully discussed. The book contains, + also, a carefully selected list of the best books for the use of + teachers and pupils. + + + A COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE EIGHT GRADES OF THE COMMON SCHOOL + + IN PREPARATION + + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK + + BOSTON CHICAGO + 100 Boylston St. 378-388 Wabash Ave. + + ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO + Empire Build'g 319-325 Sansome St. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Special Method in Primary Reading and +Oral Work with Stories, by Charles Alexander McMurry + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPECIAL METHOD IN PRIMARY *** + +***** This file should be named 33923.txt or 33923.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/9/2/33923/ + +Produced by David Edwards and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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