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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Cacao Culture in the Philippines, by
+William S. Lyon
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: Cacao Culture in the Philippines
+
+Author: William S. Lyon
+
+Release Date: October 16, 2010 [eBook #33921]
+[Most recently updated: December 26, 2022]
+
+Language: English
+
+Produced by: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for project Gutenberg (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CACAO CULTURE IN THE
+PHILIPPINES ***
+
+
+
+
+                   Philippine Bureau of Agriculture.
+
+
+                        Farmer's Bulletin No. 2.
+
+                    CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES
+
+
+
+                                   By
+
+                            WILLIAM S. LYON,
+
+               In charge of seed and plant introduction.
+
+
+
+        Prepared under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau.
+
+                                Manila:
+
+                       Bureau of Public Printing.
+
+                                 1902.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                            Page.
+
+        Letter of transmittal                 4
+        Introduction                          5
+        Climate                               6
+        The plantation site                   7
+        The soil                              7
+        Preparation of the soil               8
+        Drainage                              8
+        Forming the plantation                9
+        Selection of varieties               10
+        Planting                             11
+        Cultivation                          13
+        Pruning                              13
+        Harvest                              16
+        Enemies and diseases                 18
+        Manuring                             19
+        Supplemental notes                   21
+        New varieties                        21
+        Residence                            21
+        Cost of a cacao plantation           22
+
+
+
+
+
+LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
+
+
+Sir: I submit herewith an essay on the cultivation of cacao, for the
+use of planters in the Philippines. This essay is prompted first,
+because much of the cacao grown here is of such excellent quality as
+to induce keen rivalry among buyers to procure it at an advance of
+quite 50 per cent over the common export grades of the Java bean,
+notwithstanding the failure on the part of the local grower to
+"process" or cure the product in any way; second, because in parts
+of Mindanao and Negros, despite ill treatment or no treatment, the
+plant exhibits a luxuriance of growth and wealth of productiveness
+that demonstrates its entire fitness for those regions and leads us
+to believe in the successful extension of its propagation throughout
+these Islands; and lastly because of the repeated calls upon the Chief
+of the Agricultural Bureau for literature or information bearing upon
+this important horticultural industry.
+
+The importance of cacao-growing in the Philippines can hardly be
+overestimated. Recent statistics place the world's demand for cacao
+(exclusive of local consumption) at 200,000,000 pounds, valued at
+more than $30,000,000 gold.
+
+There is little danger of overproduction and consequent low prices
+for very many years to come. So far as known, the areas where cacao
+prospers in the great equatorial zone are small, and the opening and
+development of suitable regions has altogether failed to keep pace
+with the demand.
+
+The bibliography of cacao is rather limited, and some of the best
+publications, [2] being in French, are unavailable to many. The leading
+English treatise, by Professor Hart, [3] admirable in many respects,
+deals mainly with conditions in Trinidad, West Indies, and is fatally
+defective, if not misleading, on the all-important question of pruning.
+
+The life history of the cacao, its botany, chemistry, and statistics
+are replete with interest, and will, perhaps, be treated in a future
+paper.
+
+
+    Respectfully,
+
+        Wm. S. Lyon,
+        In Charge of Seed and Plant Introduction.
+
+        Hon. F. Lamson-Scribner,
+        Chief of the Insular Bureau of Agriculture.
+
+
+
+
+
+CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Cacao in cultivation exists nearly everywhere in the Archipelago. I
+have observed it in several provinces of Luzon, in Mindanao, Joló,
+Basilan, Panay, and Negros, and have well-verified assurances of its
+presence in Cebú, Bohol, and Masbate, and it is altogether reasonable
+to predicate its existence upon all the larger islands anywhere under
+an elevation of 1,000 or possibly 1,200 meters. Nevertheless, in many
+localities the condition of the plants is such as not to justify the
+general extension of cacao cultivation into all regions. The presence
+of cacao in a given locality is an interesting fact, furnishing a
+useful guide for investigation and agricultural experimentation, but,
+as the purpose of this paper is to deal with cacao growing from a
+commercial standpoint, it is well to state that wherever reference is
+made to the growth, requirements, habits, or cultural treatment of the
+plant the commercial aspect is alone considered. As an illustration,
+attention is called to the statement made elsewhere, that "cacao exacts
+a minimum temperature of 18°"; although, as is perfectly well known
+to the writer, its fruit has sometimes matured where the recorded
+temperatures have fallen as low as 10°. There is much to be learned
+here by experimentation, for as yet the cultivation is primitive
+in the extreme, pruning of any kind rudimentary or negative, and
+"treatment" of the nut altogether unknown.
+
+Elsewhere in cacao-producing countries its cultivation has long passed
+the experimental stage, and the practices that govern the management
+of a well-ordered cacao plantation are as clearly defined as those
+of an orange grove in Florida or a vineyard in California.
+
+In widely scattered localities the close observer will find many
+young trees that in vigor, color, and general health leave nothing
+to be desired, but before making final selection for a plantation he
+should inspect trees of larger growth for evidences of "die back" of
+the branches. If "die back" is present, superficial examination will
+generally determine if it is caused by neglect or by the attacks
+of insects. If not caused by neglect or insect attacks, he may
+assume that some primary essential to the continued and successful
+cultivation of the tree is wanting and that the location is unsuited
+to profitable plantations.
+
+With due regard to these preliminary precautions and a close
+oversight of every subsequent operation, there is no reason why the
+growing of cacao may not ultimately become one of the most profitable
+horticultural enterprises that can engage the attention of planters
+in this Archipelago.
+
+
+
+
+
+CLIMATE.
+
+
+It is customary, when writing of any crop culture, to give precedence
+to site and soil, but in the case of cacao these considerations are
+of secondary importance, and while none of the minor operations of
+planting, pruning, cultivation, and fertilizing may be overlooked,
+they are all outweighed by the single essential--climate.
+
+In general, a state of atmospheric saturation keeps pace with heavy
+rainfall, and for that reason we may successfully look for the highest
+relative humidity upon the eastern shores of the Archipelago, where
+the rainfall is more uniformly distributed over the whole year,
+than upon the west.
+
+There are places where the conditions are so peculiar as to challenge
+especial inquiry. We find on the peninsula of Zamboanga a recorded
+annual mean rainfall of only 888 mm., and yet cacao (unirrigated)
+exhibits exceptional thrift and vigor. It is true that this rain is
+so evenly distributed throughout the year that every drop becomes
+available, yet the total rainfall is insufficient to account for
+the very evident and abundant atmospheric humidity indicated by
+the prosperous conditions of the cacao plantations. The explanation
+of this phenomenon, as made to me by the Rev. Father Algué, of the
+Observatory of Manila, is to the effect that strong equatorial ocean
+currents constantly prevail against southern Mindanao, and that their
+influence extend north nearly to the tenth degree of latitude. These
+currents, carrying their moisture-laden atmosphere, would naturally
+affect the whole of this narrow neck of land and influence as well
+some of the western coast of Mindanao, and probably place it upon
+the same favored hygrometric plane as the eastern coast, where the
+rainfall in some localities amounts to 4 meters a year.
+
+While 2,000 mm. of mean annual rainfall equably distributed is ample
+to achieve complete success, it seems almost impossible to injure
+cacao by excessive precipitation. It has been known to successfully
+tide over inundation of the whole stem up to the first branches for
+a period covering nearly a month.
+
+Irrigation must be resorted to in cases of deficient or unevenly
+distributed rainfall, and irrigation is always advantageous whenever
+there is suspension of rain for a period of more than fifteen days.
+
+Concerning temperatures the best is that with an annual mean of 26°
+to 28°, with 20° as the mean minimum where any measure of success
+may be expected. A mean temperature of over 30° is prejudicial to
+cacao growing.
+
+The last but not least important of the atmospheric phenomena for
+our consideration are the winds. Cacao loves to "steam and swelter in
+its own atmosphere" and high winds are inimical, and even refreshing
+breezes are incompatible, with the greatest success. As there are but
+few large areas in these Islands that are exempt from one or other
+of our prevailing winds, the remedies that suggest themselves are:
+The selection of small sheltered valleys where the prevailing winds
+are directly cut off by intervening hills or mountains; the plantation
+of only small groves in the open, and their frequent intersection by
+the plantation of rapid growing trees; and, best of all, plantings
+made in forest clearings, where the remaining forested lands will
+furnish the needed protection.
+
+
+
+
+
+LOCATION.
+
+
+It is always desirable to select a site that is approximately level
+or with only enough fall to assure easy drainage. Such sites may
+be planted symmetrically and are susceptible to the easiest and
+most economical application of the many operations connected with
+a plantation.
+
+Provided the region is well forested and therefore protected from
+sea breezes, the plantation may be carried very near to the coast,
+provided the elevation is sufficient to assure the grove immunity from
+incursions of tide water, which, however much diluted, will speedily
+cause the death of the plants.
+
+Excavations should be made during the dry season to determine that
+water does not stand within 1 1/2 meters of the surface, a more
+essential condition, however, when planting is made "at stake" than
+when nursery reared trees are planted.
+
+Hillsides, when not too precipitous, frequently offer admirable shelter
+and desirable soils, but their use entails a rather more complicated
+system of drainage, to carry away storm water without land washing,
+and for the ready conversion of the same into irrigating ditches during
+the dry season. Further, every operation involved must be performed
+by hand labor, and in the selection of such a site the planter must
+be largely influenced by the quantity and cost of available labor.
+
+The unexceptionable shelter, the humidity that prevails, and the
+inexhaustible supply of humus that is generally found in deep
+forest ravines frequently lead to their planting to cacao where
+the slope is even as great as 45°. Such plantations, if done upon
+a considerable commercial scale, involve engineering problems and
+the careful terracing of each tree, and, except for a dearth of more
+suitable locations, is a practice that has little to commend it to
+the practical grower.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SOIL.
+
+
+Other things being equal, preference should be given to a not too
+tenacious, clayey loam. Selection, in fact, may be quite successfully
+made through the process of exclusion, and by eliminating all soils
+of a very light and sandy nature, or clays so tenacious that the
+surface bakes and cracks while still too wet within 3 or 4 inches of
+the surface to operate with farm tools. These excluded, still leave
+a very wide range of silt, clay, and loam soils, most of which are
+suitable to cacao culture.
+
+Where properly protected from the wind a rocky soil, otherwise good,
+is not objectionable; in fact, such lands have the advantage of
+promoting good drainage.
+
+
+
+
+
+PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.
+
+
+When the plantation is made upon forest lands, it is necessary to
+cut and burn all underbrush, together with all timber trees other
+than those designed for shade. If such shade trees are left (and the
+advisability of leaving them will be discussed in the proper place),
+only those of the pulse or bean family are to be recommended. It should
+also be remembered that, owing in part to the close planting of cacao
+and in part to the fragility of its wood and its great susceptibility
+to damage resulting from wounds, subsequent removal of large shade
+trees from the plantation is attended with difficulty and expense,
+and the planter should leave few shade trees to the hectare. Clearing
+the land should be done during the dry season, and refuse burned in
+situ, thereby conserving to the soil the potash salts so essential
+to the continued well-being of cacao.
+
+The land should be deeply plowed, and, if possible, subsoiled as well,
+and then, pending the time of planting the orchard, it may be laid
+down to corn, cotton, beans, or some forage plant. Preference should
+be given to "hoed crops," as it is essential to keep the surface in
+open tilth, as well as to destroy all weeds.
+
+The common practice in most cacao-growing countries is to simply dig
+deep holes where the trees are to stand, and to give a light working
+to the rest of the surface just sufficient to produce the intermediate
+crops. This custom is permissible only on slopes too steep for the
+successful operation of a side hill plow, or where from lack of draft
+animals all cultivation has to be done by hand.
+
+Cacao roots deeply, and with relatively few superficial feeders,
+and the deeper the soil is worked the better.
+
+
+
+
+
+DRAINAGE.
+
+
+The number and size of the drains will depend upon the amount of
+rainfall, the contour of the land, and the natural absorbent character
+of the soil. In no case should the ditches be less than 1 meter wide
+and 60 cm. deep, and if loose stones are at hand the sloping sides
+may be laid with them, which will materially protect them from washing
+by torrential rains.
+
+These main drains should all be completed prior to planting. Connecting
+laterals may be opened subsequently, as the necessities of further
+drainage or future irrigation may demand; shallow furrows will
+generally answer for these laterals, and as their obliteration will
+practically follow every time cultivation is given, their construction
+may be of the cheapest and most temporary nature. Owing to the
+necessity of main drainage canals and the needful interplanting of
+shade plants between the rows of cacao, nothing is gained by laying off
+the land for planting in what is called "two ways," and all subsequent
+working of the orchard will consequently be in one direction.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE PLANTATION.
+
+
+Cacao, relatively to the size of the tree, may be planted very
+closely. We have stated that it rejoices in a close, moisture-laden
+atmosphere, and this permits of a closer planting than would be
+admissible with any other orchard crop.
+
+In very rich soil the strong-growing Forastero variety may be planted
+3.7 meters apart each way, or 745 trees to the hectare, and on lighter
+lands this, or the more dwarf-growing forms of Criollo, may be set
+as close as 3 meters or rather more than 1,000 trees to the hectare.
+
+The rows should be very carefully lined out in one direction and
+staked where the young plants are to be set, and then (a year before
+the final planting) between each row of cacao a line of temporary
+shelter plants are to be planted. These should be planted in quincunx
+order, i. e., at the intersecting point of two lines drawn between
+the diagonal corners of the square made by four cacaos set equidistant
+each way. This temporary shelter is indispensable for the protection
+of the young plantation from wind and sun.
+
+The almost universal custom is to plant, for temporary shelter, suckers
+of fruiting bananas, but throughout the Visayas and in Southern Luzon
+I think abacá could be advantageously substituted. It is true that,
+as commonly grown, abacá does not make so rank a growth as some
+of the plantains, but if given the perfect tillage which the cacao
+plantation should receive, and moderately rich soils, abacá ought to
+furnish all necessary shade. This temporary shade may be maintained
+till the fourth or fifth year, when it is to be grubbed out and the
+stalks and stumps, which are rich in nitrogen, may be left to decay
+upon the ground. At present prices, the four or five crops which
+may be secured from the temporary shelter plants ought to meet the
+expenses of the entire plantation until it comes into bearing.
+
+In the next step, every fourth tree in the fourth or fifth row
+of cacao may be omitted and its place filled by a permanent shade
+tree. The planting of shade trees or "madre de cacao" among the cacao
+has been observed from time immemorial in all countries where the crop
+is grown, and the primary purpose of the planting has been for shade
+alone. Observing that these trees were almost invariably of the pulse
+or legume family, the writer, in the year 1892, raised the question,
+in the Proceedings of the Southern California Horticultural Society,
+that the probable benefits derived were directly attributable to the
+abundant fertilizing microörganisms developed in the soil by these
+leguminous plants, rather than the mechanical protection they afforded
+from the sun's rays.
+
+To Mr. O. F. Cook, of the United States Department of Agriculture,
+however, belongs the credit of publishing, in 1901, [4] a résumé of
+his inquiries into the subject of the shades used for both the coffee
+and the cacao, and which fully confirmed the previous opinions that
+the main benefit derived from these trees was their influence in
+maintaining a constant supply of available nitrogen in the soil.
+
+That cacao and its wild congenors naturally seek the shelter of
+well-shaded forests is well established; but having seen trees in these
+Islands that were fully exposed at all times showing no evidences of
+either scald, burn, or sun spot, and in every respect the embodiment
+of vigor and health, we are fully justified in assuming that here the
+climatic conditions are such as will permit of taking some reasonable
+liberties with this time-honored practice and supply needed nitrogen
+to the soil by the use of cheap and effective "catch crops," such us
+cowpeas or soy beans.
+
+Here, as elsewhere, an Erythrina, known as "dap-dap," is a favorite
+shade tree among native planters; the rain tree (Pithecolobium saman)
+is also occasionally used, and in one instance only have I seen a
+departure from the use of the Leguminosæ, and that in western Mindanao,
+there is a shade plantation composed exclusively of Cananga odorata,
+locally known as ilang-ilang.
+
+While not yet prepared to advocate the total exclusion of all shade
+trees, I am prepared to recommend a shade tree, if shade trees there
+must be, whose utility and unquestioned value has singularly escaped
+notice. The tree in question, the Royal Poinciana (Poinciana regia),
+embodies all of the virtues that are ascribed to the best of the
+pulse family, is easily procured, grows freely and rapidly from seed
+or cutting, furnishes a minimum of shade at all times, and, in these
+Islands, becomes almost leafless, at the season of maturity of the
+largest cacao crop when the greatest sun exposure is desired.
+
+The remaining preparatory work consists in the planting of intersecting
+wind breaks at intervals throughout the grove, and upon sides exposed
+to winds, or where a natural forest growth does not furnish such a
+shelter belt. Unless the plantation lies in a particularly protected
+valley, no plantation, however large in the aggregate, should cover
+more than 4 or 5 hectares unbroken by at least one row of wind-break
+trees. Nothing that I know of can approach the mango for this
+purpose. It will hold in check the fiercest gale and give assurance
+to the grower that after any storm his cacao crop is still on the
+trees and not on the ground, a prey to ants, mice, and other vermin.
+
+
+
+
+
+SELECTION OF VARIETIES.
+
+
+All the varieties of cacao in general cultivation may be referred to
+three general types, the Criollo, Forastero, and Calabacillo; and
+of these, those that I have met in cultivation in the Archipelago
+are the first and second only. The Criollo is incomparably the
+finest variety in general use, and may perhaps be most readily
+distinguished by the inexperienced through the ripe but unfermented
+seed or almond, as it is often called. This, on breaking, is found
+to be whitish or yellowish-white, while the seeds of those in which
+the Forastero or Calabacillo blood predominates are reddish, or, in
+the case of Forastero, almost violet in color. For flavor, freedom
+from bitterness, facility in curing, and high commercial value,
+the Criollo is everywhere conceded to be facile princeps.
+
+On the other hand, in point of yield, vigor, freedom from disease,
+and compatibility to environment it is not to be compared with the
+others. Nevertheless, where such perfect conditions exist as are
+found in parts of Mindanao, I do not hesitate to urge the planting
+of Criollo. Elsewhere, or wherever the plantation is tentative or the
+conditions not very well known to the planter, the Forastero is to be
+recommended. The former is commercially known as "Caracas" and "old
+red Ceylon," and may be obtained from Ceylon dealers; and the latter,
+the Forastero, or forms of it which have originated in the island,
+can be procured from Java.
+
+It seems not unlikely that the true Forastero may have been brought
+to these Islands from Acapulco, Mexico, two hundred and thirty-two
+years ago, [5] as it was at that time the dominant kind grown in
+southeastern Mexico, and, if so, the place where the pure type would
+most likely be found in these Islands would be in the Camarines,
+Southern Luzon. Aside from the seed characters already given, Forastero
+is recognized by its larger, thicker, more abundant, and rather more
+abruptly pointed fruit than Criollo, and its coarse leaves which are
+from 22 to 50 cm. long by 7 to 13 cm. wide, dimensions nearly double
+those reached by the Criollo or Calabacillo varieties.
+
+
+
+
+
+PLANTING.
+
+Planting may be done "at stake" or from the nursery. For the unskilled
+or inexperienced planter, who has means at hand to defray the greater
+cost, planting "at stake" is perhaps to be recommended. This is no
+more than the dropping and lightly covering, during the rainy season,
+of three or four seeds at the stake where the plant is to stand,
+protecting the spot with a bit of banana leaf, left till the seeds
+have sprouted, and subsequently pulling out all but the one strongest
+and thriftiest plant.
+
+The contingencies to be met by this system are many. The enemies of
+the cacao seed are legion. Drought, birds, worms, ants, beetles, mice,
+and rats will all contribute their quota to prevent a good "stand"
+and entail the necessity of repeated plantings. Success by planting
+"at stake" is so doubtful that it is rarely followed by experienced
+planters.
+
+The consequent alternative lies in rearing seedlings in seed beds that
+are under immediate control, and, when the plants are of sufficient
+size, in transplanting them to their proper sites in the orchard. In
+view of the remarkable short-lived vitality of the cacao seed, it is
+in every way advisable that the untrained grower procure his plants
+from professional nurserymen, or, if this resource is lacking, that he
+import the young plants in Wardian cases from some of the many firms
+abroad who make a specialty of preparing them for foreign markets.
+
+Both of these expedients failing, then it is advised that the seeds
+be sown one by one in small pots, or, if these are not procurable,
+in small bamboo tubes, and, for the sake of uniform moisture, plunge
+them to their rims in any free, light soil in a well-shaded easily
+protected spot where they may be carefully watered. In three to six
+months (according to growth) the tube with its included plant may be
+planted in the open field, when the former will speedily decompose
+and the growth of the cacao proceed without check or injury.
+
+At best, all of the above suggested methods are but crude expedients
+to replace the more workmanlike, expeditious, and satisfactory process
+of planting the conventional nursery grown stock. There is nothing
+more difficult in the rearing of cacao seedlings than in growing any
+other evergreen fruit tree. Briefly stated, it is only the finding
+of a well-prepared, well-shaded seed bed and sowing the seeds in rows
+or drills, and, when the seedlings are of proper size, in lifting and
+transferring them to the plantation. But in actual practice there are
+many details calling for the exercise of trained judgment from the
+preparation of the seed bed down to the final process of "hardening
+off," concerning which the reader is referred to the many available
+text-books on general nursery management.
+
+It may be said for the benefit of those unable to adopt more scientific
+methods: Let the seed bed be selected in a well-shaded spot, and, if
+possible, upon a rather stiff, plastic, but well-drained soil. After
+this is well broken up and made smooth, broadcast over all 3 or 4
+inches of well-decomposed leaf mold mixed with sand, and in this sow
+the seed in furrows about 1 inch deep. This sowing should be made
+during the dry season, not only to avoid the beating and washing
+of violent storms but to have the nursery plants of proper size for
+planting at the opening of the rainy season. The seed bed should be
+accessible to water, in order that it may be conveniently watered by
+frequent sprinklings throughout the dry season.
+
+The rich top dressing will stimulate the early growth of the seedling,
+and when its roots enter the heavier soil below it will encourage a
+stocky growth. Four or five months later the roots will be so well
+established in the stiffer soil that if lifted carefully each plant
+may be secured with a ball of earth about its roots, placed in a tray
+or basket, and in this way carried intact to the field. Plants thus
+reared give to the inexperienced an assurance of success not always
+obtained by the trained or veteran planter of bare rooted subjects.
+
+
+
+
+
+CULTIVATION.
+
+
+Planters are united in the opinion that pruning, cutting, or in any
+way lacerating the roots is injurious to the cacao, and in deference
+to this opinion all cultivation close to the tree should be done with
+a harrow-tooth cultivator, or shallow scarifier. All intermediate
+cultivation should be deep and thorough, whenever the mechanical
+condition of the soil will permit it. A plant stunted in youth will
+never make a prolific tree; early and continuous growth can only be
+secured by deep and thorough cultivation.
+
+Of even more consideration than an occasional root cutting is any
+injury, however small, to the tree stem, and on this account every
+precaution should be taken to protect the trees from accidental injury
+when plowing or cultivating. The whiffletree of the plow or cultivator
+used should be carefully fendered with rubber or a soft woolen packing
+that will effectually guard against the carelessness of workmen. Wounds
+in the bark or stem offer an inviting field for the entry of insects
+or the spores of fungi, and are, furthermore, apt to be overlooked
+until the injury becomes deep seated and sometimes beyond repair.
+
+With the gradual extension of root development, cultivation will
+be reduced to a narrow strip between the rows once occupied by the
+plantain or the abacá, but, to the very last, the maintenance of the
+proper soil conditions should be observed by at least one good annual
+plowing and by as many superficial cultivations as the growth of the
+trees and the mechanical state of the land will admit.
+
+
+
+
+
+PRUNING.
+
+
+When left to its own resources the cacao will fruit for an almost
+indefinite time. When well and strenuously grown it will bear much more
+abundant fruit from its fifth to its twenty-fifth year, and by a simple
+process of renewal can be made productive for a much longer time.
+
+A necessary factor to this result is an annual pruning upon strictly
+scientific lines. The underlying principle involved is, primarily,
+the fact that the cacao bears its crop directly upon the main branches
+and trunk, and not upon spurs or twigs; secondly, that wood under
+three years is rarely fruitful, and that only upon stems or branches
+of five years or upward does the maximum fruitfulness occur; that the
+seat of inflorescence is directly over the axil of a fallen leaf, from
+whence the flowers are born at irregular times throughout the year.
+
+With this necessary, fundamental information as a basis of operations,
+the rational system of pruning that suggests itself is the maintenance
+of as large an extension at all times of straight, well-grown mature
+wood and the perfecting of that by the early and frequent removal
+of all limbs or branches that the form of the tree does not admit of
+carrying without overcrowding.
+
+It is desirable that this extension of the branch system should be
+lateral rather than vertical, for the greater facility with which
+fruit may be plucked and possible insect enemies fought; and on this
+account the leading growths should be stopped when a convenient height
+has been attained.
+
+When well grown and without accident to its leader, the cacao will
+naturally branch at from 1 to 1.4 meters from the ground. These
+primary branches are mostly three to five in number, and all in
+excess of three should be removed as soon as selection can be made
+of three strongest that are as nearly equidistant from each other
+as may be. When these branches are from 80 cm. to 1 meter long, and
+preferably the shorter distance, they are to be stopped by pinching
+the extremities. This will cause them and the main stem as well to
+"break," i. e., to branch in many places.
+
+At this point the vigilance and judgment of the planter are called
+into greater play. These secondary branches are, in turn, all to
+be reduced as were the primary ones, and their selection can not be
+made in a symmetrical whorl, for the habit of the tree does not admit
+of it, and selection of the three should be made with reference to
+their future extension, that the interior of the tree should not be
+overcrowded and that such outer branches be retained as shall fairly
+maintain the equilibrium of the crown.
+
+This will complete the third year and the formative stage of the
+plant. Subsequent prunings will be conducted on the same lines, with
+the modification that when the secondary branches are again cut back,
+the room in the head of the tree will rarely admit of more than one,
+at most two, tertiary branches being allowed to remain. When these
+are grown to an extent that brings the total height of the tree
+to 3 or 4 meters, they should be cut back annually, at the close
+of the dry season. Such minor operations as the removal of thin,
+wiry, or hide-bound growths and all suckers suggest themselves to
+every horticulturist, whether he be experienced in cacao growing
+or not. When a tree is exhausted by overbearing, or has originally
+been so ill formed that it is not productive, a strong sucker or
+"gourmand" springing from near the ground may be encouraged to grow. By
+distributing the pruning over two or three periods, in one year the
+old tree can be entirely removed and its place substituted by the
+"gourmand." During the third year flowers will be abundant and some
+fruit will set, but it is advisable to remove it while small and
+permit all of the energy of the plant to be expended in wood making.
+
+From what we know of its flowering habit, it is obvious that every
+operation connected with the handling or pruning of a cacao, should
+be conducted with extreme care; to see that the bark is never injured
+about the old leaf scars, for to just the extent it is so injured is
+the fruit-bearing area curtailed. Further, no pruning cut should ever
+be inflicted, except with the sharpest of knives and saws, and the use
+of shears, that always bruise to some extent, is to be avoided. All
+the rules that are laid down for the guidance of the pruning of most
+orchard trees in regard to clean cuts, sloping cuts, and the covering
+of large wounds with tar or resin apply with fourfold force to the
+cacao. Its wood is remarkably spongy and an easy prey to the enemies
+ever lying in wait to attack it, and the surest remedies for disease
+are preventive ones, and by the maintenance of the bark of the tree
+at all times in the sound condition, we are assured that it is best
+qualified to resist invasion. Of the great number of worm-riddled
+trees to be seen in the Archipelago, it is easy in every case to
+trace the cause to the neglect and brutal treatment which left them
+in a condition to invite the attacks of disease of every kind.
+
+
+
+
+
+HARVEST.
+
+
+The ripening period of cacao generally occurs at two seasons of the
+year, but in these islands the most abundant crop is obtained at about
+the commencement of the dry season, and the fruits continue to ripen
+for two months or longer. The time of its approaching maturity is
+easily recognized by the tyro by the unmistakable aroma of chocolate
+that pervades the orchard at that period, and by some of the pods
+turning reddish or yellow according to the variety.
+
+The pods are attached by a very short stalk to the trunk of the tree,
+and those within reach of the hand are carefully cut with shears. Those
+higher up are most safely removed with an extension American tree
+pruner. A West Indian hook knife with a cutting edge above and below
+and mounted on a bamboo pole, if kept with the edges very sharp, does
+excellently well, but should only be intrusted to the most careful
+workmen. There is hardly a conceivable contingency to warrant the
+climbing of a cacao tree. If it should occur, the person climbing
+should go barefooted. As soon as the fruit, or so much of it as is
+well ripened, has been gathered, it is thrown into heaps and should
+be opened within twenty-four hours.
+
+The opening is done in a variety of ways, but the practice followed in
+Surinam would be an excellent one here if experienced labor was not at
+command. There, with a heavy knife or cutlass (bolo), they cut off the
+base or stem end of the fruit and thereby expose the column to which
+the seeds are attached, and then women and children, who free most of
+the seeds, are able to draw out the entire seed mass intact. It is
+exceedingly important that the seeds are not wounded, and for that
+reason it is inexpedient to intrust the more expeditious method of
+halving the fruit with a sharp knife to any but experienced workmen.
+
+The process of curing that I have seen followed in these Islands is
+simplicity itself. Two jars half filled with water are provided for
+the cleaners, and as the seeds are detached from the pulp they are
+sorted and graded on the spot. Only those of large, uniform size,
+well formed and thoroughly ripe, being thrown into one; deformed,
+small, and imperfectly matured seeds going to the other. In these
+jars the seeds are allowed to stand in their own juice for a day,
+then they are taken out, washed in fresh water, dried in the sun from
+two to four days, according to the weather, and the process from the
+Filipino standpoint is complete.
+
+Much of the product thus obtained is singularly free from bitterness
+and of such excellent quality; as to be saleable at unusually high
+prices, and at the same time in such good demand that it is with
+some hesitancy that the process of fermentation is recommended for
+general use.
+
+But it is also equally certain that localities in these Islands
+will be planted to cacao where all the conditions that help to
+turn out an unrivaled natural product are by no means assured. For
+such places, where the rank-growing, more coarse-flavored, and
+bitter-fruited Forastero may produce exceptionally good crops,
+it will become incumbent on the planter to adopt some of the many
+methods of fermentation, whereby he can correct the crudeness of the
+untreated bean and receive a remunerative price for the "processed"
+or ameliorated product.
+
+Undoubtedly the Strickland method, or some modification of it, is
+the best, and is now in general use on all considerable estates where
+the harvest is 200 piculs or upward per annum, and its use probably
+assures a more uniform product than any of the ruder processes in
+common use by small proprietors.
+
+But it must not be forgotten that the present planters in the
+Philippines are all small proprietors, and that until such time as the
+maturing of large plantations calls for the more elaborate apparatus
+of the Strickland pattern, some practice whereby the inferior crude
+bean may be economically and quickly converted into a marketable
+product can not be avoided. As simple and efficacious as any is that
+largely pursued in some parts of Venezuela, where is produced the
+famous Caracas cacao.
+
+The beans and pulp are thrown into wooden vats that are pierced with
+holes sufficient to permit of the escape of the juice, for which
+twenty-four hours suffices. The vat is then exposed to the sun for
+five or six hours, and the beans, while still hot, are taken out,
+thrown into large heaps, and covered with blankets.
+
+The next day they are returned to the box, subjected to a strong sun
+heat and again returned to the heap. This operation is repeated for
+several days, until the beans, by their bright chocolate color and
+suppleness, indicate that they are cured. If, during the period of
+fermentation, rain is threatened or occurs, the beans are shoveled,
+still hot, into bags and retained there until they can once more be
+exposed to the sun. Before the final bagging they are carefully hand
+rubbed in order to remove the adherent gums and fibrous matters that
+did not pass off in the primary fermentation.
+
+In Ceylon, immediately after the beans have been fermented they
+are washed, and the universally high prices obtained by the Ceylon
+planters make it desirable to reproduce here a brief résumé of their
+method. The fermentation is carried on under sheds, and the beans are
+heaped up in beds of 60 cm. to 1 meter in thickness upon a platform of
+parallel joists arranged to permit of the escape of the juices. This
+platform is elevated from the ground and the whole heap is covered
+with sacks or matting. The fermentation takes from five to seven days,
+according to the heat of the atmosphere and the size of the heap,
+and whenever the temperature rises above 40° the mass is carefully
+turned over with wooden shovels.
+
+Immediately after the fermentation is completed the Ceylon planter
+passes the mass through repeated washings, and nothing remains but
+to dry the seed. This in Ceylon is very extensively done, in dryers
+of different kinds, some patterned after the American fruit dryer,
+some in slowly rotating cylinders through the axis of which a powerful
+blast of hot air is driven.
+
+The process of washing unquestionably diminishes somewhat the weight
+of the cured bean; for that reason the practice is not generally
+followed in other countries, but in the case of the Ceylon product
+it is one of the contributing factors to the high prices obtained.
+
+
+
+
+
+ENEMIES AND DISEASES.
