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diff --git a/old/33900-8.txt b/old/33900-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..61a351c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/33900-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7614 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Principles of Orchestration, by Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Principles of Orchestration + With musical examples drawn from his own works + +Author: Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov + +Editor: Maximilian Steinberg + +Translator: Edward Agate + +Release Date: September 30, 2010 [EBook #33900] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF ORCHESTRATION *** + + + + +Produced by Mark C. Orton, Linda Cantoni, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. Music +transcribed by Linda Cantoni. Thanks to Alex Guzman for +his assistance in interpreting orchestral notation. + + + + + + + + + +[Transcriber's Notes: This e-book was prepared from a 1964 reprint +published by Dover Publications, Inc., New York, which in turn was +prepared from the two-volume 1922 English translation published by +Édition Russe de Musique, Paris. + +Volume I contains the text of the work; Volume II contains the musical +examples referred to in Volume I. This plaintext version of the e-book +contains only Volume I and the front matter of Volume II. To see and +hear the musical examples in Volume II, see the HTML version. + +The original uses boxed numbers to refer to sections of musical +scores. They are represented here in double square brackets, e.g., +[[27]], [[B]]. See the footnote at the beginning of Chapter II for the +editor's explanation of the musical examples and the boxed rehearsal +numbers. The use of asterisks is explained in the Editor's Preface. + +Obvious printer errors have been corrected without note. Other +apparent errors are noted with a [Transcriber's Note]. + +The original contains a number of tables of instrument distribution. +Those occurring in the middle of a line are rendered in a single line, +using forward slashes to indicate line breaks. For example, where the +following occurs in the middle of a line, in the original, + +Vns I ] +Vns II ] +Vns III] 8 + +it is rendered in this e-book as + +Vns I/Vns II/Vns III] 8. + +This e-book uses the octave numbering system to describe the +single-note music examples. Under this system, for example, middle C +is C4, and the scale following would be D4, E4, etc.; the C below +middle C is rendered as C3, and the scale following would be D3, E3, +etc.; the C above middle C is rendered as C5, and the scale following +would be D5, E5, etc. + +Sharp, flat, and natural symbols are rendered as [sharp], [flat], and +[natural], respectively. Other musical symbols are rendered as +[symbol: name]. + +Italics are surrounded by _underscores_. Boldface text is surrounded +by =equal signs=.] + + + + +NIKOLAY RIMSKY-KORSAKOV + + +_Principles of Orchestration_ + + +_with musical examples +drawn from his own works_ + + +Edited by +MAXIMILIAN STEINBERG + +English translation by +EDWARD AGATE + + +[VOLUME I] + + +[Édition Russe de Musique, Paris, 1922] + + + + +CONTENTS + + + page + +Editor's Preface VII--XII +Extract from the Author's preface (1891) 1 +Extract from the Preface to the last edition 5 + +Chapter I.--General review of orchestral groups + + A. Stringed instruments 6 + B. Wind instruments: + Wood-wind 12 + Brass 21 + C. Instruments of little sustaining power: + Plucked strings 26 + Pizzicato 27 + Harp 27 + Percussion instruments producing determinate sounds, keyed + instruments + Kettle-drums 29 + Piano and Celesta 30 + _Glockenspiel_, Bells, Xylophone 32 + Percussion instruments producing indefinite sounds 32 + Comparison of resonance in orchestral groups, and combination + of different tone qualities 33 + +Chapter II.--Melody + + Melody in stringed instruments 36 + Grouping in unison 39 + Stringed instruments doubling in octaves 40 + Melody in double octaves 44 + Doubling in three and four octaves 45 + Melody in thirds and sixths 45 + Melody in the wood-wind 46 + Combination in unison 47 + Combination in octaves 49 + Doubling in two, three and four octaves 51 + Melody in thirds and sixths 52 + Thirds and sixths together 53 + Melody in the brass 53 + Brass in unison, in octaves, thirds and sixths 55 + Melody in different groups of instruments combined together 56 + A. Combination of wind and brass in unison 56 + B. Combination of wind and brass in octaves 57 + C. Combination of strings and wind 58 + D. Combination of strings and brass 61 + E. Combination of the three groups 61 + +Chapter III.--Harmony + + General observations 63 + Number of harmonic parts--Duplication 64 + Distribution of notes in chords 67 + String harmony 69 + Wood-wind harmony 71 + Four-part and three-part harmony 72 + Harmony in several parts 76 + Duplication of timbres 77 + Remarks 78 + Harmony in the brass 82 + Four-part writing 82 + Three-part writing 84 + Writing in several parts 84 + Duplication in the brass 85 + Harmony in combined groups 88 + A. Combination of wind and brass 88 + 1. In unison 88 + 2. Overlaying, crossing, enclosure of parts 90 + B. Combination of strings and wind 94 + C. Combination of the three groups 95 + +Chapter IV.--Composition of the orchestra + + Different ways of orchestrating the same music 97 + Full _Tutti_ 101 + _Tutti_ in the wind 103 + _Tutti pizzicato_ 103 + _Tutti_ in one, two and three parts 104 + _Soli_ in the strings 104 + Limits of orchestral range 106 + Transference of passages and phrases 107 + Chords of different tone quality used alternately 108 + Amplification and elimination of tone qualities 109 + Repetition of phrases, imitation, echo 110 + _Sforzando-piano_ and _piano-sforzando_ chords 111 + Method of emphasising certain notes and chords 111 + _Crescendo_ and _diminuendo_ 112 + Diverging and converging progressions 113 + Tone quality as a harmonic force. Harmonic basis 114 + Artificial effects 116 + Use of percussion instruments for rhythm and colour 117 + Economy in orchestral colour 118 + +Chapter V.--Combination of the human voice with orchestra. +The Stage band + + Orchestral accompaniment of solo voices 119 + General remarks 119 + Transparence of accompaniment. Harmony 120 + Doubling voices in the orchestra 122 + Recitative and declamation 125 + Orchestral accompaniment of the chorus 126 + Solo voice with chorus 128 + Instruments on the stage and in the wings 129 + +Chapter VI (Supplementary).--Voices + + Technical terms 132 + Soloists 133 + Range and register 133 + Vocalisation 134 + Vowels 136 + Flexibility 137 + Colour and character of voices 137 + Voices in combination 139 + Duet 139 + Trios, quartets etc. 141 + Chorus 142 + Range and register 142 + Melody 144 + A. Mixed chorus 145 + Chorus in unison 145 + Progression in octaves 145 + Voices _divisi_; harmonic use of the mixed chorus 146 + B. Men's chorus and Women's chorus 148 + + + + +Editor's Preface. + + +Rimsky-Korsakov had long been engrossed in his treatise on +orchestration. We have in our possession a thick note book of some 200 +pages in fine hand writing, dating from the years 1873-1874, +containing a monograph on the question of acoustics, a classification +of wind instruments and a detailed description of the construction and +fingering of the different kinds of flute, the oboe, clarinet and +horn.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This manuscript was given to me by Alexander Glazounov; +if a Rimsky-Korsakov museum is ever founded it will be placed there.] + +In his "Memoirs of my musical life" (1st edition, p. 120) the +following passage occurs: "I had planned to devote all my energies to +the compilation of a full treatise on orchestration. To this end I +made several rough copies, jotting down explanatory notes detailing +the technique of different instruments. What I intended to present to +the world on this subject, was to include _everything_. The writing of +this treatise, or, to be more exact, the sketch for it took up most of +my time in the years 1873 and 1874. After reading the works of Tyndall +and Helmholtz, I framed an introduction to my work, in which I +endeavoured to expound the laws of acoustics as applied to the +principles governing the construction of musical instruments. My +manual was to begin with a detailed list of instruments, classified in +groups and tabulated, including a description of the various systems +in use at the present day. I had not yet thought of the second part of +the book which was to be devoted to instruments in combination. But I +soon realised that I had gone too far. With wind instruments in +particular, the different systems were innumerable, and each +manufacturer favoured his own pet theory. By the addition of a certain +key the maker endowed his instrument with the possibility of a new +trill, and made some difficult passages more playable than on an +instrument of another kind. + +"There was no end to such complications. In the brass, I found +instruments with three, four, and five valves, the mechanism varying +according to the make. Obviously, I could not hope to cover so large a +field; besides, of what value would such a treatise be to the student? +Such a mass of detailed description of the various systems, their +advantages and drawbacks, could not but fail to confuse the reader +only too eager to learn. Naturally he would wish to know what +instrument to employ, the extent of its capabilities etc., and getting +no satisfactory information he would throw my massive work aside. For +these reasons my interest in the book gradually waned, and finally I +gave up the task." + +In 1891 Rimsky-Korsakov, now an artist of standing, the composer of +_Snegourotchka_, _Mlada_, and _Shéhérazade_, a master of the +orchestral technique he had been teaching for twenty years, returned +to his handbook on instrumentation. He would seem to have made notes +at different times from 1891 to 1893, during which period, after the +first performance of _Mlada_, he gave up composition for a while. +These notes, occasionally referred to in his _Memoirs_, are in three +volumes of manuscript-paper. They contain the unfinished preface of +1891, a paragraph full of clear, thoughtful writing, and reprinted in +this book.[2] + +[Footnote 2: This preface had already been published in his _Notes and +Articles on Music_ (St. Petersburgh, 1911).] + +As the author tells us in his _Memoirs_ (p. 297), the progress of his +work was hampered by certain troublesome events which were happening +at the time. Dissatisfied with his rough draft, he destroyed the +greater part of it, and once more abandoned his task. + +In 1894 he composed _The Christmas Night_; this was the beginning of +his most fertile period. He became entirely engrossed in composition, +making plans for a fresh opera as soon as the one in hand was +completed. It was not until 1905 that his thoughts returned to the +treatise on orchestration, his musical output remaining in abeyance +through no fault of his own. Since 1891 the plan of the work had been +entirely remodelled, as proved by the rough drafts still extant. The +author had given up the idea of describing different instruments from +their technical standpoint, and was more anxious to dwell upon the +value of tone qualities and their various combinations. + +Among the author's papers several forms of the book have been found, +each widely differing in detail from the other. At last, in the summer +of 1905 Rimsky-Korsakov brought his plans to a head, and outlined the +six chapters which form the foundation of the present volume. But the +work suffered a further interruption, and the sketches were once more +laid aside. In his _Memoirs_, Rimsky-Korsakov explains the fact by +lack of interest in the work and a general feeling of weariness: "The +treatise remained in abeyance. To start with, the form of the book was +not a success, and I awaited the production of _Kitesh_, in order to +give some examples from that work" (p. 360). + +Then came the autumn of 1906. The composer experienced another rush of +creative energy; his opera, _The Golden Cockerel_ made rapid strides, +and kept him busy all that winter and the following summer. When it +was finished, in the autumn of 1907, his thoughts reverted to the +treatise on orchestration. But the work made little progress. The +author had his doubts as to the adequacy of the plan he had adopted, +and, in spite of the entreaties of his pupils and friends, he could +not bring himself to broach the latter part of the book. Towards the +end of 1907 Rimsky-Korsakov was constantly ailing in health, and this +materially affected his energy. He spent the greater part of his time +reading old notes and classifying examples. About the 20th of May +he set out for his summer residence in Lioubensk, and having just +recovered from a third severe attack of inflammation of the lungs, +began to work on the first chapter of the treatise in its present, +final form. This chapter was finished on June 7/20, about 4 o'clock in +the afternoon; the same night, the composer was seized with a fourth +attack which proved fatal. + +The honour fell on me to prepare this last work of Rimsky-Korsakov for +publication. Now that _Principles of Orchestration_ has appeared in +print I think it necessary to devote a few words to the essential +features of the book, and to the labour imposed upon me in my capacity +as editor. + +On the first point I will say but little. The reader will observe from +the Contents that the work differs from others, not merely by reason +of its musical examples, but more especially in the systematic +arrangement of material, not according to orchestral division in +groups (the method adopted by Gevaert for instance), but according to +_each constituent of the musical whole, considered separately_. The +orchestration of melodic and harmonic elements (Chapters II and III) +receives special attention, as does the question of orchestration in +general (Chapter IV). The last two chapters are devoted to operatic +music, and the sixth takes a supplementary form, having no direct +bearing on the previous matter. + +Rimsky-Korsakov altered the title of his book several times, and his +final choice was never made. The title I have selected seems to me to +be the one most suitable to the contents of the work, "principles" in +the truest sense of the word. Some may expect to find the "secrets" of +the great orchestrator disclosed; but, as he himself reminds us in his +preface, "to orchestrate is to create, and this is something which +cannot be taught." + +Yet, as invention, in all art, is closely allied to technique, this +book may reveal much to the student of instrumentation. +Rimsky-Korsakov has often repeated the axiom that _good orchestration +means proper handling of parts_. The simple use of tone-colours and +their combinations may also be taught, but there the science of +instruction ends. From these standpoints the present book will furnish +the pupil with nearly everything he requires. The author's death +prevented him from discussing a few questions, amongst which I would +include full polyphonic orchestration and the scoring of melodic and +harmonic designs. But these questions can be partly solved by the +principles laid down in Chapters II and III, and I have no wish to +overcrowd the first edition of this book with extra matter which can +be added later, if it is found to be necessary. I had first of all to +prepare and amplify the sketches made by Rimsky-Korsakov in 1905; +these form a connected summary throughout the whole six chapters. +Chapter I was completed by the author; it is published as it stands, +save for a few unimportant alterations in style. As regards the other +five chapters, I have tried to keep to the original drafts as far as +possible, and have only made a few changes in the order, and one or +two indispensable additions. The sketches made between 1891 and 1893 +were too disconnected to be of much use, but, in point of fact, they +corresponded very closely to the final form of the work. + +The musical examples are of greater importance. According to the +original scheme, as noted on the 1891 MS., they were to be drawn from +the works of Glinka and Tschaikovsky; those of Borodin and Glazounov +were to be added later. The idea of choosing examples solely from his +own works only came to Rimsky-Korsakov by degrees. The reasons for +this decision are partly explained in the unfinished preface of 1905, +but other motives may be mentioned. If Rimsky-Korsakov had chosen his +examples from the works of these four composers, he would have had to +give some account of their individual, and often strongly marked +peculiarities of style. This would have been a difficult undertaking, +and then, how to justify the exclusion of West-European composers, +Richard Wagner, for example, whose orchestration Rimsky-Korsakov so +greatly admired? Besides, the latter could hardly fail to realise that +his own compositions afforded sufficient material to illustrate every +conceivable manner of scoring, examples _emanating from one great +general principle_. This is not the place to criticise his method; +Rimsky-Korsakov's "school" is here displayed, each may examine it for +himself. The brilliant, highly-coloured orchestration of Russian +composers, and the scoring of the younger French musicians are largely +developments of the methods of Rimsky-Korsakov, who, in turn, looked +upon Glinka as his spiritual father. + +The table of examples found among the author's papers was far from +complete; some portions were badly explained, others, not at all. The +composer had not mentioned which musical quotations were to be printed +in the second volume, and which examples were to indicate the study of +the full score; further, no limit was fixed to the length of +quotation. All this was therefore left to the editor's discretion. I +selected the examples only after much doubt and hesitation, finding it +difficult to keep to those stipulated by the composer, as every page +of the master's works abounds in appropriate instances of this or that +method of scoring. + +I was guided by the following considerations which agreed with the +opinions of the author himself: in the first place the examples should +be as simple as possible, so as not to distract the student's +attention from the point under discussion; secondly, it was necessary +that one example should serve to illustrate several sections of the +book, and lastly, the majority of quotations should be those mentioned +by the author. These amount to 214, in the second volume; the +remaining 98 were added by me. They are drawn, as far as possible, +from Rimsky-Korsakov's dramatic music, since operatic full-scores are +less accessible than those of symphonic works.[3] + +[Footnote 3: Recently the firm of Belaieff has published +Rimsky-Korsakov's symphonic works in miniature score, pocket-size.] + +At the end of Vol. II I have added three tables showing different ways +of scoring full chords; all my additions to the text are marked with +asterisks. I consider that the careful study of the examples contained +in the second volume will be of the greatest use to the student +_without replacing_ the need for the study of other composers' scores. +Broadly speaking, the present work should be studied together with the +reading of full scores in general. + +A few words remain to be said regarding Rimsky-Korsakov's intention to +point out the faulty passages in his orchestral works, an intention +expressed in his preface to the last edition. The composer often +referred to the instructional value of such examinations. His purpose +however was never achieved. It is not for me to select these examples, +and I shall only mention two which were pointed out by the composer +himself: 1. _The Legend of Tsar Saltan_ [[220]], 7th bar--the theme +in the brass is not sufficiently prominent the trombones being _tacet_ +(a mistake easily rectified); 2. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[233]], bars +10-14, if the marks of expression are observed in the brass, the +counter-melody on the violas and violoncellos doubled by the wood-wind +will hardly be heard. Example 75 may also be mentioned, to which the +note on page 63, in the text, refers. I will confine myself to these +examples. + +In conclusion I desire to express my deep gratitude to Madame +Rimsky-Korsakov for having entrusted me with the task of editing this +work, thereby providing me with the opportunity of performing a duty +sacred to the memory of a master, held so deeply in reverence. + +_St. Petersburgh_, December 1912. + +MAXIMILIAN STEINBERG. + + + + +Extract from the Author's Preface (1891). + + +Our epoch, the post-Wagnerian age, is the age of brilliance and +imaginative quality in orchestral tone colouring. Berlioz, Glinka, +Liszt, Wagner, modern French composers--Delibes, Bizet and others; +those of the new Russian school--Borodin, Balakirev, Glazounov and +Tschaikovsky--have brought this side of musical art to its zenith; +they have eclipsed, as colourists, their predecessors, Weber, +Meyerbeer and Mendelssohn, to whose genius, nevertheless, they are +indebted for their own progress. In writing this book my chief aim has +been to provide the well-informed reader with the fundamental +principles of modern orchestration from the standpoint of brilliance +and imagination, and I have devoted considerable space to the study of +tonal resonance and orchestral combination. + +I have tried to show the student how to obtain a certain quality of +tone, how to acquire uniformity of structure and requisite power. I +have specified the character of certain melodic figures and designs +peculiar to each instrument or orchestral group, and reduced these +questions briefly and clearly to general principles; in short I have +endeavoured to furnish the pupil with matter and material as carefully +and minutely studied as possible. Nevertheless I do not claim to +instruct him as to how such information should be put to artistic use, +nor to establish my examples in their rightful place in the poetic +language of music. For, just as a handbook of harmony, counterpoint, +or form presents the student with harmonic or polyphonic matter, +principles of construction, formal arrangement, and sound technical +methods, but will never endow him with the talent for composition, so +a treatise on orchestration can demonstrate how to produce a +well-sounding chord of certain tone-quality, uniformly distributed, +how to detach a melody from its harmonic setting, correct progression +of parts, and solve all such problems, but will never be able to teach +the art of poetic orchestration. To orchestrate is to create, and this +is something which cannot be taught. + +It is a great mistake to say: this composer scores well, or, that +composition is well orchestrated, for orchestration is _part of the +very soul of the work_. A work is thought out in terms of the +orchestra, certain tone-colours being inseparable from it in the mind +of its creator and native to it from the hour of its birth. Could the +essence of Wagner's music be divorced from its orchestration? One +might as well say that a picture is well _drawn_ in colours. + +More than one classical and modern composer has lacked the capacity to +orchestrate with imagination and power; the secret of colour has +remained outside the range of his creative faculty. Does it follow +that these composers do not _know how_ to orchestrate? Many among them +have had greater knowledge of the subject than the mere colourist. Was +Brahms ignorant of orchestration? And yet, nowhere in his works do we +find evidence of brilliant tone or picturesque fancy. The truth is +that his thoughts did not turn towards colour; his mind did not exact +it. + +The power of subtle orchestration is a secret impossible to transmit, +and the composer who possesses this secret should value it highly, and +never debase it to the level of a mere collection of formulæ learned +by heart. + +Here I may mention the case of works scored by others from the +composer's rough directions. He who undertakes such work should enter +as deeply as he may into the spirit of the composer, try to realise +his intentions, and develop them in all their essential features. + +Though one's own personality be subordinate to that of another, such +orchestration is nevertheless creative work. But on the other hand, to +score a composition never intended for the orchestra, is an +undesirable practice. Many musicians have made this mistake and +persist in it.[4] In any case this is the lowest form of +instrumentation, akin to colour photography, though of course the +process may be well or badly done. + +[Footnote 4: In the margin of the MS. a question mark is added here. +(Editor's note.)] + +As regards orchestration it has been my good fortune to belong to a +first-rate school, and I have acquired the most varied experience. In +the first place I have had the opportunity of hearing all my works +performed by the excellent orchestra of the St. Petersburgh Opera. +Secondly, having experienced leanings towards different directions, I +have scored for orchestras of different sizes, beginning with simple +combinations (my opera _The May Night_ is written for natural horns +and trumpets), and ending with the most advanced. In the third place, +I conducted the choir of the Military Marine for several years and was +therefore able to study wind-instruments. Finally I formed an +orchestra of very young pupils, and succeeded in teaching them to +play, quite competently, the works of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Glinka, +etc. All this has enabled me to present this work to the public as the +result of long experience. + +As a starting-point I lay down the following fundamental axioms: + +I. _In the orchestra there is no such thing as ugly quality of tone._ + +II. _Orchestral writing should be easy to play_; a composer's work +stands the best chance when the parts are well written.[5] + +[Footnote 5: A. Glazounov has well expressed the various degrees of +excellence in scoring, which he divides into three classes: 1. When +the orchestra sounds well, playing from sight; magnificent, after a +few rehearsals. 2. When effects cannot be brought off except with the +greatest care and attention on the part of conductor and players. 3. +When the orchestra never sounds well. Evidently the chief aim in +orchestration is to obtain the first of these results. (Author's +note.)] + +III. _A work should be written for the size of orchestra that is to +perform it_, not for some imaginary body, as many composers persist in +doing, introducing brass instruments in unusual keys upon which the +music is impracticable because it is not played in the key the +composer intends. + +It is difficult to devise any method of learning orchestration without +a master. As a general rule it is best to advance by degrees from the +simplest scoring to the most complicated. + +The student will probably pass through the following phases: 1. the +phase during which he puts his entire faith in percussion +instruments, believing that beauty of sound emanates entirely from +this branch of the orchestra--this is the earliest stage; 2. the +period when he acquires a passion for the harp, using it in every +possible chord; 3. the stage during which he adores the wood-wind and +horns, using stopped notes in conjunction with strings, muted or +_pizzicato_; 4. the more advanced period, when he has come to +recognise that the string group is the richest and most expressive of +all. When the student works alone he must try to avoid the pitfalls of +the first three phases. The best plan is to study full-scores, and +listen to an orchestra, score in hand. But it is difficult to decide +what music should be studied and heard. Music of all ages, certainly, +but, principally, that which is fairly modern. Fairly modern music +will teach the student how to score--classical music will prove of +negative value to him. Weber, Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer (_The Prophet_), +Berlioz, Glinka, Wagner, Liszt, and modern French and Russian +composers--these will prove his best guides. It is useless for a +Berlioz or a Gevaert to quote examples from the works of Gluck. The +musical idiom is too old-fashioned and strange to modern ears; such +examples are of no further use today. The same may be said of Mozart +and of Haydn (the father of modern orchestration). + +The gigantic figure of Beethoven stands apart. His music abounds in +countless leonine leaps of orchestral imagination, but his technique, +viewed in detail, remains much inferior to his titanic conception. His +use of the trumpets, standing out above the rest of the orchestra, the +difficult and unhappy intervals he gives to the horns, the distinctive +features of the string parts and his often highly-coloured employment +of the wood-wind,--these features will combine causing the student of +Beethoven to stumble upon a thousand and one points in contradiction. + +It is a mistake to think that the beginner will light upon no simple +and instructive examples in modern music, in that of Wagner and +others. On the contrary, clearer, and better examples are to be found +amongst modern composers than in what is called the range of classical +music. + + + + +Extract from the Preface to the last edition. + + +My aim in undertaking this work is to reveal the principles of modern +orchestration in a somewhat different light than that usually brought +to bear upon the subject. I have followed these principles in +orchestrating my own works, and, wishing to impart some of my ideas to +young composers, I have quoted examples from my own compositions, or +given references to them, endeavouring to show, in all sincerity, what +is successful and what is not. No one can know except the author +himself the purpose and motives which governed him during the +composition of a certain work, and the practice of explaining the +intentions of a composer, so prevalent amongst annotators, however +reverent and discreet, appears to me far from satisfactory. They will +attribute a too closely philosophic, or excessively poetic meaning to +a plain and simple fact. Sometimes the respect which great composers' +names command will cause inferior examples to be quoted as good; cases +of carelessness or ignorance, easily explained by the imperfections of +current technique, give rise to whole pages of laborious exposition, +in defence, or even in admiration of a faulty passage. + +This book is written for those who have already studied +instrumentation from Gevaert's excellent treatise, or any other +well-known manual, and who have some knowledge of a number of +orchestral scores. + +I shall therefore only just touch on such technical questions as +fingering, range, emission of sound etc.[6] + +[Footnote 6: A short review of these various questions forms the first +chapter of the book. (Editor's note.)] + +The present work deals with the combination of instruments in separate +groups and in the entire orchestral scheme; the different means of +producing strength of tone and unity of structure; the sub-division of +parts; variety of colour and expression in scoring,--the whole, +principally from the standpoint of dramatic music. + + + + +Chapter I. + +GENERAL REVIEW OF ORCHESTRAL GROUPS. + + +A. Stringed Instruments. + +The following is the formation of the string quartet and the number of +players required in present day orchestras, either in the theatre or +concert-room. + +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Full | Medium | Small | + | orchestra | orchestra | orchestra | +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | | | +Violins I | 16 | 12 | 8 | + | | | | + " II | 14 | 10 | 6 | + | | | | +Violas | 12 | 8 | 4 | + | | | | +Violoncellos | 10 | 6 | 3 | + | | | | +Double basses | 8-10 | 4-6 | 2-3 | +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +In larger orchestras, the number of first violins may amount to 20 and +even 24, the other strings being increased proportionately. But such a +great quantity of strings overpowers the customary wood-wind section, +and entails re-inforcing the latter. Sometimes orchestras contain less +than 8 first violins; this is a mistake, as the balance between +strings and wind is completely destroyed. In writing for the orchestra +it is advisable to rely on a medium-sized body of strings. Played by a +larger orchestra a work will be heard to greater advantage; played by +a smaller one, the harm done will be minimised. + +Whenever a group of strings is written for more than five +parts--without taking double notes or chords into consideration--these +parts may be increased by dividing each one into two, three and four +sections, or even more (_divisi_). Generally, one or more of the +principal parts is split up, the first or second violins, violas or +violoncellos. The players are then divided by desks, numbers 1, 3, 5 +etc. playing the upper part, and 2, 4, 6 etc., the lower; or else the +musician on the right-hand of each desk plays the top line, the one on +the left the bottom line. Dividing by threes is less easy, as the +number of players in one group is not always divisible by three, and +hence the difficulty of obtaining proper balance. Nevertheless there +are cases where the composer should not hesitate to employ this method +of dividing the strings, leaving it to the conductor to ensure +equality of tone. It is always as well to mark how the passage is to +be divided in the score; Vns I, 1, 2, 3 desks, 6 'Cellos div. à 3, +and so on. Division into four and more parts is rare, but may be used +in _piano_ passages, as it greatly reduces volume of tone in the group +of strings. + + _Note._ In small orchestras passages sub-divided into many + parts are very hard to realise, and the effect obtained is + never the one required. + +String parts may be divided thus: + +_a_ {Vns I div. _b_ {Vns II div. _c_ {Violas div. _d_ {'Cellos div. + {Vns II div. {Violas div. {'Cellos div. {D. basses div. + +Possible combinations less frequently used are: + +_e_ {Vns I div. _f_ {Vns II div. _g_ {Violas div. + {Violas div. {'Cellos div. {D. basses div. etc. + + _Note._ It is evident that the tone quality in _b_ and _e_ + will be similar. Still _b_ is preferable since the number of + Vns II (14-10-6) and Violas (12-8-4) is practically the + same, the respective rôles of the two groups are more + closely allied, and from the fact that second violins + generally sit nearer to the violas than the first, thereby + guaranteeing greater unity in power and execution. + +The reader will find all manner of divisions in the musical examples +given in Vol. II. Where necessary, some explanation as to the method +of dividing strings will follow in due course. I dwell on the subject +here in order to show how the usual composition of the string quartet +may be altered. + +Stringed instruments possess more ways of producing sound than any +other orchestral group. They can pass, better than other instruments +from one shade of expression to another, the varieties being of an +infinite number. Species of bowing such as _legato_, detached, +_staccato_, _spiccato_, _portamento_, _martellato_, light _staccato_, +_saltando_, attack at the nut and at the point, [symbol: down bow] and +[symbol: up bow] (down bow and up bow), in every degree of tone, +_fortissimo_, _pianissimo_, _crescendo_, _diminuendo_, _sforzando_, +_morendo_--all this belongs to the natural realm of the string +quartet. + +The fact that these instruments are capable of playing double notes +and full chords across three and four strings--to say nothing of +sub-division of parts--renders them not only melodic but also harmonic +in character.