+
+
+Monkeys, rats, and parrots are here and in all tropical countries
+the subject of much complaint, and if the plantation is remote from
+towns or in the forest, their depredations can only be held in check
+by the constant presence of well-armed hunter or watchman. Of the
+more serious enemies with which we have to deal, pernicious insects
+and in particular those that attack the wood of the tree, everything
+has yet to be learned.
+
+Mr. Charles N. Banks, an accomplished entomologist, now stationed
+at Maao, Occidental Negros, is making a close study of the life
+history of the insect enemies of cacao, and through his researches
+it is hoped that much light will be thrown upon the whole subject and
+that ways will be devised to overcome and prevent the depredations of
+these insect pests. The most formidable insect that has so far been
+encountered is a beetle, which pierces and deposits its eggs within
+the bark. When the worm hatches, it enters the wood and traverses it
+longitudinally until it is ready to assume the mature or beetle state,
+when it comes to the surface and makes its escape. These worms will
+frequently riddle an entire branch and even enter the trunk. The
+apertures that the beetle makes for the laying of its eggs are so
+small--more minute than the head of a pin--that discovery and probing
+for the worm with a fine wire is not as fruitful of results as has
+been claimed.
+
+Of one thing, however, we are positively assured, i. e., that the
+epoch of ripening of the cacao fruit is the time when its powerful
+fragrance serves to attract the greatest number of these beetles
+and many other noxious insects to the grove. This, too, is the
+time when the most constant and abundant supply of labor is on the
+plantation and when vast numbers of these insects can be caught and
+destroyed. The building of small fires at night in the groves, as
+commonly practiced here and in many tropical countries, is attended
+with some benefits. Lately, in India, this remedy has been subject
+to an improvement that gives promise of results which will in time
+minimize the ravages of insect pests. It is in placing powerful
+acetylene lights over broad, shallow vats of water overlaid with
+mineral  oil or petroleum. Some of these lamps now made under recent
+patents yield a light of dazzling brilliancy, and if well distributed
+would doubtless lure millions of insects to their death. The cheap cost
+of the fuel also makes the remedy available for trial by every planter.
+
+There is a small hemipterous insect which stings the fruit when about
+two-thirds grown, and deposits its eggs within. For this class of
+insects M. A. Tonduz, who has issued publications on the diseases of
+cacao in Venezuela, recommends washing the fruit with salt water, and
+against the attacks of beetles in general by painting the tree stem and
+branches with Bordeaux mixture, or with the vassiliére insecticide,
+of which the basis is a combination of whale-oil soap and petroleum
+suspended in lime wash. There can be no possible virtue in the former,
+except as a preventive against possible fungous diseases; of the
+sanitive value of the latter we can also afford to be skeptical, as
+the mechanical sealing of the borer's holes, and thereby cutting off
+the air supply, would only result in driving the worm sooner to the
+surface. The odor of petroleum and particularly of whale-oil soap is
+so repellent, however, to most insects that its prophylactic virtues
+would undoubtedly be great.
+
+The Philippine Islands appear to be so far singularly exempt from
+the very many cryptogamic or fungous diseases, blights, mildews,
+rusts, and cankers that have played havoc with cacao-growing in many
+countries. That we should enjoy continued immunity will depend greatly
+upon securing seeds or young plants only from noninfested districts or
+from reputable dealers, who will carefully disinfect any shipments,
+and to supplement this by a close microscopical examination upon
+arrival and the immediate burning of any suspected shipments.
+
+Another general precaution that will be taken by every planter who
+aims to maintain the best condition in his orchard is the gathering
+and burning of all prunings or trimmings from the orchard, whether
+they are diseased or not. Decaying wood of any kind is a field for
+special activity for insect life and fungous growth, and the sooner
+it is destroyed the better.
+
+On this account it is customary in some countries to remove the fruit
+pods from the field. But unless diseased, or unless they are to be
+returned after the harvest, they should be buried upon the land for
+their manurial value.
+
+
+
+
+
+MANURING.
+
+
+There are few cultivated crops that make less drain upon soil
+fertility than cacao, and few drafts upon the land are so easily and
+inexpensively returned. From an examination made of detailed analyses
+by many authors and covering many regions, it may be broadly stated
+that an average crop of cacao in the most-favored districts is about
+9 piculs per hectare, and that of the three all-important elements of
+nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, a total of slightly more than
+4.2 kilograms is removed in each picul of cured seeds harvested. These
+37 kilos of plant food that are annually taken from each hectare may
+be roughly subdivided as follows:
+
+
+                    18 kilos of nitrogen,
+                    10 kilos of potash,
+                     9 kilos of phosphoric acid.
+
+
+On this basis, after the plantation is in full bearing, we would have
+to make good with standard fertilizers each year for each hectare
+about 220 kilos of nitrate of soda, or, if the plantation was shaded
+with leguminous trees, only one-half that amount, or 110 kilos. Of
+potash salts, say the sulphate, only one-half that amount, or 55
+kilos, if the plantation was unshaded. If, however, it was shaded,
+as the leguminous trees are all heavy feeders of potash, we would
+have to double the amount and use 110 kilos.
+
+In any case, as fixed nitrogen always represents a cost quite double
+that of potash, from an economical standpoint the planter is still
+the gainer who supplies potash to the shade trees. There still remains
+phosphoric acid, which, in the form of the best superphosphate of lime,
+would require 55 kilos for unshaded orchards, and about 70 if dap-dap,
+Pionciana, or any leguminous tree was grown in the orchard. These
+three ingredients may be thoroughly incorporated and used as a top
+dressing and lightly harrowed in about each tree.
+
+If the commercial nitrates can not be readily obtained, then
+recourse must be had to the sparing use of farm manures. Until the
+bearing age these may be used freely, but after that with caution and
+discrimination. Although I have seen trees here that have been bearing
+continuously for twenty-two years, I have been unable to find so much
+as one that to the knowledge of the oldest resident has ever been
+fertilized in any way, yet, notwithstanding our lack of knowledge of
+local conditions, it seems perfectly safe to predicate that liberal
+manuring with stable manure or highly ammoniated fertilizers would
+insure a rank, succulent growth that is always prejudicial to the best
+and heaviest fruit production. In this I am opposed to Professor Hart,
+[6] who seems to think that stable manures are those only that may
+be used with a free hand.
+
+We have many safe ways of applying nitrogen through the medium of
+various catch crops of pulse or beans, with the certainty that we
+can never overload the soil with more than the adjacent tree roots
+can take up and thoroughly assimilate. When the time comes that the
+orchard so shades the ground that crops can no longer be grown between
+the rows, then, in preference to stable manures I would recommend
+cotton-seed cake or "poonac," the latter being always obtainable in
+this Archipelago.
+
+While the most desirable form in which potash can be applied is in
+the form of the sulphate, excellent results have been had with the
+use of Kainit or Stassfurth salts, and as a still more available
+substitute, wood ashes is suggested. When forest lands are near,
+the underbrush may be cut and burned in a clearing or wherever it
+may be done without detriment to the standing timber, and the ashes
+scattered in the orchard before they have been leached by rains. The
+remaining essential of phosphoric acid in the form of superphosphates
+will for some years to come necessarily be the subject of direct
+importation. In the cheap form of phosphate slag it is reported to
+have been used with great success in both Grenada and British Guiana,
+and would be well worthy of trial here.
+
+Lands very rich in humus, as some of our forest valleys are,
+undoubtedly carry ample nitrogenous elements of fertility to maintain
+the trees at a high standard of growth for many years, but provision
+is indispensable for a regular supply of potash and phosphoric acid
+as soon as the trees come into heavy bearing. It is to them and not
+to the nitrogen that we look for the formation of strong, stocky,
+well-ripened wood capable of fruit bearing and for fruit that shall
+be sound, highly flavored, and well matured.
+
+The bearing life of such a tree will surely be healthfully prolonged
+for many years beyond one constantly driven with highly stimulating
+foods, and in the end amply repay the grower for the vigilance,
+toil, and original expenditure of money necessary to maintaining a
+well-grown and well-appointed cacao plantation.
+
+
+
+
+
+SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES.
+
+
+New Varieties.--Cacao is exclusively grown from seed, and it is only
+by careful selection of the most valuable trees that the planter
+can hope to make the most profitable renewals or additions to his
+plantations. It is by this means that many excellent sorts are now
+in cultivation in different regions that have continued to vary from
+the three original, common forms of Theobroma cacao, until now it is
+a matter of some difficulty to differentiate them.
+
+Residence.--The conditions for living in the Philippines offer
+peculiar, it may be said unexampled, advantages to the planter of
+cacao. The climate as a whole is remarkably salubrious, and sites are
+to be found nearly everywhere for the estate buildings, sufficiently
+elevated to obviate the necessity of living near stagnant waters.
+
+Malarial fevers are relatively few, predacious animals unknown,
+and insects and reptiles prejudicial to human life or health
+extraordinarily few in number. In contrast to this we need only
+call attention to the entire Caribbean coast of South America, where
+the climate and soil conditions are such that the cacao comes to a
+superlative degree of perfection, and yet the limits of its further
+extension have probably been reached by the insuperable barrier of
+a climate so insalubrious that the Caucasian's life is one endless
+conflict with disease, and when not engaged in active combat with some
+form of malarial poisoning his energies are concentrated upon battle
+with the various insect or animal pests that make life a burden in
+such regions.
+
+Nonresidence upon a cacao plantation is an equivalent term for ultimate
+failure. Every operation demands the exercise of the observant
+eye and the directing hand of a master, but there is no field of
+horticultural effort that offers more assured reward, or that will
+more richly repay close study and the application of methods wrought
+out as the sequence of those studies.
+
+
+
+
+
+ESTIMATED COST AND REVENUES DERIVED FROM A CACAO PLANTATION.
+
+
+Estimates of expenses in establishing a cacao farm in the Visayas
+and profits after the fifth year. The size of the farm selected is
+16 hectares, the amount of land prescribed by Congress of a single
+public land entry. The cost of procuring such a tract of land
+is as yet undetermined and can not be reckoned in the following
+tables. The prices of the crop are estimated at 48 cents per kilo,
+which is the current price for the best grades of cacao in the world's
+markets. The yield per tree is given as 2 catties, or 1.25 kilos,
+a fair and conservative estimate for a good tree, with little or
+no cultivation. The prices for unskilled labor are 25 per cent in
+advance of the farm hand in the Visayan islands. No provision is
+made for management or supervision, as the owner will, it is assumed,
+act as manager.
+
+Charges to capital account are given for the second, third, and fourth
+year, but no current expenses are given, for other crops are to defray
+operating expenses until the cacao trees begin to bear. No estimate
+of residence is given. All accounts are in United States currency.
+
+
+                       Expendable the first year.
+
+Capital account:
+
+    Clearing of average brush and timber land, at
+    $15 per hectare                                   $340.00
+    Four carabaos, plows, harrows, cultivators,
+    carts, etc.                                        550.00
+    Breaking and preparing land, at $5 per hectare      80.00
+    Opening main drainage canals, at $6 per hectare     96.00
+    Tool house and storeroom                           200.00
+    Purchase and planting 10,000 abacá stools, at
+    2 cents each                                       200.00
+    Seed purchase, rearing and planting 12,000 cacao,
+    at 3 cents each                                    360.00
+    Contingent and incidental                          174.00
+                                                      -------
+      Total                                                   $2,000.00
+
+
+                              Second year.
+
+    Interest on investment                            $200.00
+    Depreciation on tools, buildings, and animals
+    (20 per cent of cost)                              150.00
+                                                      -------
+                                                                 350.00
+
+
+                              Third year.
+
+    Interest on investment                            $200.00
+    Depreciation as above                              150.00
+                                                      -------
+                                                                 350.00
+
+
+                              Fourth year.
+
+    Interest on investment                            $200.00
+    Depreciation as above                              150.00
+    Building of drying house and sweat boxes,
+    capacity 20,000 kilos                              450.00
+                                                      -------
+                                                                 800.00
+                                                               --------
+      Total capital investment                                 3,500.00
+
+
+                              Fifth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, 300 grams cacao each,
+    equals 3,500 kilos, at 48 cents                            1,680.00
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest and depreciation charges on
+    investment of $3,500.00                         $350.00
+    Taxes 1 1/2 per cent on a one-third valuation
+    basis of $250 per hectare                         60.00
+    Cultivating, pruning, etc., at $5.50 per
+    hectare                                           88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $6 per hectare                    96.00
+    Harvesting, curing, packing 3,500 kilos cacao,
+    at 10 cents per kilo                             350.00
+    Contingent                                        86.00
+                                                    -------
+                                                               1,030.00
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                               650.00
+
+
+                              Sixth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, at 500 grams cacao each,
+    equals 5,840 kilos, at 48 cents                            2,803.20
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest and depreciation charges
+    as above                                        $350.00
+    Taxes as above                                    60.00
+    Cultivating, etc., as above                       88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $8 per hectare                   128.00
+    Harvesting, etc., 5,840 kilos cacao, at 10
+    cents per kilo                                   584.00
+    Contingent                                        93.20
+                                                    -------
+                                                               1,303.20
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             1,500.00
+
+
+                             Seventh year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, at 750 grams cacao each,
+    equals 8,760 kilos, at 48 cents                            4,204.80
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest charges as above                 $350.00
+    Taxes as above                                    60.00
+    Cultivating, etc., as above                       88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $10 per hectare                  160.00
+    Harvest, etc., of 8,760 kilos of cacao, at
+    10 cents per kilo                                876.00
+    Contingent                                       170.80
+                                                    -------
+                                                               1,704.80
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             2,500.00
+
+
+                              Eighth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, at 1 kilo cacao each,
+    equals 11,680 kilos, at 48 cents                           5,606.40
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest charges as above                 $350.00
+    Taxes as above                                    60.00
+    Cultivating, etc., as above                       88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $12.50 per hectare               200.00
+    Harvest, etc., 11,680 kilos of cacao, at
+    10 cents per kilo                              1,168.00
+    Contingent                                       240.40
+                                                   --------
+                                                               2,106.40
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             3,500.00
+
+
+                              Ninth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 trees, at 2 "catties" or 1.25 kilos
+    cacao each, equals 14,600 kilos, at 48 cents               7,008.00
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest charges as above                 $350.00
+    Taxes at 1 1/2 per cent on a one-third
+    valuation of $500 per hectare                    120.00
+    Cultivation and pruning as above                  88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $15 per hectare                  240.00
+    Harvesting, etc., of 14,600 kilos of cacao, at
+    10 cents per kilo                              1,460.00
+    Contingent                                       250.00
+                                                   --------
+                                                               2,508.00
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             4,500.00
+
+
+In the tenth year there should be no increase in taxes or fertilizers,
+and a slight increase in yield, sufficient to bring the net profits
+of the estate to the approximate amount of $5,000. This would amount
+to a dividend of rather more than $312 per hectare, or its equivalent
+of about $126 per acre.
+
+These tables further show original capitalization cost of nearly $90
+per acre, and from the ninth year annual operating expenses of rather
+more than $60 per acre.
+
+It should be stated, however, that the operating expenses are based
+upon a systematic and scientific management of the estate; while the
+returns or income are based upon revenue from trees that are at the
+disadvantage of being without culture of any kind, and, while I am
+of the opinion that the original cost per acre of the plantation, nor
+its current operating expenses may be much reduced below the figures
+given, I feel that there is a reasonable certainty that the crop
+product may be materially increased beyond the limit of two "catties."
+
+In Camerouns, Dr. Preuss, a close and well-trained observer, gives
+the mean annual yield of trees of full-bearing age at 4.4 pounds.
+
+Mr. Rousselot places the yield on the French Congo at the same
+figure. In the Caroline Islands it reaches 5 pounds and in Surinam,
+according to M. Nichols, the average at maturity is 6 1/2 pounds. In
+Mindanao, I have been told, but do not vouch for the report, of
+more than ten "catties" taken in one year from a single tree; and,
+as there are well-authenticated instances of record, of single trees
+having yielded as much as 30 pounds, I am not prepared to altogether
+discredit the Mindanao story.
+
+The difference, however, between good returns and enormous profits
+arising from cacao growing in the Philippines will be determined by
+the amount of knowledge, experience, and energy that the planter is
+capable of bringing to bear upon the culture in question.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+[1] A short introduction to cacao and its cultivation in the
+Philippines.
+
+[2] Le Cacaoyer, par Henri Jumelle. Culture de Cacaoyer dans Guadaloupe
+par Dr Paul Guerin.
+
+[3] Cacao, by J. H. Hart, F. L. S. Trinidad.
+
+[4] "Shade in Coffee Culture." U. S. Dept. Ag., Washington, 1901.
+
+[5] According to "Historia de Filipinas," by P. Fr. Gaspar de
+S. Augustin, cacao plants were first brought here in the year 1670
+by a pilot named Pedro Brabo, of Laguna Province, who gave them to
+a priest of the Camarines named Bartoleme Brabo.
+
+[6] "Cacao," p. 16.
+
+
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+
+<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Cacao Culture in the Philippines, by William S. Lyon</p>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
+are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Cacao Culture in the Philippines</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William S. Lyon</div>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: October 16, 2010 [eBook #33921]<br>
+[Most recently updated: December 26, 2022]</p>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
+  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by:
+  Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for project
+  Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES ***</div>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e78" href="#xd20e78" name=
+"xd20e78">1</a>]</span>
+<div class="front">
+<div class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<p class="firstpar"></p>
+<div class="figure xd20e82width"><img src="images/titlepage.png" alt=
+"Original Title Page." width="450" height="720"></div>
+</div>
+<div class="titlePage">
+<div class="docImprint">Philippine Bureau of Agriculture.</div>
+<div class="docTitle">
+<div class="seriesTitle">Farmer&rsquo;s Bulletin No. 2.</div>
+<div class="mainTitle">Cacao Culture in the Philippines</div>
+</div>
+<div class="byline">By<br>
+<span class="docAuthor">William S. Lyon,</span><br>
+In charge of seed and plant introduction.</div>
+<div class="docImprint">Prepared under the direction of the Chief of
+the Bureau.<br>
+Manila:<br>
+Bureau of Public Printing.<br>
+<span class="docDate">1902.</span></div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e113" href="#xd20e113" name=
+"xd20e113">3</a>]</span></p>
+<div id="toc" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Contents.</h2>
+<ul>
+<li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">Page.</span></li>
+<li><a href="#transmittal">Letter of transmittal</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">4</span></li>
+<li><a href="#intro">Introduction</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">5</span></li>
+<li><a href="#climate">Climate</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">6</span></li>
+<li><a href="#site">The plantation site</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">7</span></li>
+<li><a href="#soil">The soil</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class=
+"tocPagenum">7</span></li>
+<li><a href="#preparation">Preparation of the soil</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">8</span></li>
+<li><a href="#drainage">Drainage</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">8</span></li>
+<li><a href="#plantation">Forming the plantation</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">9</span></li>
+<li><a href="#selection">Selection of varieties</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">10</span></li>
+<li><a href="#planting">Planting</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">11</span></li>
+<li><a href="#cultivation">Cultivation</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">13</span></li>
+<li><a href="#pruning">Pruning</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">13</span></li>
+<li><a href="#harvest">Harvest</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">16</span></li>
+<li><a href="#diseases">Enemies and diseases</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">18</span></li>
+<li><a href="#manuring">Manuring</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">19</span></li>
+<li><a href="#supplemental">Supplemental notes</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">21</span></li>
+<li><a href="#newvarieties">New varieties</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">21</span></li>
+<li><a href="#residence">Residence</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">21</span></li>
+<li><a href="#revenues">Cost of a cacao plantation</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">22</span></li>
+</ul>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e237" href="#xd20e237" name=
+"xd20e237">4</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div id="transmittal" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Letter of Transmittal.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar"><span class="sc">Sir</span>: I submit herewith an
+essay on the cultivation of cacao, for the use of planters in the
+Philippines. This essay is prompted first, because much of the cacao
+grown here is of such excellent quality as to induce keen rivalry among
+buyers to procure it at an advance of quite 50 per cent over the common
+export grades of the Java bean, notwithstanding the failure on the part
+of the local grower to &ldquo;process&rdquo; or cure the product in any
+way; second, because in parts of Mindanao and Negros, despite ill
+treatment or no treatment, the plant exhibits a luxuriance of growth
+and wealth of productiveness that demonstrates its entire fitness for
+those regions and leads us to believe in the successful extension of
+its propagation throughout these Islands; and lastly because of the
+repeated calls upon the Chief of the Agricultural Bureau for literature
+or information bearing upon this important horticultural industry.</p>
+<p>The importance of cacao-growing in the Philippines can hardly be
+overestimated. Recent statistics place the world&rsquo;s demand for
+cacao (exclusive of local consumption) at 200,000,000 pounds, valued at
+more than $30,000,000 gold.</p>
+<p>There is little danger of overproduction and consequent low prices
+for very many years to come. So far as known, the areas where cacao
+prospers in the great equatorial zone are small, and the opening and
+development of suitable regions has altogether failed to keep pace with
+the demand.</p>
+<p>The bibliography of cacao is rather limited, and some of the best
+publications,<a class="noteref" id="xd20e251src" href="#xd20e251" name=
+"xd20e251src">1</a> being in French, are unavailable to many. The
+leading English treatise, by Professor Hart,<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e254src" href="#xd20e254" name="xd20e254src">2</a> admirable in
+many respects, deals mainly with conditions in Trinidad, West Indies,
+and is fatally defective, if not misleading, on the all-important
+question of pruning.</p>
+<p>The life history of the cacao, its botany, chemistry, and statistics
+are replete with interest, and will, perhaps, be treated in a future
+paper.</p>
+<p class="salute">Respectfully,</p>
+<p class="signed">Wm. S. Lyon,<br>
+<i>In Charge of Seed and Plant Introduction</i>.</p>
+<p class="signed">Hon. <span class="sc">F. Lamson-Scribner</span>,<br>
+<i>Chief of the Insular Bureau of Agriculture</i>. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e278" href="#xd20e278" name=
+"xd20e278">5</a>]</span></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote" lang="fr"><span class="label"><a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e251" href="#xd20e251src" name="xd20e251">1</a></span> Le
+Cacaoyer, par Henri Jumelle. Culture de Cacaoyer dans Guadaloupe par Dr
+Paul Guerin.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e254" href="#xd20e254src" name="xd20e254">2</a></span> Cacao, by
+J. H. Hart, F. L. S. Trinidad.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="body">
+<div id="intro" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="super">Cacao Culture in the Philippines.</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Introduction.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Cacao in cultivation exists nearly everywhere in
+the Archipelago. I have observed it in several provinces of Luzon, in
+Mindanao, Jol&oacute;, Basilan, Panay, and Negros, and have
+well-verified assurances of its presence in Ceb&uacute;, Bohol, and
+Masbate, and it is altogether reasonable to predicate its existence
+upon all the larger islands anywhere under an elevation of 1,000 or
+possibly 1,200 meters. Nevertheless, in many localities the condition
+of the plants is such as not to justify the general extension of cacao
+cultivation into all regions. The presence of cacao in a given locality
+is an interesting fact, furnishing a useful guide for investigation and
+agricultural experimentation, but, as the purpose of this paper is to
+deal with cacao growing from a commercial standpoint, it is well to
+state that wherever reference is made to the growth, requirements,
+habits, or cultural treatment of the plant the commercial aspect is
+alone considered. As an illustration, attention is called to the
+statement made elsewhere, that &ldquo;cacao exacts a minimum
+temperature of 18&deg;&rdquo;; although, as is perfectly well known to
+the writer, its fruit has sometimes matured where the recorded
+temperatures have fallen as low as 10&deg;. There is much to be learned
+here by experimentation, for as yet the cultivation is primitive in the
+extreme, pruning of any kind rudimentary or negative, and
+&ldquo;treatment&rdquo; of the nut altogether unknown.</p>
+<p>Elsewhere in cacao-producing countries its cultivation has long
+passed the experimental stage, and the practices that govern the
+management of a well-ordered cacao plantation are as clearly defined as
+those of an orange grove in Florida or a vineyard in California.</p>
+<p>In widely scattered localities the close observer will find many
+young trees that in vigor, color, and general health leave nothing to
+be desired, but before making final selection for a plantation he
+should inspect trees of larger growth for evidences of &ldquo;die
+back&rdquo; of the branches. If &ldquo;die back&rdquo; is present,
+superficial examination will generally determine if it is caused by
+neglect or by the attacks of insects. If not caused by neglect or
+insect attacks, he may assume that some primary essential to the
+continued and successful cultivation of the tree is wanting and that
+the location is unsuited to profitable plantations.</p>
+<p>With due regard to these preliminary precautions and a close
+oversight of every subsequent operation, there is no reason why the
+growing of cacao may not ultimately become one of the most profitable
+horticultural enterprises that can engage the attention of planters in
+this Archipelago. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e293" href=
+"#xd20e293" name="xd20e293">6</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div id="climate" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Climate.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">It is customary, when writing of any crop culture,
+to give precedence to site and soil, but in the case of cacao these
+considerations are of secondary importance, and while none of the minor
+operations of planting, pruning, cultivation, and fertilizing may be
+overlooked, they are all outweighed by the single
+essential&mdash;<i>climate</i>.</p>
+<p>In general, a state of atmospheric saturation keeps pace with heavy
+rainfall, and for that reason we may successfully look for the highest
+relative humidity upon the eastern shores of the Archipelago, where the
+rainfall is more uniformly distributed over the whole year, than upon
+the west.</p>
+<p>There are places where the conditions are so peculiar as to
+challenge especial inquiry. We find on the peninsula of Zamboanga a
+recorded annual mean rainfall of only 888 mm., and yet cacao
+(unirrigated) exhibits exceptional thrift and vigor. It is true that
+this rain is so evenly distributed throughout the year that every drop
+becomes available, yet the total rainfall is insufficient to account
+for the very evident and abundant atmospheric humidity indicated by the
+prosperous conditions of the cacao plantations. The explanation of this
+phenomenon, as made to me by the Rev. Father Algu&eacute;, of the
+Observatory of Manila, is to the effect that strong equatorial ocean
+currents constantly prevail against southern Mindanao, and that their
+influence extend north nearly to the tenth degree of latitude. These
+currents, carrying their moisture-laden atmosphere, would naturally
+affect the whole of this narrow neck of land and influence as well some
+of the western coast of Mindanao, and probably place it upon the same
+favored hygrometric plane as the eastern coast, where the rainfall in
+some localities amounts to 4 meters a year.</p>
+<p>While 2,000 mm. of mean annual rainfall equably distributed is ample
+to achieve complete success, it seems almost impossible to injure cacao
+by excessive precipitation. It has been known to successfully tide over
+inundation of the whole stem up to the first branches for a period
+covering nearly a month.</p>
+<p>Irrigation must be resorted to in cases of deficient or unevenly
+distributed rainfall, and irrigation is always advantageous whenever
+there is suspension of rain for a period of more than fifteen days.</p>
+<p>Concerning temperatures the best is that with an annual mean of
+26&deg; to 28&deg;, with 20&deg; as the mean minimum where any measure
+of success may be expected. A mean temperature of over 30&deg; is
+prejudicial to cacao growing.</p>
+<p>The last but not least important of the atmospheric phenomena for
+our consideration are the winds. Cacao loves to &ldquo;steam and
+swelter in its own atmosphere&rdquo; and high winds are inimical, and
+even refreshing breezes are incompatible, with the greatest success. As
+there are but few large areas in these Islands that are exempt from one
+or other of our prevailing winds, the remedies that suggest themselves
+are: The selection of small <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e314"
+href="#xd20e314" name="xd20e314">7</a>]</span>sheltered valleys where
+the prevailing winds are directly cut off by intervening hills or
+mountains; the plantation of only small groves in the open, and their
+frequent intersection by the plantation of rapid growing trees; and,
+best of all, plantings made in forest clearings, where the remaining
+forested lands will furnish the needed protection.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="site" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Location.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">It is always desirable to select a site that is
+approximately level or with only enough fall to assure easy drainage.
+Such sites may be planted symmetrically and are susceptible to the
+easiest and most economical application of the many operations
+connected with a plantation.</p>
+<p>Provided the region is well forested and therefore protected from
+sea breezes, the plantation may be carried very near to the coast,
+provided the elevation is sufficient to assure the grove immunity from
+incursions of tide water, which, however much diluted, will speedily
+cause the death of the plants.</p>
+<p>Excavations should be made during the dry season to determine that
+water does not stand within 1&frac12; meters of the surface, a more
+essential condition, however, when planting is made &ldquo;at
+stake&rdquo; than when nursery reared trees are planted.</p>
+<p>Hillsides, when not too precipitous, frequently offer admirable
+shelter and desirable soils, but their use entails a rather more
+complicated system of drainage, to carry away storm water without land
+washing, and for the ready conversion of the same into irrigating
+ditches during the dry season. Further, every operation involved must
+be performed by hand labor, and in the selection of such a site the
+planter must be largely influenced by the quantity and cost of
+available labor.</p>
+<p>The unexceptionable shelter, the humidity that prevails, and the
+inexhaustible supply of humus that is generally found in deep forest
+ravines frequently lead to their planting to cacao where the slope is
+even as great as 45&deg;. Such plantations, if done upon a considerable
+commercial scale, involve engineering problems and the careful
+terracing of each tree, and, except for a dearth of more suitable
+locations, is a practice that has little to commend it to the practical
+grower.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="soil" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">The Soil.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Other things being equal, preference should be
+given to a not too tenacious, clayey loam. Selection, in fact, may be
+quite successfully made through the process of exclusion, and by
+eliminating all soils of a very light and sandy nature, or clays so
+tenacious that the surface bakes and cracks while still too wet within
+3 or 4 inches of the surface to operate with farm tools. These
+excluded, still leave a very wide range of silt, clay, and loam soils,
+most of which are suitable to cacao culture.</p>
+<p>Where properly protected from the wind a rocky soil, otherwise good,
+is not objectionable; in fact, such lands have the advantage of
+promoting good drainage. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e336" href=
+"#xd20e336" name="xd20e336">8</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div id="preparation" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Preparation of the Soil.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">When the plantation is made upon forest lands, it
+is necessary to cut and burn all underbrush, together with all timber
+trees other than those designed for shade. If such shade trees are left
+(and the advisability of leaving them will be discussed in the proper
+place), only those of the pulse or bean family are to be recommended.
+It should also be remembered that, owing in part to the close planting
+of cacao and in part to the fragility of its wood and its great
+susceptibility to damage resulting from wounds, subsequent removal of
+large shade trees from the plantation is attended with difficulty and
+expense, and the planter should leave few shade trees to the hectare.
+Clearing the land should be done during the dry season, and refuse
+burned in situ, thereby conserving to the soil the potash salts so
+essential to the continued well-being of cacao.</p>
+<p>The land should be deeply plowed, and, if possible, subsoiled as
+well, and then, pending the time of planting the orchard, it may be
+laid down to corn, cotton, beans, or some forage plant. Preference
+should be given to &ldquo;hoed crops,&rdquo; as it is essential to keep
+the surface in open tilth, as well as to destroy all weeds.</p>
+<p>The common practice in most cacao-growing countries is to simply dig
+deep holes where the trees are to stand, and to give a light working to
+the rest of the surface just sufficient to produce the intermediate
+crops. This custom is permissible only on slopes too steep for the
+successful operation of a side hill plow, or where from lack of draft
+animals all cultivation has to be done by hand.</p>
+<p>Cacao roots deeply, and with relatively few superficial feeders, and
+the deeper the soil is worked the better.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="drainage" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Drainage.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">The number and size of the drains will depend upon
+the amount of rainfall, the contour of the land, and the natural
+absorbent character of the soil. In no case should the ditches be less
+than 1 meter wide and 60 cm. deep, and if loose stones are at hand the
+sloping sides may be laid with them, which will materially protect them
+from washing by torrential rains.</p>
+<p>These main drains should all be completed prior to planting.
+Connecting laterals may be opened subsequently, as the necessities of
+further drainage or future irrigation may demand; shallow furrows will
+generally answer for these laterals, and as their obliteration will
+practically follow every time cultivation is given, their construction
+may be of the cheapest and most temporary nature. Owing to the
+necessity of main drainage canals and the needful interplanting of
+shade plants between the rows of cacao, nothing is gained by laying off
+the land for planting in what is called &ldquo;two ways,&rdquo; and all
+subsequent working of the orchard will consequently be in one
+direction. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e355" href="#xd20e355"
+name="xd20e355">9</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div id="plantation" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">The Plantation.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Cacao, relatively to the size of the tree, may be
+planted very closely. We have stated that it rejoices in a close,
+moisture-laden atmosphere, and this permits of a closer planting than
+would be admissible with any other orchard crop.</p>
+<p>In very rich soil the strong-growing Forastero variety may be
+planted 3.7 meters apart each way, or 745 trees to the hectare, and on
+lighter lands this, or the more dwarf-growing forms of Criollo, may be
+set as close as 3 meters or rather more than 1,000 trees to the
+hectare.</p>
+<p>The rows should be very carefully lined out in one direction and
+staked where the young plants are to be set, and then (a year before
+the final planting) between each row of cacao a line of temporary
+shelter plants are to be planted. These should be planted in quincunx
+order, i. e., at the intersecting point of two lines drawn between the
+diagonal corners of the square made by four cacaos set equidistant each
+way. This temporary shelter is indispensable for the protection of the
+young plantation from wind and sun.</p>
+<p>The almost universal custom is to plant, for temporary shelter,
+suckers of fruiting bananas, but throughout the Visayas and in Southern
+Luzon I think abac&aacute; could be advantageously substituted. It is
+true that, as commonly grown, abac&aacute; does not make so rank a
+growth as some of the plantains, but if given the perfect tillage which
+the cacao plantation should receive, and moderately rich soils,
+abac&aacute; ought to furnish all necessary shade. This temporary shade
+may be maintained till the fourth or fifth year, when it is to be
+grubbed out and the stalks and stumps, which are rich in nitrogen, may
+be left to decay upon the ground. At present prices, the four or five
+crops which may be secured from the temporary shelter plants ought to
+meet the expenses of the entire plantation until it comes into
+bearing.</p>
+<p>In the next step, every fourth tree in the fourth or fifth row of
+cacao may be omitted and its place filled by a permanent shade tree.