[7] + +[Footnote 7: To give a list of easy three and four-note chords, or to +explain the different methods of bowing does not come within the scope +of the present book.] + +From the point of view of activity and flexibility the violin takes +pride of place among stringed instruments, then, in order, come the +viola, 'cello and double bass. In practice the notes of extreme limit +in the string quartet should be fixed as follows: + +for violins: [Music: A7], for violas: [Music: A5], +for 'cellos: [Music: A4], for double basses: [Music: G4]. + +Higher notes given in Table A, should only be used with caution, that +is to say when they are of long value, in _tremolando_, slow, flowing +melodies, in not too rapid sequence of scales, and in passages of +repeated notes. Skips should always be avoided. + + _Note._ In quick passages for stringed instruments long + chromatic figures are never suitable; they are difficult to + play and sound indistinct and muddled. Such passages are + better allotted to the wood-wind. + +A limit should be set to the use of a high note on any one of the +three lower strings on violins, violas and 'cellos. This note should +be the one in the fourth position, either the octave note or the ninth +of the open string. + +Nobility, warmth, and equality of tone from one end of the scale to +the other are qualities common to all stringed instruments, and render +them essentially superior to instruments of other groups. Further, +each string has a distinctive character of its own, difficult to +define in words. The top string on the violin (_E_) is brilliant in +character, that of the viola (_A_) is more biting in quality and +slightly nasal; the highest string on the 'cello (_A_) is bright and +possesses a "chest-voice" timbre. The _A_ and _D_ strings on the +violin and the _D_ string on the violas and 'cellos are somewhat +sweeter and weaker in tone than the others. Covered strings (_G_), on +the violin (_G_ and _C_), on the viola and 'cello are rather harsh. +Speaking generally, the double bass is equally resonant throughout, +slightly duller on the two lower strings (_E_ and _A_), and more +penetrating on the upper ones (_D_ and _G_). + + _Note._ Except in the case of pedal notes, the double bass + rarely plays an independent part, usually moving in octaves + or in unison with the 'cellos, or else doubling the + bassoons. The quality of the double bass tone is therefore + seldom heard by itself and the character of its different + strings is not so noticeable. + +The rare ability to connect sounds, or a series of sounds, the +vibration of stopped strings combined with their above-named +qualities--warmth and nobility of tone--renders this group of +instruments far and away the best orchestral medium of melodic +expression. At the same time, that portion of their range situated +beyond the limits of the human voice, e.g. notes on the violin higher +than the extreme top note of the soprano voice, from + +[Music: E6] + +upwards, and notes on the double bass below the range of the bass +voice, descending from + +[Music: D3] (written sound) + +lose in expression and warmth of tone. Open strings are clearer and +more powerful but less expressive than stopped strings. + +Comparing the range of each stringed instrument with that of the human +voice, we may assign: to the violin, the soprano and contralto voice +plus a much higher range; to the viola, the contralto and tenor voice +plus a much higher register; to the 'cello, the tenor and bass voices +plus a higher register; to the double bass, the bass voice plus a +lower range. + +The use of harmonics, the mute, and some special devices in bowing +produce great difference in the resonance and tone quality of all +these instruments. + +Harmonics, frequently used today, alter the timbre of a stringed +instrument to a very appreciable extent. Cold and transparent in soft +passages, cold and brilliant in loud ones, and offering but little +chance for expression, they form no fundamental part of orchestral +writing, and are used simply for ornament. Owing to their lack of +resonant power they should be used sparingly, and, when employed, +should never be overpowered by other instruments. As a rule harmonics +are employed on sustained notes, _tremolando_, or here and there for +brilliant effects; they are rarely used in extremely simple melodies. +Owing to a certain tonal affinity with the flute they may be said to +form a kind of link between string and wood-wind instruments. + +Another radical change is effected by the use of mutes. When muted, +the clear, singing tone of the strings becomes dull in soft passages, +turns to a slight hiss or whistle in loud ones, and the volume of tone +is always greatly reduced. + +The position of the bow on the string will affect the resonance of an +instrument. Playing with the bow close to the bridge (_sul +ponticello_), chiefly used _tremolando_, produces a metallic sound; +playing on the finger-board (_sul tasto_, _flautando_) creates a dull, +veiled effect. + + _Note._ Another absolutely different sound results from + playing with the back or wood of the bow (_col legno_). This + produces a sound like a xylophone or a hollow _pizzicato_. + It is discussed under the heading of instruments of little + sustaining power. + + +Table A. String group. + +(These instruments give all chromatic intervals.) + +Violin. +(I. II.) + +Viola. + +Violoncello. + +Double bass. + +[Music] + + +Black lines on each string denote the general range in orchestral +writing, the dotted lines give the registers, low, medium, high, very +high. + +The five sets of strings with number of players given above produce a +fairly even balance of tone. If there is any surplus of strength it +must be on the side of the first violins, as they must be heard +distinctly on account of the important part they play in the harmonic +scheme. Besides this, an extra desk of first violins is usual in all +orchestras, and as a general rule they possess a more powerful tone +than second violins. The latter, with the violas, play a secondary +part, and do not stand out so prominently. The 'cellos and double +basses are heard more distinctly, and in the majority of cases form +the bass in octaves. + +In conclusion it may be said that the group of strings, as a melodic +element, is able to perform all manner of passages, rapid and +interrupted phrases of every description, diatonic or chromatic in +character. Capable of sustaining notes without difficulty, of playing +chords of three and four notes; adapted to the infinite variety of +shades of expression, and easily divisible into numerous sundry parts, +the string group in an orchestra may be considered as an harmonic +element particularly rich in resource. + + +B. Wind instruments. + +Wood-wind. + +Apart from the varying number of players, the formation of the string +group, with its five constituent parts remains constant, satisfying +the demands of any orchestral full score. On the other hand the group +of wood-wind instruments varies both as regards number of parts and +the volume of tone at its command, and here the composer may choose at +will. The group may be divided into three general classes: wood-wind +instruments in pair's, in three's and in four's, (see table on page +13). + +Arabic numerals denote the number of players on each instrument; roman +figures, the parts (1st, 2nd etc.). Instruments which do not +require additional players, but are taken over by one or the other +executant in place of his usual instrument, are enclosed in brackets. +As a rule the first flute, first oboe, first clarinet and first +bassoon never change instruments; considering the importance of their +parts it is not advisable for them to turn from one mouth-piece to +another. The parts written for piccolo, bass flute, English horn, +small clarinet, bass clarinet and double bassoon are taken by the +second and third players in each group, who are more accustomed to +using these instruments of a special nature. + +---------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------+ + Wood-wind | Wood-wind | Wood-wind | + in pair's | in three's | in four's | +---------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------+ + | | | + (II--Piccolo). | (III--Piccolo). | 1 Piccolo (IV). | + | | | + 2 Flutes I. II. | 3 Flutes I. II. III. | 3 Flutes I. II. III. | + | | | + | (II--Bass flute). | (III--Bass flute). | + | | | + 2 Oboes I. II. | 2 Oboes I. II. | 3 Oboes I. II. III. | + | | | + (II--Eng. horn). | 1 Eng. horn (III). | 1 Eng. horn (IV). | + | | | + | (II--Small clarinet). | (II--Small clarinet). | + | | | + 2 Clarinets I. II. | 3 Clarinets I. II. III. | 3 Clarinets I. II. III. | + | | | +(II--Bass clarinet). | (III--Bass clarinet). | 1 Bass clarinet (IV). | + | | | + 2 Bassoons I. II. | 2 Bassoons I. II. | 3 Bassoons I. II. III. | + | | | + | 1 Double bassoon (III). | 1 Double bassoon (IV). | +---------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------+ + +The formation of the first class may be altered by the permanent +addition of a piccolo part. Sometimes a composer writes for two +piccolos or two Eng. horns etc. without increasing the original number +of players required (in three's or four's). + + _Note I._ Composers using the first class in the course of a + big work (oratorio, opera, symphony, etc.) may introduce + special instruments, called _extras_, for a long or short + period of time; each of these instruments involves an extra + player not required throughout the entire work. Meyerbeer + was fond of doing this, but other composers, Glinka for + example, refrain from increasing the number of performers by + employing _extras_ (Eng. horn part in _Rousslân_). Wagner + uses all three classes in the above table (in pair's: + _Tannhäuser_--in three's: _Tristan_--in four's: _The Ring_). + + _Note II._ _Mlada_ is the only work of mine involving + formation by four's. _Ivan the Terrible_, _Sadko_, _The + Legend of Tsar Saltan_, _The Legend of the Invisible City of + Kitesh_ and _The Golden Cockerel_ all belong to the second + class, and in my other works, wood-wind in pair's is used + with a varying number of extras. _The Christmas Night_, with + its two oboes, and two bassoons, three flutes and three + clarinets, forms an intermediate class. + +Considering the instruments it comprises, the string group offers a +fair variety of colour, and contrast in compass, but this diversity of +range and timbre is subtle and not easily discerned. In the wood-wind +department, however, the difference in register and quality of flutes, +oboes, clarinets and bassoons is striking to a degree. As a rule, +wood-wind instruments are less flexible than strings; they lack the +vitality and power, and are less capable of different shade of +expression. + +In each wind instrument I have defined the _scope of greatest +expression_, that is to say the range in which the instrument is best +qualified to achieve the various grades of tone, (_forte_, _piano_, +_cresc._, _dim._, _sforzando_, _morendo_, etc.)--the register which +admits of the most _expressive_ playing, in the truest sense of the +word. Outside this range, a wind instrument is more notable for +richness of colour than for expression. I am probably the originator +of the term "scope of greatest expression". It does not apply to the +piccolo and double bassoon which represent the two extremes of the +orchestral compass. They do not possess such a register and belong to +the body of highly-coloured but non-expressive instruments. + +The four kinds of wind instruments: flutes, oboes, clarinets and +bassoons may be generally considered to be of equal power. The same +cannot be said of instruments which fulfil a special purpose: piccolo, +bass flute, Eng. horn, small clarinet, bass clarinet and double +bassoon. Each of these instruments has four registers: low, middle, +high and extremely high, each of which is characterised by certain +differences of quality and power. It is difficult to define the exact +limits of each register; adjacent registers almost blend together and +the passage from one to another is scarcely noticeable. But when the +instrument jumps from one register to another the difference in power +and quality of tone is very striking. + +The four families of wind instruments may be divided into two classes: +a) instruments of nasal quality and dark resonance--oboes and bassoons +(Eng. horn and double bassoon); and b) instruments of "chest-voice" +quality and bright tone--flutes and clarinets (piccolo, bass flute, +small clarinet, bass clarinet). + +These characteristics of colour and resonance--expressed in too simple +and rudimentary a form--are specially noticeable in the middle and +upper registers. The lower register of the oboes and bassoons is thick +and rough, yet still nasal in quality; the very high compass is +shrill, hard and dry. The clear resonance of the flutes and clarinets +acquires something nasal and dark in the lower compass; in the very +high register it becomes somewhat piercing. + + +Note to Table B. + + In the following Table B the top note in each register + serves as the bottom note in the next, as the limits to each + register are not defined absolutely. The note _G_ fixes the + register of flutes and oboes, _C_ for the clarinets and + bassoons. In the very high compass those notes are only + given which can really be used; anything higher and not + printed as actual notes are either too difficult to produce + or of no artistic value. The number of sounds obtainable in + the highest compass is indefinite, and depends, partly on + the quality of the instrument itself, partly on the position + and application of the lips. The signs [music symbol: + decrescendo] [music symbol: crescendo] are not to be + mistaken for _crescendo_ and _diminuendo_; they indicate how + the resonance of an instrument increases or diminishes in + relation to the characteristic quality of its timbre. The + scope of greatest expression for each typical instrument is + marked thus, [symbol: horizontal bracket] under the notes; the + range is the same in each instrument of the same type. + +Table B. Wind group. + +These instruments give all chromatic intervals. + +Piccolo. + +Flute. + +Bass Flute +Alto Fl. _F_, _G_). + +Oboe. + +English Horn +(Cor anglais, alto oboe _F_). + +Small Clarinet +(_E[flat]-D_). + +Clarinet +(_B[flat]-A_). + +Bass Clarinet +(_B[flat]-A_). + +Bassoon +(Fagotto). + +Double bassoon +(Contra-fagotto). + +[Music] + + + _Note._ It is a difficult matter to define tone quality in + words; we must encroach upon the domain of sight, feeling, + and even taste. Though borrowed from these senses, I have no + doubt as to the appropriateness of my comparisons, but, as a + general rule definitions drawn from other sources are too + elementary to be applied to music. No condemnatory meaning + however should be attached to my descriptions, for in using + the terms thick, piercing, shrill, dry, etc. my object is to + express _artistic_ fitness in words, rather than material + exactitude. Instrumental sounds which have no musical + meaning are classed by me in the category of _useless + sounds_, and I refer to them as such, giving my reasons. + With the exception of these, the reader is advised to + consider all other orchestral timbres beautiful from an + artistic point of view, although it is necessary, at times, + to put them to other uses. + + Further on, a table of wind instruments is appended, + outlining the approximate limit of range, defining different + qualities of tone and indicating the scope of greatest + expression (the piccolo and double bassoon excepted). + +Flutes and clarinets are the most flexible wood-wind instruments (the +flutes in particular), but for expressive power and subtlety in +_nuances_ the clarinet supersedes them; this instrument can reduce +volume of tone to a mere breath. The nasal instruments, oboe and +bassoon, are less mobile and supple; this is accounted for by their +double reed, but, having to effect all sorts of scales and rapid +passages in common with the flutes and clarinets, oboes and bassoons +may be considered melodic instruments in the real sense of the word, +only of a more _cantabile_ and peaceful character. In very quick +passages they often double the flutes, clarinets or strings. + +The four families are equally capable of _legato_ and _staccato_ +playing and changing from one to the other in different ways, but +distinct and penetrating _staccato_ passages are better suited to the +oboes and bassoons, while the flutes and clarinets excel in +well-sustained _legato_ phrases. Composite _legato_ passages should be +allotted to the first two instruments, composite _staccato_ passages +to the latter pair, but these general directions should not deter the +orchestrator from adopting the opposite plan. + +In comparing the technical individualities of the wood-wind the +following fundamental differences should be noted: + +a) The rapid repetition of a single note by single tonguing is common +to all wind instruments; repetition of a single note by means of +double tonguing is only possible on the flute, a reedless instrument. + +b) On account of its construction the clarinet is not well adapted to +sudden leaps from one octave to another; these skips are easier on +flutes, oboes and bassoons. + +c) _Arpeggios_ and rapid alternation of two intervals _legato_ sound +well on flutes and clarinets, but not on oboes and bassoons. + +Wood-wind players cannot manage extremely long sustained passages, as +they are compelled to take breath; care must be taken therefore to +give them a little rest from time to time. This is unnecessary in the +case of string players. + +In the endeavour to characterise the timbre of each instrument typical +of the four families, from a psychological point of view, I do not +hesitate to make the following general remarks which apply generally +to the middle and upper registers of each instrument: + +a) Flute.--Cold in quality, specially suitable, in the major key, to +melodies of light and graceful character; in the minor key, to slight +touches of transient sorrow. + +b) Oboe.--Artless and gay in the major, pathetic and sad in the minor. + +c) Clarinet.--Pliable and expressive, suitable, in the major, to +melodies of a joyful or contemplative character, or to outbursts of +mirth; in the minor, to sad and reflective melodies or impassioned and +dramatic passages. + +d) Bassoon.--In the major, an atmosphere of senile mockery; a sad, +ailing quality in the minor. + +In the extreme registers these instruments convey the following +impressions to my mind: + + _Low register_ _Very high register_ + +a) Flute-- Dull, cold Brilliant +b) Oboe-- Wild Hard, dry +c) Clarinet-- Ringing, threatening Piercing +d) Bassoon-- Sinister Tense. + + _Note._ It is true that no mood or frame of mind, whether it + be joyful or sad, meditative or lively, careless or + reflective, mocking or distressed can be aroused by one + single isolated timbre; it depends more upon the general + melodic line, the harmony, rhythm, and dynamic shades of + expression, upon the whole formation of a given piece of + music. The choice of instruments and timbre to be adopted + depends on the position which melody and harmony occupy in + the seven-octave scale of the orchestra; for example, a + melody of light character in the tenor register could not be + given to the flutes, or a sad, plaintive phrase in the high + soprano register confided to the bassoons. But the ease with + which tone colour can be adapted to expression must not be + forgotten, and in the first of these two cases it may be + conceded that the mocking character of the bassoon could + easily and quite naturally assume a light-hearted aspect, + and in the second case, that the slightly melancholy timbre + of the flute is somewhat related to the feeling of sorrow + and distress with which the passage is to be permeated. The + case of a melody coinciding in character with the instrument + on which it is played is of special importance, as the + effect produced cannot fail to be successful. There are also + moments when a composer's artistic feeling prompts him to + employ instruments, the character of which is at variance + with the written melody (for eccentric, grotesque effects, + etc.). + +The following remarks illustrate the characteristics, timbre, and +employment of special instruments: + +The duty of the piccolo and small clarinet is, principally, to extend +the range of the ordinary flute and clarinet in the high register. The +whistling, piercing quality of the piccolo in its highest compass is +extraordinarily powerful, but does not lend itself to more moderate +shades of expression. The small clarinet in its highest register is +more penetrating than the ordinary clarinet. The low and middle range +of the piccolo and small clarinet correspond to the same register in +the normal flute and clarinet, but the tone is so much weaker that it +is of little service in those regions. The double bassoon extends the +range of the ordinary bassoon in the low register. The characteristics +of the bassoon's low compass are still further accentuated in the +corresponding range of the double bassoon, but the middle and upper +registers of the latter are by no means so useful. The very deep notes +of the double bassoon are remarkably thick and dense in quality, very +powerful in _piano_ passages. + + _Note._ Nowadays, when the limits of the orchestral scale + are considerably extended (up to the high _C_ of the 7th + octave, and down to the low _C_, 16 ft. contra octave), the + piccolo forms an indispensable constituent of the + wind-group; similarly, it is recognised that the double + bassoon is capable of supplying valuable assistance. The + small clarinet is rarely employed and only for colour + effects. + +The English horn, or alto oboe (oboe in _F_) is similar in tone to the +ordinary oboe, the listless, dreamy quality of its timbre being sweet +in the extreme. In the low register it is fairly penetrating. The bass +clarinet, though strongly resembling the ordinary clarinet, is of +darker colour in the low register and lacks the silvery quality in the +upper notes; it is incapable of joyful expression. The bass flute is +an instrument seldom used even today; it possesses the same features +as the flute, but it is colder in colour, and crystalline in the +middle and high regions. These three particular instruments, apart +from extending the low registers of the instruments to which they +belong, have their own distinctive peculiarities of timbre, and are +often used in the orchestra, as solo instruments, clearly exposed. + + _Note._ Of the six special instruments referred to above, + the piccolo and double bassoon were the first to be used in + the orchestra; the latter, however, was neglected after + Beethoven's death and did not reappear until towards the end + of the 19th century. The Eng. horn and bass clarinet were + employed initially during the first half of the same century + by Berlioz, Meyerbeer, and others, and for some time + retained their position as _extras_, to become, later on, + permanent orchestral factors, first in the theatre, then in + the concert room. Very few attempts have been made to + introduce the small clarinet into the orchestra (Berlioz + etc.); this instrument together with the bass flute is used + in my opera-ballet _Mlada_ (1892), and also in my most + recent compositions, _The Christmas Night_, and _Sadko_; the + bass flute will also be found in _The Legend of the + Invisible City of Kitesh_, and in the revised version of + "_Ivan the Terrible_". + +Of late years the habit of muting the wood-wind has come into fashion. +This is done by inserting a soft pad, or a piece of rolled-up cloth +into the bell of the instrument. Mutes deaden the tone of oboes, Eng. +horns, and bassoons to such an extent that it is possible for these +instruments to attain the extreme limit of _pianissimo_ playing. The +muting of clarinets is unnecessary, as they can play quite softly +enough without artificial means. It has not yet been discovered how to +mute the flutes; such a discovery would render great service to the +piccolo. The lowest notes on the bassoon, + +[Music: B1] and on the oboe and Eng. horn [Music: B3] + +are impossible when the instruments are muted. Mutes have no effect in +the highest register of wind instruments. + + +Brass. + +The formation of the group of brass instruments, like that of the +wood-wind is not absolutely uniform, and varies in different scores. +The brass group may be divided into three general classes +corresponding to those of the wood-wind (in pair's, in three's, and in +four's). + +----------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+ + Group corresponding | Group corresponding | Group corresponding | + to the wood-wind | to the wood-wind | to the wood-wind | + in pair's | in three's | in four's | +----------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------| + | | (II--Small trumpet). | + 2 Trumpets I, II. | 3 Trumpets I, II, III. | 3 Trumpets I, II, III. | + | (III--Alto trumpet | (III--Alto trumpet or | + | or: | Bass trumpet.) | + | {2 Cornets I, II. | | + | {2 Trumpets I, II.) | | + | | | + 4 Horns I, II, | 4 Horns I, II, III, IV. | 6 or 8 Horns I, II, | + III, IV. | | III, IV, V, | + | | VI, VII, VIII. | + | | | + 3 Trombones. | 3 Trombones I, II, III. | 3 Trombones I, II, III. | + | | | + 1 Tuba. | 1 Tuba[8]. | 1 Tuba. | +----------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+ + +[Footnote 8: Of late years sometimes two tubas are employed, by +Glazounov for instance in his Finnish Fantasia. (Editor's note.)] + +The directions are the same as in the preceding table for wood-wind. +It is evident that in all three classes the formation may vary as the +composer wishes. In music for the theatre or concert room page after +page may be written without the use of trumpets, trombones and tuba, +or some instrument may be introduced, temporarily as an _extra_. In +the above table I have given the most typical formations, and those +which are the most common at the present day. + + _Note I._ Besides the instruments given above, Richard + Wagner used some others in _The Ring_, notably the quartet + of tenor and bass tubas, and a contrabass trombone. + Sometimes these additions weigh too heavily on the other + groups, and at other times they render the rest of the brass + ineffective. For this reason composers have doubtless + refrained from employing such instruments, and Wagner + himself did not include them in the score of _Parsifal_. + Some present-day composers (Richard Strauss, Scriabine) + write for as many as five trumpets. + + _Note II._ From the middle of the 19th century onward the + natural brass disappeared from the orchestra, giving place + to valve instruments. In my second opera, _The May Night_ I + used natural horns and trumpets, changing the keys, and + writing the best notes "stopped"; this was purposely done + for practise. + +Though far less flexible than the wood-wind, brass instruments +heighten the effect of other orchestral groups by their powerful +resonance. Trumpets, trombones, and tubas are about equal in +strength; cornets have not quite the same force; horns, in _forte_ +passages, are about one half as strong, but _piano_, they have the +same weight as other brass instruments played softly. To obtain an +equal balance, therefore, the marks of expression in the horns should +be one degree stronger than in the rest of the brass; if the trumpets +and trombones play _pp_, the horns should be marked _p_. On the other +hand, to obtain a proper balance in _forte_ passages, two horns are +needed to one trumpet or one trombone. + +Brass instruments are so similar in range and timbre that the +discussion of register is unnecessary. As a general rule quality +becomes more brilliant as the higher register is approached, and _vice +versa_, with a decrease in tone. Played _pp_ the resonance is sweet; +played _ff_ the tone is hard and "crackling". Brass instruments +possess a remarkable capacity for swelling from _pianissimo_ to +_fortissimo_, and reducing the tone inversely, the _sf_ [music symbol: +decrescendo] _p_ effect being excellent. + +The following remarks as to character and tone quality may be added: + +a) 1. _Trumpets_ (_B[flat]-A_). Clear and fairly penetrating in tone, +stirring and rousing in _forte_ passages; in _piano_ phrases the high +notes are full and silvery, the low notes troubled, as though +threatening danger. + +2. _Alto trumpet_ (in _F_). An instrument of my own invention, first +used by me in the opera-ballet _Mlada_. In the deep register (notes 2 +to 3 in the trumpet scale) it possesses a fuller, clearer, and finer +tone. Two ordinary trumpets with an alto trumpet produce greater +smoothness and equality in resonance than three ordinary trumpets. +Satisfied with the beauty and usefulness of the alto trumpet, I have +consistently written for it in my later works, combined with wood-wind +in three's. + + _Note._ To obviate the difficulty of using the alto trumpet + in ordinary theatres and some concert rooms, I have not + brought into play the last four notes of its lowest register + or their neighbouring chromatics; by this means the alto + trumpet part may be played by an ordinary trumpet in _B[flat]_ + or _A_. + +3. _Small trumpet_ (in _E[flat]-D_). Invented by me and used for the +first time in _Mlada_ to realise the very high trumpet notes without +difficulty. In tonality and range the instrument is similar to the +soprano cornet in a military band. + + _Note._ The small trumpet, (_B[flat]-A_) sounding an octave + higher than the ordinary trumpet has not yet appeared in + musical literature. + +b) _Cornets_ (in _B[flat]-A_). Possessing a quality of tone similar to +the trumpet, but softer and weaker. It is a beautiful instrument +though rarely employed today in theatre or concert room. Expert +players can imitate the cornet tone on the trumpet, and _vice versa_. + +c) _Horn_ (in _F_). The tone of this instrument is soft, poetical, and +full of beauty. In the lower register it is dark and brilliant; round +and full in the upper. The middle notes resemble those of the bassoon +and the two instruments blend well together. The horn, therefore, +serves as a link between the brass and wood-wind. In spite of valves +the horn has but little mobility and would seem to produce its tone in +a languid and lazy manner. + +d) _Trombone._ Dark and threatening in the deepest register, brilliant +and triumphant in the high compass. The _piano_ is full but somewhat +heavy, the _forte_ powerful and sonorous. Valve trombones are more +mobile than slide trombones, but the latter are certainly to be +preferred as regards nobility and equality of sound, the more so from +the fact that these instruments are rarely required to perform quick +passages, owing to the special character of their tone. + +e) _Tuba._ Thick and rough in quality, less characteristic than the +trombone, but valuable for the strength and beauty of its low notes. +Like the double bass and double bassoon, the tuba is eminently useful +for doubling, an octave lower, the bass of the group to which it +belongs. Thanks to its valves, the tuba is fairly flexible. + + +Table C. Brass group. + +These instruments give all chromatic intervals. + +Trumpet, Cornet. +(_B[flat]-A, alto in F_).[A] + +Horn +(_F, E_). + +Trombone +(tenor-bass).[B] + +Tuba +(_C_-bass). + +[Music] + +Natural sounds are given in white notes. The upper lines indicate the +scope of greatest expression. + +[Footnote A: The 7th natural harmonic is everywhere omitted as +useless; the same in the horns, the notes 11, 13, 14 and 15.] + +[Footnote B: The _b[natural]_ of the octave -1 does not exist on the +trombones.] + + +The group of brass instruments, though uniform in resonance throughout +its constituent parts, is not so well adapted to expressive playing +(in the exact sense of the word) as the wood-wind group. Nevertheless, +a scope of greatest expression may be distinguished in the middle +registers. In company with the piccolo and double bassoon it is not +given to the small trumpet (_E[flat]-D_) and tuba to play with any great +amount of expression. The rapid and rhythmical repetition of a note by +single tonguing is possible to all members of the brass, but double +tonguing can only be done on instruments with a small mouth-piece, +trumpets and cornets. These two instruments can execute rapid +_tremolando_ without difficulty. The remarks on breathing, in the +section devoted to the wood-wind, apply with equal force to the brass. + +The use of stopped notes and mutes alters the character of brass tone. +Stopped notes can only be employed on trumpets, cornets and horns; the +shape of trombones and tubas prevents the hand from being inserted +into the bell. Though mutes are applied indiscriminately to all brass +instruments in the orchestra, tubas rarely possess them. Stopped and +muted notes are similar in quality. On the trumpet, muting a note +produces a better tone than stopping it. + +In the horn both methods are employed; single notes are stopped in +short phrases, muted in longer ones. I do not propose to describe the +difference between the two operations in detail, and will leave the +reader to acquire the knowledge for himself, and to form an opinion as +to its importance from his own personal observation. Sufficient to say +that the tone is deadened by both methods, assuming a wild "crackling" +character in _forte_ passages, tender and dull in _piano_. Resonance +is greatly reduced, the silvery tone of the instrument so lost and a +timbre resembling that of the oboe and Eng. horn is approached. +Stopped notes (_con sordino_) are marked [music symbol: mute] +underneath the note, sometimes followed by [music symbol: no mute], +denoting the resumption of open sounds, _senza sordini_. Brass +instruments, when muted, produce an effect of distance. + + +C. Instruments of little sustaining power. + +Plucked strings. + +When the usual orchestral string quartet (Vns I, Vns II, Violas, +'Cellos, D. basses) does not make use of the bow, but plucks the +strings with the finger, it becomes to my mind a new and independent +group with its own particular quality of tone. Associated with the +harp, which produces sound in a similar manner, I consider it +separately under the heading of plucked strings. + + _Note._ In this group may be classed the guitar, zither, + balalaïka; instruments plucked with a quill, such as the + domra,[9] the mandoline etc., all of which may be used in an + orchestra, but have no place in the scope of the present + book. + +[Footnote 9: A Russian instrument which, like the balalaïka, is better +known abroad. (Translator's note.)] + + +Pizzicato. + +Although capable of every degree of power from _ff_ to _pp_, +_pizzicato_ playing has but small range of expression, and is used +chiefly as a colour effect. On open strings it is resonant and heavy, +on stopped strings shorter and duller; in the high positions it is +rather dry and hard. + +Table D on page 31 indicates the range in which _pizzicato_ may be +used on each stringed instrument. + +In the orchestra, _pizzicato_ comes into operation in two distinct +ways: a) on single notes, b) on double notes and chords. The fingers +of the right hand playing _pizz._ are far less agile than the bow; +_pizz._ passages therefore can never be performed as quickly as those +played _arco_. Moreover, the speed of _pizzicato_ playing depends upon +the thickness of the strings; on the double basses, for instance, it +must always be much slower than on the violins. + +In _pizzicato_ chords it is better to avoid open strings, which +produce a more brilliant tone than of covered strings. Chords of four +notes allow of greater freedom and vigour of attack, as there is no +danger of accidentally touching a wrong note. Natural harmonics played +_pizz._ create a charming effect; the tone is weak however, and they +are chiefly successful on the violoncello. + + +Harp. + +In the orchestra, the harp is almost entirely an harmonic or +accompanying instrument. The majority of scores require only one harp +part, but in recent times composers have written for two or even three +harps, which are sometimes compressed into the one part. + + _Note._ Full orchestras should include three or even four + harps. My operas _Sadko_, _The Legend of the Invisible City + of Kitesh_, and _The Golden Cockerel_ are designed for two + harps, _Mlada_ for three. + +The special function of the harp lies in the execution of chords, and +the florid figures springing from them. As only four notes at the most +can be played by each hand, the notes of a chord should be written +close together, with not too great a space between one hand and the +other. The chords must always be broken (_arpeggiato_); should the +composer wish otherwise he should notify it (_non arpeggiato_). In the +middle and lower octaves the resonance of the strings is slightly +prolonged, and dies away gradually. In changes of harmony the player +stops the vibration of the strings with his hands, but, in quick +modulations, this method is not feasible, and the mixture of one chord +with another produces a discordant effect. It follows that more or +less rapid figures can only be realised clearly and neatly in the +upper register of the harp, where the strings are shorter and harder +in tone. + +As a general rule, in the whole range of the harp: + +[Music: C1[flat]-F7[sharp]] + +only the notes of the first to the fourth octave are used; the extreme +notes in both compasses may be employed in special circumstances, and +for doubling in octaves. + +The harp is essentially a diatonic instrument, since all chromatic +passages depend on the manipulation of the pedals. For this reason the +harp does not lend itself to rapid modulation, and the orchestrator is +advised to bear this fact in mind. But the difficulty may be obviated +by using two harps alternately.