+The planting of shade trees or &ldquo;madre de cacao&rdquo; among the
+cacao has been observed from time immemorial in all countries where the
+crop is grown, and the primary purpose of the planting has been for
+shade alone. Observing that these trees were almost invariably of the
+pulse or legume family, the writer, in the year 1892, raised the
+question, in the Proceedings of the Southern California Horticultural
+Society, that the probable benefits derived were directly attributable
+to the abundant fertilizing micro&ouml;rganisms developed in the soil
+by these leguminous plants, rather than the <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e369" title="Source: mechancial">mechanical</span> protection they
+afforded from the sun&rsquo;s rays.</p>
+<p>To Mr. O. F. Cook, of the United States Department of Agriculture,
+however, belongs the credit of publishing, in 1901,<a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e374src" href="#xd20e374" name="xd20e374src">1</a> a
+r&eacute;sum&eacute; of his inquiries into the subject of the shades
+used for both the coffee and the <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e377" href="#xd20e377" name="xd20e377">10</a>]</span>cacao, and
+which fully confirmed the previous opinions that the main benefit
+derived from these trees was their influence in maintaining a constant
+supply of available nitrogen in the soil.</p>
+<p>That cacao and its wild congenors naturally seek the shelter of
+well-shaded forests is well established; but having seen trees in these
+Islands that were fully exposed at all times showing no evidences of
+either scald, burn, or sun spot, and in every respect the embodiment of
+vigor and health, we are fully justified in assuming that here the
+climatic conditions are such as will permit of taking some reasonable
+liberties with this time-honored practice and supply needed nitrogen to
+the soil by the use of cheap and effective &ldquo;catch crops,&rdquo;
+such us cowpeas or soy beans.</p>
+<p>Here, as elsewhere, an Erythrina, known as &ldquo;dap-dap,&rdquo; is
+a favorite shade tree among native planters; the rain tree
+(<i>Pithecolobium saman</i>) is also occasionally used, and in one
+instance only have I seen a departure from the use of the
+Leguminos&aelig;, and that in western Mindanao, there is a shade
+plantation composed exclusively of <i>Cananga odorata</i>, locally
+known as ilang-ilang.</p>
+<p>While not yet prepared to advocate the total exclusion of all shade
+trees, I am prepared to recommend a shade tree, if shade trees there
+must be, whose utility and unquestioned value has singularly escaped
+notice. The tree in question, the Royal <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e391" title="Source: Ponciana">Poinciana</span> (<i>Poinciana
+regia</i>), embodies all of the virtues that are ascribed to the best
+of the pulse family, is easily procured, grows freely and rapidly from
+seed or cutting, furnishes a minimum of shade at all times, and, in
+these Islands, becomes almost leafless, at the season of maturity of
+the largest cacao crop when the greatest sun exposure is desired.</p>
+<p>The remaining preparatory work consists in the planting of
+intersecting wind breaks at intervals throughout the grove, and upon
+sides exposed to winds, or where a natural forest growth does not
+furnish such a shelter belt. Unless the plantation lies in a
+particularly protected valley, no plantation, however large in the
+aggregate, should cover more than 4 or 5 hectares unbroken by at least
+one row of wind-break trees. Nothing that I know of can approach the
+mango for this purpose. It will hold in check the fiercest gale and
+give assurance to the grower that after any storm his cacao crop is
+still on the trees and not on the ground, a prey to ants, mice, and
+other vermin.</p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e374" href="#xd20e374src" name="xd20e374">1</a></span>
+&ldquo;Shade in Coffee Culture.&rdquo; U. S. Dept. Ag., Washington,
+1901.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="selection" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Selection of Varieties.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">All the varieties of cacao in general cultivation
+may be referred to three general types, the Criollo, Forastero, and
+Calabacillo; and of these, those that I have met in cultivation in the
+Archipelago are the first and second only. The Criollo is incomparably
+the finest variety in general use, and may perhaps be most readily
+distinguished by the inexperienced through the ripe but unfermented
+seed or almond, as it is often called. This, on breaking, is found to
+be whitish or yellowish-white, while the seeds of <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e404" href="#xd20e404" name=
+"xd20e404">11</a>]</span>those in which the Forastero or Calabacillo
+blood predominates are reddish, or, in the case of Forastero, almost
+violet in color. For flavor, freedom from bitterness, facility in
+curing, and high commercial value, the Criollo is everywhere conceded
+to be <i>facile princeps</i>.</p>
+<p>On the other hand, in point of yield, vigor, freedom from disease,
+and compatibility to environment it is not to be compared with the
+others. Nevertheless, where such perfect conditions exist as are found
+in parts of Mindanao, I do not hesitate to urge the planting of
+Criollo. Elsewhere, or wherever the plantation is tentative or the
+conditions not very well known to the planter, the Forastero is to be
+recommended. The former is commercially known as
+&ldquo;<i>Caracas</i>&rdquo; and &ldquo;<i>old red Ceylon</i>,&rdquo;
+and may be obtained from Ceylon dealers; and the latter, the Forastero,
+or forms of it which have originated in the island, can be procured
+from Java.</p>
+<p>It seems not unlikely that the true Forastero may have been brought
+to these Islands from Acapulco, Mexico, two hundred and thirty-two
+years ago,<a class="noteref" id="xd20e419src" href="#xd20e419" name=
+"xd20e419src">1</a> as it was at that time the dominant kind grown in
+southeastern Mexico, and, if so, the place where the pure type would
+most likely be found in these Islands would be in the Camarines,
+Southern Luzon. Aside from the seed characters already given, Forastero
+is recognized by its larger, thicker, more abundant, and rather more
+abruptly pointed fruit than Criollo, and its coarse leaves which are
+from 22 to 50 cm. long by 7 to 13 cm. wide, dimensions nearly double
+those reached by the Criollo or Calabacillo varieties.</p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e419" href="#xd20e419src" name="xd20e419">1</a></span> According
+to &ldquo;Historia de Filipinas,&rdquo; by P. Fr. Gaspar de S.
+Augustin, cacao plants were first brought here in the year 1670 by a
+pilot named Pedro Brabo, of Laguna Province, who gave them to a priest
+of the Camarines named Bartoleme Brabo.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="planting" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Planting.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Planting may be done &ldquo;at stake&rdquo; or from
+the nursery. For the unskilled or inexperienced planter, who has means
+at hand to defray the greater cost, planting &ldquo;at stake&rdquo; is
+perhaps to be recommended. This is no more than the dropping and
+lightly covering, during the rainy season, of three or four seeds at
+the stake where the plant is to stand, protecting the spot with a bit
+of banana leaf, left till the seeds have sprouted, and subsequently
+pulling out all but the one strongest and thriftiest plant.</p>
+<p>The contingencies to be met by this system are many. The enemies of
+the cacao seed are legion. Drought, birds, worms, ants, beetles, mice,
+and rats will all contribute their quota to prevent a good
+&ldquo;stand&rdquo; and entail the <span class="corr" id="xd20e429"
+title="Source: necessitly">necessity</span> of repeated plantings.
+Success by planting &ldquo;at stake&rdquo; is so doubtful that it is
+rarely followed by experienced planters.</p>
+<p>The consequent alternative lies in rearing seedlings in seed beds
+that are under immediate control, and, when the plants are of
+sufficient size, in transplanting them to their proper sites in the
+orchard. In view of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e434" href=
+"#xd20e434" name="xd20e434">12</a>]</span>remarkable short-lived
+vitality of the cacao seed, it is in every way advisable that the
+untrained grower procure his plants from professional nurserymen, or,
+if this resource is lacking, that he import the young plants in Wardian
+cases from some of the many firms abroad who make a specialty of
+preparing them for foreign markets.</p>
+<p>Both of these expedients failing, then it is advised that the seeds
+be sown one by one in small pots, or, if these are not procurable, in
+small bamboo tubes, and, for the sake of uniform moisture, plunge them
+to their rims in any free, light soil in a well-shaded easily protected
+spot where they may be carefully watered. In three to six months
+(according to growth) the tube with its included plant may be planted
+in the open field, when the former will speedily decompose and the
+growth of the cacao proceed without check or injury.</p>
+<p>At best, all of the above suggested methods are but crude expedients
+to replace the more workmanlike, expeditious, and satisfactory process
+of planting the conventional nursery grown stock. There is nothing more
+difficult in the rearing of cacao seedlings than in growing any other
+evergreen fruit tree. Briefly stated, it is only the finding of a
+well-prepared, well-shaded seed bed and sowing the seeds in rows or
+drills, and, when the seedlings are of proper size, in lifting and
+transferring them to the plantation. But in actual practice there are
+many details calling for the exercise of trained judgment from the
+preparation of the seed bed down to the final process of
+&ldquo;hardening off,&rdquo; concerning which the reader is referred to
+the many available text-books on general nursery management.</p>
+<p>It may be said for the benefit of those unable to adopt more
+scientific methods: Let the seed bed be selected in a well-shaded spot,
+and, if possible, upon a rather stiff, plastic, but well-drained soil.
+After this is well broken up and made smooth, broadcast over all 3 or 4
+inches of well-decomposed leaf mold mixed with sand, and in this sow
+the seed in furrows about 1 inch deep. This sowing should be made
+during the dry season, not only to avoid the beating and washing of
+violent storms but to have the nursery plants of proper size for
+planting at the opening of the rainy season. The seed bed should be
+accessible to water, in order that it may be conveniently watered by
+frequent sprinklings throughout the dry season.</p>
+<p>The rich top dressing will stimulate the early growth of the
+seedling, and when its roots enter the heavier soil below it will
+encourage a stocky growth. Four or five months later the roots will be
+so well established in the stiffer soil that if lifted carefully each
+plant may be secured with a ball of earth about its roots, placed in a
+tray or basket, and in this way carried intact to the field. Plants
+thus reared give to the inexperienced an assurance of success not
+always obtained by the trained or veteran planter of bare rooted
+subjects. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e444" href="#xd20e444"
+name="xd20e444">13</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div id="cultivation" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Cultivation.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Planters are united in the opinion that pruning,
+cutting, or in any way lacerating the roots is injurious to the cacao,
+and in deference to this opinion all cultivation close to the tree
+should be done with a harrow-tooth cultivator, or shallow scarifier.
+All intermediate cultivation should be deep and thorough, whenever the
+mechanical condition of the soil will permit it. A plant stunted in
+youth will never make a prolific tree; early and continuous growth can
+only be secured by deep and thorough cultivation.</p>
+<p>Of even more consideration than an occasional root cutting is any
+injury, however small, to the tree stem, and on this account every
+precaution should be taken to protect the trees from accidental injury
+when plowing or cultivating. The whiffletree of the plow or cultivator
+used should be carefully fendered with rubber or a soft woolen packing
+that will effectually guard against the carelessness of workmen. Wounds
+in the bark or stem offer an inviting field for the entry of insects or
+the spores of fungi, and are, furthermore, apt to be overlooked until
+the injury becomes deep seated and sometimes beyond repair.</p>
+<p>With the gradual extension of root development, cultivation will be
+reduced to a narrow strip between the rows once occupied by the
+plantain or the abac&aacute;, but, to the very last, the maintenance of
+the proper soil conditions should be observed by at least one good
+annual plowing and by as many superficial cultivations as the growth of
+the trees and the mechanical state of the land will admit.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="pruning" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Pruning.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">When left to its own resources the cacao will fruit
+for an almost indefinite time. When well and strenuously grown it will
+bear much more abundant fruit from its fifth to its twenty-fifth year,
+and by a simple process of renewal can be made productive for a much
+longer time.</p>
+<p>A necessary factor to this result is an annual pruning upon strictly
+scientific lines. The underlying principle involved is, primarily, the
+fact that the cacao bears its crop directly upon the main branches and
+trunk, and not upon spurs or twigs; secondly, that wood under three
+years is rarely fruitful, and that only upon stems or branches of five
+years or upward does the maximum fruitfulness occur; that the seat of
+inflorescence is directly over the axil of a fallen leaf, from whence
+the flowers are born at irregular times throughout the year.</p>
+<p>With this necessary, fundamental information as a basis of
+operations, the rational system of pruning that suggests itself is the
+maintenance of as large an extension at all times of straight,
+well-grown mature wood and the perfecting of that by the early and
+frequent removal of all limbs or branches that the form of the tree
+does not admit of carrying without overcrowding. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e463" href="#xd20e463" name=
+"xd20e463">14</a>]</span></p>
+<p>It is desirable that this extension of the branch system should be
+lateral rather than vertical, for the greater facility with which fruit
+may be plucked and possible insect enemies fought; and on this account
+the leading growths should be stopped when a convenient height has been
+attained.</p>
+<p>When well grown and without accident to its leader, the cacao will
+naturally branch at from 1 to 1.4 meters from the ground. These primary
+branches are mostly three to five in number, and all in excess of three
+should be removed as soon as selection can be made of three strongest
+that are as nearly equidistant from each other as may be. When these
+branches are from 80 cm. to 1 meter long, and preferably the shorter
+distance, they are to be stopped by pinching the extremities. This will
+cause them and the main stem as well to &ldquo;break,&rdquo; i. e., to
+branch in many places.</p>
+<p>At this point the vigilance and judgment of the planter are called
+into greater play. These secondary branches are, in turn, all to be
+reduced as were the primary ones, and their selection can not be made
+in a symmetrical whorl, for the habit of the tree does not admit of it,
+and selection of the three should be made with reference to their
+future extension, that the interior of the tree should not be
+overcrowded and that such outer branches be retained as shall fairly
+maintain the equilibrium of the crown.</p>
+<p>This will complete the third year and the formative stage of the
+plant. Subsequent prunings will be conducted on the same lines, with
+the modification that when the secondary branches are again cut back,
+the room in the head of the tree will rarely admit of more than one, at
+most two, tertiary branches being allowed to remain. When these are
+grown to an extent that brings the total height of the tree to 3 or 4
+meters, they should be cut back annually, at the close of the dry
+season. Such minor operations as the removal of thin, wiry, or
+hide-bound growths and all suckers suggest themselves to every
+horticulturist, whether he be experienced in cacao growing or not. When
+a tree is exhausted by overbearing, or has originally been so ill
+formed that it is not productive, a strong sucker or
+&ldquo;gourmand&rdquo; springing from near the ground may be encouraged
+to grow. By distributing the pruning over two or three periods, in one
+year the old tree can be entirely removed and its place substituted by
+the &ldquo;gourmand.&rdquo; During the third year flowers will be
+abundant and some fruit will set, but it is advisable to remove it
+while small and permit all of the energy of the plant to be expended in
+wood making.</p>
+<div class="figure xd20e473width"><img src="images/plate.jpg" alt=
+"Plate 1.&mdash;Shows the interesting, fruit bearing habit of the Cacao."
+width="490" height="720">
+<p class="figureHead"><span class="sc">Plate 1.</span>&mdash;Shows the
+interesting, fruit bearing habit of the Cacao.</p>
+</div>
+<p>From what we know of its flowering habit, it is obvious that every
+operation connected with the handling or pruning of a cacao, should be
+conducted with extreme care; to see that the bark is never injured
+about the old leaf scars, for to just the extent it is so injured is
+the fruit-bearing area curtailed. Further, no pruning cut should ever
+be inflicted, except with the sharpest of knives and saws, and the use
+of shears, that always <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e481" href=
+"#xd20e481" name="xd20e481">15</a>]</span>bruise to <i>some</i> extent,
+is to be avoided. All the rules that are laid down for the guidance of
+the pruning of most orchard trees in regard to clean cuts, sloping
+cuts, and the covering of large wounds with tar or resin apply with
+fourfold force to the cacao. Its wood is remarkably spongy and an easy
+prey to the enemies ever lying in wait to attack it, and the surest
+remedies for disease are preventive ones, and by the maintenance
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e486" href="#xd20e486" name=
+"xd20e486">16</a>]</span>of the bark of the tree at all times in the
+sound condition, we are assured that it is best qualified to resist
+invasion. Of the great number of worm-riddled trees to be seen in the
+Archipelago, it is easy in every case to trace the cause to the neglect
+and brutal treatment which left them in a condition to invite the
+attacks of disease of every kind.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="harvest" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Harvest.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">The ripening period of cacao generally occurs at
+two seasons of the year, but in these islands the most abundant crop is
+obtained at about the commencement of the dry season, and the fruits
+continue to ripen for two months or longer. The time of its approaching
+maturity is easily recognized by the tyro by the unmistakable aroma of
+chocolate that pervades the orchard at that period, and by some of the
+pods turning reddish or yellow according to the variety.</p>
+<p>The pods are attached by a very short stalk to the trunk of the
+tree, and those within reach of the hand are carefully cut with shears.
+Those higher up are most safely removed with an extension American tree
+pruner. A West Indian hook knife with a cutting edge above and below
+and mounted on a bamboo pole, if kept with the edges very sharp, does
+excellently well, but should only be intrusted to the most careful
+workmen. There is hardly a conceivable contingency to warrant the
+climbing of a cacao tree. If it should occur, the person climbing
+should go barefooted. As soon as the fruit, or so much of it as is well
+ripened, has been gathered, it is thrown into heaps and should be
+opened within twenty-four hours.</p>
+<p>The opening is done in a variety of ways, but the practice followed
+in Surinam would be an excellent one here if experienced labor was not
+at command. There, with a heavy knife or cutlass (bolo), they cut off
+the base or stem end of the fruit and thereby expose the column to
+which the seeds are attached, and then women and children, who free
+most of the seeds, are able to draw out the entire seed mass intact. It
+is exceedingly important that the seeds are not wounded, and for that
+reason it is inexpedient to intrust the more expeditious method of
+halving the fruit with a sharp knife to any but experienced
+workmen.</p>
+<p>The process of curing that I have seen followed in these Islands is
+simplicity itself. Two jars half filled with water are provided for the
+cleaners, and as the seeds are detached from the pulp they are sorted
+and graded on the spot. Only those of large, uniform size, well formed
+and thoroughly ripe, being thrown into one; deformed, small, and
+imperfectly matured seeds going to the other. In these jars the seeds
+are allowed to stand in their own juice for a day, then they are taken
+out, washed in fresh water, dried in the sun from two to four days,
+according to the weather, and the process from the Filipino standpoint
+is complete.</p>
+<p>Much of the product thus obtained is singularly free from bitterness
+and of such excellent quality; as to be saleable at unusually high
+prices, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e502" href="#xd20e502" name=
+"xd20e502">17</a>]</span>and at the same time in such good demand that
+it is with some hesitancy that the process of fermentation is
+recommended for general use.</p>
+<p>But it is also equally certain that localities in these Islands will
+be planted to cacao where all the conditions that help to turn out an
+unrivaled natural product are by no means assured. For such places,
+where the rank-growing, more coarse-flavored, and bitter-fruited
+Forastero may produce exceptionally good crops, it will become
+incumbent on the planter to adopt some of the many methods of
+fermentation, whereby he can correct the crudeness of the untreated
+bean and receive a remunerative price for the &ldquo;processed&rdquo;
+or ameliorated product.</p>
+<p>Undoubtedly the Strickland method, or some modification of it, is
+the best, and is now in general use on all considerable estates where
+the harvest is 200 piculs or upward per annum, and its use probably
+assures a more uniform product than any of the ruder processes in
+common use by small proprietors.</p>
+<p>But it must not be forgotten that the present planters in the
+Philippines are all small proprietors, and that until such time as the
+maturing of large plantations calls for the more elaborate apparatus of
+the Strickland pattern, some practice whereby the inferior crude bean
+may be economically and quickly converted into a marketable product can
+not be avoided. As simple and efficacious as any is that largely
+pursued in some parts of Venezuela, where is produced the famous
+Caracas cacao.</p>
+<p>The beans and pulp are thrown into wooden vats that are pierced with
+holes sufficient to permit of the escape of the juice, for which
+twenty-four hours suffices. The vat is then exposed to the sun for five
+or six hours, and the beans, while still hot, are taken out, thrown
+into large heaps, and covered with blankets.</p>
+<p>The next day they are returned to the box, subjected to a strong sun
+heat and again returned to the heap. This operation is repeated for
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e514" title="Source: sevral">several</span>
+days, until the beans, by their bright chocolate color and suppleness,
+indicate that they are cured. If, during the period of fermentation,
+rain is threatened or occurs, the beans are shoveled, still hot, into
+bags and retained there until they can once more be exposed to the sun.
+Before the final bagging they are carefully hand rubbed in order to
+remove the adherent gums and fibrous matters that did not pass off in
+the primary fermentation.</p>
+<p>In Ceylon, immediately after the beans have been fermented they are
+washed, and the universally high prices obtained by the Ceylon planters
+make it desirable to reproduce here a brief r&eacute;sum&eacute; of
+their method. The fermentation is carried on under sheds, and the beans
+are heaped up in beds of 60 cm. to 1 meter in thickness upon a platform
+of parallel joists arranged to permit of the escape of the juices. This
+platform is elevated from the ground and the whole heap is covered with
+sacks or matting. The fermentation takes from five to seven days,
+according to the heat of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e520" href=
+"#xd20e520" name="xd20e520">18</a>]</span>the atmosphere and the size
+of the heap, and whenever the temperature rises above 40&deg; the mass
+is carefully turned over with wooden shovels.</p>
+<p>Immediately after the fermentation is completed the Ceylon planter
+passes the mass through repeated washings, and nothing remains but to
+dry the seed. This in Ceylon is very extensively done, in dryers of
+different kinds, some patterned after the American fruit dryer, some in
+slowly rotating cylinders through the axis of which a powerful blast of
+hot air is driven.</p>
+<p>The process of washing unquestionably diminishes somewhat the weight
+of the cured bean; for that reason the practice is not generally
+followed in other countries, but in the case of the Ceylon product it
+is one of the contributing factors to the high prices obtained.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="diseases" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Enemies and Diseases.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Monkeys, rats, and parrots are here and in all
+tropical countries the subject of much complaint, and if the plantation
+is remote from towns or in the forest, their depredations can only be
+held in check by the constant presence of well-armed hunter or
+watchman. Of the more serious enemies with which we have to deal,
+pernicious insects and in particular those that attack the wood of the
+tree, everything has yet to be learned.</p>
+<p>Mr. Charles N. Banks, an accomplished entomologist, now stationed at
+Maao, Occidental Negros, is making a close study of the life history of
+the insect enemies of cacao, and through his researches it is hoped
+that much light will be thrown upon the whole subject and that ways
+will be devised to overcome and prevent the depredations of these
+insect pests. The most formidable insect that has so far been
+encountered is a beetle, which pierces and deposits its eggs within the
+bark. When the worm hatches, it enters the wood and traverses it
+longitudinally until it is ready to assume the mature or beetle state,
+when it comes to the surface and makes its escape. These worms will
+frequently riddle an entire branch and even enter the trunk. The
+apertures that the beetle makes for the laying of its eggs are so
+small&mdash;more minute than the head of a pin&mdash;that discovery and
+probing for the worm with a fine wire is not as fruitful of results as
+has been claimed.</p>
+<p>Of one thing, however, we are positively assured, i. e., that the
+epoch of ripening of the cacao fruit is the time when its powerful
+fragrance serves to attract the greatest number of these beetles and
+many other noxious insects to the grove. This, too, is the time when
+the most constant and abundant supply of labor is on the plantation and
+when vast numbers of these insects can be caught and destroyed. The
+building of small fires at night in the groves, as commonly practiced
+here and in many tropical countries, is attended with some benefits.
+Lately, in India, this remedy has been subject to an improvement that
+gives promise of results which will in time minimize the ravages of
+insect pests. It is in placing powerful acetylene lights over broad,
+shallow vats of water overlaid with mineral <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e535" href="#xd20e535" name=
+"xd20e535">19</a>]</span>oil or petroleum. Some of these lamps now made
+under recent patents yield a light of dazzling brilliancy, and if well
+distributed would doubtless lure millions of insects to their death.
+The cheap cost of the fuel also makes the remedy available for trial by
+every planter.</p>
+<p>There is a small hemipterous insect which stings the fruit when
+about two-thirds grown, and deposits its eggs within. For this class of
+insects M. A. Tonduz, who has issued publications on the diseases of
+cacao in Venezuela, recommends washing the fruit with salt water, and
+against the attacks of beetles in general by painting the tree stem and
+branches with Bordeaux mixture, or with the vassili&eacute;re
+insecticide, of which the basis is a combination of whale-oil soap and
+petroleum suspended in lime wash. There can be no possible virtue in
+the former, except as a preventive against possible fungous diseases;
+of the sanitive value of the latter we can also afford to be skeptical,
+as the mechanical sealing of the borer&rsquo;s holes, and thereby
+cutting off the air supply, would only result in driving the worm
+sooner to the surface. The odor of petroleum and particularly of
+whale-oil soap is so <span class="corr" id="xd20e539" title=
+"Source: repellant">repellent</span>, however, to most insects that its
+prophylactic virtues would undoubtedly be great.</p>
+<p>The Philippine Islands appear to be so far singularly exempt from
+the very many cryptogamic or fungous diseases, blights, mildews, rusts,
+and cankers that have played havoc with cacao-growing in many
+countries. That we should enjoy continued immunity will depend greatly
+upon securing seeds or young plants only from noninfested districts or
+from reputable dealers, who will carefully disinfect any shipments, and
+to supplement this by a close microscopical examination upon arrival
+and the immediate burning of any suspected shipments.</p>
+<p>Another general precaution that will be taken by every planter who
+aims to maintain the best condition in his orchard is the gathering and
+burning of all prunings or trimmings from the orchard, whether they are
+diseased or not. Decaying wood of any kind is a field for special
+activity for insect life and fungous growth, and the sooner it is
+destroyed the better.</p>
+<p>On this account it is customary in some countries to remove the
+fruit pods from the field. But unless diseased, or unless they are to
+be returned after the harvest, they should be buried upon the land for
+their manurial value.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="manuring" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Manuring.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">There are few cultivated crops that make less drain
+upon soil fertility than cacao, and few drafts upon the land are so
+easily and inexpensively returned. From an examination made of detailed
+analyses by many authors and covering many regions, it may be broadly
+stated that an average crop of cacao in the most-favored districts is
+about 9 piculs per hectare, and that of the three all-important
+elements of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, a total of slightly
+more than 4.2 kilograms is removed in each <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e553" href="#xd20e553" name=
+"xd20e553">20</a>]</span>picul of cured seeds harvested. These 37 kilos
+of plant food that are annually taken from each hectare may be roughly
+subdivided as follows:</p>
+<ul>
+<li>18 kilos of nitrogen,</li>
+<li>10 kilos of potash,</li>
+<li>9 kilos of phosphoric acid.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>On this basis, after the plantation is in full bearing, we would
+have to make good with standard fertilizers each year for each hectare
+about 220 kilos of nitrate of soda, or, if the plantation was shaded
+with leguminous trees, only one-half that amount, or 110 kilos. Of
+potash salts, say the sulphate, only one-half that amount, or 55 kilos,
+if the plantation was unshaded. If, however, it was shaded, as the
+leguminous trees are all heavy feeders of potash, we would have to
+double the amount and use 110 kilos.</p>
+<p>In any case, as fixed nitrogen always represents a cost quite double
+that of potash, from an economical standpoint the planter is still the
+gainer who supplies potash to the shade trees. There still remains
+phosphoric acid, which, in the form of the best superphosphate of lime,
+would require 55 kilos for unshaded orchards, and about 70 if dap-dap,
+Pionciana, or any leguminous tree was grown in the orchard. These three
+ingredients may be thoroughly incorporated and used as a top dressing
+and lightly harrowed in about each tree.</p>
+<p>If the commercial nitrates can not be readily obtained, then
+recourse must be had to the sparing use of farm manures. Until the
+bearing age these may be used freely, but after that with caution and
+discrimination. Although I have seen trees here that have been bearing
+continuously for twenty-two years, I have been unable to find so much
+as one that to the knowledge of the oldest resident has ever been
+fertilized in any way, yet, notwithstanding our lack of knowledge of
+local conditions, it seems perfectly safe to predicate that liberal
+manuring with stable manure or highly ammoniated fertilizers would
+insure a rank, succulent growth that is always prejudicial to the best
+and heaviest fruit production. In this I am opposed to Professor
+Hart,<a class="noteref" id="xd20e569src" href="#xd20e569" name=
+"xd20e569src">1</a> who seems to think that stable manures are those
+only that may be used with a free hand.</p>
+<p>We have many safe ways of applying nitrogen through the medium of
+various catch crops of pulse or beans, with the certainty that we can
+never overload the soil with more than the adjacent tree roots can take
+up and thoroughly assimilate. When the time comes that the orchard so
+shades the ground that crops can no longer be grown between the rows,
+then, in preference to stable manures I would recommend cotton-seed
+cake or &ldquo;poonac,&rdquo; the latter being always obtainable in
+this Archipelago.</p>
+<p>While the most desirable form in which potash can be applied is in
+the form of the sulphate, excellent results have been had with the use
+of Kainit or Stassfurth salts, and as a still more available
+substitute, wood ashes is suggested. When forest lands are near, the
+underbrush may be <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e576" href=
+"#xd20e576" name="xd20e576">21</a>]</span>cut and burned in a clearing
+or wherever it may be done without detriment to the standing timber,
+and the ashes scattered in the orchard before they have been leached by
+rains. The remaining essential of phosphoric acid in the form of
+superphosphates will for some years to come necessarily be the subject
+of direct importation. In the cheap form of phosphate slag it is
+reported to have been used with great success in both Grenada and
+British Guiana, and would be well worthy of trial here.</p>
+<p>Lands very rich in humus, as some of our forest valleys are,
+undoubtedly carry ample nitrogenous elements of fertility to maintain
+the trees at a high standard of growth for many years, but provision is
+indispensable for a regular supply of potash and phosphoric acid as
+soon as the trees come into heavy bearing. It is to them and not to the
+nitrogen that we look for the formation of strong, stocky, well-ripened
+wood capable of fruit bearing and for fruit that shall be sound, highly
+flavored, and well matured.</p>
+<p>The bearing life of such a tree will surely be healthfully prolonged
+for many years beyond one constantly driven with highly stimulating
+foods, and in the end amply repay the grower for the vigilance, toil,
+and original expenditure of money necessary to maintaining a well-grown
+and well-appointed cacao plantation.</p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e569" href="#xd20e569src" name="xd20e569">1</a></span>
+&ldquo;Cacao,&rdquo; p. 16.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="supplemental" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Supplemental Notes.</h2>
+<p id="newvarieties" class="firstpar"><i>New Varieties.</i>&mdash;Cacao
+is exclusively grown from seed, and it is only by careful selection of
+the most valuable trees that the planter can hope to make the most
+profitable renewals or additions to his plantations. It is by this
+means that many excellent sorts are now in cultivation in different
+regions that have continued to vary from the three original, common
+forms of <i>Theobroma cacao</i>, until now it is a matter of some
+difficulty to differentiate them.</p>
+<p id="residence"><i>Residence.</i>&mdash;The conditions for living in
+the Philippines offer peculiar, it may be said unexampled, advantages
+to the planter of cacao. The climate as a whole is remarkably
+salubrious, and sites are to be found nearly everywhere for the estate
+buildings, sufficiently elevated to obviate the necessity of living
+near stagnant waters.</p>
+<p>Malarial fevers are relatively few, predacious animals unknown, and
+insects and reptiles prejudicial to human life or health
+extraordinarily few in number. In contrast to this we need only call
+attention to the entire Caribbean coast of South America, where the
+climate and soil conditions are such that the cacao comes to a
+superlative degree of perfection, and yet the limits of its further
+extension have probably been reached by the insuperable barrier of a
+climate so insalubrious that the Caucasian&rsquo;s life is one endless
+conflict with disease, and when not engaged in active combat with some
+form of malarial poisoning his energies are concentrated upon battle
+with the various insect or animal pests that make life a burden in such
+regions. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e598" href="#xd20e598" name=
+"xd20e598">22</a>]</span></p>
+<p>Nonresidence upon a cacao plantation is an equivalent term for
+ultimate failure. Every operation demands the exercise of the
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e601" title=
+"Source: obervant">observant</span> eye and the directing hand of a
+master, but there is no field of horticultural effort that offers more
+assured reward, or that will more richly repay close study and the
+application of methods wrought out as the sequence of those
+studies.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="revenues" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Estimated Cost and Revenues Derived from a Cacao
+Plantation.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Estimates of expenses in establishing a cacao farm
+in the Visayas and profits after the fifth year. The size of the farm
+selected is 16 hectares, the amount of land prescribed by Congress of a
+single public land entry. The cost of procuring such a tract of land is
+as yet undetermined and can not be reckoned in the following tables.