[10] + +[Footnote 10: A chromatic harp without pedals has now been invented in +France (Lyon's system), on which the most abrupt modulations are +possible. (Translator's note.)] + + _Note._ I would remind the reader that the harp is not + capable of double sharps or double flats. For this reason, + certain modulations from one key to another one, adjacent to + it can only be accomplished enharmonically. For instance, + the transition from _C_ flat, _G_ flat or _D_ flat, major to + their minor subdominant chords or keys is not possible owing + to double flats. It is therefore necessary to start + enharmonically from the keys of _B_, _F_ sharp or _C_ sharp, + major. Similarly, on account of double sharps, it is + impossible to change from _A_ sharp, _D_ sharp or _G_ sharp, + minor to their respective dominant major chords or keys; _B_ + flat, _E_ flat and _A_ flat, minor must be the + starting-points. + +The technical operation known as _glissando_ is peculiar to the harp +alone. Taking for granted that the reader is conversant with the +methods of acquiring different scales by means of double-notched +pedals, it will be sufficient to remark that _glissando_ scales +produce a discordant medley of sound owing to the length of time the +strings continue to vibrate, and therefore, as a _purely musical_ +effect, _glissando_ can only be used in the upper octaves, quite +_piano_, where the sound of the strings is sufficiently clear, yet not +too prolonged. _Forte glissando_ scales, entailing the use of the +lower and middle strings are only permissible as embellishments. +Glissando passages in chords of the seventh and ninth, enharmonically +obtained, are much more common, and as the above reservations do not +apply, every dynamic shade of tone is possible. Chords in harmonics +can only consist of three notes written close together, two for the +left hand and one for the right. + +The tender poetic quality of the harp is adapted to every dynamic +shade, but it is never a very powerful instrument, and the +orchestrator should treat it with respect. + +At least three, if not four harps in unison are necessary, if they are +to be heard against a full orchestra playing _forte_. The more rapidly +a _glissando_ passage is played, the louder it will sound. Harmonic +notes on the harp have great charm but little resonance, and are only +possible played quite softly. Speaking generally, the harp, like the +string quartet, _pizzicato_, is more an instrument of colour than +expression. + + +Percussion instruments producing determinate sounds, keyed +instruments. + +Kettle-drums. + +Kettle-drums, indispensable to every theatre and concert orchestra +occupy the most important place in the group of percussion +instruments. A pair of kettle-drums (_Timpani_), in the tonic and +dominant keys, was the necessary attribute of an orchestra up to, and +including Beethoven's time, but, from the middle of the 19th +century onward, in western Europe and in Russia, an ever-increasing +need was felt for the presence of three or even four kettle-drums, +during the whole course or part of a work. If the expensive chromatic +drum, permitting instant tuning is rarely met with, still, in the +majority of good orchestras, three screw drums are generally to be +found. The composer can therefore take it for granted that a good +timpanist, having three kettle-drums at his command, will be able to +tune at least one of them during a pause of some length. + +The limits of possible change in Beethoven's time was considered to +be: + +Big kettle-drum: [Music: F2-C3 (chromatically)] +Small kettle-drum: [Music: B[flat]2-F3 (chromatically)] + +In these days it is difficult to define the precise extent of high +compass in the kettle-drums, as this depends entirely on the size and +quality of the smallest one, of which there are many kinds, but I +advise the composer to select: + +[Music: E2-G[sharp]3 (chromatically)] + + _Note._ A magnificent kettle-drum of very small size was + made for my opera-ballet _Mlada_; this instrument gave the + _D[flat]_ of the fourth octave. + +Kettle-drums are capable of every dynamic shade of tone, from +thundering _fortissimo_ to a barely perceptible _pianissimo_. In +_tremolando_ they can execute the most gradual _crescendo_, +_diminuendo_, the _sfp_ and _morendo_. + +To deaden the sound, a piece of cloth is generally placed on the skin +of the drum, according to the instruction: _timpani coperti_ (muffled +drums). + + +Table D. + +Pizzicato. + +Violin. + +Viola. + +Violoncello. + +Double bass. + +[Music] + +The black notes are dry and hard, without resonance, and should only +be used when doubled with the wood-wind. + + +* Table E. + +Glockenspiel, celesta, xylophone. + +Glockenspiel +(with keyboard). + +Glockenspiel +(ordinary). + +Celesta. + +Xylophone. + +[Music] + + +Piano and Celesta. + +The use of a piano in the orchestra (apart from pianoforte concertos) +belongs almost entirely to the Russian school.[11] The object is +two-fold: the quality of tone, either alone, or combined with that +of the harp, is made to imitate a popular instrument, the guzli, (as +in Glinka), or a soft peal of bells. When the piano forms part of an +orchestra, not as a solo instrument, an upright is preferable to a +grand, but today the piano is gradually being superseded by the +celesta, first used by Tschaikovsky. In the celesta, small steel +plates take the place of strings, and the hammers falling on them +produce a delightful sound, very similar to the _glockenspiel_. The +celesta is only found in full orchestras; when it is not available it +should be replaced by an upright piano, and not the _glockenspiel_. + +[Footnote 11: Rimsky-Korsakov's opera _Sadko_ and Moussorgsky's _Boris +Godounov_ are particularly interesting in this respect. (Translator's +note.)] + + +Glockenspiel, Bells, Xylophone. + +The _glockenspiel_ (_campanelli_) may be made of steel bars, or played +with a keyboard. The first type is the more satisfactory and possesses +greater resonance. The use of the _glockenspiel_ is similar to the +celesta, but its tone is more brilliant and penetrating. Big bells in +the shape of hollow discs or metal tubes,[12] or real church bells of +moderate size may be considered more as theatrical properties than +orchestral instruments. + +[Footnote 12: Recently, bells have been made of suspended metal plates +possessing the rare quality of a fairly pure tone, and which are +sufficiently portable to be used on the concert platform. (Editor's +note.)] + +The xylophone is a species of harmonica composed of strips or +cylinders of wood, struck with two little hammers. It produces a +clattering sound, both powerful and piercing. + +To complete this catalogue of sounds mention should be made of the +strings playing _col legno_, that is with the wood or back of the bow. +The sound produced is similar to the xylophone, and gains in quality +as the number of players is increased. + +A table is appended showing the range of the celesta, _glockenspiel_ +and xylophone. + + +Percussion instruments producing indefinite sounds. + +Instruments in this group, such as triangle, castanets, little bells, +tambourine, switch or rod (_Rute._ Ger.), side or military drum, +cymbals, bass drum, and Chinese gong do not take any harmonic or +melodic part in the orchestra, and can only be considered as +ornamental instruments pure and simple. They have no intrinsic +musical meaning, and are just mentioned by the way. The first three +may be considered as _high_, the four following as _medium_, and the +last _two_ as deep instruments. This may serve as a guide to their use +with percussion instruments of determinate sounds, playing in +corresponding registers. + + +Comparison of resonance in orchestral groups and combination of +different tone qualities. + +In comparing the resonance of the respective groups of +sound-sustaining instruments we arrive at the following approximate +conclusions: + +In the most resonant group, the brass, the strongest instruments are +the trumpets, trombones and tuba. In loud passages the horns are only +one-half as strong, 1 Trumpet = 1 Trombone = 1 Tuba = 2 Horns. +Wood-wind instruments, in _forte_ passages, are twice as weak as the +horns, 1 Horn = 2 Clarinets = 2 Oboes = 2 Flutes = 2 Bassoons; but, in +_piano_ passages, all wind-instruments, wood or brass are of fairly +equal balance. + +It is more difficult to establish a comparison in resonance between +wood-wind and strings, as everything depends on the number of the +latter, but, in an orchestra of medium formation, it may be taken for +granted that in _piano_ passages, the whole of one department (_all_ +1st Violins or _all_ 2nd Violins etc.) is equivalent in strength +to one wind instrument, (Violins I = 1 Flute etc.), and, in _forte_ +passages, to two wind instruments, (Violins I = 2 Flutes = 1 Oboe + 1 +Clarinet, etc.). + +It is still harder to form a comparison with instruments of little +sustaining power, for too great a diversity in production and emission +of sound exists. The combined force of groups of sustained resonance +easily overpowers the strings played _pizz._ or _col legno_, the piano +played softly, or the celesta. As regards the _glockenspiel_, bells, +and xylophone, their emphatic tone will easily prevail over other +groups in combination. The same may be said of the kettle-drums with +their ringing, resounding quality, and also of other subsidiary +instruments. + +The influence of the timbre of one group on another is noticeable when +the groups are doubled; for instance, when the wood-wind timbre is +closely allied to the strings on the one hand, and to the brass on the +other. Re-inforcing both, the wind _thickens_ the strings and +_softens_ the brass. The strings do not blend so well with the brass, +and when the two groups are placed side by side, each is heard too +distinctly. The combination of the three different timbres in unison +produces a rich, mellow and coherent tone. + +All, or several wind instruments in combination will absorb one +department of added strings: + + 2 Fl. + 2 Ob. + Vns I, +or: 2 Ob. + 2 Cl. + Violas, +or: 2 Cl. + 2 Fag. + 'Cellos. + +One department of strings added to the wood-wind in unison produces a +sweet coherent quality, the wood-wind timbre still predominating; but +the addition of one wind instrument to all or part of the strings in +unison, only thickens the resonance of the latter, the wood-wind +timbre being lost in the process: + + Vns I + Vns II + 1 Ob., +or: Violas + 'Cellos + 1 Cl. +or: 'Cellos + D. basses + 1 Fag. + +Muted strings do not combine so well with wood-wind, as the two tone +qualities remain distinct and separate. Uniting plucked strings and +percussion with instruments of sustained resonance results in the +following: wind instruments, wood and brass, strengthen and clarify +_pizzicato_ strings, harp, kettle-drums and percussion generally, the +latter lending a touch of relief to the tone of the wood-wind. Uniting +plucked strings and percussion with bowed instruments does not produce +such a satisfactory blend, both qualities being heard independently. +The combination of plucked strings with percussion alone, is +excellent; the two blend perfectly, and the consequent increase in +resonance yields an admirable effect. + +The relationship which exists between string harmonics and the flute +or piccolo constitutes a link between the two groups in the upper +range of the orchestra. Moreover, the timbre of the viola may be +vaguely compared to the middle register of the bassoon and the lowest +compass of the clarinet; hence, in the medium orchestral range, a +point of contact is established between the quartet of strings and the +wood-wind. + +The bassoon and horn provide the connection between wood-wind and +brass, these two instruments being somewhat analogous in character +when played _piano_ or _mezzo-forte_; the flute also, in its lowest +register, recalls the _pianissimo_ trumpet tone. Stopped and muted +notes in horns and trumpets are similar in quality to the oboe and +Eng. horn, and blend tolerably well with the latter instrument. + +Concluding this survey of orchestral groups I add a few remarks which +seem to me of special importance. + +The principal part in music is undertaken by three instrumental groups +of sustained resonance, representing the three primary elements, +melody, harmony and rhythm. Instruments of little sustaining power, +though sometimes used independently, are chiefly employed for ornament +and colour; instruments producing indeterminate sounds play no melodic +or harmonic part, their functions being purely rhythmical. + +By glancing at the order in which the six orchestral groups are +placed, strings, wood-wind, brass, plucked strings, percussion +producing definite, and those producing indefinite sounds, the reader +will be able to determine the part played by each in the art of +orchestration, from the secondary standpoint of colour and expression. +As regards expression, the strings come first, and the expressive +capacity of the other groups diminishes in the above order, colour +being the only attribute of the last group of percussion instruments. + +The same order obtains from the standpoint of general effect in +orchestration. We can listen to strings for an almost indefinite +period of time without getting tired, so varied are their +characteristics (_vide_ the number of string quartets, suites, +serenades etc. written for strings alone). The addition of a single +group of strings will add lustre to a passage for wind instruments. On +the other hand, the quality of wind instruments soon becomes +wearisome; the same may be said of plucked strings, and also +percussion of every kind which should only be employed at reasonable +intervals in orchestral composition. + +It cannot be denied that the constant use of compound timbres, in +pair's, in three's etc. eliminates characteristics of tone, and +produces a dull, neutral texture, whereas the employment of simple, +elementary combinations gives infinitely greater scope for variety in +colour. + +7 (20) June 1908. + + + + +Chapter II. + +MELODY. + + +Whether it be long or short, a simple theme or a melodic phrase, +melody should always stand out in relief from the accompaniment. This +may be done by artificial or natural means; artificially, when the +question of tone quality does not come into consideration, and the +melody is detached by means of strongly accentuated dynamic shades; +naturally, by selection and contrast of timbres, strengthening of +resonance by doubling, tripling, etc., or crossing of parts +(violoncellos above the violas and violins, clarinets or oboes above +the flutes, bassoons above the clarinets etc.). + +Melody planned in the upper parts stands out from the very fact of +position alone, and likewise, to a less degree when it is situated in +the low register. In the middle of the orchestral range it is not so +prominent and the methods referred to above come into operation. They +may also be employed for two part melody (in thirds and sixths) and +for polyphonic writing. + + +Melody in stringed instruments. + +Instances of the melodic use of stringed instruments are innumerable. +The reader will find many examples in the present treatise. With the +exception of the double basses,--dull in tone and of little +flexibility, chiefly employed in unison or in octaves with the +violoncellos,--each of the other stringed instruments, taken +independently, is qualified to assume full responsibility for the +melodic line. + + +a) Violins. + +Melody in the soprano-alto register and an extra-high compass usually +falls to the lot of the 1st Violins, sometimes to the 2nd +Violins or to both in unison, a process which produces fuller +resonance without impairing quality of tone. + +_Examples:_ + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[84]].[C]--_Pianissimo_ melody (Vns I) of a +troubled dramatic character. Harmonic accompaniment (Vns II and +Violas _tremolando_--middle parts; the Violoncellos forming the bass). + +[Footnote C: The present volume is divided into two parts, text (pp. +1-152) and musical examples (pp. 1-333). The first page of the second +part lists the standard full-score editions of Rimsky-Korsakov's works +that are referred to throughout the book. These references to specific +passages are always indicated by boxed numbers or boxed letters +corresponding to the ones marking the sub-divisions of the particular +score. On the other hand, references in the text to the 312 musical +examples in the second part of the book are always indicated as "No. +1," "No. 2," etc. Thus, "_The Tsar's Bride_ [[84]]" indicates that the +reader should look at section [[84]] of the score of _The Tsar's +Bride_ as published by Belaieff in Leipzig, the music of which is not +reprinted here; whereas "No. 1. _Shéhérazade_ 2nd movement [[B]]" +indicates that the reader should look at the first musical example in +the second part of the present book, which comes from the section +marked [[B]] in the second movement of the score of _Shéhérazade_ as +published by Belaieff.] + +_Antar_, before [[70]].--Descending melodic phrase, Vns I _con +sordini piano_. + +No. 1. _Shéhérazade_ 2nd movement [[B]]. A _piano_ melody (Vns +I) graceful in character. + +_Antar_ [[12]]. Light graceful melody, oriental in style; a dance +measure (Vns I _con sord._), the mutes producing a dull ethereal +quality of tone. + +No. 2. _The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh_ [[283]]. + +No. 3. _Spanish Capriccio_ [[J]]. Vns I in the upper register +doubling the high register of the wood-wind. Choice resonance. + + +b) Violas. + +Melody in the alto-tenor register and a still higher compass is +assigned to the violas. _Cantabile_ melodies however are not so +frequently written for violas as for violins and 'cellos, partly +because the viola tone is slightly nasal in quality and better fitted +for short characteristic phrases, partly because the number of viola +players in an orchestra is smaller. Melodies confided to the violas +are generally doubled by other strings or by the wood-wind. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 4. _Pan Voyevoda_, duet in Act II [[145]]. A long _cantabile_ +melody in the violas, _dolce_, in unison with the _mezzo soprano_ +voice. + +No. 5. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[193]].--Flowing _cantabile_. + +No. 6. _Sadko._ Symphonic tableau [[12]].--Muted violas. A short dance +theme, _piano_ in _D[flat]_ major. (The same theme in Eng. horn in the +6th scene of the opera _Sadko_ is slightly more penetrating in +tone). + + +c) Violoncellos. + +Violoncellos, representing the tenor-bass range + an extra-high +compass are more often entrusted with tense passionate _cantabile_ +melody than with distinctive figures or rapid phrases. Such melodies +are usually laid out for the top string (_A_) which possesses a +wonderfully rich "chest" quality. + +_Examples:_ + +_Antar_ [[56]]. _Cantabile_ on the _A_ string. + +_Antar_ [[63]]. The same melody in _D[flat]_ maj. on the _D_ string +(doubled by the bassoons). + +No. 7. _Pan Voyevoda_ [[134]], nocturne, "Moonlight". A broad melody +_dolce ed espressivo_, afterwards doubled by the first violins an +octave higher. + +No. 8. _Snegourotchka_ [[231]]. At the fifth bar, a melody on the _A_ +string _cantabile ed espressivo_, imitating the first clarinet. + +No. 9. _Snegourotchka_ [[274]]. Melodic phrase with embellishments. + + +d) Double basses. + +Owing to its register--_basso profondo_ + a still lower compass,--and +its muffled resonance, the double bass is little capable of broad +_cantabile_ phrases and only in unison or in octaves with the 'cellos. +In my own compositions there is no phrase of any importance given to +the double bass without the support of 'cellos or bassoons. + +_Examples:_ + +* No. 10. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[306]]. Double bass solo, doubled first +by the double bassoon, later by the bassoon. This example affords an +instance of the rare use of the alto clef (in the last few notes). + +* No. 11. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[120]].--D. basses + D. bassoons. + + +Grouping in unison. + +a) Vns I + Vns II.--It goes without saying that this combination +entails no alteration in colour; it gains in power and richness of +tone by reason of the increased number of players, and is usually +attended by doubling of the melody in some departments of the +wood-wind. The large number of violins prevents the wood-wind +predominating, and the tone quality remains that of the string +quartet, enriched and amplified. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 12. _Shéhérazade_, beginning of the third movement. _Cantabile_ +for Vns I and II on the _D_ string, then on the _A_. + +_The May Night_, overture [[D]]. Quick _piano_ melody, beginning +_cantabile_ and divided later in octaves (Vns I/Vns II] 8) with +florid embellishment. + +No. 13. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[170]].--Vns I + II muted. + +b) Violins + Violas.--The combination of violins and violas presents +no special characteristics, as in the preceding case. The violins +remain predominant, and the resonance is rich and full. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 14. _Sadko_ [[208]].--Vns I + II + Violas (_G_ string). Quiet +_cantabile_ melody _pp_, in unison with the altos and tenors of the +chorus. + +The _Golden Cockerel_ [[142]].--Same combination. + +c) Violas + 'Cellos.--Produces a rich full resonance, the 'cello +quality predominating. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 15. _Snegourotchka_ [[5]].--Apparition of Spring. Violas + 'Cellos ++ Eng. horn. The same melody, _mezzo-forte cantabile_ as in Ex. 9; but +in a brighter key, a third higher, its resonance is more brilliant and +tense. The addition of the Eng. horn makes no essential difference to +the compound tone; the 'cellos stand out above the rest. + +No. 16. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[71]]. Violas + 'Cellos muted. + +d) Violins + 'Cellos.--A combination similar to the preceding one. The +'cello tone prevails and the resonance is fuller. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 17. _Snegourotchka_ [[288]]. "Spring descends upon the lake". +Vns I + Vns II + 'Cellos + Eng. horn. The same _cantabile_ as in +Ex. 9, and 15. The Eng. horn is absorbed in the musical texture, the +principal colour being that of the 'cellos. Still more powerful in +resonance. + +No. 18. _The May Night._ Act III [[L]]. Chorus of _Roussâlki_. The +combination of the solo 'cello with the violins gives the latter a +touch of the 'cello timbre. + +e) Vns I + II + Violas + 'Cellos.--Combining violins, violas and +'cellos in unison is not possible except in the alto-tenor register; +this process unites the full resonance of the instruments into an +_ensemble_ of complex quality, very tense and powerful in _forte_ +passages, extremely full and rich in _piano_. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 19. _Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement [[P]].--Energetic phrase _ff_. + +_Mlada_, Lithuanian dance, before [[36]]. + +_Mlada_, Act III. [[40]].--Cleopatra's dance. _Cantabile_ embellished +in oriental fashion. + +f) Violoncellos + D. basses.--A combination of rich full resonance, +used occasionally for phrases in the very low register. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 20. _Sadko_ [[260]].--A persistent _forte_ figure, severe in +character. + +No. 21. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[240]].--A _pianissimo_ phrase, sinister +and horrible in character. + + +Stringed instruments doubling in octaves. + +a) Vns I and Vns II in octaves. + +This is a very common process used for all kinds of melodic figures, +in particular those in the very high register. It has already been +stated that the _E_ string diminishes in fulness of tone the higher +it ascends from the limits of the soprano voice. Moreover, melodic +figures in the very high register of the violins become too isolated +from the rest of the _ensemble_ unless doubled in octaves. Such +doubling secures expression, fulness of tone and firmness of timbre. +The reader will find numerous examples of violins in octaves; a few +are added below, chiefly broad and expressive phrases. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 22. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[166]]. _Cantabile, piano._ + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[206]]. _Cantabile, mezzo-piano_; the lower part +is in unison with the soprano voice. + +_Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement [[J]]. _Cantabile_ in _G_ major; +_dolce_ and _cantabile_ (the same as Ex. 12). + +No. 23. _The Legend of Tsar Saltan_ [[227]]. Melody with reiterated +notes, _dolce, espress. e cantabile_. + +_Sadko_, Symphonic tableau [[12]]. Vns I/Vns II] 8 muted. A short +dance phrase _pianissimo_, given first to the violas, then to the +violins (cf. Ex. 6). + +No. 24. _Sadko_, opera [[207]]. Perhaps an unique example of its kind; +violins playing in the very extremity of the high register. + + _Note._ This passage is difficult but nevertheless quite + playable. One or two desks of the 1st Violins are + sufficient to double the melody in the upper octave, all the + other 1st Violins can play the octave below. In this way + the piercing quality of the highest notes will be + diminished, the melody will acquire a clearer and more + pleasant sound, and the expressive tone quality of the lower + octave will be strengthened. + +* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[156]]. + +* " " " [[165]]. + +* _Antar_, 1st movement [[11]]. + +* No. 25. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act III [[63]]. + + +b) Violins _divisi_ in octaves. + +First and second violins divided in two parts and progressing in +octaves will deprive the melody of resonance, since the number of +players is diminished by half, the consequences being specially +noticeable in small orchestras. Nevertheless the method can be used +occasionally when the strings are doubled by the wood-wind, and when +the melody falls in a sufficiently high register. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[166]].--Vns I/Vns II] 8 _mezzo-forte +espressivo_. Partial doubling of Coupava's song (Sopr.). One flute and +one oboe double the melody. + +No. 26. _Snegourotchka_ [[283]].--Chorus of Flowers--2 Vns +soli/Vns I + Fl. I] 8. _Pianissimo cantabile_ in two octaves, +progressing with the women's chorus (Sopr. I), and given out earlier +by the Eng. horn. The flute and all the 1st Violins except two play +in the lower octave, the two solo violins, only, in the upper. The +solo desk will be sufficiently prominent owing to the general +_pianissimo_. + + +c) Violins and Violas in octaves. + +First and second Violins progressing with the Violas in octaves is a +common method, especially when the lower octave in the melody happens +to go below the open _G_ string on the violins. + +1. Vns (I or II)/Violas] 8. + +_Example:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[137]], finale of Act I. Quick melody, _piano_. + +2. Vns I + II/Violas] 8 and 3. Vns I/Vns II + Violas] 8. + +These two distributions are not exactly the same. The first should be +used to obtain greater brilliance in the upper part, the second to +give the lower part a fuller and more _cantabile_ quality. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 27. _Sadko_, before [[181]].--Vns I + II/Violas] 8. Quick +animated passage, _forte_, introducing reiterated notes. + +No. 28. _Snegourotchka_ [[137]], finale to Act I--Vns I/Vns II + +Violas] 8. _Cantabile_ phrase, transmitted to the flute and clarinet +(cf. Ex. 8). + + +d) Violas and Violoncellos in octaves. + +Of special use when the Violins are otherwise employed. + +_Example:_ + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[59]], Violas/Cellos] 8, doubled by bassoons. + + +e) Violins and Violoncellos in octaves. + +Used in very expressive passages where the 'cellos have to play on the +_A_ or _D_ strings. This method produces a more resonant tone than the +preceding one; instances of it are frequent. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 29. _Antar_ [[43]].--Vns I + Vns II/'Cellos] 8. _Cantabile_ +of Eastern origin. + +_Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement [[H]].--Vns I/'Cellos] 8. _Cantabile +mezzo-forte appassionato_ (cf. Ex. 1). + +* No. 30. _Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement, before [[P]]--Vns +I/Vns II + 'Cellos] 8 and Vns I + II/'Cellos] 8. The first +arrangement is rarely found. + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[134]], nocturne "Moonlight"--Vns I/'Cellos] 8. +_Cantabile_ melody given first to 'cellos alone (cf. Ex. 7). + +_The May Night_, Act III [[B, C, D]]--Vns I + Vns II/'Cellos] 8. +A _forte_ melodic phrase. + + +f) Violoncellos and Double basses in octaves. + +The bass is usually constructed in this manner. Examples of it are to +be found everywhere. Sometimes the double bass part is simplified in +comparison with the 'cello part. + +_Example:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[9]], Fairy Spring's _Aria_. + + +g) Violas and Double basses in octaves. + +This combination seldom arises and is only used when the 'cellos are +otherwise employed. + +_Example:_ + +No. 31. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[223]]. + + +h) Parts progressing in octaves, each part doubled in unison. Melodies +situated in the middle orchestral range may be allotted to 1st and +2nd Vns, in octaves with Violas and 'Cellos. This arrangement is +constantly found, and produces a beautiful quality of tone, somewhat +severe in character. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[58]], [[60]], [[65]] and [[68]]. The same melody, +played twice _pianissimo_, not doubled, then twice (_mezzo-forte_ and +_forte_), doubled in the wood-wind. + +_Mlada_, Act II, the beginning of the Lithuanian dance. A lively +_piano_ theme. + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[28]]. + + _Note I._ It may be of use to point out that melodies lying + in the extreme upper register, e.g. those exceeding the + middle of the 5th octave, are generally doubled an octave + below, whilst those situated in the extreme low register + (below the middle of the 1st octave) are doubled an + octave higher. + +_Examples:_ + +_Sadko_ [[207]] (cf. Ex. 24). + + _Note II._ Progression in octaves of divided strings _of the + same kind_ is generally to be avoided: + + Violas I 'Cellos I D. basses I ] + Violas II, 'Cellos II, D. basses II ] 8, + + for, in such cases the parts are played on strings which do + not correspond, and unity of tone is impaired. This, + however, does not apply to violins. + + _Note III._ The following distribution is occasionally + found: + + Violas + 'Cellos I ] + D. basses + 'Cellos II ] 8. + + +Melody in double octaves. + +a) Vns I] 8/Vns II/Violas] 8 or Vns I] 8/Vns II/'Cellos] 8 +may be used for full _cantabile_ melodies extremely tense in +character, and in _forte_ passages for choice. + +_Example:_ + +No. 32. _Antar_ [[65]].--Vns I] 8./Vns II/Violas + 'Cellos] 8. + + +b) Violas] 8/'Cellos/D. basses] 8 or Vns I + II] 8/Violas + +'Cellos/D. basses] 8 or Vns I + II + Violas] 8/'Cellos/D. basses] 8 +are employed when the low register of each instrument is brought into +play, and also to suit phrases of a rough and severe character. + +_Examples:_ + +_Legend of Kitesh_ [[66]], opening of the 2nd Act. + +No. 33. _Snegourotchka_ [[215]]. Tumblers' dance. + + _Note._ The lack of balance in the distribution: + + Vns I + II +Violas ] 8 + + 'Cellos ] + D. basses ] 8 + + is not of any great importance, for, in such cases, the + partial harmonics of one octave support the tone of the + other, and _vice versa_. + + +Doubling in three and four octaves. + +The distribution Vns I/Vns II/Violas/'Cellos/D. basses] 8/8/8/8 +is very seldom found, and as a rule, only when supported by wind +instruments. + +_Examples:_ + +_The Legend of Kitesh_ [[150]] (_allargando_). + +* _Shéhérazade_, 4th movement, commencing at the 10th bar. + +Vns I ] +Vns II ] +Violas + 'Cellos ] 8. +D. basses ] + + +Melody in thirds and sixths. + +In confiding a melody in thirds to the strings it is frequently +necessary to use the same quality of tone in both parts, but in the +case of a melody in sixths different timbres may be employed. In +writing thirds doubled in octaves, the first and second violins should +be used. In spite of the difference in the quantity of players, the +thirds will not sound unequal. The same arrangement may obtain in the +viola and 'cello groups, but it is useless in the case of melody in +sixths. + +_Examples:_ + +* No. 34. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[34]]--Vns I _div._) 3/Vns II +_div._) 3] 8. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[39]]--Vns I/Violas] 6. + +Cf. also _Legend of Kitesh_ [[223]]: Vns I/Vns II} 3/Vns +I/Vns II} 3] 8 (Ex. 31). + +Distribution in octaves, thirds, and sixths is usually regulated by +the normal register of the respective instruments, so as to avoid any +suggestion of mannerism resulting from the disturbance of balance. But +such a departure from the recognised order may be permitted in special +cases. For instance, in the following example of writing in sixths the +upper part is allotted to the 'cellos, the lower part to the violins +on the _G_ string; this arrangement produces a quality of tone +distinctly original in character. + +_Example:_ + +No. 35. _Spanish Capriccio_ [[D]]--'Cellos/Vns I + II] 6. + + +Melody in the wood-wind. + +* The choice of instruments for characteristic and expressive melody +is based on their distinctive qualities, discussed minutely in the +foregoing chapter. To a large extent the question is left to the +orchestrator's own personal taste. Only the best methods of using the +wood-wind in unison or octaves, and distributing a melody in thirds, +sixths and mixed intervals, from the standpoint of resonance and tone +quality will be indicated in this section of the work. Examples of the +use of solo wood-wind are to be found in any score; the following are +typical instances: + +_Examples of solo wood-wind:_ + +1. _Piccolo: Serbian Fantasia_ [[C]]; No. 36. _Tsar Saltan_ [[216]]; +_Snegourotchka_ [[54]]. + +2. _Flute: Antar_ [[4]]; _Servilia_ [[80]]; _Snegourotchka_ [[79]], +[[183]]; _A Fairy Tale_ [[L]]; _The Christmas Night_ [[163]]; No. 37. +_Shéhérazade_, 4th movement, before [[A]] (_Fl. à 2_ in the low +register). + +_Flute_ (double tonguing): _Pan Voyevoda_ [[72]]; _Shéhérazade_, +4th movement, after [[V]]; No. 38. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act III, +after [[10]]. + +3. _Bass flute_: No. 39. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[44]]. + +4. _Oboe_: No. 40. _Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement [[A]]; _The May +Night_, Act III [[Kk]]; No. 41. _Snegourotchka_ [[50]]; +_Snegourotchka_ [[112]], [[239]]; _The Tsar's Bride_ [[108]] (cf. Ex. +284), No. 42 and 43. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[57]] and [[97]]. + +5. _Eng. horn: Snegourotchka_ [[97]], [[283]] (cf. Ex. 26); No. 44. +_Spanish Capriccio_ [[E]]; No. 45. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[61]]. + +6. _Small Clarinet_: No. 46. _Mlada_, Act II [[33]]; _Mlada_, Act III +[[37]]. + +7. _Clarinet: Serbian Fantasia_ [[G]]; _Spanish Capriccio_ [[A]]; +_Snegourotchka_ [[90]], [[99]], [[224]], [[227]], [[231]] (cf. Ex. 8); +_The May Night_, Act I, before [[X]]; _Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement +[[D]]; _A Fairy Tale_ [[M]]; _The Tsar's Bride_ [[50]], [[203]]; _The +Golden Cockerel_ [[97]] (lowest register, cf. Ex. 43). + +8. _Bass clarinet_: No. 47 and 48. _Snegourotchka_ [[243]] and +[[246-247]]. + +9. _Bassoon: Antar_ [[59]]; No. 49. _Vera Scheloga_ [[36]]; +_Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement, beginning (cf. Ex. 40); No. 50. _The +Golden Cockerel_ [[249]]; No. 51. _Mlada_, Act III, after [[29]]; cf. +also Ex. 78. + +10. _Double bassoon: Legend of Kitesh_, before [[84]], [[289]]; cf. +also Ex. 10 (D. bassoon + D. bass solo). + +The normal order of wood-wind instruments and that which produces the +most natural resonance is the following: _Flutes_, _Oboes_, +_Clarinets_, _Bassoons_ (the order used in orchestral full scores). +Departure from this natural order, e.g. placing bassoons above +clarinets and oboes, or flutes below oboes and clarinets, and +especially below the bassoons, creates a far-fetched, unnatural tone, +useful, however, in certain cases to attain certain special effects. I +do not advise the student to make too free a use of this proceeding. + + +Combination in unison. + +The combination of two different wood-wind instruments in unison +yields the following tone qualities: + +a) _Flute + Oboe._ A quality fuller than that of the flute, sweeter +than that of the oboe. Played softly, the flute will predominate in +the low, the oboe in the upper register. Example: No. 52. +_Snegourotchka_ [[113]]. + +b) _Flute + Clarinet._ A quality fuller than that of the flute, duller +than that of the clarinet. The flute will predominate in the lower, +the clarinet in the higher register. Examples: No. 53. _Legend of +Kitesh_ [[330]]; also [[339]] and [[342]]. + +c) _Oboe + Clarinet._ A fuller quality than that of either instrument +heard separately. The dark, nasal tone of the oboe will prevail in the +low register, the bright, "chest" quality of the clarinet in the high +compass. Examples: _Snegourotchka_ [[19]]; No. 54. _Snegourotchka_ +[[115]]. Cf. also _Legend of Kitesh_ [[68]], [[70]], [[84]]--2 Ob. + 3 +Cl. (Ex. 199-201). + +d) _Flute + Oboe + Clarinet._ Very full in quality. The flute +predominates in the low register, the oboe in the middle, and the +clarinet in the high compass. Examples: _Mlada_, Act I [[1]]; * +_Sadko_ [[58]] (2 Fl. + 2 Ob. + Small Cl.). + +e) _Bassoon + Clarinet._ Very full quality. The gloomy character of +the clarinet prevails in the lower register, the sickly quality of the +bassoon in the higher. Example: _Mlada_, Act II, after [[49]]. + +f) _Bassoon + Oboe_, and + +g) _Bassoon + Flute._ + +The combinations _f_ and _g_, as well as _Bassoon + Clarinet + Oboe_, +and _Bassoon + Clarinet + Flute_ are very seldom found except in +certain orchestral _tutti_, where they produce increased resonance +without creating a fresh atmosphere. But in such combinations, the +range of which is practically restricted to the limits of the third +octave, the low notes of the flute will predominate in the lower third +of this register, and the high notes of the bassoon in the middle +third. The clarinet, weak in the middle compass will not stand out +prominently in this particular combination. + +h) _Bassoon + Clarinet + Oboe + Flute._ This combination is equally +rare. The colour is rich, and difficult to define in words. The tone +of each instrument will be separated from the others more or less in +the manner detailed above. Examples: _Russian Easter Fête_, the +beginning; No. 55. _Snegourotchka_ [[301]]; _The May Night_, Act III +[[Qqq]]. + +The process of combining two or more qualities of tone in unison, +while endowing the music with greater resonance, sweetness and power, +possesses the disadvantage of restricting the variety of colour and +expression. Individual timbres lose their characteristics when +associated with others. Hence such combinations should be handled with +extreme care. Phrases or melodies demanding diversity of expression +alone should be entrusted to solo instruments of simple timbres. The +same applies to the coupling of two instruments of the same kind, such +as 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons. The quality of tone +will lose nothing of its individuality, and will gain in power, but +its capacity for expression will be diminished accordingly. An +instrument enjoys greater independence and freedom when used as a solo +than when it is doubled. The use of doubling and mixed timbres is +naturally more frequent in loud passages than in soft ones, also where +expression and colour is broad rather than individual or intimate in +character. + + I cannot refrain from mentioning how greatly I dislike the + method of duplicating all the wood-wind, in order to balance + a group of strings, reinforced out of all reason, to suit + the ever-growing dimensions of concert halls. I am convinced + that, artistically speaking, a limit should be set to the + size of both concert room and orchestra. The music performed + at these super-concerts must be specially composed on a plan + of its own--a subject which cannot be considered here. + + +Combination in octaves. + +When the melody is entrusted to two wood-wind instruments in octaves, +the usual arrangement producing natural resonance is: + +8 [Fl. Fl. Fl. Ob. Ob. Cl. + [Ob. Cl. Fag. Cl. Fag. Fag.] 8. + +The combination of flute and bassoon in octaves is rare on account of +the widely separated registers of the two instruments. Deviation from +the natural order, such as placing the bassoon above the clarinet or +oboe, the clarinet above the oboe or flute etc., creates an unnatural +resonance occasioned by the confusion of registers, the instrument of +lower compass playing in its high register and _vice versa_. The lack +of proper relationship between the different tone qualities then +becomes apparent. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 56. _Spanish Capriccio_ [[O]]--Fl./Ob.] 8. + +No. 57. _Snegourotchka_ [[254]]--Fl./Eng. horn] 8. + +* No. 58. _Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement [[E]]--Fl./Cl.] 8. + +_Sadko_ [[195]]--Fl./Eng. horn] 8. + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[132]]--Fl./Cl.] 8. + +_Tsar Saltan_ [[39]]--Cl./Fag.] 8. + +No. 59. _Vera Scheloga_ [[30]]--Cl./Fag.] 8, likewise any number of +examples in the scores of various composers. + +The use of two instruments of the same colour in octaves, e.g. 2 +flutes, 2 clarinets or 2 bassoons etc., if not exactly to be avoided +is certainly not to be recommended, as the instruments, playing in +different registers will not correspond one with the other. +Nevertheless this method may be safely employed when stringed +instruments, _arco_ or _pizzicato_ double the two members of the +wood-wind, and especially in the middle compass. The process is most +satisfactory for repeated notes or sustained passages. + +_Examples:_ + +_The May Night_, Act I [[T]]--Cl. I/Cl. II] 8. + +* _Sadko_, after [[159]]--Ob. I/Ob. II] 3, doubled by _pizz._ strings. + +* _Servilia_, after [[21]]--Fag. I/Fag. II] 8 + _pizz._ strings. + +Instruments of the same branch playing in octaves, e.g. + +8 [Fag. Cl. Ob. Small cl. Flute Picc.] + [C-Fag. Cl. basso Eng. horn Clar. Alto Fl. Fl. ] 8 + +always produce a good effect. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[5]]--Picc./Fl.] 8 (cf. Ex. 15). + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[133]]--Picc./Fl.] 8. + +_Tsar Saltan_ [[216]]--Picc./Fl.] 8 (cf. Ex. 36). + +_Sadko_, after [[59]] Small cl./Cl.] 8. + +_Legend of Kitesh_ [[240]]--Fag./C-Fag.] 8 (cf. Ex. 21). + +No 60. _Mlada_, Act III, before [[44]]--Ob./Eng. horn] 8. + +As in the strings, so in the wood-wind it is advisable to double in +octaves any melody situated in the extremely high or low compass; an +octave lower in the first case, an octave higher in the second. Thus +the piccolo will be doubled by the flute, oboe or clarinet an octave +lower; the double bassoon will be doubled by bassoon, clarinet or bass +clarinet an octave higher. + +8 [Picc. Picc. Picc.] + [Fl. Ob. Cl. ] 8. + +8 [Fag. Bass cl. Cl. Cl. Fag. Fag. ] + [C-Fag. Fag. Fag. Bass cl. Fag. Bass cl.] 8. + +_Examples:_ + +* _Tsar Saltan_ [[39]]--Picc./Ob.] 8. + +* No. 61. _Mlada_, Act II, Lithuanian dance [[32]]--Picc./Small cl.] +8. + +_Sadko_ [[150]]--Picc./Small cl.] 8. + +* Mixed qualities of tone may be employed in doubling in octaves, the +above remarks still holding good. + +_Examples:_ + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[134]]--Cl. + Ob./Cl. + Eng. horn] 8 (cf. Ex. 7). + +No. 62. _Servilia_ [[168]]--2 Fl. + Ob./2 Cl. + Eng. horn] 8. + +No. 63. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[120]]--3 Fl. + Ob./2 Cl. + Fag. + Eng. +horn] 8. + +_Mlada_, Act III [[41]]--Fl. + Bass fl./Cl. + Bass cl.] 8. + + +Doubling in two, three and four octaves. + +In such cases the student should follow the above-mentioned rules, and +should take care not to infringe the natural order: + + Fl. Ob. Fl. Fl. ] 8 +In 3 octaves: Ob. Cl. Cl. Ob. ] + Cl. Fag. Fag. Fag.] 8. + + + + Fl. ] 8 +In 4 octaves: Ob. ] + Cl. ] 8 + Fag.] 8. + +Mixed timbres may also be employed. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 64. _Spanish Capriccio_ [[P]]--melody in 4 octaves: +Picc./2 Fl./2 Ob. + Cl./Fag.] 8/8/8. + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[141]]--melody in 3 octaves. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[212]]--2 Cl./Bass cl./D. bassoon] 8/8. + +* No. 65. _Antar_, (1st version) 3rd movement, the +beginning--Picc. + 2 Fl./2 Ob. + 2 Cl./2 Fag.] 8/8; also [[C]], melody +in 4 octaves (piccolo in the upper octaves). + +* _Mlada_, Act III, after [[42]]--Fl./Ob./Eng. horn] 8/8. + +No. 66. _Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement [[G]]--Picc./Cl. I/Cl. II] 8/8. + +Examples of melody doubled in five octaves are extremely rare; in such +cases the strings participate in the process. + + +Melody in thirds and sixths. + +Melodic progression in thirds and sixths demands either two +instruments of the same colour (2 Fl., 2 Ob., 2 Cl., 2 Fag.), or +instruments of different colours in the normal order of register: + +Fl. Fl. Ob. Cl. Ob. ] +Ob. Cl. Cl. Fag. Fag.] 3 (6). + +If this order is inverted, e.g. Ob. Cl. Fag./Fl. Fl. Cl.] 3 (6), a +strained and forced resonance is created. For progressions in thirds, +the best method, from the standpoint of equality in tone is to use +instruments of the same kind in pairs; for progressions in sixths +instruments of different kinds are more suitable, but both courses are +good and useful. They may also be employed for progressions in thirds +and sixths, or thirds, fifths and sixths mixed, as for example: + +[Music] + +_Examples:_ + +_Legend of Kitesh_ [[24]]--different wind instruments in turn. + +_The May Night_, Act III [[G]]--Cl./Cl.] 3. + +_Sadko_ [[279-280]]--Fl./Fl.] 3 (6). + +No. 67. _Spanish Capriccio_, before [[V]]--various wood-wind in thirds +and sixths. + +_Servilia_ [[228]]--Fl./Fl.] 3 and Cl./Cl.] 3. + +_The Golden Cockerel_ [[232]]--2 Fl./2 Ob.] 6. + +* _Sadko_ [[43]]--All wood-wind in turn, simple timbres. + +When the doubled parts progress in thirds or sixths, the following +method is advisable: + +Fl. + Ob. ] Fl. + Cl. +Fl. + Ob. ] 3 (6) or Fl. + Cl. ] 3 (6) etc., as well as: + +Fl. + Ob. ] Ob. + Fl. ] +Fl. + Cl. ] 3 (6) or Fl. + Cl. ] 3 (6) etc. + +In the case of tripling the following arrangement may be adopted: + +Fl. + Ob. + Cl. ] Ob. + 2 Fl. ] +Fl. + Ob. + Cl. ] 3 (6) or Ob. + 2 Cl. ] 3 (6) etc. + +_Examples:_ + +* No. 68. _The Christmas Night_ [[187]]--Ob. + Cl./Ob. + Cl.] 3. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[202-203]] different mixed timbres. + + +Thirds and sixths together. + +[Music] + +Apart from the obvious distribution: + +Fl. Ob. +Ob. or Cl., +Cl. Fag. + +there are certain complicated methods which involve doubling: + +Upper part. Ob. + Fl. +Middle " Fl. + Cl. +Lower " Ob. + Cl. + +The following is a complex instance somewhat vague in character: + +No. 69. Legend of Kitesh [[35]]--Ob./Ob./Cl. + Cl. and Fl./Fl./Ob. + +Ob. + + +Melody in the brass. + +The natural scale, the only one which brass instruments had at their +disposal prior to the invention of valves was: + +[Music] + +giving, in two part harmony: + +[Music] + +With the help of rhythm, these component parts have given rise to a +whole series of themes and phrases named fanfares, trumpet calls or +flourishes, best adapted to the character of brass instruments. + +In modern music, thanks to the introduction of valves, this scale is +now possible in all keys for every chromatic brass instrument, without +it being necessary to change the key, and the addition of a few notes +foreign to the natural scale has enriched the possibilities of these +flourishes and fanfares, and endowed them with greater variety of +expression. + +These phrases, either as solos, or in two or three parts, fall +specially to the lot of the trumpets and horns, but they may also be +given to the trombones. The full, clear, ringing notes of the middle +and upper register of horns and trumpets are best suited to figures of +this description. + +_Examples:_ + +_Servilia_ [[20]]--Trumpets. + +_The Christmas Night_ [[182]]--Horn, Trumpets. + +_Vera Scheloga_, beginning of Overture, and after [[45]]--Horn, +Trumpets. + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act III [[3]]--Cornet. + +_Snegourotchka_ [[155]]--Trumpets. + +No. 70. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[65]] and elsewhere.--3 Trumpets, 4 Horns. + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[191]]--2 Trombones, Trumpet. + +* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[20]]--2 Horns and Trumpets/Horns] 8 (cf. +further on). + +After fanfare figures, those melodies best suited to the brass quality +are those of an unmodulated diatonic character, rousing and triumphant +in the major key, dark and gloomy in the minor. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 71. _Sadko_ [[342]]--Trumpet. + +_Sadko_, before [[181]]--Trombones (cf. Ex. 27). + +No. 72. _Snegourotchka_ [[71]]--Trumpet. + +_Russian Easter Fête_ [[M]]--Trombone. + +_Spanish Capriccio_ [[E]]--Alternative use in the horn of open and +stopped notes (cf. Ex. 44). + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act II, before [[17]]--Bass trumpet, and 3 Horns +a little further on. + +_Mlada_, Act II [[33]]--Bass trumpet (cf. Ex. 46). + +The genial and poetic tone of the horn in _piano_ passages affords +greater scope in the choice of melodies and phrases that may be +entrusted to this instrument. + +_Examples:_ + +_The May Night_, Overture [[13]]. + +_The Christmas Night_ [[1]]. + +_Snegourotchka_ [[86]]. + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[37]]. + +No. 73. _Antar_ [[40]]. + +Melodies involving chromatic or enharmonic writing are much less +suitable to the character of brass instruments. Nevertheless such +melodies may sometimes be allotted to the brass, as in the music of +Wagner, and the modern Italian realists, who, however, carry the +proceeding to extremes. Vigourous phrases in the form of a fanfare, +although introducing chromatic notes sound singularly beautiful on the +brass. + +_Example:_ + +No. 74. _Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement [[D]]. + +As a general rule, brass instruments lack the capacity to express +passion or geniality. Phrases charged with these sentiments become +sickly and insipid when confided to the brass. Energetic power, free +or restrained, simplicity and eloquence constitute the valuable +qualities of this group. + + +Brass in unison, in octaves, thirds and sixths. + +As, from its very nature, the brass is not called upon to realise a +wide range of expression, kindred instruments of one group may be +employed _solo_, as well as in unison. The combination of 3 trombones +or 4 horns in unison is frequently met with, and produces extreme +power and resonance of tone. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[5]]--4 Horns (cf. Ex. 15). + +_Snegourotchka_ [[199]]--4 Horns and 2 Trumpets. + +_Sadko_ [[175]]--1, 2, 3 Trumpets. + +No. 75. _Sadko_ [[305]][13]--3 Trombones. + +[Footnote 13: The composer has emended the score in the following +manner: from the fifth to the ninth bar after [[305]], and also from +the fifth to the ninth bar after [[306]], the three clarinets play in +unison, the trumpet being marked _forte_ instead of _fortissimo_; in +the example, the first of these passages is corrected according to the +composer's alteration. (Editor's note.)] + +No. 76. _The May Night_, beginning of Act III--1, 2, 3, 4 Horns. + +_Legend of Kitesh_, end of Act I--4 Horns (cf. Ex. 70). + +No. 77. _Shéhérazade_, 4th movement p. 204--3 Trombones. + +_Mlada_; Lithuanian dance--6 Horns (cf. Ex. 61). + +Owing to the resonant power of the entire group, the equality and even +gradation of tone between the dark colour of the deep compass and the +bright quality of the upper register, the use of brass instruments of +the same kind in octaves, thirds or sixths invariably leads to +satisfactory results. For the same reason the employment of brass +instruments of different kinds, arranged according to normal order of +register: + +Trumpet Trumpet Trombone 2 Trombones 2 Trumpets 2 Horns +2 Horns Trombone Tuba Trombone + Tuba 2 Trombones Tuba + +is likewise successful whether the instruments are doubled or not. +Another possible method, though not so reliable, is to combine horns +(above) with trombones, exclusively in octaves: + +2 Horns ] 4 Horns ] +1 Trombone] 8 or 2 Trombones] 8. + +_Examples:_ + +_Sadko_, before [[120]]--Trumpet/Trumpet] 8. + +_Sadko_ [[5]]--2 Trumpets/4 Horns] 8. + +_Snegourotchka_ [[222]]--2 Trombones/Trombone + Tuba] 8. + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act III [[10]] 1 Trombone + Trumpet/2 Trombones] +8 (cf. Ex. 38) + +_The Golden Cockerel_ [[125]]--Trumpet/Trombone] 8. + +Cf. also _Snegourotchka_ [[325-326]]--Trombone/Trombone] 8 (Ex. 95). + + +Melody in different groups of instruments combined together. + +A. Combination of wind and brass in unison. + +The combination of a wood-wind and brass instrument produces a complex +resonance in which the tone of the brass predominates. This resonance +is naturally more powerful than that of each instrument taken +separately, but slightly sweeter than the brass instrument alone. The +tone of the wood-wind blends with that of the brass, softens and +rarefies it, as in the process of combining two wood-wind instruments +of different colour. Instances of such doubling are fairly numerous, +especially in _forte_ passages. The trumpet is the instrument most +frequently doubled: Trumpet + Cl., Trumpet + Ob., Trumpet + Fl., as +well as Trumpet + Cl. + Ob. + Fl.; the horn, less often: Horn + Cl., +Horn + Fag. Trombones and Tuba may also be doubled: Trombone + Fag., +Tuba + Fag. Combining the Eng. horn, bass clarinet and double bassoon +with the brass, in corresponding registers, presents the same +characteristics. + +_Examples:_ + +_Legend of Kitesh_ [[56]]--Trombone + Eng. horn. + +* _Mlada_, Act III, before [[34]]--3 Trombones + Bass cl. + +As a rule, the addition of a wind to a brass instrument yields a finer +legato effect than when the latter instrument plays alone. + + +B. Combination of wind and brass in octaves. + +Doubling the horns in octaves by clarinets, oboes or flutes often +replaces the combination + +1 Trumpet ] +1 Horn (or 2 Horns) ] 8. + +This is done when it is a question of introducing a rich tone into the +upper octave which the trumpet is not capable of imparting. If a +single horn is used, the upper part is allotted to 2 clarinets, 2 +oboes, or 2 flutes. But if there are two horns playing the lower +octave in unison, three or four wind instruments will be necessary +above, especially in _forte_ passages: + +8 [2 Ob. or 2 Cl. or 2 Fl. + [1 Horn + +as well as + +1 Ob. + 1 Cl.] 2 Fl. + 2 Cl.] +1 Horn ] 8; 2 Horns ] 8. + +To double a trumpet in the upper octave three or four wind instruments +are required, but in the top register two flutes will suffice. + +[Music] [Music] + +Wood-wind instruments should not be used to double a trombone in the +octave above; trumpets are more suitable. + + +Examples of doubling in octaves: + +* _Snegourotchka_ [[71]]--Ob. + Cl./Horn] 8. + +* _Legend of Tsar Saltan_, before [[180]]--Ob. + Cl./Ob. + Cl.] +6/Horn/Horn] 6] 8. + +* Mention should also be made of mixed timbres (wood and brass) in +progression in octaves. + +_Examples:_ + +_Mlada_, Act III, beginning of Scene III--Trombone + Bass cl./Tuba + +C-fag.] 8. + +No. 78. _Mlada_, Act III after [[25]]--2 Cl. + 2 Horns + Trombone/Bass +cl. + 2 Horns + Trombone] 8 (low register). + +No. 79. _Mlada_, Act III, before [[35]]--general unison. + +When it is desired to distribute the melody over three or four +octaves, it is difficult to achieve perfect balance of tone. + +_Examples:_ + +* _Shéhérazade_, 4th movement, 15th bar after [[W]]--Picc./2 Fl. ++ 2 Ob./2 Trumpets] 8/8. + +* _Legend of Tsar Saltan_ [[228]]--Picc./2 Fl. + 2 Ob./Trumpet + Eng. +horn] 8/8. + + +C. Combination of strings and wind. + +In commencing this section of the work I consider it necessary to lay +down the following fundamental rules which apply equally to melody, +harmony, counterpoint and polyphonic writing. + +All combinations of strings and wood-wind are good; a wind instrument +progressing in unison with a stringed instrument increases the +resonance of the latter and amplifies its tone, while the quality of +the strings softens that of the wood-wind. In such combinations the +strings will predominate provided that the two instruments are of +equal power, e.g. when violins are coupled with an oboe, a bassoon +with the 'cellos. If several wind instruments play in unison with one +group of strings, the latter will be overpowered. As a rule all +combinations refine the characteristics of each instrument taken +separately, the wood-wind losing more than the strings. + + +_Doubling in unison._ + +The best and most natural combinations are between instruments whose +registers correspond the nearest: + +Vns + Fl. (Bass fl., picc.), Vns + Ob., Vns + Cl. (small Cl.); +Violas + Ob. (Eng. horn), Violas + Cl., Violas + Fag. +'Cellos + Cl. (Bass cl.), 'Cellos + Fag.; +D. basses + Bass cl., D. basses + Fag.; D. basses + C-fag. + +The object of these combinations is: a) to obtain a new timbre of +definite colour; b) to strengthen the resonance of the strings; c) to +soften the quality of the wood-wind. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[5]]--'Cellos + Violas + Eng. horn (cf. Ex. 15). + + " [[28]]--Violas + Ob. + Eng. horn. + + " [[116]]--Vns I + II + Ob. + Cl. + + " [[288]]--Vns I + II + 'Cellos + Eng. horn (cf. Ex. 17). + +No. 80. _The May Night_, Act III [[Bb]]--Violas + Cl. + +No. 81. _Sadko_ [[311]]--Vns + Ob. + +No. 82. " [[77]]--Violas + Eng. horn. + +No. 83. " [[123]]--Violas + Eng. horn. + +_Servilia_ [[59]]--Vns _G_ string + Fl. + +_Tsar Saltan_ [[30]]--Vns I + II + 2 Cl. + +No. 84. _Tsar Saltan_ [[30]], 10th bar.--'Cellos + Violas + 3 Cl. + +Fag. + +_Tsar Saltan_ [[156-159]]--Vns detached + Fl. _legato_. + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[10]] Violas + 'Cellos + Fag. + +_Antar_, 4th movement [[63]]--'Cellos + 2 Fag. + +_Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement [[H]]--Violas + Ob. + Eng. horn. + + +_Parts doubled in octaves._ + +Examples of strings in octaves doubled by wood-wind also in octaves +are numerous, and do not require special description; they are used +according to the rules already laid down. The following are examples +of melody distributed over 1, 2, 3 and 4 octaves: + +_Examples:_ + +No. 85. _Ivan the Terrible_, beginning of Overture--Vns I + II + 2 +Cl./Violas + 'Cellos + 2 Fag.] 8. + +No. 86. _Sadko_ [[3]]--'Cellos + Bass cl./D. basses + C-fag.] 8. + +_Sadko_ [[166]]--'Cellos + Fag./D. basses + C-fag.] 8. + + " [[235]]--Violas + 2 Cl./'Cellos + D. basses + 2 Fag.] 8. + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[14]]--'Cellos + Fag./D. basses + Fag.] 8. + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[81]]--Vns I/Vns II div. + Fl./+ Ob.] 8. + + " " " [[166]]--Vns I + Fl./Vns II + Ob.] 8 (cf. Ex. 22). + +In three and four octaves: + +_Servilia_ [[93]]--Vns + 3 Fl./Violas + 2 Ob./'Cellos + 2 Fag.] +8/8. + +No. 87. _Kashtcheï_ [[105]]--Vns I + Picc./Vns II + Fl. + +Ob./Violas + 'Cellos + 2 Cl. + Eng. horn + Fag.] 8/8. + +_Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement [[M]]--Vns I + Fl./Vns II + +Ob./'Cellos + Engl. horn] 8/8. + + +_Examples of melody in thirds and sixths:_ + +_Servilia_ [[44]]--Fl. + Ob. + Cl. + Vns/Fl. + Ob. + Cl. + Vns +div.] 3. + +No. 88. _Servilia_ [[111]]--Strings and wood-wind in thirds. + +No. 89. " [[125]]--same combination, in thirds and sixths. + +_Kashtcheï_ [[90]]--The same. + +It is necessary to pay more attention to cases where, of the two parts +in octaves, only one is doubled. When this method is applied to a +melody in the soprano register it is better to allow the wood-wind to +progress in octaves, the lower part only being doubled by one of the +string groups; Picc./Fl. + Vns] 8. Fl./Ob. (Cl.) + Vns] 8. + +_Examples:_ + +_Tsar Saltan_ [[102]]--2 Fl. + Picc./Vns I + II + Ob.] 8 (cf. Ex. +133). + +* No. 90. _Shéhérazade_, 4th movement [[U]]--2 Cl./'Cellos + 2 +Horns] 8. + +In the case of a melody in the low register demanding a sweet soft +tone, the violoncellos and double basses should be made to progress in +octaves, the former doubled by a bassoon, the latter not doubled at +all: 'Cellos + Fag./D. basses] 8. Sometimes a composer is obliged to +use this method on account of the very low register of the double +bass, especially if a double bassoon is not included in his orchestral +scheme.[14] + +[Footnote 14: The process of doubling strings and wood-wind in +octaves: Fl./Vns] 8, Ob./'Cellos] 8, etc. often used by the +classics to obtain balance of tone, is not to be recommended, as the +tone quality of the two groups is so widely different. As a result of +the ever-increasing tendency to profusion of colour, this method has +recently come into fashion again, notably among the younger French +composers. (Editor's note.)] + +_Example:_ + +No. 91. _Tsar Saltan_ [[92]]--Violas + Fag./'Cellos + Fag./D. basses] +8/8. + + +D. Combination of strings and brass. + +Owing to the dissimilarity between the quality of string and brass +tone, the combination of these two groups in unison can never yield +such a perfect blend as that produced by the union of strings and +wood-wind. When a brass and a stringed instrument progress in unison, +each can be heard separately, but the instruments in each group which +can be combined with the greatest amount of success are those whose +respective registers correspond the most nearly; Violin + Trumpet; +Viola + Horn; 'Cellos/D. basses + Trombones/Tuba (for heavy massive +effects). + +The combination of horns and 'cellos, frequently employed, produces a +beautifully blended, soft quality of tone. + +_Examples:_ + +_Tsar Saltan_ [[29]]--Vns I + II + Horn. + +* No. 92. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[98]]--Violas _con sord._ + Horn. + + +E. Combination of the three groups. + +The combination of members of the three groups in unison is more +common, the presence of the wood-wind imparting a fuller and more +evenly blended tone. The question as to which group will predominate +in timbre depends upon the number of instruments employed. The most +natural combinations, and those most generally in use are: Vns + +Ob. (Fr., Cl.) + Trumpet; Violas (or 'Cellos) + Cl. (Eng. horn) + +Horn; 'Cellos/D. basses + 2 Fag. + 3 Trombones + Tuba. + +Such groupings are used for preference in loud passages or for a heavy +_piano_ effect. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 93-94. _Snegourotchka_ [[218]] and [[219]]--Vns I + II + Cl. + +Horn and Vns I + II + Cl. + Trumpet. + +_Servilia_ [[168]]--Violas + Trombones/'Cellos + Trombone + Bass +Cl./D. basses + Tuba + Fag.] 8/8 (cf. Ex. 62). + +No. 95. _Snegourotchka_ [[325]]--'Cellos + Violas + Fag. + Trombone/D. +basses + Fag. + Tuba] 8. + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[224]]--Vns + Fag. + Horn + Vn. + Cl. + Trumpet. +(Stopped notes in the brass.) + +* _Mlada_, Act III, after [[23]]--Violas + 2 Cl. + Bass trumpet. + +* No. 96. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act III, before [[66]]--Bass Cl. + Horn +/D. basses + C-fag. + Tuba] 8. + +* _Ivan the Terrible_, Overture, 4th bar after [[9]]--Violas + +'Cellos + Eng. horn + 2 Cl. + Bass Cl. + 2 Fag. + 4 Horns. (The melody +simplified in the horns.) + + + + +Chapter III. + +HARMONY. + + +General observations. + +The art of orchestration demands a beautiful and well-balanced +distribution of chords forming the harmonic texture. Moreover, +transparence, accuracy and purity in the movement of each part are +essential conditions if satisfactory resonance is to be obtained. No +perfection in resonance can accrue from faulty progression of parts. + + _Note._ There are people who consider orchestration simply + as the art of selecting instruments and tone qualities, + believing that if an orchestral score does not sound well, + it is entirely due to the choice of instruments and timbres. + But unsatisfactory resonance is often solely the outcome of + faulty handling of parts, and such a composition will + continue to sound badly whatever choice of instruments is + made. So, on the other hand, it often happens that a passage + in which the chords are properly distributed, and the + progression of parts correctly handled, will sound equally + well if played by strings, wood-wind or brass. + +The composer should picture to himself the exact harmonic formation of +the piece he intends to orchestrate. If, in his rough sketch, there +exist any uncertainly as to the number or movement of harmonic parts, +he is advised to settle this at once. It is likewise essential for him +to form a clear idea as to the construction and musical elements of +the piece, and to realise the exact nature and limitations of the +themes, phrases and ideas he is going to employ. Every transition from +one order of harmonic writing to another, from four-part harmony to +three, or from five-part harmony to unison etc., must coincide with +the introduction of a new idea, a fresh theme or phrase; otherwise the +orchestrator will encounter many unforeseen and insurmountable +difficulties. For example, if, during a passage written in four parts +a chord in five-part harmony is introduced, a fresh instrument must +needs be added to play this particular fifth part, and this addition +may easily damage the resonance of the chord in question, and render +the resolution of a discord or the correct progression of parts +impossible. + + +Number of harmonic parts--Duplication. + +In the very large majority of cases harmony is written in four parts; +this applies not only to single chords or a succession of them, but +also to the formation of the harmonic basis. Harmony which at first +sight appears to comprise 5, 6, 7 and 8 parts, is usually only four +part harmony with extra parts added. These additions are nothing more +than the duplication in the adjacent upper octave of one or more of +the three upper parts forming the original harmony, the bass being +doubled in the lower octave only. The following diagrams will explain +my meaning: + +[Music: _A. Close part-writing._ + +Four part harmony. +Duplication of 1 part. +Duplication of 2 parts. +Duplication of 3 parts.] + +[Music: _B. Widely-divided part-writing._ + +Four part harmony. +Duplication of 1 part. +Duplication of 2 parts.] + + _Note._ In widely-spaced harmony only the soprano and alto + parts may be doubled in octaves. Duplicating the tenor part + is to be avoided, as close writing is thereby produced, and + doubling the bass part creates an effect of heaviness. The + bass part should never mix with the others: + + Bad: [Music] + +On account of the distance between the bass and the three other parts, +only partial duplication is possible. + +Good: [Music] + + _Note._ Notes in unison resulting from correct duplication + need not be avoided, for although the tone in such cases is + not absolutely uniform, the ear will be satisfied with the + correct progression of parts. + +Consecutive octaves between the upper parts are not permissible: + +Bad: [Music] + +Consecutive fifths resulting from the duplication of the three upper +parts moving in chords of sixths are of no importance: + +Good: [Music] + +The bass of an inversion of the dominant chord should never be doubled +in any of the upper parts: + +Good: [Music] Bad: [Music] + +This applies also to other chords of the seventh and diminished +seventh: + +Bad: [Music] Good: [Music] + +The rules of harmony concerning sustained and pedal passages apply +with equal force to orchestral writing. As regards passing and +auxiliary notes, _échappées_, considerable licence is permitted in +rapid passages of different texture: + +One texture: [Music] + +A different one: [Music] + +One texture: [Music] + +A different one: [Music] + +A certain figure and its essentials, in simplified form, may proceed +concurrently, as in the following example: + +One texture: [Music] + +A different one: [Music] + +A third: [Music] + +Upper and inner pedal notes are more effective on the orchestra than +in pianoforte or chamber music, owing to the greater variety of tone +colour: + +[Music] + +In Vol. II of the present work many examples of the above methods will +be found. + + +Distribution of notes in chords. + +The normal order of sounds or the natural harmonic scale: + +[Music] + +may serve as a guide to the orchestral arrangement of chords. It will +be seen that the widely-spaced intervals lie in the lower part of the +scale, gradually becoming closer as the upper register is approached: + +[Music] + +The bass should rarely lie at a greater distance than an octave from +the part directly above it (tenor harmony). It is necessary to make +sure that the harmonic notes are not lacking in the upper parts: + +To be avoided: [Music] + +The use of sixths in the upper parts, and the practice of doubling the +upper note in octaves are sometimes effective methods: + +[Music] [Music] + +When correct progression increases the distance between the top and +bottom notes of the upper parts, this does not matter: + +Good: [Music] + +But it would be distinctly bad to fill in the second chord thus: + +Not good: [Music] + +Hence it follows that the distribution of intermediate parts is a +question of the greatest importance. Nothing is worse than writing +chords, the upper and lower parts of which are separated by wide, +empty intervals, especially in _forte_ passages; in _piano_ passages +such distribution may be possible. Progression in contrary motion, the +upper and lower parts diverging by degrees gives rise to the gradual +addition of extra parts occupying the middle register: + +Schematic Example: [Music] + +When the voices converge, the middle parts are eliminated one by one: + +Schematic Example: [Music] + + +String harmony. + +It is an incontrovertible rule that the resonance of different +harmonic parts must be equally balanced, but this balance will be less +noticeable in short sharp chords than in those which are connected and +sustained. Both these cases will be studied separately. In the first +case, in order to increase the number of harmonic parts, each +instrument in the string group may be provided with double notes or +chords of three and four notes. In the second case, the resources are +limited to double notes _unis_, or division of parts. + +A. _Short chords._ Chords of three or four notes can only be executed +rapidly on the strings. + + _Note._ It is true that the two upper notes of a chord can + be sustained and held a long time; this, however, involves + complications and will be considered later. + +Short chords, _arco_, only sound well when played _forte_ (_sf_), and +when they can be supported by wind instruments. In the execution of +double notes and chords of three and four notes on the strings, +balance, perfect distribution of tone, and correct progression of +parts are of minor importance. What must be considered before +everything is the resonance of the chords themselves, and the degree +of ease with which they can be played. Those comprising notes on the +gut strings are the most powerful. Chords played on several strings +are usually assigned to 1st and 2nd violins and violas, the +different notes being divided between them according to ease in +execution and the demands of resonance. On account of its low register +the 'cello is rarely called upon to play chords on three or four +strings, and is usually allotted the lowest note of the chord in +company with the double bass. Chords on the latter instrument are even +more uncommon, but it may supply the octave on an uncovered string. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 97. _Snegourotchka_ [[171]]; cf. also before [[140]] and before +[[200]]. + +* _Spanish Capriccio_, before [[V]] (cf. Ex. 67). + +_Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement [[P]] (cf. Ex. 19.) + +* No. 98. _Tsar Saltan_ [[135]]; cf. also [[141]] and before [[182]]. + +Isolated chords may be added to a melodic figure in the upper part, +accentuating, _sforzando_, certain rhythmical moments. + +_Example:_ + +No. 99. _Snegourotchka_, before [[126]]; cf. also [[326]]. + +B. _Sustained and tremolando chords._ Chords sustained for a shorter +or longer period of time, or tremolando passages, often used as a +substitute, demand perfect balance of tone. Taking for granted that +the different members of the string group are equal in power, the +parts being written according to the usual order of register, (cf. +Chap. I), it is patent that a passage in close four-part harmony, with +the bass in octaves will also be uniformly resonant. When it is +necessary to introduce notes to fill up the empty middle register, the +upper parts being farther distant from the bass, doubled notes on the +violins or violas should be used, or on both instruments together. The +method of dividing strings, which is sometimes adopted, should be +avoided in such cases, as certain parts of the chord will be divided +and others will not; but, on the other hand, if a passage in six and +seven-part harmony be written entirely for strings divided in the same +manner, the balance of tone will be completely satisfactory, e.g., + +div. { Vns I/Vns I +div. { Vns II/Vns II +div. { Violas I/Violas II + +If the harmony in the three upper parts, thus strengthened, is written +for divided strings, the 'cellos and basses, playing _non divisi_ will +prove a trifle heavy; their tone must therefore be eased, either by +marking the parts down or reducing the number of players. + +In the case of sustained chords or _forte tremolando_ on two strings, +the progression of parts is not always according to rule, the +intervals chosen being those which are the easiest to play. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 100. _The Christmas Night_ [[161]]--Full _divisi_. + +No. 101. " " " [[210]]--Violas div./'Cellos div.} 4 + part harmony. + +No. 102. _Snegourotchka_ [[187-188]]--Four-part harmony, Vns I, + Vns II, Violas and Violoncellos. + + " [[243]]--4 Solo 'cellos _divisi_. + +_Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement, beginning.--4 D. bass soli div. (cf. +Ex. 40). + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[179]]--Chords on all strings (cf. Ex. 243). + +No. 103. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[8]]--Harmonic basis in the strings. + + " " " [[240]]--(Cf. Ex. 21). + + " " " [[283]]--Harmonic basis in the strings + (cf. Ex. 2). + +No. 104. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[4]]--Basis in the strings. + + " " " [[125]]--Undulating rhythm in the + strings as harmonic basis (cf. Ex. 271). + +In a _forte_ or _sfp_ chord, where one or two of the upper notes is +held, either sustained or _tremolando_, the balance of tone must still +be maintained, as in the following example: + +[Music: + +Vns I +VnII +Violas +D. basses] + + +Wood-wind harmony. + +Before entering upon this section of the work I would remind the +reader of the general principles laid down in the beginning of the +chapter. + +Harmonic texture, composed of plain chords or ornamental designs, +simple or contrapuntal in character, must possess a resonance equally +distributed throughout. This may be obtained by the following means: + +1. Instruments forming chords must be used continuously in the same +way during a given passage, that is to say they must be doubled or not +throughout, except when one of the harmonic parts is to be made +prominent: + +To be avoided: [Music] + +2. The normal order of register must be followed, except in the case +of crossing or enclosure of parts, which will be discussed later on: + +To be avoided: [Music] + +3. Corresponding or adjacent registers should be made to coincide +except for certain colour effects: + +To be avoided: [Music] + +The second flute will sound too weak and the oboes too piercing. + +4. Concords (octaves, thirds and sixths) and not discords (fifths, +fourths, seconds and sevenths), should be given to instruments of the +same kind or colour, except when discords are to be emphasised. This +rule should be specially observed in writing for the oboe with its +penetrating quality of tone: + +To be avoided: [Music] + + +Four-part and three-part harmony. + +Harmonic writing for the wood-wind may be considered from two points +of view: a) instruments in pairs, 2 Fl., 2 Ob., 2 Cl., 2 Fag.; and b) +instruments in three's, 3 Fl., 2 Ob., Eng. horn, 3 Cl., 2 Fag., C-fag. + +A. _In pairs._ There are three ways of distribution: 1. +_Superposition_ or _overlaying_ (strictly following the normal order +of register), 2. _Crossing_, and 3. _Enclosure_ of parts. The last +two methods involve a certain disturbance of the natural order of +register: + +[Music: Overlaying. Crossing. Enclosure.] + +In choosing one of these three methods the following points must not +be forgotten: a) the register of a particular isolated chord; the soft +and weak register of an instrument should not be coupled with the +powerful and piercing range of another: + +[Music: + +Overlaying. +Oboe too +piercing. + +Crossing. +Low notes +of the flute +too weak. + +Enclosure. +Bassoon too +prominent.] + + +b) In a succession of chords the general progression of parts must be +considered; one tone quality should be devoted to the stationary and +another to the moving parts: + +[Music] + +When chords are in widely-divided four-part harmony notes may be +allotted in pairs to two different tone qualities, adhering to the +normal order of register: + +Good: [Music] etc. + +Any other distribution will result unquestionably in a grievous lack +of relationship between registers: + +To be avoided: [Music] etc. + +If one tone quality is to be enclosed, it must be between two +different timbres: + +Good: [Music] etc. + +It is possible to lend four distinct timbres to a chord in +widely-divided four-part harmony, though such a chord will possess no +uniformity in colour; but the higher the registers of the different +instruments are placed, the less perceptible becomes the space which +separates them: + +[Music: Fairly good Better Still better] + +The use of four different timbres in close four-part harmony is to be +avoided, as the respective registers will not correspond: + +[Music: Bad Better Still slightly better] + + _Note._ In _Mozart and Salieri_, which is only scored for 1 + Fl., 1 Ob., 1 Cl. and 1 Fag., wood-wind chords in four-part + harmony are of necessity devoted to these four different + timbres. + +The same rules apply to writing in three-part harmony, which is the +most customary form when it is a question of establishing a harmonic +basis, the lowest register of which is entrusted to another group of +instruments (strings _arco_ or _pizz._, for example). Chords in +three-part harmony are generally given to two instruments of one +timbre and a third instrument of another, but never to three different +timbres. Overlaying of parts is the best course to adopt: + +[Music] etc. + +The use of crossing and enclosure of parts (which in a way amount to +the same thing) must depend on the manner of their progression: + +[Music: Enclosure] + +B. _Wood-wind in three's._ Here the distribution of chords in close +three-part harmony is self-evident; any grouping of three instruments +of the same timbre is sure to sound well: + +[Music] + +also: [Music] + +[Music] + +Overlaying of parts is the best method to follow in writing close +four-part harmony; three instruments of the same timbre with a fourth +instrument of another. Crossing and enclosure of parts may also be +employed. Correspondence of timbres and the progression of remote +parts must be kept in mind: + +[Music] + +The method of using three instruments of the same timbre in +widely-divided three-part harmony is inferior: + +[Music: Not good Better Better Not good Better Better] + +But if the third instrument is of low register (Bass Fl., Eng. horn, +Bass cl., or C-fag.), the resonance will be satisfactory: + +[Music] + +In chords of four-part harmony, three instruments of the same timbre +should be combined with a fourth instrument of another: + +[Music] etc. + + +Harmony in several parts. + +In writing chords of 5, 6, 7 and 8 part-harmony, whether they are +independent, or constitute the harmonic basis, the student should +follow the principles outlined in the previous chapter, dealing with +the progression of wood-wind instruments in octaves. As the 5th, +6th, 7th and 8th notes are only duplications in octaves of +lower notes of the real harmony (in 4 parts), instruments should be +chosen which combine amongst themselves to give the best octaves. The +process of crossing and enclosure of parts may also be used. + +A. Wood-wind in pairs (close distribution): + +[Music] + +In widely-divided harmony chords in several parts are to be avoided as +they will entail both close and extended writing: + +[Music] + + _Note._ In the majority of cases this distribution is + employed when the two upper harmonic parts have a special + melodic duty to perform--this question is discussed above. + +B. Wood-wind in three's: + +[Music] + +[Music] etc. + +Overlaying of parts is the most satisfactory method in dealing with +close three-part harmony. Crossing of parts is not so favourable, as +octaves will be produced contrary to the natural order of register: + +[Music] Here the arrangement [Music] is bad. + + +Duplication of timbres. + +A. If the wood-wind is in pairs it is a good plan to mix the doubled +timbres as much as possible: + +[Music: Excellent], + +also: [Music] + +In chords of four-part harmony the classical method may be adopted: + +[Music] + +In this case, though the high _C_ in the flute is fairly powerful, the +resonance of the _G_ and _E_ in the oboes is softened by the +duplication of the 2nd flute and 1st clarinet, while the _C_ in +the 2nd clarinets (not doubled) is feeble in comparison with the +other notes. In any case the two extreme parts are the thinnest and +weakest in tone, the intermediate parts the fullest and strongest. + +B. _Wood-wind in three's_ admit of perfectly balanced mixed timbres in +chords of three-part harmony: + +[Music] + +These timbres may even originate from three-fold duplication: + +[Music] + + +Remarks. + +1. Modern orchestrators do not allow any void in the intermediate +parts in writing close harmony; it was permitted to some extent by the +classics: + +[Music] + +These empty spaces create a bad effect especially in _forte_ passages. +For this reason widely-divided harmony, which is fundamentally based +on the extension of intervals, can be used but seldom and only in +_piano_ passages. Close writing is the more frequent form in all +harmony devoted to the wood-wind, _forte_ or _piano_. + +2. As a general rule a chord of greatly extended range and in several +parts is distributed according to the order of the natural scale, with +wide intervals (octaves and sixths), in the bass part, lesser +intervals (fifths and fourths) in the middle, and close intervals +(3rds or 2nds) in the upper register: + +[Music] + +3. In many cases correct progression of parts demands that one of them +should be temporarily doubled. In such cases the ear is reconciled to +the brief overthrow of balance for the sake of a single part, and is +thankful for the logical accuracy of the progression. The following +example will illustrate my meaning: + +[Music] + +In the second bar of this example the _D_ is doubled in unison on +account of the proximity of the three upper parts to their +corresponding parts an octave lower. In the fourth bar the _F_ is +doubled in unison in both groups. + +4. The formation of the harmonic basis, which is essentially in four +parts, does not by any means devolve upon the wood-wind alone. One of +the parts is often devoted to the strings, _arco_ or _pizz._ More +frequently the bass part is treated separately, the chords of greater +value in the three upper parts being allotted to the wood-wind. Then, +if the upper part is assigned to a group of strings, there remains +nothing for the wind except the sustained harmony in the two middle +parts. In the first case the three-part harmony in the wood-wind +should form an independent whole, receiving no assistance from the +bass; in this manner intervals of open fourths and fifths will be +obviated. In the second case it is desirable to provide the +intermediate parts with a moderately full tone, choosing no other +intervals except seconds, sevenths, thirds or sixths. + +All that has been said with regard to the use of wood-wind in the +formation of harmony, and the division of simple and mixed timbres +applies with equal force to sustained chords, or harmonic progressions +interchanging rapidly with _staccato_ chords. In short chords, +separated by rests of some importance, the arrangement and division of +timbres is not so perceptible to the ear, and progression of parts +attracts less attention. It would be useless, nay, impossible to +examine the countless combinations of tone colour, all the varieties +of duplication and distribution of chords. It has been my aim to +denote the fundamental principles upon which to work, and to indicate +the general rules to be followed. Once having mastered these, if the +student devote a little time to the study of full scores, and listen +to them on the orchestra, he will soon learn when certain methods +should be used and when to adopt others. The pupil is advised, +generally, to write for wood-wind in its normal order of distribution, +to take heed that each particular chord is composed entirely either of +duplicated or non-duplicated parts, (except in certain cases resulting +from progression), to use the methods of crossing and enclosure of +timbres with full knowledge of what he is doing, and finally to +concentrate his attention on close part-writing. + +_Examples of wood-wind harmony:_ + +a) Independent chords. + +No. 105. _The Christmas Night_ [[148]]--Cl., 2 Fag. + +No. 106. " " " beginning--Ob., Cl., Fag. (crossing + of parts). + +_Snegourotchka_ [[16]]--2 Cl., Fag. + + " [[79]], 5th bar.--2 Ob., 2 Fag. (cf. Ex. 136). + +* No. 107. _Snegourotchka_ [[197]]--Picc., 2 Fl. (_tremolando_). + +No. 108. " [[204]]--2 Fl., 2 Ob. (high register). + +No. 109. _Shéhérazade_, beginning--Total wood-wind in different +distribution. + +* _Russian Easter Fête_ [[A]]--3 Fl. _tremolando_ (cf. Ex. 176). + +* _Tsar Saltan_ [[45]] Ob., 2 Fag. + +No. 110. _Tsar Saltan_, before [[115]]--mixed timbres. + +No. 111. " " [[115]], and other similar passages--very + sweet effect of wood-wind in three's. + + " " [[177]]--2 Ob., 2 Fag. + +_Sadko_, Symphonic Tableau [[9]]--Ob., 2 Cl., Fag. + +* _Sadko_, Opera [[4]]--Eng. horn, 2 Cl. + + " " before [[5]]--Total wood-wind. + +No. 112. _Sadko_ [[72]]--Chords in three-part harmony; simple and +mixed timbres. + +* No. 113. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[126]] Full wind. + +* No. 114. _Legend of Kitesh_, before [[90]]--Enclosure of parts + (Ob. I in the high register). + +No. 115. " " " before [[161]]--Wind and brass + alternately. + +No. 116. " " " [[167]]--Full wind except oboe, + with chorus. + +_Legend of Kitesh_ [[269]]--Fl., Cl., Fag. + +* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[125]]--Various wind instruments, 4 part + harmony (cf. Ex. 271). + + " " " [[218]]--Ob., Eng. horn, Fag., C-fag.; cf. + also [[254]]. + +No. 117. _The Golden Cockerel_, before [[236]]--Mixed timbre; 2 Fag. +form the bass. + +b) Harmonic basis (sometimes joined by the horns). + +_The May Night_, Act III [[L]]--2 Fag., Eng. horn (cf. Ex. 18). + +_Antar_ [[68]]--3 Flutes. + +_Snegourotchka_ [[20]]--2 Cl., high register. + + " before [[50]]--2 Fl., Fag. + + " [[187]]--2 Ob., 2 Fag. + + " [[274]]--2 Cl., low register (cf. Ex. 9). + + " [[283]]--Fl., Eng. horn, Cl., Fag. (cf. Ex. 26). + +No. 118. _Snegourotchka_ [[292]]--Widely-divided harmony and + doubling of parts in the wind. + +No. 119. " [[318-319]]--2 Flutes. + +_Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement [[B]]--2 Cl., Fag. (sustained note in +the horn) (cf. Ex. 1). + +_The Christmas Night_ [[1]]--3 Cl. + +_Sadko_ [[1]]--Cl., Bass Cl., Fag., C-fag. + +No. 120. _Sadko_ [[49]]--Ob., Cl., Horn, Fag. + + " [[99]]--2 Cl. (cf. Ex. 289, 290). + +No. 121. _Sadko_ [[144]]--Cl., Fag. + +No. 122. " [[195-196]]--2 Cl., Bass Cl. + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[80]]--Cl., Fag. + + " " " [[166]]--harmonic parts in motion, Fl. and + Cl. (cf. Ex. 22). + +_Servilia_ [[59]]--Cl. (low. register), Fag. + +* No. 123. _Kashtcheï the Immortal_ [[80]]--Ob., Fag. muted. + +* No. 124. _Legend of Kitesh._ [[52]]--Fl., Fag. + + " " " [[55]]--Fl., Ob. (cf. Ex. 197). + + " " " [[68]]--Eng. horn, Fag., C-fag. (cf. + Ex. 199). + +No. 124. " " " [[118]]--mixed timbre: 2 Ob., Eng. + horn and 3 Cl. + + " " " [[136]]--harmonic parts in motion: + + " " " before [[185]]--3 Fl. (low register) + and 2 Cl. + + " " " [[223]]--Fl., Ob., Cl. (cf. Ex. 31). + +* No. 125. " " " [[247]]--2 Cl., Bass Cl. + + " " " [[273]]--Eng. horn, 2 Cl. and Bass + Cl., Fag. + +* No. 126. " " " [[355]]--Eng. horn muted, Cl., 2 Fag. + +* No. 127. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[3]]--Cl., Bass Cl., Fag., C-fag. + + " " " [[40-41]] Bass Cl., Fag.; Fl., Cl.; + Cl., Bass Cl. + +* No. 128. " " " [[156]]--harmonic parts in motion: + Fl. and Cl. + + +Harmony in the brass. + +Here, as in the wood-wind, part writing should be of the close order +with no empty spaces in the intervals. + +Four-part writing. + +It is evident that the quartet of horns presents every facility for +four-part harmony, perfectly balanced in tone, without doubling the +bass in octaves: + +[Music] + + _Note._ In the diagrams of the present section the actual + sounds of horns and trumpets are given, as in a piano score, + for the sake of simplicity. + +When it is found necessary to double the bass in octaves, the too +resonant trombone and tuba are seldom used, the duplication being +effected by the bassoon, as explained further on. The quartet of +trombones and tuba is not often employed in close four-part harmony; +the third trombone and the tuba usually form the bass in octaves, and +the three upper parts are generally allotted to the two remaining +trombones reinforced by a trumpet or two horns in unison, so as to +obtain a perfect balance of tone: + +[Music] + +I have often adopted the following combination of brass instruments, +and consider it eminently satisfactory: 2 horns and tuba to form the +bass in octaves, the three other parts given to the trombones: + +[Music] (beautiful full resonance). + +In the higher registers, four-part harmony, of which the two upper +parts are given to the trumpets, may be completed by two trombones or +four horns in pairs: + +[Music] + +When 3 trumpets are available the fourth part should be allotted to +one trombone, or two horns in unison: + +[Music] + +Enclosure of parts may be used in single chords: + +[Music] + +or in progression: + +[Music] + +Three-part writing. + +The best combination is trombones, horns, or trumpets in three's. If +the instruments are mixed the number of horns should be doubled: + +[Music] etc. + +Writing in several parts. + +When the whole group is used the number of horns should be doubled: + +[Music] etc. + +In seven, six, or five-part harmony certain instruments must be +omitted: + +[Music] + +[Music] etc. + +Discords of the seventh or second are preferably entrusted to +instruments of different tone colour: + +[Music] + +When such chords are written for an orchestra which only includes two +trumpets, it is impossible for the horns to proceed in pairs. In such +cases the following arrangement may obtain, the horns being marked one +degree louder than the other instruments, to secure balance of tone: + +[Music] + +The same method should be followed whenever the use of horns in pairs +fails to produce satisfactory tone. + +When chords of widely-divided harmony are distributed throughout +several harmonic registers, the register occupied by the horns need +not be doubled; the arrangement of the chord will resemble that of a +chorale written for double or triple choir. For example: + +[Music] + +Duplication in the brass. + +Duplication in the brass group is most frequently effected by placing +a chord for horns side by side with the same chord written for +trumpets or trombones. The soft round quality of the horns intensifies +the tone, and moderates the penetrating timbre of the trumpets and +trombones: + +[Music] + +Similar juxtaposition of trumpets and trombones: + +[Music] + +is not so common, as this unites the two most powerful agents in the +group. + +In handling an orchestra the brass is frequently employed to sustain +notes in two or three octaves; this sphere of activity must not be +ignored. The _tenuto_ is generally given to two trumpets, or to two or +four horns in the octave, (in double octaves). The octave is sometimes +formed by trumpets and horns acting together: + +[Music] + +The trombone with its ponderous tone rarely takes part in such +combinations. Sustained notes in double octaves are usually +apportioned thus: + +[Music] + +The imperfect balance arising from the duplication of the middle note +is compensated for by the mixture of timbres, which lends some unity +to the chord. + +_Examples of harmony in the brass:_ + +a) Independent chords: + +_Snegourotchka_ [[74]]--3 Trombones, 2 Horns. + + " [[140]]--3 Trombones, 2 Horns. Chords in different + groups alternately (cf. Ex. 244). + + " [[171]]--Full brass; further on 3 Trombones (cf. Ex. 97). + + " [[255]]--4 Horns (stopped). + +No. 129. _Snegourotchka_, before [[289]]--4 Horns. + + " [[289]]--Full brass. + +* _Sadko_, before [[9]]--Full brass (enclosure of parts). + +No. 130. _Sadko_ [[175]]--Mixed timbres (juxtaposition) 3 Horns + + 3 Trumpets. + + " before [[338]]--Full brass except Tuba. + +No. 131. " [[191-193]] (Full brass). + +No. 132. _The Christmas Night_, before [[180]]--Full muted brass. + + " " " [[181]]--4 Horns + 3 Trombones + + Tuba (cf. Ex. 237). + +* _The Tsar's Bride_ [[178]]--Strings and brass alternately (cf. Ex. +242). + +* No. 133. _Tsar Saltan_ [[102]], 7th bar.--2 Trumpets, 2 Trombones + + 4 Horns (juxtaposition). + + " " [[230]]--Full brass, thickly scored (cf. + Table of chords No. II at the end of Vol. II, + Ex. 12). + +* _Servilia_ [[154]]--Various brass instruments. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[130]]--3 Trumpets, Trombone and Tuba. + +No. 134. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[199]]--Short chords (juxtaposition). + +* No. 135. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[115]]--Horns, Trombones +(enclosure). + +b) Harmonic basis: + +No. 136. _Snegourotchka_ [[79]], 6th bar.--4 Horns. + + " [[231]]--3 Trombones, soft and sweet (cf. + Ex. 8). + +_Antar_ [[64-65]]--4 Horns; later 3 Trombones (cf. Ex. 32). + +* _Shéhérazade_, 1st movement, [[A]], [[E]], [[H]], [[K]], +[[M]]--Harmonic bases of different power and timbre (cf. Ex. 192-195). + +No. 137. _Servilia_ [[93]]--Full brass. + +* No. 138. _Tsar Saltan_ [[127]]--4 muted Horns + 3 Trombones + and Tuba _con sord. pp._ + + " " before [[147]]--Full brass _ff_ (the 2 Oboes + and Eng. horn are of no particular importance). + +* _Pan Voyevoda_ [[136]], 9th bar.--4 Horns, then Trombones, 2 +Horns. + +* No. 139. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[158]]--Trumpets, Trombones. + +No. 140. " " " [[248]]--3 Trombones. + + " " " before [[362]]--Full brass. + + +Harmony in combined groups. + +A. Combination of wind and brass. + +Wind and brass instruments may be combined by the method of placing a +chord in one timbre side by side with the same chord in another +timbre, or by any of the three methods already described: overlaying, +crossing and enclosure of parts. + +1. _In unison (juxtaposition or contrast of tone qualities)._ + +This class of combination possesses the same features as combinations +in the melodic line (cf. Chap. II). Wood-wind reinforces the brass, +softens it and reduces its characteristic qualities. Arrangements such +as the following are possible: + +2 Trumpets + 2 Fl.; 2 Trumpets + 2 Ob.; 2 Trumpets + 2 Cl. +3 Trumpets + 3 Fl.; 3 Trumpets + 3 Ob.; 3 Trumpets + 3 Cl. + +Also + +[Music] etc. + +as well as: + +2 Horns + 2 Fag.; 2 Horns + 2 Cl.; +3 Horns + 3 Fag.; 3 Horns + 3 Cl.; and: +2 Horns + 2 Fag. + 2 Cl. etc. + +The combinations 3 Trombones + 3 Fag., or 3 Trombones + 3 Cl. are very +rare. + +A chord scored for full brass doubled by the same chords scored for +full wood-wind (in pairs) produces a magnificent and uniform tone. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[315]]--2 Horns + 2 Cl. and 2 Horns + 2 Ob. (cf. Ex. +236). + +No. 141. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[50]]--4 Horns + 2 Cl., 2 Fag. + +No. 142. " " " [[142]]--Juxtaposition of full wind + and brass. + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[30]]--Juxtaposition and enclosure (cf. +Table of chords II, Ex. 8). + +No. 143. _The Christmas Night_ [[165]]--4 Horns + Fl., Cl., Fag. + +* No. 144. _Sadko_, before [[79]]--Horn, Trumpet + doubled wood-wind.[15] + +No. 145. " [[242]]--Full brass + Fl., Cl. + +[Footnote 15: In the full score a misprint occurs in the clarinet +part; it is corrected in the example. (Editor's note.)] + +_Legend of Kitesh_, beginning--Horn, Trombones + Cl., Fag. (cf. also +[[5]]--Ex. 249). + +* No. 146. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[10]]--Eng. horn, 2 Cl., Fag. _legato_ + + 4 Horns non legato. + + " " " [[324]]--Full brass + wind. + +* No. 147. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[233]]--Trumpets + Ob./Horn + Cl.] +8. + +Stopped or muted notes in trumpets and horns resemble the oboe and +Eng. horn in quality; the combination of these instruments produces a +magnificent tone. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 148. _Russian Easter Fête_, p. 11.--Horn (+), Trumpets (low +register) + Ob., Cl. + +* _The Christmas Night_, before [[154]]--Full muted brass + wind. + +* No. 149. _Tsar Saltan_ [[129]]--2 Ob., Eng. horn, + 3 Trumpets + muted (3 Cl. at the bottom). + +* No. 150. " " [[131]] 17th bar.--Same combination with + added horns. + +* No. 151. _Antar_ [[7]]--Ob., Eng. horn, 2 Fag. + 4 Horns (+). + +A beautiful dark tone is derived from the combination of middle notes +in stopped horns and deep notes in the clarinet: + +[Music] + +If bassoons are substituted for clarinets the effect loses part of its +character. + +_Examples:_ + +* _Kashtcheï the Immortal_ [[29]], 11th bar,--2 Ob., 2 Cl. + 4 Horns (+). + + " " " [[107]], 6th bar.--2 Cl., Fag. + 3 Horns (+). + +* _The Christmas Night_, p. 249--Cl., Fag. + 3 Horns (+). + +* _Mlada_, Act III [[19]]--3 Horns (+) + 3 Fag. and 3 Horns (+) + 3 +Ob. (cf. Ex. 259). + +2. _Overlaying (superposition), crossing, enclosure of parts._ + +It has already been stated that the bassoon and horn are the two +instruments best capable of reconciling the groups of wood-wind and +brass. Four-part harmony given to two bassoons and two horns, +especially in soft passages, yields a finely-balanced tone recalling +the effect of a quartet of horns, but possessing slightly greater +transparence. In _forte_ passages the horns overwhelm the bassoons, +and it is wiser to employ four horns alone. In the former case +crossing of parts is to be recommended for the purposes of blend, the +concords being given to the horns, the discords to the bassoons: + +[Music] and not: [Music] + +Bassoons may also be written inside the horns, but the inverse process +is not to be recommended: + +[Music] + +The same insetting of parts may be used for sustained trumpet notes in +octaves. In soft passages, thirds played in the low register of the +flutes, sometimes combined with clarinets, produce a beautiful +mysterious effect between trumpets in octaves. In a chain of +consecutive chords it is advisable to entrust the stationary parts to +the brass, the moving parts to the wood-wind. + +Clarinets, on account of their tone quality should rarely be set +inside the horns, but, in the upper register, and in the higher +harmonic parts, a chord of four horns, (_piano_), may be completed by +clarinets as effectively as by oboes or flutes; the bassoon may then +double the base an octave below: + +[Music] + +Played _forte_, the horns are more powerful than the wood-wind; +balance may be established by doubling the upper harmonic parts: + +[Music] + +_Examples:_ + +a) Superposition. + +* _Sadko_, Symphonic Tableau [[1]], [[9]]--Fl., Ob., Cl., Horn (basis). + + " before [[14]]--2 Fl., Cl., Horns. + + " final chord--Fl., Cl., Horn. + +* _Antar_ [[22]]--Fl., Cl., Horns (basis). + +No. 152. _Antar_ [[56]]--3 Fl., 4 Horns (basis). + +* _Snegourotchka_ [[300]]--Full wind and horns. + +* _Shéhérazade_--Final chords of 1st and 4th movements. + +* _Russian Easter Fête_ [[D]]--Fl., Cl., Horn; later trumpets and +trombones in juxtaposition (cf. Ex. 248). + +* No. 153. _The Christmas Night_ [[212]], 10th bar.--Wind and Horns; + trumpets and trombones added + later. + + " " " [[215]] 3 Fl. + 3 Cl./3 Horns] 8. + +* _Sadko_, Opera [[165]]--Juxtaposition and Superposition. + +No. 154. _Sadko_ [[338]]--Same distribution. + +No. 155. _Servilia_ [[73]] 3 Fl + 2 Ob., Cl./4 Horns. + +* No. 156. _Legend of Kitesh_, before [[157]]--3 Flutes, 3 Trombones. + + " " " final chord (cf. Table III of chords, + Ex. 15). + +* _The Golden Cockerel_, before [[219]]--Mixed timbre of wood-wind, 4 +Horns. + + +b) Crossing. + +* _The Christmas Night_, before [[53]]--Horn, Fag. + + " " " [[107]]--Clar., Horn, Fag. + +* _Legend of Tsar Saltan_, before [[62]]--Horn, Fag. + +* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[220]]--3 Trombones, 2 Fag., C-fag. (cf. Ex. +232). + +* No. 157. _Antar_, before [[30]]--Wood-wind, Horns, then Trumpets. + + +c) Enclosure: + +No. 158. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[33]]--Flutes within horns; later +horns within bassoons. + +No. 159. _Snegourotchka_ [[183]]--Trumpet/Fl., 2 Cl./Trumpet + +* _Sadko_, symphonic tableau [[3]]--Cl. + Fag./4 Horns/Cl. + Fag. + +* _Antar_ before [[37]]--Fag./2 Horns (+)/Cl. + +* _Sadko_, Opera [[105]]--Harmonic basis; oboes within trumpets (cf. +Ex. 260). + +* No. 160. _Sadko_, Opera, before [[155]]--Flutes within trumpets. + +* _The Tsar's Bride_, end of Overture--Bassoons within horns (cf. +Table III of chords, Ex. 14). + +* No. 161. _Tsar Saltan_ [[50]]--Trumpets within wood-wind doubled. + +No. 162. " " [[59]]--Flutes within trumpets; clarinets + within horns. + +* No. 163. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[82]]--Oboes and clarinets within +trumpets. + +The relationship which has been shown to exist between stopped horns +and oboe or Eng. horn authorizes the simultaneous use of these +instruments in one and the same chord, played _p_ or _sfp_: + +[Music] + +_Examples:_ + +* _The Christmas Night_ [[75]]--3 Horns (+) + Oboe. + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[123]]--Ob., Eng. horn, Horn (+) (cf. Ex. 240). + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[244]]--Cl., 2 Fl., + 2 Ob., Eng. horn, 3 Horn +(+). + +* No. 164. _Legend of Kitesh_, before [[256]]--2 Ob., Eng. horn/3 +Horns (+)] 8. + +* Cf. also _Tsar Saltan_, before [[115]]--Horn (+)/2 Fl. + 2 Fag. (Ex. +110). + +If trumpets and trombones take part in a chord, flutes, oboes and +clarinets are better used to form the harmonic part above the +trumpets. The following should be the arrangement: + +[Music] etc. + +[Music] etc. + +_Examples:_ + +* _Sadko_, symphonic tableau [[20]]. + +* No. 165. _The May Night_, Act I [[Ee]]--3 Trombones, 2 Ob. + + 2 Cl. + 2 Fag. + + " " " p. 325.--Final chord, _C_ maj. (cf. + Table I of chords, Ex. 1). + +* No. 166. _Snegourotchka_ [[198]]; cf. also [[200]] and before +[[210]]. + +* _Shéhérazade_, 1st movement [[E]], 2nd movement [[P]], 3rd +movement [[M]], 4th movement p. 203 (cf. Ex. 195, 19, 210, 77). + +No. 167. _The Christmas Night_ [[205]]; cf. also [[161]], [[212]], +14th bar. (Ex. 100, 153). + +* _Mlada_, end of Act I (cf. Chord Table II, Ex. 13). Act II [[20]]. + +No. 168-169. _Sadko_, Opera, before [[249]], [[302]]; cf. also Ex. +120. + +No. 170. _Sadko_, Opera [[244]]--Chord of widely extended range; + bassoons at the limit of low compass. + + " " [[142]], [[239]]; cf. also [[3]] (Ex. 86). + +* _The Tsar's Bride_ [[179]] (cf. Ex. 243). + +_Antar_ [[65]]--Alternation of notes in horns and wood-wind on +trombone chords (cf. Ex. 32). + +_General observations._ It is not always possible to secure proper +balance in scoring for full wood-wind. For instance, in a succession +of chords where the melodic position is constantly changing, +distribution is subordinate to correct progression of parts. In +practice, however, any inequality of tone may be counterbalanced by +the following acoustic phenomenon: in every chord the parts in octaves +strengthen one another, the harmonic sounds in the lowest register +coinciding with and supporting those in the highest. In spite of this +fact it rests entirely with the orchestrator to obtain the best +possible balance of tone; in difficult cases this may be secured by +judicious dynamic grading, marking the wood-wind one degree louder +than the brass. + +B. Combination of strings and wind. + +1. We frequently meet with the combination of strings and wood-wind in +the light of comparison of one timbre with another, either in long +sustained notes, or _tremolando_ in the strings. Apart from the +complete or partial doubling of the string quartet (two methods +frequently used), the general and most natural arrangement is: + +Fl./Ob. (Cl.) + Vns div.; Clar./Fag. + 'Cellos + Violas div., etc. + +_Examples:_ + +* _Sadko_, Symphonic Tableau before [[4]], and [[4]], 9th bar. + +* _Shéhérazade_, 1st movement [[M]] 6 Vns soli + 2 Ob. (2 Fl.), +Cl. + +* _Antar_ [[7]]--String quartet _divisi_ + wood-wind (cf. Ex. 151). + +* No. 171. _Antar_ [[57]]--Vns II, Violas div. + Fl., Horn (florid +accompaniment in the Clar.). + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[295]]--the same; rhythmic motion in the wind, +sustained harmony in the strings (cf. Ex. 213). + +2. Owing to the complete absence of any affinity in tone quality, the +combination of strings with brass is seldom employed in juxtaposition, +crossing, or enclosure of parts. + +The first method may be used however when the harmony is formed by the +strings _tremolando_, and the brass is employed in sustaining chords, +also when the strings play short disconnected chords, _sforzando_. +Another possible exception may be mentioned; the splendid effect of +horns doubled by divided violas or 'cellos. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[242]]--Full brass + strings _tremolando_ (cf. 1st +Table of chords, Ex. 6). + +* _Legend of Kitesh_, before [[240]]--the same (Horn, Trumpet +). + +* _Sadko_, Opera, before [[34]]--Horn + Violas _div._, Trombones + +'Cellos _div._[16] + +[Footnote 16: A splendid example of the combination of strings and +brass may be found in the introduction to the 2nd scene of the +4th act of "_Khovanstchina_" by Moussorgsky, orchestrated by +Rimsky-Korsakov. (Editor's note.)] + +C. Combination of the three groups. + +The combination of strings, wood-wind and brass instruments, set side +by side, produces a full, round and firm tone. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 172. _The Tsar's Bride_, before [[145]]--Ob., Fag. + Horns + + Strings. + + " " " final chord (cf. Table I of chords, + Ex. 5). + +* No. 173. _Sadko_, end of 1st tableau--short chords. Last chords +of the 1st, 3rd and 7th tableaux (cf. Table I and III, Vol. +II, Ex. 9, 10, 18). + +* No. 174. _The Christmas Night_ [[22]]--Wind + Brass _c. sord._ + +_tremolo_ strings. + +_Legend of Kitesh_ [[162]] (cf. Ex. 250). + +_Snegourotchka_--end of opera, (cf. Table III in Vol. II, Ex. 17) and +a host of other examples. + +_General Observations._ Balance and correct distribution of tone is +much more important in dealing with long sustained chords or those of +rhythmic design; in the case of short, disconnected chords resonance +is a minor consideration, but one which should not be entirely +neglected. + +I have endeavoured to outline the general principles to be followed, +but I do not profess to deal with all the countless cases which may +arise in the course of orchestration. I have given a few examples of +well-sounding chords; for further information I advise the reader to +study full scores with care, as this is the only method to acquire +perfect knowledge of the distribution and doubling of various +instruments. + + + + +Chapter IV. + +COMPOSITION OF THE ORCHESTRA. + + +Different ways of orchestrating the same music. + +There are times when the general tone, character and atmosphere of a +passage, or a given moment in an orchestral work point to one, and +only one particular manner of scoring. The following simple example +will serve for explanation. Take a short phrase where a flourish or +fanfare call is given out above a _tremolando_ accompaniment, with or +without change in harmony. There is no doubt that any orchestrator +would assign the _tremolo_ to the strings and the fanfare to a +trumpet, never _vice versa_. But taking this for granted, the composer +or orchestrator may still be left in doubt. Is the fanfare flourish +suitable to the range of a trumpet? Should it be written for two or +three trumpets in unison, or doubled by other instruments? Can any of +these methods be employed without damaging the musical meaning? These +are questions which I shall endeavour to answer. + +If the phrase is too low in register for the trumpets it should be +given to the horns (instruments allied to the trumpet); if the phrase +is too high it may be entrusted to the oboes and clarinets in unison, +this combination possessing the closest resemblance to the trumpet +tone both in character and power. The question whether one trumpet or +two should be employed must be decided by the degree of power to be +vested in the given passage. If a big sonorous effect is required the +instruments may be doubled, tripled, or even multiplied by four; in +the opposite case one solo brass instrument, or two of the wood-wind +will suffice (1 Ob. + 1 Cl.). The question whether the _tremolo_ in +the strings should be supported by sustained harmony in the wood-wind +depends upon the purpose in view. A composer realises his intentions +beforehand, others who orchestrate his music can only proceed by +conjecture. Should the composer desire to establish a strongly-marked +difference between the harmonic basis and the melodic outline it is +better not to employ wood-wind harmony, but to obtain proper balance +of tone by carefully distributing his dynamic marks of expression, +_pp_, _p_, _f_ and _ff_. If, on the contrary, the composer desires a +full round tone as harmonic basis and less show of brilliance in the +harmonic parts, the use of harmony in the wood-wind is to be +recommended. The following may serve as a guide to the scoring of +wood-wind chords: the harmonic basis should differ from the melody not +only in fullness and intensity of tone, but also in colour. If the +fanfare figure is allotted to the brass (trumpets or horns) the +harmony should be given to the wood-wind; if the phrase is given to +the wood-wind (oboes and clarinets) the harmony should be entrusted to +the horns. To solve all these questions successfully a composer must +have full knowledge of the purpose he has in view, and those who +orchestrate his work should be permeated with his intentions. Here the +question arises, what should those intentions be? This is a more +difficult subject. + +The aim of a composer is closely allied to the form of his work, to +the aesthetic meaning of its every moment and phrase considered apart, +and in relation to the composition as a whole. The choice of an +orchestral scheme depends on the musical matter, the colouring of +preceding and subsequent passages. It is important to determine +whether a given passage is a complement to or a contrast with what +goes before and comes after, whether it forms a climax or merely a +step in the general march of musical thought. It would be impossible +to examine all such possible types of relationship, or to consider the +_rôle_ played by each passage quoted in the present work. The reader +is therefore advised not to pay too much attention to the examples +given, but to study them and their bearing on the context in their +proper place in the full scores. Nevertheless I shall touch upon a few +of these points in the course of the following outline. To begin with, +young and inexperienced composers do not always possess a clear idea +of what they wish to do. They can improve in this direction by +reading good scores and by repeatedly listening to an orchestra, +provided they concentrate the mind to the fullest possible extent. The +search after extravagant and daring effects in orchestration is quite +a different thing from mere caprice; _the will to achieve is not +sufficient; there are certain things which should not be achieved_. + + * * * * * + +The simplest musical ideas, melodic phrases in unison and octaves, or +repeated throughout several octaves, chords, of which no single part +has any melodic meaning are scored in various ways according to +register, dynamic effect and the quality of expression or tone colour +that may be desired. In many cases, one idea will be orchestrated in a +different way every time it recurs. Later on I shall frequently touch +upon this more complicated question. + +_Examples:_ + +* _Snegourotchka_ [[58]]; [[65]] and before [[68]]--sustained note in +unison. + +There are fewer possible ways of scoring more complex musical ideas, +harmonico-melodic phrases, polyphonic designs etc.; sometimes there +are but two methods to be followed, for each of the primary elements +in music, melody, harmony, and counterpoint possesses its own special +requirements, regulating the choice of instruments and tone colour. +The most complicated musical ideas sometimes admit of only one manner +of scoring, with a few hardly noticeable variations in detail. To the +following example, very simple in structure I add an alternative +method of scoring: + +_Example:_ + +No. 175. _Vera Scheloga_, before [[35]]--a) actual orchestration, +*b)--another method. + +It is obvious that the method b) will produce satisfactory tone. But a +3rd and 4th way of scoring would be less successful, and a +continuation of this process would soon lead to the ridiculous. For +instance if the chords were given to the brass the whole passage would +sound heavy, and the soprano recitative in the low and middle register +would be overpowered. If the _F_ sharp in the double basses were +played _arco_ by 'cellos and basses together it would sound clumsy, if +it were given to the bassoons a comic effect would be produced, and if +played by the brass it would sound rough and coarse, etc. + +The object of scoring the same musical phrase in different ways is to +obtain variety either in tone colour or resonance. In each case the +composer may resort to the inversion of the normal order of +instruments, duplication of parts, or the two processes in +combination. The first of these is not always feasible. In the +preceding sections of the book I have tried to explain the +characteristics of each instrument and the part which each group of +instruments plays in the orchestra. Moreover many methods of doubling +are to be avoided; these I have mentioned, while there are also some +instruments which cannot be combined owing to the great difference in +their peculiarities. Therefore, as regards the general composition of +the orchestra, the student should be guided by the general principles +laid down in the earlier stages of the present work. + +The best means of orchestrating the same musical idea in various ways +is by the adaptation of the musical matter. This can be done by the +following operations: a) complete or partial transference into other +octaves; b) repetition in a different key; c) extension of the whole +range by the addition of octaves to the upper and lower parts; d) +alteration of details (the most frequent method); e) variation of the +general dynamic scheme, e.g. repeating a phrase _piano_, which has +already been played _forte_. + +These operations are always successful in producing variety of +orchestral colour. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 176, 177. _Russian Easter Fête_ [[A]] and [[C]]. + +_The Christmas Night_ [[158]] and [[179]]. + +No. 178-181. _The Tsar's Bride_, Overture: beginning, [[1]], [[2]], +[[7]]. + +_Sadko_ [[99-101]] and [[305-307]] (cf. Ex. 289, 290, and 75). + +No. 182-186. _Tsar Saltan_ [[14]], [[17]], [[26]], [[28]], [[34]]. + +No. 187-189. " " [[181]], [[246]], [[220]]. + +* No. 190-191. _Ivan the Terrible_, Overture [[5]] and [[12]]. + +_Spanish Capriccio_--compare 1st and 3rd movement. + +* No. 192-195. _Shéhérazade_, 1st movement--beginning of the + _allegro_ [[A]], [[E]], [[M]]. + + " 3rd movement--beginning [[A]], [[I]]. + + " 3rd " [[E]], [[G]], [[O]]. + +* No. 196-198. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[55]], [[56]], [[62]]. + +* No. 199-201. " " " [[68]], [[70]], [[84]]. + +(Cf. also Ex. 213, 214. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[294]] and [[312]].) + +* No. 202-203. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[229]], [[233]]. + +The process of scoring the same or similar ideas in different ways is +the source of numerous musical operations, _crescendo_, _diminuendo_, +interchange of tone qualities, variation of tone colour etc., and +incidentally throws new light upon the fundamental composition of the +orchestra. + + +Full _Tutti_. + +The word _tutti_ generally means the simultaneous use of all +instruments, but the word "all" is used relatively, and it must not be +inferred that every single instrument must necessarily be employed to +form a _tutti_. In order to simplify the following illustrations I +will divide the word into two classes, _full tutti_ and _partial +tutti_,--independently of whether the orchestra is constructed in +pairs, in three's, or a larger number of instruments. I call _full +tutti_ the combination of all melodic groups, strings, wind, and +brass. By _partial tutti_ I mean passages in which the brass group +only takes part, whether two horns or two trumpets participate alone, +or whether two horns are combined with one or three trombones, without +tuba, trumpets, or the two remaining horns, etc.: + +[4 Horns, 2 Horns 2 Horns ] +[... or 2 Trumpets, or ... etc. ] +[... ... 3 Trombones]. + +In both species of _tutti_ full wood-wind may be employed or not, +according to the register and musical context of the passage. For +instance, in the extreme high register it may be essential to include +the piccolo; in the low register flutes will be unnecessary, and yet +the passage can still be called _tutti_. The inclusion of +kettle-drums, harp, and other instruments of little sustaining power, +as of the percussion in general, does not come under discussion. + +The variety of orchestral operations increases with the number of +instruments forming a _tutti_, in fact, so great does it become that +it is impossible to consider all combinations. I can only give a few +examples of full and partial _tutti_, and leave the reader to draw his +own conclusions. Some of these examples fall under the double heading +of full and partial _tutti_, and the student is reminded that the +_tutti_ is used essentially in _forte_ and _fortissimo_, rarely in +_pianissimo_ and _piano_ passages. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[61]] and [[62]]--Partial and full _Tutti_. + + " [[231]] Partial _Tutti_, without the trumpets + (cf. Ex. 8). + +No. 204. _Snegourotchka_ [[216]]--Full _Tutti_. + + " [[325-326]]--Full _Tutti_ and chorus + (cf. Ex. 8). + +_Sadko_ [[3]], [[223]], [[239]]--Full _Tutti_ (cf. Ex. 86). + +No. 205-206. _Sadko_ [[173]], [[177]]--Full _Tutti_ with chorus, +differently scored. + +No. 207-208. _The Christmas Night_ [[184]] and [[186]]--Full _Tutti_, +orchestrated in different ways, with and without chorus. + +* _The Tsar's Bride_, Overture [[1]], [[2]], [[7]]--Full and partial + _Tutti_ (cf. Ex. 179-181). + +* " " " [[141]]--Full _Tutti_. + +* " " " [[177]]-- " " + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[186]] and [[188]] Full _Tutti_. + +* _Antar_ [[65]]--(cf. Ex. 32). + +* No. 209. _Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement [[M]]; cf. also 1st +movement [[A]], [[E]], [[H]]; 2nd movement [[K]], [[P]], [[R]]; +3rd movement [[G]], [[O]]; 4th movement [[G]], [[P]], [[W]] and +further on to [[Y]] (No. 193, 194, 19, 66, 77). + +* _Spanish Capriccio_ [[B]], [[F]], [[J]], [[P]], [[V]], [[X-Z]] (cf. +Ex. 3). + +* _Russian Easter Fête_ [[F]], [[J]], before [[L]], [[Y]], up to the +end. + +* _3rd Symphony_, 1st movement [[D]], [[R-T]], [[X]]; 2nd +movement [[A]], [[E]]; 4th movement [[A]], [[H]], [[S]]. + +* _Sadko_, Symphonic tableau [[20-24]]. + +* _Mlada_, Act III [[12]] (cf. Ex. 258). + +* For examples of _Tutti_ chords, see special Tables at the end of +Vol. II. + + +_Tutti_ in the wind. + +In many cases the wood-wind and brass groups can form a _tutti_ by +themselves for periods of varying length. Sometimes this is effected +by the wood-wind alone, but more frequently with the support of horns. +At other times the horns are found alone without the wood-wind, and, +lastly, a _tutti_ may be comprised of instruments of each group in +varying numbers. The addition of kettle-drums and the rest of the +percussion is quite common and constitutes what the Germans call +"Janitscharenmusik", or Turkish infantry music. Violoncellos and +double basses playing more or less important _pizz._ notes are often +added to wood-wind instruments (_tutti_), likewise the remainder of +the strings and the harps; this process renders the sustained notes in +the wood-wind more distinct. _Tutti_ passages in wood-wind and horns +do not produce any great amount of power in _forte_ passages, but, on +the other hand _tutti_ in the brass groups alone may attain an +extraordinary volume of tone. In the following examples the formation +of pedal notes by strings or wood-wind in no way alters the general +character of the _Tutti_: + +_Examples:_ + +No. 210-211. _Snegourotchka_ [[149]], [[151]] (compare). + +_Tsar Saltan_ [[14]], [[17]], [[26]] (cf. Ex. 182-184). + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[57]], [[186]], [[262]]. + +No. 212. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[19]]; cf. also Act. III [[5]]. + +* No. 213-214. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[294]], [[312]] (compare). + +* No. 215. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[116]]; cf. also [[82]] and [[84]]. + +* _Antar_ [[37]] (cf. Ex. 65). + + +_Tutti pizzicato._ + +The quartet of strings (_pizzicato_), reinforced occasionally by the +harp and piano, may, in certain cases constitute a particular kind of +_tutti_, which can only attain any great degree of strength by support +from the wood-wind. Without this support it is of medium power, though +still fairly brilliant in quality. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 216. _Snegourotchka_, before [[128]]; cf. also [[153]] and before +[[305]]. + +* No. 217. _Russian Easter Fête_ [[K]]; cf. also [[U]] and [[V]]. + +* _Spanish Capriccio_ [[A]], [[C]], before [[S]], before [[P]]; cf. +also [[O]] (Ex. 56). + +_Mlada_, Act II [[15]]. + +* _Sadko_: [[220]] (cf. Ex. 295). + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[101]]. + +* No. 218. _The May Night_, Act I, The Mayor's Song--combination of +strings, _arco_ and _pizz._ + + +_Tutti_ in one, two and three parts. + +It often happens that a moderately full orchestral _ensemble_ executes +a passage composed of one or two harmonic parts, in unison or in +octaves. Such melodic phrases call for more or less simple +orchestration with the usual doubling of parts, or, in ornamental +writing, admit of contrast in tone colouring, occasionally with the +addition of sustained notes. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_, before [[152]], [[174]], [[176]]. + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[120-121]] (cf. Ex. 63). + +_The Golden Cockerel_ [[215]]. + +* No. 219-221. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[142]], [[144]], [[147]]--3 part +_Tutti_, with different scoring. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[138]], [[139]]--_Tutti_ in one part. + + +_Soli_ in the strings. + +Although, in any orchestral piece, numerous instances are to be found +of melodies and phrases entrusted to a solo wind instrument (generally +the first of each group, wood-wind or brass), solos for stringed +instruments, on the other hand, are extremely rare. Whilst the 1st +violin and 1st 'cello are fairly frequently used in this manner, +the solo viola is seldom found, and a solo on the double bass is +practically unknown. Phrases demanding particular individuality of +expression are entrusted to solo instruments; likewise passages that +require extraordinary technique, beyond the scope of the orchestral +rank and file. The comparatively weak tone of the solo instrument +necessitates light, transparent accompaniment. Difficult virtuoso +solos should not be written, as they attract too much attention to a +particular instrument. Solo stringed instruments are also used when +vigourous expression and technical facility are not required, but +simply in order to obtain that singular difference in colour which +exists between a solo stringed instrument and strings in unison. Two +solo instruments can be coupled together, e.g. 2 _Violins soli_, etc. +and in very rare cases a quartet of solo strings may be employed. + +_Examples:_ + +_Violin solo:_ + +No. 222-223. _Snegourotchka_ [[54]], [[275]]. + +_The May Night_, pp. 64-78. + +_Mlada_, Act I [[52]]; Act III, before [[19]]. + +* _A Fairy Tale_ [[W]]. + +* _Shéhérazade_, 1st movement [[C]], [[G]]; also the passages at +the start of each movement. + +* _Spanish Capriccio_ [[H]], [[K]], [[R]], and the cadence on p. 38. + +* No. 224. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[310]]--Vn. solo, on harmonic basis of +strings _sul ponticello_ and wood-wind. + +_Snegourotchka_ [[274]], [[279]]--2 Vns soli (cf. Ex. 9). + + +_Viola solo:_ + +No. 225. _Snegourotchka_ [[212]]. + +_Sadko_ [[137]]. + +* No. 226. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[163]]; cf. also [[174]], [[177]]. + + +_Violoncello solo:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[187]] (cf. Ex. 102). + +_The Christmas Night_, before [[29]], [[130]]. + +_Mlada_, Act III [[36]]. + +* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[177]], [[180]] (cf. Ex. 229). + + +_Double bass solo:_ + +* No. 227. _Mlada_, Act II [[10-12]]--a special instance where the +first string is tuned down. + + +_Solo quartet:_ + +_The Christmas Night_ [[222]]--Vn., Viola, 'Cello, D. bass. + +* No. 228. _Tsar Saltan_ [[248]]--Vn. I, Vn. II, Viola, 'Cello. + +* The case of a solo stringed instrument doubled by the wood-wind in +unison must not be forgotten. The object is to attain great purity and +abundance of tone, without impairing the timbre of the solo instrument +(especially in the high and low registers), or to produce a certain +highly-coloured effect. + +_Examples:_ + +* _Mlada_, Act II [[52]]--Vn. + Fl.; Act IV [[31]]--Viol. + Fl. + +Harp. + +* _The Christmas Night_ [[212]]--2 Vns + Fl. + Small Cl. (cf. Ex. +153). + +* _Pan Voyevoda_ [[67]]--2 Vns + 2 Ob.; 2 Violas + 2 Cl. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[306]]--Bass cl. + C-fag. (cf. Ex. 10). + + " " " [[309]]--Vn. + Fl. + +* No. 229. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[179]]--Vn. + Picc.; 'Cello + Bass +cl. + +* As shown in Chap. II, 2 Vns soli or Violin solo + Fl. (Picc.) are +often sufficient to double a melody in the upper register. + +_Examples:_ + +_Sadko_ [[207]]--cf. Chap. II, p. 42 and Ex. 24. + +* No. 230. _Russian Easter Fête_, p. 32--2 Solo violins (in +harmonics). + +* No. 231. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[297]]--2 Solo violins + Picc. + + +Limits of orchestral range. + +It is seldom that the entire orchestral conception is centred in the +upper register of the orchestra (the 5th and 6th octaves), still +more rarely is it focussed wholly in the lowest range (octaves 1 and +-1) where the proximity of harmonic intervals creates a bad effect. In +the first case the flutes and piccolo should be used along with the +upper notes of the violins, _soli_ or _divisi_; in the second case +the double bassoon and the low notes of the bassoons, bass clarinet, +horns, trombones and tuba are brought into play. The first method +gives brilliant colour, the second combination is dark and gloomy. The +contrary would be fundamentally impossible. + +_Examples:_ + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[122]], [[137]] } +_Servilia_ [[168]], 8th bar. (cf. Ex. 62) } low +No. 232. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[220]]; } register. + cf. also [[218]], [[219]] } + +* _Snegourotchka_, before [[25]] } +* _Legend of Kitesh_, before [[34]] } high +* No. 233. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[113]], [[117]] } register. +* No. 234. _Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement pp. 59-62 } + +The upper and lower parts of a passage can seldom be widely separated +without the intermediate octaves being filled in, for this is contrary +to the first principles of proper distribution of chords. Nevertheless +the unusual resonance thus produced serves for strange and grotesque +effects. In the first of the following examples the piccolo figure +doubled by the harp and the sparkling notes of the _glockenspiel_ is +set about four octaves apart from the bass, which is assigned to a +single Double bass and Tuba. But in the 3rd octave, the augmented +fourths and diminished fifths in the two flutes help to fill up the +intermediate space and lessen the distance between the two extreme +parts, thus forming some sort of link between them. The general effect +is fanciful. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 235. _Snegourotchka_ [[255]]. + +* No. 236. " [[315]], 5th and 6th bars. + + " [[274]] (cf. Ex. 9). + +_A Fairy Tale_ [[A]]. + +_The Golden Cockerel_ [[179]], 9th bar. (cf. Ex. 229). + + +Transference of passages and phrases. + +A phrase or a figure is often transferred from one instrument to +another. In order to connect the phrases on each instrument in the +best possible way, the last note of each part is made to coincide with +the first note of the following one. This method is used for passages +the range of which is too wide to be performed on any one instrument, +or when it is desired to divide a phrase into two different timbres. + +_Examples:_ + +* _Snegourotchka_ [[137]]--The melody is transferred from the violins + to the flute and clarinet (cf. Ex. 28). + +* " before [[191]]--Solo violin--Solo 'cello. + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[57]]--Trombones--Trumpets; Horn--Ob. + Cl. + +A similar operation is used in scoring passages covering the entire +orchestral scale, or a great portion of it. When one instrument is on +the point of completing its allotted part, another instrument takes up +the passage, starting on one or two notes common to both parts, and so +on. This division must be carried out to ensure the balance of the +whole passage. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[36]], [[38]], [[131]]--Strings. + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[190]]--Wood-wind. + +_Sadko_ [[72]]--Strings (cf. Ex. 112). + + " [[223]]--Strings. + +_The Christmas Night_, before [[180]]--Strings, wind and chorus (cf. +Ex. 132). + +* No. 237. _The Christmas Night_, before [[181]]--String figure. + +* _Servilia_ [[111]]--Strings (cf. Ex. 88). + + " [[29]], 5th bar.--Ob.--Fl.; Cl.--Bass cl., Fag. + +No. 238. _The Golden Cockerel_, before [[9]]--Wood-wind. + +* " " " [[5]]--Fag.--Eng. horn (+ 'Cellos + _pizz._). + + +Chords of different tone quality used alternately. + +1. The most usual practice is to employ chords on different groups of +instruments alternately. In dealing with chords in different registers +care should be taken that the progression of parts, though broken in +passing from one group to another, remains as regular as if there +were no leap from octave to octave; this applies specially to +chromatic passages in order to avoid false relation. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 239. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[29]]. + +No. 240-241. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[123]], before [[124]]. + +* No. 242-243. " " " [[178]], [[179]]. + + * _Note._ The rules regulating progression of parts may + sometimes be ignored, when extreme contrast of timbre + between two adjacent chords is intended. + + _Examples:_ + + * _Shéhérazade_, 8th bar from the beginning, (the + chromatic progression at the 12th bar is undertaken by + the same instruments, the 2nd cl. is therefore placed + above the first in the opening)--cf. Ex. 109. + + * _The Christmas Night_, opening (cf. Ex. 106). + +2. Another excellent method consists in transferring _the same chord +or its inversion_ from one orchestral group to another. This operation +demands perfect balance in progression of parts as well as register. +The first group strikes a chord of short value, the other group takes +possession of it simultaneously in the same position and distribution, +either in the same octave or in another. The dynamic gradations of +tone need not necessarily be the same in both groups. + +_Examples:_ + +_Ivan the Terrible_, commencement of the overture (cf. Ex. 85). + +No. 244. _Snegourotchka_ [[140]]. + + +Amplification and elimination of tone qualities. + +The operation which consists in contrasting the resonance of two +different groups (* or the different timbres of one and the same +group), either in sustained notes or chords, transforms a simple into +a complex timbre, suddenly, or by degrees. It is used in establishing +a _crescendo_. While the first group effects the _crescendo_ +gradually, the second group enters _piano_ or _pianissimo_, and +attains its _crescendo_ more rapidly. The whole process is thereby +rendered more tense as the timbre changes. The converse operation--the +transition from a complex to a simple timbre, by the suppression of +one of the groups, belongs essentially to the _diminuendo_. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 245. _Snegourotchka_ [[313]]. + + " [[140]] (cf. Ex. 244). + +_A Fairy Tale_ [[V]]. + +_Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement [[D]] (cf. Ex. 74). + +* " 4th movement p. 221. + +No. 246. _Servilia_ [[228]]; cf. also [[44]]. + +_The Christmas Night_ [[165]] (cf. Ex. 143). + +No. 247. _The Tsar's Bride_, before [[205]]. + +* No. 248. _Russian Easter Fête_ [[D]]. + +* No. 249-250. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[5]], [[162]]. + + +Repetition of phrases, imitation, echo. + +As regards choice of timbre, phrases in imitation are subject to the +law of register. When a phrase is imitated in the upper register it +should be given to an instrument of higher range and _vice versa_. If +this rule is ignored an unnatural effect will be produced, as when the +clarinet in its upper range replies to the oboe in the lower compass +etc. The same rule must be followed in dealing with phrases, actually +different, but similar in character; repeated phrases of different +character should be scored in a manner most suitable to each. + +_Examples:_ + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[157]], [[161]]. + +_Legend of Kitesh_ [[40-41]]. + +* No. 251. _Spanish Capriccio_ [[S]]. + +In echo phrases, that is to say imitation entailing not only decrease +in volume of tone but also an effect of distance, the second +instrument should be weaker than the first, but the two should possess +some sort of affinity. An echo given to muted brass following the same +phrase not muted produces this distant effect. Muted trumpets are +eminently suited to echo a theme in the oboes; flutes also may imitate +clarinets and oboes successfully. A wood-wind instrument cannot be +used to echo the strings, or _vice versa_, on account of the +dissimilarity in timbre. Imitation in octaves (with a decrease in +resonance) creates an effect resembling an echo. + +_Examples:_ + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act III [[3]]. + +No. 252. _Sadko_ [[264]]. + +* _Spanish Capriccio_ [[E]].--This example is not precisely an echo +but resembles one in character (cf. Ex. 44). + +* _Shéhérazade_, 4th movement before [[O]]. + + +_Sforzando-piano_ and _piano-sforzando_ chords. + +Besides the natural dynamic process of obtaining these marks of +expression, a process which depends upon the player, they may also be +produced by artificial means of orchestration. + +a) At the moment when the wood-wind begins a _piano_ chord, the +strings attack it _sforzando_, a compound chord for preference, either +_arco_ or _pizz._ In the opposite case the _sf_ in the strings must +occur at the end of the wood-wind chord. The first method is also +employed for a _sf-dim._, and the second for a _cresc.-sf_ effect. + +b) It is not so effective, and therefore less frequent to give the +notes of sustained value to the strings, and the short chords to the +wood-wind. In such cases the _tenuto_ chord is played _tremolando_ on +the strings. + +_Examples:_ + +_Vera Scheloga_, before [[35]], [[38]], 10th bar. + +* No. 253. _Legend of Kitesh_, before [[15-16]]. + +* _Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement, [[P]], 14th bar. + + +Method of emphasising certain notes and chords. + +In order to stress or emphasise a certain note or chord, besides the +marks of expression [music symbol: decrescendo] and _sf_, chords of 2, +3, and 4 notes can be inserted into the melodic progression by the +instruments of the string quartet, each playing a single note; short +notes in the wood-wind may also be used as well as a chain of three +or four grace notes, in the form of a scale, either in strings or +wood-wind. These unstressed notes (anacrusis), generally written very +small, form a kind of upward glide, the downward direction being less +common. As a rule they are connected to the main note by a slur. In +the strings they should not lead up to chords of three or four notes, +as this would be awkward for the bow. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 254. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[142]]--Anacrusis in the strings. + +* No. 255. _Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement [[C]]--Short _pizz._ chords. + +* " " " [[P]]--Short wind chords + (cf. Ex. 19). + + +_Crescendo_ and _diminuendo_. + +Short _crescendi_ and _diminuendi_ are generally produced by natural +dynamic means; when prolonged, they are obtained by this method +combined with other orchestral devices. After the strings, the brass +is the group most facile in producing dynamic shades of expression, +glorifying _crescendo_ chords into the most brilliant _sforzando_ +climaxes. Clarinets specialise in _diminuendo_ effects and are capable +of decreasing their tone to a breath (_morendo_). Prolonged orchestral +_crescendi_ are obtained by the gradual addition of other instruments +in the following order: strings, wood-wind, brass. _Diminuendo_ +effects are accomplished by the elimination of the instruments in the +reverse order (brass, wood-wind, strings). The scope of this work does +not lend itself to the quotation of prolonged _crescendo_ and +_diminuendo_ passages. The reader is referred, therefore, to the full +scores: + +* _Shéhérazade_, pp. 5-7, 92-96, 192-200. + +* _Antar_ [[6]], [[51]]. + +* _The Christmas Night_ [[183]]. + +* _Sadko_ [[165-166]]. + +* _The Tsar's Bride_ [[80-81]]. + +Many examples of shorter _crescendi_ and _diminuendi_ will be found in +Vol. II. + + +Diverging and converging progressions. + +In the majority of cases, diverging and converging progressions simply +consist in the gradual ascent of the three upper parts, with the bass +descending. The distance separating the bass from the other parts is +trifling at first, and grows by degrees. On the other hand, in +converging progressions, the three upper parts, at first so far +distant from the bass, gradually approach it. Sometimes these +progressions involve an increase or a decrease in tone. The +intermediate intervals are filled up by the introduction of fresh +parts as the distance widens, so that the upper parts become doubled +or trebled. In converging progressions the tripled and doubled parts +are simplified, as the duplicating instruments cease to play. +Moreover, if the harmony allows it, the group in the middle region +which remains stationary is the group to be retained, or else the +sustained note which guarantees unity in the operation. Below, the +reader will find double examples of both descriptions. The first pair +represents a diverging progression, 1. _piano_, in which the human +voice takes part; 2. a purely orchestral _crescendo_. The second +depicts two similar diverging progressions, firstly a gradual +_crescendo_, secondly _dim._, during which the strings become more and +more divided as the wind instruments cease to play. Ex. 258 +accompanies the apparition of Mlada, Ex. 259, its disappearance. The +atmosphere and colouring are weird and fanciful. The third pair of +examples forms instances of converging progressions. In the first (Ex. +260) Princess Volkhova relates the wonders of the sea. Then in the +middle of a powerful orchestral _crescendo_ the Sea-King appears (Ex. +261). Both examples include a sustained stationary chord of the +diminished seventh. The handling of such progressions requires the +greatest care. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 256-257. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[102]] and [[107]]. + +No. 258-259. _Mlada_, Act III [[12]] and [[19]]. + +No. 260-261. _Sadko_ [[105]] and [[119]]. + +_Sadko_ [[72]] (cf. Ex. 112). + + " before [[315]]. + +* _The Christmas Night_, beginning (cf. Ex. 106). + +* No. 262. _Antar_, end of 3rd movement. + +_Note._ A sustained note between the diverging parts does not always +allow the empty space to be more completely filled up. + +_Example:_ + +No. 263. _The Golden Cockerel_, before [[106]]. + + +Tone quality as a harmonic force. + +Harmonic basis. + +Melodic design comprising notes foreign to the harmony, passing or +grace notes, embellishments etc., does not permit that a florid +outline should proceed at the same time with another one, reduced to +essential and fundamental notes: + +[Music] + +If, in the above example, the upper part is transposed an octave +lower, the discordant effect produced by the contact of appoggiaturas +and fundamental notes will be diminished; the quicker the passage is +played the less harsh the effect will be, and _vice versa_. But it +would be ill-advised to lay down any hard and fast rule as to the +permissible length of these notes. There is no doubt that the harmonic +notes, the thirds of the fundamental one (_E_) are more prominent from +their proximity with the notes extraneous to the harmony. If the +number of parts is increased (for instance, if the melodic figure is +in thirds, sixths etc.), the question becomes still more complicated, +since, to the original harmonic scheme, chords with different root +bases are added, producing false relation. + +Nevertheless, for the solution of such problems, orchestration +provides an element of the greatest importance: difference of timbres. +The greater the dissimilarity in timbre between the harmonic basis on +the one hand and the melodic design on the other, the less discordant +the notes extraneous to the harmony will sound. The best example of +this is to be found between the human voice and the orchestra, next +comes the difference of timbres between the groups of strings, +wood-wind, plucked strings and percussion instruments. Less important +differences occur between wood-wind and brass; in these two groups, +therefore, the harmonic basis generally remains an octave removed from +the melodic design, and should be of inferior dynamic power. + +_Examples of harmonic basis in chords:_ + +No. 264. _Pan Voyevoda_, Introduction. + +_Legend of Kitesh_, Introduction (cf. also Ex. 125 and 140). + +* _Mlada_, Act III [[10]]. + +The harmonic basis may be ornamental in character, in which case it +should move independently of the concurrent melodic design. + +_Examples:_ + +* No. 265-266. _Tsar Saltan_ [[103-104]], [[128]], [[149]], +[[162-165]] (cf. below). + +Chords the most widely opposed in character may be used on a simple, +stationary harmonic basis, a basis, founded, for example, on the chord +of the tonic or diminished seventh. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 267. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[326-328]]--Wood-wind and harps on a +string basis. + +No. 268-269. _Kashtcheï the Immortal_ [[33]], [[43]]. + +No. 270. _Mlada_, Act II, before [[17]], [[18]]], [[20]]. + +No. 271. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[125]]--Chords of the diminished +seventh, on arpeggio basis (augmented fifth). + +The effect of alternating harmony produced between two melodic +figures, e.g. one transmitting a note, held in abeyance, to the other, +or the simultaneous progression of a figure in augmentation and +diminution etc. becomes comprehensible and pleasant to the ear when +the fundamental sustained harmony is different. + +_Examples:_ + +_Legend of Kitesh_ [[34]], [[36]], [[297]] (cf. Ex. 34 and 231). + +No. 272-274. _Tsar Saltan_ [[104]], [[162-165]] (cf. also +[[147-148]]). + +* _Russian Easter Fête_, before [[V]]. + +The whole question as to what is allowed and what forbidden in the +employment of notes extraneous to the harmony is one of the most +difficult in the whole range of composition; the permissible length of +such notes is in no way established. In absence of artistic feeling, +the composer who relies entirely on the difference between two timbres +will often find himself using the most painful discords. Innovations +in this direction in the latest post-Wagnerian music are often very +questionable; they depress the ear and deaden the musical senses, +leading to the unnatural conclusion that what is good, taken +separately, must necessarily be good in combination. + + +Artificial effects. + +I apply this name to some orchestral operations which are based on +certain defects of hearing and faculty of perception. Having no wish +to specify those that already exist or to foretell those which may yet +be invented, I will mention, in passing, a few which have been used by +me in my own works. To this class belong _glissando_ scales or +arpeggios in the harp, the notes of which do not correspond with those +played simultaneously by other instruments, but which are used from +the fact that long _glissandi_ are more resonant and brilliant than +short ones. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[325]] (cf. Ex. 95). + +No. 275. _Pan Voyevoda_ [[128]]. + +* _Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement [[M]], 5th bar (cf. Ex. 248). + +* _Russian Easter Fête_ [[D]] (cf. Ex. 248). + +* Enharmonic _glissando_ in the strings should also be mentioned. + +No. 276. _The Christmas Night_ [[180]], 13th bar--'Cellos +_glissando_. + + +Use of percussion instruments for rhythm and colour. + +Whenever some portion of the orchestra executes a rhythmic figure, +percussion instruments should always be employed concurrently. An +insignificant and playful rhythm is suitable to the triangle, +tambourine, castanets and side drum, a vigourous and straightforward +rhythm may be given to the bass drum, cymbals and gong. The strokes on +these instruments should almost invariably correspond to the strong +beats of the bar, highly-accented syncopated notes or disconnected +_sforzandi_. The triangle, side drum and tambourine are capable of +various rhythmic figures. Sometimes the percussion is used separately, +independently of any other group of instruments. + +The brass and wood-wind are the two groups which combine the most +satisfactorily with percussion from the standpoint of colour. The +triangle, side drum, and tambourine go best with harmony in the upper +register; cymbals, bass drum and gong with harmony in the lower. The +following are the combinations most generally employed: _tremolo_ on +the triangle and tambourine with trills in wood-wind and violins; +_tremolo_ on the side drum, or cymbals struck with drum sticks, and +sustained chords on trumpets and horns; _tremolo_ on the bass drum or +the gong with chords on trombones or low sustained notes on 'cellos +and double basses. It must not be forgotten that the bass drum, +cymbals, gong and a _tremolo_ on the side drum, played _fortissimo_, +is sufficient to overpower any orchestral _tutti_. + +* The reader will find instances of the use of percussion instruments +in any full score, and in several examples of the present work. + +_Examples:_ + +* _Shéhérazade_ pp. 107-119, also many passages in 4th movement. + +* _Antar_ [[40]], [[43]] (cf. Ex. 73, 29). + +* _Spanish capriccio_ [[P]] (cf. Ex. 64); the cadences to be studied +in the 4th movement, where they are accompanied by various +percussion instruments. + +* _Russian Easter Fête_ [[K]] (cf. Ex. 217). + +* _The Tsar's Bride_ [[140]]. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[196-197]]--"The Battle of Kerjémetz". + +* _Pan Voyevoda_ [[71-72]]. + + +Economy in orchestral colour. + +Neither musical feeling nor the ear itself can stand, for long, the +full resources of the orchestra combined together. The favourite group +of instruments is the strings, then follow in order the wood-wind, +brass, kettle-drums, harps, _pizzicato_ effects, and lastly the +percussion, also, in point of order, triangle, cymbals, big drum, side +drum, tambourine, gong. Further removed stand the celesta, +_glockenspiel_ and xylophone, which instruments, though melodic, are +too characteristic in timbre to be employed over frequently. The same +may be said of the piano and castanets. A quantity of national +instruments not included in the present work may be incorporated into +the orchestra; such are the guitar, the domra, zither, mandoline, the +oriental tambourine, small tambourine etc. These instruments are +employed from time to time for descriptive-aesthetic purposes. + +These instruments are most frequently used in the above-named order. A +group of instruments which has been silent for some time gains fresh +interest upon its reappearance. The trombones, trumpets and tuba are +occasionally _tacet_ for long periods, the percussion is seldom +employed, and practically never all together, but in single +instruments or in two's and three's. In national dances or music in +ballad style, percussion instruments may be used more freely. + +After a long rest the re-entry of the horns, trombones and tuba should +coincide with some characteristic intensity of tone, either _pp_ or +_ff_; _piano_ and _forte_ re-entries are less successful, while +re-introducing these instruments _mezzo-forte_ or _mezzo-piano_ +produces a colourless and common-place effect. This remark is capable +of wider application. For the same reasons it is not good to commence +or finish any piece of music either _mf_ or _mp_. The scope of the +musical examples in this work does not permit of illustrating by +quotation the use of economy in orchestral colour, nor the re-entry of +instruments thrown into prominence by prolonged rests. The reader must +examine these questions in full scores. + + + + +Chapter V. + +COMBINATION OF THE HUMAN VOICE WITH ORCHESTRA. THE STAGE BAND. + + +Orchestral accompaniment of solo voices. + +General remarks. + +In accompanying the voice orchestral scoring should be light enough +for the singer to make free use of all the dynamic shades of +expression without hardness of tone. In overflowing lyrical moments, +where full voice is required, the singer should be well supported by +the orchestra. + +Opera singing may be divided into two general classes, lyric singing +and declamation or recitative. The full, round, _legato_ aria affords +greater facility for tone production than florid music or recitative, +and the more movement and rhythmic detail contained in the vocal part, +the greater freedom and liberty must there be given to the voice. In +such a case the latter should not be doubled by the orchestra, neither +should rhythmical figures be written for any instrument corresponding +with those in the vocal part. In accompanying the voice the composer +should bear these points in mind before turning his attention to the +choice of orchestral colour. A confused, heavy accompaniment will +overpower the singer; an accompaniment which is too simple in +character will lack interest, and one which is too weak will not +sustain the voice sufficiently. + +In modern opera it is rare that orchestral writing is confined to +accompaniment pure and simple. It frequently happens that the +principal musical idea, often complex in character, is contained in +the orchestra. The voice may then be said to form the accompaniment, +exchanging musical for literary interest. It becomes subordinate to +the orchestra, as though it were an extra part, subsequently added as +an after-thought. But it is evident that great care must be taken with +orchestral writing in such cases. The scoring must not be so heavy or +complicated as to drown the voice and prevent the words from being +heard, thereby breaking the thread of the text, and leaving the +musical imagery unexplained. Certain moments may require great volume +of orchestral tone, so great that a voice of even phenomenal power is +incapable of being heard. Even if the singer is audible, such unequal +struggles between voice and orchestra are most inartistic, and the +composer should reserve his orchestral outbursts for the intervals +during which the voice is silent, distributing the singer's phrases +and pauses in a free and natural manner, according to the sense of the +words. If a prolonged _forte_ passage occurs in the orchestra it may +be used concurrently with action on the stage. All artificial +reduction of tone contrary to the true feeling of a passage, the sole +object being to allow the voice to come through, should be strictly +avoided, as it deprives orchestral writing of its distinctive +brilliance. It must also be remembered that too great a disparity in +volume of tone between purely orchestral passages and those which +accompany the voice create an inartistic comparison. Therefore, when +the orchestra is strengthened by the use of wood-wind in three's or +four's, and brass in large numbers, the division of tone and colour +must be manipulated skillfully and with the greatest care. + +In previous sections I have frequently stated that the structure of +the orchestra is closely related to the music itself. The scoring of a +vocal work proves this relationship in a striking manner, and, indeed, +it may be stipulated that _only that which is well written can be well +orchestrated_. + + +Transparence of accompaniment. Harmony. + +The group of strings is the most transparent medium and the one least +likely to overpower the voice. Then come the wood-wind and the brass, +the latter in the following order: horns, trombones, trumpets. A +combination of strings, _pizz._, and the harp forms a setting +eminently favourable for the voice. As a general rule a singer is more +easily overpowered by long sustained notes than by short detached +ones. Strings doubled in the wood-wind and brass, and brass doubled +by wood-wind are combinations liable to drown the singer. This may be +done even more easily by _tremolando_ in the kettle-drums and other +percussion instruments, which, even by themselves are capable of +overpowering any other orchestral group of instruments. Doubling of +wood-wind and horns, and the use of two clarinets, two oboes or two +horns in unison to form one harmonic part is likewise to be avoided, +as such combinations will have a similar effect on the voice. The +frequent use of long sustained notes in the double basses is another +course unfavourable to the singer; these notes in combination with the +human voice produce a peculiar throbbing effect. + +Juxtaposition of strings and wood-wind which overweights _legato_ or +declamatory singing may nevertheless be employed if one of the groups +forms the harmony in sustained notes and the other executes a melodic +design, when, for instance the sustaining instruments are clarinet, +and bassoon, or bassoon and horn, and the melodic design is entrusted +to violins or violas--or in the opposite case, when the harmony is +given to violas and 'cellos _divisi_, and the harmonic [Transcriber's +Note: melodic] figure to the clarinets. + +Sustained harmony in the register of the second octave to the middle +of the third does not overpower women's voices, as these develop +_outside_ this range; neither is it too heavy for men's voices, which +although opening out _within_ the range itself sound an octave higher, +as in the case of the tenor voice. As a rule women's voices suffer +more than men's when they come in contact with harmony in a register +similar to their own. Taken separately, and used in moderation, each +group of orchestral instruments may be considered favourable to each +type of voice. But the combination of two or three groups cannot be so +considered unless they each play an independent part and are not +united together at full strength. Incessant four-part harmony is to be +deprecated. Satisfactory results will be obtained when the number of +harmonic parts is gradually decreased, with some of them sustaining +pedal notes, and when the harmony, interspersed with necessary pauses +is confined to the limits of one octave, distributed over several +octaves, or duplicated in the higher register. + +These manipulations allow the composer to come to the singer's aid; in +voice-modulations, when the singer passes from the _cantabile_ to the +declamatory style, the composer may reduce or eliminate some harmony +which is found to be too heavy as the vocal tone diminishes, and +conversely, support the voice by a fuller orchestral tone in broad +phrases and climaxes. + +Ornamental writing and polyphonic accompaniment should never be too +intricate in character, entailing the use of an unnecessary number of +instruments. Some complicated figures are better partially entrusted +to _pizz._ strings and harp, as this combination has little chance of +overpowering the voice. Some examples of accompanying an _aria_ are +given below. + +_Examples:_ + +_The Tsar's Bride_, Lykow's supplementary _Aria_ (Act III). + + " " " [[16-19]]--Griasnov's _Aria_. + +No. 277. _Snegourotchka_ [[45]]. + +* _Snegourotchka_ [[187-188]], [[212-213]] the two Cavatinas of Tsar +Berendey (cf. extracts, Ex. 102, 225). + +No. 278. _Sadko_ [[143]]. + + " [[204-206]]--The Venetian's Song. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[39-41]], [[222-223]] (cf. Ex. 31). + +* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[153-157]], [[163]]. + +Florid singing which limits volume of tone requires a light +accompaniment, simple in outline and colour, involving no duplication +of instruments. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 279. _Snegourotchka_ [[42-48]]--_Snegourotchka's Aria_ (Prologue), +Fragment. + +* _Sadko_ [[195-197]]--Hindoo Song (cf. Ex. 122). + +* _The Christmas Night_ [[45-50]]--Oxana's _Aria_. + +* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[131-136]]--_Aria_ of Queen Shémakhâ. + + +Doubling voices in the orchestra. + +Melodic doubling of voices by orchestral instruments (in unison or +octaves) is of frequent occurrence, but incessant duplication for an +extended period of time should be avoided; it is only permissible in +isolated phrases. The most natural duplication in unison of womens' +voices is performed by violins, violas, clarinets and oboes; that of +mens' voices by violas, 'cellos, bassoons and horns. Doubling in +octaves is usually done in the upper register. Trombones and trumpets +overpower the voice and cannot be used for this purpose. Uninterrupted +or too frequent duplication should be avoided, not only because the +operation deprives the singer of full freedom of expression, but also +because it replaces by a mixed timbre the rare characteristic +qualities of the human voice. Doubling, when limited to a few special +phrases supports the voice and endows it with beauty and colour. It is +only suitable _in tempo_; to apply it, in unison or octaves to a +passage _ad. lib._ is both ineffective and dangerous. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[50-52]]--Snegourotchka's Arietta (cf. Ex. 41). + +_Sadko_ [[309-311]]--Volkhova's Cradle-song (cf. Ex. 81). + +Besides the question of doubling the voice for the object of colour +there are instances when the singer executes only part of a phrase, +allotted in its entirely to an orchestral instrument. + +_Example:_ + +_Vera Scheloga_ [[30]], [[36]] (cf. Ex. 49). + +Lyrical climaxes, _a piena voce_, or dramatic passages for the voice +situated outside its normal range should be supported melodically and +harmonically by the orchestra, in the register in which the voice is +placed. The culminating point in such passages often coincides with +the entry or sudden attack of the trombones or other brass +instruments, or by a rush of strings. Strengthening the accompaniment +in this manner will soften the tone of the voice. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 280. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[206]]. + +_Servilia_ [[126-127]]. + + " [[232]]. + +No. 281. _Sadko_ [[314]]. + +_Vera Scheloga_ [[41]]. + +If the culminating point is soft in colour and outline it is better +left unsupported in the orchestra, but sometimes the wood-wind, +sustaining such passages with light transparent melody or harmony may +produce an entrancing effect. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[188]]. + + " [[318]] (cf. Ex. 119). + +No. 282. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[214]]. + +It is a common practice to support voices in concerted numbers by +harmony and duplication; this operation makes for accuracy and +brilliance when applied to duets, trios, quartets etc. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[292-293]]--Duet (cf. Ex. 118). + +_Sadko_ [[99-101]]--Duet (cf. Ex. 289 and 290). + +No. 283. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[169]]--sextet. + + " " " [[117]] quartet. + +_Legend of Kitesh_ [[341]]--quartet and sextet (cf. Ex. 305). + +The beautiful effect produced by a solo instrument accompanying a +_cantabile aria_ cannot be denied. In such cases the instruments used +are generally the violin, viola, and 'cello, or the flute, oboe, Eng. +horn, clar., bass clar., bassoon, horn and harp. The accompaniment is +often contrapuntal or composed of polyphonic designs. The solo +instrument either plays alone or as the leading melodic voice in the +_ensemble_. In combination with the voice, or associated with some +action on the stage, a solo instrument is a powerful expedient for +musical characterisation. Instances of this description are numerous. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[50]]--Soprano and oboe (cf. Ex. 41). + + " [[97]]--Contralto and Eng. horn. + + " [[243]], [[246]]--Baritone and bass clar. + (cf. Ex. 47-48). + +No. 284. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[108]]--Soprano, 'cello and oboe. + +* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[163]]--Soprano and viola (cf. Ex. 226). + +It is comparatively rare for percussion instruments to take part in +accompanying the voice. The triangle is occasionally used, the cymbals +less frequently. An accompaniment may be formed by a figure or a +_tremolo_ on the kettle-drums. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[97]], [[224]], [[247]] (Lell's 1st and 3rd +songs). + +_Tsar Saltan_, before [[5]]. + +* No. 285. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[135]]; cf. also [[161]], [[197]]. + +The following are examples of powerful and expressive orchestral +passages, the voice _tacet_: + +No. 286. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[81]]. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[282]], [[298]]. + +* _Servilia_ [[130]]. + + +Recitative and declamation. + +The accompaniment of recitative and melodic declamatory phrases should +be light enough to allow the voice to come through without strain, and +the words to be heard distinctly. The most convenient method is to +employ sustained chords and _tremolo_ on the strings or wood-wind, +giving free latitude to the voice from a rhythmic point of view (_a +piacere_). + +Another excellent plan is to write short chords in the strings +combined with wood-wind in different ways. Sustained chords and those +entailing change of position should occur preferably when the voice is +silent, thus permitting both conductor and orchestra to keep a closer +watch over the singer's irregularities of rhythm in _a piacere_ +recitatives. If the accompaniment is more complex in character, +melodic, polyphonic or ornamental in design, the recitative must be +sung _in tempo_. Any phrase which it is necessary to emphasise in +accordance with the sense of the words assumes a more _cantabile_ +character, and must be reinforced by the orchestra. Opera, today, +besides demanding much greater care in the treatment of the text than +in the past, abounds in constant transition from declamation to +_cantabile_, or in the fusion of the two. The orchestra offers more +variety of texture and must be handled with greater regard to its +relationship to the words, and the action on the stage. This class of +orchestration can only be studied from lengthy examples. I refer the +reader to operatic full scores and content myself with giving one or +[Transcriber's Note: 'two' missing in original] short instances: + +_Examples:_ + +No. 287. _Snegourotchka_ [[16]]. + +No. 288. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[124-125]]. + +The following double examples, similar from a musical point of view, +show different methods of handling an orchestra from the standpoint of +accompaniment to the voice, and the _tutti_ form. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 289-291. _Sadko_ [[99-101]] and [[305-307]] (compare also Ex. 75). + +_Vera Scheloga_ [[3-7]] and [[28]]. + +Care should be taken not to score too heavily when accompanying +singers in the wings. + +_Examples:_ + +* No. 292. _Sadko_ [[316]], [[318]], [[320]]. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[286-289]], [[304-305]]. + + +Orchestral accompaniment of the chorus. + +The chorus, possessing much greater unity and power than the solo +voice, does not demand such careful handling in the accompaniment. On +the contrary, too great a refinement of orchestral treatment will +prove harmful to the resonance of the chorus. As a general rule +orchestration of choral works follows the rules laid down for purely +instrumental scoring. It is obvious that dynamic marks of expression +must correspond in both bodies, but doubling one orchestral group with +another and coupling instruments of the same kind in unison (2 Ob., 2 +Cl., 4 Horns, 3 Trombones etc.) are both possible operations, if +performed according to the requirements of the musical context. +Doubling choral parts by instruments is generally a good plan. In +_cantabile_ passages such duplication may be melodic in character, +and the design more ornamental in the orchestra than in the chorus. + +_Examples:_ + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[3-6]]; Act III [[66-69]]. + +_The May Night_, Act I [[X-Y]]; Act III [[L-Ee]], [[Ddd-Fff]]. + +_Snegourotchka_ [[61-73]], [[147-153]], [[323-328]]. + +_Mlada_, Act II [[22-31]], [[45-63]]; Act IV [[31-36]]. + +_The Christmas Night_ [[59-61]], [[115-123]]. + +_Sadko_ [[37-39]], [[50-53]], [[79-86]], [[173]], [[177]], [[187]], +[[189]], [[218-221]], [[233]], [[270-273]]. + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[29-30]], [[40-42]], [[50-59]], [[141]]. + +_Tsar Saltan_ [[67-71], [[91-93]], [[133-145]], [[207-208]]. + +_Legend of Kitesh_ [[167]], [[177-178]]. + +_The Golden Cockerel_ [[237-238]], [[262-264]]. + +The reader will find instances of choral accompaniment in many +examples relating to other sections of the work. + +In the case of solitary exclamations or phrases in recitative, melodic +doubling is not always suitable. It is better to support the voice +simply by harmonic duplication. + +The repetition of notes--required by declamation--forming no +fundamental part of the rhythmical structure of a phrase or chord +should not be reproduced in the orchestra; the melodic or harmonic +basis alone should be doubled. Sometimes the rhythmical structure of a +choral phrase is simplified in comparison with its orchestral +duplication. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 293. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[96]]. + +No. 294. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act I, before [[75]]. + +Choral passages, the musical context of which is complete in itself, +forming a chorus _a cappella_ often remain undoubled by the orchestra, +accompanied solely by sustained notes or an independent polyphonic +figure. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 295. _Sadko_ [[219]]. + +* _Tsar Saltan_ [[207]]. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[167]] (cf. Ex. 116). + +* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[236]]. + +Heavier scoring is required for a mixed chorus; for a male voice +chorus the orchestration should be lighter; still more so for women's +voices alone. In scoring a certain passage the composer should not +lose sight of the number of choristers he is employing, for scenic +conditions may necessitate a reduction of that figure. The approximate +number should be marked in the full score as a basis upon which to +work. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 296. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[37]]. + +* _Sadko_ [[17]], [[20]]. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[61]] (cf. Ex. 198). + + _Note._ It must also be remembered that a _ff_ passage on an + enlarged orchestra, comprising wood-wind in fours, and + numerous brass (sometimes in three's), is capable of + overpowering a large mixed chorus. + +A chorus in the wings requires as light an accompaniment as that +employed for a solo singer on the stage. + +_Examples:_ + +* _Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[25-26]], [[90]]; Act III [[13-14]]. + +* _The May Night_, Act I, before [[X]]; Act III [[Bbb-Ccc]]. + +* No. 297. _Sadko_ [[102]]. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[54-56]] (cf. Ex. 196 and 197). + + +Solo voice with chorus. + +When an _aria_ or recitative is coupled with the chorus great care +must be taken in the choral writing. A woman's solo voice stands out +well against a male voice chorus, likewise a solo male voice against a +women's chorus, for in both cases, the timbre of the solo voice +differs from the rest. But the combination of solo voice and chorus, +of the same timbre, or mixed chorus, creates a certain amount of +difficulty. In such cases the soloist should sing in a higher register +than the chorus, the former _a piena voce_, the latter _piano_. The +soloist should stand as near to the footlights as possible; the chorus +up-stage. The orchestration should be adapted to the soloist, not to +the chorus. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 298. _Snegourotchka_ [[143]]. + +_Ivan the Terrible._ Act II [[37]] (cf. Ex. 296). + +When the chorus sings in the wings the soloist is always heard +distinctly. + +_Examples:_ + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[25-26]]. + +* _The May Night_, Act III [[Ccc]]. + +* _Sadko_ [[102]], [[111]]. + + +Instruments on the stage and in the wings. + +The use of instruments on the stage or in the wings dates from distant +times (Mozart, _Don Giovanni_, string orchestra in Act I, _finale_). +In the middle of last century orchestras of brass instruments, or +brass and wood-wind combined, made their appearance on the stage +(Glinka, Meyerbeer, Gounod and others). More modern composers have +abandoned this clumsy practice, not only unfortunate from the +spectators' point of view, but also detrimental to the mediaeval or +legendary setting of the majority of operas. Only those stage +instruments are now used which suit the scene and surroundings in +which the opera is laid. As regards instruments in the wings, +invisible to the audience, the question is simple. Nevertheless, for +the musician of today the choice of these instruments must be +regulated by aesthetic considerations of greater importance than those +governing the selection of a military band. The instruments are played +in the wings, those visible on the stage are only for ornament. +Sometimes stage-instruments may be replicas of those common to the +period which the opera represents, (the sacred horns in _Mlada_, for +example). The orchestral accompaniment must vary in power according +to the characteristics of the instruments played in the wings. It is +impossible to illustrate the use of all the instruments mentioned +below, and to outline suitable accompaniments. I can only give a few +examples and refer the reader once again to the passages in the full +scores. + +a) Trumpets: + +_Servilia_ [[12]], [[25]]. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[53]], [[55]], [[60]]. + +* _Tsar Saltan_ [[139]] and further on. + + +b) Horns, in the form of hunting horns: + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[38-39]]. + + +c) Trombones, leaving the orchestra to go on the stage: + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[191]]. + + +d) Cornets: + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act III [[3]], [[7]]. + + +e) Sacred horns (natural brass instruments in various keys): + +_Mlada_, Act II, pp. 179 onwards. + + +f) Small clarinets and piccolos: + +No. 299-300. _Mlada_, Act III [[37]], [[39]]. + + +g) Pipes of Pan: instruments, specially made, with many holes which +are passed over the lips. These particular pipes produce a special +enharmonic scale (_B_ flat, _C_, _D_ flat, _E_ flat, _E_, _F_ sharp, +_G_, _A_), which has the effect of a glissando: + +_Mlada_, Act III [[39]], [[43]] (cf. Ex. 300). + + +h) Harp, reproducing the effect of an aeolian harp: + +_Kashtcheï the Immortal_ [[32]] and further on (cf. Ex. 268, 269). + + +i) Lyres. Instruments specially made and tuned so as to be able to +perform a glissando chord of the diminished seventh: + +_Mlada_, Act III [[39]], [[43]] (cf. Ex. 300). + + +k) Pianoforte, grand or upright: + +_Mozart and Salieri_ [[22-23]]. + + +l) Gong, imitating a church bell: + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[57]] and further on. + + +m) Bass Drum (without cymbals) to imitate the sound of cannon: + +_Tsar Saltan_ [[139]] and later. + + +n) Small kettle-drum, in _D_ flat (3rd octave): + +_Mlada_, Act III [[41]] and later (cf. Ex. 60). + + +o) Bells in various keys: + +_Sadko_ [[128]] and [[139]]. + +No. 301. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[181]] and further on. See also [[241]], +[[323]] and later. + +* _Tsar Saltan_ [[139]] and further on. + + +p) Organ: + +No. 302. _Sadko_ [[299-300]]. + +Wood-wind and strings are comparatively seldom used on the stage or in +the wings. In Russian opera the strings are employed in this way by +Rubinstein (_Gorioucha_), and in a splendidly characteristic manner by +Serov (_Hostile Power_): in the latter opera the _E_ flat clarinet is +used to imitate the fife in the Carnival procession.[17] + +[Footnote 17: Mention should be made of the happy use of a small +orchestra in the wings (2 picc., 2 cl., 2 horns, 1 trombone, +tambourine, 4 Vns, 2 violas, 1 D-bass) in _The May Night_, Act II, +Sc. I. [[M-P]]. (Editor's note.)] + + + + +Chapter VI (Supplementary). + +VOICES. + + +Technical Terms. + +Among all the confused terms employed in singing to denote the +compass, register and character of the human voice, there are four +which may be said to represent elemental types: soprano, alto or +contralto, tenor and bass. These names are used to denote the +composition of the chorus with sub-divisions of _firsts_ and +_seconds_, to determine how the parts must be divided. (Sopr. I, Sopr. +II etc.) While the range of an instrument is exactly governed by its +construction, the compass of the voice, on the other hand, depends on +the individuality of the singer. It is therefore impossible to define +the exact limits of each of these vocal types. When it is a question +of dividing choristers into 1st and 2nd parts, those with the +higher voices are classed among the firsts and _vice versa_. + +Besides the principal terms mentioned above, the names mezzo-soprano +(between sop. and alto), and baritone (between tenor and bass) are +also employed. + + _Note._ In the chorus mezzo-sopranos are classed with 2nd + sopranos or 1st altos, baritones with 2nd tenors or + first basses, according to quality and timbre of voice. + +Apart from these denominations which represent the six principal solo +voices, a quantity of others are in use to denote either compass, +timbre or technique, such as light soprano, _soprano giusto_, lyric +soprano, dramatic soprano, light tenor, _tenorino-altino_, +_baryton-martin_, lyric tenor, dramatic tenor, _basso cantante_ +("singing bass"), _basso profondo_ (deep bass) etc. To this lengthy +list must be added the term _mezzo-carattere_, of intermediate +character (between lyric and dramatic soprano, for example). + +If we try to discover the real meaning of these designations it soon +becomes apparent that they are derived from widely different +sources--for instance, "light soprano" implies agility and mobility in +the voice; "dramatic tenor", the power to express strong dramatic +feeling; _basso profondo_ signifies great resonance in the deep +register. + +Minute examination of all the methods of attack and emission of sound +lies within the province of the singing master and to enumerate them +here would only perplex the student. The same applies to the position +and exact limits of register (chest voice, middle and head voice in +women; chest voice, mixed voice and falsetto in men). The work of a +teacher of singing consists in equalising the voice throughout its +whole compass, so that the transition from one register to another, on +all the vowels, may be accomplished imperceptibly. Some voices are +naturally even and flexible. The professor of singing must correct +faults in breathing, determine the range of the voice and place it, +equalise its tone, increase its flexibility, instruct as to the +pronunciation of vowels, modulation from one grade of expression to +another, etc. A composer should be able to rely upon flexible and +equal voices without having to trouble himself as to the abilities or +defects of individual singers. In these days a part is seldom written +for a particular artist, and composers and librettists do not find it +necessary to entrust a certain rôle to _fioriture_ singers, another to +heavy dramatic voices. Poetic and artistic considerations demand +greater variety of resource in the study of opera or vocal music in +general. + + +Soloists. + +Range and register. + +I advise the composer to be guided by Table F. which gives the +approximate range of the six principal solo voices. A bracket under +the notes defines the normal octave, the register in which the voice +is generally used. Within these limits the composer may write freely +without fear of hardening or tiring the voice. The normal octave +applies also to declamatory singing and recitative; the notes above it +are exceptional and should be used for the culminating points of a +passage or for climaxes, the notes below, for the fall or decline of a +melody. Employing voices in unusual registers for long periods of time +will weary both singer and listener, but these registers may +occasionally be used for brief intervals so as not to confine the +voice too strictly to one octave. A few examples are added to +illustrate melody in different types of voices. + +_Examples:_ + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[102-109]] (for extracts cf. Ex. 256, 280, + 284)--Marfa's Aria (Soprano). + + " " " [[16-18]]--Griaznov's Aria (Baritone). + +_Snegourotchka_--The 3 songs of Lell. (Contralto). + +_Sadko_ [[46-49]] (cf. extract, Ex. 120)--Sadko's Aria (Tenor). + + " [[129-131]]--Lioubava's Aria (Mezzo-sopr.). + + " [[191-193]] (cf. extract, Ex. 131)--Bass Aria. + + +Vocalisation. + +A good vocal melody should contain notes of at least three different +values, minims, crotchets and quavers (or crotchets, quavers and +semiquavers etc.). Monotony in rhythmic construction is unsuited to +vocal melody; it is applicable to instrumental music, but only in +certain cases. _Cantabile_ melody requires a fair number of long +notes, and a change of syllable in a word should occur at a moment +when the voice quits a long sustained note. Short, single notes, +changing with every syllable produce a harmonious effect. Owing to the +requirements of diction, extended melodic figures sung _legato_ on one +syllable must be used with care on the part of the composer; to +perform these the singer must possess greater command over flexibility +and technique. The possibility of taking breath in the right place is +one of the conditions essential to all vocal writing. Breath cannot be +taken in the middle of a word, sometimes not even during the course of +a sentence or phrase in the text; hence the voice part must be +suitably interspersed with rests. + + +Table F. Voices. + +Chorus: + +[Music: Soprano. + +Contralto. + +Tenor. + +Bass.] + + +Soloists: + +[Music: + +Soprano. +Mezzo-soprano. +Contralto. +Tenor. +Baritone. +Bass.] + + _Note._ It must be remembered that there are some words upon + which the voice may not dwell, or sing more than one or two + notes. These words may be nouns, pronouns, numerals, + prepositions, conjunctions and other parts of speech. It + would be impossible and ridiculous, for instance, to write a + sustained note on such words as "who", "he" etc. The voice + may dwell on certain words which, so to speak, possess some + poetical colour.