+The prices of the crop are estimated at 48 cents per kilo, which is the
+current price for the best grades of cacao in the world&rsquo;s
+markets. The yield per tree is given as 2 catties, or 1.25 kilos, a
+fair and conservative estimate for a good tree, with little or no
+cultivation. The prices for unskilled labor are 25 per cent in advance
+of the farm hand in the Visayan islands. No provision is made for
+management or supervision, as the owner will, it is assumed, act as
+manager.</p>
+<p>Charges to capital account are given for the second, third, and
+fourth year, but no current expenses are given, for other crops are to
+defray operating expenses until the cacao trees begin to bear. No
+estimate of residence is given. All accounts are in United States
+currency.</p>
+<div class="table">
+<table>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Expendable
+the first year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Capital
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Clearing of <i>average</i> brush and timber land, at
+$15 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$340.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Four carabaos, plows, harrows, cultivators, carts,
+etc.</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">550.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Breaking and preparing land, at $5 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">80.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Opening main drainage canals, at $6 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">96.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Tool house and storeroom</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">200.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Purchase and planting 10,000 abac&aacute; stools, at 2
+cents each</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">200.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Seed purchase, rearing and planting 12,000 cacao, at 3
+cents each</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">360.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent and incidental</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">174.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Total</td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$2,000.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Second
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Interest on investment</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$200.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Depreciation on tools, buildings, and animals (20 per
+cent of cost)</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">150.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">350.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Third
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Interest on investment</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$200.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Depreciation as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">150.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">350.00 <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e748" href="#xd20e748" name="xd20e748">23</a>]</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Fourth
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Interest on investment</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$200.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Depreciation as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">150.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Building of drying house and sweat boxes, capacity
+20,000 kilos</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">450.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$800.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Total capital investment</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">3,500.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Fifth
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Income
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">From 11,680 cacao trees, 300 grams cacao each, equals
+3,500 kilos, at 48 cents</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,680.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Expense
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fixed interest and depreciation charges on investment
+of $3,500.00</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$350.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Taxes 1&frac12; per cent on a one-third valuation
+basis of $250 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">60.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Cultivating, pruning, etc., at $5.50 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">88.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fertilizing, at $6 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">96.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Harvesting, curing, packing 3,500 kilos cacao, at 10
+cents per kilo</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">350.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">86.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,030.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Credit balance</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">650.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Sixth
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Income
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">From 11,680 cacao trees, at 500 grams cacao each,
+equals 5,840 kilos, at 48 cents</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">2,803.20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Expense
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fixed interest and depreciation charges as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$350.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Taxes as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">60.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Cultivating, etc., as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">88.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fertilizing, at $8 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">128.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Harvesting, etc., 5,840 kilos cacao, at 10 cents per
+kilo</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">584.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">93.20</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,303.20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Credit balance</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">1,500.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Seventh
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Income
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">From 11,680 cacao trees, at 750 grams cacao each,
+equals 8,760 kilos, at 48 cents</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">4,204.80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Expense
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fixed interest charges as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$350.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Taxes as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">60.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Cultivating, etc., as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">88.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fertilizing, at $10 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">160.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Harvest, etc., of 8,760 kilos of cacao, at 10 cents
+per kilo</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">876.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">170.80</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,704.80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Credit balance</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">2,500.00 <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1032" href="#xd20e1032" name=
+"xd20e1032">24</a>]</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Eighth
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Income
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">From 11,680 cacao trees, at 1 kilo cacao each, equals
+11,680 kilos, at 48 cents</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$5,606.40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Expense
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fixed interest charges as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$350.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Taxes as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">60.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Cultivating, etc., as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">88.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fertilizing, at $12.50 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">200.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Harvest, etc., 11,680 kilos of cacao, at 10 cents per
+kilo</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,168.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">240.40</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">2,106.40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Credit balance</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">3,500.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Ninth
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Income
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">From 11,680 trees, at 2 &ldquo;catties&rdquo; or 1.25
+kilos cacao each, equals 14,600 kilos, at 48 cents</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">7,008.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Expense
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fixed interest charges as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$350.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Taxes at 1&frac12; per cent on a one-third valuation
+of $500 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">120.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Cultivation and pruning as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">88.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fertilizing, at $15 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">240.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Harvesting, etc., of 14,600 kilos of cacao, at 10
+cents per kilo</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,460.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">250.00</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">2,508.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Credit balance</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">4,500.00</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>In the tenth year there should be no increase in taxes or
+fertilizers, and a slight increase in yield, sufficient to bring the
+net profits of the estate to the approximate amount of $5,000. This
+would amount to a dividend of rather more than $312 per hectare, or its
+equivalent of about $126 per acre.</p>
+<p>These tables further show original capitalization cost of nearly $90
+per acre, and from the ninth year annual operating expenses of rather
+more than $60 per acre.</p>
+<p>It should be stated, however, that the operating expenses are based
+upon a systematic and scientific management of the estate; while the
+returns or income are based upon revenue from trees that are at the
+disadvantage of being without culture of any kind, and, while I am of
+the opinion that the original cost per acre of the plantation, nor its
+current operating expenses may be much reduced below the figures given,
+I feel that there is a reasonable certainty that the crop product may
+be materially increased beyond the limit of two
+&ldquo;catties.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>In Camerouns, Dr. Preuss, a close and well-trained observer, gives
+the mean annual yield of trees of full-bearing age at 4.4 pounds.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1205" href="#xd20e1205" name=
+"xd20e1205">25</a>]</span></p>
+<p>Mr. Rousselot places the yield on the French Congo at the same
+figure<span class="corr" id="xd20e1208" title="Not in source">.</span>
+In the Caroline Islands it reaches 5 pounds and in Surinam, according
+to M. Nichols, the average at maturity is 6&frac12; pounds. In
+Mindanao, I have been told, but do not vouch for the report, of more
+than ten &ldquo;catties&rdquo; taken in one year from a single tree;
+and, as there are well-authenticated instances of record, of single
+trees having yielded as much as 30 pounds, I am not prepared to
+altogether discredit the Mindanao story.</p>
+<p>The difference, however, between good returns and enormous profits
+arising from cacao growing in the Philippines will be determined by the
+amount of knowledge, experience, and energy that the planter is capable
+of bringing to bear upon the culture in question.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="back">
+<div class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="transcribernote">
+<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2>
+<h3 class="main">Availability</h3>
+<p class="firstpar">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no
+cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give
+it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
+included with this eBook or online at <a class="exlink" title=
+"External link" href=
+"http://www.gutenberg.org/">www.gutenberg.org</a>.</p>
+<p>This eBook is produced by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at <a class="exlink" title="External link" href=
+"http://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>.</p>
+<p>Transcribed from scans available at the <a class="exlink" title=
+"External link" href=
+"http://www.archive.org/details/cacaocultureinph00lyonrich">Internet
+Archive</a>.</p>
+<h3 class="main">Encoding</h3>
+<p class="firstpar"></p>
+<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3>
+<ul>
+<li>2010-10-14 Started.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3 class="main">External References</h3>
+<p>This Project Gutenberg eBook contains external references. These
+links may not work for you.</p>
+<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3>
+<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p>
+<table width="75%" summary=
+"Overview of corrections applied to the text.">
+<tr>
+<th>Page</th>
+<th>Source</th>
+<th>Correction</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e369">9</a></td>
+<td class="width40">mechancial</td>
+<td class="width40">mechanical</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e391">10</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Ponciana</td>
+<td class="width40">Poinciana</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e429">11</a></td>
+<td class="width40">necessitly</td>
+<td class="width40">necessity</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e514">17</a></td>
+<td class="width40">sevral</td>
+<td class="width40">several</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e539">19</a></td>
+<td class="width40">repellant</td>
+<td class="width40">repellent</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e601">22</a></td>
+<td class="width40">obervant</td>
+<td class="width40">observant</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1208">25</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES ***</div>
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+Project Gutenberg's Cacao Culture in the Philippines, by William S. Lyon
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Cacao Culture in the Philippines
+
+Author: William S. Lyon
+
+Release Date: October 16, 2010 [EBook #33921]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for project
+Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously
+made available by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                   Philippine Bureau of Agriculture.
+
+
+                        Farmer's Bulletin No. 2.
+
+                    CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES
+
+
+
+                                   By
+
+                            WILLIAM S. LYON,
+
+               In charge of seed and plant introduction.
+
+
+
+        Prepared under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau.
+
+                                Manila:
+
+                       Bureau of Public Printing.
+
+                                 1902.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                            Page.
+
+        Letter of transmittal                 4
+        Introduction                          5
+        Climate                               6
+        The plantation site                   7
+        The soil                              7
+        Preparation of the soil               8
+        Drainage                              8
+        Forming the plantation                9
+        Selection of varieties               10
+        Planting                             11
+        Cultivation                          13
+        Pruning                              13
+        Harvest                              16
+        Enemies and diseases                 18
+        Manuring                             19
+        Supplemental notes                   21
+        New varieties                        21
+        Residence                            21
+        Cost of a cacao plantation           22
+
+
+
+
+
+LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
+
+
+Sir: I submit herewith an essay on the cultivation of cacao, for the
+use of planters in the Philippines. This essay is prompted first,
+because much of the cacao grown here is of such excellent quality as
+to induce keen rivalry among buyers to procure it at an advance of
+quite 50 per cent over the common export grades of the Java bean,
+notwithstanding the failure on the part of the local grower to
+"process" or cure the product in any way; second, because in parts
+of Mindanao and Negros, despite ill treatment or no treatment, the
+plant exhibits a luxuriance of growth and wealth of productiveness
+that demonstrates its entire fitness for those regions and leads us
+to believe in the successful extension of its propagation throughout
+these Islands; and lastly because of the repeated calls upon the Chief
+of the Agricultural Bureau for literature or information bearing upon
+this important horticultural industry.
+
+The importance of cacao-growing in the Philippines can hardly be
+overestimated. Recent statistics place the world's demand for cacao
+(exclusive of local consumption) at 200,000,000 pounds, valued at
+more than $30,000,000 gold.
+
+There is little danger of overproduction and consequent low prices
+for very many years to come. So far as known, the areas where cacao
+prospers in the great equatorial zone are small, and the opening and
+development of suitable regions has altogether failed to keep pace
+with the demand.
+
+The bibliography of cacao is rather limited, and some of the best
+publications, [2] being in French, are unavailable to many. The leading
+English treatise, by Professor Hart, [3] admirable in many respects,
+deals mainly with conditions in Trinidad, West Indies, and is fatally
+defective, if not misleading, on the all-important question of pruning.
+
+The life history of the cacao, its botany, chemistry, and statistics
+are replete with interest, and will, perhaps, be treated in a future
+paper.
+
+
+    Respectfully,
+
+        Wm. S. Lyon,
+        In Charge of Seed and Plant Introduction.
+
+        Hon. F. Lamson-Scribner,
+        Chief of the Insular Bureau of Agriculture.
+
+
+
+
+
+CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Cacao in cultivation exists nearly everywhere in the Archipelago. I
+have observed it in several provinces of Luzon, in Mindanao, Joló,
+Basilan, Panay, and Negros, and have well-verified assurances of its
+presence in Cebú, Bohol, and Masbate, and it is altogether reasonable
+to predicate its existence upon all the larger islands anywhere under
+an elevation of 1,000 or possibly 1,200 meters. Nevertheless, in many
+localities the condition of the plants is such as not to justify the
+general extension of cacao cultivation into all regions. The presence
+of cacao in a given locality is an interesting fact, furnishing a
+useful guide for investigation and agricultural experimentation, but,
+as the purpose of this paper is to deal with cacao growing from a
+commercial standpoint, it is well to state that wherever reference is
+made to the growth, requirements, habits, or cultural treatment of the
+plant the commercial aspect is alone considered. As an illustration,
+attention is called to the statement made elsewhere, that "cacao exacts
+a minimum temperature of 18°"; although, as is perfectly well known
+to the writer, its fruit has sometimes matured where the recorded
+temperatures have fallen as low as 10°. There is much to be learned
+here by experimentation, for as yet the cultivation is primitive
+in the extreme, pruning of any kind rudimentary or negative, and
+"treatment" of the nut altogether unknown.
+
+Elsewhere in cacao-producing countries its cultivation has long passed
+the experimental stage, and the practices that govern the management
+of a well-ordered cacao plantation are as clearly defined as those
+of an orange grove in Florida or a vineyard in California.
+
+In widely scattered localities the close observer will find many
+young trees that in vigor, color, and general health leave nothing
+to be desired, but before making final selection for a plantation he
+should inspect trees of larger growth for evidences of "die back" of
+the branches. If "die back" is present, superficial examination will
+generally determine if it is caused by neglect or by the attacks
+of insects. If not caused by neglect or insect attacks, he may
+assume that some primary essential to the continued and successful
+cultivation of the tree is wanting and that the location is unsuited
+to profitable plantations.
+
+With due regard to these preliminary precautions and a close
+oversight of every subsequent operation, there is no reason why the
+growing of cacao may not ultimately become one of the most profitable
+horticultural enterprises that can engage the attention of planters
+in this Archipelago.
+
+
+
+
+
+CLIMATE.
+
+
+It is customary, when writing of any crop culture, to give precedence
+to site and soil, but in the case of cacao these considerations are
+of secondary importance, and while none of the minor operations of
+planting, pruning, cultivation, and fertilizing may be overlooked,
+they are all outweighed by the single essential--climate.
+
+In general, a state of atmospheric saturation keeps pace with heavy
+rainfall, and for that reason we may successfully look for the highest
+relative humidity upon the eastern shores of the Archipelago, where
+the rainfall is more uniformly distributed over the whole year,
+than upon the west.
+
+There are places where the conditions are so peculiar as to challenge
+especial inquiry. We find on the peninsula of Zamboanga a recorded
+annual mean rainfall of only 888 mm., and yet cacao (unirrigated)
+exhibits exceptional thrift and vigor. It is true that this rain is
+so evenly distributed throughout the year that every drop becomes
+available, yet the total rainfall is insufficient to account for
+the very evident and abundant atmospheric humidity indicated by
+the prosperous conditions of the cacao plantations. The explanation
+of this phenomenon, as made to me by the Rev. Father Algué, of the
+Observatory of Manila, is to the effect that strong equatorial ocean
+currents constantly prevail against southern Mindanao, and that their
+influence extend north nearly to the tenth degree of latitude. These
+currents, carrying their moisture-laden atmosphere, would naturally
+affect the whole of this narrow neck of land and influence as well
+some of the western coast of Mindanao, and probably place it upon
+the same favored hygrometric plane as the eastern coast, where the
+rainfall in some localities amounts to 4 meters a year.
+
+While 2,000 mm. of mean annual rainfall equably distributed is ample
+to achieve complete success, it seems almost impossible to injure
+cacao by excessive precipitation. It has been known to successfully
+tide over inundation of the whole stem up to the first branches for
+a period covering nearly a month.
+
+Irrigation must be resorted to in cases of deficient or unevenly
+distributed rainfall, and irrigation is always advantageous whenever
+there is suspension of rain for a period of more than fifteen days.
+
+Concerning temperatures the best is that with an annual mean of 26°
+to 28°, with 20° as the mean minimum where any measure of success
+may be expected. A mean temperature of over 30° is prejudicial to
+cacao growing.
+
+The last but not least important of the atmospheric phenomena for
+our consideration are the winds. Cacao loves to "steam and swelter in
+its own atmosphere" and high winds are inimical, and even refreshing
+breezes are incompatible, with the greatest success. As there are but
+few large areas in these Islands that are exempt from one or other
+of our prevailing winds, the remedies that suggest themselves are:
+The selection of small sheltered valleys where the prevailing winds
+are directly cut off by intervening hills or mountains; the plantation
+of only small groves in the open, and their frequent intersection by
+the plantation of rapid growing trees; and, best of all, plantings
+made in forest clearings, where the remaining forested lands will
+furnish the needed protection.
+
+
+
+
+
+LOCATION.
+
+
+It is always desirable to select a site that is approximately level
+or with only enough fall to assure easy drainage. Such sites may
+be planted symmetrically and are susceptible to the easiest and
+most economical application of the many operations connected with
+a plantation.
+
+Provided the region is well forested and therefore protected from
+sea breezes, the plantation may be carried very near to the coast,
+provided the elevation is sufficient to assure the grove immunity from
+incursions of tide water, which, however much diluted, will speedily
+cause the death of the plants.
+
+Excavations should be made during the dry season to determine that
+water does not stand within 1 1/2 meters of the surface, a more
+essential condition, however, when planting is made "at stake" than
+when nursery reared trees are planted.
+
+Hillsides, when not too precipitous, frequently offer admirable shelter
+and desirable soils, but their use entails a rather more complicated
+system of drainage, to carry away storm water without land washing,
+and for the ready conversion of the same into irrigating ditches during
+the dry season. Further, every operation involved must be performed
+by hand labor, and in the selection of such a site the planter must
+be largely influenced by the quantity and cost of available labor.
+
+The unexceptionable shelter, the humidity that prevails, and the
+inexhaustible supply of humus that is generally found in deep
+forest ravines frequently lead to their planting to cacao where
+the slope is even as great as 45°. Such plantations, if done upon
+a considerable commercial scale, involve engineering problems and
+the careful terracing of each tree, and, except for a dearth of more
+suitable locations, is a practice that has little to commend it to
+the practical grower.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SOIL.
+
+
+Other things being equal, preference should be given to a not too
+tenacious, clayey loam. Selection, in fact, may be quite successfully
+made through the process of exclusion, and by eliminating all soils
+of a very light and sandy nature, or clays so tenacious that the
+surface bakes and cracks while still too wet within 3 or 4 inches of
+the surface to operate with farm tools. These excluded, still leave
+a very wide range of silt, clay, and loam soils, most of which are
+suitable to cacao culture.
+
+Where properly protected from the wind a rocky soil, otherwise good,
+is not objectionable; in fact, such lands have the advantage of
+promoting good drainage.
+
+
+
+
+
+PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.
+
+
+When the plantation is made upon forest lands, it is necessary to
+cut and burn all underbrush, together with all timber trees other
+than those designed for shade. If such shade trees are left (and the
+advisability of leaving them will be discussed in the proper place),
+only those of the pulse or bean family are to be recommended. It should
+also be remembered that, owing in part to the close planting of cacao
+and in part to the fragility of its wood and its great susceptibility
+to damage resulting from wounds, subsequent removal of large shade
+trees from the plantation is attended with difficulty and expense,
+and the planter should leave few shade trees to the hectare. Clearing
+the land should be done during the dry season, and refuse burned in
+situ, thereby conserving to the soil the potash salts so essential
+to the continued well-being of cacao.
+
+The land should be deeply plowed, and, if possible, subsoiled as well,
+and then, pending the time of planting the orchard, it may be laid
+down to corn, cotton, beans, or some forage plant. Preference should
+be given to "hoed crops," as it is essential to keep the surface in
+open tilth, as well as to destroy all weeds.
+
+The common practice in most cacao-growing countries is to simply dig
+deep holes where the trees are to stand, and to give a light working
+to the rest of the surface just sufficient to produce the intermediate
+crops. This custom is permissible only on slopes too steep for the
+successful operation of a side hill plow, or where from lack of draft
+animals all cultivation has to be done by hand.
+
+Cacao roots deeply, and with relatively few superficial feeders,
+and the deeper the soil is worked the better.
+
+
+
+
+
+DRAINAGE.
+
+
+The number and size of the drains will depend upon the amount of
+rainfall, the contour of the land, and the natural absorbent character
+of the soil. In no case should the ditches be less than 1 meter wide
+and 60 cm. deep, and if loose stones are at hand the sloping sides
+may be laid with them, which will materially protect them from washing
+by torrential rains.
+
+These main drains should all be completed prior to planting. Connecting
+laterals may be opened subsequently, as the necessities of further
+drainage or future irrigation may demand; shallow furrows will
+generally answer for these laterals, and as their obliteration will
+practically follow every time cultivation is given, their construction
+may be of the cheapest and most temporary nature. Owing to the
+necessity of main drainage canals and the needful interplanting of
+shade plants between the rows of cacao, nothing is gained by laying off
+the land for planting in what is called "two ways," and all subsequent
+working of the orchard will consequently be in one direction.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE PLANTATION.
+
+
+Cacao, relatively to the size of the tree, may be planted very
+closely. We have stated that it rejoices in a close, moisture-laden
+atmosphere, and this permits of a closer planting than would be
+admissible with any other orchard crop.
+
+In very rich soil the strong-growing Forastero variety may be planted
+3.7 meters apart each way, or 745 trees to the hectare, and on lighter
+lands this, or the more dwarf-growing forms of Criollo, may be set
+as close as 3 meters or rather more than 1,000 trees to the hectare.
+
+The rows should be very carefully lined out in one direction and
+staked where the young plants are to be set, and then (a year before
+the final planting) between each row of cacao a line of temporary
+shelter plants are to be planted. These should be planted in quincunx
+order, i. e., at the intersecting point of two lines drawn between
+the diagonal corners of the square made by four cacaos set equidistant
+each way. This temporary shelter is indispensable for the protection
+of the young plantation from wind and sun.
+
+The almost universal custom is to plant, for temporary shelter, suckers
+of fruiting bananas, but throughout the Visayas and in Southern Luzon
+I think abacá could be advantageously substituted. It is true that,
+as commonly grown, abacá does not make so rank a growth as some
+of the plantains, but if given the perfect tillage which the cacao
+plantation should receive, and moderately rich soils, abacá ought to
+furnish all necessary shade. This temporary shade may be maintained
+till the fourth or fifth year, when it is to be grubbed out and the
+stalks and stumps, which are rich in nitrogen, may be left to decay
+upon the ground. At present prices, the four or five crops which
+may be secured from the temporary shelter plants ought to meet the
+expenses of the entire plantation until it comes into bearing.
+
+In the next step, every fourth tree in the fourth or fifth row
+of cacao may be omitted and its place filled by a permanent shade
+tree. The planting of shade trees or "madre de cacao" among the cacao
+has been observed from time immemorial in all countries where the crop
+is grown, and the primary purpose of the planting has been for shade
+alone. Observing that these trees were almost invariably of the pulse
+or legume family, the writer, in the year 1892, raised the question,
+in the Proceedings of the Southern California Horticultural Society,
+that the probable benefits derived were directly attributable to the
+abundant fertilizing microörganisms developed in the soil by these
+leguminous plants, rather than the mechanical protection they afforded
+from the sun's rays.
+
+To Mr. O. F. Cook, of the United States Department of Agriculture,
+however, belongs the credit of publishing, in 1901, [4] a résumé of
+his inquiries into the subject of the shades used for both the coffee
+and the cacao, and which fully confirmed the previous opinions that
+the main benefit derived from these trees was their influence in
+maintaining a constant supply of available nitrogen in the soil.
+
+That cacao and its wild congenors naturally seek the shelter of
+well-shaded forests is well established; but having seen trees in these
+Islands that were fully exposed at all times showing no evidences of
+either scald, burn, or sun spot, and in every respect the embodiment
+of vigor and health, we are fully justified in assuming that here the
+climatic conditions are such as will permit of taking some reasonable
+liberties with this time-honored practice and supply needed nitrogen
+to the soil by the use of cheap and effective "catch crops," such us
+cowpeas or soy beans.
+
+Here, as elsewhere, an Erythrina, known as "dap-dap," is a favorite
+shade tree among native planters; the rain tree (Pithecolobium saman)
+is also occasionally used, and in one instance only have I seen a
+departure from the use of the Leguminosæ, and that in western Mindanao,
+there is a shade plantation composed exclusively of Cananga odorata,
+locally known as ilang-ilang.
+
+While not yet prepared to advocate the total exclusion of all shade
+trees, I am prepared to recommend a shade tree, if shade trees there
+must be, whose utility and unquestioned value has singularly escaped
+notice. The tree in question, the Royal Poinciana (Poinciana regia),
+embodies all of the virtues that are ascribed to the best of the
+pulse family, is easily procured, grows freely and rapidly from seed
+or cutting, furnishes a minimum of shade at all times, and, in these
+Islands, becomes almost leafless, at the season of maturity of the
+largest cacao crop when the greatest sun exposure is desired.
+
+The remaining preparatory work consists in the planting of intersecting
+wind breaks at intervals throughout the grove, and upon sides exposed
+to winds, or where a natural forest growth does not furnish such a
+shelter belt. Unless the plantation lies in a particularly protected
+valley, no plantation, however large in the aggregate, should cover
+more than 4 or 5 hectares unbroken by at least one row of wind-break
+trees. Nothing that I know of can approach the mango for this
+purpose. It will hold in check the fiercest gale and give assurance
+to the grower that after any storm his cacao crop is still on the
+trees and not on the ground, a prey to ants, mice, and other vermin.
+
+
+
+
+
+SELECTION OF VARIETIES.
+
+
+All the varieties of cacao in general cultivation may be referred to
+three general types, the Criollo, Forastero, and Calabacillo; and
+of these, those that I have met in cultivation in the Archipelago
+are the first and second only. The Criollo is incomparably the
+finest variety in general use, and may perhaps be most readily
+distinguished by the inexperienced through the ripe but unfermented
+seed or almond, as it is often called. This, on breaking, is found
+to be whitish or yellowish-white, while the seeds of those in which
+the Forastero or Calabacillo blood predominates are reddish, or, in
+the case of Forastero, almost violet in color. For flavor, freedom
+from bitterness, facility in curing, and high commercial value,
+the Criollo is everywhere conceded to be facile princeps.
+
+On the other hand, in point of yield, vigor, freedom from disease,
+and compatibility to environment it is not to be compared with the
+others. Nevertheless, where such perfect conditions exist as are
+found in parts of Mindanao, I do not hesitate to urge the planting
+of Criollo. Elsewhere, or wherever the plantation is tentative or the
+conditions not very well known to the planter, the Forastero is to be
+recommended. The former is commercially known as "Caracas" and "old
+red Ceylon," and may be obtained from Ceylon dealers; and the latter,
+the Forastero, or forms of it which have originated in the island,
+can be procured from Java.
+
+It seems not unlikely that the true Forastero may have been brought
+to these Islands from Acapulco, Mexico, two hundred and thirty-two
+years ago, [5] as it was at that time the dominant kind grown in
+southeastern Mexico, and, if so, the place where the pure type would
+most likely be found in these Islands would be in the Camarines,
+Southern Luzon. Aside from the seed characters already given, Forastero
+is recognized by its larger, thicker, more abundant, and rather more
+abruptly pointed fruit than Criollo, and its coarse leaves which are
+from 22 to 50 cm. long by 7 to 13 cm. wide, dimensions nearly double
+those reached by the Criollo or Calabacillo varieties.
+
+
+
+
+
+PLANTING.
+
+Planting may be done "at stake" or from the nursery. For the unskilled
+or inexperienced planter, who has means at hand to defray the greater
+cost, planting "at stake" is perhaps to be recommended. This is no
+more than the dropping and lightly covering, during the rainy season,
+of three or four seeds at the stake where the plant is to stand,
+protecting the spot with a bit of banana leaf, left till the seeds
+have sprouted, and subsequently pulling out all but the one strongest
+and thriftiest plant.
+
+The contingencies to be met by this system are many. The enemies of
+the cacao seed are legion. Drought, birds, worms, ants, beetles, mice,
+and rats will all contribute their quota to prevent a good "stand"
+and entail the necessity of repeated plantings. Success by planting
+"at stake" is so doubtful that it is rarely followed by experienced
+planters.
+
+The consequent alternative lies in rearing seedlings in seed beds that
+are under immediate control, and, when the plants are of sufficient
+size, in transplanting them to their proper sites in the orchard. In
+view of the remarkable short-lived vitality of the cacao seed, it is
+in every way advisable that the untrained grower procure his plants
+from professional nurserymen, or, if this resource is lacking, that he
+import the young plants in Wardian cases from some of the many firms
+abroad who make a specialty of preparing them for foreign markets.
+
+Both of these expedients failing, then it is advised that the seeds
+be sown one by one in small pots, or, if these are not procurable,
+in small bamboo tubes, and, for the sake of uniform moisture, plunge
+them to their rims in any free, light soil in a well-shaded easily
+protected spot where they may be carefully watered. In three to six
+months (according to growth) the tube with its included plant may be
+planted in the open field, when the former will speedily decompose
+and the growth of the cacao proceed without check or injury.
+
+At best, all of the above suggested methods are but crude expedients
+to replace the more workmanlike, expeditious, and satisfactory process
+of planting the conventional nursery grown stock. There is nothing
+more difficult in the rearing of cacao seedlings than in growing any
+other evergreen fruit tree. Briefly stated, it is only the finding
+of a well-prepared, well-shaded seed bed and sowing the seeds in rows
+or drills, and, when the seedlings are of proper size, in lifting and
+transferring them to the plantation. But in actual practice there are
+many details calling for the exercise of trained judgment from the
+preparation of the seed bed down to the final process of "hardening
+off," concerning which the reader is referred to the many available
+text-books on general nursery management.
+
+It may be said for the benefit of those unable to adopt more scientific
+methods: Let the seed bed be selected in a well-shaded spot, and, if
+possible, upon a rather stiff, plastic, but well-drained soil. After
+this is well broken up and made smooth, broadcast over all 3 or 4
+inches of well-decomposed leaf mold mixed with sand, and in this sow
+the seed in furrows about 1 inch deep. This sowing should be made
+during the dry season, not only to avoid the beating and washing
+of violent storms but to have the nursery plants of proper size for
+planting at the opening of the rainy season. The seed bed should be
+accessible to water, in order that it may be conveniently watered by
+frequent sprinklings throughout the dry season.
+
+The rich top dressing will stimulate the early growth of the seedling,
+and when its roots enter the heavier soil below it will encourage a
+stocky growth. Four or five months later the roots will be so well
+established in the stiffer soil that if lifted carefully each plant
+may be secured with a ball of earth about its roots, placed in a tray
+or basket, and in this way carried intact to the field. Plants thus
+reared give to the inexperienced an assurance of success not always
+obtained by the trained or veteran planter of bare rooted subjects.
+
+
+
+
+
+CULTIVATION.
+
+
+Planters are united in the opinion that pruning, cutting, or in any
+way lacerating the roots is injurious to the cacao, and in deference
+to this opinion all cultivation close to the tree should be done with
+a harrow-tooth cultivator, or shallow scarifier. All intermediate
+cultivation should be deep and thorough, whenever the mechanical
+condition of the soil will permit it. A plant stunted in youth will
+never make a prolific tree; early and continuous growth can only be
+secured by deep and thorough cultivation.
+
+Of even more consideration than an occasional root cutting is any
+injury, however small, to the tree stem, and on this account every
+precaution should be taken to protect the trees from accidental injury
+when plowing or cultivating. The whiffletree of the plow or cultivator
+used should be carefully fendered with rubber or a soft woolen packing
+that will effectually guard against the carelessness of workmen. Wounds
+in the bark or stem offer an inviting field for the entry of insects
+or the spores of fungi, and are, furthermore, apt to be overlooked
+until the injury becomes deep seated and sometimes beyond repair.
+
+With the gradual extension of root development, cultivation will
+be reduced to a narrow strip between the rows once occupied by the
+plantain or the abacá, but, to the very last, the maintenance of the
+proper soil conditions should be observed by at least one good annual
+plowing and by as many superficial cultivations as the growth of the
+trees and the mechanical state of the land will admit.
+
+
+
+
+
+PRUNING.
+
+
+When left to its own resources the cacao will fruit for an almost
+indefinite time. When well and strenuously grown it will bear much more
+abundant fruit from its fifth to its twenty-fifth year, and by a simple
+process of renewal can be made productive for a much longer time.
+
+A necessary factor to this result is an annual pruning upon strictly
+scientific lines. The underlying principle involved is, primarily,
+the fact that the cacao bears its crop directly upon the main branches
+and trunk, and not upon spurs or twigs; secondly, that wood under
+three years is rarely fruitful, and that only upon stems or branches
+of five years or upward does the maximum fruitfulness occur; that the
+seat of inflorescence is directly over the axil of a fallen leaf, from
+whence the flowers are born at irregular times throughout the year.
+
+With this necessary, fundamental information as a basis of operations,
+the rational system of pruning that suggests itself is the maintenance
+of as large an extension at all times of straight, well-grown mature
+wood and the perfecting of that by the early and frequent removal
+of all limbs or branches that the form of the tree does not admit of
+carrying without overcrowding.
+
+It is desirable that this extension of the branch system should be
+lateral rather than vertical, for the greater facility with which
+fruit may be plucked and possible insect enemies fought; and on this
+account the leading growths should be stopped when a convenient height
+has been attained.
+
+When well grown and without accident to its leader, the cacao will
+naturally branch at from 1 to 1.4 meters from the ground. These
+primary branches are mostly three to five in number, and all in
+excess of three should be removed as soon as selection can be made
+of three strongest that are as nearly equidistant from each other
+as may be. When these branches are from 80 cm. to 1 meter long, and
+preferably the shorter distance, they are to be stopped by pinching
+the extremities. This will cause them and the main stem as well to
+"break," i. e., to branch in many places.
+
+At this point the vigilance and judgment of the planter are called
+into greater play. These secondary branches are, in turn, all to
+be reduced as were the primary ones, and their selection can not be
+made in a symmetrical whorl, for the habit of the tree does not admit
+of it, and selection of the three should be made with reference to
+their future extension, that the interior of the tree should not be
+overcrowded and that such outer branches be retained as shall fairly
+maintain the equilibrium of the crown.
+
+This will complete the third year and the formative stage of the
+plant. Subsequent prunings will be conducted on the same lines, with
+the modification that when the secondary branches are again cut back,
+the room in the head of the tree will rarely admit of more than one,
+at most two, tertiary branches being allowed to remain. When these
+are grown to an extent that brings the total height of the tree
+to 3 or 4 meters, they should be cut back annually, at the close
+of the dry season. Such minor operations as the removal of thin,
+wiry, or hide-bound growths and all suckers suggest themselves to
+every horticulturist, whether he be experienced in cacao growing
+or not. When a tree is exhausted by overbearing, or has originally
+been so ill formed that it is not productive, a strong sucker or
+"gourmand" springing from near the ground may be encouraged to grow. By
+distributing the pruning over two or three periods, in one year the
+old tree can be entirely removed and its place substituted by the
+"gourmand." During the third year flowers will be abundant and some
+fruit will set, but it is advisable to remove it while small and
+permit all of the energy of the plant to be expended in wood making.
+
+From what we know of its flowering habit, it is obvious that every
+operation connected with the handling or pruning of a cacao, should
+be conducted with extreme care; to see that the bark is never injured
+about the old leaf scars, for to just the extent it is so injured is
+the fruit-bearing area curtailed. Further, no pruning cut should ever
+be inflicted, except with the sharpest of knives and saws, and the use
+of shears, that always bruise to some extent, is to be avoided. All
+the rules that are laid down for the guidance of the pruning of most
+orchard trees in regard to clean cuts, sloping cuts, and the covering
+of large wounds with tar or resin apply with fourfold force to the
+cacao. Its wood is remarkably spongy and an easy prey to the enemies
+ever lying in wait to attack it, and the surest remedies for disease
+are preventive ones, and by the maintenance of the bark of the tree
+at all times in the sound condition, we are assured that it is best
+qualified to resist invasion. Of the great number of worm-riddled
+trees to be seen in the Archipelago, it is easy in every case to
+trace the cause to the neglect and brutal treatment which left them
+in a condition to invite the attacks of disease of every kind.
+
+
+
+
+
+HARVEST.
+
+
+The ripening period of cacao generally occurs at two seasons of the
+year, but in these islands the most abundant crop is obtained at about
+the commencement of the dry season, and the fruits continue to ripen
+for two months or longer. The time of its approaching maturity is
+easily recognized by the tyro by the unmistakable aroma of chocolate
+that pervades the orchard at that period, and by some of the pods
+turning reddish or yellow according to the variety.
+
+The pods are attached by a very short stalk to the trunk of the tree,
+and those within reach of the hand are carefully cut with shears. Those
+higher up are most safely removed with an extension American tree
+pruner. A West Indian hook knife with a cutting edge above and below
+and mounted on a bamboo pole, if kept with the edges very sharp, does
+excellently well, but should only be intrusted to the most careful
+workmen. There is hardly a conceivable contingency to warrant the
+climbing of a cacao tree. If it should occur, the person climbing
+should go barefooted. As soon as the fruit, or so much of it as is
+well ripened, has been gathered, it is thrown into heaps and should
+be opened within twenty-four hours.
+
+The opening is done in a variety of ways, but the practice followed in
+Surinam would be an excellent one here if experienced labor was not at
+command. There, with a heavy knife or cutlass (bolo), they cut off the
+base or stem end of the fruit and thereby expose the column to which
+the seeds are attached, and then women and children, who free most of
+the seeds, are able to draw out the entire seed mass intact. It is
+exceedingly important that the seeds are not wounded, and for that
+reason it is inexpedient to intrust the more expeditious method of
+halving the fruit with a sharp knife to any but experienced workmen.
+
+The process of curing that I have seen followed in these Islands is
+simplicity itself. Two jars half filled with water are provided for
+the cleaners, and as the seeds are detached from the pulp they are
+sorted and graded on the spot. Only those of large, uniform size,
+well formed and thoroughly ripe, being thrown into one; deformed,
+small, and imperfectly matured seeds going to the other. In these
+jars the seeds are allowed to stand in their own juice for a day,
+then they are taken out, washed in fresh water, dried in the sun from
+two to four days, according to the weather, and the process from the
+Filipino standpoint is complete.
+
+Much of the product thus obtained is singularly free from bitterness
+and of such excellent quality; as to be saleable at unusually high
+prices, and at the same time in such good demand that it is with
+some hesitancy that the process of fermentation is recommended for
+general use.
+
+But it is also equally certain that localities in these Islands
+will be planted to cacao where all the conditions that help to
+turn out an unrivaled natural product are by no means assured. For
+such places, where the rank-growing, more coarse-flavored, and
+bitter-fruited Forastero may produce exceptionally good crops,
+it will become incumbent on the planter to adopt some of the many
+methods of fermentation, whereby he can correct the crudeness of the
+untreated bean and receive a remunerative price for the "processed"
+or ameliorated product.
+
+Undoubtedly the Strickland method, or some modification of it, is
+the best, and is now in general use on all considerable estates where
+the harvest is 200 piculs or upward per annum, and its use probably
+assures a more uniform product than any of the ruder processes in
+common use by small proprietors.
+
+But it must not be forgotten that the present planters in the
+Philippines are all small proprietors, and that until such time as the
+maturing of large plantations calls for the more elaborate apparatus
+of the Strickland pattern, some practice whereby the inferior crude
+bean may be economically and quickly converted into a marketable
+product can not be avoided. As simple and efficacious as any is that
+largely pursued in some parts of Venezuela, where is produced the
+famous Caracas cacao.
+
+The beans and pulp are thrown into wooden vats that are pierced with
+holes sufficient to permit of the escape of the juice, for which
+twenty-four hours suffices. The vat is then exposed to the sun for
+five or six hours, and the beans, while still hot, are taken out,
+thrown into large heaps, and covered with blankets.
+
+The next day they are returned to the box, subjected to a strong sun
+heat and again returned to the heap. This operation is repeated for
+several days, until the beans, by their bright chocolate color and
+suppleness, indicate that they are cured. If, during the period of
+fermentation, rain is threatened or occurs, the beans are shoveled,
+still hot, into bags and retained there until they can once more be
+exposed to the sun. Before the final bagging they are carefully hand
+rubbed in order to remove the adherent gums and fibrous matters that
+did not pass off in the primary fermentation.
+
+In Ceylon, immediately after the beans have been fermented they
+are washed, and the universally high prices obtained by the Ceylon
+planters make it desirable to reproduce here a brief résumé of their
+method. The fermentation is carried on under sheds, and the beans are
+heaped up in beds of 60 cm. to 1 meter in thickness upon a platform of
+parallel joists arranged to permit of the escape of the juices. This
+platform is elevated from the ground and the whole heap is covered
+with sacks or matting. The fermentation takes from five to seven days,
+according to the heat of the atmosphere and the size of the heap,
+and whenever the temperature rises above 40° the mass is carefully
+turned over with wooden shovels.
+
+Immediately after the fermentation is completed the Ceylon planter
+passes the mass through repeated washings, and nothing remains but
+to dry the seed. This in Ceylon is very extensively done, in dryers
+of different kinds, some patterned after the American fruit dryer,
+some in slowly rotating cylinders through the axis of which a powerful
+blast of hot air is driven.
+
+The process of washing unquestionably diminishes somewhat the weight
+of the cured bean; for that reason the practice is not generally
+followed in other countries, but in the case of the Ceylon product
+it is one of the contributing factors to the high prices obtained.
+
+
+
+
+
+ENEMIES AND DISEASES.
+
+
+Monkeys, rats, and parrots are here and in all tropical countries
+the subject of much complaint, and if the plantation is remote from
+towns or in the forest, their depredations can only be held in check
+by the constant presence of well-armed hunter or watchman. Of the
+more serious enemies with which we have to deal, pernicious insects
+and in particular those that attack the wood of the tree, everything
+has yet to be learned.
+
+Mr. Charles N. Banks, an accomplished entomologist, now stationed
+at Maao, Occidental Negros, is making a close study of the life
+history of the insect enemies of cacao, and through his researches
+it is hoped that much light will be thrown upon the whole subject and
+that ways will be devised to overcome and prevent the depredations of
+these insect pests. The most formidable insect that has so far been
+encountered is a beetle, which pierces and deposits its eggs within
+the bark. When the worm hatches, it enters the wood and traverses it
+longitudinally until it is ready to assume the mature or beetle state,
+when it comes to the surface and makes its escape. These worms will
+frequently riddle an entire branch and even enter the trunk. The
+apertures that the beetle makes for the laying of its eggs are so
+small--more minute than the head of a pin--that discovery and probing
+for the worm with a fine wire is not as fruitful of results as has
+been claimed.
+
+Of one thing, however, we are positively assured, i. e., that the
+epoch of ripening of the cacao fruit is the time when its powerful
+fragrance serves to attract the greatest number of these beetles
+and many other noxious insects to the grove. This, too, is the
+time when the most constant and abundant supply of labor is on the
+plantation and when vast numbers of these insects can be caught and
+destroyed. The building of small fires at night in the groves, as
+commonly practiced here and in many tropical countries, is attended
+with some benefits. Lately, in India, this remedy has been subject
+to an improvement that gives promise of results which will in time
+minimize the ravages of insect pests. It is in placing powerful
+acetylene lights over broad, shallow vats of water overlaid with
+mineral  oil or petroleum. Some of these lamps now made under recent
+patents yield a light of dazzling brilliancy, and if well distributed
+would doubtless lure millions of insects to their death. The cheap cost
+of the fuel also makes the remedy available for trial by every planter.
+
+There is a small hemipterous insect which stings the fruit when about
+two-thirds grown, and deposits its eggs within. For this class of
+insects M. A. Tonduz, who has issued publications on the diseases of
+cacao in Venezuela, recommends washing the fruit with salt water, and
+against the attacks of beetles in general by painting the tree stem and
+branches with Bordeaux mixture, or with the vassiliére insecticide,
+of which the basis is a combination of whale-oil soap and petroleum
+suspended in lime wash. There can be no possible virtue in the former,
+except as a preventive against possible fungous diseases; of the
+sanitive value of the latter we can also afford to be skeptical, as
+the mechanical sealing of the borer's holes, and thereby cutting off
+the air supply, would only result in driving the worm sooner to the
+surface. The odor of petroleum and particularly of whale-oil soap is
+so repellent, however, to most insects that its prophylactic virtues
+would undoubtedly be great.
+
+The Philippine Islands appear to be so far singularly exempt from
+the very many cryptogamic or fungous diseases, blights, mildews,
+rusts, and cankers that have played havoc with cacao-growing in many
+countries. That we should enjoy continued immunity will depend greatly
+upon securing seeds or young plants only from noninfested districts or
+from reputable dealers, who will carefully disinfect any shipments,
+and to supplement this by a close microscopical examination upon
+arrival and the immediate burning of any suspected shipments.
+
+Another general precaution that will be taken by every planter who
+aims to maintain the best condition in his orchard is the gathering
+and burning of all prunings or trimmings from the orchard, whether
+they are diseased or not. Decaying wood of any kind is a field for
+special activity for insect life and fungous growth, and the sooner
+it is destroyed the better.
+
+On this account it is customary in some countries to remove the fruit
+pods from the field. But unless diseased, or unless they are to be
+returned after the harvest, they should be buried upon the land for
+their manurial value.
+
+
+
+
+
+MANURING.
+
+
+There are few cultivated crops that make less drain upon soil
+fertility than cacao, and few drafts upon the land are so easily and
+inexpensively returned. From an examination made of detailed analyses
+by many authors and covering many regions, it may be broadly stated
+that an average crop of cacao in the most-favored districts is about
+9 piculs per hectare, and that of the three all-important elements of
+nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, a total of slightly more than
+4.2 kilograms is removed in each picul of cured seeds harvested. These
+37 kilos of plant food that are annually taken from each hectare may
+be roughly subdivided as follows:
+
+
+                    18 kilos of nitrogen,
+                    10 kilos of potash,
+                     9 kilos of phosphoric acid.
+
+
+On this basis, after the plantation is in full bearing, we would have
+to make good with standard fertilizers each year for each hectare
+about 220 kilos of nitrate of soda, or, if the plantation was shaded
+with leguminous trees, only one-half that amount, or 110 kilos. Of
+potash salts, say the sulphate, only one-half that amount, or 55
+kilos, if the plantation was unshaded. If, however, it was shaded,
+as the leguminous trees are all heavy feeders of potash, we would
+have to double the amount and use 110 kilos.
+
+In any case, as fixed nitrogen always represents a cost quite double
+that of potash, from an economical standpoint the planter is still
+the gainer who supplies potash to the shade trees. There still remains
+phosphoric acid, which, in the form of the best superphosphate of lime,
+would require 55 kilos for unshaded orchards, and about 70 if dap-dap,
+Pionciana, or any leguminous tree was grown in the orchard. These
+three ingredients may be thoroughly incorporated and used as a top
+dressing and lightly harrowed in about each tree.
+
+If the commercial nitrates can not be readily obtained, then
+recourse must be had to the sparing use of farm manures. Until the
+bearing age these may be used freely, but after that with caution and
+discrimination. Although I have seen trees here that have been bearing
+continuously for twenty-two years, I have been unable to find so much
+as one that to the knowledge of the oldest resident has ever been
+fertilized in any way, yet, notwithstanding our lack of knowledge of
+local conditions, it seems perfectly safe to predicate that liberal
+manuring with stable manure or highly ammoniated fertilizers would
+insure a rank, succulent growth that is always prejudicial to the best
+and heaviest fruit production. In this I am opposed to Professor Hart,
+[6] who seems to think that stable manures are those only that may
+be used with a free hand.
+
+We have many safe ways of applying nitrogen through the medium of
+various catch crops of pulse or beans, with the certainty that we
+can never overload the soil with more than the adjacent tree roots
+can take up and thoroughly assimilate. When the time comes that the
+orchard so shades the ground that crops can no longer be grown between
+the rows, then, in preference to stable manures I would recommend
+cotton-seed cake or "poonac," the latter being always obtainable in
+this Archipelago.
+
+While the most desirable form in which potash can be applied is in
+the form of the sulphate, excellent results have been had with the
+use of Kainit or Stassfurth salts, and as a still more available
+substitute, wood ashes is suggested. When forest lands are near,
+the underbrush may be cut and burned in a clearing or wherever it
+may be done without detriment to the standing timber, and the ashes
+scattered in the orchard before they have been leached by rains. The
+remaining essential of phosphoric acid in the form of superphosphates
+will for some years to come necessarily be the subject of direct
+importation. In the cheap form of phosphate slag it is reported to
+have been used with great success in both Grenada and British Guiana,
+and would be well worthy of trial here.
+
+Lands very rich in humus, as some of our forest valleys are,
+undoubtedly carry ample nitrogenous elements of fertility to maintain
+the trees at a high standard of growth for many years, but provision
+is indispensable for a regular supply of potash and phosphoric acid
+as soon as the trees come into heavy bearing. It is to them and not
+to the nitrogen that we look for the formation of strong, stocky,
+well-ripened wood capable of fruit bearing and for fruit that shall
+be sound, highly flavored, and well matured.
+
+The bearing life of such a tree will surely be healthfully prolonged
+for many years beyond one constantly driven with highly stimulating
+foods, and in the end amply repay the grower for the vigilance,
+toil, and original expenditure of money necessary to maintaining a
+well-grown and well-appointed cacao plantation.
+
+
+
+
+
+SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES.
+
+
+New Varieties.--Cacao is exclusively grown from seed, and it is only
+by careful selection of the most valuable trees that the planter
+can hope to make the most profitable renewals or additions to his
+plantations. It is by this means that many excellent sorts are now
+in cultivation in different regions that have continued to vary from
+the three original, common forms of Theobroma cacao, until now it is
+a matter of some difficulty to differentiate them.
+
+Residence.--The conditions for living in the Philippines offer
+peculiar, it may be said unexampled, advantages to the planter of
+cacao. The climate as a whole is remarkably salubrious, and sites are
+to be found nearly everywhere for the estate buildings, sufficiently
+elevated to obviate the necessity of living near stagnant waters.
+
+Malarial fevers are relatively few, predacious animals unknown,
+and insects and reptiles prejudicial to human life or health
+extraordinarily few in number. In contrast to this we need only
+call attention to the entire Caribbean coast of South America, where
+the climate and soil conditions are such that the cacao comes to a
+superlative degree of perfection, and yet the limits of its further
+extension have probably been reached by the insuperable barrier of
+a climate so insalubrious that the Caucasian's life is one endless
+conflict with disease, and when not engaged in active combat with some
+form of malarial poisoning his energies are concentrated upon battle
+with the various insect or animal pests that make life a burden in
+such regions.
+
+Nonresidence upon a cacao plantation is an equivalent term for ultimate
+failure. Every operation demands the exercise of the observant
+eye and the directing hand of a master, but there is no field of
+horticultural effort that offers more assured reward, or that will
+more richly repay close study and the application of methods wrought
+out as the sequence of those studies.
+
+
+
+
+
+ESTIMATED COST AND REVENUES DERIVED FROM A CACAO PLANTATION.
+
+
+Estimates of expenses in establishing a cacao farm in the Visayas
+and profits after the fifth year. The size of the farm selected is
+16 hectares, the amount of land prescribed by Congress of a single
+public land entry. The cost of procuring such a tract of land
+is as yet undetermined and can not be reckoned in the following
+tables. The prices of the crop are estimated at 48 cents per kilo,
+which is the current price for the best grades of cacao in the world's
+markets. The yield per tree is given as 2 catties, or 1.25 kilos,
+a fair and conservative estimate for a good tree, with little or
+no cultivation. The prices for unskilled labor are 25 per cent in
+advance of the farm hand in the Visayan islands. No provision is
+made for management or supervision, as the owner will, it is assumed,
+act as manager.
+
+Charges to capital account are given for the second, third, and fourth
+year, but no current expenses are given, for other crops are to defray
+operating expenses until the cacao trees begin to bear. No estimate
+of residence is given. All accounts are in United States currency.
+
+
+                       Expendable the first year.
+
+Capital account:
+
+    Clearing of average brush and timber land, at
+    $15 per hectare                                   $340.00
+    Four carabaos, plows, harrows, cultivators,
+    carts, etc.                                        550.00
+    Breaking and preparing land, at $5 per hectare      80.00
+    Opening main drainage canals, at $6 per hectare     96.00
+    Tool house and storeroom                           200.00
+    Purchase and planting 10,000 abacá stools, at
+    2 cents each                                       200.00
+    Seed purchase, rearing and planting 12,000 cacao,
+    at 3 cents each                                    360.00
+    Contingent and incidental                          174.00
+                                                      -------
+      Total                                                   $2,000.00
+
+
+                              Second year.
+
+    Interest on investment                            $200.00
+    Depreciation on tools, buildings, and animals
+    (20 per cent of cost)                              150.00
+                                                      -------
+                                                                 350.00
+
+
+                              Third year.
+
+    Interest on investment                            $200.00
+    Depreciation as above                              150.00
+                                                      -------
+                                                                 350.00
+
+
+                              Fourth year.
+
+    Interest on investment                            $200.00
+    Depreciation as above                              150.00
+    Building of drying house and sweat boxes,
+    capacity 20,000 kilos                              450.00
+                                                      -------
+                                                                 800.00
+                                                               --------
+      Total capital investment                                 3,500.00
+
+
+                              Fifth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, 300 grams cacao each,
+    equals 3,500 kilos, at 48 cents                            1,680.00
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest and depreciation charges on
+    investment of $3,500.00                         $350.00
+    Taxes 1 1/2 per cent on a one-third valuation
+    basis of $250 per hectare                         60.00
+    Cultivating, pruning, etc., at $5.50 per
+    hectare                                           88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $6 per hectare                    96.00
+    Harvesting, curing, packing 3,500 kilos cacao,
+    at 10 cents per kilo                             350.00
+    Contingent                                        86.00
+                                                    -------
+                                                               1,030.00
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                               650.00
+
+
+                              Sixth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, at 500 grams cacao each,
+    equals 5,840 kilos, at 48 cents                            2,803.20
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest and depreciation charges
+    as above                                        $350.00
+    Taxes as above                                    60.00
+    Cultivating, etc., as above                       88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $8 per hectare                   128.00
+    Harvesting, etc., 5,840 kilos cacao, at 10
+    cents per kilo                                   584.00
+    Contingent                                        93.20
+                                                    -------
+                                                               1,303.20
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             1,500.00
+
+
+                             Seventh year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, at 750 grams cacao each,
+    equals 8,760 kilos, at 48 cents                            4,204.80
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest charges as above                 $350.00
+    Taxes as above                                    60.00
+    Cultivating, etc., as above                       88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $10 per hectare                  160.00
+    Harvest, etc., of 8,760 kilos of cacao, at
+    10 cents per kilo                                876.00
+    Contingent                                       170.80
+                                                    -------
+                                                               1,704.80
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             2,500.00
+
+
+                              Eighth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, at 1 kilo cacao each,
+    equals 11,680 kilos, at 48 cents                           5,606.40
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest charges as above                 $350.00
+    Taxes as above                                    60.00
+    Cultivating, etc., as above                       88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $12.50 per hectare               200.00
+    Harvest, etc., 11,680 kilos of cacao, at
+    10 cents per kilo                              1,168.00
+    Contingent                                       240.40
+                                                   --------
+                                                               2,106.40
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             3,500.00
+
+
+                              Ninth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 trees, at 2 "catties" or 1.25 kilos
+    cacao each, equals 14,600 kilos, at 48 cents               7,008.00
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest charges as above                 $350.00
+    Taxes at 1 1/2 per cent on a one-third
+    valuation of $500 per hectare                    120.00
+    Cultivation and pruning as above                  88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $15 per hectare                  240.00
+    Harvesting, etc., of 14,600 kilos of cacao, at
+    10 cents per kilo                              1,460.00
+    Contingent                                       250.00
+                                                   --------
+                                                               2,508.00
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             4,500.00
+
+
+In the tenth year there should be no increase in taxes or fertilizers,
+and a slight increase in yield, sufficient to bring the net profits
+of the estate to the approximate amount of $5,000. This would amount
+to a dividend of rather more than $312 per hectare, or its equivalent
+of about $126 per acre.
+
+These tables further show original capitalization cost of nearly $90
+per acre, and from the ninth year annual operating expenses of rather
+more than $60 per acre.
+
+It should be stated, however, that the operating expenses are based
+upon a systematic and scientific management of the estate; while the
+returns or income are based upon revenue from trees that are at the
+disadvantage of being without culture of any kind, and, while I am
+of the opinion that the original cost per acre of the plantation, nor
+its current operating expenses may be much reduced below the figures
+given, I feel that there is a reasonable certainty that the crop
+product may be materially increased beyond the limit of two "catties."
+
+In Camerouns, Dr. Preuss, a close and well-trained observer, gives
+the mean annual yield of trees of full-bearing age at 4.4 pounds.
+
+Mr. Rousselot places the yield on the French Congo at the same
+figure. In the Caroline Islands it reaches 5 pounds and in Surinam,
+according to M. Nichols, the average at maturity is 6 1/2 pounds. In
+Mindanao, I have been told, but do not vouch for the report, of
+more than ten "catties" taken in one year from a single tree; and,
+as there are well-authenticated instances of record, of single trees
+having yielded as much as 30 pounds, I am not prepared to altogether
+discredit the Mindanao story.
+
+The difference, however, between good returns and enormous profits
+arising from cacao growing in the Philippines will be determined by
+the amount of knowledge, experience, and energy that the planter is
+capable of bringing to bear upon the culture in question.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+[1] A short introduction to cacao and its cultivation in the
+Philippines.
+
+[2] Le Cacaoyer, par Henri Jumelle. Culture de Cacaoyer dans Guadaloupe
+par Dr Paul Guerin.
+
+[3] Cacao, by J. H. Hart, F. L. S. Trinidad.
+
+[4] "Shade in Coffee Culture." U. S. Dept. Ag., Washington, 1901.
+
+[5] According to "Historia de Filipinas," by P. Fr. Gaspar de
+S. Augustin, cacao plants were first brought here in the year 1670
+by a pilot named Pedro Brabo, of Laguna Province, who gave them to
+a priest of the Camarines named Bartoleme Brabo.
+
+[6] "Cacao," p. 16.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cacao Culture in the Philippines, by 
+William S. Lyon
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Cacao Culture in the Philippines, by William S. Lyon
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+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Cacao Culture in the Philippines
+
+Author: William S. Lyon
+
+Release Date: October 16, 2010 [EBook #33921]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for project
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+
+</pre>
+
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e78" href="#xd20e78" name=
+"xd20e78">1</a>]</span>
+<div class="front">
+<div class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<p class="firstpar"></p>
+<div class="figure xd20e82width"><img src="images/titlepage.png" alt=
+"Original Title Page." width="450" height="720"></div>
+</div>
+<div class="titlePage">
+<div class="docImprint">Philippine Bureau of Agriculture.</div>
+<div class="docTitle">
+<div class="seriesTitle">Farmer&rsquo;s Bulletin No. 2.</div>
+<div class="mainTitle">Cacao Culture in the Philippines</div>
+</div>
+<div class="byline">By<br>
+<span class="docAuthor">William S. Lyon,</span><br>
+In charge of seed and plant introduction.</div>
+<div class="docImprint">Prepared under the direction of the Chief of
+the Bureau.<br>
+Manila:<br>
+Bureau of Public Printing.<br>
+<span class="docDate">1902.</span></div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e113" href="#xd20e113" name=
+"xd20e113">3</a>]</span></p>
+<div id="toc" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Contents.</h2>
+<ul>
+<li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">Page.</span></li>
+<li><a href="#transmittal">Letter of transmittal</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">4</span></li>
+<li><a href="#intro">Introduction</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">5</span></li>
+<li><a href="#climate">Climate</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">6</span></li>
+<li><a href="#site">The plantation site</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">7</span></li>
+<li><a href="#soil">The soil</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class=
+"tocPagenum">7</span></li>
+<li><a href="#preparation">Preparation of the soil</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">8</span></li>
+<li><a href="#drainage">Drainage</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">8</span></li>
+<li><a href="#plantation">Forming the plantation</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">9</span></li>
+<li><a href="#selection">Selection of varieties</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">10</span></li>
+<li><a href="#planting">Planting</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">11</span></li>
+<li><a href="#cultivation">Cultivation</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">13</span></li>
+<li><a href="#pruning">Pruning</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">13</span></li>
+<li><a href="#harvest">Harvest</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">16</span></li>
+<li><a href="#diseases">Enemies and diseases</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">18</span></li>
+<li><a href="#manuring">Manuring</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">19</span></li>
+<li><a href="#supplemental">Supplemental notes</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">21</span></li>
+<li><a href="#newvarieties">New varieties</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">21</span></li>
+<li><a href="#residence">Residence</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<span class="tocPagenum">21</span></li>
+<li><a href="#revenues">Cost of a cacao plantation</a>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="tocPagenum">22</span></li>
+</ul>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e237" href="#xd20e237" name=
+"xd20e237">4</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div id="transmittal" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Letter of Transmittal.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar"><span class="sc">Sir</span>: I submit herewith an
+essay on the cultivation of cacao, for the use of planters in the
+Philippines. This essay is prompted first, because much of the cacao
+grown here is of such excellent quality as to induce keen rivalry among
+buyers to procure it at an advance of quite 50 per cent over the common
+export grades of the Java bean, notwithstanding the failure on the part
+of the local grower to &ldquo;process&rdquo; or cure the product in any
+way; second, because in parts of Mindanao and Negros, despite ill
+treatment or no treatment, the plant exhibits a luxuriance of growth
+and wealth of productiveness that demonstrates its entire fitness for
+those regions and leads us to believe in the successful extension of
+its propagation throughout these Islands; and lastly because of the
+repeated calls upon the Chief of the Agricultural Bureau for literature
+or information bearing upon this important horticultural industry.</p>
+<p>The importance of cacao-growing in the Philippines can hardly be
+overestimated. Recent statistics place the world&rsquo;s demand for
+cacao (exclusive of local consumption) at 200,000,000 pounds, valued at
+more than $30,000,000 gold.</p>
+<p>There is little danger of overproduction and consequent low prices
+for very many years to come. So far as known, the areas where cacao
+prospers in the great equatorial zone are small, and the opening and
+development of suitable regions has altogether failed to keep pace with
+the demand.</p>
+<p>The bibliography of cacao is rather limited, and some of the best
+publications,<a class="noteref" id="xd20e251src" href="#xd20e251" name=
+"xd20e251src">1</a> being in French, are unavailable to many. The
+leading English treatise, by Professor Hart,<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e254src" href="#xd20e254" name="xd20e254src">2</a> admirable in
+many respects, deals mainly with conditions in Trinidad, West Indies,
+and is fatally defective, if not misleading, on the all-important
+question of pruning.</p>
+<p>The life history of the cacao, its botany, chemistry, and statistics
+are replete with interest, and will, perhaps, be treated in a future
+paper.</p>
+<p class="salute">Respectfully,</p>
+<p class="signed">Wm. S. Lyon,<br>
+<i>In Charge of Seed and Plant Introduction</i>.</p>
+<p class="signed">Hon. <span class="sc">F. Lamson-Scribner</span>,<br>
+<i>Chief of the Insular Bureau of Agriculture</i>. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e278" href="#xd20e278" name=
+"xd20e278">5</a>]</span></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote" lang="fr"><span class="label"><a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e251" href="#xd20e251src" name="xd20e251">1</a></span> Le
+Cacaoyer, par Henri Jumelle. Culture de Cacaoyer dans Guadaloupe par Dr
+Paul Guerin.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e254" href="#xd20e254src" name="xd20e254">2</a></span> Cacao, by
+J. H. Hart, F. L. S. Trinidad.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="body">
+<div id="intro" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="super">Cacao Culture in the Philippines.</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Introduction.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Cacao in cultivation exists nearly everywhere in
+the Archipelago. I have observed it in several provinces of Luzon, in
+Mindanao, Jol&oacute;, Basilan, Panay, and Negros, and have
+well-verified assurances of its presence in Ceb&uacute;, Bohol, and
+Masbate, and it is altogether reasonable to predicate its existence
+upon all the larger islands anywhere under an elevation of 1,000 or
+possibly 1,200 meters. Nevertheless, in many localities the condition
+of the plants is such as not to justify the general extension of cacao
+cultivation into all regions. The presence of cacao in a given locality
+is an interesting fact, furnishing a useful guide for investigation and
+agricultural experimentation, but, as the purpose of this paper is to
+deal with cacao growing from a commercial standpoint, it is well to
+state that wherever reference is made to the growth, requirements,
+habits, or cultural treatment of the plant the commercial aspect is
+alone considered. As an illustration, attention is called to the
+statement made elsewhere, that &ldquo;cacao exacts a minimum
+temperature of 18&deg;&rdquo;; although, as is perfectly well known to
+the writer, its fruit has sometimes matured where the recorded
+temperatures have fallen as low as 10&deg;. There is much to be learned
+here by experimentation, for as yet the cultivation is primitive in the
+extreme, pruning of any kind rudimentary or negative, and
+&ldquo;treatment&rdquo; of the nut altogether unknown.</p>
+<p>Elsewhere in cacao-producing countries its cultivation has long
+passed the experimental stage, and the practices that govern the
+management of a well-ordered cacao plantation are as clearly defined as
+those of an orange grove in Florida or a vineyard in California.</p>
+<p>In widely scattered localities the close observer will find many
+young trees that in vigor, color, and general health leave nothing to
+be desired, but before making final selection for a plantation he
+should inspect trees of larger growth for evidences of &ldquo;die
+back&rdquo; of the branches. If &ldquo;die back&rdquo; is present,
+superficial examination will generally determine if it is caused by
+neglect or by the attacks of insects. If not caused by neglect or
+insect attacks, he may assume that some primary essential to the
+continued and successful cultivation of the tree is wanting and that
+the location is unsuited to profitable plantations.</p>
+<p>With due regard to these preliminary precautions and a close
+oversight of every subsequent operation, there is no reason why the
+growing of cacao may not ultimately become one of the most profitable
+horticultural enterprises that can engage the attention of planters in
+this Archipelago. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e293" href=
+"#xd20e293" name="xd20e293">6</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div id="climate" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Climate.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">It is customary, when writing of any crop culture,
+to give precedence to site and soil, but in the case of cacao these
+considerations are of secondary importance, and while none of the minor
+operations of planting, pruning, cultivation, and fertilizing may be
+overlooked, they are all outweighed by the single
+essential&mdash;<i>climate</i>.</p>
+<p>In general, a state of atmospheric saturation keeps pace with heavy
+rainfall, and for that reason we may successfully look for the highest
+relative humidity upon the eastern shores of the Archipelago, where the
+rainfall is more uniformly distributed over the whole year, than upon
+the west.</p>
+<p>There are places where the conditions are so peculiar as to
+challenge especial inquiry. We find on the peninsula of Zamboanga a
+recorded annual mean rainfall of only 888 mm., and yet cacao
+(unirrigated) exhibits exceptional thrift and vigor. It is true that
+this rain is so evenly distributed throughout the year that every drop
+becomes available, yet the total rainfall is insufficient to account
+for the very evident and abundant atmospheric humidity indicated by the
+prosperous conditions of the cacao plantations. The explanation of this
+phenomenon, as made to me by the Rev. Father Algu&eacute;, of the
+Observatory of Manila, is to the effect that strong equatorial ocean
+currents constantly prevail against southern Mindanao, and that their
+influence extend north nearly to the tenth degree of latitude. These
+currents, carrying their moisture-laden atmosphere, would naturally
+affect the whole of this narrow neck of land and influence as well some
+of the western coast of Mindanao, and probably place it upon the same
+favored hygrometric plane as the eastern coast, where the rainfall in
+some localities amounts to 4 meters a year.</p>
+<p>While 2,000 mm. of mean annual rainfall equably distributed is ample
+to achieve complete success, it seems almost impossible to injure cacao
+by excessive precipitation. It has been known to successfully tide over
+inundation of the whole stem up to the first branches for a period
+covering nearly a month.</p>
+<p>Irrigation must be resorted to in cases of deficient or unevenly
+distributed rainfall, and irrigation is always advantageous whenever
+there is suspension of rain for a period of more than fifteen days.</p>
+<p>Concerning temperatures the best is that with an annual mean of
+26&deg; to 28&deg;, with 20&deg; as the mean minimum where any measure
+of success may be expected. A mean temperature of over 30&deg; is
+prejudicial to cacao growing.</p>
+<p>The last but not least important of the atmospheric phenomena for
+our consideration are the winds. Cacao loves to &ldquo;steam and
+swelter in its own atmosphere&rdquo; and high winds are inimical, and
+even refreshing breezes are incompatible, with the greatest success. As
+there are but few large areas in these Islands that are exempt from one
+or other of our prevailing winds, the remedies that suggest themselves
+are: The selection of small <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e314"
+href="#xd20e314" name="xd20e314">7</a>]</span>sheltered valleys where
+the prevailing winds are directly cut off by intervening hills or
+mountains; the plantation of only small groves in the open, and their
+frequent intersection by the plantation of rapid growing trees; and,
+best of all, plantings made in forest clearings, where the remaining
+forested lands will furnish the needed protection.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="site" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Location.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">It is always desirable to select a site that is
+approximately level or with only enough fall to assure easy drainage.