[18] + +[Footnote 18: Here the author approaches a question so well known to +the Russians that it does not require any further elucidation for +their guidance. But a whole book would have to be written to form a +compendium of practical rules on this subject, and to point out the +errors which nearly all French composers openly commit--even those who +are famous for their sense of diction and literary style. We can only +conclude that the question has come to be considered of minor +importance in France, perhaps on account of the lack of definite +stress on the syllables of words, which is characteristic of the +French language. It is not within the translator's province to discuss +the question of French versification or to elaborate the excellent +maxims laid down by Rimsky-Korsakov, the first, among many, to touch +upon this delicate and important subject. (Translator's note.)] + +_Examples:_ + +No. 303. _Sadko_ [[236]]--Sadko's Aria (Tenor). + + " [[309-311]] (see extract, Ex. 81). Volkhova's Cradle + Song (Soprano). + +_Snegourotchka_ [[9]]--Fairy Spring's Aria (Mezzo-sopr.). + + " [[187-188]], [[212-213]] (see extracts, Ex. 102 and + 225)--the two Cavatinas of Tsar Berendey (Tenor). + + " [[247]]--Miskir's Aria (Baritone). + + +Vowels. + +As regards vocalisation on one syllable, on long sustained notes and +in the high register, the choice of vowels is a matter of some +importance. The difference in the position of the mouth and lips in +forming the open vowel =a= and the closed vowel =ou= is apparent to +everyone. The series of vowels from the point of view of open sounds +is: =a=, =i=, =o=, =e=, =u=. In women's voices the easiest vowel on +high notes is =a=, for men it is =o=. The vowel =i= softens the +penetrating quality of the top notes of a bass voice, and the vowel +=a= adds to the extension of range in the very lowest compass. Lengthy +florid passages are often written on the interjection =ah=, or simply +on the vowel =a=. Owing to the restrictions imposed by literary and +dramatic laws, the composer can only follow the above rules to a +limited extent. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[293]], [[318-319]] (cf. Ex. 119). + +No. 304. _Sadko_ [[83]]. + + +Flexibility. + +Voices possess the greatest amount of flexibility in their normal +octave. Women's voices are more supple than men's, but in all types, +the higher voice is the more agile, sopranos in women, the tenor voice +in men. Although capable of performing florid and complicated figures, +different varieties of phrasing and the rapid change from staccato to +legato, the human voice is infinitely less flexible than a musical +instrument. In passages of any rapidity, diatonic scales and +_arpeggios_ in thirds come easiest to the voice. Intervals bigger than +fourths in quick succession and chromatic scales are extremely +difficult. Skips of an octave or more starting from a short note +should always be avoided. Preparation should precede any extremely +high note either by leading up to it gradually, or by the clear leap +of a fourth, fifth or octave; but sometimes the voice may attack a +high note without any due preparation. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[46-48]] (cf. extract, Ex. 279)--Snegourotchka's + Aria (Soprano). + + " [[96-97]]--Lell's first song (Contralto). + +_Sadko_ [[196-193]] [Transcriber's Note: so in original] (cf. extract, + Ex. 122)--Hindoo song (Tenor). + + " [[203-206]]--Venetian song (Baritone). + +_Pan Voyevoda_ [[20-26]]--Maria's cradle song (Sopr). + + +Colour and character of voices. + +The colouring of the voice, whether it be brilliant or dull, sombre or +sonorous depends upon the individual singer, and the composer has no +need to consider it. The chief question is interpretation and may be +solved by the judicious choice of artists. From the point of view of +flexibility and expression voices may be divided into two classes, +_lyric_ and _dramatic_. The latter is more powerful and of greater +range, the former possesses more suppleness and elasticity and is more +readily disposed to different shades of expression. Granted that the +rare combination of the two classes is the composer's ideal, he should +nevertheless be content to follow the main artistic purpose which he +has set out the [Transcriber's Note: to] achieve. In complicated and +important works the composer should bear in mind the characteristics +of the various voices he employs; moreover, if he use two voices of +the same calibre, e.g. 2 Sopranos or 2 Tenors, he should discriminate +between the range and register of their respective parts, writing for +one slightly higher than the other. It is no rare occurrence to meet +with voices of an intermediate character (mezzo-carattere) combining +the qualities of each type to a modified extent. To such voices the +composer may assign rôles demanding the characteristics of each class, +especially secondary rôles. At the present day, besides the rôles +suitable to the dramatic and lyric type of voice, it is customary to +give prominence to those demanding some special qualifications, voices +of a certain tenderness or power, a specified range or degree of +flexibility--attributes decided by the artistic object in view. In +casting secondary and minor rôles the composer is advised to employ a +medium range and less exacting demands on technique. + + _Note._ After Meyerbeer, who was the first to write for a + special type of heavy mezzo-soprano and baritone, Richard + Wagner created a type of powerful dramatic soprano, of + extensive range, combining the quality and scope of the + soprano and mezzo-soprano voices; likewise a similar type of + tenor, possessing the attributes and compass of the tenor + and baritone together. To demand that voices shall be + equally brilliant and resonant in the high and low register, + that singers shall be endowed with a super-powerful + breathing apparatus and an extraordinary faculty for + resistance to fatigue (Siegfried, Parsifal, Tristan, + Brünhilda, Kundry, Isolda), is to exact something little + short of the miraculous. Such voices are to be found, but + there are some singers with excellent though not phenomenal + vocal powers, who, by the constant pursuit of Wagnerian + parts endeavour to increase their range and volume, and only + succeed in depriving the voice of correct intonation, beauty + of tone, and all subtlety of _nuances_. I believe that less + exacting demands and greater perception of what is required, + skilful and judicious use of the high and low registers of + the voice, a proper understanding of _cantabile_ writing + combined with orchestration which never overpowers the vocal + part will be of greater service to the composer, from an + artistic point of view, than the more elaborate methods of + Richard Wagner. + + +Voices in combination. + +Treating solo voices in a polyphonico-harmonic manner is the best +method of preserving their individual character in _ensembles_. A +distribution which is wholly harmonic or entirely polyphonic is seldom +found. The first plan, largely used in choral writing, simplifies the +movement of the voices too greatly, eliminating their melodic +character; the second method is wearisome and somewhat disturbing to +the ear. + +As a general rule the voices are arranged according to the law of +normal register. Crossing of parts is rare and should only be done +with the intention of emphasising the melody in the ascending voices +above those adjacent in register, e.g. the tenor part above contralto, +the mezzo-soprano above the soprano, etc. + + +Duet. + +The combinations most conducive to the proper movement of parts are +those of two voices related within an octave 8 [Sopr./Ten., +M.-sopr./Bar., C.-alto/Bass. Movement in tenths, sixths, thirds or +octaves (the last very seldom) will always produce satisfactory +_ensemble_, and if the parts progress polyphonically, it need not +happen _frequently_ that they are separated by more than a tenth, or +that undesirable crossing of parts will result. + +_Examples:_ + +_Sadko_ [[99-101]]--Sopr. and Tenor (cf. Ex. 289, 290). + +_Servilia_ [[143]]--Sopr. and Tenor. + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[48-50]]--Sopr. and Tenor. + +_Kashtcheï the Immortal_ [[62-64]]. Mezzo-sopr. and Baritone. + +=Voices related in fifths and fourths, 5 [Sopr./C.-alto, 4 +[C.-alto/Ten., 5 [Ten./Bass.= should progress nearer to one another; it +is rare for them to move in tenths, common in sixths and thirds; they +may also proceed in unison. The two voices are seldom separated at a +greater distance than an octave, and certain cases will require +crossing of parts, which, however, should only be for periods of short +duration. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[263-264]]--Soprano and Alto. + +* _The Christmas Night_ [[78-80]]--Alto and Tenor. + +* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[338]]--Tenor and Bass. + +Voices related in thirds; + +3 [Sopr. M.-sopr. Ten. Bar. + [M.-sopr., C.-alto, Bass, Bass, + +may move in unison, in thirds and sixths, and admit very largely of +the crossing of parts. Separation by more than an octave must only be +momentary, and is generally to be avoided. + +_Examples:_ + +* _The Tsar's Bride_ [[174]]--Sopr. and Mezzo-sopr. + +* _Tsar Saltan_ [[5-6]]--Sopr. and Mezzo-sopr. + +In the case of voices related in twelfths: 12 [Sopr./Bass, intervals +approaching one another do not create a good effect, for this +transplants the deeper voice into the upper register and _vice versa_. +Singing in unison is no longer possible, and thirds are to be avoided; +the use of sixths, tenths and thirteenths is recommended. The voices +will often be separated by more than a twelfth and crossing of parts +is out of the question. + +_Example:_ + +* _Tsar Saltan_ [[254-255]]. + +Relationship in tenths 10 [Sopr./Bar. or M.-sopr./Bass is fairly +common. The explanations given above are also applicable in this case. + +_Example:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[291-300]] (cf. extract, Ex. 118) Sopr. and Bar. + +The use of similar voices in pairs: Sopr./Sopr., Ten./Ten. entails +singing in unison and thirds. They should rarely be separated beyond a +sixth, but crossing of parts is inevitable, as otherwise the resultant +volume of tone would be too weak. + + _Note._ Other possible combinations: C.-alto/Bar., + M.-sopr./Ten., call for no special remarks. + +_Examples:_ + +* _The May Night_, Act I pp. 59-64--Mezzo-sopr. and Tenor. + +* _Sadko_ [[322-324]]--Mezzo-sopr. and Tenor. + +As a general rule, writing for two voices is only successful when the +progression of parts is clear, when discords are prepared by a common +note, or are the outcome of conveniently separated movement and +correctly resolved. Empty intervals of fourths and perfect fifths, +elevenths and twelfths should be avoided on the strong beats of a bar, +especially on notes of some value. If, however, one of the voices +assumes a melodic character, the other forming the harmonic +accompaniment in declamatory style, it is not absolutely necessary to +avoid the intervals mentioned above. + + _Note._ It is not within the scope of the present work to + consider the writing of vocal parts in closer detail. This + question must be left to the professor of free counterpoint. + It remains to be noted that the human voice accompanied by + the orchestra is always heard independently as something + apart, something complete in itself. For this reason a + composer may never rely on the orchestra to fill up an empty + space or correct a fault in the handling of voices. All the + rules of harmony and counterpoint, down to the last detail, + must be applied to vocal writing, which is never dependent + upon orchestral accompaniment. + + +Trios, quartets etc. + +All that has been said regarding the relationship of voices in duet +applies with equal force to the combination of three, four, five or +more voices. An _ensemble_ of several voices is seldom purely +polyphonic; as a rule, although some parts move polyphonically, +progression in thirds, sixths, tenths and thirteenths is used for the +remainder. Declamation for some voices on notes forming the harmony is +also possible. This variety of simultaneous movement of vocal parts +renders the comprehension of the total effect less difficult for the +ear, and sanctions the distribution of distinctive and suitable +figures or tone colouring to certain voices with other figures or +timbres which may be proceeding at the same time. The skilful +arrangement of pauses and re-entries facilitates the understanding of +the whole, and gives desirable prominence to detail. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[267]]--Trio, Finale to Act III. + +_The Tsar's Bride_ [[116-118]]--Quartet in Act II. + + " " " [[168-171]]--Sextet in Act III (cf. extract, Ex. 283). + +_Servilia_ [[149-152]]--Quintet in Act III. + +The movement of solo voices is seldom purely harmonic in character +with predominance given to the upper voices homophonically treated. +The blending of all the parts into an harmonic whole, without any +distinctive predominant feature in any one part (as in a chorale) is +employed for songs or _ensembles_ in traditional style, prayers, +hymns, etc. If this method is adopted for the quartet of voices, +Sopr./Alto/Ten./Bass, it will be noted that widely-spaced part writing +is the most natural and suitable form (especially in _forte_ +passages), as the four voices can sing together in their proper +registers (low, middle and high), while, in close part writing they +may find themselves at a given moment in registers, which are entirely +foreign. But both methods should be employed, as, otherwise, it would +be impossible to guarantee equality in even the shortest succession of +chords. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[178]] Hymn of Tsar Berendey's subjects. + +No. 305. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[341]]. + +The second half of the last example is an instance of six-part +harmonic writing; the upper voice stands out prominently, the rest +form a kind of accompaniment. + + +Chorus. + +Range and register. + +The range of choral voices is slightly more limited than that of +soloists. The exceptional register may be considered as two notes +above and below the normal octave. The dotted lines extended still +further indicate the limits upon which a composer may rely in very +exceptional cases, as every full chorus must contain a few voices of +more than average compass, in this respect approaching the solo voice +in character. In many choruses one or two bass singers may be found +who are able to go still lower than the limit of the exceptional range +(they are called _octavists_).[19] + +[Footnote 19: _Contrebasses_ voices as they are called when mentioned +in French works are peculiar to Russia, in which country they are +plentiful. (Translator's note.)] + + _Note._ These uncommonly deep notes must be moderately well + sustained and can only be used when the whole chorus is + singing quite _piano_; they are hardly applicable except in + unaccompanied choruses (_a cappella_). + +The difference in range between the "firsts" and "seconds" in each +type may be fixed as follows: the normal octave and the exceptionally +low register should be allotted to the "seconds", the same octave and +the exceptionally high register to the "firsts". + +The composition of the chorus is approximately as follows: for a full +chorus, 32 singers to each of the 4 parts sopr., alt., ten. and bass; +for a chorus of medium size, from 16 to 20, and for a small chorus +from 8 to 10 singers. The number of women will often predominate, and +more voices are given to the "firsts" than to the "seconds". + +On account of stage requirements a chorus may have to be divided into +two or even three separate parts. This is a great disadvantage, +especially with a small chorus, as each chorister becomes more or less +a soloist. + +The methods of writing for operatic chorus are very numerous. Besides +the primary harmonico-polyphonic arrangement, containing the whole +musical idea, the voices may be made to enter separately, singing or +declaiming phrases of varying length; they may progress in unison or +in octaves; one vocal part may repeat certain notes or the whole +chorus reiterate certain chords; one melodic part may predominate (the +upper part for preference), the others forming an harmonic +accompaniment; isolated exclamatory phrases may be given to the whole +chorus or to certain portions of it, and finally, the entire chorus +may be treated in a purely harmonic manner in chords, with the +essential melodic design allotted to the orchestra. Having outlined +the principal methods of handling the chorus, I advise the reader to +study vocal and orchestral scores where he will find many +illustrations impossible to deal with here. + +There exists another most important operation, the division of the +chorus into different groups. The most natural method is to divide it +into men's chorus and women's chorus. Less frequent combinations are +altos, tenors and basses, or sopranos, altos and tenors. There remains +yet another point to be considered, the sub-division of each part into +two's and three's. Men's and women's choruses, considered as distinct +unities may alternate either one with the other, or with the principal +chorus. For this reason sub-division increases the possibilities of +choral writing, and, as I have already remarked, it is only by the +study of choral works that the student will acquire mastery over this +branch of composition, the fundamental principles of which can only be +faintly outlined in the course of the present work. + + +Melody. + +Melody is more limited in the chorus than in the solo voice, both as +regards range as well as mobility. Choristers' voices are less +"settled" and not so highly trained as those of soloists. Sometimes +solo and choral melody are similar in point of range and technique, +but more often the latter is lacking in freedom and variety of rhythm, +restricted as it is to the repetition of short phrases, while the solo +voice demands broader melodic outline and greater freedom in +construction. In this respect choral melody more closely resembles +instrumental melody. Pauses for taking breath are not so important +with chorus singers as with soloists; the former do not need to +breathe all together and each singer may take a slight rest from time +to time, thus obviating the necessity for sudden complete silences. +The question of suitable vowels is likewise of secondary importance. + +The change from notes of short value to long, vocalisation on +syllables and other questions mentioned above are equally applicable +to choral melody, but in a minor degree. Not more than two or three +notes should be written on one syllable except for fanciful and +whimsical effects. + +_Example:_ + +No. 306. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[262]]; see also before [[123]]. + + +A. Mixed chorus. + +Chorus in unison. + +The simplest and most natural combination of voices is sopranos and +altos, or tenors and basses. These combinations produce ample and +vigourous tone, and the mixed timbres serve to give prominence to a +melody in the upper or bass parts. In practice the other voices are +often divided to thicken the harmony. The combination of altos and +tenors produces a peculiar mixed tone quality, somewhat _bizarre_ and +seldom used. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[64]]. + +_Sadko_ [[208]] (cf. Ex. 14). + + +Progression in octaves. + +The most beautiful and natural combinations are sopranos and tenors 8 +[Sopr./Ten., altos and basses 8 [Altos/Basses; they produce a tone +both brilliant and powerful. Progression of sopranos and altos, or +tenors and basses is seldom practised. Though the latter combinations +may occur in choruses for women and men alone, they can only be used +in melodies of restricted length. The difference of register in which +the voices move does not permit of the same balance of tone obtained +by voices of a distinctive kind. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[60]], [[61]]--Carnival Procession. + + " [[113]]--Wedding Ceremony. + +_Sadko_ [[37]]--Chorus of Guests, 1st Tableau. + +Dividing kindred voices in octaves is seldom done, 8 [Sopr. I/Sopr. II +etc., except perhaps in the basses 8 [Basses I/Basses II, when the +progression of parts demand it, or it is required to double the bass +part in octaves. + +_Examples:_ + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act III [[68]]--Final chorus (cf. Ex. 312). + +_Sadko_ [[341]]--Final chorus. + +A beautifully round tone results from doubling men's and women's +voices in octaves 8 [Sopr. + Altos/Ten. + Basses. + +_Example:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[323]]--Final chorus. + +Brilliance and vigour is achieved when sopranos and altos progress in +thirds doubled in octaves by tenors and basses also in thirds: 8 +[Sopr./Altos] 3/[Ten./Basses] 3. + +_Examples:_ + +_Mlada_, Act I [[24]]; Act II, before [[31]]. + +_The Golden Cockerel_ [[235]]. + +On the rare occasions when the whole chorus progresses in double +octaves the usual arrangement is: + +Sopr. + Altos] 8 [Sopr. + 8 [Ten. ] 8, or else [Altos + Ten. ] + [Basses Basses] 8. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[319]]. + +_Sadko_ [[182]]. + + +Voices (_divisi_); harmonic use of the mixed chorus. + +The purely harmonic progression of a four-part mixed chorus is more +natural and resonant when the harmony is of the widely divided order, +so that the volume of tone is equally distributed throughout. + +_Example:_ + +No. 307. _Sadko_ [[144]]--Beginning of 3rd tableau. + +To secure a well-balanced _forte_ chord in close part writing the +following distribution is recommended: + +[Sopr. I +[Sopr. II + + Altos + +[Ten. I +[Ten. II + +[Basses I +[Basses II. + +Three harmonic parts in the high register (2 sopranos and altos) are +doubled an octave lower by 2 tenors and the 1st basses. The lower +part is undertaken by the 2nd basses. In this manner the tenors +sing in the soprano octave, the 1st basses in the alto octave and +the 2nd basses are independent. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[327]]--End of the work. + +_Mlada_, Act II [[20]]--Procession of Princes. + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[19]] (cf. Ex. 212). + +Division of parts can be adopted when one of them is entrusted with a +melody, the remainder forming a sufficiently full accompaniment. The +choice of parts to be divided depends upon the range of the upper one. +When a harmonic-melodic phrase is repeated in different keys and +registers, it may be necessary to distribute the parts and divide them +in another manner, so as to maintain proper choral balance. As an +illustration I give two extracts of identical musical context, the +second (_F_ major) being a third higher than the first (_D_ major). In +the first example the altos are added to the sopranos to strengthen +the melody; the tenors and basses _divisi_ form the harmony. In the +second example the melody being a third higher may be given to the +sopranos alone; the altos therefore take part in the harmony, and +consequently the lower parts are divided in a different way. + +_Examples:_ + +_Sadko_ [[173]] and [[177]] (cf. Ex. 205 and 206); compare also the +same music in _G_ major [[189]]. + +No. 309-310. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[77]]. + +Example 307 is an instance of widely-spaced four-part writing forming +the harmonic basis, with the melodic idea in the orchestra. In Example +308, the same in musical context, the melodic figure is given to the +sopranos, and among the other parts which form the harmony the tenors +are divided. + +_Example:_ + +No. 308. _Sadko_ [[152]]. + +In polyphonic writing exceeding 4 part harmony the voices should be +divided so as to obtain the necessary number of actual parts. One part +may be divided into as many as three different parts, 3 sopranos, 3 +altos etc. + +_Examples:_ + +No. 312. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act III [[69]]--Final chorus. + +_Servilia_ [[233]]--Final chorus. + +_Mlada_, Act IV [[35-36]]--Final chorus. + +In _fugato_ writing and fugal imitation for mixed chorus the +distribution is generally in four parts, but this number may be +increased for cumulative effects as in the example quoted. In such +cases the composer should be careful as to the arrangement of the +final chord, the summit and climax of the passage. After the entry of +the last of the voices the progression of such a passage should be +handled with a view to the tone of the final chord. The treatment +should be such that concords produced by divided voices or different +groups of voices retain their full value; and if the final chord be a +discord its effect may be heightened by means of crossing of parts. +The reader is advised to examine carefully the progression of parts +leading up to the final chord in each of the examples given above, +paying special attention to the distribution of these final chords. +Crossing of parts must not be effected at random. The arrangement of +choral parts follows the natural order of register and can only be +altered for short spaces of time to give momentary prominence to some +melodic or declamatory phrase. + +_Examples:_ + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[79]], Act II [[5]], Act III [[67]]. + + +B. Men's chorus and women's chorus. + +In writing a three-part female chorus the division should be either +Sopr. I/Sopr. II/Altos or Sopr./Altos I/Altos II; the same for men: +Ten. I/Ten. II/Bass or Ten./Bass I/Bass II. The choice of distribution +depends upon which voice is to predominate, or the register in which +the group is to be placed. The manner of dividing the parts may +change, one following the other at will. In four-part harmonic writing +the method of division is self-evident: + +Sopr. I +Sopr. II +Altos I +Altos II + +Ten. I +Ten. II +Bass I +Bass II + +To give prominence to a melody in the middle part in three-part +harmony, the following method may be adopted: + +Sopr. I Ten. I +Sopr. II + Altos I, or Ten. II + Bass I. +Altos II Bass II + +If, in three-part writing, the melody has to stand out in the upper +part, the harmony may be either widely-divided or close. + +_Examples:_ + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[25-26]], [[23-31]] (Women's chorus). + +_Sadko_, before [[181]]--Men's chorus (cf. Ex. 27). + +No. 311. _Sadko_ [[270-272]]--Women's chorus. + +In four-part choral writing close harmony is preferable, otherwise the +upper part will be in too high a register and the range of the bottom +part too low. + +_Examples:_ + +_Sadko_ [[17]]--Male chorus. + +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[36-38]]--Female chorus (cf. Ex. 296). + +Distribution in two parts which is generally polyphonic does not call +for any special remarks; the same may be said of chorus in unison. + +_Examples:_ + +_Sadko_ [[50]]--Male chorus. + +_Mlada_, beginning of Act I. } +_Ivan the Terrible_, Act III [[13-15]]. } Female chorus. +_Servilia_ [[26]]. } + +If male and female choruses are handled in a purely harmonic manner +close part writing should be adopted. This is the only way to secure +proper balance of tone in chords given to voices of the same kind. +Successions of chords in three parts are more frequent than those in +four; sometimes a series of chords is practicable only in two parts. + +_Examples:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[19]]--Chorus of Birds. + + " [[281-285]]--Chorus of Flowers (cf. Ex. 26). + +In _fugato_ writing, and fugal imitation in three parts, allotted to a +chorus composed of voices of one kind, the principal subject is given +to two parts, the counter subject to one; by this method the doubled +themes will stand out to better advantage. + +_Examples:_ + +_Sadko_ [[20-21]]. + +* _The Tsar's Bride_ [[29-30]]. + +Male and female choruses, apart from the part they play as individual +unities, may be introduced as separate groups in mixed choruses +alternating with the whole _ensemble_. + +_Example:_ + +_Snegourotchka_ [[198]]--Hymn of Tsar Berendey's Subjects (cf. Ex. +166). + +As a general rule a female chorus does not contain the real harmonic +bass part when this part is situated in the low register, so that no +octaves are formed between the real bass and the lower choral voice. +Harmony in a chorus for women is generally given to the three upper +parts, the lower part acting as accompanying bass. It will be noticed +that this rule may lead to the employment of chords of the sixth and +empty consecutive fourth's and fifth's which should be avoided. In +example No. 311 (_Sadko_ [[270]]), this is remedied by the high +position of the bass part; later an empty interval (4/5) occurs, but +only for a moment, and still further on another such interval is +avoided by the union of all the voices in the octave (_B/B_). In Ex. +No. 304 (_Sadko_ [[83]]) the harmonic bass in the low register is +carefully omitted, but when transferred to the upper register it is +doubled. + +I conclude the present chapter with the following necessary +observations: + +1. The operation of dividing voices undoubtedly weakens their +resonance, and as the reader will have observed, one of the principal +factors in good orchestration is _equal_ balance of tone in the +distribution of chords. But in choral writing the question is somewhat +different. The orchestra, even after repeated rehearsal always _plays +from music_; the operatic chorus, on the other hand, sings by heart. +The chorus master can carry out the composer's instructions as to the +division of parts in one way or another, varying and adjusting the +number of singers to each part. By manipulating some shade of +expression he can maintain a balance of tone between divided and +undivided voices. In orchestral material the composer has to handle a +great number of timbres, widely different in character and volume of +tone. In the chorus there are but four qualities. A chorus moving +about the stage cannot convey varying shades of expression so exactly +as an orchestra seated at the desk. It may therefore be safely assumed +that a composer is entitled to some licence in the question of +dividing choral parts; dealing with the orchestra involves greater +foresight and care. + +2. In trying to obtain equal balance in writing three-part choruses +for male or female chorus I have often resorted to the method of +doubling the middle part as recommended on p. 149. The chorus master +is at liberty to equalise the chorus by transferring voices from one +part to another. In choruses divided into three parts I have noticed +that chorus masters are in the habit of giving the upper part to Sopr. +I, or Ten. I, and the two lower parts to Sopr. II and Ten. II divided. +I consider this arrangement unsound, as the balance of parts can never +be equal. The attention of chorus masters is called to the necessity +of strengthening middle parts, for the expedient of giving prominence +to the upper part concerns melody alone and leaves harmony out of the +question. + +3. Skilful management of choral parts is a fairly safe guarantee of +clear and satisfactory performance. Miscalculations in writing are a +great hindrance to study, and the most experienced chorus may come to +grief through faulty progression of parts. If the progression of parts +is correct, if discords are properly prepared, sudden and remote +modulations, even of the harshest and most uncommon kind will be +comparatively simple and may be approached with some degree of +confidence. This is a fact which composers do not always bear in mind, +but singers know it well and appreciate its importance to the full. As +an instance I quote the very difficult modulation which occurs in Ex. +No. 169 (_Sadko_ [[302]]). I doubt whether it could be sung if written +in any other way. Careful endeavour on the part of a composer is +better than useless struggle inflicted upon the performer. + +July 31st (Aug. 13th) 1905. + + + + +_Principles +of Orchestration_ + +[VOLUME II] + + +The musical examples in this volume are taken from the composer's +following works: + + +W. BESSEL & CO., publishers, Petrograd. + +"IVAN THE TERRIBLE", opera in 3 acts, 1894 edition. +"SNEGOUROTCHKA", opera in prologue and 4 acts (1880-1881). +"THE LEGEND OF TSAR SALTAN", opera in prologue and 4 acts (1899-1900). +"SERVILIA", opera in 5 acts (1900-1901). +"KASHTCHEÏ THE IMMORTAL", opera in 1 act of 3 scenes (1902). +"PAN VOYEVODA", opera in 4 acts (1902-1903). +"VERA SCHELOGA", prologue to "IVAN THE TERRIBLE", op. 54 (1898). +"ANTAR", symphonic suite (2nd symphony), _new edition_ of 1897, published + in 1913. + + +P. JURGENSON, publisher, Moscow. + +"SADKO", symphonic poem, 1891-1892 edition. +"THE GOLDEN COCKEREL", opera in 3 acts (1906-1907). + + +M.P. BELAIEFF, publisher, Leipzig. + +"THE MAY NIGHT", opera in 3 acts (1878-1879). +"MLADA", opera-ballet in 4 acts (1889-1890). +"THE CHRISTMAS NIGHT", opera in 4 acts (1894-1895). +"SADKO", opera-legend in 7 scenes (1895-1896). +"THE TSAR'S BRIDE", opera in 4 acts (1898). +"THE LEGEND OF THE INVISIBLE CITY OF KITESH AND THE MAID FEVRONIA", + opera in 4 acts (1903-1905). +"SPANISH CAPRICCIO", op. 34 (1887). +"SHEHERAZADE", symphonic suite from the "THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS", + op. 35 (1888). +"RUSSIAN EASTER FÊTE", Overture on Russian Church Themes, op. 36 (1888). + + +[Transcriber's Note: See the HTML version for the musical examples in +Volume II.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Principles of Orchestration, by +Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF ORCHESTRATION *** + +***** This file should be named 33900-8.txt or 33900-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/9/0/33900/ + +Produced by Mark C. 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