+Such sites may be planted symmetrically and are susceptible to the
+easiest and most economical application of the many operations
+connected with a plantation.</p>
+<p>Provided the region is well forested and therefore protected from
+sea breezes, the plantation may be carried very near to the coast,
+provided the elevation is sufficient to assure the grove immunity from
+incursions of tide water, which, however much diluted, will speedily
+cause the death of the plants.</p>
+<p>Excavations should be made during the dry season to determine that
+water does not stand within 1&frac12; meters of the surface, a more
+essential condition, however, when planting is made &ldquo;at
+stake&rdquo; than when nursery reared trees are planted.</p>
+<p>Hillsides, when not too precipitous, frequently offer admirable
+shelter and desirable soils, but their use entails a rather more
+complicated system of drainage, to carry away storm water without land
+washing, and for the ready conversion of the same into irrigating
+ditches during the dry season. Further, every operation involved must
+be performed by hand labor, and in the selection of such a site the
+planter must be largely influenced by the quantity and cost of
+available labor.</p>
+<p>The unexceptionable shelter, the humidity that prevails, and the
+inexhaustible supply of humus that is generally found in deep forest
+ravines frequently lead to their planting to cacao where the slope is
+even as great as 45&deg;. Such plantations, if done upon a considerable
+commercial scale, involve engineering problems and the careful
+terracing of each tree, and, except for a dearth of more suitable
+locations, is a practice that has little to commend it to the practical
+grower.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="soil" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">The Soil.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Other things being equal, preference should be
+given to a not too tenacious, clayey loam. Selection, in fact, may be
+quite successfully made through the process of exclusion, and by
+eliminating all soils of a very light and sandy nature, or clays so
+tenacious that the surface bakes and cracks while still too wet within
+3 or 4 inches of the surface to operate with farm tools. These
+excluded, still leave a very wide range of silt, clay, and loam soils,
+most of which are suitable to cacao culture.</p>
+<p>Where properly protected from the wind a rocky soil, otherwise good,
+is not objectionable; in fact, such lands have the advantage of
+promoting good drainage. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e336" href=
+"#xd20e336" name="xd20e336">8</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div id="preparation" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Preparation of the Soil.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">When the plantation is made upon forest lands, it
+is necessary to cut and burn all underbrush, together with all timber
+trees other than those designed for shade. If such shade trees are left
+(and the advisability of leaving them will be discussed in the proper
+place), only those of the pulse or bean family are to be recommended.
+It should also be remembered that, owing in part to the close planting
+of cacao and in part to the fragility of its wood and its great
+susceptibility to damage resulting from wounds, subsequent removal of
+large shade trees from the plantation is attended with difficulty and
+expense, and the planter should leave few shade trees to the hectare.
+Clearing the land should be done during the dry season, and refuse
+burned in situ, thereby conserving to the soil the potash salts so
+essential to the continued well-being of cacao.</p>
+<p>The land should be deeply plowed, and, if possible, subsoiled as
+well, and then, pending the time of planting the orchard, it may be
+laid down to corn, cotton, beans, or some forage plant. Preference
+should be given to &ldquo;hoed crops,&rdquo; as it is essential to keep
+the surface in open tilth, as well as to destroy all weeds.</p>
+<p>The common practice in most cacao-growing countries is to simply dig
+deep holes where the trees are to stand, and to give a light working to
+the rest of the surface just sufficient to produce the intermediate
+crops. This custom is permissible only on slopes too steep for the
+successful operation of a side hill plow, or where from lack of draft
+animals all cultivation has to be done by hand.</p>
+<p>Cacao roots deeply, and with relatively few superficial feeders, and
+the deeper the soil is worked the better.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="drainage" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Drainage.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">The number and size of the drains will depend upon
+the amount of rainfall, the contour of the land, and the natural
+absorbent character of the soil. In no case should the ditches be less
+than 1 meter wide and 60 cm. deep, and if loose stones are at hand the
+sloping sides may be laid with them, which will materially protect them
+from washing by torrential rains.</p>
+<p>These main drains should all be completed prior to planting.
+Connecting laterals may be opened subsequently, as the necessities of
+further drainage or future irrigation may demand; shallow furrows will
+generally answer for these laterals, and as their obliteration will
+practically follow every time cultivation is given, their construction
+may be of the cheapest and most temporary nature. Owing to the
+necessity of main drainage canals and the needful interplanting of
+shade plants between the rows of cacao, nothing is gained by laying off
+the land for planting in what is called &ldquo;two ways,&rdquo; and all
+subsequent working of the orchard will consequently be in one
+direction. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e355" href="#xd20e355"
+name="xd20e355">9</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div id="plantation" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">The Plantation.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Cacao, relatively to the size of the tree, may be
+planted very closely. We have stated that it rejoices in a close,
+moisture-laden atmosphere, and this permits of a closer planting than
+would be admissible with any other orchard crop.</p>
+<p>In very rich soil the strong-growing Forastero variety may be
+planted 3.7 meters apart each way, or 745 trees to the hectare, and on
+lighter lands this, or the more dwarf-growing forms of Criollo, may be
+set as close as 3 meters or rather more than 1,000 trees to the
+hectare.</p>
+<p>The rows should be very carefully lined out in one direction and
+staked where the young plants are to be set, and then (a year before
+the final planting) between each row of cacao a line of temporary
+shelter plants are to be planted. These should be planted in quincunx
+order, i. e., at the intersecting point of two lines drawn between the
+diagonal corners of the square made by four cacaos set equidistant each
+way. This temporary shelter is indispensable for the protection of the
+young plantation from wind and sun.</p>
+<p>The almost universal custom is to plant, for temporary shelter,
+suckers of fruiting bananas, but throughout the Visayas and in Southern
+Luzon I think abac&aacute; could be advantageously substituted. It is
+true that, as commonly grown, abac&aacute; does not make so rank a
+growth as some of the plantains, but if given the perfect tillage which
+the cacao plantation should receive, and moderately rich soils,
+abac&aacute; ought to furnish all necessary shade. This temporary shade
+may be maintained till the fourth or fifth year, when it is to be
+grubbed out and the stalks and stumps, which are rich in nitrogen, may
+be left to decay upon the ground. At present prices, the four or five
+crops which may be secured from the temporary shelter plants ought to
+meet the expenses of the entire plantation until it comes into
+bearing.</p>
+<p>In the next step, every fourth tree in the fourth or fifth row of
+cacao may be omitted and its place filled by a permanent shade tree.
+The planting of shade trees or &ldquo;madre de cacao&rdquo; among the
+cacao has been observed from time immemorial in all countries where the
+crop is grown, and the primary purpose of the planting has been for
+shade alone. Observing that these trees were almost invariably of the
+pulse or legume family, the writer, in the year 1892, raised the
+question, in the Proceedings of the Southern California Horticultural
+Society, that the probable benefits derived were directly attributable
+to the abundant fertilizing micro&ouml;rganisms developed in the soil
+by these leguminous plants, rather than the <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e369" title="Source: mechancial">mechanical</span> protection they
+afforded from the sun&rsquo;s rays.</p>
+<p>To Mr. O. F. Cook, of the United States Department of Agriculture,
+however, belongs the credit of publishing, in 1901,<a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e374src" href="#xd20e374" name="xd20e374src">1</a> a
+r&eacute;sum&eacute; of his inquiries into the subject of the shades
+used for both the coffee and the <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e377" href="#xd20e377" name="xd20e377">10</a>]</span>cacao, and
+which fully confirmed the previous opinions that the main benefit
+derived from these trees was their influence in maintaining a constant
+supply of available nitrogen in the soil.</p>
+<p>That cacao and its wild congenors naturally seek the shelter of
+well-shaded forests is well established; but having seen trees in these
+Islands that were fully exposed at all times showing no evidences of
+either scald, burn, or sun spot, and in every respect the embodiment of
+vigor and health, we are fully justified in assuming that here the
+climatic conditions are such as will permit of taking some reasonable
+liberties with this time-honored practice and supply needed nitrogen to
+the soil by the use of cheap and effective &ldquo;catch crops,&rdquo;
+such us cowpeas or soy beans.</p>
+<p>Here, as elsewhere, an Erythrina, known as &ldquo;dap-dap,&rdquo; is
+a favorite shade tree among native planters; the rain tree
+(<i>Pithecolobium saman</i>) is also occasionally used, and in one
+instance only have I seen a departure from the use of the
+Leguminos&aelig;, and that in western Mindanao, there is a shade
+plantation composed exclusively of <i>Cananga odorata</i>, locally
+known as ilang-ilang.</p>
+<p>While not yet prepared to advocate the total exclusion of all shade
+trees, I am prepared to recommend a shade tree, if shade trees there
+must be, whose utility and unquestioned value has singularly escaped
+notice. The tree in question, the Royal <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e391" title="Source: Ponciana">Poinciana</span> (<i>Poinciana
+regia</i>), embodies all of the virtues that are ascribed to the best
+of the pulse family, is easily procured, grows freely and rapidly from
+seed or cutting, furnishes a minimum of shade at all times, and, in
+these Islands, becomes almost leafless, at the season of maturity of
+the largest cacao crop when the greatest sun exposure is desired.</p>
+<p>The remaining preparatory work consists in the planting of
+intersecting wind breaks at intervals throughout the grove, and upon
+sides exposed to winds, or where a natural forest growth does not
+furnish such a shelter belt. Unless the plantation lies in a
+particularly protected valley, no plantation, however large in the
+aggregate, should cover more than 4 or 5 hectares unbroken by at least
+one row of wind-break trees. Nothing that I know of can approach the
+mango for this purpose. It will hold in check the fiercest gale and
+give assurance to the grower that after any storm his cacao crop is
+still on the trees and not on the ground, a prey to ants, mice, and
+other vermin.</p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e374" href="#xd20e374src" name="xd20e374">1</a></span>
+&ldquo;Shade in Coffee Culture.&rdquo; U. S. Dept. Ag., Washington,
+1901.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="selection" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Selection of Varieties.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">All the varieties of cacao in general cultivation
+may be referred to three general types, the Criollo, Forastero, and
+Calabacillo; and of these, those that I have met in cultivation in the
+Archipelago are the first and second only. The Criollo is incomparably
+the finest variety in general use, and may perhaps be most readily
+distinguished by the inexperienced through the ripe but unfermented
+seed or almond, as it is often called. This, on breaking, is found to
+be whitish or yellowish-white, while the seeds of <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e404" href="#xd20e404" name=
+"xd20e404">11</a>]</span>those in which the Forastero or Calabacillo
+blood predominates are reddish, or, in the case of Forastero, almost
+violet in color. For flavor, freedom from bitterness, facility in
+curing, and high commercial value, the Criollo is everywhere conceded
+to be <i>facile princeps</i>.</p>
+<p>On the other hand, in point of yield, vigor, freedom from disease,
+and compatibility to environment it is not to be compared with the
+others. Nevertheless, where such perfect conditions exist as are found
+in parts of Mindanao, I do not hesitate to urge the planting of
+Criollo. Elsewhere, or wherever the plantation is tentative or the
+conditions not very well known to the planter, the Forastero is to be
+recommended. The former is commercially known as
+&ldquo;<i>Caracas</i>&rdquo; and &ldquo;<i>old red Ceylon</i>,&rdquo;
+and may be obtained from Ceylon dealers; and the latter, the Forastero,
+or forms of it which have originated in the island, can be procured
+from Java.</p>
+<p>It seems not unlikely that the true Forastero may have been brought
+to these Islands from Acapulco, Mexico, two hundred and thirty-two
+years ago,<a class="noteref" id="xd20e419src" href="#xd20e419" name=
+"xd20e419src">1</a> as it was at that time the dominant kind grown in
+southeastern Mexico, and, if so, the place where the pure type would
+most likely be found in these Islands would be in the Camarines,
+Southern Luzon. Aside from the seed characters already given, Forastero
+is recognized by its larger, thicker, more abundant, and rather more
+abruptly pointed fruit than Criollo, and its coarse leaves which are
+from 22 to 50 cm. long by 7 to 13 cm. wide, dimensions nearly double
+those reached by the Criollo or Calabacillo varieties.</p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e419" href="#xd20e419src" name="xd20e419">1</a></span> According
+to &ldquo;Historia de Filipinas,&rdquo; by P. Fr. Gaspar de S.
+Augustin, cacao plants were first brought here in the year 1670 by a
+pilot named Pedro Brabo, of Laguna Province, who gave them to a priest
+of the Camarines named Bartoleme Brabo.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="planting" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Planting.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Planting may be done &ldquo;at stake&rdquo; or from
+the nursery. For the unskilled or inexperienced planter, who has means
+at hand to defray the greater cost, planting &ldquo;at stake&rdquo; is
+perhaps to be recommended. This is no more than the dropping and
+lightly covering, during the rainy season, of three or four seeds at
+the stake where the plant is to stand, protecting the spot with a bit
+of banana leaf, left till the seeds have sprouted, and subsequently
+pulling out all but the one strongest and thriftiest plant.</p>
+<p>The contingencies to be met by this system are many. The enemies of
+the cacao seed are legion. Drought, birds, worms, ants, beetles, mice,
+and rats will all contribute their quota to prevent a good
+&ldquo;stand&rdquo; and entail the <span class="corr" id="xd20e429"
+title="Source: necessitly">necessity</span> of repeated plantings.
+Success by planting &ldquo;at stake&rdquo; is so doubtful that it is
+rarely followed by experienced planters.</p>
+<p>The consequent alternative lies in rearing seedlings in seed beds
+that are under immediate control, and, when the plants are of
+sufficient size, in transplanting them to their proper sites in the
+orchard. In view of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e434" href=
+"#xd20e434" name="xd20e434">12</a>]</span>remarkable short-lived
+vitality of the cacao seed, it is in every way advisable that the
+untrained grower procure his plants from professional nurserymen, or,
+if this resource is lacking, that he import the young plants in Wardian
+cases from some of the many firms abroad who make a specialty of
+preparing them for foreign markets.</p>
+<p>Both of these expedients failing, then it is advised that the seeds
+be sown one by one in small pots, or, if these are not procurable, in
+small bamboo tubes, and, for the sake of uniform moisture, plunge them
+to their rims in any free, light soil in a well-shaded easily protected
+spot where they may be carefully watered. In three to six months
+(according to growth) the tube with its included plant may be planted
+in the open field, when the former will speedily decompose and the
+growth of the cacao proceed without check or injury.</p>
+<p>At best, all of the above suggested methods are but crude expedients
+to replace the more workmanlike, expeditious, and satisfactory process
+of planting the conventional nursery grown stock. There is nothing more
+difficult in the rearing of cacao seedlings than in growing any other
+evergreen fruit tree. Briefly stated, it is only the finding of a
+well-prepared, well-shaded seed bed and sowing the seeds in rows or
+drills, and, when the seedlings are of proper size, in lifting and
+transferring them to the plantation. But in actual practice there are
+many details calling for the exercise of trained judgment from the
+preparation of the seed bed down to the final process of
+&ldquo;hardening off,&rdquo; concerning which the reader is referred to
+the many available text-books on general nursery management.</p>
+<p>It may be said for the benefit of those unable to adopt more
+scientific methods: Let the seed bed be selected in a well-shaded spot,
+and, if possible, upon a rather stiff, plastic, but well-drained soil.
+After this is well broken up and made smooth, broadcast over all 3 or 4
+inches of well-decomposed leaf mold mixed with sand, and in this sow
+the seed in furrows about 1 inch deep. This sowing should be made
+during the dry season, not only to avoid the beating and washing of
+violent storms but to have the nursery plants of proper size for
+planting at the opening of the rainy season. The seed bed should be
+accessible to water, in order that it may be conveniently watered by
+frequent sprinklings throughout the dry season.</p>
+<p>The rich top dressing will stimulate the early growth of the
+seedling, and when its roots enter the heavier soil below it will
+encourage a stocky growth. Four or five months later the roots will be
+so well established in the stiffer soil that if lifted carefully each
+plant may be secured with a ball of earth about its roots, placed in a
+tray or basket, and in this way carried intact to the field. Plants
+thus reared give to the inexperienced an assurance of success not
+always obtained by the trained or veteran planter of bare rooted
+subjects. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e444" href="#xd20e444"
+name="xd20e444">13</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div id="cultivation" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Cultivation.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Planters are united in the opinion that pruning,
+cutting, or in any way lacerating the roots is injurious to the cacao,
+and in deference to this opinion all cultivation close to the tree
+should be done with a harrow-tooth cultivator, or shallow scarifier.
+All intermediate cultivation should be deep and thorough, whenever the
+mechanical condition of the soil will permit it. A plant stunted in
+youth will never make a prolific tree; early and continuous growth can
+only be secured by deep and thorough cultivation.</p>
+<p>Of even more consideration than an occasional root cutting is any
+injury, however small, to the tree stem, and on this account every
+precaution should be taken to protect the trees from accidental injury
+when plowing or cultivating. The whiffletree of the plow or cultivator
+used should be carefully fendered with rubber or a soft woolen packing
+that will effectually guard against the carelessness of workmen. Wounds
+in the bark or stem offer an inviting field for the entry of insects or
+the spores of fungi, and are, furthermore, apt to be overlooked until
+the injury becomes deep seated and sometimes beyond repair.</p>
+<p>With the gradual extension of root development, cultivation will be
+reduced to a narrow strip between the rows once occupied by the
+plantain or the abac&aacute;, but, to the very last, the maintenance of
+the proper soil conditions should be observed by at least one good
+annual plowing and by as many superficial cultivations as the growth of
+the trees and the mechanical state of the land will admit.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="pruning" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Pruning.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">When left to its own resources the cacao will fruit
+for an almost indefinite time. When well and strenuously grown it will
+bear much more abundant fruit from its fifth to its twenty-fifth year,
+and by a simple process of renewal can be made productive for a much
+longer time.</p>
+<p>A necessary factor to this result is an annual pruning upon strictly
+scientific lines. The underlying principle involved is, primarily, the
+fact that the cacao bears its crop directly upon the main branches and
+trunk, and not upon spurs or twigs; secondly, that wood under three
+years is rarely fruitful, and that only upon stems or branches of five
+years or upward does the maximum fruitfulness occur; that the seat of
+inflorescence is directly over the axil of a fallen leaf, from whence
+the flowers are born at irregular times throughout the year.</p>
+<p>With this necessary, fundamental information as a basis of
+operations, the rational system of pruning that suggests itself is the
+maintenance of as large an extension at all times of straight,
+well-grown mature wood and the perfecting of that by the early and
+frequent removal of all limbs or branches that the form of the tree
+does not admit of carrying without overcrowding. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e463" href="#xd20e463" name=
+"xd20e463">14</a>]</span></p>
+<p>It is desirable that this extension of the branch system should be
+lateral rather than vertical, for the greater facility with which fruit
+may be plucked and possible insect enemies fought; and on this account
+the leading growths should be stopped when a convenient height has been
+attained.</p>
+<p>When well grown and without accident to its leader, the cacao will
+naturally branch at from 1 to 1.4 meters from the ground. These primary
+branches are mostly three to five in number, and all in excess of three
+should be removed as soon as selection can be made of three strongest
+that are as nearly equidistant from each other as may be. When these
+branches are from 80 cm. to 1 meter long, and preferably the shorter
+distance, they are to be stopped by pinching the extremities. This will
+cause them and the main stem as well to &ldquo;break,&rdquo; i. e., to
+branch in many places.</p>
+<p>At this point the vigilance and judgment of the planter are called
+into greater play. These secondary branches are, in turn, all to be
+reduced as were the primary ones, and their selection can not be made
+in a symmetrical whorl, for the habit of the tree does not admit of it,
+and selection of the three should be made with reference to their
+future extension, that the interior of the tree should not be
+overcrowded and that such outer branches be retained as shall fairly
+maintain the equilibrium of the crown.</p>
+<p>This will complete the third year and the formative stage of the
+plant. Subsequent prunings will be conducted on the same lines, with
+the modification that when the secondary branches are again cut back,
+the room in the head of the tree will rarely admit of more than one, at
+most two, tertiary branches being allowed to remain. When these are
+grown to an extent that brings the total height of the tree to 3 or 4
+meters, they should be cut back annually, at the close of the dry
+season. Such minor operations as the removal of thin, wiry, or
+hide-bound growths and all suckers suggest themselves to every
+horticulturist, whether he be experienced in cacao growing or not. When
+a tree is exhausted by overbearing, or has originally been so ill
+formed that it is not productive, a strong sucker or
+&ldquo;gourmand&rdquo; springing from near the ground may be encouraged
+to grow. By distributing the pruning over two or three periods, in one
+year the old tree can be entirely removed and its place substituted by
+the &ldquo;gourmand.&rdquo; During the third year flowers will be
+abundant and some fruit will set, but it is advisable to remove it
+while small and permit all of the energy of the plant to be expended in
+wood making.</p>
+<div class="figure xd20e473width"><img src="images/plate.jpg" alt=
+"Plate 1.&mdash;Shows the interesting, fruit bearing habit of the Cacao."
+width="490" height="720">
+<p class="figureHead"><span class="sc">Plate 1.</span>&mdash;Shows the
+interesting, fruit bearing habit of the Cacao.</p>
+</div>
+<p>From what we know of its flowering habit, it is obvious that every
+operation connected with the handling or pruning of a cacao, should be
+conducted with extreme care; to see that the bark is never injured
+about the old leaf scars, for to just the extent it is so injured is
+the fruit-bearing area curtailed. Further, no pruning cut should ever
+be inflicted, except with the sharpest of knives and saws, and the use
+of shears, that always <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e481" href=
+"#xd20e481" name="xd20e481">15</a>]</span>bruise to <i>some</i> extent,
+is to be avoided. All the rules that are laid down for the guidance of
+the pruning of most orchard trees in regard to clean cuts, sloping
+cuts, and the covering of large wounds with tar or resin apply with
+fourfold force to the cacao. Its wood is remarkably spongy and an easy
+prey to the enemies ever lying in wait to attack it, and the surest
+remedies for disease are preventive ones, and by the maintenance
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e486" href="#xd20e486" name=
+"xd20e486">16</a>]</span>of the bark of the tree at all times in the
+sound condition, we are assured that it is best qualified to resist
+invasion. Of the great number of worm-riddled trees to be seen in the
+Archipelago, it is easy in every case to trace the cause to the neglect
+and brutal treatment which left them in a condition to invite the
+attacks of disease of every kind.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="harvest" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Harvest.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">The ripening period of cacao generally occurs at
+two seasons of the year, but in these islands the most abundant crop is
+obtained at about the commencement of the dry season, and the fruits
+continue to ripen for two months or longer. The time of its approaching
+maturity is easily recognized by the tyro by the unmistakable aroma of
+chocolate that pervades the orchard at that period, and by some of the
+pods turning reddish or yellow according to the variety.</p>
+<p>The pods are attached by a very short stalk to the trunk of the
+tree, and those within reach of the hand are carefully cut with shears.
+Those higher up are most safely removed with an extension American tree
+pruner. A West Indian hook knife with a cutting edge above and below
+and mounted on a bamboo pole, if kept with the edges very sharp, does
+excellently well, but should only be intrusted to the most careful
+workmen. There is hardly a conceivable contingency to warrant the
+climbing of a cacao tree. If it should occur, the person climbing
+should go barefooted. As soon as the fruit, or so much of it as is well
+ripened, has been gathered, it is thrown into heaps and should be
+opened within twenty-four hours.</p>
+<p>The opening is done in a variety of ways, but the practice followed
+in Surinam would be an excellent one here if experienced labor was not
+at command. There, with a heavy knife or cutlass (bolo), they cut off
+the base or stem end of the fruit and thereby expose the column to
+which the seeds are attached, and then women and children, who free
+most of the seeds, are able to draw out the entire seed mass intact. It
+is exceedingly important that the seeds are not wounded, and for that
+reason it is inexpedient to intrust the more expeditious method of
+halving the fruit with a sharp knife to any but experienced
+workmen.</p>
+<p>The process of curing that I have seen followed in these Islands is
+simplicity itself. Two jars half filled with water are provided for the
+cleaners, and as the seeds are detached from the pulp they are sorted
+and graded on the spot. Only those of large, uniform size, well formed
+and thoroughly ripe, being thrown into one; deformed, small, and
+imperfectly matured seeds going to the other. In these jars the seeds
+are allowed to stand in their own juice for a day, then they are taken
+out, washed in fresh water, dried in the sun from two to four days,
+according to the weather, and the process from the Filipino standpoint
+is complete.</p>
+<p>Much of the product thus obtained is singularly free from bitterness
+and of such excellent quality; as to be saleable at unusually high
+prices, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e502" href="#xd20e502" name=
+"xd20e502">17</a>]</span>and at the same time in such good demand that
+it is with some hesitancy that the process of fermentation is
+recommended for general use.</p>
+<p>But it is also equally certain that localities in these Islands will
+be planted to cacao where all the conditions that help to turn out an
+unrivaled natural product are by no means assured. For such places,
+where the rank-growing, more coarse-flavored, and bitter-fruited
+Forastero may produce exceptionally good crops, it will become
+incumbent on the planter to adopt some of the many methods of
+fermentation, whereby he can correct the crudeness of the untreated
+bean and receive a remunerative price for the &ldquo;processed&rdquo;
+or ameliorated product.</p>
+<p>Undoubtedly the Strickland method, or some modification of it, is
+the best, and is now in general use on all considerable estates where
+the harvest is 200 piculs or upward per annum, and its use probably
+assures a more uniform product than any of the ruder processes in
+common use by small proprietors.</p>
+<p>But it must not be forgotten that the present planters in the
+Philippines are all small proprietors, and that until such time as the
+maturing of large plantations calls for the more elaborate apparatus of
+the Strickland pattern, some practice whereby the inferior crude bean
+may be economically and quickly converted into a marketable product can
+not be avoided. As simple and efficacious as any is that largely
+pursued in some parts of Venezuela, where is produced the famous
+Caracas cacao.</p>
+<p>The beans and pulp are thrown into wooden vats that are pierced with
+holes sufficient to permit of the escape of the juice, for which
+twenty-four hours suffices. The vat is then exposed to the sun for five
+or six hours, and the beans, while still hot, are taken out, thrown
+into large heaps, and covered with blankets.</p>
+<p>The next day they are returned to the box, subjected to a strong sun
+heat and again returned to the heap. This operation is repeated for
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e514" title="Source: sevral">several</span>
+days, until the beans, by their bright chocolate color and suppleness,
+indicate that they are cured. If, during the period of fermentation,
+rain is threatened or occurs, the beans are shoveled, still hot, into
+bags and retained there until they can once more be exposed to the sun.
+Before the final bagging they are carefully hand rubbed in order to
+remove the adherent gums and fibrous matters that did not pass off in
+the primary fermentation.</p>
+<p>In Ceylon, immediately after the beans have been fermented they are
+washed, and the universally high prices obtained by the Ceylon planters
+make it desirable to reproduce here a brief r&eacute;sum&eacute; of
+their method. The fermentation is carried on under sheds, and the beans
+are heaped up in beds of 60 cm. to 1 meter in thickness upon a platform
+of parallel joists arranged to permit of the escape of the juices. This
+platform is elevated from the ground and the whole heap is covered with
+sacks or matting. The fermentation takes from five to seven days,
+according to the heat of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e520" href=
+"#xd20e520" name="xd20e520">18</a>]</span>the atmosphere and the size
+of the heap, and whenever the temperature rises above 40&deg; the mass
+is carefully turned over with wooden shovels.</p>
+<p>Immediately after the fermentation is completed the Ceylon planter
+passes the mass through repeated washings, and nothing remains but to
+dry the seed. This in Ceylon is very extensively done, in dryers of
+different kinds, some patterned after the American fruit dryer, some in
+slowly rotating cylinders through the axis of which a powerful blast of
+hot air is driven.</p>
+<p>The process of washing unquestionably diminishes somewhat the weight
+of the cured bean; for that reason the practice is not generally
+followed in other countries, but in the case of the Ceylon product it
+is one of the contributing factors to the high prices obtained.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="diseases" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Enemies and Diseases.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Monkeys, rats, and parrots are here and in all
+tropical countries the subject of much complaint, and if the plantation
+is remote from towns or in the forest, their depredations can only be
+held in check by the constant presence of well-armed hunter or
+watchman. Of the more serious enemies with which we have to deal,
+pernicious insects and in particular those that attack the wood of the
+tree, everything has yet to be learned.</p>
+<p>Mr. Charles N. Banks, an accomplished entomologist, now stationed at
+Maao, Occidental Negros, is making a close study of the life history of
+the insect enemies of cacao, and through his researches it is hoped
+that much light will be thrown upon the whole subject and that ways
+will be devised to overcome and prevent the depredations of these
+insect pests. The most formidable insect that has so far been
+encountered is a beetle, which pierces and deposits its eggs within the
+bark. When the worm hatches, it enters the wood and traverses it
+longitudinally until it is ready to assume the mature or beetle state,
+when it comes to the surface and makes its escape. These worms will
+frequently riddle an entire branch and even enter the trunk. The
+apertures that the beetle makes for the laying of its eggs are so
+small&mdash;more minute than the head of a pin&mdash;that discovery and
+probing for the worm with a fine wire is not as fruitful of results as
+has been claimed.</p>
+<p>Of one thing, however, we are positively assured, i. e., that the
+epoch of ripening of the cacao fruit is the time when its powerful
+fragrance serves to attract the greatest number of these beetles and
+many other noxious insects to the grove. This, too, is the time when
+the most constant and abundant supply of labor is on the plantation and
+when vast numbers of these insects can be caught and destroyed. The
+building of small fires at night in the groves, as commonly practiced
+here and in many tropical countries, is attended with some benefits.
+Lately, in India, this remedy has been subject to an improvement that
+gives promise of results which will in time minimize the ravages of
+insect pests. It is in placing powerful acetylene lights over broad,
+shallow vats of water overlaid with mineral <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e535" href="#xd20e535" name=
+"xd20e535">19</a>]</span>oil or petroleum. Some of these lamps now made
+under recent patents yield a light of dazzling brilliancy, and if well
+distributed would doubtless lure millions of insects to their death.
+The cheap cost of the fuel also makes the remedy available for trial by
+every planter.</p>
+<p>There is a small hemipterous insect which stings the fruit when
+about two-thirds grown, and deposits its eggs within. For this class of
+insects M. A. Tonduz, who has issued publications on the diseases of
+cacao in Venezuela, recommends washing the fruit with salt water, and
+against the attacks of beetles in general by painting the tree stem and
+branches with Bordeaux mixture, or with the vassili&eacute;re
+insecticide, of which the basis is a combination of whale-oil soap and
+petroleum suspended in lime wash. There can be no possible virtue in
+the former, except as a preventive against possible fungous diseases;
+of the sanitive value of the latter we can also afford to be skeptical,
+as the mechanical sealing of the borer&rsquo;s holes, and thereby
+cutting off the air supply, would only result in driving the worm
+sooner to the surface. The odor of petroleum and particularly of
+whale-oil soap is so <span class="corr" id="xd20e539" title=
+"Source: repellant">repellent</span>, however, to most insects that its
+prophylactic virtues would undoubtedly be great.</p>
+<p>The Philippine Islands appear to be so far singularly exempt from
+the very many cryptogamic or fungous diseases, blights, mildews, rusts,
+and cankers that have played havoc with cacao-growing in many
+countries. That we should enjoy continued immunity will depend greatly
+upon securing seeds or young plants only from noninfested districts or
+from reputable dealers, who will carefully disinfect any shipments, and
+to supplement this by a close microscopical examination upon arrival
+and the immediate burning of any suspected shipments.</p>
+<p>Another general precaution that will be taken by every planter who
+aims to maintain the best condition in his orchard is the gathering and
+burning of all prunings or trimmings from the orchard, whether they are
+diseased or not. Decaying wood of any kind is a field for special
+activity for insect life and fungous growth, and the sooner it is
+destroyed the better.</p>
+<p>On this account it is customary in some countries to remove the
+fruit pods from the field. But unless diseased, or unless they are to
+be returned after the harvest, they should be buried upon the land for
+their manurial value.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="manuring" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Manuring.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">There are few cultivated crops that make less drain
+upon soil fertility than cacao, and few drafts upon the land are so
+easily and inexpensively returned. From an examination made of detailed
+analyses by many authors and covering many regions, it may be broadly
+stated that an average crop of cacao in the most-favored districts is
+about 9 piculs per hectare, and that of the three all-important
+elements of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, a total of slightly
+more than 4.2 kilograms is removed in each <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e553" href="#xd20e553" name=
+"xd20e553">20</a>]</span>picul of cured seeds harvested. These 37 kilos
+of plant food that are annually taken from each hectare may be roughly
+subdivided as follows:</p>
+<ul>
+<li>18 kilos of nitrogen,</li>
+<li>10 kilos of potash,</li>
+<li>9 kilos of phosphoric acid.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>On this basis, after the plantation is in full bearing, we would
+have to make good with standard fertilizers each year for each hectare
+about 220 kilos of nitrate of soda, or, if the plantation was shaded
+with leguminous trees, only one-half that amount, or 110 kilos. Of
+potash salts, say the sulphate, only one-half that amount, or 55 kilos,
+if the plantation was unshaded. If, however, it was shaded, as the
+leguminous trees are all heavy feeders of potash, we would have to
+double the amount and use 110 kilos.</p>
+<p>In any case, as fixed nitrogen always represents a cost quite double
+that of potash, from an economical standpoint the planter is still the
+gainer who supplies potash to the shade trees. There still remains
+phosphoric acid, which, in the form of the best superphosphate of lime,
+would require 55 kilos for unshaded orchards, and about 70 if dap-dap,
+Pionciana, or any leguminous tree was grown in the orchard. These three
+ingredients may be thoroughly incorporated and used as a top dressing
+and lightly harrowed in about each tree.</p>
+<p>If the commercial nitrates can not be readily obtained, then
+recourse must be had to the sparing use of farm manures. Until the
+bearing age these may be used freely, but after that with caution and
+discrimination. Although I have seen trees here that have been bearing
+continuously for twenty-two years, I have been unable to find so much
+as one that to the knowledge of the oldest resident has ever been
+fertilized in any way, yet, notwithstanding our lack of knowledge of
+local conditions, it seems perfectly safe to predicate that liberal
+manuring with stable manure or highly ammoniated fertilizers would
+insure a rank, succulent growth that is always prejudicial to the best
+and heaviest fruit production. In this I am opposed to Professor
+Hart,<a class="noteref" id="xd20e569src" href="#xd20e569" name=
+"xd20e569src">1</a> who seems to think that stable manures are those
+only that may be used with a free hand.</p>
+<p>We have many safe ways of applying nitrogen through the medium of
+various catch crops of pulse or beans, with the certainty that we can
+never overload the soil with more than the adjacent tree roots can take
+up and thoroughly assimilate. When the time comes that the orchard so
+shades the ground that crops can no longer be grown between the rows,
+then, in preference to stable manures I would recommend cotton-seed
+cake or &ldquo;poonac,&rdquo; the latter being always obtainable in
+this Archipelago.</p>
+<p>While the most desirable form in which potash can be applied is in
+the form of the sulphate, excellent results have been had with the use
+of Kainit or Stassfurth salts, and as a still more available
+substitute, wood ashes is suggested. When forest lands are near, the
+underbrush may be <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e576" href=
+"#xd20e576" name="xd20e576">21</a>]</span>cut and burned in a clearing
+or wherever it may be done without detriment to the standing timber,
+and the ashes scattered in the orchard before they have been leached by
+rains. The remaining essential of phosphoric acid in the form of
+superphosphates will for some years to come necessarily be the subject
+of direct importation. In the cheap form of phosphate slag it is
+reported to have been used with great success in both Grenada and
+British Guiana, and would be well worthy of trial here.</p>
+<p>Lands very rich in humus, as some of our forest valleys are,
+undoubtedly carry ample nitrogenous elements of fertility to maintain
+the trees at a high standard of growth for many years, but provision is
+indispensable for a regular supply of potash and phosphoric acid as
+soon as the trees come into heavy bearing. It is to them and not to the
+nitrogen that we look for the formation of strong, stocky, well-ripened
+wood capable of fruit bearing and for fruit that shall be sound, highly
+flavored, and well matured.</p>
+<p>The bearing life of such a tree will surely be healthfully prolonged
+for many years beyond one constantly driven with highly stimulating
+foods, and in the end amply repay the grower for the vigilance, toil,
+and original expenditure of money necessary to maintaining a well-grown
+and well-appointed cacao plantation.</p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e569" href="#xd20e569src" name="xd20e569">1</a></span>
+&ldquo;Cacao,&rdquo; p. 16.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="supplemental" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Supplemental Notes.</h2>
+<p id="newvarieties" class="firstpar"><i>New Varieties.</i>&mdash;Cacao
+is exclusively grown from seed, and it is only by careful selection of
+the most valuable trees that the planter can hope to make the most
+profitable renewals or additions to his plantations. It is by this
+means that many excellent sorts are now in cultivation in different
+regions that have continued to vary from the three original, common
+forms of <i>Theobroma cacao</i>, until now it is a matter of some
+difficulty to differentiate them.</p>
+<p id="residence"><i>Residence.</i>&mdash;The conditions for living in
+the Philippines offer peculiar, it may be said unexampled, advantages
+to the planter of cacao. The climate as a whole is remarkably
+salubrious, and sites are to be found nearly everywhere for the estate
+buildings, sufficiently elevated to obviate the necessity of living
+near stagnant waters.</p>
+<p>Malarial fevers are relatively few, predacious animals unknown, and
+insects and reptiles prejudicial to human life or health
+extraordinarily few in number. In contrast to this we need only call
+attention to the entire Caribbean coast of South America, where the
+climate and soil conditions are such that the cacao comes to a
+superlative degree of perfection, and yet the limits of its further
+extension have probably been reached by the insuperable barrier of a
+climate so insalubrious that the Caucasian&rsquo;s life is one endless
+conflict with disease, and when not engaged in active combat with some
+form of malarial poisoning his energies are concentrated upon battle
+with the various insect or animal pests that make life a burden in such
+regions. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e598" href="#xd20e598" name=
+"xd20e598">22</a>]</span></p>
+<p>Nonresidence upon a cacao plantation is an equivalent term for
+ultimate failure. Every operation demands the exercise of the
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e601" title=
+"Source: obervant">observant</span> eye and the directing hand of a
+master, but there is no field of horticultural effort that offers more
+assured reward, or that will more richly repay close study and the
+application of methods wrought out as the sequence of those
+studies.</p>
+</div>
+<div id="revenues" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<h2 class="main">Estimated Cost and Revenues Derived from a Cacao
+Plantation.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">Estimates of expenses in establishing a cacao farm
+in the Visayas and profits after the fifth year. The size of the farm
+selected is 16 hectares, the amount of land prescribed by Congress of a
+single public land entry. The cost of procuring such a tract of land is
+as yet undetermined and can not be reckoned in the following tables.
+The prices of the crop are estimated at 48 cents per kilo, which is the
+current price for the best grades of cacao in the world&rsquo;s
+markets. The yield per tree is given as 2 catties, or 1.25 kilos, a
+fair and conservative estimate for a good tree, with little or no
+cultivation. The prices for unskilled labor are 25 per cent in advance
+of the farm hand in the Visayan islands. No provision is made for
+management or supervision, as the owner will, it is assumed, act as
+manager.</p>
+<p>Charges to capital account are given for the second, third, and
+fourth year, but no current expenses are given, for other crops are to
+defray operating expenses until the cacao trees begin to bear. No
+estimate of residence is given. All accounts are in United States
+currency.</p>
+<div class="table">
+<table>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Expendable
+the first year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Capital
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Clearing of <i>average</i> brush and timber land, at
+$15 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$340.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Four carabaos, plows, harrows, cultivators, carts,
+etc.</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">550.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Breaking and preparing land, at $5 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">80.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Opening main drainage canals, at $6 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">96.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Tool house and storeroom 200.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Purchase and planting 10,000 abac&aacute; stools, at 2
+cents each</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">200.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Seed purchase, rearing and planting 12,000 cacao, at 3
+cents each</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">360.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent and incidental</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">174.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Total</td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$2,000.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Second
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Interest on investment</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$200.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Depreciation on tools, buildings, and animals (20 per
+cent of cost)</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">150.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">350.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Third
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Interest on investment</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$200.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Depreciation as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">150.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">350.00 <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e748" href="#xd20e748" name="xd20e748">23</a>]</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Fourth
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Interest on investment</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$200.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Depreciation as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">150.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Building of drying house and sweat boxes, capacity
+20,000 kilos</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">450.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$800.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Total capital investment</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">3,500.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Fifth
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Income
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">From 11,680 cacao trees, 300 grams cacao each, equals
+3,500 kilos, at 48 cents</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,680.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Expense
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fixed interest and depreciation charges on investment
+of $3,500.00</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$350.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Taxes 1&frac12; per cent on a one-third valuation
+basis of $250 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">60.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Cultivating, pruning, etc., at $5.50 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">88.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fertilizing, at $6 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">96.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Harvesting, curing, packing 3,500 kilos cacao, at 10
+cents per kilo 350.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">86.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,030.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Credit balance</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">650.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Sixth
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Income
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">From 11,680 cacao trees, at 500 grams cacao each,
+equals 5,840 kilos, at 48 cents</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">2,803.20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Expense
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fixed interest and depreciation charges as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$350.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Taxes as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">60.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Cultivating, etc., as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">88.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fertilizing, at $8 per hectare 128.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Harvesting, etc., 5,840 kilos cacao, at 10 cents per
+kilo</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">584.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">93.20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,303.20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Credit balance</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">1,500.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Seventh
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Income
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">From 11,680 cacao trees, at 750 grams cacao each,
+equals 8,760 kilos, at 48 cents</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">4,204.80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Expense
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fixed interest charges as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$350.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Taxes as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">60.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Cultivating, etc., as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">88.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fertilizing, at $10 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">160.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Harvest, etc., of 8,760 kilos of cacao, at 10 cents
+per kilo</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">876.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">170.80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,704.80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Credit balance</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">2,500.00 <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1032" href="#xd20e1032" name=
+"xd20e1032">24</a>]</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Eighth
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Income
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">From 11,680 cacao trees, at 1 kilo cacao each, equals
+11,680 kilos, at 48 cents</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$5,606.40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Expense
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fixed interest charges as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$350.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Taxes as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">60.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Cultivating, etc., as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">88.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fertilizing, at $12.50 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">200.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Harvest, etc., 11,680 kilos of cacao, at 10 cents per
+kilo</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,168.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">240.40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">2,106.40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Credit balance</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">3,500.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="4" class="xd20e617 xd20e612"><i>Ninth
+year.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Income
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">From 11,680 trees, at 2 &ldquo;catties&rdquo; or 1.25
+kilos cacao each, equals 14,600 kilos, at 48 cents</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">7,008.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" colspan="2" class="xd20e622 xd20e612">Expense
+account:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fixed interest charges as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">$350.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Taxes at 1&frac12; per cent on a one-third valuation
+of $500 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">120.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Cultivation and pruning as above</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">88.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Fertilizing, at $15 per hectare</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">240.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Harvesting, etc., of 14,600 kilos of cacao, at 10
+cents per kilo</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">1,460.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Contingent</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">250.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614">2,508.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e612"></td>
+<td valign="top">Credit balance</td>
+<td valign="top" class="xd20e614"></td>
+<td valign="top" class="sum xd20e614">4,500.00</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>In the tenth year there should be no increase in taxes or
+fertilizers, and a slight increase in yield, sufficient to bring the
+net profits of the estate to the approximate amount of $5,000. This
+would amount to a dividend of rather more than $312 per hectare, or its
+equivalent of about $126 per acre.</p>
+<p>These tables further show original capitalization cost of nearly $90
+per acre, and from the ninth year annual operating expenses of rather
+more than $60 per acre.</p>
+<p>It should be stated, however, that the operating expenses are based
+upon a systematic and scientific management of the estate; while the
+returns or income are based upon revenue from trees that are at the
+disadvantage of being without culture of any kind, and, while I am of
+the opinion that the original cost per acre of the plantation, nor its
+current operating expenses may be much reduced below the figures given,
+I feel that there is a reasonable certainty that the crop product may
+be materially increased beyond the limit of two
+&ldquo;catties.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>In Camerouns, Dr. Preuss, a close and well-trained observer, gives
+the mean annual yield of trees of full-bearing age at 4.4 pounds.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1205" href="#xd20e1205" name=
+"xd20e1205">25</a>]</span></p>
+<p>Mr. Rousselot places the yield on the French Congo at the same
+figure<span class="corr" id="xd20e1208" title="Not in source">.</span>
+In the Caroline Islands it reaches 5 pounds and in Surinam, according
+to M. Nichols, the average at maturity is 6&frac12; pounds. In
+Mindanao, I have been told, but do not vouch for the report, of more
+than ten &ldquo;catties&rdquo; taken in one year from a single tree;
+and, as there are well-authenticated instances of record, of single
+trees having yielded as much as 30 pounds, I am not prepared to
+altogether discredit the Mindanao story.</p>
+<p>The difference, however, between good returns and enormous profits
+arising from cacao growing in the Philippines will be determined by the
+amount of knowledge, experience, and energy that the planter is capable
+of bringing to bear upon the culture in question.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="back">
+<div class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="transcribernote">
+<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2>
+<h3 class="main">Availability</h3>
+<p class="firstpar">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no
+cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give
+it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
+included with this eBook or online at <a class="exlink" title=
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+<p>This eBook is produced by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at <a class="exlink" title="External link" href=
+"http://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>.</p>
+<p>Transcribed from scans available at the <a class="exlink" title=
+"External link" href=
+"http://www.archive.org/details/cacaocultureinph00lyonrich">Internet
+Archive</a>.</p>
+<h3 class="main">Encoding</h3>
+<p class="firstpar"></p>
+<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3>
+<ul>
+<li>2010-10-14 Started.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3 class="main">External References</h3>
+<p>This Project Gutenberg eBook contains external references. These
+links may not work for you.</p>
+<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3>
+<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p>
+<table width="75%" summary=
+"Overview of corrections applied to the text.">
+<tr>
+<th>Page</th>
+<th>Source</th>
+<th>Correction</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e369">9</a></td>
+<td class="width40">mechancial</td>
+<td class="width40">mechanical</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e391">10</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Ponciana</td>
+<td class="width40">Poinciana</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e429">11</a></td>
+<td class="width40">necessitly</td>
+<td class="width40">necessity</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e514">17</a></td>
+<td class="width40">sevral</td>
+<td class="width40">several</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e539">19</a></td>
+<td class="width40">repellant</td>
+<td class="width40">repellent</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e601">22</a></td>
+<td class="width40">obervant</td>
+<td class="width40">observant</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1208">25</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cacao Culture in the Philippines, by 
+William S. Lyon
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Cacao Culture in the Philippines, by William S. Lyon
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Cacao Culture in the Philippines
+
+Author: William S. Lyon
+
+Release Date: October 16, 2010 [EBook #33921]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for project
+Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously
+made available by The Internet Archive)
+
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+
+
+
+                   Philippine Bureau of Agriculture.
+
+
+                        Farmer's Bulletin No. 2.
+
+                    CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES
+
+
+
+                                   By
+
+                            WILLIAM S. LYON,
+
+               In charge of seed and plant introduction.
+
+
+
+        Prepared under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau.
+
+                                Manila:
+
+                       Bureau of Public Printing.
+
+                                 1902.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                            Page.
+
+        Letter of transmittal                 4
+        Introduction                          5
+        Climate                               6
+        The plantation site                   7
+        The soil                              7
+        Preparation of the soil               8
+        Drainage                              8
+        Forming the plantation                9
+        Selection of varieties               10
+        Planting                             11
+        Cultivation                          13
+        Pruning                              13
+        Harvest                              16
+        Enemies and diseases                 18
+        Manuring                             19
+        Supplemental notes                   21
+        New varieties                        21
+        Residence                            21
+        Cost of a cacao plantation           22
+
+
+
+
+
+LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
+
+
+Sir: I submit herewith an essay on the cultivation of cacao, for the
+use of planters in the Philippines. This essay is prompted first,
+because much of the cacao grown here is of such excellent quality as
+to induce keen rivalry among buyers to procure it at an advance of
+quite 50 per cent over the common export grades of the Java bean,
+notwithstanding the failure on the part of the local grower to
+"process" or cure the product in any way; second, because in parts
+of Mindanao and Negros, despite ill treatment or no treatment, the
+plant exhibits a luxuriance of growth and wealth of productiveness
+that demonstrates its entire fitness for those regions and leads us
+to believe in the successful extension of its propagation throughout
+these Islands; and lastly because of the repeated calls upon the Chief
+of the Agricultural Bureau for literature or information bearing upon
+this important horticultural industry.
+
+The importance of cacao-growing in the Philippines can hardly be
+overestimated. Recent statistics place the world's demand for cacao
+(exclusive of local consumption) at 200,000,000 pounds, valued at
+more than $30,000,000 gold.
+
+There is little danger of overproduction and consequent low prices
+for very many years to come. So far as known, the areas where cacao
+prospers in the great equatorial zone are small, and the opening and
+development of suitable regions has altogether failed to keep pace
+with the demand.
+
+The bibliography of cacao is rather limited, and some of the best
+publications, [2] being in French, are unavailable to many. The leading
+English treatise, by Professor Hart, [3] admirable in many respects,
+deals mainly with conditions in Trinidad, West Indies, and is fatally
+defective, if not misleading, on the all-important question of pruning.
+
+The life history of the cacao, its botany, chemistry, and statistics
+are replete with interest, and will, perhaps, be treated in a future
+paper.
+
+
+    Respectfully,
+
+        Wm. S. Lyon,
+        In Charge of Seed and Plant Introduction.
+
+        Hon. F. Lamson-Scribner,
+        Chief of the Insular Bureau of Agriculture.
+
+
+
+
+
+CACAO CULTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Cacao in cultivation exists nearly everywhere in the Archipelago. I
+have observed it in several provinces of Luzon, in Mindanao, Jolo,
+Basilan, Panay, and Negros, and have well-verified assurances of its
+presence in Cebu, Bohol, and Masbate, and it is altogether reasonable
+to predicate its existence upon all the larger islands anywhere under
+an elevation of 1,000 or possibly 1,200 meters. Nevertheless, in many
+localities the condition of the plants is such as not to justify the
+general extension of cacao cultivation into all regions. The presence
+of cacao in a given locality is an interesting fact, furnishing a
+useful guide for investigation and agricultural experimentation, but,
+as the purpose of this paper is to deal with cacao growing from a
+commercial standpoint, it is well to state that wherever reference is
+made to the growth, requirements, habits, or cultural treatment of the
+plant the commercial aspect is alone considered. As an illustration,
+attention is called to the statement made elsewhere, that "cacao exacts
+a minimum temperature of 18 deg."; although, as is perfectly well known
+to the writer, its fruit has sometimes matured where the recorded
+temperatures have fallen as low as 10 deg.. There is much to be learned
+here by experimentation, for as yet the cultivation is primitive
+in the extreme, pruning of any kind rudimentary or negative, and
+"treatment" of the nut altogether unknown.
+
+Elsewhere in cacao-producing countries its cultivation has long passed
+the experimental stage, and the practices that govern the management
+of a well-ordered cacao plantation are as clearly defined as those
+of an orange grove in Florida or a vineyard in California.
+
+In widely scattered localities the close observer will find many
+young trees that in vigor, color, and general health leave nothing
+to be desired, but before making final selection for a plantation he
+should inspect trees of larger growth for evidences of "die back" of
+the branches. If "die back" is present, superficial examination will
+generally determine if it is caused by neglect or by the attacks
+of insects. If not caused by neglect or insect attacks, he may
+assume that some primary essential to the continued and successful
+cultivation of the tree is wanting and that the location is unsuited
+to profitable plantations.
+
+With due regard to these preliminary precautions and a close
+oversight of every subsequent operation, there is no reason why the
+growing of cacao may not ultimately become one of the most profitable
+horticultural enterprises that can engage the attention of planters
+in this Archipelago.
+
+
+
+
+
+CLIMATE.
+
+
+It is customary, when writing of any crop culture, to give precedence
+to site and soil, but in the case of cacao these considerations are
+of secondary importance, and while none of the minor operations of
+planting, pruning, cultivation, and fertilizing may be overlooked,
+they are all outweighed by the single essential--climate.
+
+In general, a state of atmospheric saturation keeps pace with heavy
+rainfall, and for that reason we may successfully look for the highest
+relative humidity upon the eastern shores of the Archipelago, where
+the rainfall is more uniformly distributed over the whole year,
+than upon the west.
+
+There are places where the conditions are so peculiar as to challenge
+especial inquiry. We find on the peninsula of Zamboanga a recorded
+annual mean rainfall of only 888 mm., and yet cacao (unirrigated)
+exhibits exceptional thrift and vigor. It is true that this rain is
+so evenly distributed throughout the year that every drop becomes
+available, yet the total rainfall is insufficient to account for
+the very evident and abundant atmospheric humidity indicated by
+the prosperous conditions of the cacao plantations. The explanation
+of this phenomenon, as made to me by the Rev. Father Algue, of the
+Observatory of Manila, is to the effect that strong equatorial ocean
+currents constantly prevail against southern Mindanao, and that their
+influence extend north nearly to the tenth degree of latitude. These
+currents, carrying their moisture-laden atmosphere, would naturally
+affect the whole of this narrow neck of land and influence as well
+some of the western coast of Mindanao, and probably place it upon
+the same favored hygrometric plane as the eastern coast, where the
+rainfall in some localities amounts to 4 meters a year.
+
+While 2,000 mm. of mean annual rainfall equably distributed is ample
+to achieve complete success, it seems almost impossible to injure
+cacao by excessive precipitation. It has been known to successfully
+tide over inundation of the whole stem up to the first branches for
+a period covering nearly a month.
+
+Irrigation must be resorted to in cases of deficient or unevenly
+distributed rainfall, and irrigation is always advantageous whenever
+there is suspension of rain for a period of more than fifteen days.
+
+Concerning temperatures the best is that with an annual mean of 26 deg.
+to 28 deg., with 20 deg. as the mean minimum where any measure of success
+may be expected. A mean temperature of over 30 deg. is prejudicial to
+cacao growing.
+
+The last but not least important of the atmospheric phenomena for
+our consideration are the winds. Cacao loves to "steam and swelter in
+its own atmosphere" and high winds are inimical, and even refreshing
+breezes are incompatible, with the greatest success. As there are but
+few large areas in these Islands that are exempt from one or other
+of our prevailing winds, the remedies that suggest themselves are:
+The selection of small sheltered valleys where the prevailing winds
+are directly cut off by intervening hills or mountains; the plantation
+of only small groves in the open, and their frequent intersection by
+the plantation of rapid growing trees; and, best of all, plantings
+made in forest clearings, where the remaining forested lands will
+furnish the needed protection.
+
+
+
+
+
+LOCATION.
+
+
+It is always desirable to select a site that is approximately level
+or with only enough fall to assure easy drainage. Such sites may
+be planted symmetrically and are susceptible to the easiest and
+most economical application of the many operations connected with
+a plantation.
+
+Provided the region is well forested and therefore protected from
+sea breezes, the plantation may be carried very near to the coast,
+provided the elevation is sufficient to assure the grove immunity from
+incursions of tide water, which, however much diluted, will speedily
+cause the death of the plants.
+
+Excavations should be made during the dry season to determine that
+water does not stand within 1 1/2 meters of the surface, a more
+essential condition, however, when planting is made "at stake" than
+when nursery reared trees are planted.
+
+Hillsides, when not too precipitous, frequently offer admirable shelter
+and desirable soils, but their use entails a rather more complicated
+system of drainage, to carry away storm water without land washing,
+and for the ready conversion of the same into irrigating ditches during
+the dry season. Further, every operation involved must be performed
+by hand labor, and in the selection of such a site the planter must
+be largely influenced by the quantity and cost of available labor.
+
+The unexceptionable shelter, the humidity that prevails, and the
+inexhaustible supply of humus that is generally found in deep
+forest ravines frequently lead to their planting to cacao where
+the slope is even as great as 45 deg.. Such plantations, if done upon
+a considerable commercial scale, involve engineering problems and
+the careful terracing of each tree, and, except for a dearth of more
+suitable locations, is a practice that has little to commend it to
+the practical grower.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SOIL.
+
+
+Other things being equal, preference should be given to a not too
+tenacious, clayey loam. Selection, in fact, may be quite successfully
+made through the process of exclusion, and by eliminating all soils
+of a very light and sandy nature, or clays so tenacious that the
+surface bakes and cracks while still too wet within 3 or 4 inches of
+the surface to operate with farm tools. These excluded, still leave
+a very wide range of silt, clay, and loam soils, most of which are
+suitable to cacao culture.
+
+Where properly protected from the wind a rocky soil, otherwise good,
+is not objectionable; in fact, such lands have the advantage of
+promoting good drainage.
+
+
+
+
+
+PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.
+
+
+When the plantation is made upon forest lands, it is necessary to
+cut and burn all underbrush, together with all timber trees other
+than those designed for shade. If such shade trees are left (and the
+advisability of leaving them will be discussed in the proper place),
+only those of the pulse or bean family are to be recommended. It should
+also be remembered that, owing in part to the close planting of cacao
+and in part to the fragility of its wood and its great susceptibility
+to damage resulting from wounds, subsequent removal of large shade
+trees from the plantation is attended with difficulty and expense,
+and the planter should leave few shade trees to the hectare. Clearing
+the land should be done during the dry season, and refuse burned in
+situ, thereby conserving to the soil the potash salts so essential
+to the continued well-being of cacao.
+
+The land should be deeply plowed, and, if possible, subsoiled as well,
+and then, pending the time of planting the orchard, it may be laid
+down to corn, cotton, beans, or some forage plant. Preference should
+be given to "hoed crops," as it is essential to keep the surface in
+open tilth, as well as to destroy all weeds.
+
+The common practice in most cacao-growing countries is to simply dig
+deep holes where the trees are to stand, and to give a light working
+to the rest of the surface just sufficient to produce the intermediate
+crops. This custom is permissible only on slopes too steep for the
+successful operation of a side hill plow, or where from lack of draft
+animals all cultivation has to be done by hand.
+
+Cacao roots deeply, and with relatively few superficial feeders,
+and the deeper the soil is worked the better.
+
+
+
+
+
+DRAINAGE.
+
+
+The number and size of the drains will depend upon the amount of
+rainfall, the contour of the land, and the natural absorbent character
+of the soil. In no case should the ditches be less than 1 meter wide
+and 60 cm. deep, and if loose stones are at hand the sloping sides
+may be laid with them, which will materially protect them from washing
+by torrential rains.
+
+These main drains should all be completed prior to planting. Connecting
+laterals may be opened subsequently, as the necessities of further
+drainage or future irrigation may demand; shallow furrows will
+generally answer for these laterals, and as their obliteration will
+practically follow every time cultivation is given, their construction
+may be of the cheapest and most temporary nature. Owing to the
+necessity of main drainage canals and the needful interplanting of
+shade plants between the rows of cacao, nothing is gained by laying off
+the land for planting in what is called "two ways," and all subsequent
+working of the orchard will consequently be in one direction.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE PLANTATION.
+
+
+Cacao, relatively to the size of the tree, may be planted very
+closely. We have stated that it rejoices in a close, moisture-laden
+atmosphere, and this permits of a closer planting than would be
+admissible with any other orchard crop.
+
+In very rich soil the strong-growing Forastero variety may be planted
+3.7 meters apart each way, or 745 trees to the hectare, and on lighter
+lands this, or the more dwarf-growing forms of Criollo, may be set
+as close as 3 meters or rather more than 1,000 trees to the hectare.
+
+The rows should be very carefully lined out in one direction and
+staked where the young plants are to be set, and then (a year before
+the final planting) between each row of cacao a line of temporary
+shelter plants are to be planted. These should be planted in quincunx
+order, i. e., at the intersecting point of two lines drawn between
+the diagonal corners of the square made by four cacaos set equidistant
+each way. This temporary shelter is indispensable for the protection
+of the young plantation from wind and sun.
+
+The almost universal custom is to plant, for temporary shelter, suckers
+of fruiting bananas, but throughout the Visayas and in Southern Luzon
+I think abaca could be advantageously substituted. It is true that,
+as commonly grown, abaca does not make so rank a growth as some
+of the plantains, but if given the perfect tillage which the cacao
+plantation should receive, and moderately rich soils, abaca ought to
+furnish all necessary shade. This temporary shade may be maintained
+till the fourth or fifth year, when it is to be grubbed out and the
+stalks and stumps, which are rich in nitrogen, may be left to decay
+upon the ground. At present prices, the four or five crops which
+may be secured from the temporary shelter plants ought to meet the
+expenses of the entire plantation until it comes into bearing.
+
+In the next step, every fourth tree in the fourth or fifth row
+of cacao may be omitted and its place filled by a permanent shade
+tree. The planting of shade trees or "madre de cacao" among the cacao
+has been observed from time immemorial in all countries where the crop
+is grown, and the primary purpose of the planting has been for shade
+alone. Observing that these trees were almost invariably of the pulse
+or legume family, the writer, in the year 1892, raised the question,
+in the Proceedings of the Southern California Horticultural Society,
+that the probable benefits derived were directly attributable to the
+abundant fertilizing microoerganisms developed in the soil by these
+leguminous plants, rather than the mechanical protection they afforded
+from the sun's rays.
+
+To Mr. O. F. Cook, of the United States Department of Agriculture,
+however, belongs the credit of publishing, in 1901, [4] a resume of
+his inquiries into the subject of the shades used for both the coffee
+and the cacao, and which fully confirmed the previous opinions that
+the main benefit derived from these trees was their influence in
+maintaining a constant supply of available nitrogen in the soil.
+
+That cacao and its wild congenors naturally seek the shelter of
+well-shaded forests is well established; but having seen trees in these
+Islands that were fully exposed at all times showing no evidences of
+either scald, burn, or sun spot, and in every respect the embodiment
+of vigor and health, we are fully justified in assuming that here the
+climatic conditions are such as will permit of taking some reasonable
+liberties with this time-honored practice and supply needed nitrogen
+to the soil by the use of cheap and effective "catch crops," such us
+cowpeas or soy beans.
+
+Here, as elsewhere, an Erythrina, known as "dap-dap," is a favorite
+shade tree among native planters; the rain tree (Pithecolobium saman)
+is also occasionally used, and in one instance only have I seen a
+departure from the use of the Leguminosae, and that in western Mindanao,
+there is a shade plantation composed exclusively of Cananga odorata,
+locally known as ilang-ilang.
+
+While not yet prepared to advocate the total exclusion of all shade
+trees, I am prepared to recommend a shade tree, if shade trees there
+must be, whose utility and unquestioned value has singularly escaped
+notice. The tree in question, the Royal Poinciana (Poinciana regia),
+embodies all of the virtues that are ascribed to the best of the
+pulse family, is easily procured, grows freely and rapidly from seed
+or cutting, furnishes a minimum of shade at all times, and, in these
+Islands, becomes almost leafless, at the season of maturity of the
+largest cacao crop when the greatest sun exposure is desired.
+
+The remaining preparatory work consists in the planting of intersecting
+wind breaks at intervals throughout the grove, and upon sides exposed
+to winds, or where a natural forest growth does not furnish such a
+shelter belt. Unless the plantation lies in a particularly protected
+valley, no plantation, however large in the aggregate, should cover
+more than 4 or 5 hectares unbroken by at least one row of wind-break
+trees. Nothing that I know of can approach the mango for this
+purpose. It will hold in check the fiercest gale and give assurance
+to the grower that after any storm his cacao crop is still on the
+trees and not on the ground, a prey to ants, mice, and other vermin.
+
+
+
+
+
+SELECTION OF VARIETIES.
+
+
+All the varieties of cacao in general cultivation may be referred to
+three general types, the Criollo, Forastero, and Calabacillo; and
+of these, those that I have met in cultivation in the Archipelago
+are the first and second only. The Criollo is incomparably the
+finest variety in general use, and may perhaps be most readily
+distinguished by the inexperienced through the ripe but unfermented
+seed or almond, as it is often called. This, on breaking, is found
+to be whitish or yellowish-white, while the seeds of those in which
+the Forastero or Calabacillo blood predominates are reddish, or, in
+the case of Forastero, almost violet in color. For flavor, freedom
+from bitterness, facility in curing, and high commercial value,
+the Criollo is everywhere conceded to be facile princeps.
+
+On the other hand, in point of yield, vigor, freedom from disease,
+and compatibility to environment it is not to be compared with the
+others. Nevertheless, where such perfect conditions exist as are
+found in parts of Mindanao, I do not hesitate to urge the planting
+of Criollo. Elsewhere, or wherever the plantation is tentative or the
+conditions not very well known to the planter, the Forastero is to be
+recommended. The former is commercially known as "Caracas" and "old
+red Ceylon," and may be obtained from Ceylon dealers; and the latter,
+the Forastero, or forms of it which have originated in the island,
+can be procured from Java.
+
+It seems not unlikely that the true Forastero may have been brought
+to these Islands from Acapulco, Mexico, two hundred and thirty-two
+years ago, [5] as it was at that time the dominant kind grown in
+southeastern Mexico, and, if so, the place where the pure type would
+most likely be found in these Islands would be in the Camarines,
+Southern Luzon. Aside from the seed characters already given, Forastero
+is recognized by its larger, thicker, more abundant, and rather more
+abruptly pointed fruit than Criollo, and its coarse leaves which are
+from 22 to 50 cm. long by 7 to 13 cm. wide, dimensions nearly double
+those reached by the Criollo or Calabacillo varieties.
+
+
+
+
+
+PLANTING.
+
+Planting may be done "at stake" or from the nursery. For the unskilled
+or inexperienced planter, who has means at hand to defray the greater
+cost, planting "at stake" is perhaps to be recommended. This is no
+more than the dropping and lightly covering, during the rainy season,
+of three or four seeds at the stake where the plant is to stand,
+protecting the spot with a bit of banana leaf, left till the seeds
+have sprouted, and subsequently pulling out all but the one strongest
+and thriftiest plant.
+
+The contingencies to be met by this system are many. The enemies of
+the cacao seed are legion. Drought, birds, worms, ants, beetles, mice,
+and rats will all contribute their quota to prevent a good "stand"
+and entail the necessity of repeated plantings. Success by planting
+"at stake" is so doubtful that it is rarely followed by experienced
+planters.
+
+The consequent alternative lies in rearing seedlings in seed beds that
+are under immediate control, and, when the plants are of sufficient
+size, in transplanting them to their proper sites in the orchard. In
+view of the remarkable short-lived vitality of the cacao seed, it is
+in every way advisable that the untrained grower procure his plants
+from professional nurserymen, or, if this resource is lacking, that he
+import the young plants in Wardian cases from some of the many firms
+abroad who make a specialty of preparing them for foreign markets.
+
+Both of these expedients failing, then it is advised that the seeds
+be sown one by one in small pots, or, if these are not procurable,
+in small bamboo tubes, and, for the sake of uniform moisture, plunge
+them to their rims in any free, light soil in a well-shaded easily
+protected spot where they may be carefully watered. In three to six
+months (according to growth) the tube with its included plant may be
+planted in the open field, when the former will speedily decompose
+and the growth of the cacao proceed without check or injury.
+
+At best, all of the above suggested methods are but crude expedients
+to replace the more workmanlike, expeditious, and satisfactory process
+of planting the conventional nursery grown stock. There is nothing
+more difficult in the rearing of cacao seedlings than in growing any
+other evergreen fruit tree. Briefly stated, it is only the finding
+of a well-prepared, well-shaded seed bed and sowing the seeds in rows
+or drills, and, when the seedlings are of proper size, in lifting and
+transferring them to the plantation. But in actual practice there are
+many details calling for the exercise of trained judgment from the
+preparation of the seed bed down to the final process of "hardening
+off," concerning which the reader is referred to the many available
+text-books on general nursery management.
+
+It may be said for the benefit of those unable to adopt more scientific
+methods: Let the seed bed be selected in a well-shaded spot, and, if
+possible, upon a rather stiff, plastic, but well-drained soil. After
+this is well broken up and made smooth, broadcast over all 3 or 4
+inches of well-decomposed leaf mold mixed with sand, and in this sow
+the seed in furrows about 1 inch deep. This sowing should be made
+during the dry season, not only to avoid the beating and washing
+of violent storms but to have the nursery plants of proper size for
+planting at the opening of the rainy season. The seed bed should be
+accessible to water, in order that it may be conveniently watered by
+frequent sprinklings throughout the dry season.
+
+The rich top dressing will stimulate the early growth of the seedling,
+and when its roots enter the heavier soil below it will encourage a
+stocky growth. Four or five months later the roots will be so well
+established in the stiffer soil that if lifted carefully each plant
+may be secured with a ball of earth about its roots, placed in a tray
+or basket, and in this way carried intact to the field. Plants thus
+reared give to the inexperienced an assurance of success not always
+obtained by the trained or veteran planter of bare rooted subjects.
+
+
+
+
+
+CULTIVATION.
+
+
+Planters are united in the opinion that pruning, cutting, or in any
+way lacerating the roots is injurious to the cacao, and in deference
+to this opinion all cultivation close to the tree should be done with
+a harrow-tooth cultivator, or shallow scarifier. All intermediate
+cultivation should be deep and thorough, whenever the mechanical
+condition of the soil will permit it. A plant stunted in youth will
+never make a prolific tree; early and continuous growth can only be
+secured by deep and thorough cultivation.
+
+Of even more consideration than an occasional root cutting is any
+injury, however small, to the tree stem, and on this account every
+precaution should be taken to protect the trees from accidental injury
+when plowing or cultivating. The whiffletree of the plow or cultivator
+used should be carefully fendered with rubber or a soft woolen packing
+that will effectually guard against the carelessness of workmen. Wounds
+in the bark or stem offer an inviting field for the entry of insects
+or the spores of fungi, and are, furthermore, apt to be overlooked
+until the injury becomes deep seated and sometimes beyond repair.
+
+With the gradual extension of root development, cultivation will
+be reduced to a narrow strip between the rows once occupied by the
+plantain or the abaca, but, to the very last, the maintenance of the
+proper soil conditions should be observed by at least one good annual
+plowing and by as many superficial cultivations as the growth of the
+trees and the mechanical state of the land will admit.
+
+
+
+
+
+PRUNING.
+
+
+When left to its own resources the cacao will fruit for an almost
+indefinite time. When well and strenuously grown it will bear much more
+abundant fruit from its fifth to its twenty-fifth year, and by a simple
+process of renewal can be made productive for a much longer time.
+
+A necessary factor to this result is an annual pruning upon strictly
+scientific lines. The underlying principle involved is, primarily,
+the fact that the cacao bears its crop directly upon the main branches
+and trunk, and not upon spurs or twigs; secondly, that wood under
+three years is rarely fruitful, and that only upon stems or branches
+of five years or upward does the maximum fruitfulness occur; that the
+seat of inflorescence is directly over the axil of a fallen leaf, from
+whence the flowers are born at irregular times throughout the year.
+
+With this necessary, fundamental information as a basis of operations,
+the rational system of pruning that suggests itself is the maintenance
+of as large an extension at all times of straight, well-grown mature
+wood and the perfecting of that by the early and frequent removal
+of all limbs or branches that the form of the tree does not admit of
+carrying without overcrowding.
+
+It is desirable that this extension of the branch system should be
+lateral rather than vertical, for the greater facility with which
+fruit may be plucked and possible insect enemies fought; and on this
+account the leading growths should be stopped when a convenient height
+has been attained.
+
+When well grown and without accident to its leader, the cacao will
+naturally branch at from 1 to 1.4 meters from the ground. These
+primary branches are mostly three to five in number, and all in
+excess of three should be removed as soon as selection can be made
+of three strongest that are as nearly equidistant from each other
+as may be. When these branches are from 80 cm. to 1 meter long, and
+preferably the shorter distance, they are to be stopped by pinching
+the extremities. This will cause them and the main stem as well to
+"break," i. e., to branch in many places.
+
+At this point the vigilance and judgment of the planter are called
+into greater play. These secondary branches are, in turn, all to
+be reduced as were the primary ones, and their selection can not be
+made in a symmetrical whorl, for the habit of the tree does not admit
+of it, and selection of the three should be made with reference to
+their future extension, that the interior of the tree should not be
+overcrowded and that such outer branches be retained as shall fairly
+maintain the equilibrium of the crown.
+
+This will complete the third year and the formative stage of the
+plant. Subsequent prunings will be conducted on the same lines, with
+the modification that when the secondary branches are again cut back,
+the room in the head of the tree will rarely admit of more than one,
+at most two, tertiary branches being allowed to remain. When these
+are grown to an extent that brings the total height of the tree
+to 3 or 4 meters, they should be cut back annually, at the close
+of the dry season. Such minor operations as the removal of thin,
+wiry, or hide-bound growths and all suckers suggest themselves to
+every horticulturist, whether he be experienced in cacao growing
+or not. When a tree is exhausted by overbearing, or has originally
+been so ill formed that it is not productive, a strong sucker or
+"gourmand" springing from near the ground may be encouraged to grow. By
+distributing the pruning over two or three periods, in one year the
+old tree can be entirely removed and its place substituted by the
+"gourmand." During the third year flowers will be abundant and some
+fruit will set, but it is advisable to remove it while small and
+permit all of the energy of the plant to be expended in wood making.
+
+From what we know of its flowering habit, it is obvious that every
+operation connected with the handling or pruning of a cacao, should
+be conducted with extreme care; to see that the bark is never injured
+about the old leaf scars, for to just the extent it is so injured is
+the fruit-bearing area curtailed. Further, no pruning cut should ever
+be inflicted, except with the sharpest of knives and saws, and the use
+of shears, that always bruise to some extent, is to be avoided. All
+the rules that are laid down for the guidance of the pruning of most
+orchard trees in regard to clean cuts, sloping cuts, and the covering
+of large wounds with tar or resin apply with fourfold force to the
+cacao. Its wood is remarkably spongy and an easy prey to the enemies
+ever lying in wait to attack it, and the surest remedies for disease
+are preventive ones, and by the maintenance of the bark of the tree
+at all times in the sound condition, we are assured that it is best
+qualified to resist invasion. Of the great number of worm-riddled
+trees to be seen in the Archipelago, it is easy in every case to
+trace the cause to the neglect and brutal treatment which left them
+in a condition to invite the attacks of disease of every kind.
+
+
+
+
+
+HARVEST.
+
+
+The ripening period of cacao generally occurs at two seasons of the
+year, but in these islands the most abundant crop is obtained at about
+the commencement of the dry season, and the fruits continue to ripen
+for two months or longer. The time of its approaching maturity is
+easily recognized by the tyro by the unmistakable aroma of chocolate
+that pervades the orchard at that period, and by some of the pods
+turning reddish or yellow according to the variety.
+
+The pods are attached by a very short stalk to the trunk of the tree,
+and those within reach of the hand are carefully cut with shears. Those
+higher up are most safely removed with an extension American tree
+pruner. A West Indian hook knife with a cutting edge above and below
+and mounted on a bamboo pole, if kept with the edges very sharp, does
+excellently well, but should only be intrusted to the most careful
+workmen. There is hardly a conceivable contingency to warrant the
+climbing of a cacao tree. If it should occur, the person climbing
+should go barefooted. As soon as the fruit, or so much of it as is
+well ripened, has been gathered, it is thrown into heaps and should
+be opened within twenty-four hours.
+
+The opening is done in a variety of ways, but the practice followed in
+Surinam would be an excellent one here if experienced labor was not at
+command. There, with a heavy knife or cutlass (bolo), they cut off the
+base or stem end of the fruit and thereby expose the column to which
+the seeds are attached, and then women and children, who free most of
+the seeds, are able to draw out the entire seed mass intact. It is
+exceedingly important that the seeds are not wounded, and for that
+reason it is inexpedient to intrust the more expeditious method of
+halving the fruit with a sharp knife to any but experienced workmen.
+
+The process of curing that I have seen followed in these Islands is
+simplicity itself. Two jars half filled with water are provided for
+the cleaners, and as the seeds are detached from the pulp they are
+sorted and graded on the spot. Only those of large, uniform size,
+well formed and thoroughly ripe, being thrown into one; deformed,
+small, and imperfectly matured seeds going to the other. In these
+jars the seeds are allowed to stand in their own juice for a day,
+then they are taken out, washed in fresh water, dried in the sun from
+two to four days, according to the weather, and the process from the
+Filipino standpoint is complete.
+
+Much of the product thus obtained is singularly free from bitterness
+and of such excellent quality; as to be saleable at unusually high
+prices, and at the same time in such good demand that it is with
+some hesitancy that the process of fermentation is recommended for
+general use.
+
+But it is also equally certain that localities in these Islands
+will be planted to cacao where all the conditions that help to
+turn out an unrivaled natural product are by no means assured. For
+such places, where the rank-growing, more coarse-flavored, and
+bitter-fruited Forastero may produce exceptionally good crops,
+it will become incumbent on the planter to adopt some of the many
+methods of fermentation, whereby he can correct the crudeness of the
+untreated bean and receive a remunerative price for the "processed"
+or ameliorated product.
+
+Undoubtedly the Strickland method, or some modification of it, is
+the best, and is now in general use on all considerable estates where
+the harvest is 200 piculs or upward per annum, and its use probably
+assures a more uniform product than any of the ruder processes in
+common use by small proprietors.
+
+But it must not be forgotten that the present planters in the
+Philippines are all small proprietors, and that until such time as the
+maturing of large plantations calls for the more elaborate apparatus
+of the Strickland pattern, some practice whereby the inferior crude
+bean may be economically and quickly converted into a marketable
+product can not be avoided. As simple and efficacious as any is that
+largely pursued in some parts of Venezuela, where is produced the
+famous Caracas cacao.
+
+The beans and pulp are thrown into wooden vats that are pierced with
+holes sufficient to permit of the escape of the juice, for which
+twenty-four hours suffices. The vat is then exposed to the sun for
+five or six hours, and the beans, while still hot, are taken out,
+thrown into large heaps, and covered with blankets.
+
+The next day they are returned to the box, subjected to a strong sun
+heat and again returned to the heap. This operation is repeated for
+several days, until the beans, by their bright chocolate color and
+suppleness, indicate that they are cured. If, during the period of
+fermentation, rain is threatened or occurs, the beans are shoveled,
+still hot, into bags and retained there until they can once more be
+exposed to the sun. Before the final bagging they are carefully hand
+rubbed in order to remove the adherent gums and fibrous matters that
+did not pass off in the primary fermentation.
+
+In Ceylon, immediately after the beans have been fermented they
+are washed, and the universally high prices obtained by the Ceylon
+planters make it desirable to reproduce here a brief resume of their
+method. The fermentation is carried on under sheds, and the beans are
+heaped up in beds of 60 cm. to 1 meter in thickness upon a platform of
+parallel joists arranged to permit of the escape of the juices. This
+platform is elevated from the ground and the whole heap is covered
+with sacks or matting. The fermentation takes from five to seven days,
+according to the heat of the atmosphere and the size of the heap,
+and whenever the temperature rises above 40 deg. the mass is carefully
+turned over with wooden shovels.
+
+Immediately after the fermentation is completed the Ceylon planter
+passes the mass through repeated washings, and nothing remains but
+to dry the seed. This in Ceylon is very extensively done, in dryers
+of different kinds, some patterned after the American fruit dryer,
+some in slowly rotating cylinders through the axis of which a powerful
+blast of hot air is driven.
+
+The process of washing unquestionably diminishes somewhat the weight
+of the cured bean; for that reason the practice is not generally
+followed in other countries, but in the case of the Ceylon product
+it is one of the contributing factors to the high prices obtained.
+
+
+
+
+
+ENEMIES AND DISEASES.
+
+
+Monkeys, rats, and parrots are here and in all tropical countries
+the subject of much complaint, and if the plantation is remote from
+towns or in the forest, their depredations can only be held in check
+by the constant presence of well-armed hunter or watchman. Of the
+more serious enemies with which we have to deal, pernicious insects
+and in particular those that attack the wood of the tree, everything
+has yet to be learned.
+
+Mr. Charles N. Banks, an accomplished entomologist, now stationed
+at Maao, Occidental Negros, is making a close study of the life
+history of the insect enemies of cacao, and through his researches
+it is hoped that much light will be thrown upon the whole subject and
+that ways will be devised to overcome and prevent the depredations of
+these insect pests. The most formidable insect that has so far been
+encountered is a beetle, which pierces and deposits its eggs within
+the bark. When the worm hatches, it enters the wood and traverses it
+longitudinally until it is ready to assume the mature or beetle state,
+when it comes to the surface and makes its escape. These worms will
+frequently riddle an entire branch and even enter the trunk. The
+apertures that the beetle makes for the laying of its eggs are so
+small--more minute than the head of a pin--that discovery and probing
+for the worm with a fine wire is not as fruitful of results as has
+been claimed.
+
+Of one thing, however, we are positively assured, i. e., that the
+epoch of ripening of the cacao fruit is the time when its powerful
+fragrance serves to attract the greatest number of these beetles
+and many other noxious insects to the grove. This, too, is the
+time when the most constant and abundant supply of labor is on the
+plantation and when vast numbers of these insects can be caught and
+destroyed. The building of small fires at night in the groves, as
+commonly practiced here and in many tropical countries, is attended
+with some benefits. Lately, in India, this remedy has been subject
+to an improvement that gives promise of results which will in time
+minimize the ravages of insect pests. It is in placing powerful
+acetylene lights over broad, shallow vats of water overlaid with
+mineral  oil or petroleum. Some of these lamps now made under recent
+patents yield a light of dazzling brilliancy, and if well distributed
+would doubtless lure millions of insects to their death. The cheap cost
+of the fuel also makes the remedy available for trial by every planter.
+
+There is a small hemipterous insect which stings the fruit when about
+two-thirds grown, and deposits its eggs within. For this class of
+insects M. A. Tonduz, who has issued publications on the diseases of
+cacao in Venezuela, recommends washing the fruit with salt water, and
+against the attacks of beetles in general by painting the tree stem and
+branches with Bordeaux mixture, or with the vassiliere insecticide,
+of which the basis is a combination of whale-oil soap and petroleum
+suspended in lime wash. There can be no possible virtue in the former,
+except as a preventive against possible fungous diseases; of the
+sanitive value of the latter we can also afford to be skeptical, as
+the mechanical sealing of the borer's holes, and thereby cutting off
+the air supply, would only result in driving the worm sooner to the
+surface. The odor of petroleum and particularly of whale-oil soap is
+so repellent, however, to most insects that its prophylactic virtues
+would undoubtedly be great.
+
+The Philippine Islands appear to be so far singularly exempt from
+the very many cryptogamic or fungous diseases, blights, mildews,
+rusts, and cankers that have played havoc with cacao-growing in many
+countries. That we should enjoy continued immunity will depend greatly
+upon securing seeds or young plants only from noninfested districts or
+from reputable dealers, who will carefully disinfect any shipments,
+and to supplement this by a close microscopical examination upon
+arrival and the immediate burning of any suspected shipments.
+
+Another general precaution that will be taken by every planter who
+aims to maintain the best condition in his orchard is the gathering
+and burning of all prunings or trimmings from the orchard, whether
+they are diseased or not. Decaying wood of any kind is a field for
+special activity for insect life and fungous growth, and the sooner
+it is destroyed the better.
+
+On this account it is customary in some countries to remove the fruit
+pods from the field. But unless diseased, or unless they are to be
+returned after the harvest, they should be buried upon the land for
+their manurial value.
+
+
+
+
+
+MANURING.
+
+
+There are few cultivated crops that make less drain upon soil
+fertility than cacao, and few drafts upon the land are so easily and
+inexpensively returned. From an examination made of detailed analyses
+by many authors and covering many regions, it may be broadly stated
+that an average crop of cacao in the most-favored districts is about
+9 piculs per hectare, and that of the three all-important elements of
+nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, a total of slightly more than
+4.2 kilograms is removed in each picul of cured seeds harvested. These
+37 kilos of plant food that are annually taken from each hectare may
+be roughly subdivided as follows:
+
+
+                    18 kilos of nitrogen,
+                    10 kilos of potash,
+                     9 kilos of phosphoric acid.
+
+
+On this basis, after the plantation is in full bearing, we would have
+to make good with standard fertilizers each year for each hectare
+about 220 kilos of nitrate of soda, or, if the plantation was shaded
+with leguminous trees, only one-half that amount, or 110 kilos. Of
+potash salts, say the sulphate, only one-half that amount, or 55
+kilos, if the plantation was unshaded. If, however, it was shaded,
+as the leguminous trees are all heavy feeders of potash, we would
+have to double the amount and use 110 kilos.
+
+In any case, as fixed nitrogen always represents a cost quite double
+that of potash, from an economical standpoint the planter is still
+the gainer who supplies potash to the shade trees. There still remains
+phosphoric acid, which, in the form of the best superphosphate of lime,
+would require 55 kilos for unshaded orchards, and about 70 if dap-dap,
+Pionciana, or any leguminous tree was grown in the orchard. These
+three ingredients may be thoroughly incorporated and used as a top
+dressing and lightly harrowed in about each tree.
+
+If the commercial nitrates can not be readily obtained, then
+recourse must be had to the sparing use of farm manures. Until the
+bearing age these may be used freely, but after that with caution and
+discrimination. Although I have seen trees here that have been bearing
+continuously for twenty-two years, I have been unable to find so much
+as one that to the knowledge of the oldest resident has ever been
+fertilized in any way, yet, notwithstanding our lack of knowledge of
+local conditions, it seems perfectly safe to predicate that liberal
+manuring with stable manure or highly ammoniated fertilizers would
+insure a rank, succulent growth that is always prejudicial to the best
+and heaviest fruit production. In this I am opposed to Professor Hart,
+[6] who seems to think that stable manures are those only that may
+be used with a free hand.
+
+We have many safe ways of applying nitrogen through the medium of
+various catch crops of pulse or beans, with the certainty that we
+can never overload the soil with more than the adjacent tree roots
+can take up and thoroughly assimilate. When the time comes that the
+orchard so shades the ground that crops can no longer be grown between
+the rows, then, in preference to stable manures I would recommend
+cotton-seed cake or "poonac," the latter being always obtainable in
+this Archipelago.
+
+While the most desirable form in which potash can be applied is in
+the form of the sulphate, excellent results have been had with the
+use of Kainit or Stassfurth salts, and as a still more available
+substitute, wood ashes is suggested. When forest lands are near,
+the underbrush may be cut and burned in a clearing or wherever it
+may be done without detriment to the standing timber, and the ashes
+scattered in the orchard before they have been leached by rains. The
+remaining essential of phosphoric acid in the form of superphosphates
+will for some years to come necessarily be the subject of direct
+importation. In the cheap form of phosphate slag it is reported to
+have been used with great success in both Grenada and British Guiana,
+and would be well worthy of trial here.
+
+Lands very rich in humus, as some of our forest valleys are,
+undoubtedly carry ample nitrogenous elements of fertility to maintain
+the trees at a high standard of growth for many years, but provision
+is indispensable for a regular supply of potash and phosphoric acid
+as soon as the trees come into heavy bearing. It is to them and not
+to the nitrogen that we look for the formation of strong, stocky,
+well-ripened wood capable of fruit bearing and for fruit that shall
+be sound, highly flavored, and well matured.
+
+The bearing life of such a tree will surely be healthfully prolonged
+for many years beyond one constantly driven with highly stimulating
+foods, and in the end amply repay the grower for the vigilance,
+toil, and original expenditure of money necessary to maintaining a
+well-grown and well-appointed cacao plantation.
+
+
+
+
+
+SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES.
+
+
+New Varieties.--Cacao is exclusively grown from seed, and it is only
+by careful selection of the most valuable trees that the planter
+can hope to make the most profitable renewals or additions to his
+plantations. It is by this means that many excellent sorts are now
+in cultivation in different regions that have continued to vary from
+the three original, common forms of Theobroma cacao, until now it is
+a matter of some difficulty to differentiate them.
+
+Residence.--The conditions for living in the Philippines offer
+peculiar, it may be said unexampled, advantages to the planter of
+cacao. The climate as a whole is remarkably salubrious, and sites are
+to be found nearly everywhere for the estate buildings, sufficiently
+elevated to obviate the necessity of living near stagnant waters.
+
+Malarial fevers are relatively few, predacious animals unknown,
+and insects and reptiles prejudicial to human life or health
+extraordinarily few in number. In contrast to this we need only
+call attention to the entire Caribbean coast of South America, where
+the climate and soil conditions are such that the cacao comes to a
+superlative degree of perfection, and yet the limits of its further
+extension have probably been reached by the insuperable barrier of
+a climate so insalubrious that the Caucasian's life is one endless
+conflict with disease, and when not engaged in active combat with some
+form of malarial poisoning his energies are concentrated upon battle
+with the various insect or animal pests that make life a burden in
+such regions.
+
+Nonresidence upon a cacao plantation is an equivalent term for ultimate
+failure. Every operation demands the exercise of the observant
+eye and the directing hand of a master, but there is no field of
+horticultural effort that offers more assured reward, or that will
+more richly repay close study and the application of methods wrought
+out as the sequence of those studies.
+
+
+
+
+
+ESTIMATED COST AND REVENUES DERIVED FROM A CACAO PLANTATION.
+
+
+Estimates of expenses in establishing a cacao farm in the Visayas
+and profits after the fifth year. The size of the farm selected is
+16 hectares, the amount of land prescribed by Congress of a single
+public land entry. The cost of procuring such a tract of land
+is as yet undetermined and can not be reckoned in the following
+tables. The prices of the crop are estimated at 48 cents per kilo,
+which is the current price for the best grades of cacao in the world's
+markets. The yield per tree is given as 2 catties, or 1.25 kilos,
+a fair and conservative estimate for a good tree, with little or
+no cultivation. The prices for unskilled labor are 25 per cent in
+advance of the farm hand in the Visayan islands. No provision is
+made for management or supervision, as the owner will, it is assumed,
+act as manager.
+
+Charges to capital account are given for the second, third, and fourth
+year, but no current expenses are given, for other crops are to defray
+operating expenses until the cacao trees begin to bear. No estimate
+of residence is given. All accounts are in United States currency.
+
+
+                       Expendable the first year.
+
+Capital account:
+
+    Clearing of average brush and timber land, at
+    $15 per hectare                                   $340.00
+    Four carabaos, plows, harrows, cultivators,
+    carts, etc.                                        550.00
+    Breaking and preparing land, at $5 per hectare      80.00
+    Opening main drainage canals, at $6 per hectare     96.00
+    Tool house and storeroom                           200.00
+    Purchase and planting 10,000 abaca stools, at
+    2 cents each                                       200.00
+    Seed purchase, rearing and planting 12,000 cacao,
+    at 3 cents each                                    360.00
+    Contingent and incidental                          174.00
+                                                      -------
+      Total                                                   $2,000.00
+
+
+                              Second year.
+
+    Interest on investment                            $200.00
+    Depreciation on tools, buildings, and animals
+    (20 per cent of cost)                              150.00
+                                                      -------
+                                                                 350.00
+
+
+                              Third year.
+
+    Interest on investment                            $200.00
+    Depreciation as above                              150.00
+                                                      -------
+                                                                 350.00
+
+
+                              Fourth year.
+
+    Interest on investment                            $200.00
+    Depreciation as above                              150.00
+    Building of drying house and sweat boxes,
+    capacity 20,000 kilos                              450.00
+                                                      -------
+                                                                 800.00
+                                                               --------
+      Total capital investment                                 3,500.00
+
+
+                              Fifth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, 300 grams cacao each,
+    equals 3,500 kilos, at 48 cents                            1,680.00
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest and depreciation charges on
+    investment of $3,500.00                         $350.00
+    Taxes 1 1/2 per cent on a one-third valuation
+    basis of $250 per hectare                         60.00
+    Cultivating, pruning, etc., at $5.50 per
+    hectare                                           88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $6 per hectare                    96.00
+    Harvesting, curing, packing 3,500 kilos cacao,
+    at 10 cents per kilo                             350.00
+    Contingent                                        86.00
+                                                    -------
+                                                               1,030.00
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                               650.00
+
+
+                              Sixth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, at 500 grams cacao each,
+    equals 5,840 kilos, at 48 cents                            2,803.20
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest and depreciation charges
+    as above                                        $350.00
+    Taxes as above                                    60.00
+    Cultivating, etc., as above                       88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $8 per hectare                   128.00
+    Harvesting, etc., 5,840 kilos cacao, at 10
+    cents per kilo                                   584.00
+    Contingent                                        93.20
+                                                    -------
+                                                               1,303.20
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             1,500.00
+
+
+                             Seventh year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, at 750 grams cacao each,
+    equals 8,760 kilos, at 48 cents                            4,204.80
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest charges as above                 $350.00
+    Taxes as above                                    60.00
+    Cultivating, etc., as above                       88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $10 per hectare                  160.00
+    Harvest, etc., of 8,760 kilos of cacao, at
+    10 cents per kilo                                876.00
+    Contingent                                       170.80
+                                                    -------
+                                                               1,704.80
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             2,500.00
+
+
+                              Eighth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 cacao trees, at 1 kilo cacao each,
+    equals 11,680 kilos, at 48 cents                           5,606.40
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest charges as above                 $350.00
+    Taxes as above                                    60.00
+    Cultivating, etc., as above                       88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $12.50 per hectare               200.00
+    Harvest, etc., 11,680 kilos of cacao, at
+    10 cents per kilo                              1,168.00
+    Contingent                                       240.40
+                                                   --------
+                                                               2,106.40
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             3,500.00
+
+
+                              Ninth year.
+
+Income account:
+
+    From 11,680 trees, at 2 "catties" or 1.25 kilos
+    cacao each, equals 14,600 kilos, at 48 cents               7,008.00
+
+Expense account:
+
+    Fixed interest charges as above                 $350.00
+    Taxes at 1 1/2 per cent on a one-third
+    valuation of $500 per hectare                    120.00
+    Cultivation and pruning as above                  88.00
+    Fertilizing, at $15 per hectare                  240.00
+    Harvesting, etc., of 14,600 kilos of cacao, at
+    10 cents per kilo                              1,460.00
+    Contingent                                       250.00
+                                                   --------
+                                                               2,508.00
+                                                               --------
+    Credit balance                                             4,500.00
+
+
+In the tenth year there should be no increase in taxes or fertilizers,
+and a slight increase in yield, sufficient to bring the net profits
+of the estate to the approximate amount of $5,000. This would amount
+to a dividend of rather more than $312 per hectare, or its equivalent
+of about $126 per acre.
+
+These tables further show original capitalization cost of nearly $90
+per acre, and from the ninth year annual operating expenses of rather
+more than $60 per acre.
+
+It should be stated, however, that the operating expenses are based
+upon a systematic and scientific management of the estate; while the
+returns or income are based upon revenue from trees that are at the
+disadvantage of being without culture of any kind, and, while I am
+of the opinion that the original cost per acre of the plantation, nor
+its current operating expenses may be much reduced below the figures
+given, I feel that there is a reasonable certainty that the crop
+product may be materially increased beyond the limit of two "catties."
+
+In Camerouns, Dr. Preuss, a close and well-trained observer, gives
+the mean annual yield of trees of full-bearing age at 4.4 pounds.
+
+Mr. Rousselot places the yield on the French Congo at the same
+figure. In the Caroline Islands it reaches 5 pounds and in Surinam,
+according to M. Nichols, the average at maturity is 6 1/2 pounds. In
+Mindanao, I have been told, but do not vouch for the report, of
+more than ten "catties" taken in one year from a single tree; and,
+as there are well-authenticated instances of record, of single trees
+having yielded as much as 30 pounds, I am not prepared to altogether
+discredit the Mindanao story.
+
+The difference, however, between good returns and enormous profits
+arising from cacao growing in the Philippines will be determined by
+the amount of knowledge, experience, and energy that the planter is
+capable of bringing to bear upon the culture in question.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+[1] A short introduction to cacao and its cultivation in the
+Philippines.
+
+[2] Le Cacaoyer, par Henri Jumelle. Culture de Cacaoyer dans Guadaloupe
+par Dr Paul Guerin.
+
+[3] Cacao, by J. H. Hart, F. L. S. Trinidad.
+
+[4] "Shade in Coffee Culture." U. S. Dept. Ag., Washington, 1901.
+
+[5] According to "Historia de Filipinas," by P. Fr. Gaspar de
+S. Augustin, cacao plants were first brought here in the year 1670
+by a pilot named Pedro Brabo, of Laguna Province, who gave them to
+a priest of the Camarines named Bartoleme Brabo.
+
+[6] "Cacao," p. 16.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cacao Culture in the Philippines, by
+William S. Lyon
+
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